bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Human Tissue
Authors: Morrison Michael 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
While the use of human tissue in medicine has a long history, it is only during the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries that widespread mobilization and utilization of human tissues for medical purposes has become possible. A diverse assortment of human cells, tissues, organs, and fluids is currently sourced from patients and members of the public for medicine and medical research, including, blood, oocytes (eggs), solid organs, bone marrow, corneas, breast milk, skin, umbilical cord blood, fetal and embryonic tissue, heart valves, and spermatozoa (sperm). These tissues serve a range of ends including therapeutic transplantation, fertility treatment, research materials and tools, and as the basis of novel living‐tissue‐based therapies. This expansion in scope has necessitated, and been facilitated by, the implementation of large‐scale social management of human tissues. Accompanying these changes in scope and scale of medical use of human tissues is an increasing entanglement in relations of economic and commercial value. As the life sciences become ever more intertwined with practices of economic investment, speculation, and capital generation, human tissues and cells are becoming reconfigured as sources of “biovalue” to be unlocked by (bio)technological manipulation and transformation – mobilizing body parts as the raw material in new, global tissue economies.
Therapeutic Landscapes, Health, and Healing
Authors: Williams Allison M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The therapeutic landscape concept was born in the geography discipline, having its theoretical origins in a mix of different approaches, including structuralism and humanism. The concept provides a framework for the analysis of a range of environments, characterized by a variety of elements addressing the natural, built, social, symbolic, and spiritual environment, as they contribute to healing and health. The concept continues to develop as a useful framework for inquiry in three long‐standing substantive areas: (1) physical places known for health; (2) applications in health care sites; and (3) spaces of significance for particular populations.
Food Risks and Scares
Authors: Raude Jocelyn , Fischler Claude 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Though our food may, objectively speaking, be much safer than in the past, incidence of food safety crises has increased in developed societies. Thus the dominant view in the West is paradoxically that food risks are much higher than in the past. Beyond the seeming irrationality of consumers, this entry uses recent literature to examine the anthropological and sociological foundations of contemporary food scares, as well as their evolution throughout history. It also seeks to highlight the main institutional and contextual factors – connected to social change – which tend to amplify experiences of food safety crises. Finally, it reviews the public policies that have been implemented in recent decades in order to restore consumer trust in the safety of their food.
GIS
and Health Geography
Authors: Kwan Mei‐Po 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
As public health outcomes and the environmental factors that influence them often have distinctive spatial patterns, geographical information systems (GIS) are powerful tools for mapping and analyzing geographic distributions of health, disease, environmental risk factors, and population at risk. GIS can help researchers explore and identify the association between risk factors and health outcomes, and to address specific health issues through investigating the spatial patterns and diffusion of disease. Results obtained through GIS‐based analysis can be useful for developing intervention strategies that seek to mitigate health disparities, control the spread of disease, and improve the utilization of health care services. GIS functions useful for health and disease studies can be grouped into three broad categories: spatial data handling, mapping and visualization, and spatial analysis.
Race and Medical Education
Authors: Barr Donald A. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractFor nearly half a century, medical schools in the United States have worked to increase the racial and ethnic diversity of students selected for admission. Early efforts focused on affirmative action approaches, often setting aside a specific number of slots for minority students. In 1978 the Supreme Court found this approach to be unconstitutional. In response, medical schools shifted to an approach that views racial and ethnic diversity among students as essential to providing a high‐quality medical education. By maintaining an adequate level of diversity, schools are able to enhance the cultural competency of the physicians they train – an essential step to reducing documented racial disparities in quality of care and access to care. In addition, minority students trained as physicians are often more likely to focus their practice careers on disadvantaged, under‐served patient populations. Problems have developed, however, in maintaining the “pipeline” of minority students in college who hope to enter medical school, with many of these students at risk of losing interest in a medical career. Efforts to support these students in their preparation for medical school will continue to be central to maintaining the racial and ethnic diversity of those trained as physicians.
Medical Research
Authors: Will Catherine M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Since the earliest days of medical sociology, when Talcott Parsons emphasized the importance of research for the growth of medicine, sociologists have also investigated the potential distance or tension between research and care, and the often slow path from laboratory science to changes in clinical practice. Regulatory science has also been the subject of sustained investigation, as a key site for government regulation of medical practice and of the pharmaceutical industry and its research. More recent work has explored the epistemological, methodological, and ethical contents of apparently new types of research to inform practice – such as “evidence‐based medicine,” “health services research,” and “translational research” – and their epistemological and methodological contents. The changing meaning and character of patient participation in medical research of different kinds is also an ongoing concern.
