bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Effects of Thoracic Posture on the Nuchal Ligament in Foetal Foals
Authors: Nestadt C , Davies H 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionControversy surrounds certain head and neck postures in sport horses and their potential impact on the nuchal ligament.MethodsThree dead near‐term equine foetuses in lateral recumbency with upper‐side neck musculature removed to expose the nuchal ligament were placed in 6 head and neck positions (HNP's) between extreme hyperflexion and hyperextension, along with 3 thoracic positions: Low, Medium and High. In each of these 18 positions, the funicular length, lamella dorsoventral width at the level of C4, and craniocaudal length of the 5 major lamella bands of the nuchal ligament were measured manually.ResultsIn intermediate HNP's (HNP1, HNP2), thoracic postures significantly impacted nuchal ligament measurements. Compared to the Medium thorax position, depression and elevation of the thorax decreased lamella sheet widths by 24% (P = 0.014) and 11% (P = 0.267) respectively for HNP1, and by 8% (P = 0.01 for both depression and elevation) for HNP2. More extreme head and neck positions were not associated with any change in measurements of the nuchal ligament with changes in thoracic position.ConclusionsA decreased width suggests increased tension in an elastic structure. Hence, if the anatomical connections are similar in adults, extreme head and neck postures may reduce the effect that thoracic posture might have on the nuchal ligament in certain unnatural positions required in sport horses and may interfere with normal elastic energy storage in the nuchal ligament during movement.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was performed on material collected during post‐mortem examination. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.
Stride Rates of Quarter Horses and Thoroughbreds During Races of Short and Classic Race Distances
Authors: Nielsen B , Robison C , Fabus T , Kenny J , LeCompte R 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionRacing Quarter Horses (QH) typically compete at shorter distances and faster speeds than Thoroughbreds (Tbred). The two components of speed are stride rate and stride length. The hypothesis of this study is that racing QH have greater stride rates than Tbreds, and that stride rate decreases as distance increases, even within breed.MethodsFive runnings of sprint and classic distance stakes races for both QH (Texas Twister Stakes, 100.6 m; Champion of Champions, 402.3 m) and Tbred (Breeders′ Cup Sprint, 1,207.0 m; Breeders′ Cup Classic, 2,011.7 m) contested from 2008 to 2012 were obtained and viewed by five individuals. Individuals watched each race three times (in slow motion when needed) and the average number of strides per second taken by the winning horse was calculated. Using the PROC Mixed Procedure of SAS, the averages from the five individuals were used to compare differences between breeds, and between distances within a breed. The stride rates were also used to determine average stride length by factoring in length of each race.ResultsThe average stride rate was greater for QH than for Tbred (2.88 vs 2.34 strides/sec; P<0.0001). Additionally, stride rate decreased (P<0.0001) as distance increased (2.96, 2.81, 2.45, 2.23 strides/sec, respectively). Stride length was longest in the Tbred races and shortest in the 100.6 m QH race (P<0.0001).ConclusionsThe Tbred stride rates reported here, and associated respiratory rates, have been previously reported and are remarkable. However, QH rates are nearly 25% greater. The associated rapid acceleration and deacceleration of the lower limb and quick breathing rate may have implications for skeletal and respiratory soundness.Ethical Animal ResearchNo animals were used in this study and all information was obtained from previously conducted races for which video was publicly available. Sources of funding: Michigan State University and MSU AgBioResearch provided funding for support of investigators conducting this study. Competing interests: none.
