bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Rogers-Hotchkiss Geological Maps of Virginia and West Virginia
Authors: Lessing Peter 
Published: April 2015

During the years 1835 to 1841, the first geological survey of Virginia, and what is now West Virginia, was conducted under the leadership of William Barton Rogers. His geological work was produced in seven annual reports presented to the Board of Public Works, which were reprinted in 1884 as a single volume by his widow. However, the first geological map from Rogers' survey of Virginia was only published in 1876 by Jedediah Hotchkiss.
Rogers gave his geological map to Hotchkiss in 1873 for use in Hotchkiss' book published 3 years later. During the following 10 years, this geological map was produced 13 more times, mostly by Hotchkiss, and each version is slightly different. Some changes are obvious, such as scale, base map, or cross sections, whereas other modifications are subtle, including stratigraphic units, title, or colors. Three versions are hand colored; the others are lithographs. The known versions, by date, are two in 1874, one circa 1875, five in 1880 and one circa 1880, one in 1881, one in 1882, and three in 1884. Interestingly, none of these 14 versions modified Rogers' original geology, although Rogers modified his original stratigraphic nomenclature. A fifteenth version, apparently done without Rogers' knowledge for the Union army in 1862, is the hand colored geological map by Thomas S. Ridgway.
Studies of the History of Geology in the Soviet Union in the Second Half of the 20th Century
Authors: Tikhomirov Vladimir 
Published: April 2015

The earth scientists of Russia have long been interested in the history of geological knowledge. V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945) and V. A. Obruchev (1861-1956) saw the necessity and actively supported research into the history of science in Russia. During the 1930-1940s M. S. Shatsky (1895-1960) published analyses of the ideas of Charles Darwin (1809-1882), R.I. Murchinson (1792-1871), and A. D. Archangelsky (1879-1940). He followed these with a series of papers devoted to the history of the evolution of theoretical and applied geology.
In the early 1950s several works investigating actualistic and uniformitarian methods were published in the USSR. From the 1960s through the 1980s, the new fields of paleogeography and lithology evolved and a new branch of geology resulted from the prospecting and exploration of radioactive materials.
In 1967, an International Committee on the History of Geological Knowledge was proposed by Soviet geologists and established at the 23rd International Geological Congress at Yerevan. It is presently known as "INHIGEO," a Commission of the International Union of Geological Sciences. INHIGEO now has 126 members from 35 countries. From 1967 to 1992, INHIGEO sponsored seventeen international symposia. One or two were held at each of the International Geological Congresses, which regularly convene every fourth year, and additional symposia have been held at frequent intervals.
The complex process of the evolution of the natural sciences in Russia may be subdivided into separate periods. Since the late 1960s, geophysics has grown in importance and several major fields of geophysics have emerged. In addition, a general theory of the Earth has taken shape, geoecological studies have begun, and a theoretical history of geology and other earth sciences has evolved.
The last quarter of this century has witnessed the publication of two multi-volume series: "Geological knowledge in the USSR," comprising 52 books and "Sketches on the history of geological knowledge," with 28 issues. These works outline the history of geological knowledge in the USSR from about 1965 to 1990.
Theories of Terrestrial Mass Extinction by Extraterrestrial Objects
Authors: D'Hondt Steven 
Published: April 2015

Theories of mass extinction by extraterrestrial objects have been intermittently proposed by European and North American scientists for at least 250 years. Until the late twentieth century, such theories usually treated biological extinction as a single aspect of global cataclysm. Proposed ultimate causes of mass extinction have included the passage of planetesimals close to Earth, impacts of comets or asteroids, and transient increases in cosmic radiation.
These theories have consistently extrapolated from astronomical observations to suggest that extraterrestrial objects had affected Earth at some time in the past. However, until the late twentieth century, none of these theories proposed definitive tests of temporal coincidences between mass extinctions and and the terrestrial effects of extraterrestrial objects. Harold Urey's (1973) cometary impact hypothesis was the first to propose such a test. The impact-extinction theory of Luis Alvarez and his colleagues (1980) was the first to provide direct evidence of such a coincidence. Such tests were probably not possible before the middle of the twentieth century. The failure of earlier theories to generate sustained scientific interest can be most simply attributed to their lack of such evidence.
Theories of extraterrestrially caused mass extinction have almost always combined hypotheses of ultimate and proximate causes of extinction. The stability of these combinations has varied greatly from category to category and age to age. In general, these combinations evolved much more rapidly when they were presented and discussed in mainstream scientific literature. Despite their ubiquity, hypotheses of proximate causes have served a limited role in the reception of these theories. Scientific critics of these theories have consistently required hypotheses of proximate causes to appear plausible. However, the recent history of impact theories indicates that an ultimate cause of mass extinction may be widely accepted without definitive proof of the proximate cause of extinction.
Newton Horace Winchell, The George Armstrong Custer Expedition of 1874, and the "Discovery" of Gold in the Black Hills, Dakota Territory, U.S.A.
Authors: Morey G. 
Published: April 2015

