bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Color Perception
Authors: Keith Kenneth D. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The ways in which people perceive and talk about color have constituted an interesting area of research not only for psychologists, but also for students of language. In particular, researchers have used color language and the perception of color as an arena in which to test the Sapir‐Whorf (linguistic relativity) hypothesis concerning the connection between language and thought. Cultures differ in the language they use to describe color. In classic research on the language of color, Berlin and studied 78 languages, finding 11 terms that constituted a hierarchy of color names across the various cultures.
Concept
Authors: Messer Rachel H. , Kennison Shelia M. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
A concept is a cognitive category used to classify objects, behaviors, or other entities, based on common attributes or properties. Memory researchers use the word concept to describe a unit of meaning or knowledge that is stored in memory. Researchers have found that concepts are culturally driven and are contained within a specific sociocultural context. For many concepts, a word is used to refer to the concept, such as “dog,” “cat,” “freedom,” or “generosity.” However, some languages may lack words for specific concepts. For example, languages vary in the number of color words. Some languages have only two color words, one to refer to dark‐colored objects and one to refer to light‐colored objects. Some languages contain three color words (e.g., light, dark, and red), and so on. Individuals who are not color blind are generally able to perceive the entire color spectrum, regardless of the words they have to refer to colors.
Confucianism
Authors: Wu Kuang‐ming 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Confucianism originated with and is based on teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479
bce
). The principles of Confucianism have influenced Chinese politics, education, and philosophy for more than 2,500 years. For example, in Taiwan the birthday of Confucius (September 28) was named a national holiday, “Teacher's Day,” to recognize the Confucian influence. Confucianism stresses the importance of education for moral development – humane relationships, good intentions, and decorum, as well as loyalty and trustworthiness – so that rulers can govern according to virtue rather than coercive laws.
Conversation Regulators
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
To sustain interpersonal communication, individuals engage in various regulatory strategies. These strategies can include nonverbal behaviors and conversational interruptions. Within the context of a conversation, an individual might nod, or attempt to mimic his or her conversation partner. Further, one might use various encouragers (e.g., “uh‐huh,” “okay” in English, “hai” in Japanese) to let the partner know that she or he is listening. These encouragers are seen as interruptions.
Coping and Coping Styles
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Wang Canzi 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Coping refers to cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as stressful. An individual determines whether the situation is controllable and assesses his or her abilities to make effective responses. In other words, coping is using effort to solve personal, situational, and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, or change conflict or stress. Psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills. The term coping also means that those strategies were able to reduce stress levels. Furthermore, coping generally refers to reactive coping – that is, the coping response follows the stressor. Coping strategies can be functional or dysfunctional. Functional coping strategies can effectively reduce stress levels, whereas maladaptive (dysfunctional) coping is not helpful to reduce the stress a person perceives. Coping strategies are partly controlled by personality (habitual traits), partly by culture, and partly by the social context – particularly the nature of the stressful environment.
Cross‐Cultural Training
Authors: Dalsky David , Landis Dan 
Published: October 2013

AbstractCross‐cultural training involves teaching and learning about the interaction of people with different cultural backgrounds; its typical goal is to prepare a sojourner to be successful in a host country. Trainers are usually educated in the applied social sciences, and trainees could be international company employees, university students who study abroad, or international volunteers in programs such as the Peace Corps. The most complete cross‐cultural training programs include a pre‐departure session, tracking during the sojourn, and a reentry session upon return to a trainee's home country. Often, reentry is more stressful than adjusting to life in a host country even though sojourners may not expect difficulties returning to their home country. If a reentry component is included in the training, it may include reflection activities centered on personal and professional growth during the stay abroad as well as the introduction of a network of others with similar experiences who can offer social support.
Cross‐Cultural Validation
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K. , Sim Catherine Q. E. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractA central assumption in psychological testing is that, in addition to random error, the observed responses of the test‐takers are caused by both characteristics of the persons taking the test and characteristics of the test items used. In addition, every person–item encounter happens in a specific context, the test situation. As illustrated in, psychological testing essentially employs an inference that is based on a partial inversion of these causal relationships: We try to infer from differences in the responses of the test‐takers to the underlying differences in their personal characteristics or latent traits. To be able to do so, we not only must use the same items2but must also ensure that all other situational characteristics are the same for every test‐taker – the very idea of a standardized test situation. In this way, the influence of items and situational characteristics is held constant and cannot exert a differential influence on the responses. Thus, excepting random error, any differences in the responses must have been caused by differences in the test‐takers’ personal characteristics or latent traits.
