bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Geomorphic Regions
Authors: Dawes P.R. , Christie R.L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The geomorphic regions of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago1, one of the great archipelagos of the world, and of northern Greenland are described and illustrated in this chapter. Also included in the description are two large peninsulas, Melville and Boothia, that extend from mainland North America northward into the Arctic Islands. The land forms of this region are controlled, to some extent, by the lithology and structure of the bedrock, and therefore the geomorphic subdivisions distinguished here (Fig. 3.1) correspond fairly closely to the stratigraphic-structural provinces delineated in Chapter 4 (Fig. 4.3). The influence of Tertiary to recent events (uplift, erosion, glaciation, and sea level changes) on the genesis of these land forms is discussed in Chapters 18 and 19.
The region measures about 3000 km from east to west and 2000 km from the southern islands to the northern tip of Ellesmere Island. Several large ice caps occur on the eastern Canadian Arctic Islands, and the region is bordered to the east by the great Greenland ice sheet — The Inland Ice. The land area described here exceeds 1450 000 km2. A network of channels divides the Canadian islands; many of the channels are broad seaways whereas others are narrow and resemble drowned river systems. Baffin Bay and Nares Strait separate the islands of Canada from Greenland. Baffin Bay and Nares Strait separate the islands of Canada from Greenland. Northern Greenland and the Arctic Islands are characterized by glacier-covered mountains, towering sea cliffs, dark canyons, rolling lowlands, and immense, icefilled
Carboniferous and Permian History of the Sverdrup Basin, Arctic Islands
Authors: Davies G.R. , Nassichuk W.W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Upper Paleozoic carbonates and evaporites with associated basal redbeds, marine shales and minor chert and basic volcanic rocks form the initial fill of the Sverdrup Basin. These rocks are exposed in spectacular fiord cliff faces on northwestern Ellesmere and northern Axel Heiberg islands, and in more subdued terrain on southern Ellesmere, northwestern Devon, northern Melville, Cameron, and Helena islands (Fig. 13.1; for geographic names and regional geology see Fig. 1 and 2 [in pocket]). They also have been penetrated, totally or in part, by 35 exploratory wells, most of which are in the western sector of the basin, on and between Melville and Cameron islands.
Carboniferous evaporites deposited in the centre of the basin have generated halite-cored diapirs and other linear intrusive bodies that influenced the structural development of the basin, deformation of the Mesozoic section, and localization of oil and gas accumulations. Similarity with the upper Paleozoic section on Svalbard and northern Greenland extends the regional implications of upper Paleozoic strata in the Sverdrup Basin in terms of circum-Arctic tectonics and paleoclimates.
The Ellesmerian Orogeny (Chapters 10, 12) probably extended into the earliest Carboniferous (Tournaisian), but appears to have terminated before the deposition of the Visean Emma Fiord Formation. Too little of this formation is preserved to obtain a clear picture of tectonic conditions just prior to the subsidence of the Sverdrup Basin, which commenced in the Namurian and continued to the Late Cretaceous. Structures formed during the initial phase of subsidence, and geophysical evidence for crustal thinning below
Mesozoic History of the Arctic Islands
Authors: Embry Ashton F. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Mesozoic strata are widespread in the Canadian Arctic Islands and occur in diverse tectonic-stratigraphic settings (Fig. 14.1). The Sverdrup Basin, which was a major depocentre in the Arctic Islands from Carboniferous to early Tertiary, contains the thickest and most complete Mesozoic succession in the region. In the central portion of the basin Triassic to Cretaceous deposits are up to 9 km thick (Fig. 14.1 ; for well sites and geographic names see Fig. 1, in pocket). Mesozoic rocks in eastern Sverdrup Basin were folded and faulted by regional compression in early Tertiary, and excellent exposures occur in mountainous terrain. To the west, the structures and terrain have much lower relief and outcrop is mainly Cretaceous or younger in age.