Development of the Equestrian Arena Surfaces for the 2012 Olympic Games
Authors: Northrop A , Martin J , Blundell E , Owen A , Hobbs S 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe equestrian arenas at the 2012 Olympic Games were constructed on a unique raised platform. Arena surfaces can be implicated in risk of injury and affect performance, therefore functional properties were examined to ensure preparation was appropriate for this unusual construction. The objective of this work was to assess surface hardness, load carrying capacity and uniformity during the development of a suitable surface for the 2012 Olympic Games. Data were compared from the Olympic site at a test event in 2011, pre‐London 2012 and from developmental test arenas on and off a raised platform.MethodsIn‐situ systematic sampling was used across arenas. A biomechanical surface tester quantified load carrying capacity (peak load), a Clegg impact hammer was used to assess hardness (peak deceleration) and moisture data were analysed in the laboratory. Contour maps and GLMs (applying the arena's structural features as explanatory variables where appropriate) were used to highlight surface heterogeneity.ResultsSignificant variation in peak deceleration across the surface was detected at the test event in 2011 (P<0.0001). Peak load (P<0.0001) and peak deceleration (P<0.0001) were higher pre‐London 2012, partly due to enhanced stiffness of the base layer. Higher moisture content found pre‐London 2012 (P<0.001) was considered beneficial for surface consolidation. There was no significant difference between data collected on or off a raised platform following the developmental work. Results highlight the importance of effective water management and sub‐surface construction.ConclusionsFindings from this work guided decisions made by the surface providers for the 2012 Olympic Games and advanced understanding of methods most appropriate for assessing arenas in‐situ.Ethical Animal ResearchThis study was approved by the Faculty of Science and Technology ethics committee at Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK. Sources of funding: The project was conducted as an independent assessment and consultancy for the surface providers Andrews Bowen Ltd, at Greenwich Park for London 2012. Submission of the work has been approved by Andrews Bowen Ltd. Competing interests: none.
Pressure Plate Evaluation of Forelimb Toe‐Heel and Medio‐Lateral Hoof Balance on a Hard Versus a Soft Surface in Sound Ponies at the Walk and Trot
Authors: Oosterlinck M , Royaux E , Pille F 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionPressure plate analysis has been limited to measurements on a hard surface, whereas horses routinely perform on a soft substrate.MethodsFive sound unshod ponies were walked and trotted over a pressure plate under 2 different conditions: first, the plate was covered with a 5‐mm rubber mat, and then with an additional 50‐mm layer of sand/synthetic fibres. Peak vertical force (PVF), vertical impulse (VI), peak vertical pressure (PVP), contact area (CA) and stance duration (ST) were obtained. Toe‐heel and medio‐lateral hoof balance curves of the vertical force were calculated (126 Hz). Hard vs. soft surfaces were compared using ANOVA and Kruskall‐Wallis test with pairwise comparisons.ResultsPVF, VI, PVP and ST decreased on the soft substrate, while CA increased (P<0.001). At impact, there was more even load distribution between the toe and heel region on the soft vs. hard surface, both at walk (P<0.001) and trot (P = 0.039), and between the lateral and medial zone at walk (P = 0.006), but not at trot. At mid‐stance, there was more loading of the toe region on the soft vs. hard surface at walk (P = 0.044) and at trot (P = 0.005), while the medial and lateral zone were loaded equally.ConclusionsThe differences observed may be due to dampening effects, measurement errors or gait adaptations. Due to the lack of simultaneous force plate data this cannot be definitively identified, but the first option seems most likely. This study opens perspectives for evaluation of the effects of conformational deficits and therapeutic farriery on hoof loading in relation to arena composition.Ethical Animal ResearchAll ponies in the study are part of the faculty teaching herd, institutional guidelines were followed. Sources of funding: Ghent University. Competing interests: none.
