bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Arretium
Authors: De Sena Eric C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractArretium (modern‐day Arezzo) is located at an important crossroads that joins the Arno and Tiber river valleys and a corridor through the Apennine Mountains leading toward Ariminum (rimini) and the upper Adriatic region. There is evidence for the presence of man as early as the Paleolithic period; however, the earliest physical manifestations of a settlement date to the sixth centuryBCE. Arretium was a flourishing Etruscan and Roman center, but the physical layout of the city and many historical vicissitudes are not well known (Torelli 1980: 297–301).
Caesarea (Cherchel)
Authors: Leveau Philippe 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Caesarea Mauretania (modern Cherchel) is located 96 km east of Algiers. Originally named Iol, the city was renamed Caesarea in honor of the emperor Augustus by King Juba II of Mauretania. Its origins go back to the fifth century
BCE
, when the Phoenicians established a trading post on a small island that was later connected to the mainland. In the second century
BCE
, the Massylian‐Numidian king Micipsa made the city one of the capitals of his kingdom. The Numidian city moved to the narrow coastal plain from the small island. This small city of about 8 ha has been identified by Algero‐British excavations.
Cerveteri (Caere)
Authors: Pieraccini Lisa C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Etruscan metropolis Caere, known to the Etruscans as
Cisra
(Greeks,
Agylla
; Romans,
Caere
) and today as Cerveteri, was situated on a tufa outcrop which had a commanding view of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Located 45 km northwest of Rome and 7 km from the Tyrrhenian coast, Cerveteri is famous today for the abundance of ancient Etruscan rock‐cut tombs, numbering in the thousands, located in several necropoleis, namely, the Banditaccia, Monte Abatone, Cava Della Pozzolana, and the Iron Age necropolis of Sorbo.
Cosa
Authors: De Sena Eric C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFounded in Etruria as a Latin colony in 273BCE, Cosa is situated on a promontory overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea near Monte Argentario (Cosa I). Presumably named after a nearby Etruscan site Cusi or Cosia, Cosa was a thriving city whose livelihood depended upon rich agricultural production, fishing, and trade and whose leading citizens included the Sestii and Domitii Ahenobarbi.
Glanum
Authors: Congès Anne Roth 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Originally a Celto‐Ligurian
oppidum
, Glanum later became a city within Gallia Narbonensis and a station on the
Via Domitia
east of the Rhone. Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, and ancient itineraries all mention the site. It is named for the Celtic god Glan, who was linked to a healing spring. Famous for the ruins known as “Les Antiques” (a mausoleum and arch), the site has been excavated since 1921, mainly by H. Rolland in the period 1942–69.
Guadalquivir
Authors: Hidalgo Rafael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Guadalquivir River, over 700 km long, crosses the south of the Iberian Peninsula from east to west, from its source in the Sierra de Cazorla (Jaén) to its mouth in Sanlúcar de Barrameda (Cádiz). On reaching the Atlantic Ocean it opens into a broad estuary of a width of approximately 4 km at the point where the estuary flows into open sea. Its current name derives from the Arabic Wadi al‐Kabir (“great river”). In pre‐Roman times it was probably given the name of Tartessos, whereas with the arrival of Rome it was called Baetis (Strabo 3.2.3–11). The Guadalquivir, like other Spanish rivers, brings together a good part of this country's most important history. Since prehistoric times, it has been the focal point around which the towns and cities of the southern peninsula have shaped themselves.
Monte Testaccio
Authors: Peña J. Theodore 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Monte Testaccio (Italian for “Potsherd Mountain”) is an artificial mound comprised almost entirely of fragments of olive oil amphoras, located in the Emporium district of Rome. This feature appears to have been created by the systematic disposal of containers for oil imported to Rome by the Roman state that was stored in the Horrea Galbana, a state‐owned warehouse located immediately to its north.
Novaesium (Neuss)
Authors: Kiernan Philip 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Neuss is located on the west bank of the Rhine, approximately 30 km downstream from Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne) and just to the north of the Erft River. It is one of the earliest settlements and military sites of Roman Germany. The ancient name, Novaesium, is first attested by Tacitus in his description of the Batavian Revolt of 70
CE
(Tac.