Cultural Reaffirmation Effect
Authors: Nguyen Angela‐Minh TuD. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The cultural reaffirmation effect refers to the assertion of one's culture in response to an outside culture. This term was coined by, who proposed that bicultural individuals (i.e., those who have internalized two cultures) need to feel secure in their native (heritage, minority, or non‐dominant) cultural identity before they can explore and have contact with the out‐group (i.e., dominant cultural group members). This proposition stemmed from a study she conducted comparing bicultural (i.e., Germans in the United States and Americans in Germany) and monocultural (i.e., Germans in Germany and Americans in the United States) individuals. She found that compared to monocultural individuals, bicultural individuals rated themselves as more similar to their native cultural group, evaluated that group more favorably, and perceived their native group less similar to the dominant group.
Cultural Relativism
Authors: S. Landsman Moshe 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The concept of cultural relativism was first formulated by the anthropologist Franz. Although he did not use the term, he and his students popularized the concept and it is considered axiomatic in anthropology. As an anthropological concept, cultural relativism contends that an individual's behavior can be understood only within the context of his or her culture. Usually, cultural relativism is contrasted with universalism or ethnocentrism.
Cultural‐Historical Activity Theory
Authors: Hardman Joanne , Mpofu Elias 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The notion that the activities humans engage in are informed by collective historical experience, interpreted in the context of evolving needs and future possibilities, is as old as mankind itself. Collective culture mediates or shapes human activity, and human activity in its enactment and purposes transforms culture. Both culture and activity have a historical basis in the purposes they serve and in the processes that render them intelligible to social actors. Changes in the goals, purposes, and/or processes necessary to living in a collective culture will lead to transformation of the social actors involved – their roles and identities.
Dawson, John L. M
Authors: Blowers Geoffrey 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

To most of the contributors to this
Encyclopedia
, John Lewis Mervyn Binnie‐Dawson (1930–1987) is probably best remembered for having proposed in 1967 that an organization of like‐minded cross‐culturalists be formed, and for hosting its inaugural meeting in Hong Kong in 1972. By then the group was known as the International Association for Cross‐Cultural Psychology. He became its first secretary‐general and later its president.
Decentering
Authors: Inoue Noriyuki 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Decentering is the process by which a child becomes capable of considering more than one aspect of an object or situation at a time. Decentering is considered an important developmental process to obtain the ability to understand things from the other side, or other persons’ perspectives. Through decentering, a child develops a better understanding of reality by incorporating not only his or her own perspectives, but also the perspectives seen from other points of view. In Piaget's theory of intellectual development, decentering occurs in the concrete operations stage and is an essential process for subsequent development of abstract concepts.
Decision Making
Authors: Allwood Carl Martin 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The ability to make decisions is often assumed to be something that distinguishes humans from the rest of nature. Decision making occurs in many forms, and the decision‐making task can be more or less complex, well‐defined, and new to the decision maker. Moreover, decision making, in addition to actually choosing an alternative, usually includes constructing or activating decision alternatives. In this entry the focus is mainly on complex decision making.
Denmark, Florence
Authors: Woolf Linda M. , Hulsizer Michael R. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Florence Denmark is a pioneer in both the psychology of women and international psychology. As a scholar, teacher, researcher, leader, and policy maker within psychology, her work has influenced countless individuals and communities around the globe. Her research foci include peace and conflict, culture and ethnicity, prejudice and stereotyping, and gender psychology. Social activism, social justice, and the empowerment of women and other marginalized groups are themes that cut across all of Denmark's writings and endeavors.
Depth Cues
Authors: Phillips William L. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Depth cues refer to information in the environment that can be used by the brain to make inferences about the third dimension. This is necessary due to the fact that all visual images (even those perceived in three dimensions) first must fall on the retina (a two‐dimensional structure) before being processed by the brain. Therefore, particular information must exist in the environment that allows for perception of the third dimension. The depth cues that have been studied can be summarized into the following categories: binocular cues, oculomotor cues, motion cues, and monocular (pictorial) cues.
