bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Multicultural Issues in Training and Practice
Authors: Graham Jessica R. , Roemer Lizabeth 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Multicultural counseling is described as both a helping role and therapy process that recognizes the diverse identities of clients. This approach to counseling emphasizes prevention and intervention efforts that are consistent with the life experiences, contexts, and cultural values of clients. This entry reviews terminology, constructs, theory, and training models for multicultural counseling.
Scientific Metaphysics and Ontology
Authors: O'Donohue William , Epstein Emerson M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The phrase
scientific metaphysics
is controversial and reveals some of the key developments in twentieth‐century analytic philosophy and philosophy of science. This entry reviews some of the major arguments concerning scientific metaphysics in the twentieth century. The logical positivists thought that metaphysics was meaningless and, as such, could have only a pernicious role in science. However, with the demise of logical positivism, other philosophers—that is, Karl Popper (1902–94), Imre Lakatos (1922–74), and W. V. O. Quine (1908–2000)—had much more positive conceptions of the role of metaphysics in science. Other scholars have explicated the more specific roles of metaphysical statements in science.
G
all,
F
ranz
J
oseph (1758–1828)
Authors: Stephenson Hugh 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) was a pioneer in the study of brain anatomy. He made significant contributions to the understanding of brain physiology and was an early advocate for localization of function. In his public lectures, he argued that the relative size of brain areas reflected specific abilities and determined the external shape of the skull. His theories were adapted and further popularized by his assistant, Johann Gasper Spurzhiem (1776–1832), who used the term
phrenology
to describe the practice of personality assessment through analysis of skull shape. Phrenology was both popular and controversial in Europe and the United States, and it was largely discredited by the mid‐nineteenth century.
C
ummings,
N
icholas
A
. (
b
. 1924)
Authors: Austad Carol Shaw 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Nicholas A. Cummings (b. 1924) is a psychologist, an entrepreneur, an educator, and clinical innovator whose accomplishments championed the growth of clinical psychology. Creating a model of psychotherapy, focused intermittent psychotherapy throughout the life cycle, he moved psychotherapy into the Kaiser Permanente health care system as a routine benefit. He spearheaded the Hawaii Medicaid Project, demonstrating that appropriate psychotherapy improves health and reduces medical costs. An activist in the American Psychological Association (APA), Cummings chaired numerous committees and increased the APA's involvement in national policy making. He served as the 87th president of the APA. Cummings founded the California School of Professional Psychology (CSPP). He formed American Biodyne in the 1980s, serving millions of patients nationally. He established the Nicholas A. Cummings Behavioral Health Program at Arizona State University, the first to award a Doctor of Behavioral Health (DBH). He and his wife, Dorothy, currently pursue philanthropical interests through the Cummings Foundation for Behavioral Health.
Generalizability Theory
Authors: Li Min , Shavelson Richard J. , Yin Yue , Wiley Ed 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Generalizability (G) theory is a psychometric theory based on a statistical sampling approach that partitions scores into their underlying multiple sources of variation. It offers a framework that can be used to pinpoint and estimate the source of measurement error from which decisions can be made to optimize the measurement procedures. As an overview of G theory, this entry introduces basic concepts of G theory and its applications in conducting generalizability and decision studies of one‐facet and multifacet designs.
Natural Kinds
Authors: O'Donohue William , Maragakis Alexandros 
Published: January 2015

AbstractNatural kindsrefer to groupings that are thought to exist in nature and that are not dependent on human cognition. To a scientific realist, science finds natural kinds when it finds that certain groupings result in lawful behavior. The chemical elements would be canonical exemplars of natural kinds, whereas balls and strikes in baseball would not be natural kinds—as these depend on human decisions. The social constructionists argue that natural kinds simply do not exist—all of science is dependent on contingent human decisions.
Missing Data
Authors: Rubin Donald B. , Zell Elizabeth R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The problem of missing data is ubiquitous in many fields, including clinical psychology. This entry begins by providing a brief overview of basic concepts describing types of missing data, patterns of missing data, and mechanisms that create missing data. It then goes on to consider common analytic approaches to deal with this problem and describes why most of them are unsatisfactory. The entry then turns to simple imputation‐based approaches, which are also generally unsatisfactory, as well as to multiple imputation approaches, which can lead to satisfactory inferences.
