bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perfil do atendimento odontopediátrico no setor de urgência e emergência da clínica odontológica do Centro Universitário do Pará – CESUPA
Authors: Figueiredo Priscilla Bittencourt de Almeida , Silva Alexandre Roberto Queiroz da , Silva Antônio Irlan , Silva Bruna Queiroz da 
Published: November 2013

Objetivo: Avaliar o perfil do atendimento odontológico de urgência e emergência em crianças na faixa etária de 0 a 12 anos atendidas no setor de Urgência e Emergência do curso de odontologia do Centro Universitário do Pará. Materiais e Métodos: Este estudo foi do tipo analítico observacional retrospectivo, cujos dados foram coletados a partir das fichas clínicas, utilizadas no serviço de urgência e emergência do Centro Universitário do Pará (CESUPA), no período de janeiro de 2007 a dezembro de 2011. Buscou-se traçar um perfil dos usuários pediátricos, assim como avaliar as principais causas e tratamentos. Resultados: Os resultados mostraram que a maioria dos pacientes atendidos era do gênero masculino (50,4%) e na faixa etáriade 7 a 12 anos de idade (65,2%). O principal motivo da procura ao atendimento foi a dor de dente, sendo esta provocada na maioria dos casos por lesão de cárie (53,7%), acometendo principalmente crianças em fase dedentição mista. Quanto ao tratamento executado, a exodontia (73,4%) foi o mais realizado. Conclusão: A cárie é a principal ocorrência de atendimento no serviço de urgência e emergência da clínica odontológica doCESUPA, e o tratamento de escolha, na maioria das vezes, infelizmente, foi a exodontia, indicando assim, uma maior necessidade de programar estratégias educativas e preventivas na comunidade avaliada com base napromoção de saúde bucal. Descritores: Tratamento de emergência. Odontopediatria. Cárie dentária - Terapia.
Validation of the Cooray‐Rubinstein (C‐R) formula for a rough ground surface by using three‐dimensional (3‐D) FDTD
Authors: Li Dongshuai , Zhang Qilin , Liu Tao , Wang Zhenhui 
Published: November 2013

AbstractIn this paper, we have extended the Cooray‐Rubinstein (C‐R) approximate formula into the fractal rough ground surface and then validate its accuracy by using three‐dimensional (3‐D) finite‐difference time‐domain (FDTD) method at distances of 50 m and 100 m from the lightning channel. The results show that the extended C‐R formula has an accepted accuracy for predicting the lightning‐radiated horizontal electric field above the fractal rough and conducting ground, and its accuracy increases a little better with the higher of the earth conductivity. For instance, when the conductivity of the rough ground is 0.1 S/m, the error of the peak value predicted by the extended C‐R formula is less than about 2.3%, while its error is less than about 6.7% for the conductivity of 0.01 S/m. The rough ground has much effect on the lightning horizontal field, and the initial peak value of the horizontal field obviously decreases with the increase of the root‐mean‐square height of the rough ground at early times (within several microseconds of the beginning of return stroke).
Monitoring daily evapotranspiration in Northeast Asia using MODIS and a regional Land Data Assimilation System
Authors: Jang Keunchang , Kang Sinkyu , Lim Yoon‐Jin , Jeong Seungtaek , Kim Joon , Kimball John S. , Hong Suk Young 
Published: November 2013

AbstractWe applied an approach for daily estimation and monitoring of evapotranspiration (ET) over the Northeast Asia monsoon region using satellite remote sensing observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Frequent cloud cover results in a substantial loss of remote sensing information, limiting the capability of continuous ET monitoring for the monsoon region. Accordingly, we applied and evaluated a stand‐alone MODIS ET algorithm for representative regional ecosystem types and an alternative algorithm to facilitate continuous regional ET estimates using surface meteorological inputs from the Korea Land Data Assimilation System (KLDAS) in addition to MODIS land products. The resulting ET calculations showed generally favorable agreement (root‐mean‐square error  < 1.3 mm d−1) with respect to in situ measurements from eight regional flux tower sites. The estimated mean annual ET for 3 years (2006 to 2008) was approximately 362.0 ± 161.5 mm yr−1 over the Northeast Asia domain. In general, the MODIS and KLDAS‐based ET (MODIS‐KLDAS ET) results showed favorable performance when compared to tower observations, though the results were overestimated for a forest site by approximately 39.5% and underestimated for a cropland site in South Korea by 0.8%. The MODIS‐KLDAS ET data were generally underestimated relative to the MODIS (MOD16) operational global terrestrial ET product for various biome types, excluding cropland; however, MODIS‐KLDAS ET showed better agreement than MOD16 ET for forest and cropland sites in South Korea. Our results indicate that MODIS ET estimates are feasible but are limited by satellite optical‐infrared remote sensing constraints over cloudy regions, whereas alternative ET estimates using continuous meteorological inputs from operational regional climate systems (e.g., KLDAS) provide accurate ET results and continuous monitoring capability under all‐sky conditions.
Item Response Theory in Language Testing
Authors: Ellis David P. , Ross Steven J. 
Published: November 2013

