bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Development and Training of Cavalry in Greece and Rome
Authors: Hyland Ann 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter explores the development and training of Greek and Roman cavalries. Xenophon discussed Greek and Roman cavalry training, and much of his advice is present in modern horsemanship techniques. He showed that Athenian cavalry and care of horses had degenerated. Arrian discussed complicated cavalry maneuvers, which have certain affinities with some modern equestrian competitions. A strong thread of Roman horsemanship in modern riding has been observed. The description of the opening of the Cantabrian Gallop is a rather confused set of orders, no doubt understood by those used to such maneuvers. An exhibition of long-range javelin-throwing by the most proficient horsemen is then reported. Spatha has been a major weapon used by the Roman cavalry. Arrian's maneuvers exhibit the depth of training given to the best Roman cavalry.
Roman Rituals of War
Authors: Rich John 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates the continuity and change in, and problematic sources about, Roman rituals, which were linked to the incidence of war and peace. The augurium salutis and the closing of the shrine of Janus Geminus are the two rituals that could only be conducted in time of peace. The burning of enemy arms after a victory was a Roman combat ritual. Another, much rarer, ritual of military return came into renewed prominence under Augustus, namely the dedication of spolia opima, a tradition that was subsequently used to serve the purposes of the Augustan regime. The fetials' rituals were concerned with the preliminaries of war, the solemnization of treaties, and the surrender of Roman offenders. The ritual activities of the fetials addressed the issue of communal responsibility.
The Athenian Expedition to Sicily
Authors: Brice Lee L. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter discusses the Sicilian Expedition by Athens. Athens sent a large military force to Sicily in what has come to be called the Sicilian Expedition. The expedition, which grew into a massive military effort led by multiple generals, began with multiple leaders, one of whom, Nicias, had opposed it from the beginning. It is noted that the Athenian withdrawal in Sicily initially appears to have been ridiculous given their success, but as Thucydides explained, it was based on the late season and the lack of cavalry, money, allies, and supplies. The final phase of the expedition began with a naval battle. The expedition that had begun in 415 with a grand send-off in Athens ended in 413 with a tortuous retreat and pursuit.
Roman Warfare with Sasanian Persia
Authors: Lee A. D. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter explains the warfare between the Roman Empire and Sasanian Persia, specifically presenting an historical review of Roman–Persian warfare. The Roman Empire presented many new military challenges, one of the most serious and certainly the most consistent of which was that introduced by Sasanian Persia to the east. The Sasanian regime was able to pose a more serious military threat to the Roman Empire compared with its predecessor. Sasanian siege capability led to increased Roman investment in the fortification of cities and towns on and near the frontier. A recent re-examination of the evidence has prompted a revised interpretation involving Persian tunnellers deliberately collapsing their tunnel on top of Roman pursuers after a grisly underground fight in the dark.
Introduction
Authors: Dill Karen E. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
In this introductory chapter, core tenets of media psychology are presented. Included in this presentation are definitions relevant to the field of media psychology; historical events in media psychology; the ubiquity of media in the developed world, and its advantages and disadvantages; how we use media today; implications in media use and socialization; and an overview and key features of the chapters included. In presenting these ideas, the evident breadth and depth of the scholarship should demonstrate the field’s promise of a bright and fascinating future.
Representations of Gender in the Media
Authors: Scharrer Erica L. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractIndividuals young and old can learn a great deal from the ways in which men and women and boys and girls are depicted in the media. Alongside other socializing influences such as family and peers, the media help form perceptions of gender roles, and can shape the behaviors that stem from those perceptions. This chapter first reviews the evidence from content analysis research to determine the most prevalent patterns in gender representations in the media, with particular emphasis on television, video games, advertising, and magazine content. It then connects the themes that emerged in the content analysis literature—underrepresentation of women, depictions of physical appearance, domestic roles, and professional roles—to studies measuring the influence of such media depictions. In doing so, the topics of gender role socialization and body image disturbance are discussed, and the social implications of such media effects are identified.
Children, Adolescents, and the Internet: Are There Risks Online?
