bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Austria, migration, mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Schropper Isabel 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Due to its geographical position, throughout the centuries Austria has served as a crossing point for those traveling from east to west or south to north. However, it is only in the last two decades that Austria's history as a country of emigration, immigration, and transit migration has received growing attention. Most research (see Fassmann & Münz 1996) has focused on the subject of immigration as scholars (see Münz et al. 2003) have documented the push and pull factors of labor migration to Austria. By contrast, the subject of Austrian emigration, particularly the study of those who migrated permanently, has been both marginal and marginalized.
Balkans, migration, mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Brunnbauer Ulf 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe modern history of the Balkan region in the southeast of Europe cannot be comprehended if the consequences of migration are ignored: labor migrations, ethnic migrations, colonization, forced migrations, and political exile resulted in frequent reconfigurations of settlement patterns and an ethnically, religiously, and linguistically heterogeneous population. Eminent historians of the Balkans, therefore, consider migration one of the constitutive features of the historical specificity of this region in the premodern as well as the modern periods (Katsiardi‐Hering 2000; Sundhaussen 2006).
Baltic Sea colonizations, medieval era
Authors: Auge Oliver 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
During the great migrations, the larger part of the people who were of Germanic origin left their territory on the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea. The best known are the Angles and the Saxons, who migrated in considerable numbers to England from the area that today is called Schleswig‐Holstein, around the middle of the 5th century. According to archaeological and palaeobotanical findings, in the subsequent period large parts of once populated landscapes became desolate, even though some people still lived there. Only gradually did the region fill with people again. Thus Danish Jutes moved from the north onto the so‐called Cimbric peninsula and arrived in the first half of the 8th century in places along the river Schlei.
Baltic States, migration 20th century to present
Authors: Kirch Aksel 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became independent from Russia after World War I in 1918. However, the independence of the Baltic States ended when Stalin's regime occupied and annexed Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to the USSR in 1940. After the annexation of the Baltic States States, Estonia's and Latvia's migration was no longer a naturally developing process, but it was in part forced. The most intensive immigration took place during a number of years after World War II (from 1946 to 1949). From the mid‐sixties 1960s the hinterland of migration enlarged, and another reason for immigration became obvious: immigrants from Russia and other regions of the USSR looked for improved material well‐being. Continuous industrialization caused an increased demand for extra labor force and that, in turn, caused the second, larger, immigration wave in the 1960s. Therefore it should be stressed that the population development has been influenced by these substantial immigration flows (Tammur 2008, 12).
Bangladesh, migration, 1969 to present
Authors: Azam Farooq 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn 2010 Bangladesh was the sixth among the top 10 emigration countries and seventh among the top 10 remittance receiving countries in the world (World Bank 2011). Bangladesh is mainly an emigration country, from where both long‐term migration, mainly to the industrialized countries in the West and Southeast Asia, and short‐term, contract‐based labor migration, mostly to Middle Eastern countries, have been taking place (Siddiqui 2003). In addition, substantial migration to neighboring India also took place during the post‐independence period of the early 1970s which has spurred much illegal migration from the country in later years.
Basque Country migrations, ancient to 17th century
Authors: Rodríguez María Pilar 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Migration is long‐standing Basque tradition. Recently, Gloria Totoricagüena 2004 has redefined the study of Basque migrations in terms of diaspora, considering transnational identity as an integral factor, and including as the basis for her study “the immigrant populations and their descendants spread and sown throughout the world living in the Basque diaspora, the maintenance of their ethnic identity, and their connections to their homeland” (2004: 7).
Basque diaspora, 18th–20th century
Authors: Arrizabalaga Marie‐Pierre 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The Basques have a long history of migration which dates back to ancient times when fishermen hunted whales along the shores of the Bay of Biscay (Gallop 1970). These people, who settled some 70,000 years ago in today's southwestern France and northern Spain, are said to be the early whalers of Europe, Roman documents offering testimonies of their commercial activities in the 4th century
CE
. Yet early Basque migration never drew seamen away permanently, their activities calling most of them back to their ports of origin. Similarly in the modern era, seafaring drew many Basques off the shores of the Bay of Biscay to expand their fishing activities and their international commercial enterprises across the Atlantic Ocean to America (Álvarez Gila & Morales 2004). These migration trends undoubtedly shaped families’ collective memory and culture, but it was with the birth of new independent nations in America in the 19th century that the extraordinary political and economic conditions were established for massive permanent emigration (Arana Perez & Alzugaray 1990).