Banks Basin on Banks Island (Fig. 4.3) contains a gently-dipping, 1200 m succession of Upper Jurassic to uppermost Cretaceous strata. Scattered outliers of flatlying to tilted Cretaceous strata occur in the Franklinian mobile belt, Arctic Platform and Canadian Shield geological provinces. These outliers are areally restricted and thin, and commonly lie in grabens. Cretaceous strata are also interpreted to occur beneath thick Tertiary deposits along the continental shelf northwest of the Arctic Islands, in eastern Lancaster Sound, and on the continental shelf east of Baffin Island. The nature and thickness of these offshore and deeply buried strata are unknown owing to a lack of data.
The Mesozoic succession in the Arctic Islands consists almost entirely of clastic sediments. In Sverdrup Basin, sandstone units occur mainly on the basin margins with shale-siltstone
Late Cretaceous – Early Tertiary Deformation, Arctic Islands
Authors: Okulitch A.V. , Trettin H.P. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Four major phases of deformation with partly overlapping age ranges affected different parts of the Innuitian Orogen and Arctic Platform in late Mesozoic – Tertiary time:
(1) Middle Jurassic (Aalenian) to Early Cretaceous (Barremian): mild uplift and extensional faulting (i.e. rifting) along the northwestern margin of the Arctic Islands;
(2) Early Cretaceous (Neocomian) to earliest Oligocene: normal faulting in the southeastern part of the Arctic Platform and in the Boothia Uplift, accompanied by local transcurrent faulting;
(3) Paleogene (and possibly latest Cretaceous): compressional deformation in the northeastern part of the Arctic Islands (Eurekan Orogeny);
(4) Middle and Late Tertiary (Oligocene-Pliocene): widespread differential uplift, most pronounced in the eastern part of the Eurekan Orogen and around Baffin Bay, accompanied by some normal faulting.
Event 1, known mainly from the stratigraphic record, is discussed in Chapter 14 by Embry, who relates it to rifting in the Amerasian Basin (Fig. 14.60). Structural treatment of this region, including Late Cretaceous and Tertiary events, will have to await systematic analysis of available geophysical information. However, normal faulting, such as on Banks Island (Miall, 1979a), recurred in the Tertiary.
Event 4, inferred from limited geological and geomorphic information, is discussed in Chapter 18.
This chapter is concerned with the Eurekan Orogeny (event 3) and the partly coeval but longer ranging extensional event 2. Kerr’s (1967) hypothesis that the two are related in origin — having been caused by counterclockwise rotation of Greenland — now is widely accepted, and therefore his term, Eurekan Deformation (Kerr, 1977)is
Tectonic Framework
Authors: Trettin H.P 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the major geological components and inferred tectonic events of the Arctic Islands and North Greenland and explains the currently used terms. References are mostly restricted to historical remarks and original definitions; additional references and details are given in later chapters.
Basic elements of the present framework were introduced by Schuchert (1923), who made the first synthesis of North American geology that included the Arctic (Fig. 4.1). The results of the vigorous exploration in the Canadian Arctic Islands in the 1950s and early 1960s were compiled by Fortieretal. (1954), Fortier(1957), Douglasetal. (1963), and by Thorsteinsson and Tozer (1960, 1970), whose “geological provinces” (Fig. 4.2) have served as the basis for all subsequent syntheses. Comprehensive later accounts of this region include Trettin et al. (1972), Drummond (1973, 1974), Stuart Smith and Wennekers (1977), Trettin and Balkwill (1979), and Kerr (1981). Syntheses of the geology of North Greenland were made by Koch (1925, 1935, 1961), Dawes (1971, 1976), Dawes and Soper (1973), and Dawes and Peel (1981).
The first-order elements of the present tectonic framework, all introduced previously, are Canadian Shield, Arctic Platform, and Innuitian Tectonic Province.
