bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ground-dwelling invertebrates from an Urban park in the Brazilian Amazon, with particular reference to Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae)
Authors: Sánchez Uzcátegui Yetsenia del Valle , Pacheco Colmenares Rafael Antonio , Neves Danielly Mota , Silveira Fernando Tobias , Vasconcelos dos Santos Thiago , Póvoa Marinete Marins 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The ground-dwelling invertebrate fauna from an urban park in Belém, Amazonian Brazil, with particular reference to the subfamily Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae), were characterized. Sampling was performed from March 2022 to May 2023, with 10 emergence traps installed in 2 microhabitats, 5 in each 1: “M1,” which included surrounding (up to 1.5 m) trees with tabular roots, and “M2,” which included no trees with tabular roots. Invertebrates trapped in adhesive papers were assessed on 2 occasions/cycles (D21/D42). During 10 sampling cycles (10 traps/cycle = 100 samples), 6,490 invertebrates were captured (M1, n = 4,203; M2, n = 2,287) and classified into 5 classes and 21 orders, with Diptera (n = 2,309; 35.6%) being the most abundant. Twenty-nine specimens of the following phlebotomine species were captured: Nyssomyia antunesi (M1, n = 10; M2, n = 3), Trichophoromyia ubiquitalis (M1, n = 6; M2, n = 1), Th. brachipyga (M1, n = 0; M2, n = 2), Bichromomyia flaviscutellata (M1, n = 2; M2, n = 1) and 4 unidentified specimens (M1, n = 2; M2, n = 2). The male/female ratio was 1.08. Fractional vegetation cover was compared, and the physiochemical characteristics of the soil were compared between the microhabitats. Only temperature showed significant differences. A weak positive correlation was found between phlebotomines and other dipterans and between temperature and the amount of organic matter in the soil. Both sampled microhabitats were shown to be suitable for the development and maintenance of different invertebrates, mainly dipterans. The composition of ground-emerging phlebotomine species was similar to that previously surveyed with light traps, including species associated with the transmission of Leishmania spp.
Preliminary Matters
Authors: Petsche Markus 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines several general matters that are vital for a better understanding of the issues discussed in this book, providing useful background information, and illuminating the legal—and to some extent, economic—context in which those issues arise. These preliminary matters include (1) the practical relevance of the concept of investment, (2) the procedural settings in which the question of the existence of an investment arises, (3) the law or laws governing this question, (4) its interpretive nature, (5) the ordinary meaning of the term ‘investment’, (6) the meaning of ‘investment’ in the field of economics, (7) the question of the nature of investment, and (8) the interests involved in the definition of the concept of ‘investment’.Please suggest 5—10 keywords that can be used for describing the content of the chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Gibson Klopschinski 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This introductory chapter provides an overview of the protection of intellectual property (IP) under international investment law. In today's globally connected world, international investment law and IP rights are two vitally important legal fields that touch on a vast range of policy issues and public as well as private interests well beyond their core scope of application. Since their respective inception, the two fields have both been developing rapidly and mainly without significant interplay side by side, thus far with limited ‘interdisciplinary’ study and practical experience developed between them. Despite the growing importance of both IP and international investment law, the protection of IP rights has not played a prominent role in investment disputes until the turn of the last decade (i.e. in 2010), even though IP rights have been mentioned in international investment agreements (IIAs) from the very beginning. Thus, this book aims to explain the relevance of international investment law and IIAs for the protection and enforcement of IP rights. It analyses the underlying core of the IP–investment interface, namely various ways of including IP rights as a form of protected investment in an IIA.
The Application and Termination of Neutrality
Authors: Upcher James 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the thresholds for the application and termination of neutrality. After a consideration of legal doctrine and practice, it has been suggested that the most coherent approach to adopt, and one that is most practical for the conduct of military operations, is that the status of neutrality becomes applicable in an international armed conflict. While States may in many cases of hostilities not be required to indicate their attitude towards the hostilities and will therefore find themselves released from scrutiny with regard to compliance, the status of neutrality will nevertheless be applicable. As an armed conflict escalates in tempo and scale, the role of non-participants in containing hostilities will increase and the duties of neutrality will, in reality, become more onerous, especially if the belligerents are able to insist on compliance. The chapter then considers the frequently overlooked question of when the status of neutrality ceases from three separate angles: first, when a neutral departs from neutral duties in such a way as to call into question its position of non-participation in the hostilities; secondly, when a neutral State is forced into hostilities by a belligerent; and thirdly, when an armed conflict between two belligerents comes to an end.
