bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Pharmacoeconomic Analysis of In-Hospital Costs Resulting from Reintubation in Preterm Infants Treated with Lucinactant, Beractant, or Poractant Alfa
Authors: Guardia Carlos G. , Moya Fernando R. , Sinha Sunil , Simmons Phillip D. , Segal Robert , Greenspan Jay S. 
Published: December 2012

OBJECTIVESReintubation and subsequent mechanical ventilation (MV) in preterm infants after surfactant replacement therapy are associated with excess morbidity and mortality and likely increase in-hospital costs. Specific surfactant therapy selection for prevention of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in preterm infants receiving conventional MV may impact not only clinical outcomes but also pharmacoeconomic outcomes.METHODSWe conducted a pharmacoeconomic analysis of the impact of surfactant selection and reintubation and subsequent MV of preterm infants on health care resource utilization. Rates of reintubation and duration of MV after reintubation were determined from 1546 preterm infants enrolled in two surfactant trials comparing lucinactant to beractant and poractant alfa. Hospital costs were obtained from a 2010 US database from 1564 preterm infants with RDS, with a direct cost of $2637 per day for MV in the neonatal intensive care unit. Cost of reintubation by study and treatment was estimated as the incidence of reintubation multiplied by days on MV therapy after reintubation multiplied by cost per day for direct MV costs, standardized per 100 surfactant-treated infants.RESULTSThere were no differences between studies or treatment groups in the overall extubation rate. Average MV duration following reintubation was similar between groups in both trials; however, reintubation rates were significantly lower (p&lt;0 05) for infants treated with lucinactant than for those receiving beractant or poractant alfa. The observed differences in reintubation rates resulted in a projected cost saving of $160,013 to $252,203 per 100 infants treated with lucinactant versus animal-derived surfactants.CONCLUSIONSIn this analysis, higher reintubation rates following successful extubation in preterm infants receiving animal-derived surfactant preparations significantly increased estimated in-hospital costs, primarily due to excess costs associated with MV. This analysis suggests that surfactant selection may have a significant pharmacoeconomic impact on cost of patient care. Additional cost assessment of potential reduction in reintubation-associated morbidity is warranted.
Perturbations des tourbières de la région de Bécancour, Centre-du-Québec, entre 1966 et 2010
Authors: Avard Karine , Larocque Marie , Pellerin Stéphanie 
Published: December 2012

Les tourbières abondent dans l’ensemble du Québec, mais celles de la vallée du Saint-Laurent subissent des pressions anthropiques majeures. Ces pressions et les pertes de superficies en tourbières qui en résultent sont à peu près inconnues. Nous avons mesuré la superficie occupée par les tourbières en 1966 et 2010 dans la région de Bécancour et identifié les perturbations récentes qu’elles ont subies à l’aide de la photo-interprétation et de validations sur le terrain. En 2010, les tourbières couvraient 17 500 ha, soit 6,1 % du territoire étudié. De cette superficie, 10 485 ha représentaient des tourbières encore intactes et 7 015 ha des tourbières ayant subi des perturbations limitées, notamment par la présence de canaux de drainage et de chemins forestiers. Entre 1966 et 2010, 5 433 ha de tourbières (près du quart des tourbières présentes en 1966) ont subi des perturbations irréversibles, principalement en raison de la culture de la canneberge (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Cette culture a connu un développement important au cours de la dernière décennie dans le Centre-du-Québec.
Corpus Linguistics: Overview
Authors: Stubbs Michael , Halbe Dorothea 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Corpus linguistics means the use of computer‐assisted methods to study large quantities of real language. Such research is important for applied linguists because they investigate questions about actual language use. Due to advances in technology, researchers can discover new facts and test hypotheses about aspects of language which were not previously accessible to empirical observation. These include the frequencies of linguistic patterns as language varies over time and in different social settings and also many aspects of routine language use which are not obvious even to native speakers.
Arabic Standardization
Authors: Chakrani Brahim 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Understanding the process of language standardization in the Arab world necessitates probing into the sociohistorical factors that motivate the attitudes that Arabs have toward their language. Records of the existence of standardized Arabic dates to the fifth century CE; yet it is unclear whether or not this standard is the literary outcome of many dialects or represents one particular dialect (Hourani, 2002). Local dialects of Arabic within the Arab peninsula contributed to the emergence of a standardized form of Arabic, called
fusha
(Standard Arabic [SA], literally “the eloquent language”). This resulted in an unprecedented amount of knowledge production, using the medium of SA.
