bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Graded Readers
Authors: Day Richard R. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Graded readers occupy an unusual space in foreign language (FL) teaching—unusual because many in the FL profession, particularly teachers, regard them as a valuable and indispensable resource while others, particularly FL researchers and theorists, view them with disdain. The strengths and weaknesses of graded readers (GRs) are discussed in this entry, with the aim of showing how helpful they can be not only in the teaching and learning of FL reading but in overall FL learning.
Register
Authors: Allwood Jens 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe fact that there are systematic differences between the ways in which people speak, write, and gesture in different parts of the world has led to a great number of concepts and terms having been proposed to capture this variation. Here is a nonexhaustive list: language, dialect, sociolect, register, sublanguage, activity language, restricted language, trade language, scientific language, text type, accent, “patois,” jargon, slang.
Grammar in Academic Writing
Authors: Shaw Philip M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Academic discourse (the language, organization, and rhetoric of academic texts) is a member of a set of discourses called “language for specific purposes” (LSP), which include business, legal, and technical discourse. These discourses occur in spoken and written texts of many sorts. Their vocabulary and grammar can be called their registers, so that one could speak of a general academic written register characterized, for example, by formality and precision, and, within that, of the register of chemistry, characterized above all by a particular terminology. But all these LSP discourses are also characterized by having a particular set of genres (i.e., types of texts with a particular purpose and audience, for example textbooks, research articles, student essays). They use the grammar of the general language but the frequency and functions of some features are different, depending partly on the genre.
Historical Development of Literacy Research
Authors: Martin Nicole M. , Selena Protacio Maria , Huang Hsuan‐Yi , Kuo Nai‐Cheng , Hartman Douglas K. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The history of literacy research is like a series of slow, undulating waves. Just as a wave reaches its crest, it wanes and another overtakes it. The ebb and flow of literacy scholarship follows a similar pattern. In this entry we focus on the
topical
shifts in literacy research during the last 140 years by using the language arts as our analytic frame (i.e., reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and visually representing; National Council of Teachers of English [NCTE] and International Reading Association [IRA], 1996).
Human Rights
Authors: Starkey Hugh 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHuman rights provide a way of looking at the world. Since the publication of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR; United Nations General Assembly, 1948), all human beings have potential access to a shared language to describe and name ways in which human dignity may be violated and can be protected. This is facilitated by the existence of 375 different language versions of the Declaration, demonstrating a commitment by the United Nations (UN) to communicating directly with people irrespective of the official status of their language.
Information Retrieval for Reading Tutors
Authors: Eskenazi Maxine , Juffs Alan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractReading tutors are one example of an intelligent tutoring system. Such intelligent tutors seek to integrate content knowledge and instructional principles with models of an individual learner's knowledge and beliefs. In this way, an intelligent tutor can provide individualized instruction appropriate to the stage of development of the learner in the targeted knowledge domain. In this context, the use of information retrieval (IR) for reading tutors is relatively recent (Brown & Eskenazi, 2004) and stems from the strong desire on the part of language educators to give students practice in a realistic environment that goes beyond second language textbooks. In this case, the realism is provided by the authentic texts that are retrieved from the Internet. An authentic text is a text that has not been created or edited specifically for a (second) language learner. The challenge in using authentic documents to teach reading and vocabulary is that, unlike documents prepared by teachers expressly for their students, the materials typically obtained from the Internet are not homogeneous in content and in difficulty. This means that a simple search, containing one or several words and using a common search engine such as Google, will not retrieve documents that are satisfactory for use in tutoring. To find usable documents, the content of the Web pages that are found must be filtered, annotated, and presented to the student in an appropriate environment.
Interviews
Authors: Ho Debbie G. E. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe interview is one method applied linguists use to explore language‐related problems. Most interviews are carried out as conversations between people, including the researcher and a respondent whose beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and feelings are relevant to the language issues investigated. Interviews are typically used in exploratory and qualitative research to gather data about beliefs of individuals or groups, but different types of interviews are used for different purposes, including data collection in quantitative research.
