bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
War Powers and the War on Terrorism
Authors: Bradley Curtis A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter considers the relevance of international law within the U.S. legal system to the United States’ initiation and conduct of war. After briefly reviewing some of the most relevant treaties relating to war and warfare, the chapter considers the Constitution’s distribution of war authority between Congress and the President. It then discusses how international law, including the provisions in the UN Charter relating to the authority of the Security Council, as well as collective self-defense treaties, might affect the President’s war authority. The chapter then shifts to the “war on terrorism” and discusses the relevance of international law, including the Geneva Conventions, to issues concerning the scope of the military’s detention authority in that conflict, with particular reference to the Supreme Court’s 2004 decision in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld. International law and other issues relating to the use of military commissions to try terrorist suspects are also considered. The chapter concludes by discussing legal debates relating to coercive interrogation and targeted killing.
Albert Szent-Györgyi
Authors: Hargittai István , Hargittai Magdolna 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Albert Szent-Györgyi symbolizes the blending of romanticism and reality in assessing the Hungarian share of Nobel Prizes. The popular notion of the inflated number (15) of Hungarian Nobel laureates and Nobel laureates of Hungarian roots is both a blessing and a curse. It is a blessing because it has added to the international reputation of Hungarian science and culture, but it has a negative impact when we ourselves believe in such an inflated number. In reality, some of the Nobel laureates hardly had any roots in the country while others were forced to abandon it, and they achieved their seminal contributions elsewhere. Georg von Békésy; Dennis Gabor; Avram Hershko; George de Hevesy; Imre Kertész; George A. Olah; Albert Szent-Györgyi; Eli Wiesel; Eugene P. Wigner did some or all of their schooling in Hungary. There are statues in Budapest honoring Science. Others commemorate scientists and sovereigns in medieval times.
Ignác Semmelweis
Authors: Hargittai István , Hargittai Magdolna 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Ignác Semmelweis, our symbol for Hungarian medicine, was the “Savior of Mothers.” Appalled by the frequent incidence of puerperal fever—childbed fever—leading to death, he recognized that the obstetricians themselves transported the poisoning ingredients from the autopsy to the women whom they examined. He introduced disinfection before medical personnel touched a patient after they had performed a postmortem examination. His work preceded the understanding of the germ theory of disease and the existence of bacteria as carriers of diseases. The campuses, clinics, and other institutions of Semmelweis University and the Semmelweis Museum of Medical History abound with memorabilia of famous contributors to the medical profession. They include, among many others, Frigyes and Sándor Korányi, the anatomist János Szentágothai, the initiator of integrated treatment of children suffering from cerebral palsy András Pethő, and the medical historian turned prime minister József Antall.
László Rátz
Authors: Hargittai István , Hargittai Magdolna 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
László Rátz was a high school mathematics teacher who discovered and nurtured talent. The famous Hungarian high schools—the gimnáziums—developed during the “happy peace time,” between 1867 and 1914. They represented outstanding venues of creativity. A few of these schools are introduced: the Lutheran; the Model (Mintagimnázium); the Main Modern of District VI; the Berzsenyi in Markó Street; the Piarist; the Lónyai Street Gimnázium; and the Madách. They graduated seven future Nobel laureates and the five “Martians of Science,”—Theodore von Kármán, Leo Szilard, Eugene P. Wigner, John von Neumann, and Edward Teller. Many other renowned contributors to Hungarian and international scientific, cultural, and political life graduated from these schools, including the financier George Soros, the politician Tom Lantos, the Intel inventor and entrepreneur Andy Grove, the economists Thomas Balogh and Nicholas Kaldor, the chemist turned philosopher Michael Polanyi, the Abel-prize-winning mathematician Peter Lax, and many more.
Phase Space Methods for Degenerate Quantum Gases
Authors: Dalton Bryan J. , Jeffers John , Barnett Stephen M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Recent experimental progress has enabled cold atomic gases to be studied at nanokelvin temperatures, creating new states of matter where quantum degeneracy occurs—Bose–Einstein condensates and degenerate Fermi gases. Such quantum states are of macroscopic dimensions. As its title suggests, this book presents the phase space theory approach to treating the physics of degenerate quantum gases, an approach already widely used in quantum optics. However, degenerate quantum gases involve massive bosonic and fermionic atoms, not massless photons. The book begins with a review of Fock states for systems of identical atoms, where large numbers of atoms occupy the various single-particle states or modes. First, separate modes are considered, and here the quantum density operator is represented by a phase space distribution function of phase space variables which replace mode annihilation and creation operators, the dynamical equation for the density operator determines a Fokker–Planck equation for the distribution function, and measurable quantities such as quantum correlation functions are given as phase space integrals. Finally, the phase space variables are replaced by time-dependent stochastic variables satisfying Langevin stochastic equations obtained from the Fokker–Planck equation, with stochastic averages giving the measurable quantities. Second, a quantum field approach is then treated, the density operator being represented by a distribution functional of field functions which replace field annihilation and creation operators, the distribution functional satisfying a functional Fokker–Planck equation, etc. A novel feature of this book is that the phase space variables for fermions are Grassmann variables, not c-numbers. However, the book shows that Grassmann distribution functions and functionals still provide equations for obtaining both analytic and numerical solutions.