Assessment of Listening
Authors: J. Ockey Gary 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Listening is important for in‐person communication with estimates that it accounts for more than 45% of the time spent communicating (Feyten, 1991). Listening continues to become more important in virtual environments with the increase of communication through such technologies as video broadcasting and Skype. It follows that teaching and assessing the listening skill of second language learners is essential. Unfortunately, the assessment of second language listening comprehension has attracted little research attention (Buck, 2001), and as a result, understanding of how to best assess it is limited.
Assessment of Young English‐Language Learners
Authors: Espinosa Linda 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAssessment of young English‐language learners (ELL) is an important issue internationally. In the USA, such assessment needs are being driven by the growth of the ELL population in the past two decades. Currently, 1 in 5 children aged 5–17 in the USA has a foreign‐born parent, and most of these children are growing up in a bilingual environment (Capps, Fixx, Ost, Reardon‐Anderson, & Passel, 2004). Young ELL children present particular assessment challenges because of the unstable nature of early growth and development; moreover, young ELLs can have widely varying levels of English comprehension, which makes it difficult to accurately interpret the assessment results. Despite the tremendous recent growth in the population of young ELL children, the corresponding development of a range of different types of appropriate measures and procedures for ELL children has not kept pace with this growing need. However, recently some positive developments have been made.
Bilingualism and Bilinguality
Authors: Wei Li 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBilingualism and bilinguality are a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Hamers and Blanc (1983) in their bookBilingualité et bilinguismefirst made the distinction between the two concepts, with bilinguality referring to the effect of language contact on the individual and bilingualism referring to the effect on society as a whole.
Byrnes, Heidi
Authors: Ortega Lourdes 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Heidi Byrnes (1944–) is among the most distinguished foreign language education scholars in the USA. Over more than three decades, her contributions have been characterized by a deeply intellectual commitment to investigating the nature of linguistic competencies that develop through foreign language instruction, and by her leadership in educational innovation and professionalism, where she is well known for having integrated research, praxis, and policy in an exemplary fashion.
Canada's Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages
Authors: Lamoureux Sylvie A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages is an important element to Canada's national language policy implementation and development (available online athttp://www.ocol_clo.gc.ca/html/index_e.php). In 1963, when tensions between French and English Canada challenged the very future of its Federation (1867), the federal government launched the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism to investigate the realities of bilingualism in Canada and make recommendations to strengthen the confederation based on the principles of two equal founding peoples, the English and the French. The Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages was created in 1969 as part of the firstOfficial Languages Actadopted by the Canadian Parliament, based on the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. The Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages provides policy makers with a mechanism to oversee the implementation of and compliance with a far‐reaching language policy meant to bridge two divided linguistics groups, the Anglophones and the Francophones, and their respective minorities.
Candlin, Christopher N.
Authors: Jones Rodney H. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Christopher N. Candlin (1940– ) is a major figure in applied linguistics, particularly in the areas of communicative language teaching and professional communication. He holds a BA in modern languages from Oxford, an MPhil in linguistics from Yale, and an honorary PhD from the University of Jyväskylä, Finland, and has held teaching and research posts at the University of Leeds, University of Lancaster, Macquarie University, City University of Hong Kong, and the Open University (UK). He has also held visiting and honorary professorships at a number of institutions including the University of Hawai'i, the East‐West Center, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and University of Cardiff. Concurrent with these posts he established a number of important research institutes and centers including the Institute for English Language Education at the University of Lancaster in 1976, the Centre for Language in Social Life at the University of Lancaster in 1983, the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at Macquarie University in 1987, which was a Commonwealth Key (National) Centre for Teaching & Research, and the Centre for Language in Social Life at Macquarie University, Sydney in 1994. He served as head of the department of linguistics and modern English language at the University of Lancaster between 1980 and 1983. He is currently senior research professor at Macquarie University. He has also been an important force in publishing in applied linguistics, editing 11 international book series with such publishers as Oxford University Press, Addison Wesley Longman, Routledge, and Palgrave Macmillan.
Common European Framework of Reference
Authors: Huhta Ari 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis entry focuses on theCommon European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment(CEFR), which, in the words of a non‐European observer, is “one of the most ambitious examples of the gradual formation, shaping and … implementation of language education policies” (Byrnes, 2007, p. 641). The CEFR was designed by the Council of Europe (CoE), a pan‐European organization that promotes human rights, mutual understanding, parliamentary democracy, and the rule of law. It advocates linguistic rights and language learning as a way of enhancing mutual understanding, and plurilingualism—an individual's ability to use more than one language—is a key concept in CoE language policy (see CoE, 2008).
