bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transnational families, research and scholarship
Authors: Mazzucato Valentina 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Contemporary transnational family arrangements are present the world over, with one or more family members located in different countries. In some cases, such arrangements are the result of stringent migration policies in many migrant‐receiving countries in the global North, which make it difficult for families to migrate together. In others, they are the preferred choice of family members, especially in societies where norms guiding family structures allow different members from the extended family to fulfill varied functions, such as income earning, childcare and elderly care, as is common practice in many parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, for example. In other cases, it is the unwanted result of families scattering to flee violent conflict or persecution.
Transnational labor migration, 1970s to present
Authors: Jha Praveen 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHuman mobility within and across national boundaries has generated a vast literature, both theoretical and empirical, in the social sciences. However, given that this wealth of literature consists of alternative paradigms and often sharply contested hypotheses, arguments, and evidences relating to different dimensions of the subject (e.g. drivers of migration and associated causal mechanisms, migration transitions, etc.), it may be reasonable to venture that most migration researchers ought to be wary of simplistic conceptual and empirical straitjackets. One may also note that important lessons emerging from the larger literature on human mobility are, by and large, relevant for the subject of labor migration specifically with respect to manufacturing.
Travel and migration
Authors: Williams Allan M. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTravel and migration in the late 20th and early 21st centuries are inextricably interrelated through the geographical redistribution of friends and families, the definition of search spaces, and the shaping of motivations. This is most clearly articulated in terms of lifestyle and amenity migrations, retirement migration, and visits of varying duration to friends and families (Williams & Hall 2002). Travelling on student and tourism visas has also become a means of circumventing immigration controls.
Turkey: migration and remittances, 1960s to present
Authors: Kιrdar Murat G. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThis essay examines Turkish emigration since 1961 and its impact both on the destination countries and on Turkey. Excellent reviews of Turkish emigration to Western Europe can be found in Paine 1974 and Abadan‐Unat 1976. This essay reviews the later waves of Turkish emigration along with that to Western Europe.
Ukraine, migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Vollmer Bastian A. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe history of Ukraine is characterized by discontinuity and the endeavors of foreign rulers during the past centuries. Foreign dominant powers non‐intermittently ruled over the Ukrainian nation and its territory. First ruled by Lithuania and Poland, parts of today's Ukraine were then ruled by the Ottoman empire, Germany, and the Austro‐Hungarian empire, later Tsarist Russia and subsequently the Soviet Union. It was not until early 1918 that Ukraine declared its independence, but its new government collapsed. The Soviet Red Army invaded and installed a Bolshevik government in 1922, and Ukraine became one of the four founding republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Only in 1991 did Ukraine finally become independent.
Undocumented migrants: rights and advocacy
Authors: Soova Michele LeVoy and Kadri 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Undocumented migrants are foreign nationals without the required legal status that authorizes them to stay in their country of destination. Many migrants enter a country of destination with a time‐delimited visa, but the government views them as unauthorized if they stay longer than permitted. Migrants lacking authorization are ineligible for government programs that ensure them a basic standard of living and legal rights. Undocumented migrant workers frequently work precariously as day laborers, face arbitrary dismissal from their jobs, lack access to essential services, and are under a constant threat of deportation (Migrants Rights Centre Ireland 2007).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Authors: Sert Deniz Şenol 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was established on December 14, 1950 by the United Nations General Assembly with a three‐year mandate to assist Europeans displaced by World War II. The following year, on July 28, the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees was adopted. It still constitutes the key legal document in defining who constitutes a refugee, their rights, the legal obligations of states, and the basic statute guiding UNHCR's work. The Convention entered into force on April 22, 1954, merging previous international instruments relating to refugees, and still presents the broadest codification of the rights of refugees at the international level. Unlike former international refugee instruments, which concerned specific groups of refugees, Article 1 of the 1951 Convention approved a single definition of the term “refugee,” which accentuated the protection of persons from political or other forms of persecution. Accordingly, a refugee is someone who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her country of origin owing to a well‐founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.
United States: immigration legislation
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe historical span of immigration to the United States includes the migration of many different peoples from various parts of the world. Regardless of their reasons for leaving their homeland, most immigrants go to America full of hopes and dreams of the “Promised Land.” Going to America in search of fortune, immigrants from Europe and Asia thought they had discovered a new country with unlimited resources. However, that freedom was not open to all. As early as 1619, captured Africans were bought to the “New World” against their will and enslaved by whites. African slaves provided a source of cheap forced labor that was instrumental in expanding and building the nation (Blackburn 1998).
