bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Artemis Limnatis sanctuary
Authors: West III William C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The sanctuary of Artemis Limnatis is located on a western slope of Mount Taygetos, roughly on the border between Lakonia and Messenia. It was accessible from the Asinaeus Sinus, the Gulf of Asine, via the Choireios River. Control of the sanctuary was disputed by the Lakonians and Messenians from early times (Paus. 4.4.2, 31.3; Strabo 8.4.9), arising from a tradition of violation byMessenians of Spartan maidens who had come to the sanctuary for a religious rite (cf. Baladié 1980: 69, 270). Before this outrage, according to Strabo (op. cit.), both groups had used the sanctuary in common for assemblies. The sanctuary continued to be the object of dispute between Lakonia and Messenia, possibly until the time of Tiberius. Archaic dedications to Artemis Limnatis cut on bronze vases, from Lakonia and Messenia, written in Doric, are known.
Dion
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Dion in Pieria, on the foothill of Mount Olympos (Ps.‐Skylax 26;
CIL
III 1.591), bordered Leibethra to the south and Pydna to the north; the river Baphyras offered an opening to the sea (Strabo 7.17; Livy 44.6.15; Paus. 9.30.8; Ptol. 3.13).
Epirus
Authors: Bowden William 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Epirus of antiquity was a region that lay at the heart of the Mediterranean, between the Greek and Roman worlds. It covered an area now divided between the modern states of Greece and Albania, stretching from the Akrokeraunian mountains in the north to the Ambrakian Gulf in the south, and bounded to the west by the Ionian Sea and to the east by the Pindos and Grammos mountain ranges. The region is dominated by mountain ranges that traverse the country from north‐northwest to south‐southeast, separated by river valleys that have formed the principal lines of land communication from the past to the present day.
Kalykadnos
Authors: West III William C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Kalykadnos is a river of Cilicia Tracheia, which rises in Isauria and flows south through the province, eventually creating a wide valley, and empties into the Mediterranean at Seleukeia ad Calycadnum/Tracheia, on the coast between Celenderis and Korykos.
Katakekaumene
Authors: Daubner Frank 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Katakekaumene, the “burnt country,” is a region of ca. 1,800 km
2
in northeastern Lydia. It is characterized by the remains of volcanism, which lasted until about 12,000 years ago. Black volcanic cones, rugged basalt plateaus, and canyons flanked by basalt columns form the unique nature of this area, which is crossed by the Hermos. The land was famous for its wine, the Katakekaumenites. Another rare resource that led to its relative prosperity in Roman times was the pozzolan, which was needed for concrete constructions (Vitr. 2.6.3).
Kios/Prusias ad Mare
Authors: Corsten Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Kios was a Greek colonial city in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Gemlik). It was founded, according to Greek historians, in 626/5
BCE
by colonists from Miletos in what was then Mysia; local and literary myths, however, attributed the foundation to Herakles (or Polyphemos) when he accompanied the Argonauts.
Perrhaibia
Authors: Daubner Frank 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Perrhaibia was a region on the Macedonian–Thessalian border. It occupied a fertile valley of about 1,800 km
2
, which was confined by ranges of mountains in all directions. The strategic importance of the area was a result of its control over two passes: that of Petra, crossing the lower Olympos to the east and leading to Lower Macedonia, and the Volustana pass, leading to the valley of the Haliakmon and to Upper Macedonia.
Andros, history and political organization
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Located in the northern Cyclades, between Euboea and Tenos, the island was named after Andros, its first king according to tradition. He received the island as a gift from Rhadamanthys, the king of Crete; the Andrians dedicated a statue of him at Delphi (Diod. Sic. 5.79; Paus. 10.13.3–4). Settled by Ionians ca. 1000–900
bce
, it had connections with the Thessalo‐Euboean region in the Geometric period. During the seventh century
bce
, the Andrians founded the colonies of Acanthos (Thuc. 4.84–5; Strabo 7.330.31; 8.31), Sane (Hdt. 8.22–4; Thuc. 4.109.3), Stagiros (Thuc. 5.6.1), and Argilos (Thuc. 4.103.3) on the peninsula of Chalcidice.