Authors: Donnerstein Ed 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Media psychologists have studied the impacts of media portrayals for decades. This body of research is rich in both theory and data. Although we know a great deal about traditional media like television, the platforms and devices available to children and adolescents to view and interact with today are far beyond those we studied only a few years ago (see Chapter 2). The media landscape is rapidly changing, and this chapter looks at some of the effects of the Internet and these newer technologies on riskrelated behaviors for these audiences. The effects of exposure to violence, sex, food marketing, and the concerns of cyberbullying and sexual exploitation are examined within the context of children and adolescents’ increasing move away from traditional media platforms. This is emerging and ongoing research and offers both theoretical and empirical opportunities for the future of media psychology.
Pathological Technology Addictions: What Is Scientifically Known and What Remains to Be Learned
Authors: Gentile Douglas A. , Coyne Sarah M. , Bricolo Francesco 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Several case studies, research studies, and anecdotal reports suggest that there is a subset of people for whom computer, Internet, and video games have several of the symptoms of a dysfunctional compulsive disorder, often referred to in the popular press as an addiction. Although several scientific studies have measured various facets of this issue, there has been no common framework within which to view these studies. This chapter examines the international literature, and finds that there is robust construct validity (via convergent validity and comorbidity) for pathological technology use, regardless of how individual researchers have defined or measured it. Most measurement approaches demonstrate high reliability. Most studies show broad patterns of construct validity similar to other “addictions.” Pathological use also shows some evidence of predictive validity. Questions concerning definitional issues are raised, and a common set of diagnostic criteria are proposed. Several questions remain to be studied, including the prevalence of pathological technology use, its etiology, its course, and the best way to diagnose and treat it. Nonetheless, it is clear that some people are already suffering from problems associated with pathological use, and the psychiatric and psychological communities would benefit from a common framework within which to approach and study it.
Media Psychology: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Dill Karen E. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
In this concluding chapter, general issues related to the future of media psychology are presented. Among these issues are the growing concern over negative media effects; how to avoid reductionist and dichotomous thinking about media; emphasizing effective communication about media psychology research and application to the public; continuing to define and refine the field of media psychology; and avenues for extending and complicating theoretical approaches. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive list of future directions for new research in the field.
Introduction
Authors: Immerman Richard H. , Goedde Petra 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter discusses the theme of this volume, which is the Cold War. The essays in this volume take note of the centrality between the superpower rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, but also offer a wide-ranging reevaluation of the Cold War based on innovative conceptual frameworks that have evolved incrementally over time in the field of international history. The authors stress the global dimensions of the Cold War; attempt to transcend the strict separation of the political, economic, and ideological; and consider cultural aspects of the Cold War and the synergy between domestic and international developments. The volume also considers the relevance of the history of human rights and the work of international non-governmental organizations as integral to the history of the global Cold war.
Economics and the Cold War
Authors: Jackson Ian 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter explores the economic aspect of the Cold War. It analyzes historiographic debates on the role of economic factors in the Cold War and discusses the nature and scope of the conflict between the rival economic systems of Western capitalism and Soviet communism. The chapter describes the structures of the Western and Soviet-led economic orders and the interaction between the two blocs during the Cold War. It also examines contemporary research concerning the effectiveness of the strategic embargo employed by the Western states against the communist nations and highlights the role of economic issues in the ending of the Cold War.
Cold War Intelligence History
Authors: Prados John 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the role of intelligence operations in the history of the Cold War. The analysis reveals that Cold War intelligence agencies played important roles in foreign policy in the way they conditioned the perceptions of leaders and catalyzed events. One of the best examples of this is the direct influence of intelligence operations upon diplomacy in the U-2 Affair. The chapter, which suggests that intelligence activities in the Cold War produced diplomatic and military consequences and influenced international agreements, also discusses the role of espionage and technical data collection in providing diplomats with vital information for negotiations with their counterparts.
