bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
De criminele levensloop van hawaladars
Authors: Soudijn M.R.J. , de Groen E.M. 
Published: February 2015

The criminal careers of hawaladars: an exploratory study
This research takes a closer look at the criminal careers of 89 offenders who are involved in offering hawala services. The main finding is that 61% has a criminal record that does not consist of hawala related offenses. This finding is important from both a policy and criminological perspective. Firstly, incorporating hawala in the legal financial sector is a difficult prospect with the current people involved. Somehow the sector needs to be cleaned up. Secondly, the findings tie in with other research about criminal careers in organized crime. About two-thirds came into contact with the authorities later in life. However, an important caveat to the authors’ findings is that the outcomes are based on a known group of offenders. The total size of the hawala population is a dark number.
Autophagy in Cancer Therapy: Progress and Issues
Authors: Jia-Jie Shi  , Ling-Hua Meng  
Published: February 2015

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved intracellular self-digestion process, which mediates homeostasis in response to various stresses via degradation of damaged organelles or unnecessary proteins. It has been demonstrated that autophagy involves in tumorigenesis and progression. Autophagy serves either as tumor suppressor or promotor in a context-dependent way. It has been revealed in multiple studies that autophagy plays a pro-survival role upon treatment of anticancer drugs. Thus, combination of autophagy inhibitors with anticancer drugs may provide a desirable strategy to improve therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we summarize recent progress in the process and regulation of autophagy with a highlight in advances in the role of autophagy in cancer treatment. We also summarize some recent clinical outcomes of combinatorial use of autophagy inhibitors and anticancer drugs, and introduce latest discovered selective autophagy inhibitors. Some issues which should be paid attention to during the research to improve the clinical outcomes are discussed.
Circulating Tumor Cells: A Window to Understand Cancer Metastasis, Monitor and Fight Against Cancers
Authors: Lei Xu  , Jonathan Shamash  , Yong-Jie Lu  
Published: February 2015

Metastases are the major culprits behind most cancer-related death and the central challenge to the eradication of a malignancy. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have the potential to help us understand how metastases form, to be utilized for cancer diagnosis and treatment selection and even to be targeted for cancer treatment. Many advances have been made regarding the isolation of these rare cells. However, several challenges and limitations in CTC analysis still exist. Multiple color immunofluorescence, genetic analysis (e.g. Fluorescence in situ Hybridization, microarray and next generation sequencing) and CTC culture will be effective tools to study CTCs and provide information on metastatic mechanism and clinical implication. In this review, we discuss the importance of CTC study in understanding cancer metastasis and their potential clinical application as biomarkers to predict cancer progression and treatment response, as well as the current situation for CTC isolation and analysis.
Summer upwelling and thermal fronts in the northwestern South China Sea: Observational analysis of two mesoscale mapping surveys
Authors: Jing Zhiyou , Qi Yiquan , Du Yan , Zhang Shuwen , Xie Lingling 
Published: February 2015

AbstractPersistent coastal upwelling and upwelling‐induced thermal fronts in the northwestern South China Sea are investigated using satellite measurements, two intensive mesoscale mapping surveys and three bottom‐mounted ADCPs. The results indicate that pronounced surface cooling and upwelling‐related fronts with a width of 20–50 km occur around Hainan Island and persist through the summer upwelling season. Driven by the prevailing southwesterly monsoon, the subsurface cooling band is ∼6°C colder than the water offshore of the East Coast, where the thermal gradients are generally more than 0.1°C/km. The cold and nutrient‐rich coastal water is identified to be derived primarily from the deep water of the outer shelf. At the same time, the spatial structure of the upwelling and thermal front, as well as the upwelling‐related coastal currents, is significantly regulated by wind forcing. A prominent lagged correlation between the moored temperature records and alongshore wind stress is detected in the East Coast. The correlation coefficient is −0.8 with the temperature lagging behind wind stress by 2.2 days, indicating that the cooling band off the East Coast is dominated mostly by the alongshore southwesterly monsoon during the upwelling season.