Hist
. 4.26). Prior to the Roman period, the area was inhabited by the Germanic Eburones, who were wiped out in the course of Caesar's conquest of Gaul. The area remained virtually uninhabited until it was resettled with the Germanic Ubii in either 39 or 20
BCE
by Agrippa. Excavations have so far failed to locate the site of the earliest Ubian settlement at Neuss.
Noviomagus Batavorum (Nijmegen)
Authors: Kiernan Philip 
Published: December 2012

AbstractUlpia Noviomagus (Municipium Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum, not to be confused with other Celtic places called Noviomagus), now Nijmegen in the Netherlands, was the civitas capital of the Batavians, and the third most important city in the province of Germania Inferior after Cologne and Xanten.
Piazza Armerina
Authors: Wilson R. J. A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Roman Villa near Piazza Armerina consists of 45 rooms plus corridors covering some 1.5 ha (outbuildings remain undiscovered). It is renowned for the variety and sheer quantity of its polychrome figured and ornamental mosaic floors. The date is disputed. Pottery found in floor make‐up suggests a date of ca. 320/25–330
CE
, the generally accepted chronology; recent arguments for a later date (ca. 375), at least for geometric mosaics, can be discounted. The notion that the villa belonged to an emperor (Maximian?) is now discarded by most scholars: it was more likely the property of a rich private
dominus
, a senator, whether Italian or Sicilian is unknown. Candidates suggested include governors of Sicily (Domitius Latronianus, Betitius Perpetuus) or other senators (L. Aradius Valerius Proculus, Ceionius Rufius Albinus), but the evidence is inconclusive: the
dominus
' identity is unknown.
Porolissum
Authors: De Sena Eric C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Located in northwestern Romania, Porolissum (modern‐day Moigrad) was established in 106
CE
under Trajan. It served as the primary military base in the hierarchy of the Roman defensive network in northwestern Dacia, with secondary fortresses located at Tihǎu, Romita‐Certiae, Romanaşi, and Buciumi. In addition to protecting a major corridor through the Carpathian Mountains, Porolissum's location affords a commanding view of a 30 km stretch of the Roman
limes
and offers a line of vision toward one of the most important native Dacian sites, Şimleu Silvaniei, some 25 km to the west, probably the
Dacidava
mentioned by Claudius Ptolemaeus (
Geography
3.8 Dacia).
Pyrenees
Authors: Sablayrolles Robert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe mountain range of the Pyrenees extends 400 km from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, reaching a peak altitude of 3,404 m at the Aneto. In the protohistoric period, the eastern part of the Pyrenees was settled by Iberians (on the north and south slopes), while those whom Caesar called Aquitani peopled the west. Linguistic criteria (as seen through place names) show that these zones divided around the center of the massif, at the valley of the Ariège to the north and in the valleys of the Nogueras to the south. Evidence from archaeology and toponyms indicates a rather limited Celtic influence. Although Strabo (4.1.1) depicts the Pyrenees as a boundary between Celts to the north and Iberians to the south, one may argue that this arrangement was a later development created by Roman provincial administration and continued in national developments of the nineteenth century.
Ravenna
Authors: Yasin Ann Marie 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Situated on the southern branch of the Po River in northeast Italy, Ravenna served as capital of the Western Roman Empire from 402–476. From the later fifth to the mid‐eighth century Ravenna effectively remained capital of Italy, first under Germanic and Ostrogothic kings and then under Byzantine control, until it fell to the Lombards in 751. The best preserved and most important material remains from the ancient city are its rich collection of Late Antique churches, mosaics, and sarcophagi. These monuments offer valuable evidence for the history of artistic production between the early Christian and medieval periods, an historically underrepresented art era due to the iconoclastic destructions of the eighth and ninth centuries in the Byzantine East.
Thule
Authors: Grane Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Thule (Θούλη, Thyle) is an island situated in the northernmost reaches of the ancient world, first mentioned by Pytheas of Massalia in his work “On the Ocean” from the mid‐fourth century
BCE
This work exists only through references by other ancient writers such as
STRABO OF AMASEIA
(1.4.2–5; 2.4.1; 2.5.8; 4.5.5.) or Pliny the Elder (
HN
2.187; 4. 104).
Naveta
Authors: Perez‐Juez Amalia 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
A naveta is a megalithic structure built on the Balearic Islands of Majorca and Minorca during the Late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age. The name derives from its unusual shape, resembling an upside‐down boat. Its cyclopean architecture of large limestone blocks, fitted together without mortar, make these buildings outstanding landmarks in the territory.