Locating The Transnational in the Cold War
Authors: Eschen Penny Von 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the role of the transnational in the Cold War. It suggests that Cold War transnationalism must be considered as a highly specific political and ideological formation, and analyzes transnational projects such as those reflected in the memorialization film of actor Bruce Lee and Congolese political leader Patrice Lumumba. The chapter contends that attention to transnational movements and formations raises fundamental questions about who should tell the story of the Cold War and comments on Kamila Shamsie's critically acclaimed 2009 book Burnt Shadows. It also shows that interconnectedness of the Cold War with national and transnational histories that predated the particular policies/crises of the Cold War.
The Religious Cold War
Authors: Kirby Dianne 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter, which examines the place of religion during the Cold War years, suggests that there were conflicting attitudes toward religion in both the United States and the Soviet Union. It explains that Protestant suspicion of the Vatican complicated U.S.–Vatican relations while church leaders within the Soviet bloc were divided between those who advocated cooperation and those who preferred resistance and active opposition. The chapter also contends that religion provided the United States with a stick with which to beat the new communist regimes, and argues that the so-called religious Cold War influenced religion in the West and the developing world in a variety of ways.
Ethical Theories in Jewish Mystical Writings
Authors: Dan Joseph 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter explores the medieval genre of sifrut ha-musar (ethical literature), which has largely been ignored in the recent burgeoning of the field of Jewish ethics. This neglect is attributed to the fact that the genre does not call halakhah into question, as does Jewish ethics generally, particularly through the notion of lifnim mi-shurat ha-din (supererogation), that one must act beyond the letter of the law. But this does not mean that musar is non-ethical; rather, its purpose was to “harmonize the spirituality of God with the values guiding his worship.” This spiritualization of Jewish ritual and culture generated creativity for nearly a thousand years around the Jewish world, first in Islamic contexts and then climaxing in Christian milieus.
Jewish Business Ethics
Authors: Leff Barry J. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter discusses the Jewish approach to business ethics. It first identifies several fundamental principles of Jewish business ethics, and then applies them to several common issues in business ethics: fraud, anti-competitive behaviour, theft (including theft of intellectual property), deception, kick-backs, and contract negotiation and interpretation. Next, the chapter discusses a number of concrete examples where Jewish sources have much to tell us about how to conduct business morally. It is shown that the Jewish approach to business ethics does not impose one-sided support for any particular group (employers vs. employees, individuals vs. society), but rather is an attempt to find a nuanced balance between competing interests so that the final conclusion represents a solution recognized as just.
Jewish Ethics and War
Authors: Kasher Asa 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter discusses Jewish ethics and war. It first turns to ancient and medieval Jewish sources to describe what they tell us about the ethics of going to war (jus ad bellum) and of waging war (jus in bello)—especially Deuteronomy 20–21 and Maimonides' code of Jewish law, the Mishneh Torah. Recognizing that until the founding of the modern State of Israel, Jews fought in armies governed by non-Jewish rulers, it then examines a nineteenth-century book intended to instruct Jews about how to act in military service. The overriding principle in that book and in the few other Jewish treatments of the ethics of war during the last two thousand years was “the law of the land is the law,” and that law was determined by the non-Jewish ruler. What happens, though, when Jews determine the law of the land? The chapter examines some Jewish writings published just before and after the establishment of the State of Israel that anticipate this issue. It discusses the doctrine of “purity of arms” that has shaped Israeli military ethics, the role of the military rabbinate, the Code of Ethics which now governs Israel's military actions, the ethics of fighting terrorism, and the ethics of seeking peace.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Reisigl Martin 
Published: February 2013

AbstractCritical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has entered the mainstream of linguistic and social science research with a strong transdisciplinary orientation and social engagement. This chapter introduces six variants of CDA: (1) Fairclough’s approach, which is strongly social theoretically embedded and informed by systemic functional linguistics; (2) van Leeuwen’s and Kress’s social semiotic and systemic functional approach; (3) van Dijk’s socio-cognitive approach; (4) the form of CDA promoted by the Duisburg Group around S. and M. Jäger, who keenly draw on Foucault’s approach to discourse analysis and Link’s discourse theory; (5) the Oldenburg approach, which is upheld by Gloy, Januschek, and others; and (6) the “Viennese” and “Lancaster” traditions of CDA, often termed the “discourse historical approach” and sometimes “discourse sociolinguistics.”