Rumors circulated for years about the fabulous wealth to be found in the Black Hills, an area in Dakota Territory, U.S.A., ceded to the Sioux Nation in 1868. Although the Sioux Nation was determined to keep all outsiders out, the U.S. government decided to send an expedition into the hills during the summer of 1874, partly to map them for military purposes and partly to quell rumors about gold and other economic commodities.
The expedition was led by Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer (1839-1876) of the U.S. Seventh Cavalry. Newton Horace Winchell (1839-1914), director of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, was invited to join as chief geologist. His official reason for participating was to collect geologic specimens together with skins of animals for a newly formed Museum of Natural History. Prospectors also accompanying the expedition purportedly found gold at several places. Their finds were described in official dispatches written by Custer and in unofficial accounts prepared by newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition. Upon his return from the field, Custer emphasised the discoveries and their economic potential. At about the same time Winchell told reporters that the reports and the newspaper accounts were greatly exaggerated and that he had personally seen no trace of gold. Controversy continued over the next several months, mainly in the newspapers. In late 1874, Custer suggested that Winchell never saw gold because he never looked for it. Custer's view prevailed as pressure mounted to open the Black Hills to exploration. In the summer of 1875, the government sent a second expedition to the hills primarily to resolve the differing views of Custer and Winchell. That expedition found considerable evidence for economic quantities of gold, an act that further inflamed the Sioux. Consequently, many fled the reservation for parts of Montana and in January 1876 the Army was ordered to force the Native Americans back onto the reservation. That campaign led to the Battle of the Little Big Horn and to the death of Custer and his Seventh Cavalry on 21 June 1876. Although Winchell continued to serve as Minnesota State Geologist for 28 years and lived until 1914, he never again mentioned his role in the discovery of gold in the Black Hills.
Fashioning a Professional Dialogue in Oceanography: The U.S. Navy and the Ocean Science Community, 1924-1960
Authors: Weir Gary 
Published: April 2015

Since the Great War of 1914-1918 the relationship between naval officers and ocean scientists in the United States has illustrated well the unpredictable effect of cultural barriers on constructive professional dialogues. The customs and practices attending an academic or industrial laboratory differ dramatically from those absorbed by midshipmen at the United States Naval Academy or officers on board combat ships. Each group lives in a nearly discreet, culturally constructed world. During the course of this century the communication and understanding necessary for these communities to work together toward a common goal required social and political insight as well as extensive entrepreneurship and careful cultural translation.
Confronting a poverty of resources after World War One the Navy and the civilian oceanographic community formed a common practice to pool both resources and skill in an effort to perform meaningful ocean research. When the possibility of another war loomed large in the 1930s, they turned to determined cultural translators. The latter, drawn from both communities, converted the primitive common practice and considerable cultural obstacles of the interwar period into a fluid wartime professional dialogue. Fortified by success in World War II, key translators brought the dialogue to maturity after 1945.
Becoming A Geologist: Florence Bascom and Johns Hopkins, 1888-1895
Authors: Arnold Lois 
Published: April 2015

Florence Bascom (1862-1945) was a petrologist and field geologist at Bryn Mawr College who provided a basic description and interpretation of major areas of Pennsylvania and surrounding regions. This paper is the second of a two-part study that explores the question of how Bascom became a geologist. The first part dealt with Bascom's early history in Wisconsin, from the time she went to Madison at the age of 12 to her completion of a Master of Science degree in Microscopic Lithology under Roland D. Irving (1847-1888) at the University Of Wisconsin in 1887.This second part of the study begins with Bascom's experience teaching at Rockford Seminary in Illinois, where she was exposed to Mary E. Holmes (1850-1906). who had obtained a doctorate in paleontology from the University of Michigan. It then details the extension of Bascom's education from a limited laboratory-based experience to involvement in field work with George Huntington Williams (1856-1894) at Johns Hopkins University in the years 1891-1893. Johns Hopkins did not officially admit women to graduate study then. Nevertheless, on the basis of combined field and laboratory research in the Monterey district of Pennsylvania, Bascom received the first doctorate granted to a woman at the University. She was then hired as an Assistant in Geology by Edward Orton (1829-1899), at Ohio State University, a highly unusual appointment at that time. In addition to teaching, she was engaged in field and laboratory work at Ohio State until 1895, when she was hired by Martha Carey Thomas (1857-1935) at Bryn Mawr.
German Women Paleobotanists From the 1920S to the 1970S—Or Why Did This Story Start So Late?
Authors: Mohr Barbara , Vogt Annette 
Published: April 2015

