bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration
Authors: Foster J. Price , Hughes Christopher 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The Law Enforcement Administration was established in the mid‐1960s and was replaced by other federal funding programs for improving criminal justice in the late 1970s. It incorporated several important and long‐lasting programs such as the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) as well as other major initiatives and developmental activities. Finally, it includes retrospective evaluations by persons involved with the planning, development, and management of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration some 30 years after the program was replaced with other legislation.
Rape and Sexual Assault
Authors: Novisky Meghan A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe definition of rape in the United States has changed significantly over time. The modern conceptualization of rape is more inclusive, as intimate partners, men, and those without physical injuries are all now acknowledged as victims. Research has shown that rape is still a significant social problem, yet remains one of our most underreported crimes. Due to challenges with underreporting and measurement, accurate estimates of rape prevalence must incorporate multiple data sources. Through research, it has become clear that the “average” rape victim tends to be female, young, associated with the offender in some capacity, and without serious physical injuries.
International Legal Status of Children
Authors: Malekian Farhad , Nordlöf Kerstin 
Published: January 2014

AbstractNational, regional, and international criminal legislation and procedures for quite a long time struggled with the recognition of the legal status of children, but the position has slowly changed in recent decades. The aim has been to support persons aged under 18, whether perpetrators, victims, witnesses, or applicants under criminal justice proceedings. Thus, when children have committed crimes, the procedure of arrest, detention, or imprisonment has to be in conformity with the provisions of international law, and they should promptly receive legal assistance. Capital punishment has been abolished, and corporal penalties have broadly been reduced. The tendency today is that juveniles should be sentenced to measures such as care, supervision orders, community service orders, correctional, educational, and vocational training programs. Consequently, many rules of criminal justice have been formulated for the purpose of protection of children's rights, which are considered an integral part of internationaljus cogens.
Genocide
Authors: French Laurence Armand 
Published: January 2014

AbstractGenocide, a term first coined to depict the horrors of the Holocaust during World War II, has again surfaced as the ultimate crime against society. It is the most serious charge leveled against aggressors being tried before the United Nations' ad hoc “International Criminal Tribunals” being held in The Hague for atrocities committed during the Third Balkan War (1991–2002) and the war in Rwanda during the 1990s. It is important to discern between “individual” versus “collective” indictments of genocide, since the latter tends to imply that an entire group (society) is complicit in the act which is rarely the case. This is relevant to the healing and reconciliation process needed to bring the various warring factions together again in peacetime. The International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICT‐Y) dismissed a charge of genocide leveled against Serbia by Bosnia‐Herzegovina while individuals continue to be charged for this serious crime before the ICTs for both the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda.
Serial Murder
Authors: Wayne Charlton Richard , Barkhuizen Jaco 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

The description of serial killers is subdivided into the definition, classification, and characteristics of the serial murder. All of these divisions state recent findings of various authors regarding the phenomenon of serial homicide. Furthermore, after discussing the various researchers' views, the entry draws upon a conclusion regarding the categories. It should be noted that the phrases
serial killing, serial murder
, and
serial homicide
are used interchangeably throughout this entry.
Education and Training in Law
Authors: Kane Erin E. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
American legal education has experienced two predominant phases since its beginnings in the nineteenth century, and in the twenty‐first century it is entering into a third phase. In the first phase of legal education, there was no formal instruction and future lawyers could undertake self‐study, serve as an assistant in a government or judicial office, or clerk as an apprentice to an established lawyer. In the second phase, legal education moved into the research universities with a focus on theory and philosophy. As legal education moves into the third phrase, more law schools are blending theory, practice, and technology in response to the legal profession's demand for graduates who have both analytical and practical lawyering skills.
Environmental Design
Authors: Pritchard David J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEnvironmental design is a multidisciplinary theoretical concept that primarily revolves around the idea that the manner in which an environment is built, adapted, and lived in can have an affect on criminal or other undesirable activity in the area. This entry discusses the development and application of environmental design concepts, such as crime prevention through environmental design, defensible space, situational crime prevention, rational choice perspective, broken windows theory, Compstat, and various community policing initiatives.
Capital Punishment and Costs
Authors: McConnell John A. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Capital punishment refers to a sentence of death imposed on a person by courts as punishment for an offense. At some time capital punishment was used as a criminal sanction by all countries; however, most countries have since abolished the use of capital punishment. Even so, four of the most populous countries in the world continue to execute people, i.e. the People's Republic of China, India, the United States, and Indonesia. It is noted that, while India and Indonesia have capital punishment statutes, people in these countries are seldom sentenced to death or executed. In 2008 at least 2,390 people were executed in 25 countries worldwide, with China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, the United States, Pakistan, and Iraq being responsible for 95% of the executions.
Art Crime
Authors: Alderman Kimberly 
Published: January 2014