Language Ideology and Public Discourse
Authors: Milani Tommaso M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOver the past two decades, the notion of language ideology has gained considerable momentum in different strands of scholarship that aim to unpack how language works in society. Language ideology has its roots in North American linguistic anthropology as a concept within which to explore the “mediating links between social forms and forms of talk” (Woolard, 1998, p. 3). Whilst it is axiomatic for linguists that “all languages are equal” in terms of their meaning‐making potential and their worth as objects of academic inquiry, a cursory glance at any sociolinguistic environment in the “real world” will reveal a different scenario—one in which linguistic phenomena are unequally ranked according to different meanings and values, so that, say, “language” X is believed to be lexically richer, more logical or beautiful, and thus better suited for wider communication within a polity than “dialect” Y. It is precisely the belief systems underlying such social processes of naming, signifying, and valorizing linguistic practices that the notion of language ideology aims to capture. This entry will begin by clarifying the notion of language ideology, followed by a reflection over the notions of public versus private in relation to language ideology. The entry will conclude with some current developments and directions in language ideology research.
Linguistic Relativity and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Athanasopoulos Panos 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The principle of linguistic relativity was formulated by Benjamin Lee Whorf (1940/1956), but it is also often referred to as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis in reference to Whorf's mentor at Yale University, Edward Sapir. Whorf contended that while we all see the same objective reality, we nonetheless interpret and classify it differently, based on the categories made available in our language. Therefore, according to Whorf, speakers of different languages think and reason about the perceived world differently. For example, speakers of a language that uses one term to refer to the colors blue and green (a so‐called grue term) evaluate the perceptual difference between blue and green stimuli as less significant than speakers of a language with distinct terms for blue and green (Kay & Kempton, 1984).
Literacy and Language Revitalization
Authors: McCarty Teresa L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTo revitalize a language is to create new contexts for its acquisition and use among a heritage community associated with that language. The goal is to engender new vitality in a language that is in danger of falling silent because natural intergenerational language transmission mechanisms have broken down, causing the language to fall out of everyday use. Endangered languages are described as “at risk” or “moribund,” meaning their speakers are beyond childbearing age, or as “sleeping” or “dormant,” meaning they have no native speakers but have written and/or audio documentation and a living heritage community. Language regeneration, renewal, and reclamation are overarching terms to describe revitalization processes for endangered languages.
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
Authors: Véronique Georges Daniel 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In 1946, the French Fourth Republic (1946–58) replaced the defunct French Empire, and the Union Française (French Union) granted French citizenship and political representation to its colonies in an effort to maintain them under its control. The French Fifth Republic (1958), created in the turmoil of the decolonization process, in an attempt to forestall the move toward independence of its colonies, replaced the French Union with the Communauté Française (French Community). Eventually, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (henceforth OIF;
www.francophonie.org
) emerged in the 1960s, in the wake of the decolonization process that had led to the dismantling of the French Community. The impetus for the founding of the organization came from former colonies wanting to retain their association with France. This entry provides some information on the historical background of the OIF, explains its gradual growth and the development of its policies, and assesses its present contribution.
Mnemonics
Authors: Barcroft Joe 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Mnemonics
(mnemonic devices or techniques) are mental aids that help us to remember different types of items and information, such as new word forms, names, historical dates, numbers, formulas, and various rules and lists. Typically they involve recoding or breaking down formal components of a target (to‐be‐remembered) item in a manner that makes these components more familiar, abbreviated, or in some way easier to remember. The phrase
every good boy deserves fudge
and the word
FACE
, for example, are mnemonics that are often used to help an individual who is beginning to learn to read music. The first letter of each word of the five‐word phrase corresponds to notes on the lines on the treble clef, and each letter of the word
FACE
corresponds to the note for each of the empty spaces between the lines. Other examples of mnemonics are well‐known catchphrases such as
i before e except after c
, designed to help recall spelling rules, and rhymes such as
red sky at night, sailors'
(or
travellers'
,
shepherds'
)
delight; red sky in morning, sailors take warning
, designed to help individuals know what to expect with regard to warning signs for different weather conditions (putting aside whether or not the assertion being made is correct).
Multilingual Education in North America
Authors: De Jong Ester J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBilingual and multilingual education is one form of schooling that has developed worldwide in response to the linguistic and cultural diversity that characterizes countries all over the world as a result of continuing migration, transmigration, and globalization. Simply defined, bilingual education is instruction that uses two languages as media of instruction. By extension, multilingual education programs are programs whose goals include proficiency in more than two languages. In the North American context, bilingual programs are more common than multilingual education programs.