The Canadian Shield borders the Arctic Platform on the southeast and extends into it as salients and inliers, such as the core of the Boothia Uplift1, Minto Arch, Melville Horst, and the Wellington and Duke of York highs, exhumed hills on the Late Proterozoic – Cambrian erosion surface (Chapter 3). It consists of a metamorphic-plutonic basement and unconformably overlying sedimentary and volcanic successions
The North American plate boundary
Authors: Eldholm Olav , Karasik A. M. , Reksnes P. A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
In the Norwegian-Greenland Sea and the Arctic Ocean the present-day North American plate boundary exhibits great variety in morphology and structural style. From the neovolcanic rift zone in Iceland the plate boundary extends into the Norwegian-Greenland Sea and the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean as a system of mid-oceanic ridge segments and transform faults, but becomes less distinct beneath the Siberian continental margin (Fig. 1). The asymmetry in the location of some of the active spreading axes, as well as the existence of extinct spreading centers, microcontinents, and volcanic plateaus and ridges imply a complex structural evolution of the surrounding ocean basins. It is reasonably well documented that the oldest oceanic crust formed by sea-floor spreading between Greenland, Lomonosov Ridge, and Eurasia dates back to the negative polarity interval between magnetic anomalies 24B and 25 (late Paleocene/early Eocene).
In this chapter we focus on a description of the present plate boundary in terms of morphology, relative plate motion, variation in geological and geophysical parameters, and seismicity. For practical purposes we restrict ourselves to the youngest crust and primarily discuss the crust formed during the past 10 m.y. More comprehensive treatments of the ocean basins and their plate tectonic evolution are presented by Eldholm and others (this volume) and by Kristoffersen and others (this volume). Various aspects of the plate boundary north of Iceland have also been discussed in the Western North Atlantic synthesis volume of this series (Einarsson, 1986; Melson and O’Hearn, 1986; Schilling, 1986; Srivastava and Tapscottt, 1986; Vogt, 1986).
The North Greenland Continental Margin
Authors: Dawes Peter R. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Physiographically, the North Greenland margin is an eastward extension of the passive rifted continental margin of the Canadian Arctic Islands (see Sweeney and Sobczak, this volume); however, geologically it has a very different setting. It is a transform-rifted margin and represents the only part of the margin that borders the relatively young, oceanic, and seismically active part of the Arctic Basin—the Eurasia Basin. This is in contrast to the extensive western margin that faces the older and seemingly more complex Amerasia (Canada-Makarov) Basin (Fig. 1).
Chukchi Borderland
Authors: Hall John K. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Chukchi Borderland occupies a rectangular area about 600 by 700 km, or some 4 percent of the Arctic Ocean. It juts out into the deep Amerasia Basin north of the Chukchi Sea, between eastern Siberia and western Alaska (Fig. 1). This area encompasses three approximately north-south-trending segmented ridges: the Northwind Ridge, the Chukchi Cap and Rise, and the western (Arlis, Sargo, and T3) plateaus. Their plateau-like crests rise, in some cases, as much as 3,400 m above their surroundings and they are relatively shallow (depths between 246 and 1,000 m). The ridges have steep flanks, which in some places exhibit remarkable linearity over hundreds of kilometers, especially along the east side of the Northwind Ridge. Between these ridges lie the Northwind, Chukchi, and Mendeleev abyssal plains. These lie at depths between 2,100 and 3,850 m. To the south, the Chukchi Borderland is bounded by the broad and shallow Chukchi Shelf.
Although Figures 1a and b show the Chukchi Borderland to be one of the better-mapped features in the Arctic Basin, its existence was unknown until the 1950-1951 drift of the Soviet ice station North Pole–2 (NP-2; Somov, 1954-1955), when it was discovered by wire soundings. In fact, in the map of Emery (1949), the borderland appears as the deepest part of the Arctic Basin, primarily as a result of an erroneous sounding of 5,455 m from an aircraft landing in 1927, reported by Wilkins (1928). Following its initial discovery in 1950, the general morphology of the plateau
Eurasia Basin
Authors: Kristoffersen Yngve 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Arctic Ocean is divided into the Eurasia Basin and the Amerasia Basin by the submarine transpolar Lomonosov Ridge (Fig. 1; Plate 1). This chapter provides current knowledge about the geology and geophysics of the Eurasia Basin and its surroundings, derived primarily from ice station and polar expedition data obtained during the past 25 years.
Nansen’s pioneering drift with FRAM in 1893 to 1896 (Fig. 2) provided the first soundings, pendulum gravity, and magnetic measurements together with geological samples from the Eurasia Basin (Nansen, 1906). The deployment of the Soviet ice station Northpole-I in 1937 set an operational strategy in Arctic research still followed today, and many Soviet drifting ice camps have entered the Eurasia Basin carrying out a wide range of scientific observations (Fig. 2).
