bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
LONG‐TERM PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF DIVERGENT‐THINKING TESTS: SOME NEGATIVE EVIDENCE1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Pankove Ethel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFor two samples of middle‐class Ss, assessments of divergent‐thinking performance and intellective aptitude were obtained at 5th and 10th grades. Nonacademic attainments of these Ss were assessed with a biographical questionnaire in the 10th grade and upon graduation. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that 5th‐grade ideational productivity had no predictive power in respect to nonacademic attainment at graduation, whereas 10th‐grade ideational productivity made a marginally significant contribution to that criterion in one of the school systems. Contrary to expectations, 5th‐ and 10th‐grade intellective‐aptitude measures accounted for modest to substantial amounts of the variation in nonacademic attainments. Assessment of such attainments was found to be fairly stable from 10th grade to graduation. Examination of separate fields of nonacademic attainment indicated diverse relationships with cognitive assessments. Implications for creativity research are considered.
A RELATIVE INTERACTION CRITERION AND ITS USE IN ORTHOGONAL ROTATION
Authors: Balloun Joe L. , Kearns Jack 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA new criterion for analytic rotation based upon the concept of simple structure is introduced. The rationale for the method stems from a consideration of the way in which the variance of squared factor loadings is partitioned as in an analysis of variance. It is argued that a maximization of the relative amount of squared factor loading variation which is due to the “interaction” of factors and tests should produce results consistent with the simple structure hypothesis. The criterion is applied to orthogonal rotation using a gradient method of maximization.
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN GRADING PRACTICES
Authors: Pinchak Barbara Moretti 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn 1972, 1069 high schools participated in a nationwide survey. Of those schools reporting information about their grading systems, 67.6% indicated that only letter grades were used, 16.3% indicated that only percentage grades were used, 5.4% used a system which combined letter and percentage grades, 2.6% used only numerical grades, 1.7% used only other types of grades (such as pass‐fail), 3.6% used a combination of grade types other than letter and percentage grades, and 2.7% of the schools did not indicate the exact system used. However, on a regional basis, the popularity of particular grade types varied. Also, within regions, there was quite a bit of variance in grade type used from state to state. This survey points out the difficulty in comparing grades from different parts of the country.
METHODS FOR EVALUATING EMPIRICAL BAYES POINT ESTIMATES OF LATENT TRAIT SCORES12
Authors: Kearns Jack , Meredith William 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTEmpirical Bayes point estimates of latent trait scores, derived under the assumptions of one of several test theory models, display a certain degree of instability unless the sample size is sufficiently large. A measure of this instability over repeated sampling is the distribution of the overall expected squared error loss which converges, both in probability and in the mean, to the minimum (Bayes) overall expected loss as sample size increases. An asymptotic distribution theory is developed, and the resulting large sample approximation is compared with results obtained from simulated data. Attention is also given to the effects of using a smoothing procedure.
DEFINITIONS, MEASUREMENTS, AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF STIMULI, SITUATIONS, AND ENVIRONMENTS
Authors: Pervin Lawrence A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA review of issues relevant to the definition, measurement, and classification of stimuli, situations, and environments. Problems such as the lack of adequate definitions of concepts, error and bias in measurement procedures, confusion between measurement of a concept and measurement of its behavioral effects, and the lack of agreement among alternative measures are emphasized. It is suggested that concepts be defined in terms of objective characteristics while allowing for the study of the transactional relationship between organism and environment. The work of the ethologists in defining stimuli while studying their relationship to different organismic states and situational contexts is emphasized in this regard. Following Brunswik, it is also suggested that wherever possible there be a representative sampling of variables in natural settings.
A NOTE ON USE OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE IN DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
Authors: Hale Gordon A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTStandard ANOVA provides a relatively ineffective test of developmental change when several age levels are involved and a roughly monotonic age trend can be assumed. A hypothetical example here serves to illustrate the point. An alternative use of ANOVA is suggested, and the value of the proposed solution is shown in reanalysis of published data.