Sociolinguistic Variation and Change in Sign Languages
Authors: Schembri Adam , Johnston Trevor 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter describes sociolinguistic variation and change in sign languages, the natural language of deaf communities. Factors that drive sociolinguistic variation and change in both spoken- and signed-language communities are broadly similar. Social factors include, for example, a signer’s age group, region of origin, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Linguistic factors include phonological processes such as assimilation and reduction, and grammaticalization. Deaf signing communities are invariably minority communities embedded within larger majority communities whose languages are in another entirely different modality, and which may have written systems and extensive written literatures, unlike sign languages. The chapter exemplifies sociolinguistic variation in signed languages at the levels of phonology, lexicon, and grammar.
Language Policy and Ideology in Latin America
Authors: Hamel Rainer Enrique 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter focuses on language policies in the domains of bi- and multilingualism, and the associated language ideologies that contrast mono- and multilingual with plurilingual orientations. It looks at the ways in which language policies and ideologies intervene in the educational systems and options in Latin America. First, the chapter outlines the history and some general characteristics of the indigenous and the immigrant educational settings with regard to the macro level of policy and the micro level of curriculum. Then, it looks at some basic differences, as well as shared problems and solutions, in order to develop an integrated interpretation of language and education policy in Latin America. Next, the chapter explores what solutions different countries and regions offer to the challenges of globalization, from new foreign-language policies and primary education bilingual programmes to South American integration based on massive bilingualism of the main state languages.
Language Ideologies, Policies, and Attitudes toward Signed Languages
Authors: Hill Joseph 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter describes how ideologies about signed languages have come about, and what policies and attitudes have resulted. Language ideologies have governed the formal recognition of signed language at local, national, and international levels, such as that of the United Nations. The chapter discusses three major areas in the study of attitudes toward signed languages: Attitudes versus structural reality; the social factors and educational policies that have contributed to language attitudes; and the impact of language attitudes on identity and educational policy. Even in the United States, American Sign Language does not get recognition as a language in every region, and the attempt to suppress sign language is still operative. This is a worldwide issue for many countries with histories of opposition tosigned languages that parallel the history of the United States.
The Evolution of Research on U.S. Environmental Policy
Authors: Kamieniecki Sheldon , Kraft Michael E. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article establishes a foundation for this book. It begins by analyzing the various phases and contexts of U.S. environmental policy and the literature. It then addresses certain problematic approaches in the literature. It identifies a so-called bias of environmentalism in many research approaches and publications, wherein scholars begin their work with a specific conclusion and frame their research in such a way, intentionally or not, that their results support that conclusion. An overview of the six parts of the book is also presented.
Sustainable Development and Governance
Authors: Mazmanian Daniel A. , Nijaki Laurie Kaye 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article addresses the question of how can and should environmental and economic resources be governed, given the objectives of sustainability. It begins with an overview of the rationale for sustainability. This is followed a discussion of the requisite features of society and governance system in a sustainability epoch, along with recognition of several critical barriers to attaining it today. Finally, it considers several of the major features or criteria of governing in an epoch of sustainable development that are prerequisites and indicative of the changes to come, which helps to identify critical research needs for the future.
Public Opinion on Environmental Policy in the United States
Authors: Daniels David P. , Krosnick Jon A. , Tichy Michael P. , Tompson Trevor 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article considers survey questions that have been used to measure environmental attitudes and beliefs, along with evidence addressing the question of whether these items are best thought of as unidimensional or multidimensional. It begins by outlining the main theme: employing different measures of environmental attitudes and beliefs leads to strikingly different conclusions about Americans' commitment to environmental protection. It assesses evidence on the measures' trends over time and the measures' correlations with social and political variables. Taken together, this evidence leads to the conclusion that each measure has integrity and would be best examined on its own, rather than combined with other measures into indexes seeking to describe higher-order constructs. The article then considers evidence on how such environmental attitudes and beliefs may have impacted environmental policy via candidate choice, dynamic representation, and ballot propositions. Finally, it highlights directions for future research on public opinion and environmental policy.