bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Marketing
Authors: Eisend Martin 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
International marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as follows: “international marketing is the multinational process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.” Despite the similarities between marketing decisions and activities on local markets, marketers face some unique decisions during the process of international or global marketing: the decision whether to internationalize; the decision as to which markets to enter; the decision as to which market entry strategies to apply; and the decision how to design, implement, and coordinate the global marketing program.
Knowledge Management
Authors: Wagner Heinz‐Theo , Moos Bernhard 
Published: January 2015

AbstractKnowledge is arguably the most important asset of firms and a central tenet of the knowledge‐based view that regard firms as systems of knowledge production and application. In this context, two forms of knowledge – explicit and tacit knowledge – gain significant interest in literature and are discussed with respect to diverse knowledge management processes such as knowledge creation or knowledge transfer. Knowledge management deals with systematic processes to identify, acquire, create, share, apply, and maintain knowledge, and is critical for firms to fulfill their organizational objectives.
Labor Markets
Authors: Hoşgör Evren A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractLabor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labor supply refers to the number of workers willing and able to work, whereas labor demand means the number of workers firms are willing and able to hire. Through this interaction, wages, the size of workforce and working conditions are determined at labor markets. The concept does not refer to a single competitive market. It is composed of many individual submarkets and can be subdivided according to geographic location or occupation.
Long‐Term Future Orientation
Authors: Ashkanasy Neal M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Long‐term future orientation refers to a cultural belief that individuals are able to influence their future and that they will have a future that matters. Such individuals also plan for their future and assess their current actions in terms of future effects. Long‐term orientation is also associated with past memories, such that favorable memories tend to maintain the status quo, while unfavorable memories can result in a totally new vision of the future.
Marketing
Authors: Eisend Martin 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association (AMA, 2007) as “the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.” The marketing orientation focuses on what customers want. The needs of customers drive production, and marketing activities aim at satisfying them. In line with this orientation is the understanding that a company has to be managed from a market perspective. This understanding is central for the marketing planning process that covers both strategic marketing as well as instrumental marketing related to product, price, communication, and distribution.
Microfinance
Authors: Roy Abhijit 
Published: January 2015

AbstractMicrofinance involves offering financial services to microentrepreneurs and small businesses that lack access to traditional banking and related services due to the high transaction costs of serving them. There are four types of microfinance providers: (i)informal financial service providers, which include moneylenders, pawn brokers, savings collectors, and so on; (ii)member‐owned organizations, which include self‐help groups, credit unions, and a variety of hybrid organizations such as financial service associations; (iii) nongovernment organizations (NGOs), which offer innovative, pioneering banking techniques such as solidarity lending, village banking, and mobile banking in serving poor populations; and (iv)formal financial institutions, which include commercial banks, as well as state banks, agricultural development banks, savings banks, rural banks, and nonbank financial institutions.The modern history of microfinance can be traced back to the 1970s by Muhammad Yunus, with the formation ofGrameen Bankin Bangladesh when they began providing large‐scale outreach profitably, to the twenty first century when the goal is to satisfy unmet demand on a much larger scale and to play a greater role in reducing poverty. Microfinance has grown rapidly in the past four decades with almost $25 billion in loans in 2012, even though there is demand for almost 10 times as much capital. Such programs can operate on the web – Kiva,Zidisha,Microloan Foundation, andUnited Prosperityhave used various models to connect lenders in the developed world to microentrepreneurs in the developing world. The successes of microfinance in some parts of the world have been difficult to replicate elsewhere and as such have faced occasional criticisms.
Motivation and Reward Systems
Authors: van Eerde Wendelien 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Reward systems are identified as one of the human resource management (HRM) practices that may impact motivation. Reward systems may consist of several components, including financial and nonfinancial rewards, in fixed and variable amounts. Reinforcement, expectancy, and equity principles are discussed to explain why reward systems have motivating properties. The influence of reward systems on motivation is not straightforward, because the psychological meaning of pay has to be taken into account. Each system may have unintended consequences because of the psychological interpretation of the rewards. In an international context, it is reasonable to assume that cultural differences affect the interpretation and meaning of reward systems, as the values that affect their meaning may differ between cultures. As such, a reward system may have differential motivational effects in different cultures. Some research findings regarding these differences are presented, and some issues for future research are discussed.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Vora Davina 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Multiculturalism is a term used at the societal, organizational, group, and individual levels. The first two relate to openness toward multiple cultures at the societal or organizational levels and has been discussed in the diversity literature of management. The third relates to group dynamics in the context of diverse groups. Multiculturalism at the individual level is related to biculturalism, where a person identifies with more than one culture.