Comparing Groups With Multiple Dependent Variables
Authors: J. Sweet Shauna , Rupp André A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMultivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is a multivariate extension of the general linear model in which a linear combination ofp;continuous dependent variables is expressed as a function of one or more categorical independent variables/factors that are used to represent different treatments or experimental conditions. One might be interested in, for example, the effect of instructional feedback on second language learners' sociolinguistic competence, where the latter is measured by scores on multiple assessments that measure students' grammatical competence, pragmatic competence, as well as appropriate oral and written production of appropriate linguistic phrases across different real life contexts. Alternatively, one might be interested in the impact of the availability of different learning resources and type of instruction on students' performance on richly contextualized exams over time. Each of these is illustrative of questions that could be investigated using MANOVA; the first scenario reflects its use in a cross‐sectional setting whereas the second reflects its use in a longitudinal setting.
Conversation Analysis and Lingua Franca
Authors: Firth Alan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis entry outlines an emerging body of research that deploys conversation analytic (CA) methodology and its theoretical underpinnings to explicate the micro‐details of talk and social interaction between people who communicate in a lingua franca (LF). An LF may be defined as a “contact” or “vehicular” language used by people who do not share a first language (L1) and who are not native speakers (NSs) or L1 speakers of the language being deployed. An example of an encounter where the language used may be characterized as an LF is an L1 speaker of Spanish interacting with an L1 speaker of Mandarin Chinesein French—in which case French is the LF. As this example indicates, a language's characterization as an LF is determined not by the characteristics of the linguistic code but by the relationship of its speakers to the language being deployed. The term “LF” does not describe or imply any particular level of speaker proficiency, linguistic sophistication, or communicative competence. Any language can function as an LF, although it is widely accepted that English has, in recent decades, become the world's preeminent LF (e.g. Jenkins, 2006). This is reflected in the fact that the bulk of empirical research has concentrated on how English has been used in its guise as an LF.
Corpus Analysis of European Union Documents
Authors: Murphy Amanda 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn linguistic terms, the European Union is a unique entity that boasts 23 official languages. Its institutions constantly generate texts in all languages, which is fertile ground for corpus linguists seeking large quantities of naturally occurring language. The overview presented here briefly considers the nature of these texts, the type of corpus‐based research that has been accomplished or is underway, and hypothesizes about future applications of corpus‐based research on EU documents.
Corpus Analysis of Historical Documents
Authors: Tranter Kate 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHistorical documents are often used in applied linguistics as a source for studying the structure and use of language in the past. Linguists compile corpora such as the Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers (ARCHER;http://www.llc.manchester.ac.uk/research/projects/archer/) or the Penn‐Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English (PPCEME, 2004;http://www.ling.upenn.edu/hist‐corpora/PPCEME_RELEASE‐2/index.html), using a variety of text types and covering a wide period. They are used for diachronic linguistic studies, to show, for example, lexical or grammatical differences between Early Modern English and present‐day English (e.g., Hundt, 2007), or the structure of a particular language variety (e.g., Dollinger, 2008). In this way the analysis of historical corpora contributes to the understanding of earlier forms of a language and of language variety and change.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Forchtner Bernhard 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Critical discourse analysis (CDA, nowadays also referred to as critical discourse studies) investigates naturally occurring written and spoken language beyond the sentence level, as well as other forms of meaning making, such as visuals and sounds, seeing them as irreducible elements in the (re)production of society. However,
critical
discourse analysis furthermore aims to demystify the role language plays in the (re)production of unjustified domination and inequality, and questions the social conditions in which these discourses are embedded. This has made CDA an increasingly popular, and still evolving, approach over the last two decades. This entry offers an introductory overview of the core principle, diverging strands, and controversies in the field.
Critiques of Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Ricento Thomas 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWe need to make a distinction at the outset between language policy and planning (LPP) as a purposeful activity carried out by elected officials, ministries of government, officially sanctioned bodies (such as school boards and language academies), community groups and organizations (such as churches), businesses, and families (who may, for example, wish to maintain the learning and use of a particular language which might not be taught in the schools), and the study of language policy and planning by academics.
