bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Autarky, self‐sufficiency
Authors: Morley Neville 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAutarky (Greekautarkeia) was widely accepted as the ideal both for individuals and their households and for cities. In Thucydides' account of the funeral oration (2.63.3), Perikles argues that the best city is one that is self‐sufficient for both war and peace, meaning that it has the power to command the resources it requires from across the world and so is not dependent on local agriculture.
Byssos
Authors: Gleba Margarita 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Originally byssos/byssus was a Greek/Latin term for fine white cloth of vegetal origin, but today it generally refers to sea‐silk, which is a fiber derived from the long, silky filament secreted by the Mediterranean bivalve pen shell mollusc
Pinna nobilis
L., with which it attaches itself to hard surfaces.
Castration, animals
Authors: Carlà Filippo 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Castration was widely performed on domestic animals (also dogs: Varro
Rust
. 3.9.3) and sometimes on semi‐domestic populations (Arist.
Hist. an
. 9.50). The aims were of reducing aggressiveness (Varro
Rust
. 2.5.17), improving the smell of meat (Mart. 3.24), and fattening (Arist.
Hist. an
. 9.50).
Cheese
Authors: Paulas John 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCheese (Gr.tyros, L.caseusorcaseum, Sum. GA. À R A(?), Akk.eqidu(?)) generally referred to a product composed of curd produced in the coagulation of milk by an added enzyme. The coagulant typically used, rennet, was derived from a stomach chamber (the abomasum) of suckling ruminants (e.g., calves, lambs, kids, or fawns), but ancient authors also mention hares as a source for rennet. Plant‐derived coagulant enzymes were also used, most prominently one found in the latex of fig trees. Varro (Rust. 2.11) briefly mentions vinegar as a coagulant.
Coloni adscripti
Authors: Grey Cam 
Published: December 2012

AbstractColoni adscriptiwere a particular type of tenant or estate laborer that emerged in the period following the tax reforms of Diocletian and his colleagues in the Tetrarchy at the end of the third centuryCEWhile dating and exact chronology are unclear,coloni adscriptiare first solidly attested in the late fourth century. Acolonus (censibus) adscriptuswas an individual whose name was added to the tax return (professionoriugatio) of his landlord and entered into the census rolls, as the cultivator of a particular estate or field.
Kopais Lake
Authors: Burke Brendan , Fappas Ioannis 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Kopais was a shallow, seasonal lake for most of the prehistoric and historical periods, located approximately 15 km northwest of Thebes, in Boiotia. It was named after Kopai, one of the many ancient settlements surrounding it in historical times. It was also known as the Kephissian to Pausanias (9.38.7). In the Mycenaean period great drainage works channeled water run‐off from surrounding mountains that formed the lake and led the water out to the east through modified drainage chambers, known as
katavothroi
. This created the Copaic basin. About 25
katavothroi
of variable size, located mostly on the eastern and southeastern sides of the basin, have been identified.
Interest rates
Authors: Gibbs Matt 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe societies of the ancient world made use of various interest rates, and notably, both Greek and Roman authors appear to hold a prejudicial perspective against lending at interest, as well as the difficulties it supposedly caused (e.g., Ar.Nub.1155; Arist. [Pr.] 950a28–b4; PlatoLeg. 5.742c; 8.842d; Plut.Mor. 827f–828e; 830b; Tac.Ann. 6.16).
Landscapes, Roman
Authors: von Stackelberg Katharine T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAll landscapes are loosely embedded in the social, economic, and political matrix of their occupying culture. Therefore, although Roman attitudes toward landscape were necessarily shaped by the Italian countryside, the Roman landscape is not analogous to the Italian landscape since imperial expansion (ca. 100BCE–200CE) exported the ideals of the Roman landscape throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. Although the geographical scope of the Roman Empire encompassed extreme variations of climate and topography, the perception, utilization, and modification of whatever raw environmental material constituted the local landscape expressed a remarkable degree of consistency. At the heart of this expression was the Roman aesthetic preference for cultivated and managed landscapes, centered on the structure of the villa. From the water‐ and timber‐rich regions of Britain and Gaul to the fertile coastal regions of the Maghreb the villa was used as a mechanism for inscribing and framing the settled, subdivided landscape of centuriation brought in the wake of Roman expansion.
