bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mobile Communication Development
Authors: Melody William H. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThere will soon be more mobile phones in the world than people. Yet opportunities for further growth remain great, since “m‐applications” are at an early stage of development and the “digital divide” is still far from closure. The phenomenal growth of mobile has been shaped by the convergence of rapidly evolving technologies in the telecommunication and computer industries, unpredicted and unprecedented demand for mobile services, and by spectrum policy and management. Building on the backs of the inventions of Morse, Bell, and Marconi, electronic communication has been extended to incorporate mobility as an essential component of almost all electronic services in the evolution toward information societies. With smartphones and media tablets, the computer industry has seized leadership from the telecommunication industry in directing further technological development. The dominant factor influencing future development, however, will be the extent to which spectrum policy and management can increase spectrum efficiency by an order of magnitude and provide the essential radio spectrum frequency capacity. This entry explains why this is the limiting factor for fifth‐ generation (5G) mobile communication development and its applications in future information societies.
Law of Cyber Warfare
Authors: Hayes Carol M. , Kesan Jay P. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
When conflicts arise between countries, these conflicts may be addressed by application of international law. This entry focuses on international law in the modern age, especially as it has been affected by modern communication technologies that increase the danger of cyberwar. First, we provide some general background information about agreements between states under international law, such as treaties. While there are many ways that international law can develop, treaties may be especially effective at addressing new technologies. Next, we turn to the main focus of this entry: applying international law to the modern communication environment, especially given the threat of cyber warfare. The threats are real and the technology is developing rapidly, but formal legal positions are still being debated. Though it is unclear how international law will apply to cyberwar, this topic is a high priority in the area of international relations and diplomacy.
Political Speech and the Law
Authors: Brooten Lisa 
Published: February 2015

AbstractNew tensions have emerged in the digital environment between political speech, privacy, and the need for security and for laws proportionate to the demands for information in a democratic society. The rapidity of technological change has governments, courts, and civil society groups worldwide scrambling to effectively adapt to new challenges, shifting constitutional provisions, laws, regulations, and practices of states. Protections for political speech include provisions for freedom of expression, speech, and the press, as well as protections for privacy and anonymity. In addition to more obvious forms of political speech such as election campaigns and political protests, contested forms of political speech include corporate and anticorporate speech and hate speech. Threats to political speech come in both direct and indirect forms, including antiterrorism laws, increased levels of surveillance, cybersecurity and cybercrime laws, various forms of defamation or libel, and intellectual property rights.
Intermediary Responsibility
Authors: Winseck Dwayne R. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractIntermediaries operate the facilities that provide access to, or services on, the internet, including internet service providers (ISPs), search engines, social media, etc. As with all media, questions have arisen about what, if any, responsibilities, these entities should have with respect to third party content. While many observers in the 1990s saw the decentralized and cross‐border nature of the internet as making it difficult to regulate, concentration levels for core internet elements – ISPs, search engines, social media sites, etc. – are in fact very high. This, in turn, has made them popular tools as part of the struggle by governments, copyright interests, and others to regulate unwelcome content such as mass piracy, child pornography, whistle‐blowers, bullies, terrorists, etc. Consequently, intermediaries are being tasked – on a “voluntary” and mandatory basis – with a growing list of gatekeeper functions: website blocking and filtering, domain name seizures, data retention, etc.
Service Agreements, Terms of
Authors: Coyer Kate , Wanstreet Rian 
Published: February 2015

AbstractTerms of service (variously named end user license agreements, privacy policies or user agreements, statements of responsibilities, etc.) are the contracts users commit themselves to when accessing most online platforms, services, applications, and software. Within these contracts lie important legally binding detail about the rights and responsibilities of the users and service providers, however, they are written by the service providers, rarely read by users, and thus typically benefit the service provider or vendor rather than the user. To better understand why these contracts matter and what is embedded within them, this entry looks at terms of service agreements within the context of internet governance and as a legal construct and corporate tool; the impact users experience, privacy and freedom of expression; and broader human rights frameworks and transparency.