Global survey of concentric gravity waves in AIRS images and ECMWF analysis
Authors: Gong Jie , Yue Jia , Wu Dong L. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractConcentric gravity waves (CGWs) are atmospheric phenomena with ring‐shape perturbations originating in the troposphere. They can propagate up to the ionosphere and thermosphere and dynamically couple the lower and upper atmosphere. In this study we developed a novel ring detection algorithm to extract CGWs from the Atmosphere Infrared Sounder (AIRS) radiance data and the European Center for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF) analysis temperature in the stratosphere to produce the first global maps of such phenomena. The algorithm is capable of estimating wave amplitude, wavelength, propagation direction, and source location. Both AIRS and ECMWF data show a significant diurnal variation in wave propagation direction and generation, in addition to strong seasonal variations in wavelength and amplitude. Occurrence of these ring waves is associated not only with tropical deep convections but also with summertime midlatitude convection, wintertime extratropical jets, and topography such as islands. The high‐resolution ECMWF analysis data capture most of the CGW features, but the wave amplitude is significantly weaker than AIRS observations, showing few convectively generated CGWs.
Two regimes of cloud water over the Okhotsk Sea and the adjacent regions around Japan in summer
Authors: Shimada Teruhisa , Iwasaki Toshiki 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThis study derived two regimes of cloud water with a dipole structure between over the Okhotsk Sea and over the adjacent regions around Japan in summer by using a climate index for cool summer. When the Okhotsk high develops, clouds are confined to a thin low‐level layer owing to the enhanced stability in the lower atmosphere induced by the downward motion associated with the Okhotsk high. The resulting optically thin clouds allow more downward shortwave radiation to reach the surface of the Okhotsk Sea. In contrast, the low‐level easterly winds blowing toward the Japanese Islands and the Eurasian continent enhance cloud formation. This is due to the convergence of the water vapor flux induced by the easterly winds associated with the Okhotsk high and the southerly winds associated with the Baiu frontal zone and the Pacific high and due to the orographic uplift of air mass. When a cyclonic circulation occurs over the Okhotsk Sea, a thick layer of low‐level clouds extending close to the sea surface is formed. The convergence of the water vapor flux over the subarctic sea surface temperature (SST) frontal zone and the cool SST promote fog formation, and upward motion associated with the cyclonic circulation supports the high cloud water content from the lower to the upper troposphere. The resulting optically thick clouds reduce the downward shortwave radiation at the surface of the Okhotsk Sea. Over the regions around Japan, water vapor flux diverges owing to dry air originating from land and cloud water decreases.
Diurnal and seasonal changes in near‐surface humidity in a complex orography
Authors: Fatichi Simone , Molnar Peter , Mastrotheodoros Theodoros , Burlando Paolo 
Published: February 2015

AbstractChanges in near‐surface humidity are evaluated in relation to changes in other meteorological variables such as air temperature, precipitation, and sunshine duration for a 31 year period (1981–2011) using hourly time series recorded in Switzerland. Trends in meteorological variables are analyzed at the seasonal and subdaily scale, and changes in water vapor are tested for Clausius‐Clapeyron scaling. Results show a marked seasonality of climatic changes with a trend toward warmer, clearer, and drier near‐surface atmosphere strengthening from January to June. During this period considerable negative trends in relative humidity are detected. An abrupt shift in climatic trends occurs during the month of July, after which warming trends are considerably smaller and relative humidity remains constant or increases. An evaluation of reanalysis products demonstrates strong consistency with station observations and when combined with teleconnection indices supports the hypothesis that shifts in the general circulation patterns rather than local feedbacks are the principal drivers of observed seasonality of climate change. However, local feedbacks can play a role in enhancing summer humidity and convective activity (lightning and evening precipitation). Subdaily changes are significant with more pronounced daytime trends of temperature and humidity during spring and the opposite during summer. The strong seasonality and diurnal variability of changes in near‐surface meteorology over the last three decades in Switzerland warns against climate change impact assessments at local scale that consider uniform changes in air temperature and assume Clausius‐Clapeyron scaling for near‐surface humidity.
