bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Using Hardness to Estimate Pipe Yield Strength: Field Application of ASME CRTD - Vol. 91
Authors: Amend Bill 
Published: July 2013

The mechanical properties of some operating pipelines are unknown or uncertain, yet pipe yield strength is a required input of design pressure calculations. ASME CRTD -Vol. 91 “Applications Guide for Determining the Yield Strength of In-Service Pipe by Hardness Evaluation: Final Report” [1] describes the means by which the lower bound yield strength of a pipeline segment can be determined based on nondestructive measurements of hardness in the field on randomly selected pipe joints. The procedure allows the lower bound limit of yield strength to be determined at a selected confidence level and with selected percentile limit of pipe that could have yield strengths lower than the calculated lower bound limit of yield strength.
Key steps in the process include:
• Preassessment to ensure that the pipeline segment includes pipe having consistent characteristics.
• Development of a qualified hardness testing procedure that replicates laboratory hardness test results.
• Qualification testing of the test technician.
• Adjustment of the data from randomly selected pipe joints to estimate the lower bound hardness of the pipeline segment.
• Determination of the lower bound yield strength for the pipeline segment based upon the calculated lower bound hardness.
This paper describes the key requirements of ASME CRTD - Vol. 91, the capabilities and limitations of the procedure for estimating yield strength from hardness, and the field application of the procedure.
Application of FIB/SEM/EBSD for Evaluation of Residual Strains and Their Relationship to Weld Metal Hydrogen Assisted Cold Cracking
Authors: Costin W. L. , Brown I. H. , Green L. , Ghomashchi R. 
Published: July 2013

Hydrogen assisted cold cracking (HACC) is a welding defect which may occur in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the base metal or in the weld metal (WM). Initially the appearance of HACC was associated more closely with the HAZ of the base metal. However, recent developments in advanced steel processing have considerably improved the base material quality, thereby causing a shift of HACC to the WM itself.
This represents a very serious problem for industry, because most of the predictive methods are intended for prevention of HACC in the HAZ of the base metal, not in the weld metal [1].
HACC in welded components is affected by three main interrelated factors, i.e. a microstructure, hydrogen concentration and stress level [2–4].
In general, residual stresses resulting from the welding process are unavoidable and their presence significantly influences the susceptibility of weld microstructures to cracking, particularly if hydrogen is introduced during welding [5]. Therefore various weldability tests have been developed over the years which are specifically designed to promote HACC by generating critical stress levels in the weld metal region due to special restraint conditions [4, 6–8]. These tests were used to develop predictive methods based on empirical criteria in order to estimate the cracking susceptibility of both the heat-affected zone and weld metal [4].
However, although the relationship between residual stress, hydrogen and HACC has received considerable attention, the interaction of residual stresses and microstructure in particular at microscopic scales is still not well understood [5, 9–21].
Therefore the current paper focuses on the development and assessment of techniques using Focused Ion Beam (FIB), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Electron Backscatter Diffraction for the determination of local residual strains at (sub) micron scales in E8010 weld metal, used for the root pass of X70 pipeline girth welds, and their relationship to the WM microstructure. The measurement of these strains could be used to evaluate the pre-existing stress magnitudes at certain microstructural features [22].
Application and Validation of Statistically Based Corrosion Growth Rates
Authors: Maier Clifford J. , Moreno Pamela J. , Harper William V. , Stucki David J. , Polasik Steven J. , Bubenik Thomas A. , Shanks David A. R. , Bates Neil A. 
Published: July 2013

When it comes to managing the integrity of corroded pipelines, operators are confronted with many difficult decisions — one of which is the level of conservatism that is used in pipeline integrity assessments. The financial implications associated with excavation, repair, rehabilitation, and inspection programs typically balance the level of conservatism that is adopted. More conservative approaches translate into more spending, so it is important that repair strategies developed based on the integrity assessment results are effective.
As integrity assessment methodologies continue to evolve, so does the ability to account for local conditions. One development in recent years has been the ability to evaluate multiple MFL in-line inspections to determine areas of active corrosion growth, through the combined use of statistics, inspection signal comparisons, and engineering analysis. The authors have previously outlined one approach (commonly known as Statistically Active Corrosion (SAC)) that has been successfully used to identify areas of probable corrosion growth, predict local corrosion growth rates, and maximize the effectiveness of integrity assessments.[1]
Validation of the SAC-predicted corrosion growth rates is important for establishing confidence in the process. This is achieved through inspection signal comparisons, integrating close interval survey (CIS) results, and (when possible) field verification. The means by which these methods are used for validating the SAC method are described in this paper.
Simulation and Planning of Pipeline Emptying Operations
Authors: Martinoia Thomás , Barreto Claudio Veloso , da Rocha Jose Carlos D. C. , Lavoura João , Henriques Fausto M. P. 
Published: July 2013