Organizational Culture
Authors: Kwantes Catherine T. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractOrganizational culture reflects aspects of organizational life that are not visible, yet have enormous impact on both employees and organizations they impact every aspect of organizational functioning. It reflects a shared understanding of how things are done in an organization as well as how things should bedone. It serves as a coordinating mechanism that promotes individual employee efforts toward organizational goals when it is a positive and strong culture, but can be a liability if it is too weak or too strong. Organizational cultures develop from forces within an organization, such as its mission, the values of the founder of the organization, and the values of top management. It is also strongly affected from forces outside the organization such as societal cultures and forces from the profession or industry within which the organization functions, thus creating subcultures. These variations in organizational culture may be understood as resulting from an integration, differentiation, or fragmentation perspective, with each perspective focusing on an assumption of the degree to which different constituencies share common assumptions and norms, and ascribe similar meanings to organizational events.
Parochialism
Authors: Gluesing Julia C. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractParochialism refers to an outlook that emphasizes a narrow or local perspective on living and working. International business scholarship is criticized for being parochial, for taking a western perspective and one, that is, narrowly defined by disciplinary boundaries. The trend for the future in both scholarship and international business competency is to be less parochial and more pluralistic, multidisciplinary, and multidimensional.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Newburry William 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article briefly reviews the literature on corporate reputation. It overviews a few of the major conceptualizations of corporate reputation, along with a number of reputation antecedents found in prior studies. The article next discusses international aspects of reputation and the general need for future research examining the reputation construct in an international context. Finally, it addresses some measurement issues, while also comparing and contrasting two prominent alternative reputation measures.
Resource Curse
Authors: Kolstad Ivar 
Published: January 2015

AbstractCountries rich in resources such as oil or diamonds on average have lower economic growth, more poverty and inequality, and lower levels of human development than other countries. This phenomenon is known as the resource curse. Recent scientific work on the phenomenon emphasizes political mechanisms, and finds that the resource curse is due to poor institutions. Major topics in the international business literature have been the normative analysis of the responsibilities of multinational corporations operating in resource rich countries, and positive analysis of their role in promoting or preventing development and institutional dysfunctions in these countries.
Risk
Authors: McQuillan Deirdre , Sharkey‐Scott Pamela 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Risk within the context of international management is an unavoidable aspect of business due to a lack of knowledge relating to a new foreign market on the part of the business entity and uncertainty associated with managerial decisions. While international risk is traditionally understood as relating to environmental uncertainties concerning foreign and unfamiliar environments, it may also be described from the perspective of the individual based on their propensity for risk taking behavior. Managers may be risk averse, risk tolerant or even risk seeking, depending on a range of factors including past experience and the extent of their international business relationships. In this regard, managing international risk involves the consideration of factors both from within and outside of the business entity.
Schwartz Value Theory
Authors: Elster Andrey , Sagiv Lilach 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe Schwartz Value Theory discusses values at both the individual and the national level. Individual‐level values are desirable goals that serve as guiding principles in people's lives. Schwartz identified 10 basic motivations, represented by 10 value types, yielding a circular model. The circular structure of values could be summarized into two main conflicts:self‐enhancement(power, achievement, hedonism) versusself‐transcendence(benevolence, universalism) values andopenness‐to‐change(self‐direction, stimulation) versusconservation values(tradition, conformity, security). The Schwartz model has been tested in extensive cross‐cultural research providing support for the theorized content and structure of values. At the cultural level, Schwartz identified three bipolar dimensions of values that allow for comparing societies. Theembeddednessversusautonomydimension focuses on the regulation of relationships between the individual and the group; thehierarchyversusegalitarianismdimension focuses on the regulation of responsible behavior among societal members; and themasteryversusharmonydimension focuses on the relationships between humanity and nature. The three bipolar dimensions form a circle in which cultural values that share compatible assumptions are adjacent whereas values that reflect conflicting assumptions oppose each other.