United States: origin countries of foreign‐born population
Authors: Grieco Elizabeth M. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
During the last four decades, the foreign‐born population of the United States has continued to increase in size and as a percentage of the total population: from 9.6 million or 4.7 percent in 1970 to 38.5 million or 12.5 percent in 2009, according to census and survey data from the US Census Bureau (Gibson & Jung 2006; US Census Bureau 2009) (see Figure 1).
Urbanization and migration
Authors: He Canfei 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Urbanization is the process of a greater proportion of human activities – economic, social, cultural – taking place in urbanized areas. It is characterized by a rise in the urban proportion of the total population (Ledent 1982). It is a process that almost all countries have experienced or are currently experiencing, and is particularly evident in those nations that are undergoing a social and economic transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one. The 20th century witnessed a remarkable urbanization: the global proportion of urban population increased from 13 per cent in 1900 to 29 per cent in 1950. According to a report by the UN, the world reached a significant milestone in 2008: for the first time in history, more than half of the human population, 3.3 billion people, were living in urban areas. It is expected that by 2030 this number will reach as much as five billion, or 60 percent of the total population. This phenomenon will be particularly remarkable in Africa and Asia where the urban population is projected to double between the years 2000 and 2030.
Vikings and Normans
Authors: Scheller Benjamin 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
For more than three centuries, from the end of the 8th to the end of the 11th century, the migrations of Vikings and Normans had a massive impact on the political landscape of the then known world. Vikings and Normans populated centers of trade, and settled and built states in a vast geographical area that ranged from Greenland to Russia and southern Italy.
Wages and migrant labor
Authors: Hartog Aslan Zorlu and Joop 
Published: January 2013

AbstractBetter living conditions in Western countries attract large numbers of immigrants from developing countries. In many developed nations there is both concern over maintaining high welfare standards under the pressure of massive unskilled immigration and interest in attracting highly skilled workers to boost economic growth. Scholarly research has tried to understand the costs and benefits of migration for host and source countries, immigrants themselves, and employers and workers who are directly or indirectly affected by immigrants. However, the focus is on static effects: not much is known about the contribution of immigrants to economic growth.
Wars and population displacement, 20th century
Authors: Janco Andrew 
Published: January 2013

AbstractDuring the 20th century there were more than two hundred wars and violent conflicts that displaced over 100 million people across the globe. The scale of wartime displacements in the 20th century is both horrifying and unique in world history. During an “age of total war,” non‐belligerents and civilian infrastructure were deliberately targeted by military forces. The Hague Convention of 1899 recognized that the armed forces of belligerent parties consisted of both combatants and non‐combatants. Artillery fire, carpet bombing, nuclear weapons, and other technologies extended front‐line combat onto the home front, blurring the line between civilians and enemy non‐combatants. No longer confined to the battlefield, states and insurgent groups widely engaged in unconventional warfare, which brought conflicts onto city streets and into people's homes. During the Kosovo conflict in 1999, displaced civilians were themselves used as a weapon through the strategic forced expulsion of Albanian refugees.
West Indian migration to the United States, 1965 to present
Authors: Vickerman Milton 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Proximity, historical, economic, and social ties have funneled West Indians into the United States for centuries, but mass migration from the region to America began in earnest only at the beginning of the 20th century. Spurred by persistently high levels of unemployment, these migrants had spread throughout the Caribbean and Central America since the 1840s. In the 20th century the United States became the latest target of opportunity for a people who had developed a culture of migration to cope with socioeconomic distress (Marshall 1982; Dodson & Diouf 2004). These “West Indians” have traditionally originated in the non‐Hispanic Caribbean and settled together, apart from Hispanics, in the United States. Jamaicans, in particular, have dominated the flow to America, being surpassed by Haitian immigrants only since the 1990s (DHS 2010).
WTO, GATS, and migration
Authors: Lim Jim Redden and Aik Hoe 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) defines trade in services in terms of four modes of supply. Mode 4 is one of the four modes of supply through which services may be traded under the GATS. It is defined in Article 2 (d) of the GATS as the supply of a service “by a service supplier of one Member, through presence of natural persons of a Member in the territory of any other Member.” There is a tendency to equate mode 4 with labor mobility or migration, since the service is supplied through the presence of natural persons. However, while mode 4 involves the movement of people, it is only to the extent that such movement is for the purpose of supplying a service. For example, if the university of one World Trade Organization (WTO) member has an agreement to deliver a one‐month training program in economic policy in the territory of another WTO member, and a senior lecturer is sent to deliver this service, this would be one form of a mode 4 service transaction. In this example, the service supplier is the university of “one Member,” the senior lecturer is the “natural person” who is present in the “territory of any other Member,” and his presence is required in order to deliver the service.