Cultural Hybridity
Authors: Frello Birgitta 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The concept of (cultural) hybridity has gained prominence within a broad range of cultural and social theories since the 1980s, most notably within postcolonial studies, cultural studies, and globalization theory. The importance and influence of hybridity theory is thus closely related to an increased awareness of global cultural flows, influences, and interdependences, both historically and contemporarily. Furthermore, focusing on hybridity and hybridization is a way of conceptualizing difference that aims to avoid and undermine ideas of boundedness and closed identity and hence also avoid the essentialism that haunts theories of multiculturalism for instance.
Discourse Analysis in Literacy Research
Authors: Rogers Rebecca , Pini Mónica 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDiscourse analysis is a transdisciplinary set of theories and methods that have been widely used in literacy research. Over the past decade, there have been many empirical studies, edited books, essays, and reviews devoted to the areas of discourse studies generally and in literacy research in particular (e.g., Gee, 2002a; Collins & Blot, 2003; Burns & Morrell, 2005; Rex, et al., 2010). This is so because of the commensurability that exists between literacy research and discourse studies. Both are traditions that address language as a social semiotic practice that both constructs and represents the social world. Further, both address problems through a range of theoretical perspectives. Many of the problems that are addressed, particularly in a globalized world system, have to do with power and inequality. Discourse studies provide the tools for addressing the complexity of movement across literacy sites and practices in an increasingly global and digital world.
Discourse: Mixed Methods
Authors: Parmelee John H. , Perkins Stephynie C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThere are many fields where discourse can be studied, and there are many methods that can be used to study discourse. One such field is political communication, which includes US presidential campaign communication. Research on presidential campaign discourse tends to focus on the candidates' speeches, debates, and political advertising. However, while there are many studies that have examined the discourse found in presidential campaigns, only a few studies have done so using a mixed methods approach (Parmelee, Perkins, & Sayre, 2007). This article offers an example of how discourse can be studied in a more meaningful way using a mixed methods approach than by using any one method. One political ad—the first that Barack Obama's campaign released during his presidential run—is examined with a quantitative method (manifest content analysis), and a qualitative method (frame analysis), to demonstrate the value of mixed methods for studying campaign discourse.
Distance Language Learning
Authors: White Cynthia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDistance education offers individuals flexible access to language learning opportunities made possible by a range of technologies including print, audio, video, Web, and interactive conferencing. The evolution of large‐scale distance language education from print‐based correspondence courses came first with educational radio and broadcast television, then audio and videocassettes, and most recently computers with computer‐mediated communication (CMC), interactive multimedia and Web‐based video, audio, and multimedia. Ongoing innovation has offset one of the most significant limitations of distance language learning, namely the separation of teachers and learners, and made possible a range of technology‐mediated ways to develop interactive competence in the target language. Significant shifts in perspectives and practices have taken place from traditional paradigms focused on independent learning facilitated by self‐instructional materials to emerging paradigms focusing on learning as a social process supported largely by information and communication technologies. Distance learning contexts now comprise interconnected communities rather than a series of individual learners, opportunities for spoken online learning events, and authentic encounters with the target language culture and native speakers. The new ways of configuring and accessing distance language learning opportunities, independent of place and/or time, have been adopted by institutions as a means of expanding access to their courses. Changes in the positioning of distance learning opportunities from the margins to the mainstream have largely been due to the advent of CMC, combined with the demand for flexible access to language learning environments; distance language programs have been developed for less commonly taught languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Korean, and Basque, as well as for heritage languages such as Spanish and Italian. It would, however, be a mistake to equate distance learning opportunities with CMC, since a wide range of alternatives for distance learning exist, each with their related practices, including the use of telephone, radio broadcasts, video conferencing and interactive television, and Web 2.0 tools.
Eades, Diana
Authors: Haworth Kate 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDr Diana Eades (1953– ) is a key figure in the field of forensic linguistics (FL), especially due to her work on linguistic disadvantage faced by speakers of Aboriginal English in the Australian legal system. An important aspect of her work is a dedication to the practical, applied use of linguistic research for the furtherance of equality and justice, especially through increasing understanding within the legal system (and other professional groups) of the communicative challenges faced by speakers of nonstandard language varieties. Eades has been involved in FL since its earliest days, has acted as an expert linguistic witness in several cases, and has published extensively on FL‐related topics for over 20 years to date. Key publications include the 1995 edited collection,Language in Evidence: Issues Confronting Aboriginal and Multicultural Australia(Eades, 1995a);Courtroom Talk and Neocolonial Control(Eades, 2008a), a critical sociolinguistic analysis of language and power in the courtroom; andSociolinguistics and the Legal Process(Eades, 2010), an accessible introduction to this area. She continues to be an active and highly respected figure in the field.