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LATERALIZATION OF VERBAL AND CONFIGURATIONAL PROCESSING
Authors: Zoccolotti Pierluigi , Oltman Philip K. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWith tachistoscopic presentation, relatively field‐independent 18‐ to 30‐year‐old males were found to show a significant right‐visual‐field advantage in reaction time in a letter discrimination task, while relatively field‐dependent subjects did not show a significant hemifield difference. In a second study, relatively field‐independent 18‐ to 30‐year‐old males again showed a significant right‐visual‐field superiority in reaction time to letter discrimination, and in addition showed a significant left‐visual‐field superiority in tachistoscopic face discrimination, while relatively field‐dependent subjects showed no significant hemifield difference on either task. The results are interpreted as indicating a link between Witkin's concept of psychological differentiation and differentiation at the neural level, as manifested by specialization of function of the cerebral hemispheres.
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF THE SAT ACROSS POPULATIONS—AN EMPIRICAL CONFIRMATORY STUDY
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Werts Charles E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn analysis of covariance structural factor model was posed that allowed for tests of invariance across populations of (1) similarity of the factor pattern, (2) equivalence of units of measurement, (3) standard errors of measurement of each factor, (A) reliability of each factor and (5) a factor mean structure. The analysis of the SAT‐V and the SAT‐M indicated support for the hypothesis that the respective factors for SAT‐V and M were measuring the same things across populations in the same units with equivalent accuracy as measured by the standard error of measurement.The factor analysis of item type classifications indicated that little useful information would be obtained if the scores were reported by item type. This is particularly true for the SAT‐M. The verbal item type analysis did suggest the possibility that the analogy scores be reported separately and the remaining item types be combined in a single reading‐vocabulary score.
CONSTRUCTS AND THEIR VICISSITUDES IN EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT1
Authors: Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper examines some implications for educational and psychological measurement of three existential perspectives on the nature of mediating variables underlying and relating consistencies in test and non‐test behaviors. These three perspectives, respectively, treat mediators as (a) intervening variables operationally tied to real causal entities or source variables, such as personality traits or environmental contingencies; (b) hypothetical constructs that organize and summarize behavioral consistencies but have no reality outside the theoretical system; and, (c) manisfestations of real entities that are understood only in terms of constructs that summarize their empirical properties in relation to other constructs in a theoretical network. All three existential perspectives are applicable to personality traits or situational forces or their interactions, so implications for measurement hold whether for personal or environmental sources of behavioral consistency. In particular, the summary power of constructs in both theory and measurement that led to the predominance of construct validity principles in trait measurement implies that these principles should hold with equal cogency for situational and interactive measurement. Some slippery methodological problems arise in applying these principles, however, when clear distinctions are not articulated between the assessment model for measuring a construct and the substantive theory relating the construct to other constructs, each of which should have its own possibly different assessment model coordinated to its salient structural features.
THE USEFULNESS OF SELECTION TESTS IN COLLEGE ADMISSIONS
Authors: Beaton Albert E. , Barone John L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn many selection situations, some predictor of success, such as a test, is used to discriminate between the applicants to be accepted and those to be rejected. Using an interpretation of Brogden [1946], this paper shows the effect of using a correlated variable on the mean criterion score of the selected group. The distribution of the means of all possible selections is discussed and a simple formula is provided for calculating the probability of achieving as high or higher mean using random selection as opposed to using a correlated variable. It is shown that even fairly small correlations result in selection decisions that are not often exceeded by chance. The Brogden interpretation and significance test is shown to extend simply to the case of several predictors.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE ENVIRONMENTS OF GRADUATE STUDENTS AND FACULTY
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper considers some important psychological aspects of the academic experience for male and female graduate faculty members and students. Drawing on data collected in a recent national study of doctoral program quality, information pertaining to the graduate department's environment for learning, the extent of faculty members' concern for students, graduate student assistantship experiences, and faculty members' satisfactions and views about various departmental practices and policies are examined. Gender differences in both student and faculty member perceptions of their environments were found to be generally slight and to vary by discipline.
CURTAILED SAMPLING FOR CASE‐CONTROL STUDIES
Authors: Herrmann Nira , Szatrowski Ted H. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe use of curtailed sampling procedures for individually matched case‐control studies is proposed as an alternative to fixed sample size plans. Curtailed sampling provides a hypothesis testing procedure with the same power function as the corresponding fixed sample size test while guaranteeing that the random sample size is less than or equal to the fixed sample size in all cases. Several tables for the expected savings in sample size from curtailed procedures and an accurate, easy to calculate formula for approximating the expected savings are presented. In view of the substantial savings in sample size available under certain conditions and the accuracy of the approximating formula, it is recommended that curtailed procedures be given serious consideration in the design of matched pair case‐control studies.
