bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Business Process Reengineering
Authors: Masih Anwar 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Business process reengineering (BPR) is about the fundamental redesign of processes, organizations, and information systems to achieve radical improvements in time lead‐ins, cost, quality, and customer experience. This was conceived in the West at a time when the Japanese experience in continuous improvement systems was yielding a substantial cost advantage. However, the experience of BPR has been very disappointing. The reasons for failure are outlined and the connection with more recent transformation programs is indicated.
Blue Ocean Strategy
Authors: Mi Ji 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Blue ocean strategy provides a theoretical framework and a practical roadmap for companies to break away from the cutthroat competition in existing industries and create new market space of profitable growth. Whereas competitive strategy stresses the importance of choosing a distinctive position of either differentiation or cost leadership under structural constraint, blue ocean strategy aims at breaking the trade‐off between value and cost through cognitive reconstruction of market elements across industry boundaries. On the basis of a reconstructionist view of strategy, blue ocean strategy argues that industry structure can be changed endogenously by the strategic actions of micro‐level actors. This, in turn, requires the alignment of the value, profit, and people propositions of a strategy in support of pursuing both differentiation and low cost.
Strategy Making
Authors: de Wit Bob 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Strategy making refers to the process of formulating and implementing an organizational strategy. The process requires on the one hand deliberate planning and execution of process steps, and on the other hand sufficient room for addressing issues that emerge. The right balance between deliberateness and emergence relates to company‐specific factors such as industry and national context however, there is widespread agreement among academics and practitioners that some kind of balance is required.
Disruptive Innovation
Authors: Möslein Kathrin M. , Neyer Anne‐Katrin 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Disruptive innovation, in its original sense, refers to a technology that has the potential to disrupt traditional value creation models and markets. It can be contrasted with sustaining innovation that mainly improves or evolves existing value creation models and markets. Over time, the term “disruptive innovation,” popularized by Clayton Christensen in the 1990s, has left its original focus on technological innovations and has been widely used to describe almost every type of innovation from radically new products, processes, and services to discontinuous business models, change processes, and value propositions. This broad use of the term undermines the usefulness of a powerful concept of disruptive technologies and their strategic impact on organizations and markets.
Acquisition Strategy
Authors: Angwin Duncan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article reviews acquisition strategy. Specifically it deals with classical acquisition strategies from the perspective of different academic disciplines and also highlights strategies existing in the real world, that have received little research attention to date. Acquisition strategies are also related to overall performance and risk in order to show that prevailing limited perceptions of acquisition strategies in the literature may also be partly responsible for the way in which performance outcomes are viewed. A number of international M&A examples are used to illustrate the main points.
Leveraged Buy‐Outs
Authors: Channon Derek F. , Sammut Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Leveraged buy‐outs (LBOs) occur when the management of a company purchases its shares from existing shareholders and effectively becomes the owners. The target is typically a public company or a subsidiary of one which is taken private, with a significant portion of the cash purchase price being financed by debt. This debt is secured not by the credit status of the purchaser but by the assets of the target company. The debt used has usually been high‐yield securities of substandard investment grade quality. An important criterion for an LBO is a gap between the existing market value of the firm and the value determined by a reappraisal of the assets or by the capitalization of expected cash flows. Moreover, after an LBO the incoming management is often able to achieve dramatic savings in the business's operating costs.
Strategic Alliances
Authors: Angwin Duncan , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Strategic alliances have made it possible for corporations to swiftly gain access to markets, exchange technologies, form defensive shareholding blocs, enter third markets in combination with other partners, and engage in otherwise prohibitively expensive technologies and production facilities. Strategic alliances overcome many of the limitations of mergers and acquisitions, and seem to avoid culture and organizational shock and yet, achieve rapid presence in new markets.

There are three main types of strategic alliance amongst noncompeting firms.
International expansion joint ventures
are formed by companies that originate in different countries.
Vertical partnerships
bring together two companies that operate at two successive stages in the same production process.
Cross‐industry agreements
are cooperations formed by companies from different industries to leverage their complementary capabilities.

Strategic alliances amongst competitors fall into three categories.
Pre‐competitive
or
shared‐supply alliances
cover one stage in the production process.