Participatory Video
Authors: Roberts Tony , Lunch Chris 
Published: February 2015

AbstractParticipatory video has become an increasingly popular development activity over the last 45 years. This is due, in part, to its claimed efficacy in generating valued development outcomes at the level of the individual, group, and society. Participatory video is a set of techniques using information and communication technologies (ICTs) to involve a group or community in shaping and creating their own film. Unlike other kinds of filmmaking participatory video, it hands control of the film production process to inexpert users to enable them to express and represent themselves, communicating to others about issues affecting their lives. It is claimed that among other benefits, this process can enhance participants' self‐confidence and self‐esteem, individual and collective agency, and serve as an effective mechanism to amplify the voices of marginalized groups to influence their decision making processes. Over time writing about participatory video has generally become less celebratory and more critical, questioning among other things, the extent to which control is handed over and scrutinizing claims that participatory video generates transformational social change.
ICT4D
, Overview of Theories in
Authors: Zheng Yingqin 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
The information and communication technology for development (ICT4D) field is strongly interdisciplinary and draws upon fields such as development studies, information systems, computer science, geography, management studies, media and communication studies, design science, gender/feminist studies, and a large number of disciplines. In the past two decades, a growing number of theories has been developed and applied to generate scholarly insight and improved understanding of practical and policymaking. The boundaries of the literature are blurred in this area, making it challenging to provide a relatively short entry, and it is impossible to offer exhaustive coverage. The aim of this entry is to provide an introduction to several key theoretical perspectives that are frequently cited and that may be considered to be influential in the field and to outline some of the main understandings of ICT4D.
Commercial Applications in Digital Communications
Authors: Steinfield Charles 
Published: February 2015

Abstract

Where in the past the field of digitally mediated communication was focused narrowly within organizational settings and on its impacts on interpersonal communication, it is now clear that the commercial implications of such communication are vast and pervasive, permeating every aspect of the economy. This entry provides an overview of the topics addressed in the commercial applications theme of this
Encyclopedia
, covering six areas: business‐to‐business networks, electronic commerce, online marketing, online content delivery, communication services, and mobile communications. Research related to these topics is needed to understand how digital technologies shape social and business practice, and to better inform policies and practice. The entries offer a comprehensive introduction to the work that has been done and an agenda for where to take research in the future.
Location Based Commercial Services
Authors: Stanoevska‐Slabeva Katarina 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Location based commercial services (LBS) are specific mobile services that depend on and are based on location information. They provide added value for mobile users through location‐specific information and services, as well as through their visualization on interactive maps. LBS provide basic information regarding the location of a person or object, the persons and objects that are nearby, a depiction of the surroundings, as well as instructions about how to get from one place to another. Examples of LBS are: location‐specific weather and tourist services, location based mobile games and social networks, navigation as well as location‐specific advertising and mobile commerce services. They provide spatial guidance for users and help them in mastering location‐specific tasks and information needs in an efficient way. This entry defines LBS, explains the technologies they are based on and classifies them. It also explains the historical evolution and factors influencing the adoption of LBS.
e‐Commerce Standards
Authors: Steinfield Charles , Wigand Rolf T. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractStandards are essential to insure that devices and networks work together effectively to provide access to content and communication. They are also necessary to reduce the costs of e‐commerce transactions, especially between businesses. This entry provides a basic definition of standards and a brief overview of the role of standards throughout the history of electronic communications and e‐commerce. The main research themes related to standards are introduced, including research on the economics of compatibility standards; network and bandwagon effects in the adoption of standards; and collective action dilemmas in standards development and diffusion, especially in the context of vertical information system standards to support electronic commerce.
