bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Magnetism and Magnetic Measurement, Introduction
Authors: Chien C. L. 
Published: October 2012

Abstract
Magnetism and magnetic materials have a long and illustrious history from antiquity to the present. Devices and technologies based on magnetism, from loadstone in the ancient, to the spin‐valve GMR read‐heads in our computers now, to the new memories (e.g., STT‐MRAM) in the future, may be the longest running technology in human endeavor. A fundamental understanding of magnetism requires quantum mechanics and special relativity that have been advanced in the 20th century. In this Chapter, we describe the origin of the atomic magnetic moments, their mutual interaction that leads to magnetism, the generation of magnetic field, and the exploitation of magnetic materials for technological applications.
Magnetometry
Authors: Guertin Robert P. , Foner Simon 
Published: October 2012

AbstractAll materials possess a magnetic moment; techniques for measuring that bulk macroscopic property are defined here as magnetometry. This article reviews the most common techniques for measuring the total magnetic moments of small samples (volume <= 1cm3 and/or mass <=1 g). Several factors contribute to the bulk magnetic moment of a sample. Essentially all materials show weak diamagnetism from filled electronic core states of the atoms. Metallic materials show an additional contribution to their diamagnetism from the orbital motion of the otherwise degenerate spin‐up and spin‐down conduction electrons as well as Pauli paramagnetism from splitting of the conduction bands. The largest contribution to the magnetic moment of materials comes from unpaired localized spins of elemental constituents –unpaired 3d and sometimes 4d and 5d electrons in the case of the transition metal series, 4f electrons for the rare earths, and 5f electrons for the actinide constituents.
Surface Magneto‐Optic Kerr Effect
Authors: Qiu Ziqiang , Bader Samuel D. 
Published: October 2012

Abstract
In 1845, Michael Faraday found that the polarization plane of linearly polarized light rotates as the light is transmitted through a magnetized medium. Thirty‐two years later the magneto‐optic Kerr effect (MOKE) was discovered by John Kerr when he examined the polarization of light reflected from the polished surface of an electromagnet. These two monumental works heralded the beginnings of magneto‐optics and form the foundation of its modern utilization. As the field of surface and thin‐film magnetism has emerged and blossomed in recent years, so has the need for innovative approaches to study magnetic phenomena on the nanometer‐thickness scale. The application of the Kerr effect to study the surface magnetism was introduced by Moog and Bader (1985) along with the acronym SMOKE to denote the surface magneto‐optic Kerr effect. Since then SMOKE has emerged as a premier surface magnetism technique of choice in many laboratories worldwide. The broad acceptance of the SMOKE technique stems from its simplicity and its ability to generate the “universal currency” in magnetism –the hysteresis loop. Although in this article the SMOKE technique for visible light with fixed wavelength is described, it is easy to extend the technique to wavelength‐dependent measurements such as magneto‐optic spectroscopy and spatially resolved measurements such as magneto‐optic microscopy. The aim of this article is to provide general background about the basic principles and experimental methods of the SMOKE technique.
Cyclic Voltammetry
Authors: Bocarsly Andrew B. 
Published: October 2012

Abstract
The qualitative aspect of cyclic voltammetry has made it a general tool for the evaluation of electrochemical systems. With regard to materials specifically, the technique has found use as a method for investigating the electro‐synthesis of materials (including conducting polymers and redox‐produced crystalline inorganics), the mechanism of corrosion processes, the electrocatalytic nature of various metallic systems, and the photoelectrochemical properties of semiconducting junctions. Here a general description of the cyclic voltammetric technique is provided along with some examples focusing on materials science applications.
Optical Imaging and Spectroscopy, Introduction
Authors: Samuels Alan C. 
Published: October 2012

Abstract
Visual inspection is often the easiest and least expensive means by which materials can be characterized. Optical interrogation of a material, enhanced by microscopy and spectroscopy, is usually completely nondestructive and can be performed with minimal or in some cases no sample preparation whatsoever. This chapter covers the key methods by which optical interrogation may be applied to address materials characterization needs.
Raman Spectroscopy of Solids
Authors: Devine Thomas M. , Adar Fran 
Published: October 2012