Helvetii
Authors: Fuchs Michel E. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Helvetians occupied the Swiss Plateau and had a well‐defined territory bordered by the Rhine, Lake Constance, the Rhône, Lake Geneva, Jura, and the Alps. Julius Caesar, in his
Conquest of Gaul
(1.2), even reports its size: “two hundred and forty miles long and a hundred and eight miles wide,” that is to say, 355 km × 266 km.
Octodurus – Forum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny, Switzerland)
Authors: Dubosson Benoît 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Octodurus was a small Celtic settlement, the capital of the Veragri, located where the Great St. Bernard Pass opens out into the Rhône plain. In the middle of the first century
CE
, it was replaced by a new Roman town,
Forum Claudii Vallensium
, that would later become the first episcopal see in the region of Valais.
Lousonna (Lausanne)
Authors: Cramatte Cédric 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lousonna
was a
vicus
of the Helvetii that developed on the shores of Lake Geneva. Its rapid development and economic growth was a result of its strategic position at the crossroad of important land and river routes leading from the south of Gaul and Italy to the Rhine provinces. The name of Lousonna appears in the Peutinger Table, the Antonine Itinerary, and several stone inscriptions.
Adonis
Authors: Reed J.D. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn Greek and Roman mythology, a mortal favorite or lover of Aphrodite/Venus. He and the ritual lament for him, the Adonia, are most plausibly derived from the Mesopotamian Tammuz via West Semitic speakers, as his name–fromadon, “lord”–suggests (Burkert 1979: 105–8).
Amphidromia
Authors: Hamilton Richard 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Greek birth ceremony called the Amphidromia (“run‐around”) is defined only in a few fragmentary late dictionaries and commentaries on various classical texts, and there is a good chance that these definitions are simply guesses based on the name itself and the understanding that the ceremony involved a newborn: a group (midwives? Naked males?) ran around something (the family hearth? the child?) five or seven (or ten) days after the baby was born. A few sources add that friends and relatives sent octopus or squid as gifts.
Capitoline Triad
Authors: Orlin Eric 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Capitoline Triad was composed of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, who occupied the three cellas in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. Georges Dumézil suggested that the original threesome would have consisted of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, as representatives of the original three Indo‐European social groups: rulers, warriors, and farmers. However, good evidence for the worship of that triad at the site is lacking, and Roman sources, late though they may be, consistently report only the presence of Juno and Minerva alongside the primary deity of the Roman state.
Caristia
Authors: Dolansky Fanny 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Celebrated on February 22, this family festival, also called Cara Cognatio (“Dear Kinsmen”), immediately followed the Parentalia. Relatives gathered for a feast, believing commensality could mend strained relationships (Val. Max. 2.1.8), and exchanged gifts, sometimes also with friends (Martial 9.54, 9.55). Ideally, the celebration was marked by the presence of the goddess
Concordia
and absence of dysfunctional relations (Ov.
Fast
. 2.623–32). By the mid—fifth century
CE
, it was conceived as a day when grudges against the dead were abandoned (Pol. Silv.), and probably later became the festival of St. Peter's Chair (Bomer 1957/58
ad
2.617; Salzman 1990: 47, 160–1).
Charms, spells, Greece and Rome
Authors: Pollard Elizabeth Ann 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCharms (Greekepoidaiandgoeteiai, Latincarmina; cf. the Latin verbsincantareandexcantare) are verbal formulae with magical efficacy; that is, the chanting of these verses or words was thought to bring about a desired effect, including positive results such as healing, ambivalent goals such as consummating erotic relationships, and more deleterious aims such as bodily harm or even death.
Cult clothing, Greek
Authors: Gawlinski Laura 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Greeks did not have specialized costumes intentionally created for exclusive use during cultic activity, but clothing did play important roles in ancient Greek religion. Clothing and accessories could differentiate cultic functionaries from participants, visually communicate social and cultic standing, and underscore the importance of ritual propriety. It also became a part of ritual action when dedicated to a deity.
Demons, Greek and Roman
Authors: Smith Gregory A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDemons have a long and continuous history from Homer through Late Antiquity. While there were important and sometimes divergent developments throughout the period, certain features recur with insistent frequency. These include a conception of demons as somehow “between” human beings and the higher gods, a close link between demons and the course of human events, a persistent but not exclusive association of demons with misfortune in particular, and a close connection between demons and the human soul.
