bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
New Urbanism
Authors: Talen Emily 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter evaluates New Urbanism. Hundreds of self-identified New Urbanist developments, from infill blocks to complete planned communities, have been constructed since the mid-1980s, mostly in the United States. The most visible New Urbanist communities are greenfield developments outside of existing cities. This opens them to the critique that they are simply a slightly better designed version of suburban sprawl. Being peripheral rather than infill, critics contend that they are an embodiment of suburban escapism. In addition, the focus on pedestrianism and traditional architecture has generated an authenticity critique. To some observers, the attempt to replicate past forms, generated under very different circumstances, presents a fake reality. Nevertheless, the attempt to replicate walkable, human-scale, mixed-use urbanism, even if in suburban contexts, can also be seen as a welcome change from car-dependent, modernist form.
Urban Renewal
Authors: Talen Emily 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of urban renewal. Projects of urban renewal often involve a lot of capital and a lot of upheaval. Thus, the projects symbolize centralized power and the belief that there are people in charge who know what’s best for people and city making. Big architectural projects are viewed as the antidote to what some perceive as chaos and disorder while also giving an impression of completeness, finality, order, and modernity when designed as a complete package. On the other hand, urban renewal in public housing form was about racial containment that aimed to keep African Americans separate and apart from the existing city.
Decisive Measures
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
As war with France loomed on the horizon, Congress passed legislation creating the Navy Department, a Provisional Army to be called up in the event of invasion, and additional regiments in the existing army. Out of his depth on military matters, John Adams appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief of the new forces. He then sent Secretary of War James McHenry to meet with Washington at Mount Vernon and sort out officer appointments. The inspector general, or the number two position, was the main point of contention. This position would run the day-to-day army and would wield enormous power. Washington and several members of the cabinet demanded Alexander Hamilton for this role; Adams preferred anyone else.
The “Majic” of His Name
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Mid-way through Adams’s battle with the cabinet over army appointments, he fled north to Quincy to avoid the summer heat in Philadelphia and put space between him and his fractious secretaries. How powerful was the president? Did he control the executive branch, or did he simply oversee cabinet secretaries who dominated their own fiefdoms? Did the Constitution place the army under his jurisdiction or was it managed by the top-ranked officers? The battle over the army’s command structure compelled Adams to answer these questions and forced him to defend presidential authority. He and the secretaries spent the next several months fighting over officer appointments, before Washington threatened to resign his commission. Forced into a corner, Adams surrendered, but the conflict strengthened his resolve to undermine the army and pursue diplomacy with France.
Death or Liberty
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The Republican Party campaign focused on attacking the Arch Federalists for their agenda of taxes, sedition prosecutions, a standing army, and threats of monarchy. While Jefferson remained at home, as he had in 1796, he did put forth public statements about his principles and openly spoke of accepting the office. In August, officials in Virginia thwarted an insurrection planned by enslaved men and women in Richmond and the surrounding counties. As officials arrested suspects, gathered evidence, and executed participants, information leaked that two French men had offered arms and assistance. The French connection appeared to confirm Federalist claims that the Republican Party would lead to the same anarchy and violence witnessed in the French Revolution.
The Prey of Anarchy and Faction
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
In early February 1801, rumors spread across the country of a Federalist plot to pass legislation and appoint a new president. As February 11 loomed, the threats of political violence increased. A snowstorm that blanketed Washington, DC, on the night of February 10, 1801 kept much of the mob home, but militias in Virginia and Pennsylvania were poised to march on the city if Federalists attempted to appoint a new president. The Republican governors stood ready to defend the election results, the will of the people, and the Constitution—as they saw it—if Federalists tried to pass legislation and select a president not elected by the people. Over the next six days, the House of Representatives cast thirty-five ballots before a series of backroom deals secured the victory for Thomas Jefferson on the thirty-sixth vote.
‘My Real Name’
Authors: Grundy David 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter turns to the question of racialized framings in examining works by writers of colour published by Fag Rag and the Good Gay Poets. Adrian Stanford’s Black and Queer was the first book of poetry to be published by an out gay Black man in the United States but has received no critical attention. Following a reading of Stanford’s poems, and those of exiled draft-resister Prince Eusi-Ndugu—who received his only publication in the magazine—I turn to the work of self-described ‘black lesbian redneck’ Stephanie (Stephania) Byrd, anticipating the following chapter on lesbian community in San Francisco. The chapter concludes by addressing the work of Maurice Kenny. More often framed in non-queer analyses of Native American literature, Kenny here emerges as a poet in dialogue with queer poetic traditions shared with those of the white writers of the San Francisco and Boston scenes, which he challenges and extends.