Language test tasks and items are particularly susceptive to factors that make responses by test candidates ambiguous. Such factors include random error, guessing, compromised test security, and systematic bias. Test analysis technology has evolved since the 1970s to reduce the influence of such construct‐irrelevant factors on test score interpretation. The focus of the present chapter is to introduce different options for undertaking item analysis, with particular focus on item response theory.The different options afforded to language testers are outlined and demonstrated with a working example taken from an authentic foreign language test. A subset of reading comprehension items is analyzed with the use of a classical test theory item analysis approach, which is contrasted with Rasch, two‐parameter IRT, and three‐parameter IRT models. Emphasis is placed on discussion of different measurement assumptions and fit criteria each approach entails, and how item deletion based on each of the four approaches potentially impacts score interpretation and the rank ordering of test candidates.
Monitoring Progress in the Classroom
Authors: Mathew Rama , Poehner Matthew E. 
Published: November 2013

The chapter proceeds from the perspective that assessment can best support teaching and learning when these two activities are aligned. It is concerned with assessments undertaken forformative(assessmentforlearning) rather thansummative(assessmentoflearning) purposes and reflects a commitment to understanding learner abilities while they are in the process of developing. Feedback is seen as an important dimension that helps to adjust classroom instruction according to varying learner abilities.Situated broadly within a learner‐centered approach to language teaching, various models are presented that focus on ongoing, formal and informal, planned and unanticipated outcomes in which all the three agents (teacher, learner, and peer) are accorded equal status. Dynamic assessment is also discussed, which maintains that to fully capture the range of an individual's capabilities it is necessary to examine both the products of past development (i.e., abilities that are fully formed) as well as abilities that are currently in the process of their formation.Issues and challenges, conceptual and implementation‐related, that this kind of assessment gives rise to are discussed in the last section. One issue involves establishing effective practices in contexts traditionally dominated by summative tests and a high stakes testing culture. The need for training teachers and learners in formative assessment as well as making space and time available in their everyday teaching and learning is also recognized. Further, it suggests that reforms would have to address all three components—teaching, learning and assessment—simultaneously, as piecemeal approaches are not likely to be effective.
The Interface of Language Assessment and Forensic Contexts
Authors: van Naerssen Margaret 
Published: November 2013

“Forensic,” before an area of study and as popularized through television shows, has promoted interest in the forensic sciences. Forensic science is a general category for a wide range of sciences used to address questions in a legal context. For acceptability in the legal system, tools, methods, and analyses used should be scientifically grounded. Language assessment refers here to the assessment of abilities in an additional language, other than one's own native language. Is language assessment a forensic science? Or is it hybrid discipline drawing primarily from linguistics (scientific study of human language) and the scientific discipline of test development and theory. In this chapter the latter is assumed. Another focus for this chapter is specified, the role of an assessment instrument. Is the test itself “being taken to court” for challenges about the claims made by test developers or companies regarding its validity, reliability, and security? Or, is the language assessment process a tool in the legal process, in an examination of language evidence produced by unknown persons or by specific witnesses, suspects, or defendants? The focus here is on language assessment as a tool.This interface of language assessment and forensic contexts begins with a brief overview of the common contexts in which an expert in language assessment might be called on. This is followed by a review of key legal and assessment concepts. The interface is then further illustrated through five topics: differences between language assessment for large populations and single subjects, the relationship between language assessment and the legal question, the tension between court expectations regarding “scientific reliability” and the need for validity, the linkage of language assessment to legal interpreting needs, and the challenge of trying to determine the truthfulness of a person's language proficiency for the examiner and for police on the streets in the line of duty.
Assessing
Welsh
Authors: Davies Emyr 
Published: November 2013