American Psychological Association (APA)
Authors: Hsu Kean J. , Davison Gerald C. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe American Psychological Association (APA) focuses on the science, application, and dissemination of psychology as the world's largest membership organization of psychologists. Formed with an initial emphasis towards psychology as a field of basic scientific research,APAhas developed over the past century and across two World Wars to serve a wider range of interests befitting its diverse membership and 56 separate special interest divisions. These organizational interests include involvement in science, public policy, clinical practice, education, and training. Its membership spans all levels of training and experience in psychology, from undergraduates to professors, mental health advocates to research scientists.
Epidemiology
Authors: Kang Yae‐Ri , Halik Murnizam Hj , Essau Cecilia A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractEpidemiological‐based research is the cornerstone of clinical psychology. Psychiatric epidemiology can be defined as the distribution and determinants of a disorder in a specific population. This entry begins with the definition of psychiatric epidemiology and its contribution to scientific understanding of psychiatric disorders and public health policy. The next section covers methods in epidemiological research, including sampling and study design. The methods and main findings of some selected epidemiological studies in adults, adolescents and children are described.
Forensic Hypnosis
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Lemons Peter , Green Joseph P. , Mazzoni Giuliana , Kirsch Irving , Lilienfeld Scott O. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractHypnosis has long generated controversy as a recall‐enhancement method. Concerns about hypnosis are warranted by findings of a tradeoff between the number of memories recalled and memory accuracy. Moreover, witnesses often express confidence in hypnotically augmented remembrances, regardless of their accuracy, increasing the risk of juror bias stemming from convincing yet inaccurate information. Although misleading questions appear to be equally or more problematic, raising concerns about singling out hypnosis as a uniquely prejudicial technique, other recall‐improvement methods (e.g., cognitive interview; asking individuals to do their best to recall events) appear to pose fewer memory risks than hypnotic procedures.
Group Psychotherapy
Authors: Markin Rayna D. , Kasten Jessica 
Published: January 2015

AbstractResearch suggests that group psychotherapy is an effective and cost‐efficient form of treatment for many patients. This entry begins with a review of the important characteristics of group psychotherapy, the history of group therapy, the therapeutic factors believed to lead to a successful group experience, and the process by which groups develop over time. Process and outcome research on group psychotherapy is then reviewed to summarize our current understanding of the effectiveness of group psychotherapy and, moreover, why it is effective.
P
opper,
K
arl (1902–94)
Authors: Bluhm Robyn 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Karl Popper (1902–94) was one of the most influential philosophers of science in the twentieth century. This entry discusses his philosophy of science, with particular attention to the role of falsifiability in science, and its relation to his broader epistemology and his philosophy of mind. The influence of Popper's early work in child psychology on his philosophical work is also addressed.
Measurement of Stressful Life Events
Authors: Monroe Scott M. , Yoder Andrew S. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAlthough stress and related concepts have long been thought to be influential in health and disease, it was not until the 1960s that formal methodologies were developed to measure stress in the form of life events. Since that time, different approaches to measuring life events have been developed and refined, and debates have ensued regarding their reliability, validity, and practicality. One approach employs self‐report checklists of life events, and the other approach employs interview‐based procedures. Research comparing the two approaches indicates that they yield different information. Analysis of discrepancies between the two methods suggests that participants often interpret what constitutes a life event quite differently from what the researcher intends. Interview‐based methods, however, require much greater time and effort. Current controversies over gene–environment interactions suggest that future research will require the more rigorous but precise interview‐based methods to detect stress effects and interactions with specific genes or other vulnerability factors.
School Psychology
Authors: Albers Craig A. , Felt Jacquelyn 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSchool psychology is a specialty within psychology that attends to the academic, social, behavioral, and emotional needs of school‐aged individuals. Through consultation and the provision of services to students, parents, educators, and other professionals, school psychology is considered to be a scientist‐practitioner model that is reliant on research to provide guidance regarding evidence‐based practices. This entry examines the historical implications of school psychology development, provides an overview of the profession, and identifies current emphases and future needs within the profession.
Bronner, Augusta F. (1881–1966)
Authors: Woodward William R. , Hills Courtney 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Augusta Bronner (1881–1966) recast juvenile delinquency as a social problem rooted in the home and community, challenging the emphasis on heredity and personality. She used mental tests as tools to determine the unique abilities and disabilities of the child, and then provided guidance to the child, the parents, and the juvenile courts, making it possible for delinquent children to be placed in families or private schools rather than be incarcerated. She emphasized reward rather than punishment, gave attention to ethnicity in child placement, and provided training for foster families. Through her books and advocacy, child guidance clinics aided children and the court system as well. The child guidance movement also proved a boon to the professions of psychology and social work by creating employment opportunities.