The Duties and Rights of Neutrals
Authors: Upcher James 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter looks at the rights and duties of neutrality that result from the creation of the status of neutrality, in an effort to understand the contemporary content of neutrality. State practice in the twentieth and the twenty-first centuries indicates that the ambit of a number of these duties is unclear. For example, the duty of abstention, which may be said to occupy a fundamental place in the law of neutrality, has been constantly violated because its contours are quite unclear. The prohibition on the sale of military material, although referred to by States in numerous international armed conflicts, suffers from definitional uncertainties and a lack of clarity regarding the scope of the duty. Similarly, this is so with regard to the prohibition on economic assistance to a belligerent. Other aspects of the content of the law of neutrality have not adapted to developments in international law with regard to the law on the use of force and the law of the sea. Therefore, while the law of neutrality continues to be expressed in concrete rights and duties rather than principles, examination of a number of those rights and duties demonstrates that many of them are no longer adequate to the contemporary legal environment.
The Exercise of Belligerent Rights Against Neutrals
Authors: Upcher James 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the rights of belligerents against neutrals. Now that the threat or use of force is prohibited in international law, legal principle would suggest that belligerents are limited in their ability to take belligerent measures against neutrals that were previously dependent on a state of war for their operation—such as the right of visit and search, the right to establish a blockade, and the right to set up exclusion zones. Because the relationship between belligerents and neutrals is a peaceful one, interference by belligerents with neutral shipping and aircraft will have to satisfy a double test in order to be lawful: such interference must meet the requirements of necessity and proportionality under the jus ad bellum, and also meet the requirements of the law of neutrality and naval warfare. Therefore, State practice suggests that after the first half of the twentieth century—which saw the expansion of belligerent rights against neutrals to an alarming degree—the situation has, in many respects, been reversed by the influence of the UN Charter and the peacetime freedoms of the sea on the law of naval warfare. Indeed, the scope of permissible belligerent action against neutrals has probably been narrowed considerably, demonstrating the overlap between the law of the UN Charter and the law of neutrality.
Conclusion
Authors: Upcher James 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This Conclusion explains that the traditional law of neutrality is a body of law that sits uncomfortably with certain elements of what is a central pillar of contemporary international law: the law on the use of force. For that reason, it tends to occupy a marginal existence in much contemporary armed conflict, and a number of writers have sought to dismiss its existence in contemporary international law. What is apparent from this study is that while parts of the law of neutrality are no longer relevant to the contemporary international legal order, others have demonstrated a surprising durability despite being considerably reshaped. Since the law of neutrality remains the most developed body of rules regulating the interactions of parties and non-parties in international armed conflict, it is likely that its rights and duties will continue to be invoked for some time. After all, the purpose that animates the law of neutrality—the prevention of the spread and escalation of armed conflict—remains an important one. Nevertheless, much of the law of neutrality languishes in a state of disrepair. There exists, for instance, a need for many of the duties of neutrality to be rethought for the twenty-first century, and to be developed with regard to other areas of international law.
Introduction to the General Convention
Authors: Reinisch August 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, or the General Convention. This is the central multilateral treaty that defines the precise scope of the functionally necessary privileges and immunities accorded to the organization in the UN Charter. The first constituent instruments of international organizations rarely made any provision for the immunity of the organizations themselves. For instance, the Covenant of the League of Nations merely foresaw ‘diplomatic’ privileges and immunities of the League's employees and the inviolability of the League's property. Only after World War II did the UN Charter prominently adopt the notion of functional personality as well as functional privileges and immunities. The UN's functional privileges and immunities paradigm also provided a template for other international organizations to enjoy personality as well as privileges and immunities. The remainder of the chapter discusses the sources of privileges and immunities of international organizations; drafting history of the UN Charter; provisions of the UN Charter; the structure and scope of the UN Convention; and the legal position of UN member states deriving from the General Convention.
Inviolability of Premises (Article II Section 3 General Convention)
Authors: Bartholomeusz Lance 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article II Section 3 of the General Convention, which sets forth the inviolability of the premises of the United Nations. Inviolability of premises is essential to the operations of the UN and vouchsafes its autonomy, its independence, and its ‘privacy’. The inviolability of UN premises and immunity of UN property and assets from any interference is particularly important during armed conflict. UN humanitarian personnel, increasingly targeted as such, also rely on the legal and other protections afforded to UN operations. However, because of State security concerns in many areas where the UN operates, the inviolability of UN premises and other privileges and immunities preventing unilateral outside interference with UN operations continue to be contested by States and others.