Sacrifice, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Animals were sacrificed in ancient Egypt primarily as part of religious rituals and festivals, although celebrations, particularly royal (e.g., marking marriages or births), also called for the large‐scale slaughter of animals, their meat being given to participants as food or distributed among the populace. Animal sacrifice was a manifestation of piety, as well as a practical way of distributing food throughout different social classes, giving gifts/payment, and winning support.
Amenemhat I–VII
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSeven kings of the 12th (I–IV) and 13th (V–VII) Egyptian Dynasties (twentieth–eighteenth centuriesBCE) bore the name Amenemhat. It wasalso a very common private name throughout that period and into the 18th Dynasty, and it could commonly be shortened to “Ameny.”
Avaris/Tell el‐Dab'a
Authors: Bietak Manfred 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAncient Avaris (Greek rendering of the Ancient Egyptian toponymHw.t war.t)was the capital of the Hyksos, and was conquered by Ahmose I ca. 1530BCE, as we know from a tomb inscription of his namesake, the naval officer Ahmose, the son of Ibana in El‐Kab.
Color symbolism
Authors: Corcoran Lorelei H. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
An understanding of color symbolism entails a study of color terms as well as color use. The first study of color terms on a universalist level was conducted in the 1960s by the anthropologist Brent Berlin and the linguist Paul Kay (1969; hereafter B&K), who proposed, with respect to the acquisition and use of color terms in all contemporary natural languages, that there are seven stages of color term usage; that color terms are acquired in a fixed, chronological order in an evolutionary sequence; and that there is a correlation between the complexity of color terms and cultural and technological complexity.
Crime, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Müller‐Wollermann Renate 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEgyptian sources for crimes and punishments are extremely diverse. They mainly consist of royal texts, particularly decrees, administrative texts, specifically court proceedings, and texts of private origin, including biographies or letters. A written code of criminal law does not exist. Religious texts, especially chapter 125 of theBook of the dead, curses, and literary texts, especially didactic literature, also provide hints about criminal behavior and justice.
Egyptomania, eastern
Authors: Haikal Fayza 
Published: December 2012

AbstractInterest in the culture and arts of ancient Egypt started in antiquity, with Herodotus (5th centuryBCE), “the father of history,” dedicating a whole book of hisHistoriesto a description of Egypt. Later, under the Roman Empire, Egyptian monuments were transported to Rome to decorate the imperial city and demonstrate its power.
El‐Lisht
Authors: Willoughby Jennifer 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The site of El‐Lisht, located approximately 65 km south of Cairo, consists mainly of the pyramid complexes of Amenemhat I and Senwosret I, which are both surrounded by private cemeteries dating from the Old Kingdom through the Roman period. El‐Lisht rose to prominence during the Middle Kingdom, with settlement remains from this time found north of the pyramid field. Amenemhat I transferred the royal residence from Thebes to a site in the Fayyum area called Itj‐tawy. Though its exact location is unknown, the archaeological evidence suggests it was likely at or near El‐Lisht.
Foreigners, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Liszka Kate 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAncient Egypt was located at the crossroads between Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean. This location favored the development of a multicultural society. Although foreigners lived, worked, and traveled in Egypt throughout its history, monumental Egyptian records often project an ethnocentric attitude. If Egyptians commonly held ethnocentric attitudes, as Herodotus reported (Historiesesp. 2.41–3), there may have been a strong compulsion for foreigners to acculturate to Egyptian standards. Foreigners who wanted to be accepted into elite or bureaucratic positions actively espoused Egyptian behaviors and material culture in public spheres. The extent to which first generation foreigners mentally acculturated cannot be known.
Kush
Authors: Darnell John Coleman 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDuring the Egyptian Old Kingdom, the toponym Wawat encompassed most, if not all, of Lower Nubia; the toponym Irtjet referred either to the southern portion of Wawat, between Tumâs and Toshka, or more probably encompassed an area south of the Second Cataract, including Kerma to the south of the Third Cataract.