Developmental Niche
Authors: Molitor Adriana 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
During the 1980s, anthropologist Sara Harkness and psychologist Charles Super conceived of the developmental niche as a theoretical framework that could integrate the disparate perspectives of their respective fields as each attempts to explore human development. The framework offers a multifaceted lens through which to view and understand the ways in which culture structures the experiences of any child – whether that child is a member of a seemingly exotic community from a remote part of the world or is one of numerous research participants from a modern Western society. Super and Harkness explained that at the center of every developmental niche is an individual child with his/her inherited characteristics such as aptitude potentials and temperamental tendencies. In this respect, every developmental niche is unique because its features continually interact with the distinct constellation of qualities specific to any child. Nonetheless, three broad components of a developmental niche surround the child: settings; customs and practices; and caretaker psychology. Other children in a community likewise experience characteristics of these subsystems. Thus, these common elements enable researchers to identify and describe a generalized developmental niche that is shared by at least a segment of children from a particular culture.
Díaz‐Guerrero, Rogelio
Authors: Draguns Juris G. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Rogelio Díaz‐Guerrero was born on August 3, 1918 in Guadalajara, Mexico. He died on December 8, 2004 in Cuernavaca, Mexico. Interested in the mainsprings of human behavior and conduct since adolescence, he became a medical student and obtained his M.D. degree at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) in 1943. Concurrently, he embarked upon the study of psychology, pursuing graduate studies at the University of Iowa where he received a master's degree and a Ph.D. in 1944 and 1947, respectively. Research‐oriented and steeped in experimental, developmental, and social psychology, Díaz‐Guerrero was involved in pioneering the development of academic and professional programs in psychology in Mexico. Throughout his career, he held a succession of appointments at UNAM. In recognition of his lifetime contribution, Díaz‐Guerrero was appointed National Emeritus Investigator of the National Council of Science and Technology of Mexico. He was one of the founders of the Interamerican Society of Psychology and the Mexican Society of Psychology, both of which he served as President.
Dispositional Attributions
Authors: Koenig Anne M. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Attributions are causal explanations for behavior – why people act the way they do. Attributions can be classified into one of two types based on a dimension of internality. Dispositional attributions are causal factors that are internal to the actor – part of the actor's character, personality, or ability (also often called internal attributions). The other type of attribution is labeled situational.
Diversity
Authors: Berger Lauren K. , Hwang Wei‐Chin 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The word “diversity” derives from the Latin word
varietas
, meaning variety or differences. There are many different kinds or types of diversity (e.g., race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, sexual orientation, disabilities, socioeconomic status, religion, political beliefs, and cultural practices). Historically, there has been considerable debate and many attempts to correct the exclusion and mistreatment of certain groups based on their background. Modern‐day usage of the term diversity is associated with multiculturalism, and the acceptance, inclusion, understanding, and respect of people from different backgrounds. Here, we review the progression of diversity awareness in the United States. However, it is important to note that many countries have undergone similar developments, and that international understanding of diversity issues continues to advance.
Eating Disorders
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Broadwell Rachael M. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractEating disorders are characterized by severe disturbances in eating behaviors. The two most common eating disorders in the research literature are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa occurs when an individual refuses to maintain his or her body weight at or above a minimal standard and expresses an intense fear of becoming overweight, a distorted body image, negative self‐evaluation related to body weight and shape, and often denial that there is a problem. Bulimia is characterized by frequent bouts of binge eating, use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors to minimize weight gain, and a negative self‐evaluation related to body weight and shape. These eating disorders occur as a result of various developmental, sociocultural, and biological processes. Research focuses on how these various factors interact and influence a person to develop an eating disorder. There is some evidence that cultural factors are a primary contributor to these disorders.
Eckensberger, Lutz H
Authors: Keith Kenneth D. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Lutz H. Eckensberger is Professor Emeritus at the University of Frankfurt and the German Institute for International Educational Research. At the German Institute he served as director (1998–2004) and as head of the Department of Culture and Education (until 2007). He completed work for the doctorate in 1970 and his Habilitation in 1973 at Saarland University, and for 20 years was a professor of developmental psychology at the same institution. Eckensberger moved to Frankfurt in 1996. He is a cultural psychologist with interests in environmental psychology, culture and development, cross‐cultural psychology, education, and morality.
