bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transformational/Transactional Leadership
Authors: Kidney Rachel 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Transformational and transactional leadership theory emerged at the center of a paradigmatic shift in leadership research that began in the 1980s. Since its inception, transformational and transactional leadership has revitalized the study of leadership and has been the subject of a great deal of theorizing and empirical investigation. This theory focuses on the predictive value of reciprocal interactions between leaders and followers in achieving effective leadership and performance. This entry provides an overview of the background of transformational and transactional theory, its conceptual development over the years, and the performance link, and concludes with a review of the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) – the most commonly adopted measure of transformational, transactional, and laissez‐faire leadership.
Women at Work
Authors: Bosak Janine , Kinahan Mary 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAs women began to enter paid employment in large numbers, the study of “women at work” has emerged as a significant interdisciplinary subfield of organizational research, drawing on management, psychology, economics, and so on. In recent years, with women's numbers increasing substantially in the general labor force, in professional occupations, and in management, the study of the role of women in modern organizational life has become increasingly important. This article discusses “women at work,” specifically focusing on possible explanations for perceived and actual sex differences/similarities in work attitudes and behavior and the different challenges women face at work.
Women Managers
Authors: Bosak Janine 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
With increasing numbers of women in the labor force and in higher education, more than at any other time in history, women have the qualifications and resources to fulfill management and leadership roles. However, despite these advances, few women make it to the corporate boardrooms, executive office suites, or the ranks of companies' top earners. This article discusses one of the main causes for women's power deficit, the glass ceiling phenomenon, specifically focusing on how societal stereotypes result in discrimination and prejudice for women due to a perceived incongruence between female and masculine leadership stereotypes. This article also discusses the recent emergence of more androgynous models of leadership and the possible suitability of these types of leadership styles for women managers.
Error
Authors: Koput Kenneth W. , Podsakoff Nathan P. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This entry identifies two uses of the term error in organizational analyses. In the first use, error is the distributional property capturing the extent to which actual values deviate from an expectation. In the second use, error is the logical condition of making a false inference. Instances of error are given and the importance of attending to the underlying statistical model, which provides the expectation or inference, and its assumptions is discussed.
Five‐Factor Model of Personality
Authors: Hodgkinson Gerard P. , Gill C.M. Hew D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The five‐factor model (FFM) underpinning the set of traits commonly known as ‘the Big Five’, is widely accepted as one of the foremost contributions to personality theory and research. The culmination of decades of research, founded on a wealth of biological, cross‐cultural, and psychometric evidence, it enjoys pre‐eminence in all of the major branches of human psychology. In the related fields of organizational behavior and personnel psychology, its reach extends into virtually every major topic area, from selection and assessment to team functioning, work‐related stress, and job satisfaction.
Ability
Authors: Hogan Joyce 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Ability usually refers to mental power and extends beyond cognitive domains to include acquired characteristics and inherited genetic predispositions. Abilities and their interaction with personality and motivation predict performance across a wide range of tasks. Intelligence is seen as the basic human ability and a number of models now propose that intelligence comprises multiple components. Most measures of intellectual abilities include verbal comprehension and quantitative reasoning. Many of the abilities underlying task performance can be identified and measured using a wide range of metrics, many of which were influenced by item‐response theory.
Interpersonal Skills
Authors: Bigelow John D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Interpersonal skills are the ability to accomplish individual and organizational goals through interpersonal interactions. They are essential for managers as their work is primarily interactional. Interpersonal skills are distinguished from other types of skills, and skills are differentiated from competencies. The major interpersonal skills of communication, influence, negotiation and conflict management, and facilitation are identified. Although interpersonal skills have been regarded as relatively straightforward behavioral routines, a more contemporary view of a skilled person is more complex: a person who can appraise his/her broader impact and can flexibly apply a repertoire of interaction tactics to accomplish a set of goals. Finally, the need for skill learning is discussed. Three approaches to skill learning are described. A key issue for all these approaches is how to develop a valid and sustainable skill assessment process.
Investor Capitalism
Authors: Useem Michael 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A majority of the shares of publicly traded companies in the united states are now held by institutional investors, and shares are increasingly held by professional money managers in many other countries as well. Institutional owners are more demanding, more international, and they exercise more influence on company leadership than individual shareholders. An era of managerial capitalism is being eclipsed by that of investor capitalism in the united states and elsewhere, and companies have, as a result, strengthened their leadership and restructured their operations to deliver even greater shareholder value.