Land and landholding, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Katary Sally L. D. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Egypt's wealth derived from an agricultural economy that successfully exploited the human and physical resources of the countryside in the contrasting environments of the Nile Valley and the Delta. While the land and its workers were the most precious of state resources, the richness of the land, as a result of the annual inundation, required only minimal state interference to produce bounteous crops. Various land tenure regimes gradually evolved in which wealthy landowners – institutional and individual – and independent smallholders, as well as tenants and forced labor, worked lands under institutional management, crown control, or even private enterprise. However, landowning was largely dominated by temples and the crown, with private holding a poor third. The history of landholding raises such vital issues as the relationship between temple and state/crown in matters of cultivation and harvest shares; the meaning of private ownership/possession; and the integration of various types of landholding in the economic mosaic. Ultimately, the system of land tenure is better understood from the perspective of institutional landowners than from the vantage of the crown or state. Even less well understood is the economic and social reality of the ordinary peasant.
Mines, mining, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Shaw Ian 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Considerable archaeological and textual information has survived concerning ancient Egyptian mining expeditions in pursuit of a variety of metals and gemstones, notably copper, gold, turquoise, malachite, amethyst, and chalcedony (Aston
et al
. 2000; Ogden 2000). Copper‐mining and smelting sites include Wadi Dara, Buhen, and Qubban, while numerous Pharaonic gold‐mining sites in the Eastern Desert of both Egypt and Nubia have been identified and surveyed (Klemm and Klemm 1998). Turquoise was mined at Wadi Maghara and Serabit el‐Khadim, amethyst at Wadi el‐Hudi, chalcedony (particularly carnelian) at the Stele Ridge site in the northern part of the Gebel el‐Asr region, galena (lead sulphide, used primarily for cosmetics) at Gebel el‐Zeit, and natron at the Wadi Natrun. The importance of Pharaonic quarrying and mining sites is firmly rooted in the fact that they were of prime importance to the prosperity and stability of the economy.
Music, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Manniche Lise 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The ancient Egyptians had no written music –their tunes are lost for ever (Hickmann 1956: 48–96; von Lieven 2002). Nevertheless, we are able to gain a fair idea of the overall nature of the music performed; the sound of the individual instruments; and the circumstances in which music was played, and by whom. Numerous instruments have survived, and paintings and reliefs in tombs and temples (Hickmann 1961; Pérez Arroyo 2003), in houses and on objects, not to mention lyrics and hymns performed with musical accompaniment, help build up a picture of musical life in different strata of society along the River Nile (Manniche 1991; von Lieven 2006). Comments by classical writers and scattered references in Egyptian texts may illuminate certain issues.
Sinai
Authors: Tallet Pierre 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSinai stands as the true eastern frontier of Egypt. The peninsula, which has a triangular shape, is bounded to the west by the Gulf of Suez and to the east by the Gulf of Aqaba, its northern Mediterranean coastal plain forming a link connecting Africa to western Asia. With 60,000 km2, the area of Sinai is very significant. Along its 380 km length from north to south, the landscape keeps changing, and those sometimes substantial changes divide the area into two specific parts.
Sobekhotep
Authors: Gillam Robyn 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

This name (“Sobek is content”) is recorded for eight kings (ca. 1795–1670
BCE
) of the Second Intermediate Period (1795–1550) in the 13th Dynasty. It commemorates, Sobek, the Crocodile god of Shedyt (Krokodilopolis/Arsinoe), who was elevated to a state divinity in the late 12th Dynasty (Spalinger 1984a).
Sphinx
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The word “sphinx” is Greek in origin, although some scholars have suggested that it was derived from the Egyptian
shesepankh
, meaning living image; the word for sphinx in Egyptian was
šspw
. In Greek mythology the word referred to the creature with a woman's head and torso, a lion's body, and the wings of an eagle that guarded the gates of the Greek city of Thebes and asked a riddle of anyone who wished to enter the city; if they failed to answer correctly, she would devour them. Oedipus was the only one who correctly responded to the Greek Sphinx's riddle: “Which creature in the morning goes on four legs, at midday on two, and in the evening upon three, and the more legs it has, the weaker it be?” with the answer, “man”.
Stelae, Egypt
Authors: Shazly Yasmin El 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The word
stela
(pl.
stelae
) is Latin, but was originally derived from the Greek
stele
, the meaning of which is pillar or vertical tablet.
