bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT RULEMAKING: ISSUES AND ALTERNATIVES*
Authors: Du Bey Richard A. , Fidell Eugene R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Increasingly, observers of the legal framework for the determination of damages due to pollution have concluded that it may be possible to identify some “neutral principles” to guide the damage assessment process. Depending on the anticipated caseload of damage claims, these principles could find expression in the form of guidelines, specific conventional values, or a combination of the two. Adoption of a regional or national focus for such a program is an important threshold determination as well.
Whichever course is adopted, numerous grave legal and public policy issues would have to be confronted. Examples of these issues include: the need for preemption of state law; the evidentiary status of these guidelines or values; the procedural rights provided in the rulemaking process; and the assignment of administrative responsibility within the federal government. Federal and state analogs exist and should be examined in depth as part of the damage assessment reform process.
BURMAH AGATE—CHRONOLOGY AND CONTAINMENT OPERATIONS
Authors: Kana Timothy W. , Thompson Edmond P. , Pavia Robert 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
On November 1, 1979, a collision of the Liberian registered tanker Burmah Agate and the Liberian freighter, Mimosa, produced the largest oil spill in U.S. waters for the year. The Burmah Agate, carrying almost 400,000 barrels of Nigerian crude (API No. 29.1) and a blend (API No. 39.3), settled on the bottom in 13.5 meters of water approximately 7 kilometers southeast of Galveston Entrance (lat. 29°17.8′ N, long. 94°37.3′ W). The collision ruptured two starboard midship tanks resulting in explosions and fire that left 33 dead. Listing slightly to starboard with part of the deck awash, the Burmah Agate continued to burn out of control for over 2 months. Responsibility for firefighting and onshore cleanup was assumed by the ship owners. However, the U.S. Coast Guard took an active role in the containment and recovery of spilled oil at the wreck site, and protection of oil-sensitive environments onshore. Booms, skimmers, and skimming barriers were deployed around the ship and recovery of spilled oil began by November 9, 1979. Early recovery efforts were hampered by weather and burning slicks which destroyed booms deployed too close to the ship. However, during the succeeding month, over 6,700 barrels of oil and water emulsion were recovered from the water. Booms and skimmers were deployed in Galveston Entrance, San Luis Pass, and smaller passes to the west to minimize the potential threat of spilled oil to sensitive coastal environments. The fire burned itself out by January 8, 1980, after 250,000 barrels had either been consumed by fire or released into the environment. Over 150,000 bbl were eventually salvaged from the forward tanks before the ship was refloated and towed to Brownsville, Texas, for scrap.
SURVEILLANCE, TRACKING, AND MODEL CORRELATION OF THE SPILL FROM THE TANKER BURMAH AGATE
Authors: Kelly Frank J. , Hann Roy W. , Young Harry N. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The trajectory of the oil spilled from the tanker Burmah Agate passed through the extensively instrumented area of the U.S. Department of Energy Strategic Petroleum Reserve Brine Disposal Site off Freeport, Texas. Because of the potential impact of the spill on the 3-year baseline study, a major effort was made to monitor the slick movement, obtain samples, and collect and process oceanographic and meteorological data. Daily reconnaissance flights were made by the authors to obtain VOR position fixes of oil patches and document them with 35mm and color video cameras. The orientation, centroid position, and velocity of the initial impulse of oil from the collision, which was tracked as far as San Jose Island, Texas, have been computed for the first 9 days. These results, as well as daily summaries are presented.
Continuous measurements of near-surface currents at locations 6.5 and 11.5 nautical miles off Freeport, Texas and wind velocity at the 6.5-nautical mile location were also recorded, which provide a unique opportunity to correlate the oil movement with the traditional first-order approximation for oil transport. Good agreement between actual and predicted movements is found for the longshore component of motion, whereas the cross-shelf movement is not well predicted. The presence of a weak frontal zone in the coastal waters is suggested as a possible complicating factor.
SIMPLIFIED MODELS TO PREDICT THE BREAKUP OF OIL ON ROUGH SEAS
Authors: Aravamudan K. S. , Raj P. K. , Marsh G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This study attempts to integrate existing theoretical models and experimental information on the behavior of oil spills in the ocean into a unified, sequential calculation procedure to predict the breakup of oil on rough seas. Major consideration has been given to developing the least sophisticated calculation procedures that maintain a reasonable description of the totality of the physical process.