Quasi‐concentration alliances
cover the entire production process and results in a common product marketed by all allies.
Complementary alliances
are formed when the assets contributed by the partner firms are different in nature.

Despite the apparent advantages of strategic alliances, their value is less appealing to corporations with proprietary technology, strategic cost advantage, and high market share.
Network Externalities
Authors: McGee John , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Network externalities are defined as the increasing utility that a user derives from consumption of a product as the number of other users who consume the same product increases. Network externalities are the new drivers of the network economy. The exponential adoption of a network service, driven by network externalities, is evident in the rapid rise of peer‐to‐peer networks in three main categories: social networks, e‐marketplaces, and information services, such as Facebook,
eBay
, and Wikipedia. Network market shares tend to “tip” consumer expectations toward one player and away from its rival. The valuation of a product increases the more that others consume the product, leading to a “winner‐takes‐all” scenario. The exception to this phenomenon would be a regulated network market with strong interconnections between competing platforms. The mobile telephone industry is a classic example, where market shares tend to be equitable among competitors. With the advent of technology disruptors, network industries tend to shift from monopoly to oligopoly. Similar trends are evident in other
IT
‐intensive industries. Thus, the focus of interest in network economics has shifted from the analysis of natural monopoly toward issues of interconnection, compatibility, interoperability, and coordination of quality.
Replacement Demand
Authors: McGee John , Channon Derek F. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractBy definition durable goods are not completely consumed at the time of their purchase; they yield a stream of services over time. The sale of durables can be seen as replacing that part of the existing stock of durables that has worn out (i.e., replacement demand) and that is really new (i.e., an expansion of demand). The most important factor determining replacement demand is the rate of obsolescence that determines prices in second‐hand markets. There are two elements in obsolescence, physical deterioration and expectations of technological change.
Z

‐Score
Authors: Channon Derek F. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The
Z
‐score is a statistically derived predictor of corporate failure, specifically the probability that a firm will go bankrupt in 2 years. The concept provides a useful tool for predicting bankruptcy or financial difficulties largely in manufacturing businesses. The formula makes use of ratios derived from standard financial statements and can, therefore, be applied to the analysis of competitors, customers, suppliers, acquisition candidates, and so on.
Information Goods
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Information and know‐how are classic examples of public goods. A public good is a commodity or service in which the consumption of one agent (consumer or firm) does not preclude its use by other agents. Information is also an experience good where consumers need to experience it in order to value it. Information goods are classic by‐products of the digital age where the fixed costs are very high but marginal costs are vanishingly low.
Market‐Based View
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The market‐based view (MBV), alternatively known as the market positioning view) emphasizes the role of market conditions in developing strategy for the firm. This contrasts with the resource‐based view (RBV) which focuses on the firm's resources and capabilities. There has been a lively debate on the relative merits of the two in particular the conditions under which one might be preferred over the other.
Economic Concepts for Strategy
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Microeconomic analysis introduces us to four key features of the market “context” in which these rival firms sell their products. The supply side of the market tells us how costs arise and from which we can observe the phenomenon of cost advantage. The demand side of the market tells us how value is perceived and paid for by customers and from which we can observe the nature of differentiation advantage. Analysis of markets and competition tells us how competition takes place and the effects on prices and costs. Industry analysis tells us the economic configuration of firms and the impact on strategic choices.
Market Structure: The Analysis of Markets and Competition
Authors: Knight Ben , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A market is, in its general sense, the group of suppliers and buyers who are in sufficiently close contact for market transactions to take place and for those transactions to effect the terms of trade (the price). The structure of the markets indicates the relative number of buyers and sellers in the market and therefore the nature of competition that will take place. Market conditions can vary from the perfectly competitive to the monopolistic, and the consequences of these can be seen in market conduct and performance outcomes.
Strategic Groups
Authors: John McGee 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A strategic group consists of those rival firms with similar competitive approaches and positions in the market. The identification of strategic groups within an industry enables the competitive structure of the industry to be redefined to compare strategies of various competitors for similarities and differences. Strategic groups' maps are based on the notion of mobility barriers. These are forces which deter or inhibit the movement of a firm from one strategic position to another and, more generally, the expansion of firms in one group to a position held by another group. Therefore, a mobility barrier is essentially a limitation on replicability or imitation. It acts like an entry barrier, but it acts for the group within the industry rather than for the industry as a whole. Strategic groups are thought to provide more sensitive explanation for variations in firm performance than industry structure alone.