Medicine, Evidence‐Based
Authors: Goldenberg Maya J. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractEvidence‐based medicine (EBM) is the standard of best practice in most areas of health care. Evidence‐based decision‐making relies on evidence, which, in turn, is supposed to support informed and unbiased reasoning. EBM first set out to revolutionize medical education, teaching new clinicians to critically assess the research rather than relying on the expert opinions of senior faculty to inform patient care. The later addition of structured abstracts, meta‐analyses, and systematic reviews assisted busy clinicians with the enormous volume of scientific literature. Despite its appealing mandate, EBM has still received its share of criticism.
Animal Research
Authors: Hudson‐Shore Michelle 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAnimal research is the use of live non‐human animals in scientific experiments, education and regulatory testing. In general “animal research” describes research on vertebrate animals although some invertebrates (such as cephalopods) may also be included in the discussions and regulations related to the topic. There is a long history of animal research beginning in the fourth and third centuriesbce, and there is great variability in legislation controlling it. Animal research is conducted for a wide variety of purposes and is very controversial with ethical and scientific arguments forming the basis of the debate. Alternatives to animal research and the concept of the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) provide a mechanism to reconcile some of these issues.
Preventive Health Behavior and Health Education
Authors: Jensen Jakob D. , O'Keefe Daniel J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Researchers across many disciplines (e.g., health communication, public health, health psychology, nursing) have designed and evaluated interventions to impact preventive health outcomes. Interventions have been carried out in a variety of settings, including health care facilities, schools, worksites, and via media channels. Successful approaches have been grounded in theory (e.g., the Health Belief Model), designed to address individual differences (e.g., low health literacy), and employed various message strategies (e.g., tailoring).
Body, Sociology of the
Authors: Phipps Alison , Bendelow Gillian 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe concept of “embodiment” emerged as sociology finally began, in the late twentieth century, to tackle questions around what it really meant to have, or “be,” a body. Although arguably the classical sociologists had grounded their ideas implicitly in an embodied subject – for instance, Marx's concept of alienation or Durkheim's work on suicide – the body was taken for granted as a biological entity or seen as a blank canvas for the operation of the social, and was implicitly assumed to be that of the white, heterosexual, able‐bodied man. “The body” itself began to emerge as a major theme from the 1980s onward as social scientists addressed how perceptions, experiences, and even corporeality were influenced and produced by social structures, discourses, and interactions. This required sociologists to engage with the lived aspects of intersections between aspects of identity such as gender, class, “race,” sexuality, age, and (dis)ability – in other words, the diversity of bodies rather than the implicitly “normal” and unquestioned “body.” It is impossible to summarize the enormous range of sociological thought and research that has emerged since, but in this brief entry we attempt to chart the approaches and themes which have the most apparent salience for health and illness.
Geographies of Ethnicity and Health
Authors: McLafferty Sara 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Health and access to health care are associated with ethnicity in complex ways that differ within and among ethnic groups and are linked to the spaces in which groups live, work, and interact. This entry discusses key themes in understanding geographies of ethnicity and health including: the impacts of neighborhood contextual factors on health, the Ethnic Density Hypothesis, time–space activity patterns, place‐making activities, therapeutic networks, socio‐spatial stigmatization, and public health responses to ethnic health concerns.
Assisted Reproductive Technology
Authors: Kirkman Maggie , Hammarberg Karin 
Published: February 2014

Abstract

Assisted reproductive technology (ART) encompasses techniques that involve handling human eggs and sperm to establish a pregnancy, primarily to treat infertility. The most common ART procedures are
in vitro
fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). By 2012, at least 5 million children had been born as a result of ART. There can be emotional and psychological ramifications for those who undergo the procedures. Because of its role in human reproduction, ART is associated with sex/gender constructs, which have strong cultural ties, including the meaning of fertility, infertility, and parenthood for women and men, and their relation to femininity and masculinity. Inequity of access to ART is among the reasons for the growing trend to cross‐border reproductive care. The elimination of unequal access to ART is a complex problem requiring economic and social changes. The existence of ART opens new possibilities for conception, most of which provoke intense debate.