ICT4D
Authors: Kleine Dorothea 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Research in information and communication technology for development (ICT4D) is an emerging field, bringing together a variety of disciplines across the social and physical sciences and the humanities. Through interdisciplinary approaches and links with practice, research in this area assembles development practitioners, policymakers, scholars, technical experts, and activists. This entry introduces the field, explains its history, core challenges, and the specific areas of research that are included under the ICT4D theme in this Encyclopedia.
Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) interacting proteins exhibit different expression patterns during development
Authors: Bonaccorso C.M. , Spatuzza M. , Di Marco B. , Gloria A. , Barrancotto G. , Cupo A. , Musumeci S.A. , D'Antoni S. , Bardoni B. , Catania M.V. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractFragile X syndrome is caused by the lack of expression of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), an RNA‐binding protein involved in mRNA transport and translation. FMRP is a component of mRNA ribonucleoprotein complexes and it can interact with a range of proteins either directly or indirectly, as demonstrated by two‐hybrid selection and co‐immunoprecipitation, respectively. Most of FMRP‐interacting proteins are RNA‐binding proteins such as FXR1P, FXR2P and 82‐FIP. Interestingly, FMRP can also interact directly with the cytoplasmic proteins CYFIP1 and CYFIP2, which do not bind RNA and link FMRP to the RhoGTPase pathway. The interaction with these different proteins may modulate the functions of FMRP by influencing its affinity to RNA and by affecting the FMRP ability of cytoskeleton remodeling through Rho/Rac GTPases. To better define the relationship of FMRP with its interacting proteins during brain development, we have analyzed the expression pattern of FMRP and its interacting proteins in the cortex, striatum, hippocampus and cerebellum at different ages in wild type (WT) mice. FMRP and FXR2P were strongly expressed during the first week and gradually decreased thereafter, more rapidly in the cerebellum than in the cortex. FXR1P was also expressed early and showed a reduction at later stages of development with a similar developmental pattern in these two regions. CYFIP1 was expressed at all ages and peaked in the third post‐natal week. In contrast, CYFIP2 and 82‐FIP (only in forebrain regions) were moderately expressed at P3 and gradually increased after P7. In general, the expression pattern of each protein was similar in the regions examined, except for 82‐FIP, which exhibited a strong expression at P3 and low levels at later developmental stages in the cerebellum. Our data indicate that FMRP and its interacting proteins have distinct developmental patterns of expression and suggest that FMRP may be preferentially associated to certain proteins in early and late developmental periods. In particular, the RNA‐binding and cytoskeleton remodeling functions of FMRP may be differently modulated during development.
Assessment of quality of life in Indian adults with epilepsy and their caregivers
Authors: Mehndiratta Man Mohan , Alam Anwar , Pandey Sanjay , Singh Ekta 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Background Epilepsy is the most common neurological disorder which requires chronic treatment. This has prominent impact on the quality of life of the patient and their caregivers. This study was planned to assess and correlate the quality of life in epilepsy (QOLIE) in these two groups, in India.
Material and methods A total of 160 subjects with definite diagnosis of epilepsy according to ILAE and their caregivers were included in the study. The QOLIE 31 and SF 36 proforma were used as assessing instruments for subjects and caregivers respectively.
Results Factors such as early age of onset of epilepsy, lesser duration of epilepsy, increased interval between seizures in subjects on monotherapy, socioeconomic and educational status had better quality of life (QOL) in subjects than age, gender, marital and employment status. On the other hand for caregivers following factors-age, gender, relation with the subjects and socioeconomic status had influenced the QOL. The QOL of the caregivers was directly proportional proportional to the QOL of their respective subject.
Conclusion This study reaffirms the findings of the previous studies that key to improving quality of life of people with epilepsy, are good control of seizure and reducing side effects (by minimizing antiepileptic drugs) along with holistic care. Caregivers QOL is also proportionally affected by subjects QOL and it is seen to have adverse outcomes when the caregiver is female (mother or wife), elderly, of low socioeconomic status and when subject has poor seizure control.