Earth deities, Greece and Rome
Authors: Norton Elizabeth A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Many Greco‐Roman goddesses are said to have had some form of power over earth and fertility, and some have close connections with the earth. However, the Earth as a deity is slightly harder to define in both myth and history. The Greek personification of the Earth is Gaia, also called Ge, and her Roman equivalent is Tellus, the Terra Mater.
Epione
Authors: Mylonopoulos Ioannis 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Most literary sources on Asklepios and his family identify Epione as the god's wife. Based on the etymology of her name, which derives from the Greek term
epios
(soothing), Epione appears to be some sort of personification, most probably of the gentle care essential to successful recuperation. Only in Athens (
IG
II
2
4473), Epidauros (
IG
IV
2
1, 384), Pergamon (
IvP
III 72), and Kos (
Iscr. di Cos
EV 219) does epigraphic evidence identify Epione as a cultic figure and not simply as a mythological one. Although Epione is usually recognized as a Koan figure, Hausmann (1948: 31) suggested that the Epidaurians invented her.
Harpokrates
Authors: Dowling Melissa Barden 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHarpokrates is the Greek name for Horus the Child, son of Isis and Osiris, the manifestation of the sun at dawn, an integral part of the cycle of Osiris' death and rebirth as Horus. He appears frequently nursing at Isis' breast or as a chubby boy with a finger pressed to his lips.
Janus
Authors: Holland Lora L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Janus is the Roman god of doorways and archways (Latin
ianua
). His name is given to January, the gateway into the New Year (Ov.
Fast
. 1), and to the Janiculum Hill. He has no Greek counterpart, but in Indo‐European terms Janus seems to be “a personification of transitional spaces through which one must walk in order to begin an under‐taking” (Taylor 2000: 2).
Libations, Greek
Authors: Ekroth Gunnel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA libation is a ritual outpouring of liquids. Libations were part of all sacrifices but could also be performed as independent rituals. The common terms for the rituals arespondaiandchoai. The former term is most frequent and referred to a controlled outpouring of a small amount of liquid for the Olympian gods by the help of a jug and a phiale.Choaiwere poured out entirely and were used for libations to the gods of the underworld, the heroes and the dead.
Matronalia
Authors: Dolansky Fanny 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Matronalia on March 1, sometimes labelled a “women's festival” (Wissowa 1912: 185; Scullard 1981: 87) due to the prominence of women in the rites and its perceived origins in their actions during the Sabine War (Ov.
Fast
. 3.179–232; Plut.
Rom
. 21.1) is better characterized as a domestic celebration.
Eleusis, Mysteries of
Authors: Wallensten Jenny 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEvery year people from all over the Mediterranean set out for the Attic town of Eleusis to celebrate secret rites in honor of the goddess Demeter and her daughter Kore. All Greek‐speaking men and women (not tainted by blood‐guilt) could participate, and these Eleusinian Mysteries, promising a better afterlife for the initiated, came to enjoy immense popularity.
Paganism, Greece and Rome
Authors: Sandwell Isabella 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPaganism is the term modern scholars use to describe the non‐Judaeo‐Christian religions of the Greco‐Roman world. It is also one of the most problematic concepts in the scholarship of the ancient world, because it is derived from ancient Christian usage and because it can distort the diverse Greco‐Roman religious traditions that it seeks to describe.
Pan
Authors: Thomas Oliver R. H. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Greek god Pan (or Aigipan) embodied life in the periphery, in particular that of the billy‐goat and goatherd. Since ca. 490
BCE
this personification was frequently readapted, largely by educated city‐dwellers. Pan is free‐ranging; he is lustful but normally frustrated; he is associated with uncanny echoes, hallucinations, pan‐ic attacks, and trances; he hunts small game, and plays the pipes (especially his pan‐pipes). Some early representations depict a quadrupedal or bipedal goat, but most often he is a hybrid with goat‐like features especially on the head and legs. Vase‐painters emphasize his bestiality, and often relate him to satyrs and so increasingly to Dionysos' thiasos. However, the common
aposkopeuon
pose presents him as a goatherd peering after flocks, and his goat‐like features may be almost entirely downplayed, as in some statues inspired by Polykleitos. Although Pan was rarely a civic god (a factor which conditions our archaeological sources), he appears widely on coinage, and his worshippers ranged from herdsmen to the wealthy. The name “Pan” is probably related to Indo‐European words like “pastor.” A relationship with Indian Pushan remains doubtful.