The principal phenomena included in the prediction of the spill behavior are as follows: combined spreading and evaporation; slick-sea interaction and formation of oil droplets; dispersion of droplets in the water column; and, finally, the formation and dispersion of slicklets caused by turbulence in the ocean. A multicomponent spreading-evaporation model was developed to predict the area, average density, and mass loss because of evaporation from the slick as a function of time for various environmental conditions. On the basis of the well-known Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum for a fully developed sea, models were developed to predict the size of oil droplets and their distribution in the water column. A horizontal diffusion model was developed on the basis of several experimental observations to determine the dispersion of slicklets and predict the total contaminated ocean surface area as a function of time.
The integrated model is computerized and has been exercised for four different types of oils, namely, light crude, heavy crude, fuel oil No. 2, and fuel oil No. 6.
SPREADING, DISPERSION, AND EVAPORATION OF OIL SLICKS IN THE ARABIAN GULF
Authors: Belen M. S. , Lehr W. J. , Cekirge H. M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This study examines the spreading, dispersion, and evaporation of oil spills subject to the environmental conditions of the Arabian Gulf. Standard approaches to oil slick transformations are modified and enhanced to better model spills in the Gulf. The results obtained, which are presented in tabular form, should provide important information in assessing the fate of any spill in the region.
THE BIOS PROJECT—FRONTIER OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES RESEARCH
Authors: Blackall Peter J. , Sergy Gary A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
After 18 months of planning, the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project was formally initiated in March 1980. This project marks a major new initiative in oil spill countermeasures development for Canada's northern frontiers. The primary objectives of this internationally funded project are (1) to determine if the use of chemical dispersants in the Arctic nearshore will reduce or increase the environmental effects of spilled oil, (2) to assess the fate of oil, and (3) to compare the relative effectiveness of other shoreline protection and cleanup techniques.
This paper outlines the background and scope of the 4-year project and provides an overview of the first field season's results. Highlighted are the preliminary oil discharges, which took place in August 1980, and which marked the start of studies on the long-term fate of oil on Arctic beaches. In addition, the results of the baseline physical, chemical, and biological studies are presented. The physical program included detailed oceanographic, meteorological, and geomorphological studies. The chemical program determined the background hydrocarbon concentrations in the sediments, the water column, and the tissue of selected macrobenthic species; and also the environmental chemistry of the study area. The biological program characterized the macrobenthic flora and fauna and the micro-organisms that are potentially capable of biodegrading the oil. The physical, chemical, and toxicological properties of the oil were measured in laboratories and in the field. The ramifications of these results on the design of the oil spills scheduled for 1981 are discussed.
A VIEW OF THE LABORATORY TESTING AND ASSESSMENT OF OIL SPILL DISPERSANT EFFICIENCY
Authors: Meeks D.G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper outlines the role of a dispersant in an oil spill plan and sets out criteria by which the product should be judged in terms of its dispersing efficiency and biodegradation.
It reviews the mixing needed in a laboratory test relative to conditions associated with dispersant use at sea. An ideal set of requirements for a laboratory test and ways of assessment are discussed, stressing the importance of confirmation of these results by sea testing. After reviewing currently used tests, the test favoured by BP is described.
Ideas are expressed for future efficiency-rating improvements.
ANTICIPATED OIL DISPERSION RATES IN PACK ICE
Authors: Reimer E. M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
As petroleum exploration and transportation systems move into increasingly difficult operating environments such as the Labrador Sea, there is a need for more sophisticated oil spill countermeasures and for new cleanup technology. The design of counter measure systems compatible with pack ice conditions cannot be undertaken without some preliminary investigation of oil interactions with ice and, perhaps more crucially, without an estimate of oil dispersion processes in moving pack ice.
The characterization of dispersion processes is complicated by seasonal and geographic variations in the physical and dynamic nature of the Labrador ice pack. Nevertheless, on the basis of field observations over the past two winters, it has been possible to generate order-of-magnitude estimates of the probable dispersion and mixing processes. These processes are low compared with open water dispersion processes.
KURDISTAN—AN UNUSUAL SPILL SUCCESSFULLY HANDLED
Authors: Duerden F. Colin , Swiss James J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
On March 15, 1979, the 30,000 dwt British tanker Kurdistan split in two in the ice-infested waters of Canada's Cabot Strait. Approximately 7,000 tons of bunker C spilled from the ruptured tanks, but the rest remained in the floating bow and stern sections. A threefold problem faced those agencies responsible for addressing the incident: the bow section containing 7,000 tons of oil, the stern with 16,000 tons, and the escaped oil itself. Two teams of government personnel addressed the problems of the bow and stern sections. Eventually, in a precedent-setting action, the stern was towed through stormy seas and ice and offloaded at Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia, and the bow was sunk by naval gunfire in a predesignated area off the Scotian Shelf. Twelve days after the accident, oil started coming ashore and eventually contaminated over 700 miles of shoreline, requiring cleanup efforts lasting over 6 months. The response was difficult for a number of reasons: the oil was often trapped in ice and could not be recovered; it floated below the surface, making it almost impossible to locate even with sophisticated remote-sensing techniques; it emerged unexpectedly, oiling and reoiling shorelines for several months; and environmental and socioeconomic concerns became increasingly significant. Finally, over a million bags of oily debris were collected, requiring the development of an environmentally acceptable disposal method. All of these problems made the Kurdistan spill difficult and unique from both a response and cleanup point of view.