Arlis-II in 1964 was the first United States ice station to traverse the southern end of the Eurasia Basin. With the FRAM I-IV temporary ice stations in 1979 to 1982 and the Canadian LOREX Expedition and two smaller expeditions in 1966 and 1969, the data base in the Eurasia Basin comprises more than 1,700 km of seismic reflection, depth, and gravity measurements. In addition, 22 seismic refraction experiments have been carried out, about two dozen short sediment cores have been recovered, and a dozen heat-flow measurements have been made. The data collected by Soviet scientists has to be added to this inventory.
Traverses by nuclear submarines since 1957 have contributed to mapping of the major bathymetric features in the Arctic Ocean
Structure and dynamics of the Arctic Ocean ice cover
Authors: Untersteiner Norbert 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
At its maximum extent in February/March, sea ice covers about 10% of the total ocean surface in the Northern Hemisphere (Fig. 1). Except for some narrow bands along the North American and Siberian coasts, the Central Arctic Basin is ice covered throughout the year. Seasonal ice (winter only) occurs in the marginal seas: Okhotsk, Bering, Kara, Barents, Baltic, Southern Greenland, Baffin Bay-Davis Strait, Hudson’s Bay, and Canadian Archipelago (Plate 1).
The physical constitution of sea ice is that of an aggregate of pieces, ranging in size from small crystals (frazil) and fragments (brash) to solid plates many kilometers in diameter and several meters thick. Winds and ocean currents keep the ice in almost perpetual motion, causing it to diverge, converge, shear, and rotate, thus maintaining its fragmented character. Where thin ice is crushed between two converging heavy floes, pressure ridges are formed with keel depths of up to several tens of meters. Diverging motion exposes the sea surface to the atmosphere and (during the cold season) induces formation of new ice.
Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic paleoceanography of the northern polar oceans
Authors: Thiede Jörn , Clark David L. , Herman Yvonne 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
High-latitude polar regions of the Earth have experienced cold, cool, and temperature paleoclimates in the course of their geologic history, but they have probably always been colder than low-latitude continents and oceans. Extreme climates leading to development of extensive frozen and ice-covered regions at high latitudes can, however, only be documented for a few, relatively short intervals of the Earth’s history, separated by long time spans with little or no ice (Frakes, 1979). The Cenozoic evolution of glacial-type climates during the past 30 to 40 m.y. is the most recent period of extreme climate, and differs from the preceding ones. During the Cenozoic, plate-tectonic processes generated climatically isolated land areas and ocean basins in both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres, which were repeatedly affected by glaciations. For glacial-type paleoclimates older than the Cenozoic, we have only been able to document unipolar glaciation because the opposite high-latitude area was situated in wide and deep ocean basins and was probably relatively ice free due to advection of warmer surface water from lower latitudes.
Despite the apparent similarity of Quaternary high-latitude paleoclimates, the development of glacial-type paleoceanographies of the northern and southern polar oceans have revealed important differences, and they are not easily compared with each other. Our understanding of Cenozoic Southern Hemisphere paleoclimates is much more advanced than it is for the Northern Hemisphere. It is particularly intriguing that the available data appear to indicate that the Southern Hemisphere may have become cold more than 20 m.y. earlier than its northern counterpart.
Historical background; Exploration, concepts, and observations
Authors: Weber J. R. , Roots E. F. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The first of the four main parts of this chapter presents a short history of the European discovery of circumpolar lands and the Arctic Ocean from the earliest recorded voyages to the twentieth century. The story of geographic exploration of the Arctic regions has been told many times, and there is an enormous literature dealing with expeditions and geographic discoveries. Particularly useful in providing the historical setting for the growth of scientific knowledge of the Arctic Ocean area is the compilation by Kirwan (1959), who provides insights into the economic, strategic, political, and personal motives behind many of the explorations; and the scholarly analyses edited by Rey and others (1984), which trace the development of geographic and scientific knowledge of the Arctic as a result of myths, conjectures, genuine discoveries, and increasingly precise observations from antiquity to the eighteenth century.