Health Care Delivery System: Taiwan
Authors: Lee Shoou‐Yih Daniel , Ma Ke‐Zong 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the health care delivery system in Taiwan, followed by a discussion of the country's national health insurance program – the major source of financing for the health care delivery system – its design and operational features. Next we examine the challenges that the health care delivery system faces and the response of the government. We also discuss the role and future of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the Taiwanese health care delivery system.
Mental Illness and Culture
Authors: Wurtzburg Susan J. , Rocchio Christopher C. C. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractCulture plays a strong role in mental illness, recognized by many mental health practitioners given increasingly multicultural client groups in most nations. Mental illness may be diagnosed using theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM), created by psychiatrists. Western medical care separates the body and the mind, in contrast to many members of minority, cultural communities, who may have a more integrated, holistic view of health. In addition to different understandings of mental illness, group members may demonstrate culturally endorsed symptoms, reactions, and curing ideas, among other features. In fact, some types of mental illness are only found in certain cultural groups, and in 1994 the DSM recognized these illnesses, using the term “culture‐bound syndromes,” also identified by social scientists as “ethnic psychoses.” Contemporary treatment of mental illness typically involves greater awareness of the effects of culture, and more use of complementary treatment strategies.
Sex Selection: Issues and Concerns
Authors: Bandyopadhyay Mridula 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Son preference is not a new phenomenon. It is quite common and has existed in some degree throughout the world. Usually son preference leads to sex discrimination in many parts of the world. But extreme desire for a son in many Asian societies has led to excessive abortion of female fetuses in the late twentieth century. Earlier, sex selection was achieved by infanticide, abandonment, out‐adoption, underreporting of births, and/or selective neglect and abuse of girl infant or child. However, with the easy availability of modern reproductive technologies, sex determination has become readily available, leading to disproportionate sex selection, achieved by aborting female fetuses. Sex selective abortion is a major public health issue contributing to high levels of female mortality in societies where son preference is strong, affecting the male–female sex ratio. Since the 1980s several million female fetuses have been aborted in China, India, and South Korea, altering the sex ratio at birth. Declining fertility levels, increasing preference for small families, strong son preference, increasing technological availability, easily available abortion services, erratic population policies, gender bias, and low status of women and girls are all contributing to sex selection in middle and higher socioeconomic households in all age and educational groups.
Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Coughlin Steven S. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious anxiety disorder that can occur among persons exposed to a traumatic event involving threatened death, serious injury, who respond with intense fear, helplessness, or horror. Symptoms of PTSD can include nightmares, intrusive thoughts, or other re‐experiencing phenomena, the avoidance of situations that remind the person of the traumatic event, a feeling of numbness or being socially detached from family and friends, and hypervigilance or hyper‐arousal. A number of factors may explain why some persons develop PTSD following exposure to severe trauma while others do not, including individual, social, and cultural factors, and heritability.
Race and Mental Health
Authors: Taylor John 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Race‐associated disparities in mental health have been well documented by previous research. Yet, the social factors that underlie racial/ethnic disparities in mental health are not yet well understood. This entry provides a brief overview some of the major issues in the study of race and mental health. It provides definitions of race and ethnicity. This is followed by a discussion of the measurement strategies employed in assessing racial/ethnic differences in mental health, as well as a summary of the racial/ethnic distribution of mental health in the United States today. A few of the major theories on racial/ethnic variation in mental health are presented. The entry then concludes with suggestions for future research.
Disease Clusters
Authors: Sabel Clive E. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractDisease cluster studies are at times a controversial, but nevertheless critical, part of quantitative spatial epidemiology. They investigate unusual occurrences of cases, either spatially or spatial‐temporally. Often arising from media alerts, investigations are frequently complicated by incomplete case data, methodological shortcomings, and complex statistical analyses. A large number of disease cluster packages or tools are now available to support analyses. Both infectious and non‐infectious diseases can be examined, with the aim to provide clues as to the causation or source of the outbreak. Cluster studies are often seen as a form of pre‐epidemiology, generating hypotheses worthy of follow‐up.
Socioeconomic Status and Health
Authors: Saint Onge Jarron M. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSocioeconomic status (SES), a measure of income, education, and prestige, is inextricably linked to health behaviors, diseases, and mortality with higher levels of SES typically associated with better overall health. Given the persistence of this relationship, research has focused on the most important mechanisms that shape the SES–health relationship. SES shapes health outcomes over the life course through key domains including the physical environment, social environment, socialization and experiences, and health behaviors. Each component affects health in unique ways throughout the life course and these combine to have lasting impacts on disease and death. Understanding the underlying factors and mechanisms that drive the SES–health relationship are particularly important to design effective public policies to reduce social inequalities and to improve population health.
