bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
News Translation and Translation Ethics in the Cypriot Context
Authors: Floros Georgios 
Published: January 2014

In news translation, some of the most prominent issues still debated on concern news translation as gatekeeping, the application of traditional models and the issue of the very definition of translation itself. Within this context, this paper will focus on the use of translation in news production in the Cypriot context. Data from Cypriot newspapers and the Cypriot Press and Information Office (PIO) point to the assumption that translation is used for disseminating national policy in ways which might stand in a conflicting relationship with issues pertaining to translation ethics. While news reporting is almost by necessity a carrier of national ideology, the same cannot be assumed automatically for material which is translated. The ultimate aim is to show how national ideologies violate the desired informativity of news and to challenge the ethical ‘‘uniformity’’ observed between news reporting and news translation, in favor of a higher ethical awareness on the part of journalists and newspapers. The underlying premise of the article is that news translation could perhaps be treated according to the same ethical considerations as translation in the conventional sense, despite the recontextualization and filtering of the content expressed.
Complex network of channels beneath an Antarctic ice shelf
Authors: Langley K. , von Deschwanden A. , Kohler J. , Sinisalo A. , Matsuoka K. , Hattermann T. , Humbert A. , Nøst O. A. , Isaksson E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIce shelves play an important role in stabilizing the interior grounded ice of the large ice sheets. The thinning of major ice shelves observed in recent years, possibly in connection to warmer ocean waters coming into contact with the ice‐shelf base, has focused attention on the ice‐ocean interface. Here we reveal a complex network of sub ice‐shelf channels under the Fimbul Ice Shelf, Antarctica, mapped using ground‐penetrating radar over a 100 km2 grid. The channels are 300–500 m wide and 50 m high, among the narrowest of any reported. Observing narrow channels beneath an ice shelf that is mainly surrounded by cold ocean waters, with temperatures close to the surface freezing point, shows that channelized basal melting is not restricted to rapidly melting ice shelves, indicating that spatial melt patterns around Antarctica are likely to vary on scales that are not yet incorporated in ice‐ocean models.
Blended Sentencing
Authors: Addie Sean 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBlended sentencing is a legal mechanism that determines which justice system a juvenile will be sanctioned in, juvenile or adult (criminal). It is also a juvenile and criminal court sentencing tool that exists solely for the sentencing of juveniles. This tool allows for expanded sentencing authority that may allow criminal and juvenile courts to impose either juvenile or adult sentences, or both, in cases involving juveniles. Blended sentencing materialized in the late 1980s and early 1990s as part of sweeping legislative changes that were made in juvenile transfer laws.
Shoplifting
Authors: Hayes Read , Tallman Corrine 
Published: January 2014

AbstractToday's retailers and their product suppliers face a paradoxical challenge: how to heighten product desire for legitimate consumers while simultaneously deterring would‐be shoplifters. Shoplifting remains a serious social and economic problem, in need of more dedicated research on solutions. Even large‐scale studies have failed to show strong associations between shoplifting and demographic characteristics. Despite this difficulty, experts continually seek to categorize shoplifters into distinct groups or typologies in order to better understand the ongoing problem. Most of them classify shoplifting as aberrant criminal acts, though some tend to view it as a behavior stemming from extreme consumerism and frugality: the shoplifter would be the ultimate bargain shopper. The only generalizations agreed upon are that most shoplifters range from young to middle aged, are likely to be involved in other deviant behaviors, and are usually in the company of others at the time of offense.
Bullying
Authors: Cox Amanda K. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBullying is defined in terms of those affected by and engaged in the action, and necessitates a discussion of the impact of bullying on perpetrators and victims. The scope and extent of this problem is explored. Additionally, a summary of current research is provided, with emphasis on the relationship between bullying and other forms of deviant behavior among juveniles. School‐based antibullying programs are discussed as a means of addressing bullying, and the effectiveness of these programs is examined. Finally, recent trends in bullying, including cyberbullying, are discussed.
Sex Crimes
Authors: Beichner Dawn 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
There is a considerable body of knowledge on the topic of sex crimes that has emerged from both legal discourse and social science scholarship. Rape law represents one of the most extensively reformed areas of legislation in the United States. Moreover, it is one of the most comprehensively studied. Whereas some of the earliest research centered on evaluating the effects of rape law reform on the case‐processing system, more contemporary research examines the effects of victim, offender, and case characteristics on sexual assault case outcomes. Despite vast changes over time in the treatment of rape and sexual assault case processing, sex crimes remain among the most underreported of victimizations. The problems of underreporting, coupled with the wide variation in data‐collection methods, make it difficult to determine the true number of sexual victimizations that occur.
