bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Universality of the Geneva Conventions
Authors: Mégret Frédéric 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the universality of the Geneva Conventions. Universality refers specifically to the degree to which particular norms of the Conventions have acquired customary international status; the degree to which the Conventions reflect values and standards that are present in all cultures and civilizations; and the degree to which the norms underlying the Conventions are considered universal and applicable by a range of non-state actors.
Other Issues Relating to the Treatment of Civilians in Enemy Hands
Authors: van der Heijden Iris 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses provisions relating to the treatment of civilians in enemy hands under the Fourth Geneva Convention (GC IV). These provisions concern mainly the fundamental rights and guarantees that protected persons are entitled to under GC IV. Among others, Article 27, considered as the basis of GC IV in protecting the fundamental human rights of protected persons, is discussed. Related to this, the prohibitions of coercion and physical suffering are analysed as well as other provisions, such as the prohibition of human shielding, the right to ask for assistance and state responsibility for the treatment of protected persons. Furthermore, the protection provided for by GC IV to enemy aliens and the inviolability of rights in occupied territories are touched upon.
Special Rules on Refugees
Authors: Hastie Bethany , Crépeau François 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the rules governing the protection of refugees in Geneva Convention (GC) IV. Article 44 GC IV codifies the underlying purpose of such rules aimed at affording more favourable treatment to refugees, by requiring a Detaining Power not to treat them as enemy aliens exclusively on the basis of their nationality. Article 70 paragraph 2 prohibits an Occupying Power from arresting, prosecuting, convicting, or deporting nationals of the Occupying Power if they sought refuge in the occupied state for offences committed before the outbreak of hostilities, and which would not, during peacetime justify extradition. Article 45 paragraph 4 and Article 49 paragraph 1 GC IV generally prohibit forcible transfers of protected persons out of occupied territories, ‘regardless of their motive’. These Articles provide protection based on the principle of non-refoulement which has subsequently been fully developed under international refugee law.
Admissibility of and Procedures for Internment
Authors: Olson Laura M 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the provisions on the admissibility of and procedures for internment in Geneva Convention (GC) IV. It covers the meaning of assigned residence, internment, and voluntary internment; grounds for internment/assigned residence; procedural requirements; and GC IV as the legal basis for internment. It concludes that the parameters that GC IV established in 1949 regarding the admissibility of and procedures for internment and assigned residence continue to provide essential protection in today’s international armed conflicts. While the authorization of deprivation of liberty based on security reasons for an unknown duration may not seem humanitarian, history has shown that, if not permitted so as also to be regulated to prevent abuse, much worse occurs.
Nationality, Registration, and Ownership of Ships
Authors: Ready Nigel P 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses issues that emerge regarding the nationality, registration, and ownerships of ships. It looks into the notion of the freedom of the high seas—a concept that stresses the freedom to navigate the oceans. According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), freedom of the high seas means the unrestricted access of vessels belonging to all nations, including land-locked States, to all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or internal waters of a State. International law looks to individual States to ensure and enforce compliance within international law through the jurisdiction exercised over their national vessels. Jurisdiction over a vessel on the high seas resides solely with the State to which the vessel belongs and the corollary of that rule is that all vessels using the high seas must possess nationality; this is generally obtained by registration.
Maritime Labour Law
Authors: Stevenson Douglas B 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter outlines the development of international maritime labour law. It highlights provisions concerning the overall working conditions and health of seafarers. Protecting seafarers is one of the principal reasons for the development of maritime law. Despite being highly skilled, seafarers can become victims of exploitation, abuse, and discrimination. Furthermore, they are often away from land-based institutions that provide aid and protection. By the beginning of the twentieth century, labour unrest led to the creation of the International Labour Organization (ILO), which seeks to improve the lives of workers. The chapter analyses the Maritime Labour Convention 2006, which provides a comprehensive statement of seafarers’ rights such as standards for conditions of employment, hours of work and rest, accommodation, recreational facilities, food and catering, and health protection.
International Trade and Shipping Documents
Authors: Belja Elda 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores various trade and shipping documents used in the international shipping industry. One such contract relates to the carriage of goods. Goods subject to international sales need to be carried and delivered. The chapter provides an overview of the standard terms used in trade practice. Special trade terms are used to simplify international transactions relating to the sale of goods; however, meanings may be subject to interpretation. In 1936, the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) established the Incoterms in an effort to standardize trade terms. Trade terms are divided into two groups: those which can be used for sea and inland waterway transport and the point of delivery and the place to which the goods are carried to the buyer are both ports; and those which can be used irrespective of the mode of transport selected and whether one or more than one mode of transport is employed.