Changes in Kinematics During Repeated Jumping
Authors: Rodrigues TN , Godoi FN , Ramos MT , Andrede AM , Almeida FQ 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionKinematic studies allow the assessment of variations in body position during jumping. This study evaluated changes in kinematic variables in horses during a jumping test.MethodsEight horses equipped with reflective skin markers were submitted to a jumping test consisting of 70 jumps in 4 series of 10, 15, 20 and 25 times each over a 1.10 m vertical obstacle. Six jumps per series were recorded; a heart rate of ≤ 90 bpm was the criterion to begin the next series. A 25 Hz calibrated camera was placed 10 m from the fence, and 2D images were analyzed. The variables were: overtracking at jumping; take‐off and landing distances; jump length; distance between lowest point of the fore and hind limb and the fence; height of head, withers and croup in relation to the ground when passing the fence; and maximum withers height at jumping. Data were analysed with an ANOVA with a post‐hoc Tukey test (P<0.05).ResultsThere was a reduction in take‐off distance (1.65 m to 1.46 m, P = 0.03), landing distance (1.99 m to 1.71 m, P = 0.001), jump length (4.51 m to 4.11 m, P = 0.005), left forelimb distance height above the fence (9.4 cm to 5.1 cm, P = 0.03) and maximum withers height at jumping (2.0 m to 1.95 m, P = 0.001) from the first to the third series. Overtracking before jumping increased from 32 cm to 48 cm (P = 0.003) and there was a reduction of right forelimb height above the fence from 7.3 cm to 2.9 cm (P = 0.04), and of withers and croup height above the fence from 2.0 m to 1.95 m (P = 0.001) and 1.93 m to 1.86 m (P<0.0001) respectively from the first to fourth session.ConclusionsThe increase in the number of jumps resulted in a decrease of take‐off and landing distances, and in the distance between forelimb and fence and the withers and croup height, all indicating decreased jumping efficiency.Ethical Animal ResearchThe research was approved by UFRRJ Ethics Committee on Animal Research: UFRRJ/ COMEP‐UFRRJ: 263/2012. Sources of funding: CNPq, CAPES and FAPERJ. Competing interests: none.
The Equine Cervical Spine: Comparing MRI and Contrast‐Enhanced CT Images with Anatomic Slices in the Sagittal, Dorsal and Transverse Plane
Authors: Sleutjens J , Cooley A , Sampson S , Wijnberg I , Back W , van der Kolk J , Swiderski C 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe impact of cervical pathology on performance is of great importance to the equine industry. Accurate diagnosis of cervical disease with imaging modalities, including CT and MRI, requires thorough appreciation of normal cervical anatomy. The objectives of this study were to describe in detail the 3‐dimensional anatomy of the equine cervical spine by comparing anatomical sections with corresponding MR and contrast‐enhanced CT images in the sagittal, dorsal, and transverse plane and to determine the ability of MR and contrast‐enhanced CT imaging to visualize anatomical structures in the cervical spine.MethodsThree cervical spines of young adults (3–8 years), were collected immediately after humane euthanasia. The spine was stabilized on a frame in a natural flexed position with an angle of 20‐degrees. MR and contrast‐enhanced CT imaging was performed within 6 hours after euthanasia. Anatomical sections of 1 cm were made in the sagittal, dorsal, and transverse plane and compared with corresponding CT and MR images. The intervertebral disk thickness, facet joint angle, amount of cerebrospinal fluid and amount of synovial fluid within each facet joint were quantified.ResultsThe anatomical locations of clinically important structures including the facet joints, spinal cord, cervical nerve roots and intervertebral disks were reliably identified in the anatomical sections and their corresponding MR images. Contrast‐enhanced CT images depicted all osseous borders; MR images were superior for soft tissue structures.ConclusionsThis study enhances the understanding of normal cervical spine anatomy and the diagnostic usefulness of cervical MRI and contrast‐enhanced CT in the horse.Ethical animal researchThis study was approved by the animal care and use committee of the Mississippi State University, MS, USA. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Office of Graduate Research and the Department of Clinical Sciences of the College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University. Competing interests: none.