The next part deals with the mapping of the Arctic Ocean basin and floor during the last century, from sparse information that led to a shallow, single-basin concept to the complex sea- floor morphology that gradually emerged as a result of the more detailed surveys beginning with the Soviet explorations in 1937. This section ends with a description of the major modern bathymetric maps and charts that have appeared in print, from Bartholomew in 1897 to Perry and others (Plate 1, this volume).
The third section is an outline of the history of the geoscien- tific work carried out within the Arctic Ocean region, from ships, from drifting stations, and
Offshore hard minerals
Authors: Hale Peter B. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Offshore mining for minerals such as barite, coal, calcium carbonate, gold, and tin is a well-established industry in many countries. Although there have been several attempts to develop mining systems to recover manganese nodules in water depths of 4,000 m, commercial mining is at present confined to shallow coastal waters.
Undersea mining for sub-surface deposits dates from at least the early 1600s and accounts for a significant proportion of the total mineral production in some countries. More than 100 undersea mines have been constructed worldwide; with few exceptions they began as onland mines that moved offshore after the onland sources were depleted (Austin, 1967).
In 1977, the last year for which comprehensive global production statistics are available, offshore non-fuel mineral production was worth about $460 million, with most of that coming from sand and gravel, tin, and calcium carbonate (Glasby, 1979). This valuation is conservative because numerous small operations go unreported and the Soviet Union does not make public its production statistics. The Soviet Union has, for several years, dredged cassiterite for tin in the Arctic Ocean, but we have no information regarding the level of production.
Most marine mining activity to date has taken place in temperate or tropical regions, yet the Arctic may host equally exciting mineral deposits, and both tin and sand and gravel are already mined there. The problems of mining in a region covered by ice for much of the year should not, however, be underestimated. New technologies will be required for exploration and mining
A review of tectonic models for the evolution of the Canada Basin
Authors: Lawver L. A. , Scotese C. R. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Arctic Ocean has a nearly continuous ice cover that makes collection of shipborne geological and geophysical data almost impossible. As late as 1907 (Mikkelsen, 1955), expeditions were still being sponsored to discover the elusive northern continent thought to occupy much of the region. Since the plate- tectonic revolution of the sixties, numerous theories concerning the tectonic origin of the Arctic Ocean, and the Canada Basin in particular (Fig. 1), have been proposed.
Tectonic models for the Canada Basin can be separated into three broad categories: oceanization of continental crust, entrapment of old oceanic crust, and the in situ formation of the oceanic crust by sea-floor spreading. The first category consists of the tectonic model originally suggested by Shatskiy in 1935 and later given prominence by Beloussov in the 1950s and 1960s (Shatskiy, 1935; Beloussov, 1970). They argued that the Canada Basin was a cratonic high that shed debris southward onto Arctic Canada and the north slope of Alaska, and that this high was later oceanized by mantle convection that eroded the root and caused the area to subside. Pogrebitskiy (1976) and Pushcharovskiy (1976) also invoked oceanization of continental crust to explain the formation of the Canada Basin, but Pogrebitskiy and others (1984) later explained the formation of the basin by a combination of lithospheric oceanization and granitization (endogenic differentiation).
The second category of models suggests that much of the Canada Basin resulted from entrapment of older oceanic crust (Churkin, 1970; Churkin and Trexler, 1980; Karasik and others, 1984)
Summary
Authors: Sweeney J. F. , Johnson G. L. , Grantz A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
As this volume makes clear, the last 15 years have seen a revolutionary increase in the amount and variety of geoscientific information retrieved from Arctic domains. While the new data have done much to improve the definition of major Arctic crustal and submarine features, it is evident that the latest results provide only modest new constraints on the evolution of the region.
The Eurasia Basin became part of the world ocean about 10 m.y. ago and it has had a significant impact on the Earth’s climate system since that time. The history of this linkage is crucial to the study of global change through time. An understanding of past and present plate movements in the Arctic is needed to build accurate tectonic models of the world during the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which in turn, are highly relevant to resource exploration.
In this chapter we summarize the present knowledge of the north polar area from a geoscientific and an environmental point of view, assess some outstanding scientific problems, and pose research targets for the upcoming decade.