Financial Operations (Article II Sections 5–6 General Convention)
Authors: Devoldere Eva , Schoiswohl Michael 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article II Sections 5–6 of the General Convention, which sets out the financial privileges and immunities of the UN. Section 5(a) sets out the UN's right to hold funds, gold, or currency of any kind and to operate accounts in any currency. Section 5(b) lays down the UN's freedom to transfer its funds, gold, or currency from one country to another or within any country and to convert any currency held by it into any other currency. Section 6 obliges the UN to pay due regard to representations made by any of its Members insofar effect can be given to such representations without detriment to the interests of the UN. Although the liberalization of international trade has reduced the relevance of Art. II Sections 5 and 6, the sheer growth of UN operations and financial transactions all over the world means that the provisions are still important for the UN's ability to move funds without incurring additional financial burdens.
Exemptions from Taxes, Customs Duties, and Prohibitions on Imports and Exports (Article II Sections 7–8 General Convention)
Authors: Martha Rutsel Silvestre J 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article II Sections 7–8 of the General Convention, which sets forth the exemption of the UN from taxes, import regulations/restrictions, and customs duties. The fiscal privileges of the UN enshrined in Art. II Sections 7–8 aim to ensure that no State can interfere with the independent functioning of the organization nor gain any financial advantage. It has given rise to a number of specific legal issues in the course of the UN's operation. In general, however, the gist of the privileges has been respected. The remainder of the chapter covers the drafting history and key elements of Art. II Sections 7–8 that deal with exemptions from direct taxes; charges for public utility services; from customs duties and prohibitions and restrictions on imports and exports in respect of articles imported or exported by the United Nations for its official use; and from customs duties and prohibitions and restrictions on imports and exports in respect of its publications.
Facilities in Respect of Communications (Article IV Sections 11–12 Specialized Agencies Convention)
Authors: Bachmayer Peter 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article IV Sections 11–12 of the Specialized Agencies Convention. Sections 11 and 12 of the Specialized Agencies Convention are substantially similar to their parallel provisions under the General Convention. They accord to the Specialized Agencies the privilege of a most-favoured treatment for their official communications within the territory of each State party to the Convention in regard of priorities, rates (including press rates), and taxes. As in the case of the General Convention, the established standard is of a relative nature, i.e. the treatment granted to the Specialized Agencies must not be less favourable than that accorded to any other Government. Art. IV Section 12 continues with a prohibition of censorship applied to the official correspondence and other official communications of the Specialized Agencies, bestows on the latter the right to use codes as well as couriers and sealed bags for transportation, and finally clarifies that the Convention allows for the adoption of ‘appropriate security precautions’ via agreement between a State party and a Specialized Agency.
Representatives of Members (Article V Sections 13–17 Specialized Agencies Convention)
Authors: Kriebaum Ursula 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article V Sections 13–17 of the Specialized Agencies Convention, which governs the privileges and immunities of member State representatives. Section 13, for instance, grants representatives of members at meetings convened by a specialized agency the following privileges and immunities: immunity from personal arrest or detention and from seizure of their personal baggage; inviolability for all papers and documents; the right to use codes and to receive papers or correspondence by courier or in sealed bags; exemption in respect of themselves and their spouses from immigration restrictions, aliens' registration, or national service obligations in the state which they are visiting or through which they are passing in the exercise of their functions; the same facilities in respect of currency or exchange restrictions as are accorded to representatives of foreign governments on temporary official missions; and the same immunities and facilities in respect of their personal baggage as are accorded to members of comparable rank of diplomatic missions.
Officials (Article V Sections 17–21 General Convention)
Authors: Bandyopadhyay Ronja , Iwata Tomoko 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article V Sections 17–21 of the General Convention, which detail the privileges and immunities granted to UN officials for the independent exercise of their functions. The General Assembly has recognized two categories of officials. The first includes UN staff members, with the exception of those who are recruited locally and assigned to hourly rates. The second includes persons who are engaged on a substantially full-time basis, but are not staff members because they are not appointed by the UN Secretary-General or because they are directly accountable to the General Assembly or another organ. The provisions of the General Convention, including Art. V, are reflected in various bilateral agreements with governments on whose territory the UN maintains headquarters or other offices. These agreements may supplement the privileges and immunities enjoyed by officials in a particular State, such as in the case of agreements related to peacekeeping missions or other special political missions, or may grant diplomatic privileges and immunities, exemptions, and facilities to officials of a certain grade.