AbstractArt crime is a multibillion‐dollar industry. The Federal Bureau of Investigation cites art crime as the third‐highest‐grossing annual criminal trade worldwide, generating an estimated US$6 billion in annual criminal profit. The high value of art, as well as the ease with which it is transferred across borders, has allowed art crime to flourish. It is alleged to fuel organized criminal activities including money laundering, extortion, the drug and arms trades, terrorism and insurgency, and even slavery. Just as there are a myriad of types of art, there are also a myriad of types of art crime, including theft, wartime looting, archaeological looting, smuggling, forgery, and fraud.
Conspiracy
Authors: David Ohlin Jens 
Published: January 2014

AbstractConspiracy as a substantive offense is an actual crime for which a defendant could be convicted. It is often described as an inchoate offense because a defendant can be convicted of conspiracy even if the underlying criminal offence, such as murder, is never completed; the substantive offence of conspiracy is already completed once the agreement is formed. The application of conspiracy in different countries varies widely.
Age
Authors: Mones Maureen G. , Clegg Virginia G. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAge has a curvilinear relationship with crime and is the strongest predictor of criminal behavior. The likelihood of a person partaking in crime starts low, peaks from ages 16 to 24 years, and then declines. A number of theories are aimed towards explaining why criminal activity peaks during those ages. There are also numerous explanations as to the age of onset, when one starts acting criminal, and the age of offset, or the age that one stops partaking in crime.
Media
Authors: Clegg Virginia G. , Mones Maureen G. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractMedia is becoming even more popular and readily available every day. Not only is it a source of entertainment and information, but it is also a way to learn social norms, such as how to act in situations, whether legal or illegal. Media can be divided into different subgroups, including movies, television, books, music, and newspapers, for example. All of these outlets can make an impression on individuals who are participating. Media can be problematic if it is creating panic in the audience, teaching the audience various forms of violence, or glorifying drug use. All of these examples can be seen within the media subgroups, and individuals should be aware of what they may be learning from various forms of entertainment or news sources.
American Society of Criminology
Authors: Crank Beverly R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