Careers in Law Enforcement
Authors: Dolliver Diana S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCareer opportunities in the field of law enforcement are a broad and ever‐expanding topic. Individuals interested in a career in law enforcement are faced with a variety of career paths at local, state, federal, and international levels of law enforcement. While some traditional law enforcement careers have been in existence at the local and federal levels in the United States for over a century, their purpose and scope has greatly changed, as well as the composition of personnel and the technologies used. Additionally, positions in law enforcement have become increasingly specialized to combat contemporary concerns, such as terrorism, organized crime, and international drug trafficking.
Bill of Rights
Authors: Weins W. Jesse , Flynn Sean J. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The Bill of Rights is the name given to the first 10 amendments to the US Constitution. Introduced to Congress by James Madison in 1789 and ratified in 1791, the amendments serve as guarantees that US citizens possess certain fundamental civil rights, including religion, speech, press, and criminal procedures like warrant protections and public jury trials. In describing those liberties to be enjoyed by all Americans, the Bill of Rights remains an important statement on the principles of American democracy.
Terrorism, International
Authors: Asthappan Jibey 
Published: January 2014

AbstractInternational terrorism is a relatively new phenomenon considering the age of terrorism. Terrorism has been used for over 2,000 years, but international terrorism as we know it today was made possible by technological advances. This entry begins by reviewing pivotal historical events that led to terrorism's use, as well as the underlying reasons for terrorism today. The article then discusses the influence of political stability and culture on international terrorism. Finally, a brief discussion of counter‐terrorism strategies highlights the means by which terrorism is prevented.
International Law Enforcement
Authors: Deflem Mathieu , Bayer Michael D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractOrganizations and practices of international law enforcement date back to at least the nineteenth‐century consolidation of national states and have steadily expanded over the years in a myriad of forms and with a multitude of objectives. This entry reviews the history of international law enforcement, its basic contemporary forms and the main agencies involved, and its central objectives and value for contemporary criminal justice.
US Marshals
Authors: G. Burns Ronald 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
US marshals have provided numerous law enforcement services in the United States since 1789, when the Office of the United States Marshal was created. Since that time the agency has been among the most versatile federal agencies, and has provided several important law enforcement functions. Most recently, the agency has been responsible for judicial security; fugitive investigations; the Witness Security Program; the Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System; federal prisoner operations; asset forfeiture; and special missions and programs. In many ways, marshals act as federal sheriffs as they provide law enforcement protection and assume a wide array of tasks that assist all components of the criminal justice system.
Ninety‐four US marshals oversee the day‐to‐day functioning of the marshals offices located in each of the 94 federal judicial districts within which the US marshals are presidentially appointed and confirmed by the Senate, and assisted by over 3,340 deputy US marshals and criminal investigators. The US Marshals Service is part of the executive branch of the US government and is under the direction and authority of the US Attorney General.
Amnesty and Pardon
Authors: Bui Yen , Jordan Jeanette L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The US Constitution makes provision for the president, in qualifying circumstances, to exercise the power of executive clemency. Encompassed within this role is the authority to grant amnesty, commutation of a sentence, or a full or conditional pardon. Although the president possesses the authority to pardon offenders convicted of federal offenses, state governors and agencies such as Boards of Pardon and Parole have authority to pardon offenders convicted of violations of state laws. Many factors, including personal relationships and political pressures, have been cited as factors influencing both the pattern and frequency with which executive clemency is exercised.
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children
Authors: Kethineni Sesha , Lerner Sheri 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCommercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) refers to a number of transactional sexual activities involving minors in which adults offer false promises of food, shelter, clothing, money, or other items of value, either to the child or to an interested third party, usually a family member (Stockholm Declaration and Agenda for Action 1996). According to the US National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC), child sexual exploitation includes such activities as procuring children to participate in child pornography, child prostitution, sex tourism, extrafamilial sexual molestation, sending obscene unsolicited materials to a child via the US Postal Service, online enticement of children for transactional sexual activities, and digital transactions of sexual content. In addition, the organization End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography, and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes (ECPAT n.d.) identified child marriage, forced marriage, and pedophilia as acts that fall under the CSEC definition.