Laissez-Passer (Article VIII Sections 26–30 Specialized Agencies Convention)
Authors: Lopez-Bello Liliana , Schoiswohl Michael 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article VIII Sections 26–30 of the Specialized Agencies Convention. Similar to Art. VII of the General Convention, Art. VIII of the Specialized Agencies Convention is based on the recognition that special travel facilities are indispensable for officials of intergovernmental organizations whose work involves frequent travel in the territories of States other than their own. At its core, Art. VIII extends the use of the United Nations Laissez-Passer (UNLP) to officials of Specialized Agencies based on administrative arrangements between the UN Secretary-General and appropriate authorities of the concerned Specialized Agencies. The extension of UNLPs to officials of Specialized Agencies promotes the use of one specific travel document for officials of a range of intergovernmental organizations that, albeit with separate international personality and mandate, are linked to the UN system both in terms of mandate and administrative arrangements. Thereby it allows officials of Specialized Agencies to benefit from the widespread recognition of the UNLP and the same facilities already extended to United Nations officials. It also prevents the possible practical and legal difficulties that would arise if each and every Specialized Agency were to issue its own travel documents with differing authority and facilities attached to them.
Dispute Settlement (Article IX Sections 31–32 Specialized Agencies Convention)
Authors: Schmalenbach Kirsten 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article IX Sections 31–32 of the Specialized Agencies Convention. The language of Art. IX Section 31 is identical to that of the parallel provision found in Art. VIII Section 29 General Convention with only two necessary modifications: firstly, Art. IX Section 31 identifies the Specialized Agencies or any official thereof as the potential parties to the dispute; and, secondly, it refers to Art. VI Section 22 Specialized Agencies Convention which stipulates the right and the duty of each Specialized Agency to waive its or its official's immunity in any case where, in its opinion, the immunity would impede the course of justice. Art. IX Section 32 is composed of two distinct dispute settlement clauses: the first sentence is a compromissory clause by which the States parties to the Specialized Agencies Convention accept the jurisdiction of the ICJ in the case of contentious inter-State disputes. The second in conjunction with the third sentence is a ‘decisive advisory opinion clause’ that concerns disputes between a Specialized Agency and a Member.
Annex II—Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Authors: Tavares Antonio 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Annex II of the Specialized Agencies Convention, which adjusts the standard clauses of the Convention and their application to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The fourth session of the Conference of FAO, convened in 1948, approved Annex II and authorised the Director-General to transmit it to the UN Secretary-General in accordance with Art. 43 of the Specialized Agencies Convention. Annex II subsequently evolved, as described in this chapter. The discussions cover the establishment of the FAO and relations with the United Nations; the basic instruments on privileges and immunities of FAO; the drafting history and key elements of Annex II; and the general practice of FAO concerning its privileges and immunities.
Annex IV—United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Authors: Segall Anna 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Annex IV of the Specialized Agencies Convention, which modifies the standard clauses of the Convention with regard to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The privileges and immunities accorded to UNESCO and its staff members are set forth in UNESCO’s Constitution, the Specialized Agencies Convention and its Annex IV relating to UNESCO, as well as in agreements with member States hosting permanent offices or temporary meetings of UNESCO. By acceding to the Specialized Agencies Convention and its Annex IV relating to UNESCO, UNESCO’s member States agree on detailed and specific provisions relating to the privileges and immunities of the organization, its officials, and the representatives of its member States in their territories. The remainder of the chapter covers the drafting history and key elements of Annex IV.
Annex V—International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Authors: Lester Jennifer , Morris Pheabe 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Annex VI of the Specialized Agencies Convention, which modifies the standard clauses of the Convention with regard to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The IMF, established in 1945, promotes international monetary cooperation and exchange rate stability, facilitates the balanced growth of international trade, and provides resources to help members in balance of payments difficulties. In November 1947, the IMF entered into an agreement with the UN, which sets out the terms of the relationship between the IMF and the UN. It is clear from this agreement that while the Fund is a Specialized Agency within the meaning of Art. 57 of the UN Charter, their relationship is one of mutual association between independent entities and not one of principal and agent. The remainder of the chapter covers the legislative history and key elements of Annex V.