Berbers and Arabs in the Maghreb and Europe, medieval era
Authors: Wolf Marco Di Branco and Kordula 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMigrations often accompanied Muslim invasions and expansions. They were a frequent phenomenon not only immediately after the conquest of new territories, but also as a consequence of many later military campaigns or other circumstances. Since details about long‐term shifts in the centre of life of Arabs and Berbers in the surviving sources are rare, reliable information about the number, provenance, and duration of stay of new settlers in the Maghreb and parts of Europe during the Middle Ages is hard to find and difficult to estimate. This is aggravated by the fact that not every occupation of a region led to the establishment of a new leadership, which at least temporarily could create basic conditions for significant civilian settlement. In addition, the number of Muslim traders and slaves who stayed for longer periods in the occupied territories is completely uncertain. Therefore, this essay is focused on migrations of greater groups of Muslims, especially during the first phases of new dominations, and develops some major causes and consequences of these new settlements. In this context, the designations “Arab” and “Berber” are used for Muslims of different ethnic descent. But where this distinction cannot be made precisely, the general term “Muslim” is used, with the qualification that it always includes an unquantifiable number of non‐Muslims, especially when talking about military forces. In all new territories ruled by Arabs and Berbers, non‐converted Christian and Jewish populations fell under Muslim protection (ḏimma). With theǧizya(a type of religious poll tax) they had to pay a higher tax burden than (converted) Muslims. The main medieval Arabic, Greek, and Latin sources concerning Muslims in the Maghreb and parts of Europe are collected in Amari 1933, Vasiliev (1935–68), Lévi‐Provençal (1950–53), Talbi 1966, Laroui 1977, and Abun‐Nasr 1987.
Berne Initiative
Authors: Solomon Michele Klein 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Berne Initiative was a state‐led consultative process of national migration authorities, involving relevant stakeholders, with the goal of identifying a common language on migration as a basis for a non‐binding reference system and policy framework on migration management at the international level. It was launched by the government of Switzerland at an International Symposium on Migration in 2001, with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) serving as its secretariat. Its goal was to achieve more effective management of migration at the regional and global levels through enhanced cooperation among states. It responded to the need to institute inter‐state dialogue and cooperation on migration management at the global level.
Bilateral labor agreements
Authors: Blank Nathan R. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractBilateral labor agreements (BLAs) are a broad categorization of labor‐related agreements between two states. Generally the use of the word “bilateral” is meant to distinguish two‐state agreements from multilateral or global efforts at forging labor agreements or standards. Within international labor diplomacy BLAs have become the dominant mechanism through which states manage their labor relationships. Although BLAs are widely used to manage state‐to‐state flows of migrant workers, it should be noted that the vast majority of migrants go abroad through private party agreements between recruitment agencies and employers in destination states under nominal government control and regulation.
Bonded labor and migration, India
Authors: Mohanty Manoranjan 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Slavery is a hallmark in human history, a system in which people were sold and forced to work, and forced labor was closely associated with imperialism. In the modern era, slave migrations were a primary force in European mercantilism as tens of millions of people were captured, sold, and shipped from Africa to the Americas (Cohen 1995). Due to the vast profits in the slave trade that accrued to financial and commercial interests, it was essential to European mercantile capitalism (John 2006). The abolition of slavery by Britain in 1833, France and Denmark in 1848, and Holland in 1863 created new demands for cheap labor to support commerce and trade (Vertovec 1995), and the emancipation of African slaves in 1838 created a severe shortage of laborers working in sugar, coffee, tea, cocoa, rice, and rubber plantations (John 2006). Therefore, mercantile interests gradually replaced slavery with servitude and unfree labor. The terms “bonded labor,” “indentured servitude,” “peonage,” and “serfdom” are used synonymously but are different forms of servitude.
Bonded labor and migration, Russia
Authors: Gorshkov Boris B. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
In the context of Russian history, bonded labor refers to several types of unfree labor. These included the labor of slaves, serfs, indentured servants, laborers of state and manorial factories and mines, as well as penal and child labor, military conscription, and trafficking. All these types entailed employment against the will of the employed and sometimes their involuntary relocation. Each of these types of labor existed throughout Russia's history during certain time periods, experienced dynamics (evolution, changes, or continuity), and declined or was outlawed.
Bonded labor and migration, United States
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner 
Published: January 2013

AbstractBonded labor is one of the oldest and most pervasive institutional systems of economic exploitation in the history of humankind and can be found in many parts of the world even today. Interestingly, while it is drastically exploitative, the choice to enter an agreement of bonded labor is, in many cases, voluntary. As a form of debt bondage, bonded labor is not a form of slavery, but a form of contract labor that is highly exploitative. While voluntary by agreement, bonded labor is often ex‐ante voluntary because it preys on workers in areas that lack suitable alternatives. In these cases, workers enter debt bondage agreements hoping that they will lead to more opportunities and a chance for a better life.