Management, Classical Theory
Authors: Jelinek Mariann 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Early efforts to formalize principles to guide a growing class of professional managers at the end of the nineteenth century are termed classical management theory. Classical theory sought rationality and order in work through what they called “the one best way,” the most logical division of labor, appropriate structure to relate the activities thus divided (in terms of the variety of activities and the levels of supervision), the correct span of control for directing activities, and the proper allocation of responsibility to a designated authority.
Outsourcing
Authors: Puranam Phanish , Srikanth Kannan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Outsourcing is the transfer of responsibility for the execution of any of a company's recurring internal activities to another company. Outsourcing is not synonymous with offshoring. Outsourcing involves a change in “ownership” boundaries – that is, a vendor's employees now execute processes that were previously performed by the firm's employees. In contrast, offshoring involves the relocation of activities to a remote (often low wage) location, which could be delivered by the firm's own or another firm's employees. When a third party vendor's employees deliver a service from a remote location for a company, it is typically called “offshore outsourcing.”
Process Consultation
Authors: Zand Dale E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Process consultation posits that how something is done – process – determines the content, quality, and implementation of decisions. Process consultation consists of identifying, analyzing, and improving faulty processes to increase individual, group, or organization effectiveness, usually with the aid of a consultant. Many processes may be diagnosed as faulty and become targets of change. For example, communication patterns – who communicates with whom, about what, when, arousing what emotions, who is ignored, and who is interrupted. A group with a poor communication process will often have low quality, uncoordinated goals, and difficulty confronting emerging conflicts.
Other facets of process consultation include problem solving, goal setting, decision making, leadership style, trust development, conflict management, norms, interaction patterns, group cohesion, group growth, role conflict, power, influence, reward systems, intergroup competition, socialization, and culture. One can expect to find some process elements in almost every organizational change effort.
Increasing the client's process awareness and skills is a primary goal of process consultation; so he or she, with coworkers, can become less dependent on the consultant. Using a joint diagnosis model, the client participates in diagnosing process difficulties and learns to observe and solve its process problems. Process consulting depends on a voluntary relationship between client and consultant that develops a mutually trusting relationship to facilitate the client's process learning and increased self‐sufficiency.
Theory
X
and
Y
Authors: Bass Bernard M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Theory X and theory Y delineates management views regarding employees' orientation to work. Theory X views employees as lazy, not interested in doing a good job and having little interest in the organizations goals. Consequently, management must closely monitor employees' in order to ensure that the work is carried out. On the other hand, theory Y stipulates that employees' have a desire to do a good job and are interested in the organizational goals so much so that they want to be involved in organizational decision making and utilize their skills and responsibility in order to see it succeed. As a result, the task of management is to encourage growth, provide direction and create conditions associated with greater empowerment and decentralization.
Glass Ceiling/Glass Cliff
Authors: Kulich Clara 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe metaphor of theglass ceilingpoints to the discriminatory forces that limit women's access to top leadership positions. One of its major causes is that women are stereotypically ascribed feminine traits that are deemed inappropriate for a management context and thus lead to less favourable evaluations of women's performances and suitability as leaders.Despite these barriers, some women have broken through the glass ceiling and gained leading positions in corporations. However, discriminatory processes may again qualify these appointments. Ryan and Haslam demonstrated that UK female directors' appointments are more likely to happen in companies that underperformed in the past. The authors concluded that women's appointments are over‐represented in organizational contexts which expose them to a risk of failure – a fall off a glass cliff. A number of studies have since supported the idea that female appointments are the consequence of organizational and political failure. Various reasons have been evoked such as that organisations may appoint women in a crisis because they are viewed as having the ability of conflict‐solving, or that the exchange of a male for a female leader may be a strategic signal of change.