This study documents women paleobotanists and their achievements from the late 1920s to the early 1970s in Germany. More than forty women were involved in paleobotanical research and related fields during this period. After they had finished their degrees, about two thirds of them left the field for private, political, and/or economic reasons. Several of them, however, had a successful career or were even leaders in their field. Compared with other disciplines and neighbouring countries, the unusually late entry of women students into this discipline from the 1930s on is explained by the close affiliation of the discipline with Paleozoic geology and mining in Germany before 1945. It is significant that of the thirteen women who finished a degree in the field before 1945, about two thirds studied Quaternary pollen analysis and vegetation history. Only a minority was involved in pre-Quaternary paleobotany.
After World War II, the number of women scientists increased noticeably only when Tertiary palynology/paleobotany became more important sub-disciplines of paleobotany, a pattern which was similar in both parts of the newly divided country. During the period between 1945 and 1955, the number of women students in West Germany was significantly higher than in the East. This is partly explained by the policies of the East German communist party, which put restrictions on women students from a middle-class background. Between 1955 and 1973 the number of women students in East Germany exceeded those in the West. This was due to the East German party policy of activating the female working force, especially in fields which had been traditionally occupied by men, such as geology, mining, and engineering.
Origin of the American Quantitative Igneous Rock Classification: Part 1
Authors: Young Davis 
Published: April 2015

In 1902, four American petrologists, C. Whitman Cross, Joseph P. Iddings, Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington co-authored a lengthy paper in which they proposed an extremely complex, quantitative classification of igneous rocks. Taking advantage of developments in microscopic petrography, the theory of magmatic differentiation, and knowledge of the chemical composition of igneous rocks, the ‘CIPW’ classification marked a radical break with all previous igneous rock classification schemes such as those of Rosenbusch and Zirkel.The present paper is the first in a series that explores the genesis and conceptual development of the American quantitative classification. In 1893 Iddings posed a simple question to three young American petrologist friends, Cross, Pirsson, and George H. Williams, about the legitimacy of the use of the terms ‘porphyry’ and ‘porphyrite’. Henry Washington was to join the group later, but Williams was one of the original four. From this question there emerged an expanded discussion, conducted primarily via correspondence and mutual criticism of lengthy essays written by each of the four, dealing with larger questions of principles of classification and nomenclature. Any future classification, they agreed, should be based on igneous rock chemical composition and must reject geological age and geological occurrence as factors. Despite calls within the group for construction of a totally new igneous rock classification, the process evolved cautiously to a decision to publish a statement of general principles of igneous rock classification together with suggestions for changes in nomenclature for the benefit of petrologists. Eventually the project foundered because of health problems for Williams and the press of other obligations and interests on all four. In 1894, the project ground to a halt with the untimely death of Williams from typhoid fever.
Origin of the American quantitative igneous rock classification: Part 3
Authors: Young Davis 
Published: April 2015

After evaluating two contrasting proposals, four American petrographers, Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington, meeting in late March 1901, formulated a preliminary quantitative classification of igneous rocks on a chemico-mineralogical basis. The team agreed that five different mineral groups should serve as factors for subdivision of the rocks into different orders. They also defined several further categories of subdivisions and established chemical and/or mineralogical criteria for those taxonomic levels. Washington began work on appropriate nomenclature for the various subdivisions.During the ensuing month, Iddings and Washington suggested several modifications to the group proposal. After intense discussion by way of letter, the quartet struggled to work out further details of their scheme logically even as they encountered a host of difficulties in applying the scheme. Washington recognized that their preliminary scheme was too complex and impractical for use by working petrographers.To meet the challenges, Washington and Pirsson met in late April 1901 and proposed that the team abandon its scheme and substitute one based on two factors only: ‘light minerals’ rich in Si, Al, K, and Na and ‘dark minerals’ rich in Si, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Al. All four agreed in principle to the new scheme and worked feverishly on the identity of and criteria for the subdivisions. Meeting in July 1901, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington decided that the time had come to move toward publication of a statement of principles of the new two-factor scheme. Iddings was commissioned to write a rough draft describing the scheme and Washington was charged with working on nomenclature.
Kansas Skirmishes in the Cope/Marsh War
Authors: Skelton Lawrence 
Published: April 2015