AbstractRaman spectroscopy is based on the inelastic scattering of light by matter and is capable of probing the structure of gases, liquids, and solids, both amorphous and crystalline. In addition to its applicability to most forms of matter, Raman spectroscopy has a number of other advantages. It can be used to analyze tiny quantities of material (e.g., particles that are ≤1 μm3 in dimension), as well as samples exposed to a variety of conditions such as high temperature and high pressure, and samples embedded in other phases, so long as the surrounding media are optically transparent. Succinctly stated, Raman scattering results from incident radiation inducing transitions in the atoms/molecules that make up the scattering medium. The transition can be rotational, vibrational, electronic, or a combination thereof. In most studies of solids by Raman spectroscopy, the transitions observed are vibrational and these will be the focus of this article
X‐Ray Powder Diffraction
Authors: Von Dreele Robert B. , Toby Brian H. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractX‐ray powder diffraction is used to determine the atomic structure of crystalline materials without the need for large (∼100 μm) single crystals. “Powder” can be a misnomer; the technique is applicable to polycrystalline phases such as cast solids or films grown on a substrate. X‐ray powder diffraction can be useful in a wide variety of situations. Of particular importance are structural studies of materials for which single crystals are unobtainable. A number of questions that can be effectively addressed by this technique are listed in the following. This is an attempt to illustrate the versatility of x‐ray powder diffraction and not, by any means, a complete list. Experiments are described as concrete examples and constitute an assortment of problems of varying difficulty.X‐ray powder diffraction is an old technique, developed soon after the discovery of x‐rays. The capabilities of the technique have recently grown for two main reasons: the improvement of instrumentation and analysis. This article discusses the fundamental principles of the technique, including the expression for the intensity of each diffraction peak, gives a brief overview of experimental techniques, describes several illustrative examples, gives a description of the procedures to interpret and analyze diffraction data, and discusses weaknesses and sources of possible errors.
Magnetic X‐Ray Scattering
Authors: Nandi Shibabrata 
Published: October 2012

AbstractInvestigations of the structure and dynamics of materials have been an important and essential endeavor in condensed matter physics since the early 20th century. Both neutron and x‐ray scattering techniques have been used extensively to study the crystallographic structure of materials and provide complementary views of structure. For example, x‐ray diffraction has largely been applied to detailed crystallographic structure determination while neutron scattering has traditionally been the standard tool for studies of magnetic structure and the dynamics of condensed matter systems. The principle interaction that makes structure determination possible for x‐rays is the Coulomb interaction between x‐rays and the electronic distribution that gives rise to driven harmonic oscillation of the electrons, and the emission of electric dipole radiation. This is the classical Thomson scattering process. In addition to charge scattering, x‐rays interact with the magnetic moment of the system. When x‐ray energies are tuned through the absorption edges of an element of interest there is a resonant enhancement of the scattering signal now known as x‐ray resonant magnetic scattering. Away from the resonance condition, the magnetic scattering signal is known as nonresonant x‐ray magnetic scattering. In this article, we will concentrate mainly on the basic principles and applications of the x‐ray resonant magnetic scattering and nonresonant magnetic scattering.
Resonant Scattering Techniques
Authors: Finkelstein Kenneth D. , Dmitrienko Vladimir E. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractThis article describes resonant x‐ray scattering by presenting its principles, illustrating them with several examples, providing background on experimental methods, and discussing the analysis of data. Principles of the method presented are the classical picture of x‐ray scattering, including anomalous dispersion, followed by a quantum‐mechanical description for the scattering amplitudes, and ends with a discussion on techniques of symmetry analysis useful in designing experiments. Two examples from the literature are used to illustrate the technique. This is followed by a discussion of experimental aspects of the method, including the principles of x‐ray polarization analysis. A list of criteria is given for selecting systems amenable to the technique, along with an outline for experimental design. A general background on data collection and analysis includes references to sources of computational tools and expertise in the field.
X‐ray Microprobe for Fluorescence and Diffraction Analysis
Authors: Ice Gene E. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractX‐ray diffraction and x‐ray‐excited fluorescence analysis are powerful techniques for the nondestructive measurement of crystal structure and chemical composition. When a small‐area x‐ray microbeam is used as the probe, chemical composition, crystal structure, crystalline texture, and crystalline strain distributions can be determined. These distributions can be studied both at the surface of the sample and deep within the sample.This article reviews the physics, advantages, and scientific applications of hard x‐ray (E > 3 keV) microfluorescence and x‐ray microdiffraction analysis. Because practical x‐ray microbeam instruments are extremely rare, a special emphasis is placed on instrumentation, accessibility, and experimental needs which justify the use of x‐ray microbeam analysis.
Electron Techniques, Introduction
Authors: Pennycook Stephen J. 
Published: October 2012