Transfer of Juveniles to Adult Court
Authors: Steiner Benjamin , Hamilton Joshua 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe transfer or waiver of juveniles to adult court is the legal process by which defendants who have not reached the age of adulthood (as statutorily defined for a particular jurisdiction) are moved from juvenile court jurisdiction into adult criminal court where they are subject to prosecution as adults. This entry reviews the history of transfer laws, the types of transfer laws, the types of juveniles transferred to criminal court, and the effects of transfer laws on juvenile offending.
Bribery
Authors: Ramdani Dendi , van Witteloostuijn Arjen 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
We explain what bribery is. We propose a new definition of bribery, which is broader than the classical definition covering only bribery of public officials, covering business‐to‐business bribery. We also describe the typology of bribery, multiperspective causes of bribery, and victims and impacts of bribery.
Human Ecology
Authors: Moak Stacy C. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Human ecology involves studying humans as they interact with their environments. Human ecology is a broad term that combines multiple scientific fields to examine human existence as one among interrelated elements of the environment. Originating largely within the Chicago School of sociology, this line of inquiry has inspired multiple criminological theories, including social disorganization and environmental criminology. Human ecology remains an integral part of developing criminological theory.
Alcohol Use and Crime
Authors: Horvath Miranda A. H. , LeBoutillier Nicholas 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThere is an association between alcohol and crime, and the strength of this association is borne out by the estimated number of arrests involving alcohol. In the United Kingdom, for example, an Institute of Alcohol Studies report in 2010 noted that alcohol was a factor in approximately 50% of crimes. While figures are smaller in the United States, a recent US Department of Justice survey of inmates in 2010 suggested that alcohol is linked to approximately one‐third of crimes. There is a long history of alcohol use in society, including the problems that it has caused. Key areas where alcohol is associated with crime include: juvenile delinquency; domestic violence, sexual assault, and homicide; the nighttime economy; and drunk driving.
Illegal Immigrants and Corrections
Authors: McConnell Elizabeth H. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBased on recent estimates, there are over 12 million undocumented immigrants in the United States. They consist of people who enter the country illegally and those who enter the country legally but whose visas have expired. The federal government refers to illegal immigrants convicted of crimes as criminal aliens; they are reportedly the fastest growing inmate group. Five states, New York, Florida, Texas, Arizona, and California, account for 80% of criminal aliens incarcerated in state prisons. Currently, very few criminal justice agencies document the immigration status of arrestees, defendants, and offenders, making it impossible to accurately measure the relationship between crime and this group of illegal immigrants.
Pornography
Authors: Call Corey Patrick 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In recent decades pornography has seen a dramatic upsurge in availability and popularity with the advent of new technology. Due to the increased ease of access in recent years and sizeable consumption by the public, the relationship between pornography and criminal behavior has become a popular and debated topic amongst researchers. The potential association between pornography and crime has been explored by two presidentially‐appointed commissions and a myriad of researchers over the last several decades. Despite the popularity of this topic amongst the scientific community, there is no clear consensus on the extent of the relationship between pornography and crime. Some studies support the link between pornography and crime while others deny it, and much depends upon the research methodology employed, including how pornography is defined. The possible effect of pornography on criminal behavior will likely continue to be a contested topic amongst social scientists for the foreseeable future as the nature of pornography in society continues to evolve.
Decriminalization
Authors: Call Corey Patrick 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWhen there is a consensus that classifying an act or behavior as a crime is no longer justifiable, unenforceable, or society simply no longer views it as a threat, decriminalization offers a means to remove the criminal sanctions attached to the act or behavior. This occurrence is most closely associated with victimless crimes, but the specific crimes discussed for decriminalization vary from area to area such as prostitution in the United States and homosexuality in Germany. The crime most associated with debates about decriminalization is drug use, more specifically, marijuana use. Although frequently discussed, marijuana decriminalization has only occurred in limited areas due to concerns over increased marijuana use after decriminalization and the possibility of a gateway effect toward other illicit substances. Despite these concerns, research has shown only minimal increases in drug use in areas following decriminalization that often mirrors increases in areas that have not decriminalized.
Inmate Subcultures
Authors: Higgs Elizabeth 
Published: January 2014

AbstractInmate subcultures feature their own unifying systems of values, codes of behavior, social hierarchies, family structures, political systems, means of enculturation through initiation rituals, unique languages and worldviews, and underground economies. The issues explored in criminal justice literature concern the how, what, where, and why of their creation. Three theoretical models, i.e., deprivation, importation, and situational, dominate explanations of inmate subcultures. Although substantively different, the three models address the impact ofprisonizationintotal institutions on inmate behaviors. Further, criminal justice researchers tend to concentrate on similarities in inmate subcultures rather than differences.
