bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Distribution of depth to ice-cemented soils in the high-elevation Quartermain Mountains, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica
Authors: Marinova Margarita M. , Mckay Christopher P. , Pollard Wayne H. , Heldmann Jennifer L. , Davila Alfonso F. , Andersen Dale T. , Jackson W. Andrew , Lacelle Denis , Paulsen Gale , Zacny Kris 
Published: February 2013

AbstractWe report on 475 measurements of depth to ice-cemented ground in four high-elevation valleys of the Quartermain Mountains, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. These valleys have pervasive ice-cemented ground, and the depth to ice-cemented ground and the ice composition may be indicators of climate change. In University Valley, the measured depth to ice-cemented ground ranges from 0–98 cm. There is an overall trend of increasing depth to ice-cemented ground with distance from a small glacier at the head of the valley, with a slope of 32 cm depth per kilometre along the valley floor. For Farnell Valley, the depth to ice-cemented ground is roughly constant (c. 30 cm) in the upper and central parts of the valley, but increases sharply as the valley descends into Beacon Valley. The two valleys north of University Valley also have extensive ice-cemented ground, with depths of 20–40 cm, but exhibit no clear patterns of ice depth with location. For all valleys there is a tendency for the variability in depth to ice-cemented ground at a site to increase with increasing depth to ice. Snow recurrence, solar insolation, and surface albedo may all be factors that cause site to site variations in these valleys.
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodinamics of psychotropic drugs: effect of sex
Authors: Marazziti Donatella , Baroni Stefano , Picchetti Michela , Piccinni Armando , Carlini Marina , Vatteroni Elena , Falaschi Valentina , Lombardi Amedeo , Dell'Osso Liliana 
Published: February 2013

Data on the specific effects of sex on pharmacokinetics, as well as tolerability, safety, and efficacy of psychotropic medications are still meager, mainly because only recently sex-related issues have attracted a certain degree of interest within the pharmacological domain. Therefore, with the present study, we aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the literature on this topic, through careful MEDLINE and PubMed searches of the years 1990–2012.Generally, data on pharmacokinetics are more consistent and numerous than those on pharmacodynamics. Sex-related differences have been reported for several parameters that influence pharmacokinetics, such as gastric acidity, intestinal motility, body weight and composition, blood volume, liver enzymes (mainly the cytochrome P450), or renal excretion, which may alter plasma drug levels. Sex-related peculiarities may also account for a different sensitivity of men and women to side effects and toxicity of psychotropic drugs. Further, some differences in drug response, mainly to antipsychotics and antidepressants, have been described.Further studies are, however, necessary to explore more thoroughly the impact of sex on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychotropic drugs, in order to reach the most appropriate and tailored prescription for each patient.
Kant on Nativism, Scepticism and Necessity
Authors: Callanan John 
Published: February 2013

AbstractKant criticizes the so-called ‘preformation’ hypothesis – a nativist account of the origin of the categories – at the end of the B-Deduction on the ground that it entails scepticism. I examine the historical context of Kant's criticism, and identify the targets as both Crusius and Leibniz. There are two claims argued for in this paper: first, that attending to the context of the opposition to certain forms of nativism affords a way of understanding Kant's commitment to the so-called ‘discursivity thesis’, by contrasting the possession conditions for the categories with those for innate ideas; secondly, it provides an insight with regard to Kant's understanding of the dialectic with scepticism. Kant's claim is that a certain explanatory lacuna that attaches to Humean empiricism can be seen to apply equally to any nativist theory. The lacuna concerns the explanation of the modal purport ofa priorinecessity, i.e. how it is that our consciousness can even distinguish contents that are representedasnecessary features of objects.
Kant on Radical Evil and the Origin of Moral Responsibility
Authors: McMullin Irene 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe notion of radical evil plays a more important role in Kant's moral theory than is typically recognized. In Religion Within the Limits of Mere Reason, radical evil is both an innate propensity and a morally imputable act – a paradoxical status that has prompted commentators to reject it as inconsistent with the rest of Kant's moral theory. In contrast, I argue that the notion of radical evil accounts for the beginning of moral responsibility in Kant's theory, since the act of attributing radical evil to one's freedom is an inauguration into the autonomous stance.