This chapter focuses on the assessment of Welsh language in schools and adult education. The context and background of the Welsh language and Welsh education is described, with reference to governmental legislation. A brief description of the language outlines some salient linguistic features, for example, the consonantal “mutation” system, as well as sociolinguistic issues.
Welsh is taught and assessed in schools either as a “first” language or a “second” language in Wales. This is compulsory until the age of 16. Learners can take Welsh as a subject at further and higher education levels (post‐16), and study other subjects through the medium of Welsh. This chapter also describes the work done in teaching Welsh to adults in Wales.
Assessment practices vary across sectors, and the main focus of this chapter is on Welsh as a second language in schools and assessing Welsh for adult learners. Challenges for both sectors involve recruiting qualified teachers, improving teaching methods, and providing learners with opportunities to use the language. In conclusion, appropriate qualifications and assessment are viewed as a means of providing motivation and improving attainment, thereby increasing the number of people able to speak and use Welsh effectively.
AssessingEnglishinEurope
Authors: Lim Gad S. 
Published: November 2013

One of the results of integration in the European area has been the development of a unified language policy promoting “plurilingualism,” providing some measure of coherence to the learning, teaching, and assessment of language ability. In practice, English has been the primary additional language learned, and it is learned in and out of school systems from ever earlier ages by ever more people, for purposes of personal development, migration, survival, education, and employment.A long tradition of formal English language assessment exists in parts of Europe, often for high stakes purposes, though informal and formative assessments have also been promoted in such projects as DIALANG and the European Language Portfolio. In recent years, language assessment has been discussed with reference to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Examinations claim “alignment” to the CEFR, and test users ask for results in terms of the six levels into which the CEFR divides language ability.There is debate, however, as to whether using the CEFR for such alignment is possible, defensible, or even desirable. The meaning and role of the framework remains to be agreed. The direction of this debate, the language‐related policies of users, and the changing demographic of English language learning will influence future ESL assessment practice in Europe and beyond.
AssessingAustralianandNew ZealandIndigenous Languages
Authors: Wigglesworth Gillian , Keegan Peter 
Published: November 2013

The assessment of children's indigenous language has, in general, received very little attention despite the fact that it is a worldwide issue with children in every continent growing up in multilingual situations. In this chapter we focus on approaches to assessing children's indigenous language knowledge in two very different contexts—Australia and New Zealand.Indigenous languages in Australia are in rapid decline. At the time of European settlement there were in the region of 250 languages, many of which were spoken by only a small number of people. However, there are now few indigenous communities where children are growing up learning their traditional indigenous language, and it is predicted that at the current rate of loss there will be no indigenous languages by 2050. The situation in New Zealand is quite different, with Māori being the single indigenous language. However, it is spoken by less than 25% of the Māori population (approximately 15% of New Zealand's population of 4 million are Māori) and is also in decline.In these different contexts, therefore, approaches to assessment are necessarily different. In Australia the limited amount of research that has been undertaken has focused on receptive skills, arguing that these measures can provide a useful picture of children's current language knowledge.In New Zealand, all Māori children are exposed to both English and Māori while growing up, but given the prevalence of English in New Zealand society it is difficult to determine how many Māori children truly are first language speakers of Māori or Māori dominant. Almost all Māori‐speaking children attendkōhanga reo(early childhood education centers based on Māori culture and using Māori as the medium of communication) and some form of Māori bilingual/immersion education in the compulsory school sector. Assessment tools developed for the Māori‐medium sector have focused on numeracy and literacy, although recent research has attempted to develop measures to assess students' proficiency of spoken Māori.
Effect‐Driven Test Specifications
Authors: Kim Jiyoung , Davidson Fred 
Published: November 2013