Towards Reliable Objective Lameness Quantification on the Circle
Authors: Starke S , May S , Pfau T 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionLungeing is part of the standard lameness examination, however it systematically affects movement symmetry even in sound horses. We evaluated a method for objective lameness detection on the circle accounting for this asymmetry bias.MethodsTwenty‐six horses undergoing lameness examination were equipped with inertial sensors (Xsens) on head, sacrum and tubera coxae. Asymmetry in vertical displacement was quantified for trot on straight line and circle using multiple measures. Horses were classified lame when falling outside the directional reference range of sound horses (directional = ‘normal’ margins and lame limb depending on rein and sign of measure). Objective classification on the circle was compared to subjective evaluation, final diagnoses and objective classification on the straight calculating the proportion of matches. Regression analysis evaluated the association of change in asymmetry between straight line and circle and baseline asymmetry on the straight.ResultsThe match between objective classification on the circle and the exact fore‐/hindlimb(s) scored lame subjectively was 81% / 79%. The match with the diagnosed limb(s) was 71% / 85%. There was a high frequency of false positives compared to subjective evaluation. Objective evaluation on the circle added new information compared to assessment on the straight line in 70% (forelimb) / 58% (hindlimb) of instances (contralateral limb lame, bilateral lameness, lame on circle but sound on straight). Change in asymmetry was not associated with baseline lameness (P≥0.062).ConclusionsObjective lameness evaluation on the circle makes a valuable contribution to patient assessment: e.g. subtle lameness falling within the margins of ‘normal’ on the straight or bilateral lameness could be identified. In future, the predictive value of the proposed technique should be determined.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was approved by the local ethics committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Sandra Starke's PhD studentship was funded through the Mellon Trust via the Royal Veterinary College. Competing interests: none.
Breezing Thoroughbred Hoof Accelerations on Dirt and Synthetic Surfaces
Authors: Symons J , Garcia T , Soohoo E , Stover S 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionRacetrack surface type has been shown to affect horse injury rates, limb kinematics, and ground reaction forces. Understanding hoof‐surface interactions may direct surface design to reduce the incidence of musculoskeletal injury. Hoof accelerations have been recorded at the trot on different surfaces. This study extends these analyses to racing gallop with quantified surface properties.MethodsLeft fore‐hoof accelerations (triaxial, ± 500 g, 1000 Hz) were collected during gallop (10–16 m/s, 5 Thoroughbred racehorses) on dirt and synthetic surfaces of known shear strengths (shear vane). Accelerometric vectors were filtered (5th order Butterworth, stance 85 Hz, swing 30 Hz). Peak accelerations and stance phase durations (limb preparation, hoof landing {heel‐strike and slide}, support, and grab) were compared using a mixed model analysis of covariance with surface, lead, stride frequency, and interaction fixed effects, and horse random effect.ResultsPeak dorsopalmar accelerations were 40% greater during landing on the synthetic surface (P = 0.06). Grab phase was 32% shorter on the synthetic surface (P = 0.02), with 34% less dorsopalmar impulse/mass (P<0.01). Previously reported failure shear stress of the synthetic surface was 20% greater, compared to dirt (normal stress >400 kN/m2, equivalent to trotting racehorse).ConclusionsDorsopalmar hoof accelerations were greater on the surface with greater shear strength (synthetic). The finding that accelerations were greater on the synthetic surface compared to dirt is in contrast to that of trotting horses on all‐weather waxed and crushed sand surfaces. This discrepancy may be due to differences in horse gait, but also large variability in surfaces. Consequently, it is important to quantify surface behaviors to understand the effect of surface design and maintenance on limb biomechanics and propensity for injury.Ethical Animal ResearchStudy protocols were approved by the University of California, Davis Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and owner informed consent was obtained for all study horses. Sources of funding: Grayson Jockey Club Research Foundation Inc., Southern California Equine Foundation. Competing interests: none.