Transmission Electron Microscopy, Fluorescence Microscopy, and Confocal Raman Microscopic Analysis of Ultrastructural and Compositional Heterogeneity ofCornus albaL. Wood Cell Wall
Authors: Ma Jianfeng , Ji Zhe , Zhou Xia , Zhang Zhiheng , Xu Feng 
Published: February 2013

AbstractTransmission electron microscopy (TEM), fluorescence microscopy, and confocal Raman microscopy can be used to characterize ultrastructural and compositional heterogeneity of plant cell walls. In this study, TEM observations revealed the ultrastructural characterization ofCornus albaL. fiber, vessel, axial parenchyma, ray parenchyma, and pit membrane between cells, notably with the ray parenchyma consisting of two well-defined layers. Fluorescence microscopy evidenced that cell corner middle lamella was more lignified than adjacent compound middle lamella and secondary wall with variation in lignification level from cell to cell.In situRaman images showed that the inhomogeneity in cell wall components (cellulose and lignin) among different cells and within morphologically distinct cell wall layers. As the significant precursors of lignin biosynthesis, the pattern of coniferyl alcohol and aldehyde (joint abbreviation Lignin-CAA for both structures) distribution in fiber cell wall was also identified by Raman images, with higher concentration occurring in the fiber secondary wall where there was the highest cellulose concentration. Moreover, noteworthy was the observation that higher concentration of lignin and very minor amounts of cellulose were visualized in the pit membrane areas. These complementary microanalytical methods provide more accurate and complete information with regard to ultrastructural and compositional characterization of plant cell walls.
WEAK PROPER DISTRIBUTION OF VALUES OF MULTIPLICATIVE FUNCTIONS IN RESIDUE CLASSES
Authors: NARKIEWICZ WŁADYSŁAW 
Published: February 2013

AbstractFor a class of multiplicative integer-valued functions $f$ the distribution of the sequence $f(n)$ in restricted residue classes modulo $N$ is studied. We consider a property weaker than weak uniform distribution and study it for polynomial-like multiplicative functions, in particular for $\varphi (n)$ and $\sigma (n)$.
A corpus linguistic analysis of turn-openings in spoken academic discourse: Understanding discursive specialisation
Authors: Evison Jane 
Published: February 2013

AbstractRecent corpus linguistic (CL) investigations of academic discourse (both written and spoken) have tended to use easily excisable lexical items and/or grammatical forms to determine what is ‘special’ about the language of academia, and to compare and contrast particular disciplines or subjects with each other. This study takes a different approach to characterising academic talk – beginning with position rather than item. It is predicated on the well-established tenet that a considerable amount of discursive activity occurs in the extremely elastic and highly charged openings of turns, a position in the discourse that is the nexus of textual and interpersonal obligation, risk and potential. It therefore presents the results of the systematic analysis of the openings of 13,337 turns taken by tutors and students in a range of common pedagogic encounters in the humanities and social sciences. A set of ‘core’ turn-openers is then identified so that further detailed contextualised analysis can be carried out, which includes comparison with a benchmark corpus of casual conversation. The results suggest that academic speakers start their turns with recognisably conversational items that show subtle, but regularised, discursive specialisations related to their reflexive relationship with the academic encounters in which they are uttered and which they help to create.
Studying the State
Authors: Scheidel Walter 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter discusses the concept and various definitions of state. These include Max Weber's definition of the state as a specific type of political organization and his emphasis on regulation and coercion anchored in a distinct and differentiated organization, and John Haldon's opinion that a state is a set of institutions and personnel exerting authority over a territorially distinct area. The chapter argues that while existing theories variously privilege resource stress, state structure, and state size, actual outcomes are often seen as mediated by exogenous factors such as competitors and environmental factors.
Egypt
Authors: Manning Joseph G. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of, and the important factors that contributed to, state formation in ancient Egypt during the period from around 3500 BCE to the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty in 30 BCE. It explains that there are four major cycles of centralization and three cycles of crisis in Egyptian history, and that the account of both are often exaggerated. The chapter also discusses the three main trends in the understanding of the Egyptian state and the different models of state of formation.
Jewish States
Authors: Schwartz Seth 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of the formation of Jewish states, discussing the geography and phenomenology of the Jewish states, and the relation between ethnos and state. It highlights the incomplete consolidation of Judaism as the normative ideology of the Jews in the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods, describes the Hasmonean state under Herod, and identifies the factors that contributed to state formation.
Bronze Age Greece
Authors: Bennet John 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of state formation in ancient Greece during the Bronze Age, providing an overview of the nature of the Minoan states and the extent of control exercised by Mycenaean states. It describes the key features of the states in the Mycenaean period, which include state structure and organization, palatial centers, military organization, economic organization and administration, and systems of communication and representation.
The Roman Empire IIThe Monarchy
Authors: Bang Peter Fibiger 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the transformation of the Roman Empire from a republican to a monarchy system of government, explaining that the republican system was replaced because its political institutions were too small to manage the growing social power brought about by military expansionism. It discusses how the first emperor Augustus consolidated his monarchy by creating an institutional infrastructure that sought to regularize the retirement of the soldiery, and also considers the source of stability of the monarchy and the emergence of empire-wide aristocracy.