This chapter commences with an overview of test specifications (test specs) and of both traditional and new conceptualizations of their utility. Test specs are generative blueprints specifying important attributes of items or tasks. The classical, fundamental utility of specs lies in generating equivalent items or tasks over time; however, recently we have seen theories and research suggesting a broader and more profound impact of specs on test development and validation. Just as a spec itself evolves, our conceptualization of its utility and role in test development has evolved over time. Specs are now seen as a collection of validity evidence, as a tool for maximizing alignment between teaching and learning, and as a more public document with diverse audiences or readers. These notions all suggest that specs take a critical role in infusing intended effects or outcomes of a test into test design. In other words, test specs are the engine power of “effect‐driven testing.”
The chapter then introduces “effect‐driven test specs” and shares recent research implying their necessity and benefits. Effect‐driven test specs bring intended effects into the test design process by asking test developers to explicitly show evidentiary links between the intended effects and specific characteristics of specs. Effect‐driven specs are still generative blueprints for test design; however, because the specs are written and used in accordance with intended effects and outcomes, they become more tailored tools. The notion of effect‐driven specs acknowledges that we are seeing increasing diversity in terms of test effects (as well as related validity evidence to support the effects), purposes (summative, formative, or both), and audiences (designers or users of a test). To help readers understand the evidentiary links between test effects and design decisions and feel the benefits of effect‐driven specs, an example of an effect‐driven spec and an associated thought exercise are provided. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.
Exploratory Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling
Authors: Ockey Gary J. 
Published: November 2013

This chapter discusses exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques, two quantitative analytic methods commonly used in the field of language assessment. EFA is a data‐driven approach which is generally used as an investigative technique to identify relationships among variables. SEM is an a priori theory approach which is most often used to determine the extent to which an already established theory about relationships among variables is supported by empirical data. The chapter provides guidelines for using each of the techniques. Conducting an EFA requires screening and preparing the data for analysis, extracting eigenvalues, determining the number of factors for a solution, rotating the factors to a more interpretable solution, and providing an interpretation for the solution. Conducting an SEM analysis requires identifying the model, collecting and screening data appropriate for the analyses, estimating the parameters of the model, assessing the fit of the model to the data, interpreting the model's parameters, and evaluating the plausibility of competing models.To illustrate the principles and concepts of EFA, a self‐assessment of academic abilities data set is analyzed. A four‐factor model is found to be the most defensible factor structure. A second self‐assessment of academic abilities data set is then analyzed with an SEM approach with the aim of confirming or disconfirming the four‐factor structure identified with the EFA approach. Discussion and justification for decisions made during each step in the two analyses, along with an interpretation of the results, are provided. Common uses of EFA and SEM in language testing along with a brief historical overview of these techniques are also included in the chapter. The chapter concludes with a call for researchers to follow appropriate guidelines and principles when using one or the other of the techniques.
AssessingKorean
Authors: Kim Chungsook , Lee Junho 
Published: November 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the assessment tools and the systems, which evaluate a test taker's Korean language ability, and to diagnose the present state of assessments. The chapter introduces Korean assessment for both native speakers and non‐native speaker,s focusing on evaluation methods, assessment tools, and evaluation categories.As the Republic of Korea's official language, the number of Korean speakers has steadily increased and currently 770 million people around the world use it. By population, Korean is in the top 13 languages in the world. With such an increase in the number of Korean speakers and international status, the importance of Korean proficiency assessments is increasing and demand for assessment is also increasing internally and externally. In addition, the results of the Korean proficiency test are being used as a major qualification for admission or employment of Korean native speakers as well as non‐native speakers, so the social impact of the assessment of Korean proficiency is growing. In this chapter, current Korean language proficiency assessment is studied analytically to describe a more positive development direction. In particular, the Korean section of the College Scholastic Aptitude Test, the major academic skills assessment tool for native speakers, and the Test of Proficiency in Korean, for non‐native speakers, are intensively analyzed.
Language Testing in the Dock
Authors: Fulcher Glenn 
Published: November 2013

The practice of language testing for purposes other than second language learning research is primarily concerned with making decisions about education and employment. The purpose of the test is to generate a score, the meaning of which is both relevant to, and useful for, the decision to be taken. Individuals who obtain sufficiently high scores gain access to educational programs or jobs, or obtain certification that allows mobility to other institutions or countries; those who do not achieve these cut scores are denied the same benefits. Large‐scale testing is therefore a social tool for rationing limited resources and opportunities.It is therefore inevitable that some individuals or groups will challenge either the meaning or the use of the test scores. This is most likely to happen if they feel that the test outcomes are “unfair” because they perceive their score as unrepresentative of their true ability. They are most likely to succeed if they can successfully argue that they have been discriminated against. Discrimination occurs where the test score is construct irrelevant or under‐representative, and significantly varies according to some protected factor, such as ethnicity or disability. It is also possible to challenge the relevance of the score to the decision context, particularly if the score is not predictive of likely future performance.This chapter sets out the conditions under which legal challenges may be brought against test providers or users on the basis of discrimination or test misuse, and argues that litigation in language testing is likely to grow as the market value of test scores increases.