Stela
is used by Egyptologists to designate slabs, usually of stone or wood, but also found in other materials such as faience, bearing reliefs, inscriptions, or paintings.
Wadi Hammamat
Authors: Meyer Carol 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Wadi Hammamat 25° 58′–26° 35′ N, 33° 32′–33° 35′ E cleaves through the mountains of the Egyptian EASTERN DESERT at the central and narrowest part of the shortest route from the Nile at Quft (Coptos) to the Red Sea at Quseir (ancient Myos Hormos); it has channeled interregional traffic for some five thousand years.
Weaponry, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Heagren Brett H. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThroughout the Pharaonic Period, the Egyptian army employed an extensive array of offensive and defensive weaponry, which tended to fall into two general classes: hand‐to‐hand weapons, which were primarily employed by the “heavy” infantry; and projectile weapons, employed by the “light” infantry (Army, Pharaonic Egypt).
Augustodunum (Autun)
Authors: Moore Tom 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Augustodunum
(Autun), situated beside the banks of the Arroux River in Burgundy, was one of the most important cities of Roman Gaul and a noted center of learning and culture. At the height of occupation in the early third century
CE
its walled area covered 200 ha, with an estimated population of twenty to thirty thousand (Woolf 1998: 137). It was established during the Augustan period, around 15
BCE
, succeeding Bibracte (Mont Beuvray), which lies 27 km away, as the capital of the
civitas
of the Aedui.
Calleva (Silchester)
Authors: Fulford Michael G. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

An Iron Age
oppidum
, initially of some 70 acres (32 ha) and defended by earthen ramparts and ditches, Calleva was founded in the late first century
BCE
and was subsequently developed after the Roman conquest of Britain in the late first century
CE
into a planned town, the
civitas
capital of the Atrebates (
see
Oppida, Britannia, Roman Empire).
Camulodunum (Colchester)
Authors: Rogers Adam 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Camulodunumlies beneath modern Colchester in Essex, 80 km northeast of London, in what was the territory of the Trinovantes. The name probably derived fromthe pre‐Roman
oppidum
perhaps meaning “the stronghold” or “fortified place” of Camulos, an Iron Age god of war (Crummy 1997).
Capua
Authors: Tuck Steven L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

With a reputation for luxury, Capua was one of the largest and the wealthiest cities in southern Italy during the period of the Roman Republic and Empire. Capua was an Etruscan foundation, probably colonized to maintain Etruscan control over the fertile plains of Campania and to check the power of the Greek colony at Cumae. Etruscan power waned after losses at the battles of Cumae in 524 and 474
BCE
and declined in the fifth century with Samnite occupations of many Campanian communities.
Kerkouane
Authors: Hughes Ryan C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The site of Kerkouane is located at the extreme northern end of Cap Bon, 12 km north of Kelibia in Tunisia. Probably built in the sixth century, the site was abandoned some time in the middle of the third century
BCE
. Kerkouane is notable, first and foremost, for being the only Punic settlement to have escaped subsequent development. As such, the site offers important examples of the art and architecture of Punic North Africa as well as evidence about the daily lives of Libyophoenician peoples before the arrival of Rome.
Po
Authors: McCallum Myles 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Po is Italy's longest river, running 652 km from its source at Pian di Re in the Cottian Alps to its delta which debouches into the Adriatic Sea, and its drainage basin measures approximately 74,000 km2. Many tributaries feed into the Po, including rivers such as the Tanaro, Trebbia, and Ticino, and several of the Alpine tributaries drain large lakes such as Lago di Como (Comacinus Lacus). The Po is a seasonal river, whose flow rate and depth is highest from the late spring through the early summer and again during the fall, and is lowest during August. During the Classical period the Po's delta was substantial, with seven branches flowing into the Adriatic, and this flow resulted in the formation of a series of coastal lagoons, known as theSeptem Maria(Seven Seas), running from Ravenna in the south toBrundulum(Brondolo) in the north.
