bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The far-lateral approach: destruction of the condyle does not necessarily result in clinically evident craniovertebral junction instability
Authors: Shiban Ehab , Török Elisabeth , Wostrack Maria , Meyer Bernhard , Lehmberg Jens 
Published: November 2015

OBJECT
Far-lateral or extreme-lateral approaches to the skull base allow access to the lateral and anterior portion of the lower posterior fossa and foramen magnum. These approaches include a certain extent of resection of the condyle, which potentially results in craniocervical junction instability. However, it is debated what extent of condyle resection is safe and at what extent of condyle resection an occipitocervical fusion should be recommended. The authors reviewed cases of condyle resection/destruction with regard to necessity of occipitocervical fusion.

METHODS
The authors conducted a retrospective analysis of all patients in whom a far- or extreme-lateral approach including condyle resection of various extents was performed between January 2007 and December 2014.

RESULTS
Twenty-one consecutive patients who had undergone a unilateral far- or extreme-lateral approach including condyle resection were identified. There were 10 male and 11 female patients with a median age of 61 years (range 22–83 years). The extent of condyle resection was 25% or less in 15 cases, 50% in 1 case, and greater than 75% in 5 cases. None of the patients who underwent condyle resection of 50% or less was placed in a collar postoperatively or developed neck pain. Two of the patients with condyle resection of greater than 75% were placed in a semirigid collar for a period of 3 months postoperatively and remained free of pain after this period. At last follow-up none of the cases showed any clear sign of radiological or clinical instability.

CONCLUSIONS
The unilateral resection or destruction of the condyle does not necessarily result in craniocervical instability. No evident instability was encountered even in the 5 patients who underwent removal of more than 75% of the condyle. The far- or extreme-lateral approach may be safer than generally accepted with regard to craniocervical instability as generally considered and may not compel fusion in all cases with condylar resection of more than 75%.
Potential impacts of tolerance to herbivory on population dynamics of a monocarpic herb
Authors: Aikens Melissa L. , Roach Deborah A. 
Published: November 2015

PREMISE OF THE STUDY:Mammalian herbivores, particularly white‐tailed deer, can have a major impact on plant abundance and distribution. However, plants can tolerate herbivory by increasing seed production or seed quality. We used the monocarpic perennial Prenanthes roanensis to examine tolerance to mammalian herbivory through seed quality and modeled the effects of tolerance on population growth rate.METHODS:We examined seed quality (proportion of viable seeds, seed mass, germination, and seedling size) on damaged and undamaged plants to determine the extent to which plants tolerate herbivory. We then varied seed quality parameters over a range of values in population models to compare population growth rates under “no‐tolerance” conditions (herbivory, but no tolerance) to those under “tolerance” conditions.KEY RESULTS:In most populations, plants damaged by herbivores had a greater proportion of viable seeds per plant or a greater probability of seed germination. Incorporating observed tolerance into population models did not significantly increase population growth rate. However, at low germination rates, increased germination of seeds from damaged plants has the potential to significantly increase population growth rate.CONCLUSIONS:Damaged plants can compensate for loss of reproductive heads by increasing seed viability and germination rates in the remaining seeds. This study is one of the first to demonstrate that tolerance through seed quality has the potential to affect population growth rate. Our results suggest that incorporating tolerance into population models may help elucidate mechanisms by which plant populations persist despite herbivory.
Changing Amazon biomass and the role of atmospheric CO2 concentration, climate, and land use
Authors: de Almeida Castanho Andrea D. , Galbraith David , Zhang Ke , Coe Michael T. , Costa Marcos H. , Moorcroft Paul 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe Amazon tropical evergreen forest is an important component of the global carbon budget. Its forest floristic composition, structure, and function are sensitive to changes in climate, atmospheric composition, and land use. In this study biomass and productivity simulated by three dynamic global vegetation models (Integrated Biosphere Simulator, Ecosystem Demography Biosphere Model, and Joint UK Land Environment Simulator) for the period 1970–2008 are compared with observations from forest plots (Rede Amazónica de Inventarios Forestales). The spatial variability in biomass and productivity simulated by the DGVMs is low in comparison to the field observations in part because of poor representation of the heterogeneity of vegetation traits within the models. We find that over the last four decades the CO2 fertilization effect dominates a long‐term increase in simulated biomass in undisturbed Amazonian forests, while land use change in the south and southeastern Amazonia dominates a reduction in Amazon aboveground biomass, of similar magnitude to the CO2 biomass gain. Climate extremes exert a strong effect on the observed biomass on short time scales, but the models are incapable of reproducing the observed impacts of extreme drought on forest biomass. We find that future improvements in the accuracy of DGVM predictions will require improved representation of four key elements: (1) spatially variable plant traits, (2) soil and nutrients mediated processes, (3) extreme event mortality, and (4) sensitivity to climatic variability. Finally, continued long‐term observations and ecosystem‐scale experiments (e.g. Free‐Air CO2 Enrichment experiments) are essential for a better understanding of the changing dynamics of tropical forests.
Development and evaluation of a physically based multiscalar drought index: The Standardized Moisture Anomaly Index
Authors: Zhang Baoqing , Zhao Xining , Jin Jiming , Wu Pute 
Published: November 2015