Contraceptive practice after surgical repair of obstetric fistula in southeast Nigeria
Authors: Lawani Lucky O. , Iyoke Chukwuemeka A. , Ezeonu Paul O. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractObjectiveTo determine the contraceptive practices of women after surgical repair of obstetric fistula and to assess determinants of uptake and the pregnancy rate in the first year.MethodsA prospective cohort study enrolled women who had a successful surgical repair of obstetric fistula at a center in Nigeria between 2011 and 2013. Patients were followed up for 1 year. Data were obtained through record review and completion of a semi‐structured questionnaire.ResultsAmong 188 participants, 180 (95.7%) were aware of contraception, but only 70 (37.2%) used contraceptive methods after surgery. The most commonly used methods were the male condom (50 [71.4%] of 70) and hormonal injections (14 [20.0%]). The main reasons for non‐use were fear of adverse effects (48 [40.7%] of 118 women), future desire for more children (35 [29.7%]), religious prohibition (26 [22.0%]), cultural beliefs (29 [24.6%]), and partner disapproval (42 [35.6%]). The risk of unplanned pregnancy in the first year was significantly lower among women who used contraceptives than among those who did not (relative risk 0.14, 95% confidence interval 0.02–1.06; P = 0.03).ConclusionContraceptive uptake for birth control after fistula repair surgery was low because of socioeconomic reasons, religious and cultural beliefs, and myths, resulting in unplanned pregnancies.
MIND diet associated with reduced incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Authors: Morris Martha Clare , Tangney Christy C. , Wang Yamin , Sacks Frank M. , Bennett David A. , Aggarwal Neelum T. 
Published: February 2015

IntroductionIn a previous study, higher concordance to the MIND diet, a hybrid Mediterranean‐Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet, was associated with slower cognitive decline. In this study we related these three dietary patterns to incident Alzheimer's disease (AD).MethodsWe investigated the diet‐AD relations in a prospective study of 923 participants, ages 58 to 98 years, followed on average 4.5 years. Diet was assessed by a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire.ResultsIn adjusted proportional hazards models, the second (hazards ratio or HR = 0.65, 95% confidence interval or CI 0.44, 0.98) and highest tertiles (HR = 0.47, 95% CI 0.26, 0.76) of MIND diet scores had lower rates of AD versus tertile 1, whereas only the third tertiles of the DASH (HR = 0.61, 95% CI 0.38, 0.97) and Mediterranean (HR = 0.46, 95% CI 0.26, 0.79) diets were associated with lower AD rates.DiscussionHigh adherence to all three diets may reduce AD risk. Moderate adherence to the MIND diet may also decrease AD risk.
FROM SUBSTANTIAL BURDEN ON RELIGION TO DIMINISHED SPIRITUAL FULFILLMENT: THE SAN FRANCISCO PEAKS CASE AND THE MISUNDERSTANDING OF NATIVE AMERICAN RELIGION
Authors: McNally Michael D. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractIn Navajo Nation v. U.S. Forest Service, 535 F.3d 1058 (9th Cir. 2008), cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 2763 (2009), the Ninth Circuit seated en banc found that federal approval of a plan by a ski resort to make artificial snow with treated sewage effluent on Arizona's San Francisco Peaks, a mountain massif held sacred by the Navajo, Hopi, and four other claimant tribes, did not violate their religious liberty under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA). The court accepted numerous factual findings about sincere religious exercise, but found federal approval of the scheme did not constitute a “substantial burden” on religion; rather, it only “decreased spiritual fulfillment” of tribal members. Despite a spirited dissent, the Ninth Circuit narrowly interpreted RFRA's language of “substantial burden” by making reference to the Supreme Court's 1988 holding in Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association, 485 U.S. 439 (1988). This article shows how conventional wisdom about individualistic, subjective, and protean “spirituality” and in particular about “Native American spirituality” equips the court to denature highly specific and collective religious claims about the mountain by plaintiff tribes, and in turn to naturalize those claims as merely spiritual. Misrecognition of Native religions as Native spirituality then troubles the substantial burden analysis. While Navajo Nation suggests courts may never fully understand Native claims to sacred sites, the Supreme Court's 2014 holding in Burwell v. Hobby Lobby, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 2751, 2759 (2014), opens the door to revisiting the interpretive posture spelled out in Navajo Nation, and the Ninth Circuit's interpretive approach to “substantial burden” bears revisiting.