Existentialism
Authors: Porter Douglas 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The term existentialism refers to a broad array of philosophical thought and cultural analysis. Existentialism proved to be a particularly productive point of intersection between the disciplines of philosophy and psychology. Conceptually, existentialism marked a move away from a Cartesian model of mind and traditional philosophical ideas about human nature that were felt to be too abstract. Existentialism refocused on concrete experiences of freedom and responsibility encountered by flesh‐and‐blood persons in their everyday existence. Clinically, existentialism was associated with a renewed emphasis on clarifying the subjective world of the patient. Psychopathology was characterized by existentialists in terms of distortions in the patient's mode of being‐in‐the‐world including distortions in the perception of time and space. The existential emphasis on freedom and responsibility was associated with unique psychological notions about anxiety, guilt, and authenticity that were translated into a point of therapeutic emphasis among existentially oriented clinicians.
Interpersonal Psychotherapy (
IPT
)
Authors: Didie Elizabeth R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a structured, time‐limited psychotherapy first developed for the treatment of depression. It examines the ways in which relationship problems contribute to psychological symptoms and emotional distress. Interpersonal psychotherapy is a manualized, empirically validated psychotherapy that involves three distinct phases of treatment. It assumes that psychiatric disorders, regardless of etiology, occur within an interpersonal context. Treatment focuses on resolving one or two interpersonal problem area(s) most related to the patient's current symptoms (grief/ loss, role transitions, interpersonal role disputes, and interpersonal deficits) and enhancing and utilizing social supports. This entry provides an overview of IPT, its history, conceptual model, therapy structure, and content.
Sudden Gains
Authors: Tang Tony Z. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractPsychotherapy theorists have long speculated on the existence of critical sessions. Sudden gains in cognitive therapy of depression were first investigated in order to identify such critical sessions. They are sudden and drastic symptom improvement experienced by patients in one between‐session interval. Since its introduction a little over 10 years ago, sudden gains have been investigated in cognitive therapy of depression as well as many other treatments of various disorders. This entry reviews the current state of sudden gains research and discusses its implications for psychotherapy research and practice.
T
hurstone,
L
ouis
L
. (1887–1955)
Authors: Wheaton Michael G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Louis Leon Thurstone (1887–1955) was a quantitative psychologist and past president of the American Psychological Association who is best known for advancing the methods of factor analysis, statistical methods used to explore latent factors underlying sets of observed variables. With these methods, Thurstone also made significant contributions to the study of intelligence, advancing a new model for how mental abilities are organized. Thurstone focused on the role of multiple specific mental abilities rather than a single general intelligence factor. Over the course of his career, Thurstone also made significant contributions to psychological measurement, test theory, and the assessment of attitudes. He developed a new system for scaling psychological variables (Thurstone scaling) based on what he called the law of comparative judgment.
Neuropsychological Testing
Authors: Dawson Casey J. , Jacquin Kristine M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Neuropsychological testing is the applied aspect of the field of neuropsychology. Neuropsychologists have specialized knowledge of neurology and psychology, and they utilize psychometric testing to analyze brain–behavior relationships. Through assessment, neuropsychologists can address the variety of complaints related to cognitive functioning. Specifically, neuropsychological testing yields information related to diagnosis, prognosis, functional abilities, symptom progression, and treatment effects. Neuropsychologists perform assessments in multiple settings and across various domains of functioning. This entry includes a brief discussion of the history of inquiry into the relationship between behavior and the brain, the development of the field of neuropsychology, and the domains generally assessed in a comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation.
Medical Model of Mental Disorders
Authors: Blaney Paul H. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The medical model of mental disorders is multifaceted. Saying that a mental disorder is an illness may mean one or more of the following: that the condition is undeniably substandard, that the affected person has reduced responsibility, that the condition is categorical, that its symptoms are mere indications of an underlying condition, that the condition is physical and biological, or that society's economic and legal structures should handle it as they handle physical and biological illnesses.
End of Life (Forensic Issues)
Authors: Tobias Kristen , Rosenfeld Barry 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAdvancements in clinical care have the potential to prolong survival and, at times, dramatically improve one's quality of life during the days, weeks, or months leading up to death. Yet these advancements have engendered considerable controversy regarding the optimal or appropriate implementation of the available alternatives. Important forensic issues that arise at the end of life include the use of advanced directives, the right to refuse or terminate life‐sustaining treatment, and in many jurisdictions, the choice to use physician‐assisted suicide or euthanasia to hasten one's death. Surrounding each of these potential interventions are questions as to when and how to determine whether individual patients possess the requisite capacity to make a legally valid (i.e., “informed”) decision regarding these options. The analysis and application of these potential end‐of‐life interventions necessitates a balance between preserving the decision‐making autonomy of terminally ill patients while identifying and protecting that subset of individuals who may have impaired decision‐making capacity.