AN UPPER ASYMPTOTE FOR THE THREE‐PARAMETER LOGISTIC ITEM‐RESPONSE MODEL*
Authors: Barton Mark A. , Lord Frederic M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn upper‐asymptote parameter was added to the three‐parameter logistic item response model. This four‐parameter model was compared to the three‐parameter model on four data sets. The fourth parameter increased the likelihood in only two of the four sets. Ability estimates for the students were generally unchanged by the introduction of the fourth parameter.
GROUP COMPARISONS FOR BASIC SKILLS MEASURES
Authors: Breland Hunter M. , Griswold Philip A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTCorrelation, regression, and score interval analyses were conducted for six academic measures as predictors of essay writing and overall performance. Comparisons for all analyses were made for men, women, Asians, blacks, Hispanics, and whites. The correlational comparisons showed few differences across groups, except that correlations tended to be lower for the white sample because of variance restrictions. The regression comparisons agreed with previous studies showing blacks and Hispanics to be generally overpredicted. On essay‐writing performance, men were also overpredicted by conventional basic skills measures. In contrast, women tended to write better essays than would have been predicted by conventional basic skills measures. False negatives, those people who score low on a predictor but who excel on a criterion, occurred least in the black and Hispanic groups.
STUDENT SELF‐SELECTION AND TEST REPETITION
Authors: Alderman Donald L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTStudent self‐selection in deciding to repeat a test was examined by contrasting the test performance of students taking the College Board's Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) as juniors and again as seniors with the test performance of students taking the SAT only once as juniors. Estimates of expected test performance on a common initial administration in the junior year were derived from separate equating sections and background variables. Residuals of observed minus expected test scores revealed statistically significant differences between students who took a single administration of the SAT as juniors and students who took the same initial administration but also repeated the test as seniors; the initial observed scores of students later repeating the test were consistently lower than their expected scores for both the verbal and mathematical sections. These results indicate that self‐selection occurs when students decide to repeat a test and that score changes among these students reflect negative errors of measurement on the initial test administration as well as other factors.
PYRAMID POWER: SEARCHING FOR AN ERROR IN TEST SCORING WITH 830,000 HELPERS
Authors: Wainer Howard 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA mathematics item was asked on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test which was keyed incorrectly. This subsequently was discovered and became the subject of national attention. In this paper we examine the data generated by this item by almost 830,000 examinees and discover that detailed statistical analysis with even this enormous sample size would not have yielded clues to the blunder. The epistemological and practical consequences of this are also discussed.
A COMPARISON OF FREE‐RESPONSE AND MULTIPLE‐CHOICE FORMS OF VERBAL APTITUDE TESTS
Authors: Ward William C. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThree verbal item types employed in standardized aptitude tests were administered in four formats–conventional multiple‐choice along with three formats requiring the examinee to produce rather than simply to recognize correct answers. For two item types, Sentence Completion and Antonyms, the response format made no difference in the pattern of correlations among the tests. Only for a multiple‐answer open‐ended Analogies test were any systematic differences found; even the interpretation of these is uncertain, since they may result from the speededness of the test rather than from its response requirements. In contrast to several kinds of problem‐solving tasks that have been studied, discrete verbal item types appear to measure essentially the same abilities regardless of the format in which the test is administered.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF BIASED ITEMS
Authors: Sinnott Loraine T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA standard method for exploring item bias is the intergroup comparison of item difficulties. This paper describes a refinement and generalization of this technique. In contrast to prior approaches, the proposed method deletes outlying items from the formulation of a criterion for identifying items as deviant. It also extends the mathematical framework of item difficulty comparisons to allow the simultaneous analysis of any number of groups. As an example, the proposed method is applied to a set of quantitative items selected from a business school admission test.