Canonical Transformations
Authors: Dalton Bryan J. , Jeffers John , Barnett Stephen M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter focuses on linear canonical unitary transformations of mode annihilation and creation operators, both for bosons and for fermions. The generators of such transformations (which form a Lie algebra) are introduced for the specific case of two-mode systems, and the effects of these transformations on two-mode Fock states are evaluated. Applications of linear canonical transformations to two-mode interference associated with beam splitters and the distinction between boson and fermion cases are presented, followed by a treatment of pair creation processes such as squeezing in one- and two-mode bosonic systems. Treatments of thermofields – used to map mixed thermal states of single-mode systems onto pure states of two-mode systems, which are related to the two-mode vacuum state by a linear transformation – and the Bogoliubov transformations – used in describing excitations in Bose–Einstein condensates – round off the chapter.
Langevin Equations
Authors: Dalton Bryan J. , Jeffers John , Barnett Stephen M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
In this chapter, Langevin equations (or Ito stochastic differential equations, SDEs) are derived that are equivalent to Fokker–Planck equations for bosons and fermions. The approach involves replacing modal phase space variables by stochastic phase space variables satisfying Ito SDEs containing c-number Wiener stochastic variables, as well as functions of stochastic phase variables. It is shown that if the Ito SDE quantities are related to drift and diffusion terms in the FPE, then the time dependences of phase space averages of arbitrary functions equal those for stochastic averages of these functions. Using Takagi factorisation, Ito SDE quantities satisfying the required relationship are found, for both bosons and fermions. The Wiener variable numbers differ—2n for bosons, 2 n2 for fermions. For fermion unnormalised B distributions, both the drift and the diffusion Ito SDE terms are linear in the stochastic phase variables. SDEs are applied to fluctuations and quantum correlation functions.
Functional Calculus for C-Number and Grassmann Fields
Authors: Dalton Bryan J. , Jeffers John , Barnett Stephen M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter presents the basic mathematical tools required for extending the phase space method involving phase space variables for separate modes to a phase space method involving field functions that incorporate all modes together. Distribution functions are replaced by equivalent distribution functionals, Fokker–Planck equations by functional Fokker–Planck equations and Langevin equations by Langevin field equations. Field functions involve mode expansions with c-numbers (bosons) or Grassmann numbers (fermions) as coefficients. For both cases, the concept of a functional is introduced and examples given, functional derivatives are defined (left and right for Grassmann fields), examples are worked out, differentiation rules are derived and the relationship to derivatives (left and right for fermions) involving phase space variables is established. Functional integration is defined and related to phase space integration involving mode variables. Results for functional integration by parts and for functional differentiation of functional integrals are established.
Langevin Field Equations
Authors: Dalton Bryan J. , Jeffers John , Barnett Stephen M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
In this chapter, Langevin field equations (or Ito stochastic field equations, SFEs) are derived that are equivalent to functional Fokker–Planck equations (FFPEs) for bosons and fermions. Phase space fields are replaced by stochastic phase space fields satisfying Ito SFEs containing c-number Wiener increments, together with functions of the stochastic fields. Derivations are carried out both by applying mode expansions to previous results for Ito stochastic differential equations and, more directly, by establishing the relationship required between Ito SFE quantities and the drift and diffusion terms in the FFPE so the phase space functional integral of an arbitrary functional and its stochastic average have the same time dependence. Both derivations give the same result. The Ito SFEs are sums of deterministic and noise fields. The stochastic averages of these terms and their products are determined. For fermion unnormalised distribution functionals, the deterministic and noise fields are linear in the stochastic phase space fields.
Introduction
Authors: Nichols Kate 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The introduction situates this book in the broader fields of classical reception studies, cultural history, art history, museum studies, and Victorian studies. It sets out methodological approaches to nineteenth-century understandings of the past and historical consciousness. It provides an overview of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, its directors’ ideals, guidebooks, displays, history, and protagonists. It offers a tour of the classical sculpture on display in the Greek, Roman, and Pompeian Courts.
Showing off Archaeological Knowledge
Authors: Nichols Kate 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Chapter 2 explores the relationship between the Victorian entertainment industry and the emergent ‘professional’ classical archaeological establishment at mid-century. It offers the first overview of the role that classical sculpture and architecture played in nineteenth-century shows of London, spanning actors posing in bodystockings, medical wax work museums, casts at Madame Tussauds, and the Regent’s Park Colosseum. It provides the first detailed assessment of the public display of classical sculpture in 1850s Britain, at the British Museum and beyond, and situates these displays within the history of classical archaeology. It features detailed discussion of 1850s archaeological engagements at the Crystal Palace, looking at polychromy and the relationship between Greek ‘originals’ and Roman ‘copies’ of sculpture. It argues that in 1850s London, ‘amateur’ and ‘professional’, ‘entertainment’, and ‘education’ ought to be seen in tandem, rather than as polar opposites. It foregrounds the Crystal Palace as a prime location for exploring such connections.
Having the right stuff
Authors: McCoy Earl D. 
Published: April 2015