The pipeline pigging operation for emptying purposes is a common practice in the petroleum and gas transport industry. The emptying operation is employed for removal of the pipeline liquid products and substitution for an inert gas like nitrogen. This operation is necessary before pipeline maintenance or hydrostatic test procedures. The emptying operation applied for oil pipelines usually demands large volumes of nitrogen because of the pressure difference that is necessary to maintain the pig in a velocity that guarantee an efficient and safe operation. The nitrogen that is originally stored inside cryogenic vessels in liquid phase is pumped and vaporized to be injected into the pig launcher, after heating the gas. The gas injection and expansion inside the pipeline propel the pig, delivering the product that was in the pipeline at the receiver station. It is common to cut the nitrogen injection in a certain instant of the operation, before the pig reaches its destination. From then on, the expansion of the gas is able to finish the operation alone.
A dynamic simulator called DESLOCAN2 was developed by SIMDUT/PUC-Rio to simulate the pig motion during emptying operations with nitrogen in TRANSPETRO crude oil and refined products pipelines. In the operation planning phase the simulator is used to evaluate the gas mass flow rate, the inlet gas pressure and the nitrogen cut instant that can propel the pig to its destination with a minimum volume of nitrogen. The outlet liquid pressure is calculated using two simultaneous controllers: outlet flow rate based on maximum pig velocity and minimum outlet pressure that avoids slack line condition. The dynamic simulator also can be used as a forecast monitor of the pipeline pigging operation given the current inlet gas and outlet liquid conditions, allowing the visualization of actual and forecasted pipeline pressure profile, the pig velocity and position, the accumulative gas inside the pipeline and the volume of product removed.
The main objectives of this paper are: Present the mathematical modeling and considerations built in the simulator; Validate the model’s main hypothesis; Present the gained experience on building the model and planning an emptying operation of an existing pipeline: OSBAT 24.
DSE-T: A Program for Strain Based Assessment of Pipeline Dents With Complex Shape
Authors: Guerreiro João N. C. , Garcia Eduardo L. M. , Noronha Dauro B. , Martins Ricardo R. , Fonseca Leonardo G. , Lopes Tuane V. , Costa Marcos F. , Castro Eduardo S. 
Published: July 2013

According to ASME B31.8 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, plain dents or dents on ductile welds of any depth are acceptable provided strain levels associated with the deformation do not exceed 6% and 4%, respectively.
Appendix R of the Code presents a method for estimating strains in dents. In order to use this method, some technique is usually necessary to evaluate strains based on the pipe surface contour information captured from in-line inspection (ILI) tools or from direct measurement.
In previous papers the authors have presented techniques based on B-spline curves or B-spline surfaces to evaluate the bending strains on dents which have a “well-behaved” topology or on dents having a complex shape, respectively. The B-splines are used to interpolate the geometry of the dent, to infer its radii of curvature and to calculate the bending strain components using a procedure similar to that suggested on the Appendix R of the ASME B31.8 Code. The strains are combined in order to obtain an equivalent strain field that does not take into account the effect of the membrane strains or include the effect of the longitudinal membrane component through an expression like that contained on the code. These techniques which were implemented in the DSE-B and the DSE-R programs, respectively, make the dent strain estimation based on data coming from in-line inspections (ILI) tools easier and automatic.
This paper presents the DSE-T program, which uses the methodology implemented in the DSE-B program to calculate bending strains, and a dedicated finite element method to estimate membrane strains. Bending and membrane strains are combined to give the total strain fields on the inside and outside surfaces of the indented pipe. The program also enables the user to verify whether the dent is smooth or kinked and to simulate the effects of measuring the dent shape using “virtual” geometric tools with different degrees of resolution. Results obtained using the DSE-T are compared to results from nonlinear finite element analyses.
Improved Comparison of ILI Data and Field Excavations
Authors: Harper William V. , Stucki David J. , Bubenik Thomas A. , Maier Clifford J. , Shanks David A. R. , Bates Neil A. 
Published: July 2013