Indian migration to the South Pacific
Authors: Munro Doug 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIndian immigration to the Pacific Islands was highly localized. Between 1979 and 1916, almost 61,000 Indians arrived in Fiji as indentured laborers, comprising 5 percent of the 1.2 million indentured Indians to the British empire. In a regional context, the Indians who migrated to Fiji were part of a series of indentured labor flows from within and without the Pacific Islands to fulfill the expanding requirements of the plantation system especially, but also the demands of mining, ranching, public works, and domestic services. A similar number of Melanesians, involving 61,000 contracts of indenture, were received by Queensland, and a further 146,000 indentured workers, predominantly Asians, worked on sugar plantations in Hawaii. The Melanesia labor trade to Samoa was much smaller, a quarter of the size, and later supplemented by 3,800 Chinese workers. These migration flows of laborers from within and beyond the region amounted to approximately 500,000 indentured laborers prior to 1914, and at least another 300,000 afterwards.
Pakistan–Bangladesh Partition 1971 and forced migration
Authors: Datta Antara 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe creation of new nation‐states and the process of decolonization in the post‐World War II period often brought with it bloodshed, mayhem, and the uprooting of communities. When India was partitioned, as colonial rule came to an end, a similar process unfolded – millions of people were displaced and crossed from India to Pakistan and vice versa in what became a virtual exchange of population. If the citizens of the subcontinent believed that such pain and suffering on a gargantuan scale had ended in 1947, and would not be repeated, they were mistaken. Just over a quarter of a century after the first partition of the subcontinent, the distress of population upheavals, mass killings, and rape was to revisit the region. The events of 1971 while creating the new nation of Bangladesh, caused the upheaval of nearly 10 million people, and the death of possibly three million more. The devastation and trauma of 1947 had returned in a new guise to South Asia. The upheaval forced both India and Pakistan to reconsider questions of sovereignty and border control as well as confront questions about who belonged within which borders and why. From an Indian perspective, the entry of millions of refugees led to a changing relationship between the refugee, the state, and those living in the border areas. The aftermath of the crisis, which saw nearly 500,000 people stranded in various parts of subcontinent until a repatriation scheme was devised in 1973, once again raised questions about borders and belonging.
China: profit‐driven institutions and emigration promotion
Authors: Kwong Peter 
Published: January 2013

AbstractBoth push and pull factors need to be present for a migration process to be completed. But pull factors are critical and controlling, in that if a receiving country does not allow immigrants to enter, or if there is no demand for their services, then, regardless of the desire of the would‐be immigrants and the desperate problems of overpopulation, famine, or civil war they face in their home countries, they cannot emigrate. Having said that, the power of push factors can be greatly enhanced by the strength of collective migrant networks, which are capable, once the demand is established, of gathering together large numbers of immigrants very quickly to take advantage of the opportunity. The massive Chinese labor migration network, established and greatly improved over the last two centuries, is a case in point.
Circular migration and gender
Authors: Schwenken Helen 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Circular migration is a form of repeated and temporary population movement that involves the same migrants; it encompasses both unregulated circulation and movements managed through circular labor migration programs. The latter is a subform of temporary labor migration programs. Circular migration is, as any form of migration, necessarily a gendered process, because it involves men and women and is built upon and affects gender relations. Most circular and temporary migration programs, though, are conceived, negotiated, and implemented in a gender‐blind way. The programs largely ignore the different ways they draw ideologically upon, incorporate, and treat women, men, and notions of genderedness. A gender‐sensitive analysis of circular migration means to systematically include empirical evidence, implicit/explicit meanings of gender, and discursive dimensions. Whether circular and temporary migration programs can be designed in a more gender‐sensitive way remains open for two reasons: so far no attempts have been made, and the gender biases and other problems identified would question these programs as such.
Indigenous migration: Otavalo diaspora in historical perspective
Authors: Schmidt Ella 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

In July 1991 over 100 Otavalo from Ariasucu in the northern Ecuadorian Andes went to the shore of Lake San Pablo to comply with their communal work (
faena
) on the potable water project that the community had long lobbied for. At the insistence of the state engineer in charge, they had gone this day to clear the land around the spring that would provide water for Ariasucu. When they got there, however, women from villages surrounding the spring complained that if the Otavalo went through with their water project, their only source for clean water would be destroyed. After a long negotiation the Otavalo present decided instead to go to the neighboring field of an absentee landowner, clear it, and install the pump there. After the communal work was finished, the state engineer supervising the work got on his motorcycle and went back to the city. Later that day, one of the workers who had participated in the
faena
, an ex‐president of the community, took a plane “with three other local textile dealers and flew to Europe to sell handicrafts” (Colloredo‐Mansfeld 1998: 186).