Multilingualism and Emotions
Authors: Dewaele Jean‐Marc 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWierzbicka (2004) notes that “emotions are central to human life, and bilingualism provides a new perspective on emotions which promises to lead to new insights, as well as to offer crucial evidence for the old debates” (p. 94). One of these debates opposes researchers who defend a more universalist perspective on emotions and researchers who favor a more relativist perspective.
Multimodality and Metaphors
Authors: M. Lazar Michelle 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMetaphors are commonly viewed as a figurative literary device that adds eloquence to a speech or text. The assumptions underlying this popular understanding of metaphors are that they are a property of words; they are used to achieve some artistic or rhetorical effect; they are based on a relationship of similarity between two entities; they are a conscious and skilled use of language; and they are a figure of speech whose function is merely decorative (Kovecses, 2002, p. vii).
O
hta,
A
my
S
nyder
Authors: Tateyama Yumiko 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Amy Snyder Ohta (1962– ) is best known for her application of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory to second language learning and development. She is also widely recognized as one of the first scholars who conducted extensive research on the development of interactional competence of adult learners of Japanese through microanalysis of classroom interactions.
Policy Analysis and Document‐Based Literacy Research
Authors: Patel Stevens Lisa , Laliberte Matthew 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn Lisa Patel Stevens's undergraduate training as a print journalist, a professor handed her the journalistic charge succinctly: A newspaper should convey what it was like to be alive on that day in that place. Fairly straightforward, right? However, even a cursory scratch of the surface of that statement agitates and enlivens the complexity that spills over the capacity of texts to capture lived realities neutrally. For example, depending upon the news source, the flooding of New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina was a natural disaster of climate patterns or a human‐made disaster of civil engineering. Also depending upon your lived experiences, the reporting of these events may be, in and of themselves, textual acts that perpetuate racial inequities in the United States. It is within this complexity of texts as representative and agentive that policy analyses and document‐based literacy research finds itself.
Pragmatic Transfer
Authors: Bou‐Franch Patricia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAs resourceful human beings, when we embark on a task for the first time, we resort, consciously or unconsciously, to our previous knowledge and experience in order to accomplish the task as efficiently as possible. This also applies to second (or third or other) language acquisition/learning scenarios: When we learn a new language, we already know, at least, a first language and have a wealth of world experience and information that will necessarily play a role in the acquisition and use of the new language. The interaction between the old information—our first language—and the new information—any subsequent language we may learn—is at the heart of the phenomenon of transfer.
Prompted Responses
Authors: Taguchi Naoko 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPrompted responses are data elicited through experimental tasks in which participants do not produce spontaneous language but respond to stimuli in some way. Prompted responses are different from naturalistic data and interviews that are not elicited. Similar to prompted production that also forms elicited data (but in production), prompted responses are considered a reflection of underlying knowledge and processes. This chapter reviews prompted responses in three domains: linguistics, pragmatics, and psycholinguistics.
Qualitative Research in Language Planning and Policy
Authors: Payne Mark 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA clear and all‐encompassing definition of language planning (LP) remains elusive. A working definition used by this author, taken from Joshua Fishman, is: “the organized pursuit of solutions to language problems, typically at the national level” (Fishman, 1974, p. 79). This definition is included among Robert Cooper's selected 13 definitions of a field that embraces both the societal focus in LP (status planning) and inherently linguistic matters (corpus planning), and ranges across a spectrum from national to local LP (Cooper, 1996). As Kaplan and Baldauf point out, LP is usually deliberate, governmentally driven, future orientated action designed to bring about changes in linguistic behavior (Kaplan & Baldauf, 1997). For example, a number of LP studies have influenced change in terms of national policies, such as Lo Bianco's work on the Australian National Policy on Languages which sought to develop a nationally coordinated language policy (Lo Bianco, 1987) or Tuin and Westhoff's work evaluating the foreign language capacity of the Dutch population in the Dutch National Action Programme (Tuin & Westhoff, 1997).
Research Techniques and the Bilingual Brain
Authors: Conboy Barbara T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBilingualism—broadly defined as the regular use of two or more spoken or signed languages in a person's daily life—is frequent throughout the world, yet many models of how language is acquired and processed by the brain have been based on studies of monolingual children and adults. Practical need for normative data, and theoretical interest in the uniqueness of bilingual language processing, have increased the demand for research on the bilingual brain. At the same time, techniques for investigating the neural bases of language across age groups continue to develop, making the neural basis of bilingualism a promising area for future research.