Psychiatric Advance Directive
Authors: Shrode Tiffany Milana 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Psychiatric advance directives (PADs) are legal documents utilized most frequently by persons with mental illness. In the event of a psychiatric crisis which requires hospitalization, a PAD can convey the mental health treatment preferences of a person who may be deemed incompetent to make such decisions for themselves at the time. PADs are flexible and may include a variety of different treatment preferences, which include: consent to or refusal of treatments and medications, preferred hospitals or treatment centers, and the authorization of another person to make mental health‐care decisions on their behalf (a proxy). PADs have the potential to be an important tool legally and from a recovery framework to empower clients.
Phenomenological Concept of Intentionality
Authors: Wiggins Osborne P. , Schwartz Michael Alan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
According to the phenomenological concept of intentionality, every mental process is aware of something other than itself. Mental life is aware of objects in many ways. Intentional objects can be real or unreal, emotionally colored, and acted upon. Understanding the structure of conscious mental processes reveals the nature of our preobjective worlds, including how we experience space, time, and ourselves. A great deal of phenomenological work in clinical psychology has involved methods for understanding the experiences of others, especially clients.
Confirmation versus Falsificationism
Authors: Percival Ray Scott 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Confirmation and falsification are different strategies for testing theories and characterizing the outcomes of those tests. Roughly speaking, confirmation is the act of using evidence or reason to verify or certify that a statement is true, definite, or approximately true, whereas falsification is the act of classifying a statement as false in the light of observation reports. This simple picture hides profound problems in the methodology of science and epistemology. In reaction to the skeptic's attack on the possibility of certain or certified truth, many writers have opted for what they regard as the next best feasible substitute: probable, reliable, or consistent theories. Within the philosophy of science there is a long‐running debate about the meaning, relative importance, and feasibility of confirmation and falsification and their role in the advancement of science. Although not confined to the issue of induction in science, the debate centers on this issue.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Authors: Garakani Amir , Siever Larry J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Schizotypal personality disorder (
SPD
) was first conceptualized based on observations of otherwise healthy relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Genetic and familial studies, along with molecular studies that have identified several candidate genes, provide evidence of a phenotypic association between
SPD
and schizophrenia. Persons with
SPD
are noted to have odd, stereotyped behaviors; suspiciousness; difficulty relating to others; lack of empathy; and magical thinking. Cognitive impairments and neural abnormalities are evident in these individuals as well; neuropsychological, psychophysiological, and neuroimaging findings suggest a pattern of functioning that is intermediate between those of persons with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Although
SPD
is a chronic disorder that affects social and occupational functioning, psychiatric hospitalizations are rare, and antipsychotic treatments are seldom needed. A focus of treatment is to address cognitive deficits in
SPD
using dopamine agonists. Further work is needed to understand the genetic, biological, and clinical lines between
SPD
and other schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
Jury Decision Making
Authors: Levett Lora M. , Henderson Kelsey S. , Behl Joshua D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The jury is generally a competent decision making body, rendering decisions that vary appropriately with the strength of evidence. Researchers have studied juries through mathematical modeling, using social psychological theory, and using explanation‐based models to understand the deliberation and individual juror decision‐making processes. In addition, researchers have examined how jurors evaluate individual pieces of evidence, finding that they may inaccurately evaluate evidence or can be influenced by extraevidentiary factors in decision making. Reforming the structure of the jury to increase their impartiality or aid their memories may help improve the quality of the jury's decision.
Offender Rehabilitation
Authors: Manchak Sarah M. , Henderson Samantha , Louden Jennifer Eno 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Offender rehabilitation refers to the process of working with criminal offenders while they are under the supervision of the criminal justice system to reduce their likelihood of reoffending in the future. In the United States, the notion that offenders can change their behavior and desist from crime is relatively recent. Confidence in the prospect of rehabilitation has grown alongside mounting empirical evidence identifying the circumstances under which it will produce meaningful reductions in criminal recidivism. Nevertheless, research has not always reached practice; when it has, there have been challenges in implementation. This entry provides a brief historical background of offender rehabilitation, a model for effective recidivism reduction, a description of the current state of offender rehabilitation programs, and a summary of challenges of implementing evidence‐based practices in real‐world settings. It concludes with a discussion of the steps that can be taken to advance the field.