COAST GUARD ENVIRONMENTAL MISSION FULFILLED BY NAVY SALVAGE, FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS
Authors: Burns Bobby , Campbell A. G. , Adams Charles J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Quick response to the stranding of a large freighter on French Frigate Shoals, Hawaii, by U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and Navy salvage forces prevented a major oil spill with probably significant environmental damage and saved a valuable ship and cargo. The authority, funding, and contacts that allowed the use of navy salvage forces on a timely basis were key elements in the USCG On-Scene Coordinator and the Region IX (Oceana) Response Team actions. The incident particulars, including authority, funding, assets deployed, logistics problems, salvage efforts, planning, methodology, and operational problems are discussed.
It was determined that efforts to mitigate possible oil spill damage, such as deployment of booms, would be impractical and probably totally ineffective in the shoal and sand spits subject to open-ocean weather conditions. Lightering of fuel and cargo was judged to be dangerous and difficult. Salvage of the intact ship was found to be the most practical means to prevent significant environmental damage. Jettisoning of 2,100 tons of nontoxic fine white clay cargo was necessary for the salvage. Logistic limitations and evaluation of tide and currents to minimize environmental impact were major concerns that limited amounts and times of discharge. The post-incident survey indicates minimal environmental damage.
The incident points to the need for the creation of an “area to be avoided” within a 50-mile radius as is currently proposed by the United States to the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) Maritime Safety Committee for the Northwest Hawaiian Islands.
ASSESSMENT OF AERIAL APPLICATION OF OIL SPILL DISPERSANTS
Authors: Smedley J. Bruce 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The use of aircraft in the application of oil spill dispersants was shown to be a viable technique in 1979 when aerial spraying was used for the Mexican Pemex Ixtoc 1 oil spill and, more recently, at the Suffield, Alberta, aerially applied dispersant field trials (September 1980).
The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a review of existing technical information about three specific component parts of the aerial spraying technique. The review identified parameters that affect the efficiency of aerial spraying that are useful in assessing practical operations.
The analysis and report pertaining to the Suffield field trials (due January 1981) is currently being undertaken by the author and others and will be commented on in general terms only as the results pertain to this work.
OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES IN LANDFAST SEA ICE
Authors: Allen Alan A. , Nelson William G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The behavior of crude oil and diesel oil in solid landfast sea ice has been examined under a variety of conditions by scientists in both the United States and the Canadian Arctic. Controlled oil releases under laboratory and actual field conditions have shown that oil spills in the landfast ice zone will tend to remain highly immobilized and achieve relatively thick concentrations. Such spills will encounter natural conditions that encourage accumulation of the oil at or near the ice surface, limit the areal extent of the oil, and help preserve certain physical and chemical characteristics that facilitate its control. A summary of these phenomena for oil in landfast sea ice reveals several important operational considerations for the development of specific Arctic countermeasure techniques. Such techniques for the containment and removal of oil in the landfast ice zone are presented, emphasizing the use of natural materials and conditions for their implementation.
SPILL IMPACTS AND SHORELINE CLEANUP OPERATIONS ON ARCTIC AND SUB-ARCTIC COASTS
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Robilliard Gordon A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Spill response operations in ice-infested or Arctic environments must take into account environmental factors or constraints that are not applicable in more temperate climates. In particular, the potential impact of oil on biological habitats or communities must be evaluated carefully in terms of species distributions and population abundance at the time of a spill. The potential natural recovery from spilled oil is reduced because of the modifying effects of ice on mechanical (wave) processes at the shoreline. Stranded oil is likely to persist longer because of reduced thermal and mechanical energy levels and would, therefore, have a longer potential adverse effect on biological communities. Environmental conditions may constrain operational response in areas of ice-infested waters or of low temperatures. These climatic conditions have not favored human activities so that many Arctic regions are remote and response resources are greatly limited. The development of spill response decisions in Arctic regions must focus on (1) the necessity for cleanup versus natural recovery, (2) assigning priorities for the protection and/or cleanup of specific sections of coast, and (3) consideration of logistic or other operational constraints resulting from climatic conditions.