The American Society of Criminology (ASC) is an international organization comprised of students, scholars, and practitioners in the fields of criminology and criminal justice. The organization provides for a multidisciplinary setting while focusing on the study of the causes, correlates, and consequences of crime, the treatment and measurement of crime and delinquency, and crime prevention. The ASC provides an outlet for researchers, educators, and practitioners worldwide to exchange and disseminate knowledge. Members of the organization receive the journals
Criminology
and
Criminology and Public Policy
, as well as the newsletter,
The Criminologist
.
Gambling
Authors: Blackwell Kenneth , Kopacki Christopher G. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractGambling is the act of wagering something of value while attempting to predict the outcome of an unknown event in hopes of winning money or another object of value in addition to the original investment. The United States is deeply rooted in its gaming heritage. Today most states have some sort of legal gambling. However, illegal gambling and problem gamblers are considered detrimental to society. It is believed that many societal problems are linked to gambling, especially crime. However, research suggests that gambling itself is most likely not the cause of many crimes.
Violence Against Women Act
Authors: Gibbs Jennifer C. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) was and continues to be an important piece of  legislation, establishing several measures to combat violence against women. The original VAWA, signed into law in 1994, was part of the Clinton administration's update of the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, and the legislation primarily targeted domestic violence (defined as a crime committed by a current or former spouse, someone with whom the victim has a child in common, or an intimate partner with whom the victim cohabits), stalking, rape, and similar crimes where women are more often victimized than are men. It was a landmark piece of  legislation, given the issue of violence against women and victim‐blaming attitudes prevalent throughout history. The problem of violence against women is discussed, along with details of  VAWA and continuing hurdles with the legislation.
Jury Trial
Authors: Bellas Christopher M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Sixth Amendment to the US Constitution guarantees the right to a jury trial that is conducted by way of fundamental fairness to the accused. Juries are an important part of the justice system, whether the case is a federal or state criminal proceeding or a private civil suit. The history of the jury system dates back to British common law and with minor revisions was adopted early in American jurisprudence. Jurors selected for service are supposed to be a representative sample of the community ensuring that the accused is tried by a jury of his or her peers. Multiple steps are in place to make sure jurors are both unbiased and diverse. Still, lack of participation and financial obstacles have raised concerns about the fairness of the system. Research on jury selection and jury decision‐making is one avenue that legal practitioners can utilize in jury reform efforts.
Child Victims
Authors: Brewster Mary P. , McLaughlin Alyssa 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In 2009 there were an estimated 1,318,398 violent crimes and 9,320,971 property crimes reported to the police (US Department of Justice). Many of the victims of these crimes were under the age of 18. Minors often suffer from all of the same types of offenses as do adults—property and violent street crime. In addition to the victimization of youth in traditional street crimes, some offenses are specific to youth victims due to their status as minors. Children may be victims of child physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, solicitation, child sex trafficking, bullying and school violence, and abduction.
Victim Precipitation
Authors: Smith Molly , Bouffard Leana A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractMost of the traditional criminological research views a criminal event as a set of variables centered on the offender's role in the commission of a crime. Victim precipitation, however, refers to the victim's role in his or her own victimization. The phrase was coined by Marvin Wolfgang. Most definitions of the concept of victim precipitation have two primary components: that the victim was the first to act in the temporal sequence of the criminal event; and that the victim encouraged the commission of the crime. Victim precipitation is an evident component in several different types of crime, most notably homicide, assault, rape, and robbery.
Learning Communities
Authors: Coston Charisse T. M. , Blowers Anita N. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA recent trend in higher education has been the creation of learning communities. These programs are designed to create a learning environment that encourages students to make both academic and social connections to provide a richer learning experience. Colleges and universities often create learning communities as a mechanism for increasing student retention and academic engagement while also enhancing “deeper” learning. While these goals focus on the student, learning communities can also be an effective strategy for meeting other institutional goals. While there is considerable agreement that learning communities can be an effective forum for enhancing the quality of undergraduate education, the success of these programs requires considerable planning and dedication by campus administration, faculty, and staff.
Conflict Theories of Crime
Authors: Black Pamela 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe conflict perspective argues that the function of the state is not to mediate between the inevitable conflicting interest groups, but to represent the interests and reflect the values of the group or groups that have sufficient power to control the state. Conflict criminology encompasses two aspects of criminology: it seeks to explain the behavior of the law, and it examines crime as a byproduct of group and culture conflict. The usefulness of conflict models of criminality and the law is limited by the fact that society is not just a system of conflicting and competing interest groups. Conflict theory has, however, been used to explore organized and white‐collar crime, arrest and sentencing patterns, and crime patterns of various minority groups.
Due Process and Juvenile Justice
Authors: Sanborn Joseph B. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWhen juvenile court was introduced in 1899, due process for the youths processed there was not among its concerns. For more than six decades juvenile court operated more like a clinic than a court of law. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the United States Supreme Court extended to juvenile defendants a few constitutional rights that the Court believed constituted “fundamental fairness.” Today, youths prosecuted in juvenile court certainly have more due process rights than were granted in that forum in the first half of the twentieth century, but they do not have the due process protections guaranteed to adult offenders.
Presentence Investigation Report
Authors: Kyle Cook Amy 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe origins of presentence reports can be traced to 1841 with the work of John Augustus, the first probation officer. Presentence reports evolved over the years from reports ordered by the court to promote individualized sentencing recommendations to, in more recent years, recommendations based on determinate sentencing guidelines. Presentence reports are also used in a variety of other contexts, including supervision plans and prison placement decisions. Discussed are the effects of actuarial risk assessments and the dynamics of the courtroom workgroup and the “going rate” on criminal sanctions.
Costs of Crime Victimization
Authors: Brewster Mary P. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In 2010, US citizens over the age of 12 were victims of “18.7 million violent and property crimes victimizations” (Truman 2011). Many researchers have studied the impact of crime on its victims. The effects of victimization may be physical, financial, psychological, social, behavioral, educational, or occupational/professional. Comprehensive studies of monetary crime victimization costs have been conducted in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Barbados. Miller, Cohen, and Wiersema 1996 calculated the monetary value of the tangible and intangible costs of crime victimization in the US and estimated an overall annual cost of $450 billion.
Corporate Crime
Authors: Navarro John 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