Borderlands and cultural bonds
Authors: Tang Weimin 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Although the word “border” and, in close association with it, “borderland,” conveys a concept as ancient as the sovereignty of a kingdom, nation, or state, it is Anzaldua's widely acclaimed book
Borderlands/La Frontera
(1987) that has made the conditions of living on the border a focus point of studies across social sciences and humanities over recent decades. The multifaceted conditions of the borderland existence, with respect to gender, race, class, belief, and national and cultural identities, for instance, also constitute a central concern in recent studies of global migration. The study of borderlands, however, goes back to as early as the turn of the 20th century, largely focusing on historiographic studies of colonial frontiers, such as the pioneering studies of the Spanish borderlands in America by Herbert Eugene Bolton (1870–1953).
Britain, migration, c.1800 to present
Authors: Panayi Panikos 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe movement of peoples from other parts of the world has played a central role in the evolution of modern Britain, predating the Romans but subsequently also including Anglo‐Saxons, Vikings, and Normans in particular. In the medieval and early modern period smaller groups also made their way to the country: Irish, Jews, Roma (Gypsies), black slaves, and refugees from religious upheaval during the Reformation.
Byzantium, medieval era migrations
Authors: Niehoff‐Panagiotidis Jannis 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Seemingly, it is clearly May 29, 1453 that marks the end of the political entity of Byzantium, when the Ottomans surged into the half‐deserted city, killing Constantine XI, the last “autokrator ton Romaion” (“Roman emperor”), though the political unit he was commanding did not exceed the capital and the islands nearby. On that same day, the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Proverbs 8: 12ff.) became Aya Sofya, the main mosque of al‐ Quşţanţinīya. But is the political end the real end of Byzantium, though (Jorga 1935)?
Cameroon, migration 1960s to present
Authors: Chouapi Nadège Kouam D. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
During the last five decades from 1960 to 2010, the economic evolution of Cameroon has passed through three primary stages: (1) years of growth (1960–85); (2) years of economic crisis (1986–90); followed by (3) years of international multilateral lending institutions binding economic programs of boosting macroeconomic indicators through structural adjustment and other programs (1990–present). Populations undergoing the requirements of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) have been reduced more and more to poverty. In fact, 39.9 percent of the population live under the poverty line (NIS 2007: 14). In response to growing poverty, many Cameroonians have moved in search of better living conditions elsewhere, both within Cameroon and out of the country. Key factors of migration among most Cameroonians are family reunification (24.0%), relocation in search of education, studies, or training (18.8%) and lack of autonomy (17.8%)(ECAM 3, 2007: 106).
Canada: internal migration
Authors: Nerbas Don 
Published: January 2013

AbstractDuring the late 1860s and early 1870s the vast territories of northern North America were assembled under a new political entity called Canada. With this, the new Canadian state assumed political authority over a highly regionalized geographic space peopled by individuals whose migration patterns and worldviews failed to respect national boundaries. In the case of Canada, a settler society, the project of nation‐building was explicitly linked to attracting large numbers of immigrants, but outmigration also remained common; and an estimated 2.8 million people left for the United States between 1840 and 1940 (Ramirez 2001: ix). Internal migration thus represents a discrete category of migration, which only became recognizable as such after the creation and consolidation of imperial and national boundaries.
Canada: 20th‐century migration
Authors: Avery Donald Howard 
Published: January 2013

AbstractCanada remains one of the world's leading immigration nations, accepting newcomers from more than 200 different countries. Indeed, by 2010, over 19 percent of its overall population of 34 million was foreign‐born, with 34 ethnic groups being represented by at least 100,000 members each, most located in major urban centers. In addition, over 58 percent of newcomers now come from Asia, as this region has steadily replaced Europe and the United Kingdom as the major source of Canada's immigrant population. Indeed, today six of the top ten source countries are China, India, the Philippines, Pakistan, South Korea, and Sri Lanka (Canada 2010).
Caribbean African diaspora, 19th–20th century
Authors: Jacklin Laurie 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFour centuries of the transatlantic slave trade created the African Caribbean diaspora, uprooting millions of Africans from their distinct societies to labor under inhumane conditions on Caribbean sugar plantations and generate immense wealth for their owners. In the 19th century, heightening public outrage and anti‐slavery reformers pressured Europeans to abolish slavery in their colonies. Britain did this in 1838 and France followed suit a decade later. Abolition spanned 64 years in the Spanish Caribbean, starting in the Dominican Republic (1822) and ending in Cuba (1886). The second wave of diasporization occurred as the former slaves and generations of their descendants migrated and resettled within and beyond the Caribbean during the 19th and 20th centuries. The modern African Caribbean diaspora consists of innumerable diverse and heterogeneous anglophone, francophone, and hispanic populations. These Afro‐Creole societies, along with their enslaved ancestors, share the legacy of repression – targeting their African heritage – and their relentless resistance to it.