Laurion
Authors: Tiersch Claudia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAt about 80 km2Laurion, situated in southeastern Attica, was the largest mining area in Greek antiquity. This triangular area with its apex at Cape Sounion (modern Cape Kolonnaes), pointing southeast, had a hilly surface (Plaka mountain: 359 m; Megalo Rimbari: 373 m) divided by small valleys and gullies. The name Laurion possibly comes fromlaura, a narrow lane or a valley, here presumably a stream bed or a mining gallery. The following demes have a part in this district: Amphitrope, Anaphlystos, Besa, Phrearrioi, Sounion, Thorikos.
Leather, leatherwork
Authors: Flohr Miko 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Leather is a supple and versatile material which can be used for a wide variety of purposes in everyday life, especially in dress. It is made from the skin of an animal by means of tanning, a treatment which permanently changes the chemical properties of the skin, making it durable and water‐resistant. Animals whose skin or hide are processed into leather include cattle, horses, goats, sheep, and pigs. Leather must, strictly speaking, be distinguished from other products that may be made of animal skins, such as rawhide, cured hide, and parchment, which have not been tanned and as a consequence have different physical properties and are less durable, though some of these materials may have comparable uses.
Markets, Greek
Authors: Schaps David M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe word “market” may refer, as the corresponding ancient terms did, to a place where trade is carried out, or in its more modern sense to the aggregate of real and potential buyers and sellers. In the first sense the Greeks distinguished between anAgora, in which trade was predominantly local, and anEmporion, a center of international – generally, in Greece, maritime – trade.
Ravenna Papyri
Authors: Everett Nicholas C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The term “Ravenna papyri” is used to refer to around 50 surviving documents, most of them fragmentary, dating to the period 455–700, as primarily known from the modern edition of the Swedish scholar Jan‐Olof Tjäder (published 1955–82), though not all papyri relate to Ravenna: Tjader included labels for saints' relics and other fragments from Rome and elsewhere.
Seisachtheia
Authors: Garnett Sterling 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
seisachtheia
, literally a “shaking‐off of burdens,” was a label applied in antiquity to certain economic reforms enacted by Solon of Athens during his archonship in 594
BCE
, when he was granted extraordinary powers to remake Athenian law and society in response to the agrarian and economic crisis then coming to a head.
Textiles, Greece and Rome
Authors: Gleba Margarita 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA textile is a flexible, two‐dimensional material produced by interconnecting fibers, which have generally been twisted into a yarn. Fiber is a basic unit of raw material having suitable length, pliability, and strength for conversion into yarns and fabrics. In ancient Greece and Rome, two basic fiber groups, divided on the basis of their origin into vegetal and animal, were used for textile manufacture. Vegetable fibers are derived from plants and include flax (seelinen), hemp, nettle, esparto, and the lining of the bark of trees, such as linden, oak, and willow, known as bast. Tree‐bast was more important in prehistoric times, but it occasionally turns up during the Greek and Roman periods as well, in particular in the rigging found in shipwrecks. Besides these locally available plant fibers, cotton was imported to Europe from the East (see Cotton).
Arcadia, Egypt
Authors: Palme Bernhard 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Arcadia is the name of one of the Roman provinces located in Egypt in Late Antiquity. Created not long before 398
CE
(
P.Flor
. I 66), the province was named after the young emperor Arcadius, who ruled the eastern part of the Roman Empire following the death of his father Theodosius I in January 395.
Cleopatra I
Authors: Vandorpe Katelijn 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCleopatra I (ca. 204–176BCE) was a Seleucid princess and a Ptolemaic queen. Daughter of King Antiochos III Megas and, presumably, of his first wife Laodike III, she was the first of the Seleucid house to bear the name Cleopatra.
Hermits
Authors: Delattre Alain 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA hermit (from the Greekeremos, “desert”) is a monk who lives a life of prayer and solitary ascetic practice. From the end of the third centuryCE, some men dedicated their lives to God by withdrawing from the secular world in order to live their faith in seclusion. The origins of eremitism are still difficult to locate, although similar ascetic practices were known among the Essenes and Therapeutae.
Julia Balbilla
Authors: Bowie Ewen L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Julia Balbilla claimed as her mother's father Tiberius Claudius Balbillus “the wise” (ὁ σоφóς), the astrologer and man of letters who became secretary to the emperor Claudius and then prefect of Egypt from 55–59
CE
, and as her father's father Antiochos IV, the last king of Commagene.