The impacts of cloud snow radiative effects on Pacific Ocean surface heat fluxes, surface wind stress, and ocean temperatures in coupled GCM simulations
Authors: Li J.‐L. F. , Lee W.‐L. , Lee Tong , Fetzer Eric , Yu Jia‐Yuh , Kubar Terence L. , Boening Carmen 
Published: February 2015

AbstractAn accurate representation of the climatology of the coupled ocean‐atmosphere system in global climate models has strong implications for the reliability of projected climate change inferred by these models. Our previous efforts have identified substantial biases of ocean surface wind stress that are fairly common in two generations of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) models, relative to QuikSCAT climatology. One of the potential causes of the CMIP model biases is the missing representation of large frozen precipitating hydrometeors (i.e., cloud snow) in all CMIP3 and most CMIP5 models, which has not been investigated previously. We examine the impacts of cloud snow on the radiation and atmospheric circulation, air‐sea fluxes, and explore the implications to common biases in CMIP models using the National Center for Atmospheric Research coupled Community Earth System Model (CESM) to perform sensitivity experiments with and without cloud snow radiative effects. This study focuses on the impacts of cloud snow in CESM on ocean surface wind stress and air‐sea heat fluxes, as well as their relationship with sea surface temperature (SST) and subsurface ocean temperatures in the Pacific sector. It is found that inclusion of the cloud snow parameterization in CESM reduces the surface wind stress and upper ocean temperature (including SST) biases in the tropical and midlatitude Pacific. The differences in the upper ocean temperature with and without the cloud snow parameterization are consistent with the effect of different strength of vertical mixing due to ocean surface wind stress differences but cannot be explained by the differences in net air‐sea heat fluxes.
Simulated warm periods of climate over China during the last two millennia: The Sui‐Tang warm period versus the Song‐Yuan warm period
Authors: Yan Qing , Zhang Zhongshi , Wang Huijun , Jiang Dabang 
Published: February 2015

AbstractA 2000 year simulation forced by the external forcings of the last two millennia is carried out with the Community Earth System Model. We compare climate changes over China between the peak Sui‐Tang warm period (Sui‐TangWP; 650–700 A.D.) and Song‐Yuan warm period (Song‐YuanWP; 950–1000 A.D.), which were two key culturally, economically, and educationally prosperous eras in Chinese history. The simulation indicates warm conditions in both periods, but the warmth is mainly seen in East China in the peak Sui‐TangWP, and over the whole of China in the peak Song‐YuanWP. The warming in the peak Sui‐TangWP is attributed to the localized increase of atmospheric net energy with favorable heat transport, whereas the peak Song‐YuanWP results from the increase of global solar radiation. The annual mean precipitation anomalies in the peak Sui‐TangWP exhibit a meridional dipole pattern over East China, with enhanced precipitation in the region south of the Yangtze River and decreased precipitation to the north. In the peak Song‐YuanWP, the precipitation enhances over most parts of China. The precipitation anomalies are largely attributed to the water vapor transport anomalies associated with monsoon circulation changes. The simulated climate changes are broadly consistent with reconstructions, but the magnitude is greatly underestimated. Based on the simulation and reconstructions, we suggest that the Sui‐TangWP may have been a regional phenomenon in China, while the Song‐YuanWP was a reflection of global/hemispheric‐scale warm events that took place at the same time.