Few scientific rivalries of the past century engendered greater hostility than that between Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope. These giants of vertebrate paleontology fought bitterly from the 1860's until their deaths in the 1890's.
Kansas was the origin for many of their jousts. By Marsh's account, the casus belli was in 1869 when he pointed out Cope's error in placing the head on the tail end of a restored Kansas plesiosaur. Cope explained the feud as stemming from his beating Marsh to publication on paleontological discoveries in the eastern United States.
Marsh visited Kansas' Smoky Hill region in 1870, 1871, and 1872; Cope made his only visit in 1871. After their expeditions, future fossil collecting was undertaken by teams of Kansans who included the pioneers of Kansas geology. Collecting for Marsh were Benjamin F. Mudge, Samuel W. Williston, and others. Cope's team of collectors was led by Charles H. Sternberg. The two groups, friendly enough at supply stations, vied in the field for the best fossils. Kansas specimens were of extreme importance. Marsh's discovery and description of Hesperornis in 1870 was the zenith of his finds in Kansas; that and another avian fossil furnished by Mudge were the first toothed birds recognized. Their discovery enhanced Marsh's reputation in the scientific world. Both Cope and Marsh had a profound impact on vertebrate paleontology and the fossils they described from Kansas were instrumental in establishing their influence.
Eugene W. Hilgard and Scientific Education in Mississippi
Authors: Pittman Walter 
Published: April 2015

Hilgard is renown as the Father of Soil Science, and the founder of that scientific discipline. Born in Bavaria, he was brought to America as a child. He returned to Europe for university education at Freiburg and at Heidelberg, where he received his Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1853. In 1855, he came to Mississippi as Assistant State Geologist and Professor at the University of Mississippi. He came at the behest of Chancellor F. A. P. Barnard, who was trying to build a great scientific center at Oxford.
Hilgard remained for 18 years, through the drama of the Civil War when he put his scientific talents to the use of the Confederacy. He sought out nitrate and salt sources, and tried to build calcium flood lights for the batteries at Vicksburg. Hilgard was a kind, gentle, patient man of extraordinary intellect, beloved by students and associates. In 1873 he moved to the University of California where his fame grew.
Hilgard was the first to delineate the field of soil science. In that discipline most of the long-used definitions, concepts, physical parameters, standard units, and techniques originated with him. He bridged the gap between theoretical science and practical farming.
History of the Earth Sciences at Southeast Missouri State University
Authors: Unfer Louis 
Published: April 2015

The history of Southeast Missouri State University parallels that of other teacher education institutions. It started as Southeast Missouri Normal School in 1873 and reached university status in 1972. A department of Geology and Geography was established in 1909, becoming the Geography Department in 1915. In 1924, the sciences were combined into the Science Department. In 1960, this became the Division of Science and Mathematics and the Department of Earth Sciences was formed.
An earth science major began in 1937, with separate geology and geography majors established in 1958. Recently the Department has developed more specialized, job-oriented programs in mining geology and in cartography. Since 1983 the Department has also operated a field camp, headquartered on the campus of Dixie College, St. George, Utah.
Geology and Zoology — A Symbiosis Darwin's Beagle Voyage and Galapagos Experience
Authors: Tasch Paul 
Published: April 2015

Darwin's South American fossil collections yielded many insights. in one section he recorded the gradual vertical change in shell characteristics of fossil oysters. The giant fossil vertebrates brought the realization that several were precursors of living species. Contrary to accepted Catastrophism Theory, he inferred that all taxa found fossilized did not become extinct together since the living agouti, among others, had fossil precursors. He envisioned the way an existing molluscan fauna and its sedimentary matrix could be transformed into fossiliferous rocks reminiscent of the Tertiary, and also speculated about the kinds of fossils that the Galapagos biota would yield in some future rock column.
Volcanic islands (Galapagos Archipelago and others) were linked in Darwin's thought to the appearance of "peculiar" taxa inhabiting these "mere spots" in the sea. Were these migrants from the nearest continents? If so, why were they so distinctive while carrying the imprint of their place of origin? If not, how did these four-legged and other terrestrial creatures get to the islands? Were the archipelagos ever united to the continents? Gradually Darwin was led to a continent-archipelago-continent concept. Continents were elevated archipelagos. (He had the Andean volcanoes in mind.) Archipelagos were submerged remnants of continents. He incorporated into this concept the rise and extinction of species: elevation of archipelagos were the "best nurseries" for appearance of new taxa, while subsidence of continents generally led to extinction of extant forms.
Nineteenth Century Views on the Australian Marine Permian
Authors: Archbold N. 
Published: April 2015

Marine Permian sequences and faunas are widely distributed on the Australian continent and Tasmania. Marine fossils were found in eastern Australia as early as 1804 and were first described in 1825. Progressive investigations during the nineteenth century established the essential constituents of the eastern Australian faunas and the general nature of the sedimentary sequences. Nevertheless the faunas were invariably ascribed by local stratigraphers to the Carboniferous System, or after 1879 when the term Permo-Carboniferous was introduced by Robert Etheridge Jr, to the latter age. Rarely, a Permian age was indicated for the sequence.Western Australian Marine faunas were not studied systematically until the 1880s and available collections were small. However, even these early studies revealed few similarities with eastern faunas. Western faunas were invariably referred to the Carboniferous Period until well into the twentieth century.