Myos Hormos
Authors: Cuvigny Hélène 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Myos Hormos was at today's Qusayr al‐Qadîm (26° 09′ 12'' N, 34° 14′ 40'' E). A harbor on the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea, it was founded by the Ptolemies for their trade with Southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa (the earliest evidence is in the second‐century
BCE
author Agatharchides of Knidos). Claudius Ptolemy's
Geography
has long misled scholars in locating it, by providing erroneous coordinates and placing a port called Leukos Limen in the region of Qusayr al‐Qadîm. It is now admitted that Leukos Limen is a ghost name resulting from confusion with the Nabataean harbor of Leuke Kome, situated on the other side of the Red Sea.
Oxyrhynchos
Authors: Benaissa Amin 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA city in Middle Egypt (modern al‐Bahnasa), situated ca. 180 km south of Cairo and on the western bank of the Nile channel known as the Bahr Yusuf. It is the most prolific single source of Greek papyri, chiefly dating from the Roman and Late Antique periods (late first centuryBCEto seventh centuryCE), and arguably the best‐documented provincial city of the Roman Empire.
Prefect of Egypt
Authors: Jördens Andrea 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Praefectus Aegypti
, or rather
praefectus Alexandreae et Aegypti
(Greek: ἔπαρχoς Aἰγύπτoυ; on the titles and appellatives, see Bastianini 1988), was the governor of the province of Egypt.
Ptolemy XI Alexander II
Authors: Nadig Peter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Ptolemy XI Alexander II (r. 80
BCE
), the only son of Ptolemy X Alexander I, was born around 105; his mother is unknown. Like his father, he was originally named Alexander (App.
B Civ
. 1.102). He had the shortest reign of all Ptolemies, lasting only a few days.
Revenue Laws
Authors: Verhoogt Arthur 
Published: December 2012

Abstract“Revenue Laws” are traditionally understood to refer to a number of official decrees contained in two mid‐third‐centuryBCEpapyrus rolls, first published in 1896 (P.Rev.). These decrees, together with the contemporaneous Zenon Archive, are the most important sources about matters of taxation, including royal monopolies and tax farming, in Ptolemaic Egypt.
Rosetta Stone
Authors: Verhoogt Arthur 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Rosetta Stone is a dark granite stone that bears an inscription in three languages: hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek. The text dates to March 27, 196
BCE
, and contains a decree issued by Egyptian priests, assembled in Memphis from all over the country, on the occasion of the coronation of Ptolemy V Epiphanes the previous day.
Siwa Oasis
Authors: Müller Sabine 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Located in the Libyan Desert of western Egypt, the Siwa Oasis was known for the cult of Ammon (
see
Amun‐Re) in the temples of Aghurmi and Umm Ubayda, and for the so‐called “Spring of the Sun” (Diod. Sic. 17.50.4).
Petosarapis
Authors: Clarysse Willy 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Petosarapis, also called Dionysios
(Pros. Ptol
. VI 14600), is attested in a single fragment of Diodorus 31.17b, as an Egyptian member of the Ptolemaic court, a man with great military experience, and a “friend of king Ptolemy.” The episode relating to him can be dated to the end of 168 or early 167
BCE
. Despising the two young princes, who had fallen out during the Seleucid invasion the year before, he accused Ptolemy VI of trying to murder his younger brother. When a large crowd gathered in support of Ptolemy VIII, the princes, giving a public show of unity in the Alexandrian gymnasium, stopped Petosarapis' attempt to “appropriate for himself the affairs of the reign.” Petosarapis then assembled about 4,000 seditious soldiers but was defeated in battle by Ptolemy VI in the suburb of Eleusis and barely escaped alive. After this he withdrew among the Egyptians, whom he successfully incited to secession. It is unclear, however, how far this revolt spread in the countryside and whether the uprisings mentioned in documentary papyri of the 160s can be linked with the events mentioned in Diodorus.
Asinius Pollio, Gaius
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gaius Asinius Pollio (ca. 76
BCE
–4
CE
) was a Roman literary and political figure of the Late Republican and early imperial periods. His brother was the Asinius Marrucinus accused by
catullus
of stealing napkins (Catullus 12). Pollio entered public life in the mid‐50s and supported
julius caesar (c. iulius caesar
) in the civil war. He subsequently backed Mark Antony (
see
antonius marcus (mark antony
)), serving as his legate in Transpadane Gaul. As consul, in 40
BCE
, Pollio brokered the Treaty of Brundisium between Antony and Octavian (
see
augustus
). He celebrated a triumph in 39 for victories in Illyricum. He became a supporter of Octavian but declined to participate at Actium. Thereafter he retired from public life and devoted himself to his literary pursuits.