The complementary relationship and generation of the Budyko functions
Authors: Zhou Sha , Yu Bofu , Huang Yuefei , Wang Guangqian 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThe Budyko hypothesis states that the ratio of the actual evapotranspiration over precipitation (E/P) is fundamentally related to the ratio of the potential evapotranspiration over precipitation (E0/P). A number of Budyko functions have been proposed to describe such a relationship between E0/P and E/P. There is, however, no simple method to generate Budyko functions that meet the water and energy constraints. This study showed analytically that for any Budyko function, the sum of elasticity of evapotranspiration with respect to potential evapotranspiration and that with respect to precipitation is equal to unity. This complementary relationship for sensitivity of evapotranspiration has important implications for evaluating hydrologic impact of change in climate and/or catchment characteristics. More importantly, this study found a function that is monotonically increasing with simple limiting properties. This function can be used to generate numerous valid Budyko functions and can also be used to test the validity of the existing Budyko functions.
Stainless Steels
Authors: Kelly James 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Stainless steels are those alloys of iron and chromium, with or without other elements, containing at least 11% chromium. There are six basic classifications of stainless steels: ferritic, martensitic, martensitic age hardening, duplex austenitic‐ferritic, and austenitic. The corrosion behavior of the alloying elements in pure form influences the corrosion properties of the stainless or nickel grades containing them. Some forms of corrosion are general corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion and galvanic Corrosion. This chapter presents tables on alloy composition of ferritic, martensitic, martensitic age hardening, duplex austenitic‐ferritic, and austenitic stainless steel. It also discusses the metallurgical aspects of alloy selection. The chapter explains some important differences between welding carbon steel and welding stainless steel, and discusses specific issues regarding duplex stainless steels and weld fillers for the high‐molybdenum alloys.
Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Kaufman J. G. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractAluminum is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant chemical element in Earth's crust, comprising over 8% of its weight. This chapter reviews the characteristics of aluminum alloys that make them so attractive and note the variety of applications in which they are used. It discusses the wrought alloys and cast alloys. The general corrosion behavior of aluminum alloys depends basically on three factors: (1) the stability of the oxide film, (2) the environment, and (3) the alloying elements. Cutting tool materials for machining aluminum alloys include water‐hardening steels, high‐speed steels, hard‐cast alloys, sintered carbides, and diamonds. The aluminum surface can be finished in more different ways than any other metal. The normal finishing operations fall into four categories: mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, and applied. There are at least two approaches to overviewing important applications of aluminum alloys: by alloy class, and by type of application.
Copper and Copper Alloys
Authors: Kundig Konrad J. A. , Weed Robert D. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Copper was among the first metals to be put into utilitarian service. The Unified Numbering System (UNS) is the accepted alloy designation system in North America for wrought and cast coppers and copper alloys. Identification is by five‐digit numbers preceded by the letter C. Preferred marine alloys include copper nickels, which exhibit the highest corrosion and erosion resistance among copper metals, and also offer relatively high strengths, and aluminum bronzes, which are stronger still, as well as ultrahigh‐strength beryllium copper, inhibited aluminum brass, phosphor bronzes, arsenical admiralty brass, and nickel silvers. Copper alloys that perform well in seawater are also often acceptable for use with industrial and process. Copper casting alloys are widely used in the manufacture of plumbing, electrical, and mechanical products and for bearings and industrial valves and fittings. Copper nickels, aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, manganese bronzes, and tin and phosphor bronzes should be considered for such environments.
Nickel and Its Alloys
Authors: Smith Gaylord D. , Baker Brian A. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Nickel alloys are used in a multiplicity of consumer applications, such as household appliances, electronics, and automotive components. The excellent ductility and malleability of nickel and nickel‐based alloys in the annealed condition make them adaptable to virtually all methods of cold fabrication. High‐nickel alloys are subject to surface oxidation unless heating is performed in a protective atmosphere or under vacuum. A protective atmosphere can be provided either by controlling the ratio of fuel and air to minimize oxidation or by surrounding the metal being heated with a prepared atmosphere. The most common protective atmosphere used in heating the nickel alloys is that provided by controlling the ratio between the fuel and air supplied to the burners. Nickel alloys are characterized by good weldability by a variety of common joining processes. Thin sheet is generally joined without filler metal (autogenous) using gas‐tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or plasma arc welding (PAW) processes.