AbstractIn this study, a new physically based multiscalar drought index, the Standardized Moisture Anomaly Index (SZI), was developed and evaluated, which combines the advantages of the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI). The SZI is based on the water budget simulations produced with a sophisticated hydrological model, and it also includes a multiscalar feature to quantify drought events at different temporal scales taken from SPEI. The Chinese Loess Plateau was selected to evaluate the performance of the SZI. Our evaluation indicates that the SZI accurately captures the onset, duration, and ending of a multiyear drought event through its multiscalar feature, while the PDSI, which lacks this feature, is often unable to describe the evolution of a multiyear drought event. In addition, the variability of the SZI is more consistent with observed streamflow and the satellite normalized difference vegetation index than that of the Standardized Precipitation Index and the SPEI. Although the SPEI includes potential evapotranspiration (PE) as water demand, water demand is often unrealistically estimated based solely on PE, especially over arid and semiarid regions. The improved drought quantification with the SZI is the result of a more reasonable estimation of water demand by including evapotranspiration, runoff, and any change in soil moisture storage. In general, our newly developed SZI is physically based and includes a multiscalar feature, which enables it to provide better information for drought monitoring and identification at different temporal scales.
Manipulation
Authors: Steiner Jürg 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political manipulation is a multidimensional phenomenon: True preferences may be hidden, information may be framed in a one‐sided way or even lied about, and certain issues may be prevented from getting on to the political agenda. If politicians constantly manipulate each other and the voters, a political system loses its legitimacy. If they continue to be deceptive in withholding their true preferences, framing information to their advantage or even lying about it, and covertly keeping important issues from entering the political agenda, language becomes meaningless. It is impossible to interpret what others say. There is no longer any meaningful communication among members of a political system. A sense of community fades away, and the system loses its legitimacy.
Discourse Analysis
Authors: Álvarez‐Benito Gloria , Íigo‐Mora Isabel M. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe main objective of Discourse Analysis is the study of language in use, either oral or written, and verbal or nonverbal, by particular speakers on particular occasions. Discourse Analysis focuses not only on what is said but also on how it is said, to whom, when, and where. In political communication, it is important to take into account not only what politicians say but how, when, to whom, and in what context. Sometimes their gestures say much more than their words. There are different schools in Discourse Analysis and all of them focus on language not as an abstract system but rather as the means of communication. Some of the most widely known perspectives are: Pragmatics, Interactional Sociolinguistics, Conversational Analysis, Ethnography of Communication, Variation Analysis, Functional Perspective, Discursive Psychology, and Critical Discourse Analysis. They study how people use language and how they do things with language (express feelings, entertain others, or exchange information). Depending on the perspective, studies can focus on: cooperative principle and conversational maxims, speech acts, explicature and implicature, inferences, felicity conditions, face‐work, politeness, topic organization, turn‐taking, language variation, information structure, expression of attitude and emotion, or power relations.
Underdog Effect
Authors: Schmitt‐Beck Rüdiger 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The term “underdog effect” denotes a phenomenon of public opinion impinging upon itself: When at an election or referendum or with regard to opinions on issues citizens perceive a particular party, candidate, or political position to be the likely winner, or at least to be dominant, they support an alternative that is expected to lose. It has most intensely been discussed with regard to elections, and usually alongside the corresponding phenomenon of bandwagon effects. Supportive empirical evidence is rather weak. A plausible theoretical interpretation has been developed only recently. The utility of the concept for more complex choice situations, especially multiparty systems, appears doubtful.
Agenda‐Setting
Authors: Weaver David H. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