‘She Who’
Authors: Grundy David 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Forming a temporal parallel to earlier chapters, this chapter examines the growth of Bay Area lesbian feminist communities from 1969 onwards and the key role played by poetry within these. Serving in the United States Air Force—where she was placed under military arrest for her sexual ‘deviance’—Judy Grahn subsequently studied at the HCBU Howard University, where she became involved in civil rights activism. Reading Grahn’s pioneering ‘The Psychoanalysis of Edward the Dyke’ in relation to psychiatry, the chapter also examines her early involvement with homophile activism, Black liberation, and the feminist movement, and her later formulation of a radical lesbian politics and poetics, of which her ‘Common Woman Poems’ were a foundational text.
New Narrative, New Communities from Left Write to AIDS
Authors: Grundy David 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the work of the San Francisco New Narrative writers from three angles: its roots in the gay counterculture and attempts to build a Gay Left; its building of community around Robert Glück’s workshops at the non-profit Small Press Traffic bookstore; and its response to the AIDS crisis in the 1980s and 1990s. In particular, the chapter seeks to restore New Narrative’s political context, including the ambitious 1981 Left Write Conference held at the Noe Valley ministry, which brought together writers from various communities to debate issues of poetry and politics, and Glück’s involvement with the first civil disobedience against AIDS. Drawing on the work of the writers addressed in the earlier chapters of this study—particularly Spicer, on whom Kevin Killian was concurrently writing a biography—such work enables us to chart changing conceptions of queer politics and poetics at a time of widespread death and historical change.
Slavery and Social Contract Theory in Seventeenth-Century Europe
Authors: Jorati Julia 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the role of contractarianism, or social contract theory, in seventeenth-century debates about slavery. The core idea of contractarianism is that legitimate political power is derived from the consent of the governed. Contractarians typically hold that other licit forms of subordination must be consensual as well, which means that they tend to reject the legitimacy of some types of slavery. The chapter focuses on three political philosophers from England: Thomas Hobbes, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke. All three authors theorize about slavery on the basis of contractarian principles, but they come to different conclusions. None of them rejects all forms of slavery. Sidney’s account is closest to Aristotelian natural slavery, that is, the theory that natural differences in human abilities make it fitting for some people to be enslaved. The other two authors deny this, even though they think that in principle there could be natural slaves.
Children’s Exquisite Vulnerability to Environmental Exposures
Authors: Etzel Ruth A. , Landrigan Philip J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Children are uniquely sensitive to hazards in the environment. They have greater exposures to toxic chemicals and other environmental hazards than adults. Children’s metabolic pathways are immature, and they have difficulty in breaking down and excreting many toxic chemicals. In addition, children’s early development is highly complex and easily disrupted. In early human development, especially in prenatal life, there are windows of vulnerability—periods of exquisite sensitivity to environmental hazards that have no counterpart in adult life. Recognition of children’s unique vulnerabilities had its origins in tragic episodes in the 1950s and 1960s—the thalidomide disaster, the DES episode, and Minamata disease. These episodes documented the extreme sensitivity of infants to environmental hazards. They showed that the placenta does not protect against toxic chemicals. Recent research shows that even extremely low-dose exposures to toxic chemicals during early life can cause devastating injury. The consequences are diminished cognition (loss of IQ), shortened attention span, disordered behavior, impaired immune function, acute lung bleeding, reduced lung growth, and decreased reproductive capacity. These effects can last a lifetime. In light of these new findings, researchers need to amend the ancient toxicological precept, “the dose makes the poison” with a new corollary: “in early development, timing makes the poison.”
The Chemical Environment and Children’s Health
Authors: Landrigan Philip J. , Etzel Ruth A. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
More than 85,000 synthetic chemicals have been developed in the past 50 years. These chemicals are used today in millions of consumer products. They are dispersed widely in the environment. Several hundred can be detected in the bodies of most people around the world. Children are exposed extensively to them. Most of the chemicals in widest use have never been tested for safety. This failure to test chemicals represents a grave lapse of stewardship. It reflects the unwillingness of the chemical industry to take responsibility for its products, coupled with the failure of governments around the world to protect their citizens. Evidence is strong and rapidly growing that toxic chemicals are important causes of disease in children. A major unanswered question is whether there are chemicals of unrecognized toxicity in wide use today whose impacts on children’s health have not yet been discovered. Research to answer this question is urgently needed. The alert clinician is a critical line of defense against the unanticipated hazards of new chemicals. Alert pediatricians have frequently been the first to recognize new chemical hazards.