THE USE OF DISPERSANTS ON VISCOUS FUEL OILS AND WATER IN CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
Authors: Lee M. , Martinelli F. , Lynch B. , Morris P. R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The various factors affecting the performance of oil spill dispersants have been studied in the laboratory using a simple test to emulsify the oil in the water. The observations have been confirmed by spraying oil onto the sea followed by overspraying with dispersant.
It was found that viscosity of the oil or mousse was the main limitation that influenced the droplet size distribution. Energy of agitation had a minor effect but there was no evidence that the “self-mix” dispersants required less energy for adequate dispersion.
MAPPING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PROTECTED AND VALUABLE, OIL-SENSITIVE COASTAL FISH AND WILDLIFE
Authors: Getter Charles D. , Getter Charles D. , Thebeau Larry C. , Ballou Thomas , Maiero David J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
An approach has been developed to produce a map series that displays known, pertinent information concerning the distribution, seasonality, and habits of protected and valuable coastal fish and wildlife that are sensitive to oil spill impacts. This involves a compilation of all literature on the protected and oil-sensitive fish and wildlife for a region. Distribution and abundance data are then evaluated for each species, and all point localities, aggregations, and home ranges are shown on maps. These data include marine mammal haul-out and pupping areas, terrestrial mammal feeding areas, marine bird rookeries, salmon and herring streams and intertidal spawning sites, marine turtle nesting beaches, and intertidal shellfish beds. Aerial surveys are then made of the sites located during the literature search to verify the mapped literature data, as well as to add new wildlife localities. Information on the species, their distribution and ecological type, their habits, and seasonality is color coded on the maps. This approach has been applied to coastal areas in Shelikof Strait (Alaska), Puget Sound (Washington), southeastern Florida, and Massachusetts, and is underway for South Carolina and Norton Sound (Alaska).
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN OYSTERS (CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA) FROM GEORGIA COASTAL WATERS, ANALYZED BY HIGH-PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Authors: Lee Richard F. , Lehsau Dorothy , Madden Michael , Marsh William 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A number of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were detected in oysters from sites in coastal Georgia with analysis by reverse-phase liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Compounds were identified by collection of peaks and comparison of excitation and emission fluorescence spectra with authentic standards. Major PAH in the oysters from the ports of Savannah and Brunswick included methylfluorene, anthracene, 2,3-benzofluorene, methylpyrene, 2,3-benzanthracene, benzo(b) fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, and benzo(a)pyrene. Concentrations of most PAH were low in oysters from Skidaway River, which is part of the intracoastal waterway, and Kings Bay submarine base. The concentration of benzo(a)pyrene, a well known carcinogen, was 0.5 micrograms per kilogram in Brunswick and Savannah but was not detected (less than 0.01 micrograms per kilogram) in Skidaway River and Kings Bay.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ALTERATION OF A HEAVILY OILED SALTMARSH (ILE GRANDE, FRANCE) AS A RESULT OF MASSIVE CLEANUP
Authors: Vandermeulen J. H. , Long B. F. N. , D'Ozouville L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
During massive cleanup of a heavily oiled saltmarsh, much of the surface sediment was removed to a depth of about 50 centimeters (cm), exposing in places the underlying granitic basement. This has resulted in a marked increase in the marsh cross-sectional area, in its tidal prism, and in the current velocities through the marsh. As a result, the marsh is undergoing increased erosion and invasion of sand from offshore stocks. Observations of sand transport 1 year after the cleanup, as well as the formation of megaripple and sheet-flow characteristics 2 years after the cleanup, indicate an increase in current velocities from a pre-spill average of 0.5 meters per second (m/s) to 1 m/s, and exceeding 1.7 m/s in the main channel of the marsh.
A 2-year study of geomorphological changes in the marsh has shown that the normal pre-spill colonization rate of the marsh (28 to 90 cm/yr) has changed to a net erosion (6.5 to 17 m/yr). Increased current velocities have resulted in erosion of the exposed marsh surfaces and undercutting of the secondary and tertiary marsh tidal channels.
Residual oil, left behind from the cleanup, is being trapped under sandbars. Pockets of such oil-permeated sand deposits represent potential long-term storage reservoirs available for later release.
Marsh recovery to pre-spill state depends critically on the reduction of its tidal prism and of the current flow through the marsh. Based on the depositional rates for this marsh and others, this is expected to be a very slow process, unless perhaps it is enhanced by replanting saltmarsh vegetation in denuded areas.