The idea of agenda‐setting as an important and fundamental political media effect was first tested empirically in the 1968 US presidential election by University of North Carolina journalism professors Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw. This approach originally focused on the ability of the mass media to tell the public what to think
about
rather than what to think. This was a sharp break from previous media effects studies that had focused on what people
thought
(their opinions and attitudes) and on behaviors such as voting. It was also, in the words of highly respected political communication scholar Steven Chaffee, “that rarity, a scholarly topic that was invented within the field of mass communication research. … News analysts today take for granted that we know what they mean when they distinguish the media's agenda‐setting power from more direct forms of political persuasion.”
Historical Materialism
Authors: Peck Janice 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Historical materialism is a theory of history developed by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels who proposed that human labor is the foundation of individual experience, social relationships, and historical development. Although often characterized as a simple economic determinism, the concept has undergone significant development and debate over the long history of Marxism. Central to that debate is the question of the relationship of the economic structure to the political and ideological superstructure, which is a key concern in the field of political communication.
Personalization of Politics
Authors: Balmas Meital , Sheafer Tamir 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical personalization is a process in which politicians become the main anchor of interpretation and evaluation in the political arena. This entry contains definitions of the different types of personalization studied and reviews the literature citing evidence of their occurrence. It then elaborates on antecedents of the personalization trend and examines its variations across time and countries, and its manifestations in the international arena. Finally, it discusses positive and negative implications of personalization for democratic processes, voting behavior, and political interest and knowledge.
Public Connection
Authors: Markham Tim 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

Public connection refers to an orientation on the part of citizens toward an arena in which issues of shared concern are deliberated and potentially resolved. It differs from political interest in that it does not presume that that to which individuals collectively attend is narrowly political in content, although not allowing that
anything
collectively attended to can form the basis of a deliberative space. Public connection further differs from public engagement in that it does not presume that the quality of connection is stable and substantive, nor that its experience is rewarding and empowering. Public connection is a heuristic rather than normative term, whose presence or absence can be empirically ascertained.
Watchdog Journalism
Authors: Waisbord Silvio 
Published: November 2015

AbstractWatchdog journalism stands as one of the most important contributions of the press to democratic life. It is identified with reporting that denounces wrongdoing in government and the private sector with the hope of increasing accountability and spearheading positive changes. Although it is commonly associated with the actions of individual reporters and editors, it reflects the interests of various organizations to make democracy more transparent and powerful actors accountable to citizens.
Cognitions, Political
Authors: Andersen David J. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical cognition is the process of turning political information and political communications into meaningful judgments, evaluations, and decisions within the human mind. Over the past 70 years, political cognition research has expanded from studying how people should consider political decisions, to focus on how they actually do. The earliest work examined how people should rationally approach the process of political decision‐making by incorporating cost‐benefit analysis and probabilistic considerations about potential outcomes. This was subsequently augmented by behavioral studies that demonstrated that people are simply not able to conduct such complex calculations and instead operate within the limitations of the human mind. By using cognitive shortcuts, people make decisions that approximate rational decisions, but are not perfect. The most recent developments in the field now incorporate theories of how emotions and biological predispositions influence cognition, preceding our conscious awareness and directing the manner in which cognition occurs.
Media Bias
Authors: Hahn Kyu S. , Lee Hye‐Yon , Lee Jihye 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This entry examines the existing empirical evidence concerning partisan bias in the American news media. Many scholars have demonstrated that news slant influences voters. On the other hand, since the pioneering study by Efron, research on media's partisan bias has yielded inconclusive findings, arousing controversy within the scholarly community. Research emphasizing the organizational incentives of individual journalists or media ownership has met with severe criticism. Although surveys of journalists suggest that many individual journalists are liberal ideologues, journalism scholars argue that there are too many professional incentives that require their political neutrality. Other research has been hampered by the lack of an objective yardstick for measuring partisan bias. Recent research on partisan media bias has taken two new directions. A group of researchers has demonstrated that there are financial incentives for producing slanted news. With the increased emphasis on the bottom line in news‐making, these theoretical findings seem convincing. Another line of research has attempted to develop objective measures of partisan bias. Although they have their own limitations, these sophisticated new measures, requiring little arbitrary decision‐making, have provided useful additions to our knowledge of media bias.
Journalism, Political
Authors: Van Dalen Arjen 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This entry surveys the main questions and research findings from the study of political journalism. Political journalism fulfills an important mediating role in democracy. The work of journalists on the political beat is characterized by pack journalism and close contacts with politicians and their spin doctors. Political journalists and politicians are mutually dependent actors whose relation can best be understood from a power‐balance perspective. One of the main topics in the study of political news is the question whether political journalism is balanced or biased. Over time the journalistic approach to politicians has changed from a respectful and sacerdotal approach to a more critical and pragmatic one. Political journalists are semi‐independent political actors who can influence the political process but whose work also reflects and is dependent on political settings. Changes in society and new technologies challenge the boundaries of political journalism and affect the relation between journalists and politicians.
Values
Authors: Manabe Kazufumi 
Published: November 2015