Sentence Production in a Second Language
Authors: Kormos Judit 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Sentence production has four important components: (a)
conceptualization
, that is, planning what one wants to say; (b)
formulation
, which includes the grammatical, lexical, and phonological encoding of the sentence; (c)
articulation
, in other words, the production of speech sounds; and (d)
self‐monitoring
, which involves checking the correctness and appropriateness of the produced output (Levelt, 1989).
Shohamy, Elana
Authors: King Kendall A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Elana Shohamy is an internationally recognized scholar in the study of language testing, language policy, immigration, and linguistic landscapes. Her research, writing, teaching, and consulting work over the last three decades have advanced our understanding of how language, testing, and public policy interact to produce differences in educational access and achievement across groups, as well as the roles of these forces in the negotiation of power and identity within multilingual societies such as Israel and the United States.
Solan, Lawrence M.
Authors: MacLeod Nicci 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLawrence M. Solan (1952– ) is Don Forchelli Professor of Law at Brooklyn Law School, and well known for his contributions to the field of language and law with his booksThe Language of Judges(1993) andSpeaking of Crime: The Language of Criminal Justicewith Peter Tiersma (Solan & Tiersma, 2005), as well as numerous scholarly articles.
Spoken Word Production in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Costa Albert , Runnqvist Elin , Strijkers Kristof 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWhen the multilingual aphasic patient AH is asked to describe her day in Italian, she answers in the following manner: “I cannotcomunicare conyou; I am adisastrotoday” (taken from Abutalebi, Miozzo, & Cappa, 2000).
Teaching and Learning of Interpreting
Authors: Wilson Christine W. L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe teaching and learning of interpreting has a short history. Although interpreting has shadowed human activity throughout the ages, the first practitioners of interpreting were people with language skills, but without training in interpreting. As has been observed in more recent times, these “natural” or “lay” interpreters would interpret intuitively; subsequently, knowledge acquired through personal experience might be shared with others beginning to interpret, as master to novice.
Teaching and Learning of Translation
Authors: Washbourne Kelly 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTranslators provide products and services, and work with written documents, as distinguished from interpreters, who work as oral language mediators. Although it is less common to work in both fields, except at the community level, many students in translation and interpreting schools pursue a dual‐track degree or course of study. It is generally accepted that the required skill sets for translation and interpreting only partially overlap. Traditionally, translators have learned their craft informally: through on‐the‐job training or in unstructured apprenticeships. Many translators today still learn by working in the language services market, though an array of program options within academia have opened in the last decades, commonly at the undergraduate (first‐cycle) and master's (second‐cycle) levels. Graduate or undergraduate certificate programs are another option, and are generally shorter than degree programs. The foundational degree is generally accepted to be the master's, whereas the bachelor's is seen as preparatory. PhD programs (third‐cycle) in translation tend to be designed to train not translators but rather scholars of translation, usually in the academic discipline of translation studies. Qualified translation graduates find work as language policy consultants, translation tool vendor representatives, project managers, terminologists, acquisitions editors, literary translators, and translator trainers. Translators are employed in a variety of industries: schools and universities; major newspapers; multinational companies; health care and social assistance, especially hospitals; and other areas of government, such as federal, state, and local courts, or international organizations. Translation agencies (bureaus) also outsource much of their work to translation vendors. Publishing companies are employers of translators, usually through a work‐for‐hire contract; this type of translation is sometimes known aseditorial translation. An increasing percentage of translators are self‐employed, and thus today's students work toward mastery in more than languages—the mandate for a strong foundation in entrepreneurship exists, as in‐house opportunities are growing steadily fewer. Many translators rely on other sources of income to supplement earnings, such as teaching or language consultancy. Most well‐developed translation programs around the world offer some form of business of translation course in which such related professionalizing issues of self‐marketing, standards and payment practices, and bidding for work are addressed.
Teaching for Language Awareness
Authors: Svalberg Agneta M.‐L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLanguage awareness (LA) is defined by the Association for Language Awareness (ALA) as “explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching and language use” (retrieved April 19, 2011 fromhttp://www.lexically.net/ala/la_defined.htm).