Thermoplastics, Thermosets, and Elastomers—Descriptions and Properties
Authors: Peters Edward N. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThis chapter focuses on properties of the base resins with very few additives other than stabilizers. Depending on the temperature, pressure, catalyst, and the use of a comonomer, three basic types of polyethylene (PE) can be produced: high‐density PE (HDPE), low‐density PE (LDPE), and linear low‐density PE (LLDPE). The three main categories of commercial polystyrene (PS) resins are crystal PS, impact PS, and expanded PS foam. Engineering thermoplastics comprise a special performance segment of synthetic plastics materials that offer enhanced properties. Typically high‐performance resins will be used in tough metal replacement applications or replacement of ceramic materials. Thermoset resins are generally highly filled with mineral fillers and glass fibers. Elastomers are polymers that can be stretched substantially beyond their original length and can retract rapidly and forcibly to essentially their original dimensions. Specialty rubbers offer higher performance over general‐purpose rubbers and find use in more demanding applications.
Composite Materials
Authors: Zweben Carl 
Published: February 2015

AbstractComposites are important materials which are now used widely, not only in the aerospace industry, but also in a large and increasing number of commercial mechanical engineering applications, such as internal combustion engines; machine components; thermal management and electronic packaging; automobile, train, and aircraft structures and mechanical components, such as brakes, drive shafts, flywheels, tanks, and pressure vessels; dimensionally stable components; process industries equipment requiring resistance to high‐temperature corrosion, oxidation, and wear; offshore and onshore oil exploration and production; marine structures; sports and leisure equipment; ships and boats; and biomedical devices. The four primary categories of composites are polymer matrix composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs), ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), and carbon matrix composites (CAMCs). Carbon‐carbon composites (CCCs) are the most important subclass of CAMCs. Composites also offer a number of significant manufacturing advantages over monolithic metals and ceramics. Composites are complex and heterogeneous material systems.
Overview of Ceramic Materials, Design, and Application
Authors: Nathan Katz R. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Engineering ceramics possess unique combinations of physical, chemical, electrical, optical, and mechanical properties. Consequently, many exciting new applications for the ceramic materials have emerged over the past several decades. Among the major commercial applications for these materials are: passive electronics; optronics/photonics; piezoceramics; mechanical; biomaterials; refractories; electrochemical and transparencies. This chapter provides a brief overview of how ceramics are processed and the ramifications of processing on properties. Next, a short discussion of the special issues that one encounters in mechanical design with brittle materials is presented. The chapter reviews several of the engineering applications of ceramics and glasses, which discuss some of the specific combinations of properties that have led design engineers to the selected material(s), follow. It provides how to obtain information on materials sources. Future growth in advanced ceramics utilization will be driven by organic growth in many existing applications and by expansion into new ones.
Electronic Materials and Packaging
Authors: Fackler Warren C. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Electronic packaging is a multidisciplinary process consisting of the physical design, product development, and manufacture required to transform an electronic circuit schematic diagram into functional electronic equipment. There are four basic categories of concern to the electronic packaging engineer, working from the external environment inward: exterior conditions, internal conditions, component environments and component requirements. Several computer‐aided design programs address electronic packaging design and development tasks. Most computer algorithms are adaptations of codes generated for other, related purposes (e.g., finite‐element techniques for structures, stresses, thermal analysis, fluid flow analysis, and flow visualization; solid‐modeling and drafting programs; printed circuit board design programs). Electronic packaging applications often fall into one or more of the following categories. They are equipment attachment, equipment racks, frames, and mounting structures, equipment and module enclosures, temperature control, mechanical joints, finishes, position‐sensitive assemblies, electrical contacts, and harsh‐environment endurance.