Value Chain
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The value chain is that part of the supply chain that the firm directly controls usually through direct ownership. Each element of the value chain represents a certain cost but the term value is used to show how each of these activities is potentially a value creator capable of being transformed into product that contains value for customers and value (usually profits) for the firm, that is, competitive advantage. The value chain has a generic structure, attributed to Porter, and has considerable value in assessing the configuration of assets and activities in the firm.
Economies of Scope
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Economies of scope exist when the cost of joint production of two outputs is less than the cost of producing the components separately. These may arise from the leveraging of a core competence based on knowledge and learning, from the efficient use of resources or from spreading the cost of a network across a wider range of products. Scope is concerned with the consequences of increased variety of products produced and not the increases in volume. Scope is a key driver of strategy because the drivers of scope are often very difficult to imitate.
Economies of Substitution
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Economies of substitution exist when the cost of designing a higher performance system through the partial retention of existing components is lower than the cost of designing the system afresh. This substitution effect arises from two causes. Modularity in design allows new components to be integrated into existing systems if components conform to standardized interface specifications. System upgradeability can take place if there are unused technological capabilities in higher order components such as the
CPU
in desktop personal computer.
Economizing
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Economizing stems from Williamson's seminal paper on strategizing and economizing, where he argues that strategizing efforts are burdened by imitation and costs excesses and therefore that economizing is the more prevalent and fundamentally better strategy. Economizing is about cost minimization but is not simply a matter of technical efficiency but the avoidance of inferior internal organization and maladapted operations. This places emphasis on better organizational form, internal incentives and controls, alignment of contractual interfaces both intrafirm and interfirm. More generally it is about more effective adaptation to change. The economizing approach is essentially based on transactions cost economics.
Complementary Products
Authors: Avgeropoulos Stephanos , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Complementary products or services are utilized in combination with one another. Typically, a complementary good has limited significance when used alone but, when used with its complementary products, its overall utility increases. Examples of complements are cars and tiers, tablets and applications, printers and ink cartridges. Complementary products can be a significant part of a company's product portfolio with important implications for competitive advantage.
Star Businesses
Authors: Whitehead Jo 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Star businesses are defined as having high market share in a high‐growth environment. They are one of the quadrants of the BCG growth share matrix. The strategy for star businesses is to fully fund them to ensure that they retain their leadership position. Over time they should mature to be profitable cash cow businesses, unless the basis for competitive changes, for example, because of the incursion of disruptive competitors.
Critical Mass
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Critical mass is defined as a point at which the rate of change of demand or the gradient of the demand curve changes in magnitude and direction, leading to an exponential increase in the adoption of a product by consumers. The phenomenon of critical mass is evident in network products such as mobile phones, e‐mail software, messaging services, social networks, and collaborative gaming platforms. Before the critical mass point is reached, the product is hardly known by consumers or considered feasible, and adoption rates are gradual. Beyond the critical mass point, the demand for the product accelerates rapidly and continues to grow until it reaches the limits of the consumer population. How fast critical mass is attained depends on consumers' expectations regarding the performance of a new technology product and the final size of its network of users. The higher the expectations that a new product will be successful, the faster the market will reach its critical mass point. Research shows that critical mass is attained when 10–20% of the population has adopted a new product.
Strategic Decision Making
Authors: Wilson David 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
At the heart of strategy lies decision making. Having analyzed the environment, assessed organizational capabilities and investigated technological shifts, managers have to take preferred courses of action. They have to examine possible alternatives and choose amongst them. Strategic decisions are the handful of decisions that drive or shape most of an organization's actions, are not easily changed once made and have the greatest impact upon organizational performance. Strategy may be a grand concept, but it is the individual strategic decisions which matter.