AbstractA great deal of research has already been conducted on the topic of values, and a vast amount of literature on this subject already exists. The literature contains a great deal of diversity in terms of how the concept of values is defined. This entry examines the concept of values in various fields of the social sciences. The next task is to examine efforts to operationalize values based on that conceptualization. In other words, it is to empirically examine the measures, indices, and scales of values. This entry, then, examines a new research trend of cross‐national comparison and cross‐cultural comparison. This is the series of values research projects known as the European Values Survey (EVS) and the World Values Survey (WVS).
Commercialization of Politics
Authors: McAllister Matthew P. , Applequist Janelle 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The commercialization of politics applies the logic and economics of the market and advertising to the political domain, as evidenced by the prevalence of advertising, the framing of politics within a commercial media system, campaign financing/moneyed influences, selective appeals that privilege some voters over others, the collection of individual voter profiles, and the adoption by political practice globally of marketing professionals and their terminology. Developments such as policy decisions that favor corporate contributions and increased spending, shifting media revenues, and the adaption of digital media and data mining in marketing will continue to intensify the effects of commercialism and marketing upon politics.
Political Communication Research inAfrica
Authors: White Robert A. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThere has been a steady development of research on political communication in Africa, especially in the areas of historical documentation of the continuing confrontation of authoritarian political regimes from the colonial period into the independence period, the ongoing critical analysis of the restrictions by political leaders on editorial freedom and responsibility in the form of bribery, legal repression by antiquated legislation dating from the colonial period, the political control of the judiciary, and the defensive practice of self‐censorship. Research on investigative reporting is limited, especially investigation of improper election procedures and the failure to implement freedom of information legislation. In spite of the weaknesses of political communication research in Africa, there are promising signs of an increasingly coherent body of theory of political communication based on stronger links with political science research.
Public Choice
Authors: Harada Hiroo 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPublic choice theory refers to a branch of political economy that deals with nonmarket transactions and decision‐making and their outcome, impact, and context. Standard economics analyzes and assesses market economy transactions and decision‐making, as well as their outcomes. Regardless of whether the subject of the study is the public or private domain, transactions and decision‐making in the public domain have, generally and conventionally, been the domain of political science. Public choice theory interprets and studies nonmarket transactions and decision‐making using the analytical techniques of economics.
Systems Theory
Authors: Marcinkowski Frank , Steiner Adrian 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Two influential variants of thinking in terms of systems have emerged in the social sciences: structural functionalism and the theory of self‐referential social systems. Common to both variants are the notion of system, the concept of emergence, and the logic of functional analysis. Equivalence functionalism and the idea of operatively closed communication systems, both of which have gained in importance in recent theoretical developments, provide comparative political communication with interesting ideas that have so far only been taken up very occasionally.
Advertising, Political
Authors: Benoit William L. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThis essay discusses televised political advertising, which has become a mainstay of election campaigns in countries around the world. These messages have significant effects on voters, although both negative and positive ads are persuasive for viewers.TVspots from candidates are more likely to use positive appeals (acclaims) than negative ones (attacks); ads from other sources (political parties, outside groups) have a tendency to emphasize attacks. Incumbent candidates are inclined to acclaim more, and attack less, than challengers. Election commercials usually discuss policy more than character. Candidate spots tend to discuss issues on which their party has a positive reputation; candidate ads for national office stress national issues more than ads for state governors.
Selective Exposure
Authors: Kobayashi Tetsuro 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This article provides an overview of selective exposure research, with an emphasis on the relationship between selective exposure and the evolving media environment. First, a brief history of selective exposure studies in social psychology and political communication is presented within the context of contemporaneous social and technological changes. Next, the consequences and democratic implications of selective exposure are discussed. In addition, arguments about the scale of partisan selective exposure, absence of selective avoidance, and normatively positive aspects of selective exposure are reviewed.