Ecological Systems
Authors: Hooper Lisa M. , Crusto Cindy A. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractAn ecological systems approach is an ideal theoretical framework to underpin the development and conceptualization of cross‐cultural psychology research because it allows researchers to consider the dynamic relations between people and the contexts in which they are embedded. Cultural factors – including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, socioeconomic status, country of origin, geography, and level of ability – are implicated at every level of human ecology. Ecological systems theory (EST) highlights and points to the unique context and environments in which the individual interacts and which shape development over time. According to and other scholars, the researcher investigating cross‐cultural issues and constructs should account for the multiple contexts (or systems) in which individuals and populations exist.
Effect Size
Authors: Beins Bernard C. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
When researchers conduct research that results in statistically significant results, they conclude that the significant effect reflects a high likelihood that the observed behavior is due to a relation between variables of interest rather than to random error. If an investigator assumes that there is an effect (i.e., in terms of null hypothesis statistical tests, the null hypothesis has been rejected), the question becomes one of assessing the size of the effect.
Emic
Authors: Hwang Wei‐Chin , Ting Julia Y. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe wordsemicandeticwere originally coined by the linguistic anthropologist. Emic was derived from the term “phonemic,” which refers to the units of sound that are distinctive to a particular language. Etic was derived from the term “phonetic,” and refers to units of sound that are not distinctive to a particular language. Since their original usage, these terms have been modified and used in various ways and by different fields of study.
Emotion Regulation
Authors: Allen Joseph A. , Landowski Nicole B. , Nunnally Charles A. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Emotion regulation is the process by which individuals manage their emotions by inhibiting or enhancing their emotional responses. Emotion regulation is not a lack of expression but rather an effort to actively modify the response. According to the dual process model of emotion regulation, regulation occurs at both the collective and individual levels. At the collective level, cultural practices have the ability to encourage and discourage certain psychological processes and experiences. At the individual level, individual preferences, attitudes, personality, and other characteristics impact the way in which persons regulate their emotion.
Emotion
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Humans experience a wide range of affective phenomena and much of it is called
emotion
by researchers and laypersons alike. Emotion is an aspect of our lives that all persons have a lifetime of access to, as well as a lifetime of contemplation of its nuances. Thus it is difficult to arrive at a consensual definition of emotion that encompasses all possible types of emotion and distinguishes it from other affective phenomena. At the same time, researchers need to make explicit their working definitions so they and others can understand what part of the affective world they call emotion.
Empathy
Authors: Draguns Juris G. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Defined empathy as “an affective state that stems from the apprehension of another's emotional state or condition and that is congruent with it.” Affectively, empathy enables a person to feel what another person is feeling. Cognitively, empathy makes it possible to adopt another person's point of view or to share his or her perspective in experiencing both the self and the world. Typically, cognitive and affective aspects of empathy occur in tandem, but exceptions can be envisaged. Thus, a detective tracking down a terrorist is attuned to his or her motives and plans, but with little empathetic affect, if any. Empathy is related, but not identical, to sympathy, which is awareness of another person's suffering, combined with the desire to alleviate it, nor to altruism, defined as an intrinsically motivated helpful action for the benefit of the distressed. As put it, “the primary intent of empathy is to understand a person, and the focus of sympathy is the wellbeing of the individual.” Empirically, however, substantial support has accrued for a strong relationship between empathetic feeling and altruistic action.
Equivalence
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Equivalence can be defined as the opposite of bias. However, historically these two terms have somewhat different roots and, as a consequence, they have become and remain associated with different aspects of cross‐cultural score comparisons. Bias has become the generic term for nuisance factors that threaten the validity of cross‐cultural score comparisons, whereas equivalence tends to be associated more with measurement level issues in cross‐cultural score comparisons. Both bias and equivalence are pivotal concepts in cross‐cultural research.
Erikson, Erik
Authors: Levy David , Shiraev Eric 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Erik Erikson (1902–1994), an American psychologist and psychoanalyst, is recognized for his developmental and personality theories. He was born in Germany to a Jewish mother; the name and identity of his biological father are unclear. Erikson received initial training in arts in Baden and then at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute before his immigration to the United States in 1933 after the Nazi Party victory. He worked in America as a clinical practitioner, researcher, professor, and writer. He worked in several universities, including Yale, the University of California at Berkeley, and Harvard. Erikson pursued traditional psychoanalysis and advanced psychology by emphasizing sociocultural influences on individual development.