The Byzantine Successor State
Authors: Haldon John F. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of state formation in the Byzantine Empire, or the eastern Roman Empire, during the fourth century to the fifteenth century CE. It explains that the Byzantine successor state evolved out of Roman institutional arrangements structured as a hierarchy of administrative levels and that it was a complex bureaucracy which required a substantial degree of more-than-minimal clerical literacy for its day-to-day administration. The chapter also chronicles the growth of the town-based landlord elite or gentry that was associated with the economic expansion and growth of the period, and which had critical implications for state control over the distribution of resources.
The First Islamic Empire
Authors: Robinson Chase F. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of the establishment of the first Islamic Empire. It explains that the Arab Muslims took control of a culturally and religiously heterogeneous and geographically diverse area of Eurasia, from Iberia and North Africa in the west to Transoxiana and Sind in the east. The chapter highlights the role of religion in the formation of the Islamic state given that most Muslims believed that the conquests which preceded it were part of God's providential direction of human affairs. It discusses the achievements of the Islamic Empire and its successful experiment with pre-modern Mediterranean and Near Eastern imperialism.
Greece
Authors: Millett Paul C. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter assesses the Greek writing on the subject of warfare. The plausibility of Demosthenes' presentation of Philip's waging of war is also addressed. The issues of orality and performance had directly impacted almost all Greek authors concerned with warfare. The story of archaic poetry had indicated a spectrum of military engagement. It is noted that prosecutions arising out of military offences and death in battle have a relatively high profile in the Orators, and that warfare naturally has a major role in the process of growth and decline. The fullest reflection of Thucydides on the implications of war had combined material with psychological considerations. Xenophon's experience with the Athenian cavalry had been directly reflected in his Hipparchios or “The Duties of a Cavalry Commander,” and in Peri hippikes or “On Horsemanship.”
The Archaeology of War
Authors: James Simon 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter concentrates on the contribution of archaeology to understanding aspects of ancient warfare, archaeological methodology, and its achievements and problems in the context of explaining how men fought and armies were organized in the ancient world. A central aspect of archaeological evidence—arms and armor—is dealt with. Roman Europe has acquired the most extensive and intensively explored archaeological data for ancient campaigns, conquests, and military occupation. The data may sometimes build year-by-year campaign maps, but most often they demonstrate the shape of conflicts, conquests, and military occupations. Roman martial culture, and especially the archaeology of arms and dress, reveals how intimately associated Roman soldiers were with the peoples against whom they fought. Moreover, it is noted that archaeology is important for evaluating the martial culture of the antagonists of Greco-Roman societies.
The Classical Greek Experience
Authors: Lee John W. I. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter introduces the diverse troops, equipment, formations, and tactics that characterized the period from about 500–350 BC, exploring non-Greek as well as Greek military forces. Moreover, the battle mechanics and the experience of battle are analyzed. The chapter then suggests some possible fruitful directions for future research. Most Greek cavalry was been lightly armed and preferred to fight from a distance using javelins or bows. The victories of Greek hoplites in the Persian Wars resulted in massed heavy infantry combat and the exclusion of non-hoplites from the phalanx. Greek commanders exercised combined arms battles during and after the Peloponnesian War. The study of classical battles might greatly profit from archaeological reconstruction of arms and armor, and from practical experiments performed under controlled scholarly conditions.
The Hellenistic World at War
Authors: Serrati John 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter describes the effects of warfare in the Hellenistic period, which influenced nearly every aspect of life for people living in the Greek East at the time. The phalanx remained the basic unit of the Hellenistic army. The Hellenistic world saw a proliferation of technical manuals concerning the art of war. The composition of armies included infantry, cavalry, auxiliary forces, siege warfare, and navies. The Macedonian cavalry was the main striking arm of the combined force. Cavalry in the Hellenistic world were organized largely as in Alexander's day. Hellenistic siege warfare featured its share of exotic weapons. It is shown that the sea became a venue for battle. There was a marked shift in the composition of both navies and armies during the Hellenistic period.
War at Sea
Authors: de Souza Philip 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter presents a description of ancient naval warfare. Ship-to-ship combat was neither the primary purpose of ancient war fleets, nor the typical manifestation of ancient naval warfare. The Greeks had built ships that were planned for raiding or warfare by the end of the eighth century BC. Naval powers developed sophisticated ship-to-ship combat tactics that made the most of their vessels, their sailing skills, and their fighting men. The men who rowed ancient warships were expected to participate in fighting on land as light-armed troops, engaging in raids and skirmishes, building siege works, and supporting the legions of heavy infantry. Tacitus, who provides an insight into the value of a fleet as a strike force, makes the threat posed to barbarian liberty by the extent of Roman naval power a feature of his stirring speech on Roman imperialism.