Abstract
Electrons are highly versatile probes of materials because they are first, easily accelerated, second, readily focused by electromagnetic fields and third, they interact strongly with matter. At low energies they interact with materials surfaces, while at high energy they can probe the bulk (at least the interior of a thin specimen). In addition, at high energies they have very short wavelengths, for example, 3.7 pm when accelerated to 100 kV, and, given atomic spacings in materials are 100 – 200 pm, in principle fast electrons are easily capable of providing atomic resolution images. Electrons also lose energy to atomic excitations, bringing another plethora of spectroscopic techniques for analysis of surfaces and bulk compositions and electronic structure. This chapter provides overviews of the key methods developed to exploit these characteristics of electrons to probe the structure, composition and chemical bonding of materials, their internal microstructure and the nature of their surfaces and interfaces.
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Authors: Howe James M. , Fultz Brent , Miao Shu 
Published: October 2012

Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is the premier tool for understanding the internal microstructure of materials at the nanometer level. It allows one to obtain real‐space images of materials with resolutions on the order of a few tenths to a few nanometers, depending on the imaging conditions, and simultaneously obtain diffraction information from specific regions in the images (e.g., small precipitates). Variations in the intensity of electron scattering across a thin specimen can be used to image strain fields, defects such as dislocations and second‐phase particles, and even atomic columns in materials under certain imaging conditions.
In addition to diffraction and imaging, the high‐energy electrons (usually in the range of 100 to 400 keV of kinetic energy) in TEM cause electronic excitations of the atoms in the specimen. Two important spectroscopic techniques make use of these excitations by incorporating suitable detectors into the transmission electron microscope, energy‐dispersive x‐ray spectroscopy (EDS), and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Nanometer‐scale chemical compositional analysis can be performed by using a focused electron probe. Spatial distribution of elements can be obtained by scanning the probe over the specimen, or by energy‐filtered imaging, a special mode in advanced EELS spectrometer.
The recent advancements in aberration‐correction technologies have improved the image resolution and probe size to sub‐Ångstrom level, and current density in the probe is increased by an order, which catalyze the emergence of new contrast theories and microanalysis techniques. Many other analyses are also possible in TEM with the development of novel detectors.
Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy:Z‐Contrast Imaging
Authors: Pennycook Stephen J. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractScanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) is a combination of the scanning electron microscope and the transmission electron microscope (TEM). Thin specimens are viewed in transmission, while images are formed serially by the scanning of an electron probe. In recent years, through the successful correction of Q2 the intrinsically high aberrations of electron lenses it has become possible to form probes well below atomic dimensions, and as a result, atomic resolution images showing sub‐angstrom resolution may now be routinely achieved in this instrumentThe nature of the images obtained in the STEM can differ in significant ways from those formed by the conventional TEM, in particular, multiple signals can be acquired in the STEM including bright field, annular dark field (ADF) images, and spectroscopic images using either electrons that have lost energy by exciting specific inner shell or valence band levels or by detecting emitted characteristic x‐rays. A key difference between STEM and TEM imaging is that the ADF image available on the STEM represents almost perfect incoherent imaging, while the bright field image represents almost perfect coherent imaging, equivalent to the image provided by a conventional high‐resolution TEM. The latter technique has often been simply referred to as high‐resolution electron microscopy (HREM). This article focuses on Z‐contrast imaging of materials at atomic resolution and associated techniques such as electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS).
Low‐Energy Electron Diffraction
Authors: Pussi Katariina , Diehl Renee D. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractLow‐energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a common and powerful method for determining the geometric structure of solid surfaces. It has the advantage of being fast and inexpensive relative to many other surface techniques. LEED can provide quick information on the surface unit cell size and geometry of single crystal surfaces, and with more effort can be used to determine the complete surface geometry, i.e. composition, bond lengths and angles. Although LEED has been used primarily as a structural technique, it can be used to determine other surface properties such as atomic and molecular vibration and libration amplitudes and energies. LEED has dominated the study of surface geometries for relatively simple structures, and is expected to become increasingly important in the study of nanostructures, molecular adsorbates, and insulating surfaces.
Energy Dispersive Spectrometry
Authors: Newbury Dale E. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractEnergy dispersive x‐ray spectrometry (EDS) is a widely used measurement technology with particular application to electron beam instruments including the analytical electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope. EDS based on silicon devices provides measurement of the photon energy range from 0.1–30 keV which enables measurement of all elements except H, He, and Li through K‐shell, L‐shell, or M‐shell x‐rays. Quantitative concentration results can be obtained at the major (concentration C > 0.1 mass fraction), minor (0.01 ≤ C ≤ 0.1), and trace level (C < 0.01) with systematic errors in the range of 5% relative when a standard‐based method with calculated corrections for interelement (matrix) effects is used. Silicon drift detector (SDD) EDS is rapidly replacing the classic Si(Li)‐EDS because of superior performance, especially in x‐ray throughput.
Trace Element Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
Authors: McDaniel Floyd Del 
Published: October 2012

