bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pretrial Diversion
Authors: Greene Carolyn , Madon Natasha S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPretrial diversion practices are designed to reduce the number of offenders formally processed within the criminal justice system. Initially designed to target juvenile offenders away from formal court processing, formal diversionary efforts are now aimed at both juvenile and adult offenders in a range of criminal justice settings. This entry provides a brief overview of the development and use of pretrial diversion over time and examines some of the existing research on pretrial diversion practices.
Drug Courts
Authors: Gibbs Benjamin R. , Wakefield William 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Drug courts provide an intermediate sanction that combines intensive supervision with substance abuse treatment designed to rehabilitate substance‐abusing offenders in order to reduce their recidivism. In doing so, jail and prison populations may also be reduced. Since their inception in 1989, the drug court movement has grown to over 2,000 programs that now operate in the United States. The drug court model is characterized by criminal justice monitoring of participants through frequent drug tests, contacts with supervision personnel, alcohol and drug treatment, and frequent judicial intervention. Through status hearings, the progress of participants is evaluated and rewards and/or sanctions are administered based on the extent of compliance (or lack thereof). The ultimate goal of drug courts is to reduce offender re‐arrests through the mandate of alcohol and drug abstinence.
Adversary System
Authors: Benefiel Rodger 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The American criminal justice system relies on judicial restraint and adversarial advocacy to protect the rights of an individual against the power of the state. However, critics believe that such a system values victory over truth and some have advocated for a shift toward an inquisitorial system, which emphasizes an investigative approach to the determination of guilt. This overview of the adversary system contrasts it with the inquisitorial system, and includes a discussion of the differing roles of judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys in each system. While aspects of both systems can be seen to be very different, both are similar in many ways.
Drug Enforcement
Authors: Jackson Robin 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Enforcement of drug control policy has been an ongoing effort in the United States since the early twentieth century. Early federal organizations such as the Narcotics Division were created to ensure that drug control policies were enforced. Current drug enforcement agencies continue to uphold drug control policy through a variety of mechanisms which include efforts to interrupt the source at the federal and state level. Federal agencies such as the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the United States Customs Service work together as well as working with state and local law enforcement to gather information about drug production and target international drug trafficking.
Drug Control Policy
Authors: Jackson Robin D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDrug control policies in the United States have been in place since the latter portion of the nineteenth century. Early efforts to control drug use in the United States began with regulation of packaged foods with the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906. Subsequent efforts to control drugs in the United States moved from a taxation model to the current system, which is the criminalization model. The current model relies on punitive drug laws and mandatory minimum sentencing that have led to an influx of drug abusers in state and federal prisons.
Child Soldiers
Authors: Joseph Janice 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In several countries around the world, children under the age of 18 years are serving as soldiers in current armed conflicts. They participate in every aspect of the war or conflict from being on the front lines of combat to acting as spies, messengers, or lookouts. Child soldiers use AK‐47s, M‐16s, and grenades because they are easy to use. Orphans and refugees sometimes see that their only hope for survival is by joining a militia.
Racketeering
Authors: Goldstock Ronald , Blakey G. Robert 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The term “racketeering,” often used to connote organized crime activity, was derived from the noise (racket) that accompanied the huge dinners thrown by New York Tammany Hall politicians. Anyone seeking to participate in providing governmental goods or services was compelled to purchase tickets at prices that ensured that the organized crime‐connected politicians would substantially benefit from the evening's festivities. The term was first used in federal law in the Anti‐Racketeering Act of 1934; is now used in the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (“RICO”) Act passed by Congress in 1970 to deal with the inadequacies of the then current law on enterprise criminality, that is, crime by, through, and against licit and illicit organizations.
Deinstitutionalization
Authors: Gomez Angel , Wilson‐Boyd Tracie 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Deinstitutionalization refers to the treatment of offenders in venues other than prison. Advocated by non‐interventionists, it is based on the premise that the justice system should have as little interaction as possible with offenders. Correctional agencies following this approach concentrate efforts on diverting law violators from prisons. Community‐based programs such as diversion and pretrial release provide opportunities for deinstitutionalization. It is characterized by considerable controversy with some saying it works and is the best approach to rehabilitation, an approach without the stigma of negative labels. Others believe it results in more people entering criminal justice systems; either through the process of net‐widening or imprisonment of the mentally impaired.