Social Capital
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Social capital is the set of resources derived from the networks of cooperation inside and outside the firm for the benefit of customers and shareholders. Social capital constitutes one of the key resource groups of a firm, which include financial capital, organizational capital, and human capital. Inside the firm, horizontal interactions between business units, divisions, and employees have a positive effect on productivity. The internal interactions and cooperative dynamics are likely to develop unique dynamic capabilities that are difficult to imitate and that would increase the firm's competitive advantage. External networks of cooperation are developed by the firm through strategic alliances with suppliers, distributors, and R&D outfits among others. The social capital derived from the networks helps the firms gain access to new materials, markets, and technologies. Firms with strong internal and external networks develop a solid foundation of social capital, which enables them to be more agile and reactive to developments in the marketplace. These firms have a wider network of resources to call upon in order to meet new forms of demand and to exploit business opportunities.
Stalemate Businesses
Authors: Jo Whitehead 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Stalemate businesses are those in which there are only a few ways to build advantage, and the size of advantage available for even the leading player is small. Such businesses tend to suffer from mediocre returns, particularly if they are prone to over capacity. Over time, as the weakest players leave the business, they may consolidate to a more oligopolistic structure – allowing returns to rise to some extent.
Technology Fusion
Authors: Tidd Joe , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Technology fusion involves the combination and transformation of a number of different core technologies in order to create new product markets. The key element of technology fusion is that it is both complementary and cooperative. Typically, it is the result of reciprocal and substantial R&D expenditure by companies from a range of industries and with different technological competences. Technology fusion in micro and nano manufacturing is expected to have the greatest growth potential in the surgical, automotive, and biotechnology industries. In the telecommunications sector, the fusion of optics and electronics technologies has been critical. In the automotive industry, the integration of electronic and mechanical systems has become a major locus of innovation, particularly in engine, transmission, and braking systems. In aerospace, the development of fly‐by‐wire systems demands the fusion of electronics and hydraulics technologies – and the next generation of fly‐by‐light systems will also require expertise in optics technologies. There may be significant organizational barriers to technology fusion at the level of the firm. Past strategic choices clearly shape existing organizational structures and processes, and these structures and processes may constrain future strategic options.
Dynamic Capabilities
Authors: Tempest Sue , Starkey Ken 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Dynamic capabilities have become a key concept in the field of strategic management, as concerns about environmental uncertainty and industry change have become prevalent. Dynamic capabilities are part of a wider debate about the value of the resource‐based view of the firm, and the centrality of knowledge and learning to strategic success. This article considers key definitions of dynamic capabilities; the origins of the term and its conceptual development; and gaps in our understanding of dynamic capabilities which are nature for further research as organizations explore for more sustainable foundations upon which to develop their strategies in future.
Deregulation
Authors: Cave Martin 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Despite the secular increase in regulation, there are important illustrations of its opposite – deregulation. As well as general assaults on needless regulation, or “red tape,” there are many examples of the more focused elimination of legal and regulatory restrictions on entry into certain economic activities. Example can be found in professional services (the law, accountancy) and in transport, especially by bus and air. In the utilities, entry into parts of the value chain such as electricity generation has been deregulated or liberalized. Customers have usually benefitted from this process, but previously protected firms have resisted.
Strategy and Planning
Authors: Boyd Brian K. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Strategic planning emerged as a management tool in the 1960s and can be considered an umbrella for a range of activities, including mission statements, goal setting, and action plans. Currently, strategic planning has a high rate of adoption and strong user satisfaction among firms worldwide. Firms who do not plan strategically may find themselves at a competitive disadvantage relative to competitors and are consequently at risk for lessened performance. Firms must address a range of questions when developing their planning infrastructures, including the balance of top‐down versus bottom‐up initiatives, the sequencing of decision processes, and the specific elements to include.
Value Engineering
Authors: Channon Derek F. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Value engineering is (usually) an engineering activity whereby the ratio of an output or value, is maximised in relation to the input costs. Typically, this involves the identification and elimination of excess costs, thus increasing the value to the customer of the functions that are designed into the product. This entry illustrates the process by referring to the eight factor approach developed by Isuzu Motors.
Competitive Landscapes
Authors: Cassiman Bruno , Ghemawat Pankaj 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Competitive landscapes represent the effect of differences in competitive positioning on business performance. The principal objective of such mapping is to guide strategic decisionmaking by uncovering key performance drivers and anticipating how the competitive landscape might evolve over time We discuss different analytical frameworks that provide insight about the different potential dimensions in space and time that drive performance in such mappings of firms.