Caribbean agriculture and migration
Authors: Momsen Janet 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMigration is an institutionalized feature of Caribbean societies (Thomas‐Hope 1978). The pre‐Columbian movement of Amerindians from elsewhere in the Americas, European colonization, the forced transfer of several million Africans as plantation slaves, the post‐Emancipation arrival of indentured agricultural workers from India, Indonesia, and Europe, and the more recent circum‐Caribbean and international emigration of West Indian workers counterbalanced by a flow of sun‐seeking tourists from the global North, are all elements of the human flux in the region. The switch, after four hundred years, from a region of labor shortage to one of labor reserve reflects changes in regional resource use, the declining role of agriculture in the regional economy, the introduction of labor‐saving devices such as the plough in the 19th century and the improved accessibility of the region in the last six decades.
The Caribbean and Circum‐Caribbean migration, 16th century to the present
Authors: Thomas‐Hope Elizabeth 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMigration has been a major factor in the formation of modern Caribbean societies and those of the circum‐Caribbean region (Central America and the northern countries of South America). First, immigration into the region was the means whereby the region became incorporated into the global mercantilist system of production and trade. This was followed by more than a century of net outward movement from most parts of the region – a trend that has continued into the 21st century.
Caribbean: Dutch migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Oostindie Gert J. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
At the threshold to the 20th century, the Dutch Caribbean consisted of two colonies, Suriname on the northern coast of South America and the Netherlands Antilles, six tiny islands in the Caribbean. The populations on the islands descended mainly from enslaved Africans. Because of post‐slavery migrations from British India and Java, the Surinamese population would eventually be divided into two roughly equivalent parts of African and Asian descent.
Caribbean: English‐speaking emigration, 1950s to present
Authors: Conway Dennis 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFrom its early (post‐1492) incorporation into Europe's colonial empires until present times, the sociocultural demographic profiles of the (mostly) island territories in what can be collectively labeled as the English‐speaking Caribbean have been significantly shaped by waves upon waves of immigration (Conway 1989a; Marshall 1982: Richardson 1992). For centuries, migrants from all over the region have sought employment and opportunities for advancement “off the island,” both intra‐regionally and extra‐regionally, and remittances and return migrants are just two of the reciprocal consequences of this international mobility (Connell & Conway 2000; Conway 1993, 2007a). The long‐held, conventional view that international migrants from the peripheral global South – the English‐speaking Caribbean – into the advanced capitalist global North – United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom – are always destined to be either settlers or sojourners, has been found to be outdated. Caribbean migration scholars now view the intra‐regional and extra‐regional diaspora of significant proportions of the region's citizenry as highly fluid, flexible, and dynamic in its global reach and scope (Fog Olwig 1999, 2001; Foner 2001; Thomas‐Hope 1998; 2006).
Caribbean: English‐speaking regional and external migration, 1830s–2000
Authors: Brereton Bridget 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe people of the modern Caribbean descend from men and women brought to the region mainly through coerced or semi‐coerced migrations, notably the transatlantic trade in enslaved Africans, and the post‐emancipation schemes of Asian indentured immigration. It has been historically a region of massive in‐migration, from Africa, Europe, and Asia. But after the end of slavery in the British Caribbean in the 1830s movement within the wider region, and out of it to Central, South, and North America, and to Europe, became a key aspect of life for the people of these territories. As soon as they were free to leave their own islands, they did so in large numbers, and outmigration – to many different destinations, which shifted according to opportunities and changing circumstances – became part of the lived experience of many (Richardson 2004).
Caribbean: French‐speaking migration and settlement
Authors: Vergès Françoise 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFrench Caribbean modern mobility and migrations refer to the population movement associated with the French colonial empire and its occupation of and domination over some of the Caribbean islands, most notably the island they called Saint‐Domingue (modern Haiti). The beginning of the history of migration in the region coincided with the time of Europeans' arrival there. Yet recent archeological discoveries are transforming the ways in which migrations are studied in the Caribbean, since it is now realized that long before the arrival of the Europeans, native populations moved from one island to the other and maintained a “dynamic inter‐connected character” (Hofman & Bright 2010). In other words, the migrations set in motion by French colonial powers happened in territories that had already been sites of exchange between groups. French Caribbean modern migrations are thus inscribed within a larger history of migratory practices, and the practices of cultural mixing, hybridity, syncretic practices, and creolization. In other words, contacts between people of different rituals, beliefs, languages, and ways of living led to the creation of new linguistic, cultural, and religious forms where the vernacular nonetheless survived in its own forms. From these processes emerged what is known as “Caribbean” music, literature, cuisine, technology, and rituals.