During the 1920s, many theories were postulated to explain lower‐class criminality—virtually ignoring crimes committed by the middle and upper classes. By the time the stock market crashed in 1929, Edwin Sutherland had collected information on the crimes committed by the wealthy, which informed his portrayal of a white‐collar criminal. Sutherland is credited with having conducted the first empirical study on corporate crime with his research on 70 large US corporations that were accused of wrongdoings. He defined white‐collar crime as “a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation.” As time went on and knowledge of corporate crime evolved, Sutherland's definition of white‐collar crime was viewed as broad, and many researchers believed that his book
White Collar Crime
should have been retitled
Corporate Crime
due to its focus on corporate violations.
Progressive Era
Authors: Atkins Ben 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe years 1890–1920 are known as the Progressive Era of the United States. While America recovered from the hardships of the Civil War to enter the twentieth century with optimism on the horizon, much in the country was in need of reform. A progressive spirit of reform swept the nation, targeting issues from technology, art, science, to familial and governmental institutions. Among the most profoundly transformed elements of American society was the criminal justice system. Many important features of today's local, state, and federal criminal justice systems are products of Progressive Era reforms.
Balanced and Restorative Justice
Authors: Thomson Douglas 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBalanced and Restorative Justice (BRJ) operates in the United States as a juvenile justice reform approach that emphasizes accountability, competency development, and public safety in dealing with delinquency. Considered by many as a form of restorative justice and by others as a type of community justice Bazemore and Schiff 2004; McCold 2004, BRJ seeks to hold youths accountable for their delinquent acts, to support them in making amends, and to discourage further offending. It also challenges conventional responses to juvenile delinquency, by seeking to attend to the needs of victims including encouraging their participation in the process.
Pretrial Release
Authors: Clark John 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The pretrial release decision is one of the most important decisions made in the life of a criminal case. Defendants who pose manageable risks to public safety and/or those likely to fail to appear in court should be identified and released with appropriate conditions, while those who pose unmanageable risks need to be detained once identified. The following three issues facing the pretrial release decision‐making process are discussed: (1) individualized risk assessments, (2) the importance of decision making based on science rather than intuition, and (3) the negative consequences associated with the heavy reliance on financial bonds. Four criteria are important to the pretrial release decision‐making process—visibility, equity, rationality, and effectiveness.
Compstat
Authors: Rush Jeffrey , Munoz Rosaura 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In the past couple of decades, the City of New York has transformed from one of the most dangerous and crime‐prone cities in America to one of the safest. Certainly many different variables played a role in the reduction in crime in New York, but one of the most significant factors was the implementation of a data‐driven, goal‐oriented approach to policing known as Compstat. This policing model, which is associated with former NYPD Commissioner William Bratton, relies on the identification of problems and specific objectives, based on information, and then an ongoing evaluative process relating to actions taken to ensure effective results.
Truth in Sentencing
Authors: R. Scheidegger Amie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIn response to disparities between the length of sentence given and the amount of time served, both federal and state lawmakers enacted “truth‐in‐sentencing” policies. Most importantly, truth‐in‐sentencing policies require violent offenders to serve 85% of their given sentence. In 1994 the Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth‐in‐Sentencing Incentive Grants Program made states who met federal guidelines eligible to receive funds which could be used to, among other things, build or expand correctional facilities. All 50 US states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands received funding under the grant program.
Vigilantism
Authors: Vander Ende Jacob 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Vigilantism consists of those acts taken by individuals who are attempting to enact their own rule of law or sense of morality, in essence taking the law into their own hands. One who participates in vigilantism is known as a vigilante. The word has Latin roots in the word “vigilant,” meaning “alertly watchful especially to avoid danger,” which then permutated into “vigilante.” Vigilantism, by reflection and extension at its broadest definition, is the cause or doctrine of being a vigilante.
Prosecutorial Discretion
Authors: Wulf‐Ludden Timbre 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry discusses the importance of prosecutorial discretion at various stages of the criminal justice process. Specifically, the entry outlines the prosecutor's role at the following three critical stages: the prosecutor's decision regarding whether to move a case forward; the prosecutor's decision regarding the filing of specific charges; and the prosecutor's pivotal role in the case‐disposition process. The entry also discusses the considerable discretion exercised by prosecutors in the types of plea‐bargains offered and accepted.