Bills of Lading
Authors: Goldby Miriam 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the nature of the modern-day bill of lading and its legal functions. A bill of lading is a document issued by a carrier which details a shipment of merchandise and gives title of that shipment to a specified party. The chapter focuses mainly on the legal framework created by three international conventions the provisions of which are designed to govern contracts for the carriage of goods by sea. These are the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Bills of Lading, 1924; the United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978; and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea, 2008.
Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by Sea
Authors: Røsæg Erik 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the development of international law that regulates the carriage of passengers by sea. It outlines the basis for liability held by carriers of passengers stated under the 1974 Athens Convention relating to the Carriage of Passengers and Their Luggage by Sea and the 2002 Athens Protocol, which further improved the 1974 Convention as it added provisions relating to terrorism insurance as a response to the 9/11 attacks in New York. The scope of the Athens Convention is international carriage, and then only when: the ship is flying the flag of a State Party, the contract has been made in a State Party, or the place of departure or destination is in a State Party. Even within this scope, the Convention yields to other conventions on mandatory liability, for example in relation to the carriage of railway passengers on a sea leg, making it inapplicable to domestic traffic.
Law of Towage
Authors: Rainey Simon 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the nature and basic principles governing towage under English law. It also considers the key terms used in the standard forms employed such as the UK Standard Conditions for Towage and Other Services (UKSCT) and the Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMCO). Historically, towage is defined as the employment of one vessel to expedite the voyage of another, when nothing more is required than the accelerating of its progress. Now, under a contract of towage, the tug owner agrees to provide the services of the tug for an agreed service, purpose, or period in exchange for periodic or lump sum payments. Due to similarities, the chapter distinguishes the act of towage from salvage. The defining characteristic of salvage is that, unlike towage, salvage exists independently of any contract. Four essential requirements must also be satisfied: subject, danger, voluntariness, and success.
Enforcement of Maritime Claims
Authors: Berlingieri Francesco 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the enforcement of maritime claims. According to the International Convention on Arrest of Ships, ‘maritime claim’ means any claim concerning or arising out of the ownership, construction, possession, management, operation, or trading of any ship. The chapter also answers four questions that arise in respect of the enforcement of maritime claims by means of the arrest of a ship: first, what must be the relationship between the person liable in respect of the claim and the ship at the time the claim has arisen; second, what must be the relationship between the person liable in respect of the claim and the ship at the time the claim is enforced; third, how the ship in respect of which the claim has arisen must be identified; fourth, whether ships other than that in respect of which the claim has arisen may be arrested.
The Law of Marine Insurance
Authors: Pavliha Marko , Padovan Adriana Vincenca 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the basics of marine insurance law. It emphasizes the principles of indemnity, insurable interest, and utmost good faith. Marine insurance refers to the insurance of vessels, cargo, shipowner’s, shiprepairer’s, and other marine liabilities, and various other moveable property and associated interests exposed to the risks incidental to the marine transport. It protects the insured against damage, loss, and liability arising from the exposure of a vessel, goods, or any moveable property to the maritime perils, meaning the perils consequent on, or incidental to, the navigation. The three common types of marine insurance are hull insurance, cargo insurance, and marine liability insurance. Unfortunately, there is no standing international legal framework regulating the law of marine insurance. In Commonwealth countries, a source of marine insurance law is common law, reflected in and developed through case law and through the Marine Insurance Act 1906.
State Jurisdiction in Relation to the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment
Authors: Gavouneli Maria 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter attempts to navigate the jurisdictional shoals of the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) in respect to environmental protection, with a view to reconciling the inevitable fragmentation of jurisdictional powers with the common imperative that is the protection and preservation of the marine environment. In doing so, this chapter focuses particularly on the ‘hidden’ functional categorization of States rather than the spatial zoning of the Convention itself; an approach which is both reflective of the realities in the field and more appropriate in instigating and monitoring State action. After all, State jurisdiction in relation to the protection and preservation of the marine environment denotes the competence of the State authorities under international law to regulate the activities of State organs and private individuals, natural and juridical persons alike, in the marine area.