EFFECT OF FERTILISER AND IRRIGATION ON FORAGE YIELD AND IRRIGATION WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN SEMI-ARID REGIONS OF PAKISTAN
Authors: UL-ALLAH SAMI , KHAN ASIF ALI , FRICKE THOMAS , BUERKERT ANDREAS , WACHENDORF MICHAEL 
Published: February 2015

SUMMARYIn many parts of Pakistan, availability of green forage is critical to livestock farmers. Forage production is often conducted with two succeeding crops grown within one year and it is highly affected by uncertain availability of irrigation water and low levels of applied mineral fertilisers. The objectives of the present study were to (i) evaluate the effects of crop species, fertiliser type and irrigation level on yield, (ii) determine the corresponding water use efficiency and (iii) investigate relationships between chlorophyll content and crop yield as a basis for a simple sensor-based prediction of crop yield for on-farm use. To this end a two-year field experiment was conducted in Faisalabad, Pakistan, with a completely randomised design with four replications in a split plot arrangement. A combination of fertiliser treatment (control, farm yard manure and mineral fertiliser) and irrigation (recommended irrigation, half recommended irrigation) were assigned to main plot whereas subplots were assigned to cropping systems (common (CCS): Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinumL.) followed by corn (Zea maysL.), drought-adapted (DACS): Oat (Avena sativaL.) followed by Sudangrass (Andropogon sorghumsubsp.drummondii). Yield and irrigation water use efficiency of DACS was higher than CCS (14.8 and 26% respectively), the differences were bigger with reduced irrigation and fertilised crops used the available water better than the control. Positive linear relationships were found between chlorophyll concentration estimated by a chlorophyll meter and yield for all crops (r2= 0.63–0.96), suggesting this technique as a fairly accurate approach to predict yields of crops in vegetative growth stage.
ON-FARM EXPERIMENTATION ON CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE IN MAIZE-LEGUME BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS IN KENYA: WATER USE EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Authors: MICHENI A. N. , KANAMPIU F. , KITONYO O. , MBURU D. M. , MUGAI E.N. , MAKUMBI D. , KASSIE M. 
Published: February 2015

SUMMARYConservation agriculture (CA) is a promising technology for controlling soil degradation, mitigating drought, increasing crop yield and reducing production costs. We hypothesized that adopting CA system would improve system productivity and efficiency, hence resulting in higher profits. To test the hypothesis, we designed a study to evaluate water use efficiency (WUE) and the economic benefits (yield and gross margins) of CA in the upper and lower midlands agro-ecological zones of eastern Kenya. Four tillage treatments, including farmers’ practice (residues removed), conventional tillage (residues removed) and two CA practices with residue retention (zero tillage and furrow–ridge), were laid out in 22 farmers’ fields where each farm was treated as a replicate. The results are based on four consecutive seasons farmer–researcher managed trials during the period 2010 and 2012. CA significantly improved crop yields after the first season of experimentation. Joint use of zero tillage and furrow–ridge provided higher WUE and yield advantage (25–34%) in the third and fourth seasons compared to the conventional practices. The lower midlands zone gave higher WUE values, which can be explained by the effects of water harvesting and retention for longer period on CA treatments. CA practices have increased income on average by 12% resulted from labour cost reduction and yield increment. Weeding costs for conventional tillage were USD 88 ha−1 compared to USD 24 ha−1 for herbicide application under CA. Practicing CA will certainly increase crop yields, WUE, generate more revenue and diversify risks during poor seasons. However, these benefits may not necessarily be earned in the first season, but will accrue in subsequent seasons.