The Changing Global Environment and Children’s Health
Authors: Sheffield Perry E. , Schultz Lucy , Ebi Kristie L. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Children’s health and development are profoundly affected not only by their immediate surroundings but also by the larger global environment. The global environment is undergoing rapid change on a massive scale. This change is driven in large part by the consequences of unprecedented growth in the human population over the past century and the way societies are choosing to use natural resources. Four areas of wide-scale environmental change that have important implications for human health are loss of biodiversity, deforestation, desertification and ocean degradation, and climate change. These changes in the global environment cannot be halted in the next several decades, but they can be made either better or worse. Short-term prevention activities can address current deficits in managing the risks of global environmental change. In the longer term, decision-makers need an increased appreciation of global interconnectedness between humans and the environment.
Economics and Children’s Environmental Health
Authors: Landrigan Philip J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Cost is an inevitable consequence of diseases of environmental origin in children. The costs associated with disease include direct medical costs and indirect or nonmedical costs, which include the cost of a child’s time lost from school, a parent’s time lost from work while caring for a sick child, special education, rehabilitation, the lifelong reduction in economic productivity in damaged children, and the costs of lost productivity from premature death. Disease of environmental origin is very costly. A 2011 estimate in American children found these costs to total US$76.6 billion per year. It is also possible to calculate the economic benefits that result from improvements in public health. A study of the gains that resulted from removal of lead from gasoline in the United States found an economic benefit of US$200 billion in each year’s birth cohort since 1980—an aggregate benefit in the past 30 years of more than US$3 trillion, driven primarily by a population-wide increase in IQ that resulted from reduction in blood lead levels. This increase in intelligence stimulated broad gains in economic productivity. Economic analyses can be powerful tools for disease prevention. Accurate information on the previously hidden costs of diseases of environmental origin can be a persuasive adjunct to clinical, pathophysiologic, and epidemiologic data. Economic data can sway the opinions of elected officials and governmental policymakers and encourage them to take action to protect children’s health.
Hazardous Waste and Toxic Hotspots
Authors: Fuller Richard 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Hazardous waste sites and polluted hotspots pose major threats to the environment and human health worldwide. Problem sites include municipal dumps, illegal hazardous waste dumpsites, informal battery recycling, industrial and mining sites, artisanal mining, smelters, abandoned factories, pesticide storage areas, poorly run industrial estates, and e-waste dumps. In higher-income, industrially developed countries, substantial progress has been made in cataloguing and remediating hazardous waste sites. In the United States, this work has received Congressional authorization through the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability “Superfund” Act. By contrast, in developing countries where environmental controls are less well developed, hazardous waste sites pose major, on-going hazards to health.
Fluoride and Manganese
Authors: Diaz Yenny Fariñas , Azmoun Somaiyeh , Lucchini Roberto G. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Children can be exposed to many hazardous metals in the environment, including fluoride and manganese. Sources of exposure may include drinking water, foods and dietary supplements, and metal-containing particles released into the air from industrial and vehicular sources. Exposures may be especially intense near active and abandoned industrial “hotspots.” Children’s routes of absorption include ingestion and inhalation. Adherence of metal-contaminated particles to the skin of small children contributes to the inadvertent ingestion of contaminated dust and soil. The effects of metals on children’s health include toxicity to the nervous system, lungs, kidneys, liver, and, in the case of excessive fluorides, the teeth and bones. Prevention of children’s exposure to metals is multifaceted. Primary prevention that reduces unnecessary uses of metals and prevents environmental contamination at its source is the most effective strategy. Children should not be allowed to come into contact with metallic particles transported home on working parents’ contaminated shoes and work clothing. Well water, especially from unregulated private wells, needs to be tested for metal content
PCBs, Dioxins, Furans, DDT, Polybrominated Compounds, Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances, and Other Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Authors: Landrigan Philip J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Halogenated hydrocarbons include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, furans, DDT, polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and PFAS. These compounds are widely dispersed in the environment, are biologically and environmentally persistent, and are detected in the bodies of virtually all humans. Consumption of contaminated foods, most notably seafood from contaminated waters as well as red meat and chicken, is the main route of human exposure. For the PBDEs, contaminated house dust is additional source of exposure. Halogenated hydrocarbons cross the placenta from mother to baby, and they concentrate in breast milk. Injury to the developing brain is the most serious health consequence of early-life exposure to halogenated hydrocarbons. Babies born to mothers with increased body burdens of PCBs have decreased IQ scores and problems with visual recognition. Deficits in executive functioning, and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorders can become evident at higher levels of exposure. PBDEs appear to produce similar effects. National governments can reduce exposures to halogenated hydrocarbons by curtailing or banning their manufacture and use, establishing programs for monitoring the food supply, and controlling environmental releases. Local governments can control the spread of PCBs into school environments by requiring timely removal of PCB-containing fluorescent light ballasts and can ban use of PBDEs. Although human breast milk can contain high concentrations of halogenated hydrocarbons, the advantages of breastfeeding outweigh this hazard except in cases of extreme exposure. Authoritative bodies such as the American Academy of Pediatrics continue to strongly recommend breast feeding.