Aufidius Bassus
Authors: Pagán Victoria E. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Aufidius Bassus, Roman historian of the Julio‐Claudian era, died in old age, shortly after 60
CE
(Sen.
Ep
. 30.1). He was slightly older than Servilius Nonianus, cos. 35 (Quint.
Inst
. 10.1.103).
Calpurnius Piso Frugi, Lucius
Authors: Forsythe Gary 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi, Roman politician and historian, was born ca.180
BCE
. As plebeian tribune in 149, he secured the passing of a law that established a permanent procedure by which Roman officials could be sued for misappropriating money or valuables from people under Roman rule.
Diyllos of Athens
Authors: Keyser Paul T. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Diyllos was an Athenian historian (
FGrH
73), likely an important source for Diodorus of Sicily. He was a demesman of Thymaitadai, whose father Phanodemos and grandfather Diyllos were atthidographers (
FGrH
325T2–5); his name, though archaic (Paus. 10.13.7) is especially Athenian (
Lexicon of Greek Personal N
ames
). He was a
bouleut
ē
s
in 303/2
BCE
), thus was born before 333/2, probably ca. 345.
Hecataeus of Miletos
Authors: Hunt Peter 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHecataeus of Miletos (ca. 560–480BCE), a prominent intellectual of the Ionian Enlightenment, made a famous map and wrote two books: thePeriegesis, a pioneering work on geography, and theGenealogies, a rationalizing account of the age of heroes. His work survives only in fragments, but it represents an important step in the intellectual history of Greece and a crucial antecedent to Herodotus'History.
Historiography, Greek and Roman
Authors: Champion Craige B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe root meaning ofhistoriain ancient Greek was simply “inquiry,” and the verbgrapheinoriginally meant to “scratch, scrape, graze”; then to “delineate, draw, paint”; and finally, by extension, to “write.”. Taking the cue from etymology, then, “historiography” should simply mean something like “to write up the results of an inquiry,” and such a loose definition serves rather well in encompassing the wide range of subjects and approaches that fall under the broad rubric of ancient Greek and Roman historiography, which indeed contains what we should call elements of Biography, mythology, legend, Geography, Antiquarianism, rhetorical display, ethnography, and Genealogy, to give but a partial list.
Kallisthenes of Olynthos
Authors: Grillo Luca 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Kallisthenes of Olynthos (ca. 360–327
BCE
) was a nephew and pupil of Aristotle and became famous for being the historian of Alexander III, the Great, although his writings display interest not only in history and biography but also in geography and ethnography, and include compilation lists of Panhellenic games (
Pythionikai
and
Agonothetai
).
Nicolaus of Damascus
Authors: Sievers Joseph 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Nicolaus of Damascus was a peripatetic philosopher, diplomat, confidant, and emissary of Herod the Great, biographer of Augustus (
see
Augustus (Imperator Caesar Augustus)), and writer of a world history. He was born (ca. 64 Bce) of Stratonike and Antipater, an orator and prominent politician in Damascus. The date of his death is unknown, but he must have survived Herod (d. 4 BCE) by several years.
Pherekydes of Athens
Authors: Morison William S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPherekydes of Athens (ca. 475BCE) authored a ten‐volumeHistoriaethat established him as one of the most important early mythogra‐phers. Pherekydes’ work not only contained extensive genealogies combined with traditional stories from the heroic past, but he also wrote about early migrations and, in some cases, connected his stories with his contemporaries — most famously with the family of the prominent Athenian politicians Miltiades and his son Kimon. No biographical tradition exists for Pherekydes. As a result, he sometimes has been confused with the earlier theologian Pherekydes of Syros, as well as certain other homonymous individuals. However, Pherekydes of Athens is demonstrably a distinct individual, whose work was widely quoted by later Hellenistic and Roman scholars. Pherekydes was a central figure in the transition from a mythological understanding of the past to the creation of chronology and historical thinking that would blossom later in the fifth centuryBCE.