AbstractThe kinds of statistical analyses one can conduct, and the possible conclusions one can draw from them, are determined by the structure and size of the data set employed. In turn, the composition of the data set is constrained by the presuppositions, values, and biases of the investigator. These data constraints are difficult to recognize, can take a number of forms, and are sometimes impossible to avoid. The ways in which scientists value particular methods over others may be a particularly important, yet also a particularly poorly understood, influence on data gathering. This chapter provides brief descriptions of values, value judgments, and biases—which are tightly inter-related—and then describes some characteristic biases found in ecological research. It shows how various kinds of biases can influence the conclusions drawn by ecologists. Finally, the chapter suggests how the inherent complexity of much ecological data enhances the potential danger of flawed conclusions engendered by data constraints. This suggestion is supported with extended examples showing how the interpretation of ecological patterns and processes is related to the scale of examination and the hierarchical nature of observations. Ecologists can draw erroneous conclusions from their data in numerous ways; reducing their likelihood requires awareness of the potential influence of data constraints and conscious planning, well beyond that typically applied to data gathering.
Generalized linear models
Authors: Buckley Yvonne M. 
Published: April 2015

AbstractGeneralized Linear Modeling (GLM) unifies several statistical techniques, providing a stable and modular foundation on which to build a useful working knowledge of statistical modeling. GLMs enable a re-interpretation of previously learned ANOVA and regression techniques and integrate well with more advanced modeling techniques introduced in later chapters. This chapter describes the modular components of a GLM, the linear predictor, error distribution, and link function, and through explanation and examples guides readers to develop a more intuitive understanding of the nature of their data set and the generalized linear models that can be used to make sense of it. Ecologists commonly collect data that contravene the assumptions of ANOVA and regression; GLMs provide a more flexible modeling framework that enables analysis of binary, count, and proportion data, as well as continuous data with non-normal error structures. These data can also be challenging to plot and interpret; examples are provided throughout with associated code for graphing data and the models developed. The chapter also provides guidance on model criticism and inference. Finally there are a number of reasons why your GLM may not work or may be inappropriate, and this chapter discusses how to recognize problems and suggest solutions.
A statistical symphony
Authors: Kendall Bruce E. 
Published: April 2015

AbstractEcologists are increasingly using non-experimental data—both “natural experiments” and observational data from monitoring programs—to address questions that cannot be addressed in controlled experiments. Analyses of such data are plagued by confounding variables and bidirectional causality, creating inconsistent parameter estimates and unreliable P values (well known as “correlation does not imply causation”). Less well-known, similar problems arise with measurement error in the predictor variables and for experiments in which the causal variable is not the experimental treatment itself, but something manipulated by the treatment (e.g., using nutrient treatments to manipulate plant biomass or quality as the resource in a consumer-resource experiment). Economists call this phenomenon “endogeneity” (which mathematically manifests as a correlation between residuals and predictors); lacking ready access to experimental data, they have developed a number of tools for reducing or eliminating such endogeneity in observational data. This chapter introduces one of these techniques, instrumental variable regression. The technique is computationally simple; the challenge is finding an appropriate variable to serve as an instrument. The instrumental variable must be correlated with the putatively causal predictor variables, but not have any direct association with the response variable—that is, the instrumental variable is correlated with the response variable only because of its association with the predictor variable. This condition can only be demonstrated via logical argument, rather than via statistical testing. The approach is illustrated for the problem of identifying life-history tradeoffs between current reproduction and subsequent fitness when individuals are heterogeneous in an unobserved “quality” characteristic.
Spatial variation and linear modeling of ecological data
Authors: Negrete-Yankelevich Simoneta , Fox Gordon A. 
Published: April 2015