Socioeconomic Status and Mortality
Authors: Saint Onge Jarron M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Socioeconomic status (SES), frequently defined by education, income, and prestige, is a central and driving force of population health, with high levels of SES generally linked to better levels of health and lower levels of mortality. The SES–mortality relationship highlights both the persisting and increasing relevance of social inequalities and provides insights into changing disease patterns across the world. SES has a long‐lasting, pervasive, and graded relationship with mortality, with each higher level of SES associated with a decrease in mortality rates. SES impacts mortality through a variety of mechanisms including social and physical environments. The relationship exists in a number of countries and is persistent throughout the life course.
Health, Cultural Competence in
Authors: Prentice Rebecca 
Published: February 2014

AbstractCultural competence refers to the ability of an organization or a professional to deliver appropriate and effective health services to patients from various ethnic, religious, or cultural backgrounds. The movement for cultural competence in health services emerged in Europe and North America during the 1990s to address two related concerns. First, as international migration has increased the diversity of patient populations, health care institutions have had to respond to new linguistic, cultural, and religious needs in the communities that they serve. Second, given significant and enduring racial and ethnic disparities in health, cultural competence has been proposed as a strategy to improve health care quality through a patient‐centered approach that emphasizes the specific needs of minority populations.
Migration and Health
Authors: Larchanché Stéphanie 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSignificant changes in health risks and therapeutic options accompany migration, but vary in relation to features of immigrant populations and to the sociopolitical context of host societies This entry explores the determinants of immigrant health and influences on immigrant utilization of health services. It underlines key issues such as the social representations of immigrants and their impact in different health domains, namely reproductive health, mental health, occupational health, and sex work. It addresses epistemological evolutions in the study of both infectious and chronic diseases among members of this group.
Racism, Health, and Health Care
Authors: Karlsen Saffron , Roth Marilyn A. , Bécares Laia 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe international empirical evidence which exists exposing the relationship between racism and health is compelling. Interpersonal racism directly affects mortality and a wide range of physical and mental health conditions and health‐related behavior for both children and adults. Racism also has indirect health effects: as a consequence of institutional racism people from most ethnic minority groups live their lives at a socioeconomic disadvantage relative to other groups, which in turn affects their health and well‐being. Racism influences people's interactions with health services, both as a consequence of the ways in which the attitudes of health care providers affect the diagnosis and care of people with different ethnicities and also due to the impact that experiences of institutional racism (in health care and other settings) have on people's willingness to seek preventive or curative care. Achieving ethnic health equity demands that we address the impact of racism on health.
Stem Cell Research
Authors: Kent Julie 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThere has been a growing interest in the potential of new types of cell therapies to treat a variety of diseases and conditions including stroke, spinal cord injury, eye disease, neurodegenerative conditions, diabetes, heart disease, blood disorders, wound care, and male pattern baldness. These cell therapies may be seen as part of wider development of “regenerative medicine” and the growth in markets for human tissues and cells
Mexican Americans, Health of
Authors: Ganduglia Cecilia , Franzini Luisa 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Mexican American health has several paradoxical characteristics. Despite having the highest disparities in healthcare access, facing several socioeconomic problems, and having a higher risk of certain pathologies such as diabetes and obesity, the life expectancy and mortality rates of Mexican Americans are better than those of non‐Hispanic whites. Several explanations of this phenomenon, known as the “Hispanic paradox,” have been proposed including data artifacts, migration patterns, and immigrants beliefs and behaviors.
Neighborhood Disadvantage and Well‐Being
Authors: Carpiano Richard M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Significant attention in recent years has been paid to understanding how the places that people inhabit in their daily lives also matter for their health and well‐being. This entry considers the role of neighborhoods and local area living conditions – particularly socioeconomically disadvantaged locations – for shaping personal health risk factors, health behaviors, and overall health and well‐being. It begins by discussing the various features and mechanisms through which neighborhoods can be health promoting and/or health damaging for residents. Next, it reviews quantitative and qualitative research methods used for assessing the health implications of neighborhood social and physical environments. Finally, it highlights some key emerging areas of scholarship on neighborhood health effects – research foci that aim to fill important knowledge gaps not only about how places matter for health, but also how to design place‐based interventions to promote health and reduce health disparities.