Presenteeism
Authors: Armstrong Claire 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Presenteeism is a term used to describe circumstances in which employees choose to come to work even though they are too sick, stressed, or distracted to be productive. Although presenteeism has only recently been recognized by organizations as a potential problem, it appears that it is a very significant cost that many organizations are still unaware of. It is estimated that presenteeism costs organizations approximately 1.8 times as much as absenteeism. It is usually measured in one of two ways; the number of episodes of the behavior or the costs associated with the behavior. It appears that the main way for the negative impacts of presenteeism to be counteracted is for employers to provide a healthy workplace to reduce illness among employees and to provide appropriate supports to employees when ill to minimize presenteeism.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: McWilliams Abagail 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Actions of firms that contribute to social welfare, beyond what is required for profit maximization, are classified as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The acceptance of CSR by business scholars and practitioners has a spotted history. While scholars debated the
legitimacy of CSR, consumers and investors developed clear preferences for socially responsible firms. Big corporations, in large part, responded positively, making CSR an important element of strategic management. The development of CSR from its controversial beginning to its current acceptance as a legitimate business function is outlined along with a discussion of the role of corporate social performance, socially responsible investing, and global corporate citizenship.
Corporate Venturing
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Corporate venturing occurs when a firm enters into shareholding or a joint agreement with another firm, which is usually smaller and in possession of specialist capabilities, such as innovative technology or management and marketing expertise. In this form of venture, nonfinancial firms provide capital for start‐up companies or the buying out of new operations. The combination of firms involved in corporate venturing varies from firms within the same group, independent firms, and syndicated investment groups with venture capital funds.
Corporate venturing follows both financial and strategic intentions to obtain nascent technological or commercial areas in which the firm is already present. It is an opportunity to obtain timely strategic access to cutting edge products and services. The benefit derived by the smaller innovative firm is the acquisition of supplementary capital, which will facilitate the consolidation of technological skill and marketing expertise.
Developing corporate ventures enables local and international corporations companies to expand their business operation without having to take full ownership of other companies. It is a route available for smaller firms to increase their growth rate beyond their current capabilities.
M‐form (Multidivisional Structure)
Authors: Smith Chris 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The multidivisional structure splits large companies into smaller semi‐autonomous businesses that focus on a particular product, process, and/or region. This structure enables the corporate group to focus on longer term strategic issues as the management team of the component businesses handle the day‐to‐day competitive pressures of their particular organization. While this structure is easier to manage (via financial measures) the internal competition for corporate resources that it engenders restricts sharing of knowledge and skills.
Psychological Foundations of Strategic Management
Authors: Healey Mark P. , Hodgkinson Gerard P. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The psychology of strategic management draws inspiration from the behavioral sciences to understand
why
firms act in particular ways. This approach draws attention to how managers' mental processes influence strategic action. Rather than assuming that strategizing is objectively or even intendedly rational, a psychological approach holds that strategy formulation and implementation are always exercised within the bounds of human cognitive limitations and that strategic action often reflects subjective perceptions, judgments, and goals as much as objective analysis or normatively valued choice.
Corporate Governance and Boards of Directors
Authors: McNulty Terry 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Corporate governance draws attention to a vast range of individuals and groups at all levels of economic and political activity, who are involved with and interested in matters of firm performance, market confidence, and the systemic legitimacy of capitalism. Corporate governance is a very broad topic with many national variations and intellectual perspectives. It is relevant to all kinds of organizations but it is mostly considered in relation to the ownership, control, and accountability of corporations. Since the early 1990's, the emergence and worldwide diffusion of Codes of Corporate Governance among nations and transnational institutions such as the World Bank and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has also highlighted the importance of corporate governance for the development of countries and their host firms. The financial crisis, the latest development in the recurrent crisis of corporate governance, has not only renewed attention to the efficacy of corporate governance mechanisms and reform, but also promises to reshape the corporate governance agenda and ideology going forward. While relations between managers, directors, boards, and shareholders will remain core to the subject these relations will be conducted within a context wherein issues such as: the balance of law versus self‐regulation; the belief in the primacy of (short‐term) shareholder value; the governance responsibilities of shareholders and financial intermediaries; the morality of executive pay and reward; the representativeness of boards; the relationship between the corporation and the rest of society, are all subject to renewed scrutiny.