Scientific Mindfulness
Authors: Dietz Joerg , Jonsen Karsten 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Scientific mindfulness is a holistic, cross‐disciplinary, contextual, and reflexive approach to research, teaching, and practice using multiple perspectives with the intent to contribute to the betterment of society. With scientific mindfulness, Jonsen
et al
. introduced an evidence‐based approach that reflects a pro‐active mindset, combining a pro‐social attitude, stakeholder involvement, and intellectual curiosity with the purpose of generating practically relevant knowledge and evidence that are both valid and reliable. Scientific mindfulness is a general approach, but can also be concretely applied in the planning and execution of projects.
Shareholder Value
Authors: Campbell Bruce A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Shareholder value is the monetary worth of equity ownership in a business firm. In economics and finance, the maximization of shareholder value is considered the most important, if not exclusive, goal of a firm. Maximizing shareholder value is seen to align the actions of management with the interests of shareholders. In contrast to shareholder value, stakeholder theory, which has emerged in management and strategy literature, asserts a broader purpose for the firm: the creation of value for not only shareholders but all other stakeholders, including employees, suppliers, customers, and the community. Shareholder value less commonly refers to a firm's market capitalization, the market value of shares outstanding. This contrasts with the book or accounting value of equity which is the value of shareholders' equity on a firm's balance sheet. Shareholder value added (SVA) is a measure of economic profit a firm creates for its shareholders.
Social Axioms
Authors: Leung Kwok , Bond Michael H. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
To augment value‐based frameworks for cross‐cultural analysis, a framework based on social axioms, or generalized beliefs about the world, has been developed based on a global research program. Five dimensions of social axioms have been identified: Social cynicism asserts the malevolence of human nature and social institutions; reward for application refers to the belief complex that positive outcomes result from the application of effort, knowledge, and other resources to a problem; social complexity refers to the belief that people's behavior may vary across situations and that any given problem has multiple solutions; fate control refers to the belief in the preordination of events, but the possibility of predicting and improving one's fate by taking certain actions; finally, religiosity is concerned with the belief in the existence of a supernatural being controlling the universe and the beneficial social and personal functions of religious practice. At the cultural level of analysis, two dimensions have been identified. Dynamic externality refers to the belief in external agents of control as well as the usefulness of personal striving. Societal cynicism is conceptually similar to social cynicism. Both the individual‐ and culture‐level social axiom frameworks have been applied in international management research on a variety of topics.
Social Capital in the International Business Context
Authors: Athanassiou Nicholas , Maznevski Martha 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSocial capital is the value of the intangible resources lying in relationships among people. It can be drawn upon by those in the relationship to help them achieve something they could not otherwise do. Social capital describes a manager's relationships with others and complements human capital and financial capital. Social capital differs fundamentally from human and financial capital because it exists only through a specific relationship between two people or groups, that is, embedded in a social network. Such a network facilitates flow of usefulinformation, allows an actor to wieldinfluenceon others who play a critical role in decisions, provides access to resources, offers a certification for the actor'ssocial credentials, and facilitates access to social relations thatreinforcean actor's identity and his/her recognition in a network.
Social Cognition
Authors: Ravlin Elizabeth C. , Ward Anna‐Katherine 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The study of social cognition, or the processes whereby we interpret and respond to social stimuli (other individuals, aggregates, and ourselves), has become a major discipline contributing to general and international management research over the last 30 years. Because people extend their understandings of others and the self by inferring, deducing, and assuming beyond the actual evidence available to the senses, there are many aspects of managerial interpretation, action, and reaction that are significantly influenced by social cognitive processes. Research over the years has encompassed such topics as the relationship between cognition and emotion, attention, memory and encoding, and judgment and decision processes, among others. In the international management arena, as research has evolved from a focus on aggregate‐level cultural values, a stream of more recent studies builds on social cognitive principles examining how culture is manifest in individual social cognitive structure and processes. Important issues that have been investigated recently include the extent to which culture fosters holistic versus analytic modes of cognition, how culture influences the attributions made for behavior, and the role of automatic and controlled information processing and self‐regulation in effective development of cross‐cultural relationships.