Therapeutic Communities
Authors: Ahmad Janice 
Published: January 2014

AbstractTherapeutic communities are associated with institutional or community‐based programs for the treatment of alcohol and other drug addictions. Clients are charged with the responsibility of being part of the treatment team as they progress through treatment phases of the program. The foci of therapeutic communities include healthy living skills, socialization, and job and educational skills. Evaluations of these programs have shown that offenders who complete these programs have lower recidivism rates compared to offenders who did not participate in therapeutic community programs. Two factors that seem to minimize recidivism rates are the length of programs and inclusion of an aftercare component.
Sources of Criminal Law (Statutes, Case Law, Ordinances, Regulations)
Authors: Arnson Aaron D. , Baradaran Shima 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCriminal law is the body of law that defines offenses and sets penalties for the commission of those offenses. That body of law comes from one of four sources: common law, which arises out of judicial decisions and opinions; statutes, which are enacted by Congress or state legislatures; regulations, which are drafted and issued by federal or state administrative agencies; and ordinances, which, although not strictly criminal, are established by municipalities, and have a somewhat substantial impact on criminal law.
Jurisdiction
Authors: Kobrin Daniel 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJurisdiction is the power to make, enforce, and adjudicate law. Exercising jurisdiction requires exercising subject matter jurisdiction over conduct and personal jurisdiction over an individual. Subject matter jurisdiction is only exercised properly if exercised on a valid basis. Bases include the territoriality principle, protective principle, nationality principle, passive personality principle, and universality principle. In the United States, subject matter jurisdiction must also be exercised in accordance with constitutional limitations. The federal government may only exercise subject matter jurisdiction pursuant to an enumerated power, while state governments may exercise jurisdiction broadly within their territorial boundaries. Unlike subject matter jurisdiction, personal jurisdiction requires only that the individual appear before the sovereign authority. Extradition is the process by which the state commonly obtains personal jurisdiction over an individual abroad. However, under US law, a defect or illegality in the extradition process will not normally divest a sovereign authority of personal jurisdiction.
Habeas Corpus
Authors: Moore Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe writ of habeas corpus is a mechanism used by state or federal prisoners to challenge the legality of their confinement in federal court. While reference to habeas corpus appears in the Constitution, the procedures governing the writ are found in numerous federal statutes and Supreme Court decisions. Prisoners are only able to petition for a writ of habeas corpus when they comply with all of the necessary requirements, including time limits and restrictions on multiple applications.
Felonies
Authors: Kamali Elizabeth Papp 
Published: January 2014

AbstractFelonies are serious crimes, such as murder, rape, or arson, for which the typical consequence is capital punishment or imprisonment for over a year. Etymologically, the word felony originally connoted wickedness or evil. The category of felony derives from the English Common Law, in which a felony conviction traditionally resulted in forfeiture of land and movables, as well as the death penalty. The possible consequences of a felony conviction continue to be monumental today, including disenfranchisement, termination of parental rights, and ineligibility for jury service. Some jurisdictions have done away with the felony/misdemeanor distinction, opting instead for more neutral categories such as indictable and summary offenses.
Juveniles and Criminal Procedure
Authors: Balboni Jennifer , Kittredge Jeremy 
Published: January 2014

AbstractSocietal conceptions of both childhood and punishment have changed considerably since the founding of the United States, with conventional wisdom about juvenile justice swinging like a pendulum from harsher, punitive punishments to more rehabilitation‐focused approaches, then back again. This entry provides an overview of criminal procedure in relation to juveniles with a focus on “high‐end” sentencing.
Causation
Authors: Li Zander 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCausation is the requirement that a defendant's conduct be sufficiently linked to a prohibited result such that criminal culpability is justified. A defendant's conduct must be both the factual cause and the legal cause of the result. To be a factual cause, the defendant's conduct must be a necessary or but‐for condition of the result. To be a legal cause, the defendant's conduct must not be too attenuated from the result. Generally this means that the result must be a foreseeable consequence of the conduct and not brought about by the later intervention of another human being.
Environmental Criminology
Authors: Randa Ryan 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Environmental criminology has quickly become a widely recognized perspective on crime, providing an umbrella under which several theories find a home. One common theme among theories of environmental criminology is that they are a departure from traditional criminology. The tradition has concentrated on exploring crime from the sociological or psychological perspective, focusing on understanding criminality, or the sum of motivations, drives, pushes, and pulls driving an individual toward criminal behavior. Environmental criminologists, on the other hand, seek to understand and explore crime by focusing on the criminal event by concerning themselves more with the places, spaces, and objects that either facilitate or prevent a crime from occurring. Approaching crime from this point of view prompts the researcher to focus on the opportunity constructs for crime and the patterns in which crimes occur rather than social or psychological motivations. Quite literally, environmental criminology is a criminological perspective which, in many respects, considers the causes of crime to be highly related to the nature of the physical environment. That is to say that the very nature of neighborhoods, structures, and objects can have an impact on crime directed in them, at them, and around them.