Arming Greeks for Battle
Authors: Jarva Eero 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter explores the Greek armored infantrymen and the weapons they carried. The hoplite shield is called Argive. The Boeotian is a shield that appears on seventh- and sixth-century BC vase paintings and on Boeotian coins. Xenophon's ideal helmet was a hat-like helmet. Many vase paintings indicate that the corslets represented in them were built by cutting them from a sheet. Armoring of the limbs was restricted to the use of greaves and ankle guards. The principal weapon of soldiers for centuries has been the thrusting spear. There should be a metal reinforcement in the butt end of the thrusting spear and its head weight varies from ca 0.12 to 0.95 kg. Victory on the battlefield had necessitated effective weapons and armor. The depth of a formation could impose psychological pressure on opponents, while shield blazons presented terrifying, apotropaic warnings.
Greeks Under Siege
Authors: Chaniotis Angelos 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter deals with the significance of siege, not primarily as a phenomenon of ancient military tactics and warfare, but of cultural and social history, concentrating on the challenges it presented for political and military leaders, technological innovators, and authors seeking to instruct and to please. Sieges were common in Greek warfare. Many had no impact on the entire city but only the fortified citadel or the fort of a garrison. They have also constituted a challenge for the emotions of men and women, mortals and gods, those who experienced them, and those who found pleasure in writing or reading narratives about them. The contribution of scientists to the art of siege is considered. The advance of the “art of siege” and the dramatic improvement of fortifications went hand in hand with the introduction of a new genre of technical literature.
Finding the Enemy
Authors: Russell Frank 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter analyzes tactical intelligence, following a division by posture: offensive and mobile, and defensive or localized. There was an increase in the use of vanguards among the Greeks after the fourth century BC and among the Romans in the first. Cavalry widely used in this role. The role of reconnaissance in border security is then evaluated. It is noted that the speculatores who accompanied the legions left the field for the office sometime in the first century AD. Greek military intelligence never became professionalized, and did not ponder the sophistication of the prototypical organizations fielded by the tyrants of Cyprus and Sicily in the fourth century. Professionalism and unit identification in intelligence came neither to the poleis nor the kingdoms of Classical or Hellenistic Greece, and came finally to the Romans at least a century after they had pervaded the legions.
Greek Rituals of War
Authors: Tompkins Daniel P. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter examines the Greek military ritual of war. It evaluates the recent interpretations of military ritual, indicating that the term “ritual” in the present day has taken on so many connotations as to reduce its analytic utility, and that the claim that rituals promote “social cohesion” requires careful review. Lunar festivals deeply affected Greek military behavior. Booty from war was traditionally tithed. The burial ritual followed elaborate rules for prothesis, lying in state; ekphora, carrying out to burial, and a feast. The Carneia festival and the temple of Phobos, “Panic Fear,” is then explained. The data presented reveal that the “ritual” offers a useful but often imprecise tool for understanding military behavior. It may be worthwhile to seek a finer-grained understanding of the link between the “rituals” of ancient warfare and “social cohesion.”
Greeks and Achaemenid Persians
Authors: Laforse Bruce 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter addresses the battle against Achaemenid Persians. Shortly before the fateful battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus the Younger told his Greek officers why they fought and how their lives would improve if they should defeat the army of his brother, Artaxerxes II. Cyrus framed his speech entirely in terms of the Greek/Barbarian dichotomy. The chapter also shows how key aspects of the Greek/Barbarian dichotomy developed. The poetry from Homer until the Persian Wars contains only hints of the Greek/Barbarian stereotypes. In the Persae, Aeschylus presents the victorious Greeks as free men, collectively fighting in disciplined well-organized fashion, their numbers and resources comparatively modest. To many Greeks, Persia was the enemy against whom it was in the best interests of all Greeks to set aside internal differences and unite.
The Peloponnesian War and Its Sieges
Authors: Seaman Michael 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter discusses the sieges of cities, wanton plunder, and massacres in the period of the Peloponnesian War, which contributed more misery to the Greeks than all previous wars and saw an increase in the number of cities taken and Greeks killed or exiled. It can often be seen in Greek siege warfare that a city surrendered after internal ideological strife brought about a betrayal of the town. The Greeks experienced a dramatic rise in the number of sieges during the Peloponnesian War, but sieges and the atrocities that often accompanied them were experienced by Greek poleis before the Peloponnesian War and long before the late fifth century BC. They made assaults on cities throughout the Peloponnesian War.