The importance of comparing in-line inspection (ILI) calls to excavation data should not be underestimated. Neither should it be undertaken without a solid understanding of the methodologies being employed. Such a comparison is not only a key part of assessing how well the tool performed, but also for an API 1163 evaluation and any subsequent use of the ILI data. The development of unity (1-1) plots and the associated regression analysis are commonly used to provide the basis for predicting the likelihood of leaks or failures from unexcavated ILI calls. Combining such analysis with statistically active corrosion methods into perhaps a probability of exceedance (POE) study helps develop an integrity maintenance plan for the years ahead.
The theoretical underpinnings of standard regression analysis are based on the assumption that the independent variable (often thought of as x) is measured without error as a design variable. The dependent variable (often labeled y) is modeled as having uncertainty or error. Pipeline companies may run their regressions differently, but ILI to field excavation regressions often use the ILI depth as the x variable and field depth as the y variable. This is especially the case in which a probability of exceedance analysis is desired involving transforming ILI calls to predicted depths for a comparison to a threshold of interest such as 80% wall thickness. However, in ILI to field depth regressions, both the measured depths can have error. Thus, the underlying least squares regression assumptions are violated. Often one common result is a regression line that has a slope much less than the ideal 1-1 relationship.
Reduced Major Axis (RMA) Regression is specifically formulated to handle errors in both the x and y variables. It is not commonly found in the standard literature but has a long pedigree including the 1995 text book Biometry by Sokal and Rohlf in which it appears under the title of Model II regression. In this paper we demonstrate the potential improvements brought about by RMA regression.
Building on a solid comparison between ILI data and excavations provides the foundation for more accurate predictions and management plans that reliably provide longer range planning. This may also result in cost savings as the time between ILI runs might be lengthened due to a better analysis of such important data.
Integration of Monitoring and Inspection Systems for Geohazard Assessment on Pipelines That Cross Amazonian Jungles and the Andes
Authors: Moya John Malpartida , Oliveros Montes Edward Francisco , De la Sota Giancarlo Massucco 
Published: July 2013

As a part of the Integrity Management System, TgP/COGA has identified the weather and outside forces as main threats that increase the risk of the integrity of its pipelines in jungle and mountains areas. In pipelines with particular characteristics such as pipelines that cross the Andes and the Amazonian jungle, this threat can cause even a greater number of failures than other threats such as corrosion or third party damage (TPD). Given this situation, the TgP’s Pipeline Integrity Management System has made a significant development in the use and management of the information provided by the various techniques of inspections and monitoring of the pipeline and ROW. This article discusses the various techniques and methodologies of monitoring that allows to estimate the exposure of the pipelines to geohazards.
These techniques are, for soil monitoring: topographic surveys (traditional and modern techniques of laser-detection LIDAR), monitoring of stress and displacement of the soil by fiber optics, inclinometers, piezometers and ROW geotechnical inspection (land use, deforestation, etc). Pipeline monitoring: in-line inspections (INS tool) and deformation monitoring (strain gages). The soil/pipeline interaction model, developed by finite elements technique, allows to estimate the pipeline deformation and stress levels correlating the information of the monitoring techniques listed above. All information is supported into a Geographic Information System, which uses APDM as database model, and which allows to integrate information more efficiently with the goal of completing the system risk assessment using a particular risk algorithm developed and adapted to the reality of transportation systems that cross amazonian jungles and the Andes.
By integrating these inspections and monitoring systems as part of Pipeline Integrity Management, based on risk assessments, the operator is able to act in advance to potential critical events, mitigating and/or minimizing the occurrence of failures. In this way the operator is able to optimize efforts to preserve the integrity of the system and in addition minimize personal, environmental and business impact.
Evaluating Anchor Impact Damage to the Subsea Canyon Chief Pipeline Using Analysis and Full-Scale Testing Methods
Authors: Alexander Chris , Aalders Alexander , Bath William , Vyvial Brent , Dotson Rhett , Seal Danny 
Published: July 2013

This paper presents findings from a study conducted as part of a joint industry effort involving engineers from Williams Midstream, Stress Engineering Services, Inc., GL Noble Denton, and Saipem America. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the severity of damage inflicted to Williams’ subsea 18-inch × 0.875-inch, Grade X60 Canyon Chief Gas Export Pipeline due to an anchor impact at a water depth of 2,300 feet. The phases of work included an initial assessment after the damage to the deepwater pipeline was detected, evaluating localized damage via finite element analysis based using in-line inspection data, full-scale destructive testing including burst tests, and final efforts included the design and evaluation of a subsea-deployed repair sleeve. The study included modeling Saipem’s repair sleeve design accompanied by full-scale destructive testing. Strain gages were used to measure strain in the reinforced dent beneath the sleeve, that were then compared to prior results for the unrepaired dent test results.
The work associated with this study represents one of the more comprehensive efforts conducted to date in evaluating damage to a subsea pipeline. The results of the analysis and testing work provided Williams with a solid understanding on the behavior on the damage inflected to the pipeline and what level of performance can be expected from the repaired pipeline during future operation. After the engineering analysis and testing phases of this work were completed, the deepwater pipeline was repaired.
Conservation Offsets and Pipeline Construction: A Case Study of the TMX Anchor Loop Project
Authors: Poulton David W. 
Published: July 2013