AbstractAccelerator mass spectrometry is a relatively new analytical technique that is being used in over 40 laboratories worldwide for the measurements of cosmogenic long‐lived radioisotopes, as a tracer in biomedical applications, and for trace element analysis of stable isotopes. The use of particle accelerators, along with mass spectrometric methods, has allowed low‐concentration measurements of small‐volume samples. The use of AMS to directly count ions, rather than measure radiation from slow radioactive decay processes in larger samples, has resulted in sensitivities of one part in 1015. The ions are accelerated to mega‐electron‐volt energies and can be detected with 100% efficiency in particle detectors. The improved sensitivities and smaller sample sizes have resulted in a wide variety of applications in anthropology, archaeology, astrophysics, biomedical sciences, climatology, ecology, geology, glaciology, hydrology, materials science, nuclear physics, oceanography, sedimentology, terrestrial studies, and volcanology, among others. Accelerator mass spectrometry has opened new areas of research in the characterization of trace elements in materials.This article will focus on the technique of trace element accelerator mass spectrometry (TEAMS) and its applications in the analysis of stable isotopes in materials.
Elastic Backscattering of Ions for Compositional Analysis
Authors: Jeynes Chris 
Published: October 2012

AbstractBS (elastic backscattering spectrometry, either RBS or EBS) using MeV beams is used to obtain elemental depth profiles of thin films up to ∼10 mm thick. Depth resolution degrades with depth but can be ∼1 nm at the surface. Various ion beams and various beam energies can be selected to obtain the optimal analytical conditions for particular samples.We will briefly mention the use of microbeams since many samples are small or laterally non‐homogeneous. We will also briefly mention the use of ion channelling geometries for characterizing defects in single crystal samples. We should also mention that LEIS and MEIS are both RBS techniques, but they use low energy beams and will not be covered in this article.We treat all the IBA techniques synergistically. The present article considers the details of analysis using a particle detector placed in the backscattering direction. We explicitly distinguish between RBS and EBS, even though in any particular BS spectrum there may be (and often are) both RBS and EBS signals, since there is a philosophical difference of treatment between a signal resulting from a Coulomb interaction and one resulting from an interaction that must be treated quantum mechanically.
Particle‐InducedX‐Ray Emission
Authors: Reis Miguel A. , Campbell John L. 
Published: October 2012

AbstractParticle‐Induced X‐Ray Emission (PIXE) is an analytical technique established in the decade of 1970s, which makes use of MeV ion beams (mainly proton beams) to induce x‐ray emission from materials. It is used both in macro mode, where beam spots are of the order of millimeters, and in micro mode, where ion beams are focused to micrometer size (or even below this, since 100 nm spots are already available for PIXE). It has major advantages for the analysis of sensitive and/or complex samples because it is essentially a non‐destructive technique. For example, some laboratories are equipped with facilities where the beam is extracted into the atmosphere, allowing the analysis of paintings and other cultural heritage samples. Recent developments also make possible the analysis of samples that are not homogeneous but composed of different layers. In this case, PIXE has large advantages relative to electron microprobe analysis (EPMA) because the particle beam scattering is very small, such that the micro‐beam remains focused along several micrometers into the sample. Finally, the use of x‐ray detection systems having high resolution (resolving power of the order of 100 or more) is presently moving from pure fundamental work towards applications as more complex samples need to be analyzed.