Ptolemy I Soter
Authors: Nadig Peter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Ptolemy I (r. 305–282
BCE
), the son of Lagos and an Arsinoe, was born in 367/6 of the lower Macedonian nobility. After the death of Alexander the Great, he received the satrapy of Egypt, which became the base of the dynasty named after him; due to his patronymic, Lagos, it has also been called “Lagids” since antiquity. Later legend made Ptolemy an illegitimate son of Philip II of Macedon and thus a half‐brother of Alexander, but he himself claimed to have descended from Amyntas I through his mother.
Valerius Maximus
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

AbstractValerius Maximus (fl. ca. 27–31CE) begins hisFacta et dicta memorabilia(Memorable deeds and sayings) with a prayer, in which he explicitly substitutes the reigning emperor Tiberius for Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the grounds that this novel divinity fosters the virtues and suppresses the vices that serve as the theme of this, his sole‐surviving, work (praef.).
Achaios
Authors: Strootman Rolf 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAchaios, the son of Andromachos, was a kinsman and general of Seleukos III Keraunos and Antiochos III Megas. He is best known for his rebellion against Antiochos III, which allowed him to become king of a short‐lived empire in Asia Minor in the late third centuryBCE. The history of Achaios is relatively well‐known through the work of Polybius (in Books 4, 5 and 8).
Administration, Hellenistic
Authors: Grieb Volker 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAdministration in the ancient world was regarded as a means of ruling and therefore has to be understood as a form of government. In Hellenistic times, the variety of states and communities with state‐like structures – kingdoms, city‐states (poleis), leagues (koina), and sanctuaries – led to diverse forms of administration. Military, financial, religious, and economic matters would all have been included.
Age‐class (ephebes,neoi)
Authors: Chankowski Andrzej 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe importance attached by the Greeks to youth finds its expression in the ritual role played by young men on the occasion of religious ceremonies and in the existence of different integration rites, the goal of which was to dramatize the passage from childhood to adulthood, as well as of educational institutions. Different local terminology of age‐class division was used in these various contexts during Archaic and Classical periods.
AlexanderIIof Epirus
Authors: Aneziri Sophia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSon of king Pyrrhos by Lanassa (daughter of Agathokles of Syracuse), born in 294/3BCE(Diod. Sic. 22.8.2; Paus. 4.35.3; Plut.Pyrrh. 9), Alexander II had three children, Pyrrhos, Phthia, and Ptolemy, from his marriage to Olympias (Just. Epit. 28.22). Alexander accompanied his father on the expedition to Italy and became king of the Molossians in 272 after the death of Pyrrhos at Argos. He abandoned his father's conquests in the Peloponnese, Macedonia, and Thessaly and also the military operations in the west.
Alexander IV, son of Alexander III
Authors: Wallace Shane 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlexander IV (323–310/9BCE; RE Alexandros 11), son of Alexander III the Great, and of the Bactrian princess Roxane, was born in Babylon in September/October 323. For most of his life he was a political tool of the Successors (Epigonoi), conferring on each a semblance of royal authority.
Andriskos
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAndriskos or “Pseudo‐Philip” was a pretender to the Macedonian throne (150–148BCE). Allegedly of obscure origins, he came from Adramyttion in the Troad, bore some resemblance to the Antigonid family, and claimed to be Philip, an illegitimate son of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, who had been presumably raised in foster care away from the royal court.
Antigonos II Gonatas
Authors: Kralli Ioanna 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAntigonos II, nicknamed Gonatas (the meaning is obscure), was born ca. 320BCEand effectively ruled from 277 to 239; he assumed the Macedonian royal title upon the death of his father Demetrios I Poliorketes in 283. Antigonos had witnessed his father's grand failure. Demetrios had weakened Mace‐don by costly preparations for an invasion of Asia, had been expelled from his kingdom, and had died in Asia the defeated prisoner of Seleukos I. As king, Antigonos set himself more modest goals, protecting Macedon by asserting himself in Greece and throughout the Aegean.
Apame, wife of Seleukos I
Authors: Schäfer Christoph 
Published: December 2012

AbstractApame/Apama was a daughter of the Bactrian leader Spitamenes (Arr.Anab. 7.4.6). Strabo, who regarded her as daughter of the Persian Artabazos (Strabo 12.8.15), probably confused her with Ptolemy I Soter's wife of the same name, who was in fact descended from Artabazos. Livy wrongfully considers her to be a sister of Seleukos (38.13.5).