EMPIRICAL BAYES ESTIMATION OF COEFFICIENTS IN THE GENERAL LINEAR MODEL FROM DATA OF DEFICIENT RANK1
Authors: Braun Henry I. , Jones Douglas H. , Rubin Donald B. , Thayer Dorothy T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTEmpirical Bayes methods are shown to provide a practical alternative to standard least squares methods in fitting high dimensional models to sparse data. An example concerning prediction bias in educational testing is presented as an illustration.
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF THE SAT ON TWO HANDICAPPED GROUPS: THE DEAF AND THE LEARNING DISABLED
Authors: Jones Douglas H. , Ragosta Marjorie 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTBecause of the ambiguity of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, with regard to the need for predictive‐validity studies of admissions tests for handicapped persons, a preliminary study was undertaken. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the predictive validity of the SAT for deaf students at one institution and learning disabled (LD) students at another. SAT scores and measures of high school and college performance were obtained at each institution for both handicapped and nonhandicapped students. Additional descriptive information was obtained for the handicapped groups. The SAT scores of deaf students (when available) were significantly lower than the verbal and mathematical scores of the hearing students and tended to under predict deaf students' college performance. The combination of high school grade point average and SAT scores predicted performance equivalently for deaf and hearing students. For the learning disabled, the SAT verbal score and the high school and college performance measures were all significantly lower than those for the non‐LD students. The SAT validity coefficients for the two groups were not statistically significantly different. The combination of high school rank and SAT scores produced a significant lower validity coefficient for LD students than for non‐LD students. Since these were preliminary studies, no implications are being drawn pending further research.
MATHEMATICS ITEMS WITH HINTS
Authors: Trismen Donald A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA set of 40 mathematics items was developed, intended for high school students who had completed at least one high school course in each of algebra and plane geometry. The items represented relatively unstructured problem situations, and each was supplemented by a sequence of hints which would progressively structure the problem for the examinee. A subset of nine of the items was rewritten, replacing the original hints with multiple‐choice question hints. The rewritten items were administered to a group of 107 examinees, using latent image materials.This report describes the characteristics of hints, their relationships to the items they accompany, and their effectiveness in helping examinees to answer the item correctly. Its primary aim is to examine the function of hints in the problem‐solving process.Three major findings were suggested:
The use of hints increases the percentage of correct answers to an item, regardless of whether the hints themselves are answered correctly.
The presentation of an open‐ended item, recast in multiple‐choice format, can, in some instances, act as a hint.
Answering hints correctly is related to answering the item correctly when a specific examinee misconception of the problem is involved.
ESTIMATING THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS METHODS OF PREPARING FOR THE SAT
Authors: Powers Donald E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA national sample of Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) candidates was surveyed to determine the ways in which they had prepared for the examination. Candidates' SAT scores were retrieved from test files, along with selected background information that included rank in high school class and scores on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT), which most students had taken about eight months before they took the SAT.Multiple regression analyses revealed effects of less than ten points on the 200‐800 SAT score scale and less than two points on the 20–60 score scale for the Test of Standard Written English (TSWE) for each of the methods of test preparation. A significant number of negative effect estimates, coupled with significant differences between the background characteristics of preparing and nonpreparing groups, strongly suggested the influence of selection bias in the estimates. Exploratory analyses of the effects of combinations of methods of preparation showed that various methods may interact in complex ways with other methods and with some student traits. Furthermore, self‐selection may not be uniform across levels of ability and previous achievement, and may also depend on the candidates' selection of other methods of preparation. The implications of the results for the design of further research on the effects of special preparation for tests are discussed.
ON LORD'S PARADOX
Authors: Holland Paul W. , Rubin Donald B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTLord's Paradox is analyzed in terms of a simple mathematical model for causal inference. The resolution of Lord's Paradox from this perspective has two aspects. First, the descriptive, non‐causal conclusions of the two hypothetical statisticians are both correct. They appear contradictory only because they describe quite different aspects of the data. Second, the causal inferences of the statisticians are neither correct nor incorrect since they are based on different assumptions that our mathematical model makes explicit but neither assumption can be tested using the data set that is described in the example. We identify these differing assumptions and show how each may be used to justify the differing causal conclusions of the two statisticians. In addition to analyzing the classic “diet” example which Lord used to introduce his paradox, we also examine three other examples that appear in the three papers where Lord discusses the paradox and related matters.