When Terasen Pipelines (later Kinder Morgan Canada) sought to loop its Trans Mountain pipeline through Canada’s Jasper National Park and British Columbia’s Mount Robson Provincial Park, both being components of the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks UNESCO World Heritage site, the company faced formidable regulatory and public interest obstacles. However, the company and several environmental groups agreed not to test the strength of their respective uncertain legal positions, but to work co-operatively with each other and with park managers. The motivating goal was to design into the looping project some aspect of environmental improvement that would result in a net benefit to the ecological conditions of the two parks, more than compensating for the residual disturbance which would be caused by the looping after mitigation. The central concept was that of a “conservation offset” (also known as “biodiversity offset”), which has been defined as: “conservation actions intended to compensate for the residual, unavoidable harm to biodiversity caused by development projects, so as to ensure no net loss of biodiversity.”
This paper reviews the history of the discussions and planning which took place, considers the adequacy of the outcomes, and suggest lessons for using conservation offsets as a means to align proponent and stakeholder interests and improve environmental outcomes for linear projects beyond the prospects offered by mitigation alone.
Measuring the Effectiveness of Damage Prevention Techniques and Defining the Key Performance Indicators on Damage Prevention Efficiency
Authors: Piazza Mark , Greenslate Gina , Herchin Nicolas , Bourgouin Laurent , Kuhn Miriam , Sinclair Heather , White Gary , Kiefner John , Zarea Mures 
Published: July 2013

Pipeline operators expend substantial efforts to develop, implement, and audit their Public Awareness and Pipeline Damage Prevention Programs. While the rate of pipeline damage incidents from third-party and outside force impacts has progressively declined over a period of several decades, these events remain a high priority for the pipeline industry and external stakeholders.
There are multiple management and communications tools that are used to support Damage Prevention programs for energy transmission pipeline operations. These tools are applied to large pipeline systems that cross a range of geographic, population, and regulatory boundaries. These factors make it challenging to determine the effectiveness of the individual tools applied for damage prevention for energy transmission pipeline systems.
This paper present the results of research performed through Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI) to measure and quantify the effectiveness of the various damage prevention tools and techniques as they apply to energy transmission pipeline systems. The project focuses on data collection through a web-based platform to provide the basis to establish a set of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for assessing the effectiveness of the methods and techniques that are used as standard practices by most pipeline operators in their damage prevention programs. The research includes development of a consistent and systematic process and database for collecting information on damage and “near hit” incidents that are recorded by pipeline operators. Fault-tree analysis of these data is expected to show where improvements can be made (e.g., one-call center, ticket handling, operator response, contractor cooperation and diligence, locating and marking, monitoring). Improvements will be measured by PRCI by capturing and analyzing the data over a multi-year period.
The key output of the project will be metrics that demonstrate which damage prevention activities are more effective in reducing impacts and “near hits” to pipelines and which activities positively contribute to the safe operations of the pipeline system.
Multi-Tier Tensile Strain Models for Strain-Based Design: Part 2 — Development and Formulation of Tensile Strain Capacity Models
Authors: Liu Ming , Wang Yong-Yi , Song Yaxin , Horsley David , Nanney Steve 
Published: July 2013

This is the second paper in a three-paper series related to the development of tensile strain models. The fundamental basis of the models [1] and evaluation of the models against experiment data [2] are presented in two companion papers. This paper presents the structure and formulation of the models.
The philosophy and development of the multi-tier tensile strain models are described. The tensile strain models are applicable for linepipe grades from X65 to X100 and two welding processes, i.e., mechanized GMAW and FCAW/SMAW. The tensile strain capacity (TSC) is given as a function of key material properties and weld and flaw geometric parameters, including pipe wall thickness, girth weld high-low misalignment, pipe strain hardening (Y/T ratio), weld strength mismatch, girth weld flaw size, toughness, and internal pressure. Two essential parts of the tensile strain models are the crack driving force and material’s toughness. This paper covers principally the crack driving force. The significance and determination of material’s toughness are covered in the companion papers [1,2].