Distal Forelimb Kinematics During the Extended Trot of Dressage Horses Ridden on Two Different Arena Surfaces
Authors: Thornton J , Symons J , Garcia T , Stover S 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionSuspensory apparatus injuries are common in dressage horses. Studies demonstrate that surface type affects hoof forces and distal limb kinematics of equine athletes. Because synthetic race surfaces have lower stiffness and limb loads than dirt surfaces, it was hypothesized that dressage horses have less fetlock hyperextension on a synthetic surface than a dirt surface.MethodsTwo‐dimensional, high‐speed videos (250 Hz, 2 ppcm) of 6 dressage horses (ages 8–13; 5 males, 1 female) during extended trot on dirt and synthetic surfaces (6 trials (strides) per horse per surface) were digitized (low‐pass Butterworth filter, 15 Hz). Fetlock and solar hoof angles determined from skin and hoof markers were compared between surfaces using a mixed model ANCOVA that accounted for horse velocity (saddle billet marker) and repeated horse measures. Surface mechanical behaviors were characterized using a track testing device. Maximum force, time to maximum force, maximum displacement, resting rebound, maximum vertical rebound, average stiffness, and maximum load rate were compared between surfaces and time of day (morning, afternoon) using a general linear model ANOVA.ResultsMaximum and toe off fetlock angles were greater on the synthetic surface compared to dirt (Δ = 2°, P = 0.070). Mean maximum fetlock angle on the synthetic surface was 260°. The maximum load rate of the synthetic surface was 5 times greater than the dirt surface (P = 0.0086).ConclusionsSynthetic surfaces were designed to reduce injuries in equine athletes. Because suspensory apparatus elongation is largely dependent on fetlock extension, it is possible that suspensory apparatus strain is greater on synthetic surfaces. Thus, surface design may require more refinement to promote injury prevention based on horse discipline and gait.Ethical Animal ResearchThe University of California, Davis Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviewed and approved the protocols used in the study. Owner informed consent was obtained for all study horses. Sources of funding: Merial (A Sanofi Company) in association with the Student Training in Advanced Research (STAR) program, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis and the Endowed Research Funds of School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis. Competing interests: none.
Is Subjective Grading of Jumping Technique Related to Measurable Kinematic Parameters During Flight?
Authors: Walker V , Tranquille C , Hoekstra R , Spear J , Bronsvoort M 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThere has been limited evaluation of biomechanical parameters during flight and their relationship to subjective assessments of jumping technique in ridden show‐jumping horses.MethodsTen mixed breed horses (9.1 ± 1.9 yrs) were assessed at a British Equestrian Federation (BEF) World Class Performance three day training session. Riders received coaching during warm‐up and after jumping a 15‐fence (1.35–1.45 m) course once on day one and twice on day two; the second round on day 3 was an 8‐fence jump‐off. Two‐dimensional high‐speed motion‐capture (250 Hz) was used to determine limb and back angles at 25%, 50% and 75% of the flight phase over four fences using markers placed at pre‐determined locations. Technique grades (1–10) were assigned per fence by an international coach. Technique grades and kinematics were correlated using a Spearman's rank correlation test.ResultsForelimb and hindlimb take‐off distance and technique grade (4–7/10) were positively correlated (r = 0.29, 0.27, P≤0.01). Thoracolumbar angle (range 178–184°) at 25% and 75% of flight and neck/trunk angle (NT) at 50% and 75% of flight were negatively correlated with technique grade (r = ‐0.20 {P = 0.04}, ‐0.20 {P = 0.03}, ‐0.21 {P = 0.03}, and −0.28 {P<0.01} respectively).ConclusionsOnly weak correlations were evident, however, the findings suggest that increased take‐off distance may be desirable for improvements in subjectively evaluated technique. The relationship between TL extension and improved technique grades may be explained by improved back stabilisation. Decreased NT and TL extension at 75% flight could suggest that back stabilisation and raising the neck in preparation for landing are associated with better jumping technique. Subjective grading of jumping technique appears to be influenced by kinematic features during flight.Ethical Animal ResearchThe Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons confirmed that the procedures carried out were not Controlled Procedures under UK animal experimentation legislation. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: The World Class Development Programme is funded by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, through Exchequer and National Lottery funds, via UK Sport. Competing interests: none.