Pluto
Authors: Wallensten Jenny 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

For the ancient Greeks, Pluto (Greek
Plouton
) was another name for the king of the underworld, Hades; it referred to a benign aspect of that otherwise pitiless god, or was understood as a euphemism for the frightening name of Hades (Plat.
Crat
. 403a).
Pomona
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A priest (
flamen Pomonalis
; Festus portent 144.10– 14L; Varro
Ling
. 7.45) and a sacred grove (
Pomonal
) in the Solonian field (
ager Solonius
) outside Rome between Ostia and Ardea (Festus p. 296.15–17L) point to great antiquity and a deity of fruits (
dea Pomorum
; Servius
Aen
. 7.190; cf. Aug.
De civ. D
. 4.24 and 4.34), but whether that god was originally called Pomona (a female goddess) or by some other name remains a topic of dispute among scholars:
pomum
, or “fruit,” could, for example, also yield the masculine form
Pomonus
(and inscriptions from outside Rome attest indeed to other forms).
Religion, Roman, terminology of
Authors: Engels David 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Religio
is defined by Cicero as “whatever refers to the care of gods and the ceremonies related to them” (Cic.
Inv. rhet
. 2.161), a definition showing the essentially formalistic nature of Roman religion (compare also Cic.
Nat. D
. 2.8, where
religio
is equated with
cultus deorum
, “the cultivation of the gods”).
Sacrifice, Roman
Authors: Bendlin Andreas 
Published: December 2012

AbstractNo single Roman term adequately encompasses the modern category of “sacrifice.”Sacrum facereand its cognatesacrificare, “to perform an activity related to the sacred sphere,” have been taken by scholars to mean “to render sacred” and to denote one essential function of Roman sacrificial practice, namely the transfer of sacrificial material from the profane to the sacred realm, but the material does not unequivocally support such an interpretation.
Sibyls and Sibylline books, Greece and Rome
Authors: Cline Rangar 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEarly Greek sources such as Heraclitus (ca. 535 – ca. 475BCE) treat Sibyl (sibylla) as the personal name of a single prophetess, which was then transferred to later seers. As the legend of the Sibyl spread, she began to be associated with multiple locations.
Summanus
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A god who hurled lightning, Summanus is well‐attested in Latin inscriptions, and he enjoys persistent, although infrequent and contradictory, mention in Latin literature from Plautus, who treats him humorously (
Curc
. 415–16), to Late Antique Christian authors, who disparage him (August.
De civ. D
. 4.23). Inscriptions from Rome document a powerful divinity whose lightning strikes were expiated (
CIL
VI 206; 2107; 30879; 30880; cf. Livy 32.29.1).
Theologia tripertita
Authors: Green C. M. C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Xenophanes of Colophon (sixth century
BCE
) famously observed that if horses had gods, their gods would look like horses. This observation was provoked by the moral frailty of Homer's too human gods, and growing critical scrutiny of anthropomorphic religious practices in general. As philosophers came to define a world of universal laws, Homeric‐style deities indulging themselves on Olympos became increasingly suspect.
Theseus and Theseia
Authors: Anderson Ralph 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Mythical king of Attica, son of Aegeus or Poseidon (versions differ), and Aethra, Theseus became prominent in Athenian mythology, art, and cult in the later sixth century
BCE
, owing to Athenian desire for a home‐grown hero to counterbalance Dorian Herakles, perhaps assisted by promotion by the Alkmaionidai or Kleisthenes as an antidote to the Peisistratids' exploitation of Herakles and an expression of Athenian unity.
Victoria
Authors: Thornton Daniel James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In Roman religion, Victoria was the divine embodiment of victory, equivalent to the Greek goddess Nike, often appearing as a winged figure. Several temples were erected in her honor in Rome, with the most famous located on the Palatine Hill, erected in 294
BCE
. Victoria also had a conspicuous presence in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, where she was represented by a golden statue sent by Hieron II of Syracuse after the Roman defeat by Hannibal at Lake Trasimene in 217
BCE
.