Wilson, James Q.
Authors: Berry Carolyn D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
James Q. Wilson was most recognized for his work with George Kelling and the development of broken windows theory. Their ideas became the groundwork for introducing community policing in law enforcement agencies across the United States. Though trained as a political scientist, his work is well known and debated in criminology and sociology. Wilson also was recognized for his commonsense public policy approach and his insistence that government officials disregard the opinion and needs of citizens.
Reasonableness Standard
Authors: Taslitz Andrew E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe reasonableness standard guides many legal judgments about whether to impose criminal liability. Causing harm, such as another's death, through unreasonable or negligent behavior may itself constitute a crime. But reasonableness can be a defense to crime too, as occurs, for example, in self‐defense, where a reasonable belief in the need to use deadly force can sometimes justify a crime. Reasonableness is sometimes only a partial defense, reducing the potential maximum sentence because a defendant's emotions, while not desirable, were “understandable.” What is “reasonable” may turn on majority views or on normative judgments. The standard is also always one of how the reasonable person would behave “under the circumstances.” What circumstances to count—such as a person's physical infirmities, temperament, race, or gender—is generally a normative question. Juries usually decide reasonableness, though some thinkers see this as a process of masking value judgments as “facts.”
Geis, Gilbert
Authors: Pontell Henry N. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractGilbert Geis's (1925‐2012) research contributions, spanning more than six decades, cover a range of topics that have had an incomparable influence on criminologists and other social scientists. One of his most well‐known articles in white‐collar crime is the “White collar crime: The heavy electric equipment antitrust case of 1961.” After the publication of the case study, his work in white‐collar crime examined deterrence, consumer fraud, victimization, corporate violence, and medical fraud. Geis's scholarship in all areas is likely the most far‐reaching in criminology.
Exclusionary Rule, Exceptions to
Authors: Gann Shaun M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis essay focuses on the numerous exceptions to the Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule, which states that illegally obtained evidence may not be used in a subsequent criminal trial. The exceptions are collateral use, attenuation, independent source, inevitable discovery, and good faith. The United States Supreme Court cases on which the various exceptions are based are discussed, as well as how the exceptions have evolved over time.
Prejudicial Pretrial Publicity
Authors: Ellison Jared M. , Brennan Pauline K. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

This entry provides an overview of the relationship between prejudicial pretrial publicity and jury decision making. In doing so, this entry begins with a brief discussion of the constitutional principles involved in media reports of pretrial material. From there, the landmark case of
Sheppard v
.
Maxwell
(1966) is used to provide an illustrative example of the consequences of negative pretrial publicity. Findings from studies on the effects of PTP on juries are then discussed. That discussion is followed by an overview of procedural safeguards that may be used to minimize the effects of PTP on the defendant's right to a fair trial.
Protection of Human Subjects
Authors: Conway Ayana , Harrison Lynne M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The Office for Human Research Protections regulates agencies that conduct research where human beings are involved as research subjects/participants. Public, private, and other research institutions, including colleges and universities, establish and maintain formal, regulatory committees known as Institutional Review Boards (IRB). Such boards oversee research performed by faculty, staff, and students when the research subjects are humans. IRBs conduct risk‐benefit‐analyses, both in advance and by periodic review, aimed at reducing the risk of harm to subjects.
Careers in Courts and Adjudication
Authors: Guido Jeri M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
There are many individuals who work within the court system. Judges, attorneys, administrative staff, security personnel, and counselors are just a few. This entry will explore some of the most popular positions and careers within the court system. These positions can be everything from entry‐level positions to positions requiring some type of very specialized graduate education and/or experience.
Victimization Surveys
Authors: Rojas‐Gaona Carlos E. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Victimization surveys are measurement tools designed for data gathering that rely on information provided by individuals concerning their criminal victimization experiences, as well as the context and detailed characteristics of these events. The main goal of victimization surveys is to estimate the level and change in criminal victimizations across time, which requires the estimation of annual rates of victimization.
Corpus Delicti
Authors: Gleicher Lily 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCorpus delicti, directly translated from Latin, means the “body of the crime.” Every type of crime has its own corpus delicti. The term details the elements that need to exist in order for an act to be legally defined as a crime. There are five elements required before an act can legally be defined as a crime. Two of those elements, actus reus and mens rea, are of more importance in establishing the precise corpus delicti, while the remaining three are of more general application. The “corpus delicti rule” requires the prosecution to present independent evidence—more than a confession—of the corpus delicti. However, over the past 50 years, the acceptance of the corpus delicti rule has changed in some states to a less restrictive “corroboration rule.”