Sarmizegetusa Regia
Authors: Oltean Ioana A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe most important Dacian religious center and royal residence,Sarmizegetusa Regiawas the location of the final resistance of the last Dacian king, Decebalus, to Roman conquest (Ptol. 3.8.9: Zαρμιζεγέθουσα βασίλειον; Cass. Dio 68.9.7: Zερμιζεγεθούση; 67.10; 68.8.3.1; Exc. UG 47.7: τὰ βασίλεια Δακῶών). Probably constructed towards the middle of the first centuryBCE, its religious (and perhaps industrial) importance is likely to have predated its political significance as a royal capital.
Iceni
Authors: Owens E. J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Iceni were a prosperous British tribe, occupying Norfolk and parts of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire in eastern Britain. The Iceni became allies of the Romans, but on two occasions they revolted. Boudica led the second rebellion. After it was suppressed, the tribe developed as a local, self‐governing community (civitas) within the Roman province of Britain.
Orbe‐Boscéaz, villa of (Switzerland)
Authors: Dubosson Benoît 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The villa of Orbe‐Boscéaz is a Roman rural establishment located at the foot of the Jura, on a plateau above the communication road that linked the Rhône, transalpine, and Rhine axis together between Lousonna (Lausanne) and Yverdon.
Pantelleria
Authors: Schäfer Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Pantelleria (Cossura) is a semiarid volcanic island in the “Street of Sicily” with the size of 82 km, 110 km west from Sicily and 70 km from Cape Bon, Tunisia. Due to its position in the narrowest space between Africa and Europe in the middle of the Mediterranean, Pantelleria became an ideal bridgehead and important military point of control. Intensive trade in obsidian from Pantelleria is attested since the third millennium
BCE
. The earliest settlement, located on a promontory in the west (Mursia), has an excellent preserved fortification wall and a large necropolis with massive, stone‐built tumuli for clan‐burials (sesi). It is documented for the seventeenth to the fourteenth centuries
BCE
.
Atheism, Greece and Rome
Authors: Rives James B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlthough the word “atheism” derives from the Greek adjectiveatheos, “godless,” the two word groups have rather different connotations. In modern English, “atheist” denotes someone who asserts that there is no deity. The ancient Greeks, in contrast, described asatheosanyone whose actions or statements implied a lack of proper respect for the gods; they could thus apply the word to people like the Christians who were certainly not atheists in the modern sense.
Cult attendants, Roman
Authors: Horster Marietta 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn the city of Rome, for most of the republican and imperial periods, Roman religious authority lay in the hands of senators, who held most of the life‐long priesthoods. The priesthoods were usually not linked to specific deities. Consequently, the idea of matching the gender of deities, priests, and cult personnel seems not to have existed, except in cults whose deities and general cult concepts had been imported to Rome.
Cult image, Greek
Authors: Platt Verity C 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe term “Cult image,” is conventionally applied to a statue of a deity that functioned as the primary focus of ritual and veneration in his or her sanctuary. Usually located within the god's temple, such images served as authoritative symbols of the cult and were often replicated in the form of votive statuettes and reproduced in a wide variety of media, from reliefs to coins (e.g., Nick 2002).
Healing deities, healing cults, Greece and Rome
Authors: Mylonopoulos Ioannis 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
In one of his early works, Pablo Picasso placed at the sides of a dying person's bed a physician and a nun as symbols of science and charity. Despite the myriad sophisticated interpretations of the paintings, the two figures illustrate on the most basic level the eternal twin powers to which people appeal in cases of serious illness: medicine and religion. This attitude has not changed much since ancient times. In the period of Greek or even Roman antiquity, when western medicine was in its infancy and superstition dominated the diagnosis of illnesses, the cult of healing deities and heroes played a vital role in society.
Herms
Authors: Taylor Martha C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAccording to several ancient sources a particularly Attic monument (Hdt. 2.51.2; Thuc. 6.27.1; Paus 1.24.3, 4.33.3), herms were stone pillar‐shaped figures surmounted by a bearded head, with an erect phallus carved on the front.
Kronos and Kronia
Authors: Hitch Sarah 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Kronos (Roman Saturn) was the father of Zeus in myth, a symbol of the generational conflict that threatened cosmic stability before Zeus' supremacy; the tradition develops over time to associate him with Utopian conditions of a “Golden Age.” The oldest and most complete depiction of Kronos can be found in the seventh‐century
BCE
epic cosmogony, Hesiod's
Theogony
.