M
iranda Warning
Authors: Eisenhardt Joseph H. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Certain guarantees and protections have continually been afforded to US citizens through the Constitution. Over time, there have been necessary changes made that clarified the meaning and purpose of the original writings of the founding fathers of the United States. In addition, there have been decisions made by the US Supreme Court that have changed police procedures to ensure that these rights are never violated, and that serious consequences result when they are. One classic example is the landmark case known as
Miranda v. Arizona
(1966), which resulted in the Miranda warnings still given today.
Police Pursuits
Authors: Hicks Wendy L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPolice pursuits have been and continue to be a source of controversy, sparking debate frequently between law enforcement personnel, legal authorities, scholars, and members of the general public. There are many and varied legal qualifications surrounding the practice of pursuit. From the monumental ruling inTennessee v. Garnerto more abstract notions concerning seizure law and entrapment issues, pursuits have remained a valued and integral part of law enforcement in the United States.
Forensic Science
Authors: Pettler Laura G. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In its broadest definition, forensic science could be defined as “the application of science to law.” Forensic scientists work in scientific laboratories, crime laboratories, in the field, in medical facilities, and in the courtroom. Usually, forensic scientists work in a team within a multiagency response effort where local, state, and/or federal authorities are responsible for the evidence relating to a specific crime or situation. Forensic scientists and forensic practitioners are primarily trained in chemistry, biology, physics, and other hard sciences, but most have specialized or technical knowledge of specific scientific disciplines, such as pathology, toxicology, anthropology, odontology, entomology, psychiatry, engineering, digital evidence, investigation, questioned document examination, and other related disciplines that allow them to contribute valuable information to a team of criminal justice professionals in their respective areas of expertise.
American Correctional Association
Authors: Hanser Robert D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the American Correctional Association (ACA) and its role as the premiere governing body for standards and guidelines among correctional practitioners in the United States. The goals of the ACA are outlined and discussed, making it clear that this organization serves as a key leadership entity within the field. The history of this organization, starting with its genesis as the National Prison Association in the late 1800s to its current day state of operations is presented. It is made clear that practitioners and scholars around the nation are impacted by the influence that the ACA has on correctional standards and practices.
Reformatory Movement
Authors: Kuanliang Attapol 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Punishment for those who committed crime during the colonial period was harsh and severe. Only around the 1870s but not before, the American correctional system was introduced to a new paradigm, called Reformatory Movement. In the same period numerous innovative ideas were introduced and techniques implemented in our correctional system – for instance educational and occupational programs, grades and marks, the indeterminate sentence, and parole. Penologists of those times strongly believed that a prisoner can be reformed and can eventually become a productive citizen. Despite those exciting and promising practices, reformatory methods faced numerous challenges. Overcrowding and cruel discipline was prevalent in any correctional institution. Moreover, it was very costly to operate such a program, and recidivism was still high. Even though the reformatory approach did not achieve its goals, it left several legacies that influenced our criminal justice system and still survive today.
Nativism
Authors: Bonner Mkay 
Published: January 2014

AbstractNativism is the view that some human characteristics are innate. Criminal justice, political science, psychology, and philosophy have all theorized about nativism, bringing their own unique perspective to bear on it. Throughout history, nativism has also been used to oppress groups of people on the basis of race, citizenship, and political ideology. While the idea that some characteristics are innate is not itself absurd or offensive, its application carries the potential to cause a great deal of harm.
Selective Incapacitation
Authors: Perez Maria B. , Argueta Roberto 
Published: January 2014

AbstractSelective incapacitation is a corrections strategy that seeks to protect society and save limited corrections resources by incarcerating only those offenders who pose the greatest threat to society. Threat is equated with quality and quantity of offenders' offenses and likelihood of re‐offending. It is generally measured with risk‐assessment instruments, most of which are based on statistical models. Praised as a scientific approach to incarceration, it is also criticized for false‐positive predictions that increase correctional costs and false‐negative predictions that compromise society's safety.
Juveniles Tried as Adults
Authors: Adams Benjamin , Addie Sean 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJuveniles being tried as adults is not a new phenomenon. Since the inception of the juvenile court, juveniles have been eligible to be tried as adults for the commission of capital crimes. However, starting in the 1960s and 1970s and escalating in the 1980s and 1990s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of juveniles tried as adults as well as an increase in research on the topic. This increase has coincided with the proliferation of laws that cover and dictate juvenile transfer decisions. This entry covers transfer laws, the processing and sentencing of juveniles in criminal court, and research on specific and general deterrence.