Environmental Carcinogens and Childhood Cancer
Authors: Straif Kurt 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in North American children. The incidence of childhood cancer—the number of new cases per 100,000 children—has been increasing over the past 40 years. In this same time, because of extraordinary advances in treatment, death from childhood cancer has declined. Cancers occurring in childhood and adolescence differ markedly from the cancer patterns in adults. Globally, the most common cancers in children are leukemia and lymphoma. Children are exposed to multiple environmental carcinogens. These include ionizing radiation, solar ultraviolet radiation, tobacco smoke, diesel exhaust, benzene, 1,3-butadiene, arsenic, cadmium, asbestos, benzo[a]pyrene, pesticides, aflatoxins, hepatitis B virus, and human papilloma virus. Exposures to environmental carcinogens not only increase risk of cancer in childhood, but can also increase risk of cancers decades later in adult life. Studies to establish causal relationships between environmental carcinogens and cancer are very difficult because of the rarity of childhood cancer and the long latency that must typically elapse between exposure and the appearance of disease. Pooled international prospective studies coordinated by the World Health Organization are a promising new approach to discovery of environmental carcinogens. Primary prevention of exposures to environmental carcinogens is the most effective approach to preventing childhood cancer.
Electromagnetic Fields
Authors: Henshaw Denis L. , Belpoggi Fiorella , Mandrioli Daniele , Philips Alasdair 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Electric and magnetic fields (electromagnetic fields, EMF) arise wherever electricity is generated, transmitted, or distributed. Exposure to EMFs is ubiquitous in the modern environment. EMF exposures can occur at extremely low frequencies (ELF) from personal electric appliances such as hair dryers and shavers. EMF exposures can also occur at radiofrequencies from radar installations, smart meters, base-station antennas, and mobile phones. Children appear to be particularly vulnerable to EMF. Mobile phone use in children is associated with exposures to radiofrequency energy in the brain at levels that are two times higher than those associated mobile phone use by adults. Mobile phone use in children is associated additionally with exposures in the bone marrow of the skull that are up to 10 times higher than those experienced by adults. The mechanisms by which EMFs interact with the human body are not fully understood. The strongest although still very limited scientific evidence for health effects of long-term ELF-EMF exposures is the finding of an approximately two-fold increased risk of leukemia in children exposed in their homes to ELF magnetic fields of more than 0.3−0.4 µT (micro-Tesla). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified “extremely low-frequency magnetic fields” as well as “radiofrequency electromagnetic fields” as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) and “static electric and magnetic fields and extremely low-frequency electric fields” as not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3).
The Environmental History and Examination
Authors: Paulson Jerome A. , Jee Sandra H. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Diagnosis of disease of environmental origin in a child requires basic knowledge of environmental medicine, openness to the possibility of environmental causation, and a systematic approach to obtaining a history of environmental exposure. A careful history of environmental exposure should be obtained on every new patient and every patient with unexplained illness. To make an environmental diagnosis, the clinician must systematically work through a short checklist of screening questions about major environmental exposures while obtaining the history of present illness, the past history, and the review of systems. If any of the screening questions elicit suspicious information, more detailed follow-up questions are asked and laboratory testing may be indicated. In complex cases, referral to a Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit may be helpful. It is important to consider every child with a disease of environmental origin a “sentinel” case who may be representative of a larger group of children with similar exposures. Epidemiologic follow-up or consultation may be required. Astute clinicians who have diagnosed and reported sentinel cases have in numerous instances provided the first recognition of diseases children’s environmental health.