Social Entrepreneurship: Innovation on Dual Frontiers
Authors: Mair Johanna , Ganly Kate 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Over the past two decades, social entrepreneurship as a phenomenon has gained increased momentum and is widely recognized for its potential to address social needs or problems that too often fall through the gaps of our market and governance systems. This article presents social entrepreneurship as a powerful tool to shape and change institutions and ultimately to inspire the commercial and public sectors. It is conceptualized as a process involving innovation on two levels: (i) the innovation of a new type of product, service, or structure that is created to fulfil unmet needs; and (ii) the innovation of envisioning and enacting alternative institutional arrangements. We contend that the dual nature of this type of innovation is what makes social entrepreneurship more effective than existing solutions and distinguishes it from conventional entrepreneurship. Two case studies are examined to show how social entrepreneurs kick start change by challenging taken for granted ways of doing things and demonstrating how new strategies can make a real impact. They illustrate that more sustainable solutions are possible and often provide “proof of concept” leading to the creation of new markets, new policies, and even new behaviors and attitudes.
Stakeholders
Authors: O'Sullivan Niamh 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThis article is concerned with the term “stakeholders.” It first considers the definition of stakeholders, how they may be identified, why they are important; and the challenges this poses for stakeholder management. It then provides an overview of stakeholder engagement processes in practice and how they have been critiqued in the academic literature. Finally, it briefly discusses the influence of different stakeholder groups on corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities, and how this may have interesting implications for stakeholder management and corporate governance in the future.
Strategic Management
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

AbstractStrategic management is defined as the process of evaluation, planning, and implementation designed to maintain or improve competitive advantage. The process of evaluation is concerned with assessment of the external and internal environments. Planning involves developing business models, corporate direction, competitive tactics, international strategy, acquisitions, and collaborative action. The implementation phase requires leadership to build the appropriate organizational structure, develop management culture, control the strategic processes, and steer the organization through ethical corporate governance. The outcomes of strategic activity are visible in the change in revenues, market shares, profits, and return on investment for stakeholders. The outcomes create a feedback loop which in turn affects the external and internal environment of the organization.
Supply Chain Management
Authors: Eroglu Cuneyt , Croxton Keely L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Even though supply chain management is sometimes used as a new name for logistics management, there is a growing consensus that supply chain management is a much broader concept. While logistics management is limited to managing product flows across the supply chain, supply chain management is about the management and integration of key value‐adding business processes within and between firms in a supply chain. Over the past decade, numerous authors, both academics and practitioners, have worked to provide guidelines for implementing intra‐ and inter‐firm integrations of business processes. Two prominent frameworks that have emerged from these efforts, namely, the supply chain management framework developed by the Global Supply Chain Forum and the Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR®) model developed by the Supply Chain Council. This article summarizes these frameworks.
Technology
Authors: Banerjee Preeta 
Published: January 2015

AbstractTechnology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. The study of technology and innovation management follows this development process from creation to commercialization, when the technology enters consumer markets and grows in adoption and use. Technology must deal with the cultural, socio‐demographic, and environmental issues that allow this to happen in different contexts, from appropriate technology to frugal innovation. By expanding technology in its development and use from developing countries to developed countries, technology allows people to participate and engage the world in more technically advanced ways, thus improving livelihoods and quality of life. Technology service and product managers should realize that the development and adoption of technology has become more than an issue of technical feasibility and economic growth to include social and cultural and environmental sustainability.
Trade
Authors: McGee Robert W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Trade is free if individuals or their representatives (corporations) can trade what they have for what they want. In all other cases, trade is not free. This entry begins with an ethical analysis of trade policies, and then proceeds to examine some of the major arguments that have been made over the centuries for protectionism, including the dumping, job destruction, deindustrialization, low wage, fairness, level playing field, and infant industry arguments. The entry concludes with a discussion of the concept of trade deficits.