AbstractSpatial variation has been often considered undesirable noise in ecological studies because many statistical methods used assume random spatial distributions. It is time to change this because spatial structure is the rule in natural systems. Many ecological processes are driven by spatial structures. This chapter introduces the conceptual framework that allows ecologists to understand and analyze these structures. It also shows a basic set of tools for exploratory data analyses and graphs that will make spatial patterns apparent and help readers make analytical decisions. One of the goals of this chapter is to convince readers of the value of spatial analysis of small data sets and subtle spatial variation. Real ecological data sets are used to demonstrate two approaches to adding spatial structure to linear models. The first approach, Generalized Least Squares, directly models the spatial covariance structure with a variance–covariance matrix incorporating the range and sill of a variogram function fitted to the residuals. The second approach, spatial autoregressive models, uses weight matrices that specify a priori which observations are considered neighbors, as well as the strength of interaction between them. Autoregressive models can model spatial patterns in ecological data as imposed by unknown factors that are either external (e.g. environmental) or endogenous (e.g. competitive or social interactions) to the variable. In brief, there is a spatial world out there to be explored.
Linear and generalized linear mixed models
Authors: Bolker Benjamin M. 
Published: April 2015

AbstractGeneralized linear mixed models (GLMMs) are a powerful class of statistical models that combine the characteristics of generalized linear models and mixed models (models with both fixed and random predictor variables). This chapter: reviews the conceptual and theoretical background of GLMMs, focusing on the definition and meaning of random effects; gives basic guidelines and syntax for setting up a mixed model; and discusses the theoretical and practical details of estimating parameters, diagnosing problems with a model, and making statistical inferences (finding confidence intervals, estimating p values, and doing model selection) for GLMMs.
MultiMeta: an R package for meta-analyzing multi-phenotype genome-wide association studies
Authors: Vuckovic D. , Gasparini P. , Soranzo N. , Iotchkova V. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Summary: As new methods for multivariate analysis of genome wide association studies become available, it is important to be able to combine results from different cohorts in a meta-analysis. The R package MultiMeta provides an implementation of the inverse-variance-based method for meta-analysis, generalized to an n-dimensional setting.
Availability and implementation: The R package MultiMeta can be downloaded from CRAN.
Contact: dragana.vuckovic@burlo.trieste.it; vi1@sanger.ac.uk
Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Persistence and adherence to single-tablet regimens in HIV treatment: a cohort study from the French National Healthcare Insurance Database
Authors: Raffi François , Yazdanpanah Yazdan , Fagnani Francis , Laurendeau Caroline , Lafuma Antoine , Gourmelen Julie 
Published: April 2015

Abstract

Objectives
To compare adherence and persistence (continuous treatment with a prescribed medication) in HIV adult patients who received combination ART (cART) as a once-daily single-tablet regimen (STR) versus other administration schedules.

Methods
A representative random sample of the French National Healthcare Insurance Database was used. Adherence and persistence were compared according to their administration schedules using χ2 and survival analyses. STRs were marketed in France in 2009 and the study period was selected to allow a sufficient number of patients with an STR and a relevant duration of follow-up.

Results
During the period covered (2006–11), 362 HIV-positive adult antiretroviral-naive patients (566 lines of treatments) were selected. The mean rates of adherence were 89.6% for the STR (tenofovir/emtricitabine/efavirenz; n = 76), 86.4% for cART with &gt;1 pill once daily (n = 242) and 77.0% for cART with &gt;1 daily intake (n = 248; P &lt; 0.0001 versus STR). Kaplan–Meier estimations of persistence after 2 years of treatment were 79.1% for the STR, 53.3% for cART with &gt;1 pill once daily and 51.8% for cART with &gt;1 daily intake (P = 0.001; log-rank test). Sensitivity analyses confirmed these results. After excluding treatment sequences showing a switch from tenofovir/emtricitabine plus efavirenz to the similar STR, the rates of persistence were 80.3% for the STR (n = 60), 77.3% for atazanavir-containing cART (n = 96) and 68.3% for darunavir-containing cART (n = 56) at 18 months (global P = 0.006).

Conclusions
These results suggest that persistence is higher in HIV patients treated with an STR compared with other administration schedules. Significant benefit in terms of adherence was observed with the STR in comparison with regimens with &gt;1 daily intake but no difference was observed when comparing with regimens involving &gt;1 pill once daily.