Indigenous migration: Americas, distinctiveness and scale
Authors: Burns Allan 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe 21st century has been named the “age of migration” (Castles & Miller 2003), and indigenous migration is a growing feature of the movements of people today. Like migration routes, the causes of migration are always multiple, and for that reason different aspects of indigenous migration have to be seen in concert rather than as distinct types or categories. First, indigenous migrations have a long history. Second, different kinds of forced and voluntary displacements of indigenous people take on greater importance as present‐day nation states emphasize their international boundaries and citizenship within them. Third, nongovernment forces are playing an increasingly important role in indigenous migration, especially drug cartels, youth gangs, and even religious ideology. Changing economic opportunity structures in Latin America are also a key factor within indigenous migration. The pull of opportunities where economies are strong, as well as the push from economies or societies that are no longer viable, affect migration patterns as well as individual decisions.
Indigenous migrations: the emergence of Maya America
Authors: Loucky James 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Movement is integral to human life, a reality that is evident in how common narratives of migration are in the histories of most peoples and in a worldwide profusion of contemporary experiences. Geographic mobility, whether chosen or forced, is hardly recent for indigenous peoples (Clifford 2007). Certainly this is true for Mesoamerica, a vast isthmus with numerous pathways, where groups of people first moved south and thereafter extended and connected communities and cultures through trade and social relations. Economic and ideological links between Olmec, Maya, and Zapotec regions were possible only because of movement. Colonialism and sequential dictatorships entailed shifts in power and forms of control, but long‐term and seasonal labor, forced uprooting and refugee movements have continued to this day. The scope of human movement and settlement has never been greater – geographically, demographically, and culturally – and the Maya play a major role in this unfolding drama.
Second‐generation migrants: Maghrebis in France
Authors: Swamy Sylvie Durmelat and Vinay 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe term “second‐generation immigrants” is often used to designate the children of immigrants born in the country to which their parents migrated from their homeland. The term holds sway especially in contemporary France, a nation that historically has seen a large influx of immigrants since at least the late 19th century. Admittedly, there are several complications that need to be considered in order to understand the denotation and connotations of this term. It is the position of the authors of this essay that the designation “second‐generation immigrant” is an oxymoron and is an unfortunate and unsatisfactory formulation, one that we would like to problematize. The term negates the multifaceted work of integration performed by immigrants and their descendants, and continues to stigmatize descendants of immigrants as foreign bodies, as if they could not but inherit their parents' status and thus are still considered to be (de facto) “second class” citizens in their parents' country of residence.
Italy: migration from 1990s to 2010s
Authors: Pegna Serenella 
Published: January 2013

AbstractItaly has always experienced transit migrations – from invasions to foreign tourists – but mainly it has been a great country of emigration. In 1981, the Italian census unexpectedly showed a small net positive rate: Italians had gone back home and more foreigners had come in. Thirty years later, immigrants amount to 4.5 million (7.5% of the total population) plus 500,000 estimated irregulars and 400,000 not yet registered foreigners. This population of immigrants constitutes around 15 percent of the documented workforce and an important portion of irregulars. Immigrant families raise the scant Italian fertility ratio from 1.3 to 1.4 and foreign students in primary school now constitute 9 percent of the entire primary school population (Caritas Migrantes 2011).
Marriage migration, Europe 1945–2010s
Authors: Schrover Marlou 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
This essay focuses on marriage migration in Europe after 1945. Marriage migration is an administrative category. Whether people are registered as marriage migrants depends on other migration options (Kofman 2004). Migration categories are like communicating vessels: when options in one category decrease, other categories become more important. Since 1975, north‐western European countries have restricted the options for labor migration. As a result the percentage of people migrating for family formation (as marriage migration is frequently labeled) increased, as did refugee migration. After 1975, Germany was more restrictive regarding marriage migration than the Netherlands, and more liberal regarding refugees. As a result Germany received more refugees (percent wise), while the Netherlands received more marriage migrants. When both countries reformed their policies in the 1990s – Germany became more restrictive regarding refugees and the Netherlands more restrictive regarding family migration – this resulted in the swapping over of percentages.