The Illicit Trafficking of Drugs
Authors: Papastavridis Efthymios 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter first explores the legal bases for drug interdiction operations at sea, both on multilateral and unilateral levels; in more detail, the analysis commences with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which does, albeit scarcely, provide for the suppression of drug trafficking. Then, the focus shifts to the 1988 Vienna Convention and the other multilateral instruments, which set out the legal framework for interception operations and for the assertion of enforcement jurisdiction over the relevant crimes. This is followed by an analysis of the respective bilateral arrangements especially in the Caribbean basin. In addition, all possible justifications under customary law, especially instances of ad hoc consent for drug-trafficking interdiction, are canvassed.
New Marine Security Threats
Authors: Calley Darren , Hulme Karen , Ong David M 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses the wider range of threats to marine security, as opposed to the threats that relate primarily to maritime security addressed by other chapters. The distinction between marine and maritime security threats relates to the notion that marine security threats denote a different type of security threat, being not merely a threat to shipping and other traditional maritime activities, but also to coastal communities and even the non-human environment. Therefore, this chapter highlights the different means by which international law is engaging with both continuing and new marine security threats in the form of illegal ocean dumping, illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and marine geo-engineering activities/projects.
Public International Law Approaches to Jurisdiction
Authors: Ryngaert Cedric 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses two public international law approaches to jurisdiction. The first approach was taken by the Permanent Court of International Justice in the 1927 Lotus case. The second approach, which purportedly reflects customary international law, has been taken by most States and the majority of the doctrine. Under this approach, States are not authorized to exercise their jurisdiction, unless they could rely on such permissive principles as the territoriality, personality, protective and universality principles. It remains unclear which doctrine has the upper hand. For purposes of shifting the burden of proof to the other party, States who assert their jurisdiction tend to rely on Lotus, whereas States who oppose another State’s jurisdictional assertions tend to rely on the permissive principles approach.
Commonly Used Procedural Rules
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Most international arbitrations today, whether between private commercial parties or between investors and host states, are conducted under the auspices of one of several arbitration “institutions” around the world. These institutions are not arbitration “courts,” in the sense that they do not decide the outcome of disputes. Rather, they “administer arbitrations including receiving and distributing pleadings, and perhaps appointing arbiters or reviewing an award for technical accuracy usually in connection with a decision by the parties to use the arbitration rules of the institution.” Anecdotal evidence suggests that the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) arbitration rules govern the vast majority of investment arbitration cases. This chapter discusses ICSID rules, Stockholm Chamber of Commerce Rules, International Chamber of Commerce Rules, and UNCITRAL arbitration rules. It then compares ICSID and UNCITRAL rules.
Exhaustion of Local Remedies
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the exhaustion of local remedies under customary international law. The requirement of exhaustion of local remedies (or local remedies rule) is a longstanding rule of customary international law that was developed in the context of diplomatic protection. Under this rule, where a state commits an act that injures a foreign person, the victim traditionally must exhaust all the effective domestic legal remedies before its home government can espouse its claim in the exercise of diplomatic protection. The exhaustion of local remedies in investment treaty arbitration and the Loewen case are then discussed.
Election of Forum: National Courts and Contract Arbitrations
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
One of the most persistent problems in investor-state disputes is which forum will adjudicate the dispute. Three fora predominate: the national courts where the investment is made, an arbitral forum that the parties may have selected by contract, and an investment treaty tribunal. This chapter discusses national courts and treaty arbitration, and investment treaties and contractual forum selection clauses.