Intoxication Defense
Authors: Cubellis Michelle A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIn the United States, a large number of crimes are committed by offenders under the influence of some type of intoxicant. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, between 1997 and 2008, alcohol was a factor in 19–37% of all crimes. While the prevalence of alcohol‐related crimes has decreased over the plast several decades, alcohol is still linked to crimes resulting in injury. Intoxication has increasingly become an important factor in determining the culpability of an offender due to the influence of intoxicating substances on the mental state of the individual at the time of the criminal act. Evidence of intoxication is also used in determining whether the offender had the required mens rea to be held responsible for their actions. The intoxication defense is only relevant in crimes which require mens rea, such as those requiring malice, planning, deliberation, foresight, and awareness, as a person's level of intoxication can influence these elements.
Dueling
Authors: Myers Roz 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA duel is a prearranged battle stemming from a prior insult, accusation, or quarrel, fought between two persons using deadly weapons. At stake in a duel is the honor of the challenger, whose reputation has been publicly brought into question. In its time, one's honor in the community and reputation for good character were the “credit” on which all dealings whether in personal relationships or in commerce were based. The delicate rules of the ritual were outlined in a Code Duello, which describes every step of the protocol.
Roaring Twenties
Authors: J. Brooker Dale 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWhile US history is filled with colorful moments, one key decade that stands out in a variety of ways is the Roaring Twenties. The Roaring Twenties was preceded by World War I, which left many Americans questioning various aspects of their moral lives and dealing with the harsh reality of significant unemployment, staggering inflation, and a questionable future. It was an uncertain time in terms of the political climate, where radicalism had been sparked with a fear of communism. Adding to this was a significant amount of labor tension, with the reduction in the work hours of many workers and a focus on unionization.
Sutherland, Edwin
Authors: Valcore Laura 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEdwin Sutherland stands out as one of the most influential and prestigious sociologists and criminologists of our time. Among his many works, his development of differential association theory is considered a substantial contribution to explanations of why people commit crime. Additionally, he is widely recognized as the first scholar to bring attention to a long ignored area of criminal behavior—white‐collar crime.
Mistake of Fact/Mistake of Law
Authors: Burke Jennifer M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractMistake of fact can excuse criminal liability. Its use as an excuse is, however, subject to several exceptions. Specifically, mistake of fact never excuses strict liability or attempt crimes. In contrast, mistake or ignorance of the law is theoretically harsh:ignorantia legis neminem excusat—ignorance of the law excuses no one. Nonetheless, exceptions to this maxim have developed, including the fair notice exception, reliance on an official statement exception, and an exception excusing action when there is a misunderstanding about the effect of a different civil law on behavior regulated by a criminal statute. Moreover, statutes can create a mistake of law excuse by indicating that a person must not only intend his action, he must also know that his action is prohibited. This exception arises where statutes, and particular tax laws, prohibit willful violations as opposed to merely knowing violations.
Capital Punishment and Deterrence
Authors: Pina John D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The ongoing debate about the state's use of capital punishment to deter crime can be traced to the emergence of ‘the state.’ Discussed are methods of execution, general and specific deterrence, research findings regarding its ability to deter crime, criminologists' perspectives about capital punishment as a deterrent, impact of capital punishment on society, and regional differences in the use of capital punishment.
A Streamlined Synthesis of 2,3‐Dihydrobenzofurans via the ortho‐Quinone Methides Generated from 2‐Alkyl‐Substituted Phenols
Authors: Wu Bo , Chen Mu‐Wang , Ye Zhi‐Shi , Yu Chang‐Bin , Zhou Yong‐Gui 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA facile method for the stereoselective synthesis of trans‐2,3‐dihydrobenzofurans from ortho‐quinone methides in situ generated from readily available 2‐alkyl‐substituted phenols using silver oxide‐mediated oxidation has been developed. Additionally, the 2,3‐dihydrobenzofurans can be further transformed into the aromatized 2,3‐disubstituted benzofurans in the presence of DDQ.magnified image
Synthesis of 2‐Acylthiophenes by Palladium‐Catalyzed Addition of Thiophenes to Nitriles
Authors: Jiang Tao‐Shan , Wang Guan‐Wu 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA direct synthesis of 2‐acylthiophenes has been developed through palladium‐catalyzed addition of thiophenes to nitriles. The reaction proceeded well under the palladium(II) acetate/2,2′‐bipyridine system and using D‐(+)‐camphorsulfonic acid as the additive. In addition, the obtained 2‐acylthiophenes could undergo further coupling reactions to generate novel products.magnified image