Benchmarking
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Benchmarking is defined as the comparison of products, services, and processes across divisions that carry out similar operations in the same organization, among competing firms in the same industry, and among firms with similar processes across different industries. The purpose of benchmarking is to explore why and how organizations achieve higher levels of efficiency and to identify the methods and processes driving that performance. Benchmarking identifies an organizations' relative cost position and recognizes opportunities for improvement. Strategic advantage is achieved by concentrating on the competences required to upgrade to new performance levels. Benchmarking has its origins in engineering as part of process improvement programs. It is traced back to Xerox's efforts at the end of the last century, when it analyzed how Japanese firms could be selling products at a price lower than its own production costs. Organizations engage in benchmarking exercises that focus of the performance of strategic management, competitive strategy, financial management, products, services, core business process and functional processes. The most popular methods of analysis used in metric benchmarking are data envelope analysis (DEA) and regression analysis.
Investment Intensity
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Investment intensity and capital intensity are measures used interchangeably but are actually somewhat different. Capital intensity refers to the size of the fixed stock of capital in relation to sales or to total costs. Investment intensity is the change in capital stock in relation to the same denominators. The underlying concern is with capital productivity. Measuring it properly has conceptual and practical difficulties, but in many businesses it is more important than the more easily measured labor productivity. To obtain high capital productivity capital/investment intensive businesses rely heavily on their ability to make good capital investment decisions. The uncertainty inherent in these decisions and the forecasting errors that can be made, go some way to explaining why investment intensive businesses often appear to perform badly.
Strategy
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Strategy has always dealt with the future, usually a long‐term typically uncertain future, for which preparations have to be made, plans established, and actions taken together with provision for alternative actions should the future turn out to have unexpected characteristics. The word strategy itself derives from the Greek στρατηγoς (“strategos”) meaning leader, reflecting military roots where strategy is concerned with “the science and art of military command as applied to large‐scale combat operations.” Strategy is exemplified by seven characteristics namely, the future, risk, decision complexity, time and irreversibility, need for organization and coordination, unknowable consequences, and scale and importance.
Outsourcing
Authors: McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This occurs when a firm contracts with an outside organization for it to undertake specific activities which, historically, were undertaken by the firm itself. Historically, outsourcing resulted from major cost differentials between industrialized and developing countries resulting in the international transfer of industrial capacity, especially employment. More recent is the focus on strategic or transformational outsourcing where gains in quality as well as cost arise from the economies obtainable from knowledge specialization. This has resulted in major changes in the structure and behavior of very many of the world's largest corporations.
Strategic Fit
Authors: Channon Derek F. , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

A prime task of management is to keep the organization in a controlled balance against the multiple and diverse forces in the broader strategic context. The term
strategic fit
is used to indicate how a strategy needs to be “fitted” with its external context and how the internal organization needs to be properly meshed with the strategy. Related and derived concepts of fit include market‐related fit, operating fit, management fit, and financial fit. The essential intangible barrier to strategy imitation is strategic fit.
Time‐Based Competition
Authors: Dempsey Peter , Heard Edward , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Time‐based competition can be defined as the strategic advantage derived from making the order‐to‐delivery cycle more compact, efficient, and cost effective. This requires the redesign of processes, information, and decision flows from engineering, procurement, manufacturing, order cycles, distribution, and customer processes. Time‐based competition depends on the operational variables of responsiveness, cost and quality. Managing responsiveness would entail measuring the performance of various processing in terms of time. Companies that compress time out of their business cycle or pipeline understand that, throughout it, materials, direct labor, handling and transportation, interest, and overheads contribute to overall costs. Time compression management may mean deliberately taking longer on sensitive processes that determine a product's quality and the effect on customer satisfaction. Some approaches to shortening cycle times may have a negative impact on a company's competitive advantage. The relocation of multinational production firms has created supply chains with lengthier response times. Supply chains have encountered operational boundaries to time‐based competition, where the cost of rapid production and faster delivery is not always justified by the savings in inventory and the increase in sales revenues.
Strategy Cycle
Authors: John McGee 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The strategy cycle shows how the real economy of the firm (the creation of resources and capabilities and the positioning within product markets) interacts with the financial economy of the firm. The real economy of the firm, the creation of resources and capabilities, and the positioning within product markets interacts with the financial economy of the firm. This interaction can create the potential for a virtuous circle of advantage, profitability, and reinvestment, or a vicious spiral of disadvantage, loss‐making, and inability to reinvest.