Kilonova Seekers: the GOTO project for real-time citizen science in time-domain astrophysics
Authors: Killestein T L , Kelsey L , Wickens E , Nuttall L , Lyman J , Krawczyk C , Ackley K , Dyer M J , Jiménez-Ibarra F , Ulaczyk K , O’Neill D , Kumar A , Steeghs D , Galloway D K , Dhillon V S , O’Brien P , Ramsay G , Noysena K , Kotak R , Breton R P , Pallé E , Pollacco D , Awiphan S , Belkin S , Chote P , Clark P , Coppejans D , Duffy C , Eyles-Ferris R , Godson B , Gompertz B , Graur O , Irawati P , Jarvis D , Julakanti Y , Kennedy M R , Kuncarayakti H , Levan A , Littlefair S , Magee M , Mandhai S , Mata Sánchez D , Mattila S , McCormac J , Mullaney J , Munday J , Patel M , Pursiainen M , Rana J , Sawangwit U , Stanway E , Starling R , Warwick B , Wiersema K 
Published: August 2024

ABSTRACT
Time-domain astrophysics continues to grow rapidly, with the inception of new surveys drastically increasing data volumes. Democratized, distributed approaches to training sets for machine learning classifiers are crucial to make the most of this torrent of discovery – with citizen science approaches proving effective at meeting these requirements. In this paper, we describe the creation of and the initial results from the Kilonova Seekers citizen science project, built to find transient phenomena from the GOTO telescopes in near real-time. Kilonova Seekers launched in 2023 July and received over 600 000 classifications from approximately 2000 volunteers over the course of the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA O4a observing run. During this time, the project has yielded 20 discoveries, generated a ‘gold-standard’ training set of 17 682 detections for augmenting deep-learned classifiers, and measured the performance and biases of Zooniverse volunteers on real-bogus classification. This project will continue throughout the lifetime of GOTO, pushing candidates at ever-greater cadence, and directly facilitate the next-generation classification algorithms currently in development.
Merging hierarchical triple black hole systems with intermediate-mass black holes in population III star clusters
Authors: Liu Shuai , Wang Long , Hu Yi-Ming , Tanikawa Ataru , Trani Alessandro A 
Published: August 2024

ABSTRACT
Theoretical predictions suggest that very massive stars have the potential to form through multiple collisions and eventually evolve into intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs) within Population III star clusters embedded in mini dark matter haloes. In this study, we investigate the long-term evolution of Population III star clusters, including models with a primordial binary fraction of $f_{\rm b}=0$ and 1, using the N-body simulation code petar. We comprehensively examine the phenomenon of hierarchical triple black holes in the clusters, specifically focusing on their merging inner binary black holes (BBHs), with post-Newtonian correction, by using the tsunami code. Our findings suggest a high likelihood of the inner BBHs containing IMBHs with masses on the order of $\mathcal {O}(100)\,{\rm M}_{\odot }$, and as a result, their merger rate could be up to $0.1{\rm Gpc}^{-3}{\rm yr}^{-3}$. The orbital eccentricities of some merging inner BBHs oscillate over time periodically, known as the Kozai–Lidov oscillation, due to dynamical perturbations. Detectable merging inner BBHs for mHz GW detectors LISA/TianQin/Taiji concentrate within $z\lt 3$. More distant sources would be detectable for CE/ET/LIGO/KAGRA/DECIGO, which are sensitive from $\mathcal {O}(0.1)$Hz to $\mathcal {O}(100)$ Hz. Furthermore, compared with merging isolated BBHs, merging inner BBHs affected by dynamical perturbations from tertiary BHs tend to have higher eccentricities, with a significant fraction of sources with eccentricities closing to 1 at mHz bands. GW observations would help constrain the formation channels of merging BBHs, whether through isolated evolution or dynamical interaction, by examining eccentricities.
trace: a code for time-reversible astrophysical close encounters
Authors: Lu Tiger , Hernandez David M , Rein Hanno 
Published: August 2024

ABSTRACT
We present trace, an almost time-reversible hybrid integrator for the planetary N-body problem. Like hybrid symplectic integrators, trace can resolve close encounters between particles while retaining many of the accuracy and speed advantages of a fixed time-step symplectic method such the Wisdom–Holman map. trace switches methods time-reversibly during close encounters following the prescription of Hernandez & Dehnen. In this paper we describe the derivation and implementation of trace and study its performance for a variety of astrophysical systems. In all our test cases, trace is at least as accurate and fast as the hybrid symplectic integrator mercurius. In many cases, trace’s performance is vastly superior to that of mercurius. In test cases with planet–planet close encounters, trace is as accurate as mecurius with a 12× speed-up. If close encounters with the central star are considered, trace achieves good error performance while mercurius fails to give qualitatively correct results. In ensemble tests of violent scattering systems, trace matches the high-accuracy IAS15 while providing a 15× speed-up. In large N systems simulating lunar accretion, trace qualitatively gives the same results as ias15 but at a 41× speed-up. We also discuss some cases such as von Zeipel–Lidov–Kozai cycles where hybrid integrators perform poorly and provide some guidance on which integrator to use for which system. trace is freely available within the rebound package.