bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Logistics
Authors: Engels Donald 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the basic literature on ancient logistics, and addresses the important limitations of the ancient overland transport of food and water. It then explores the responses of military commanders, especially Alexander the Great, to these limitations. Two actual cases are covered, where terrain, climate, weather, troop numbers, the capabilities of land, sea, and river transport had impacted the overall strategy. The first case considers Alexander the Great's crossing of the Gedrosian Desert in southern Pakistan and Iran, and the second looks at the logistic considerations that affected the establishment of the Roman frontier along the Rhine River in Germany. The total numbers of men, pack animals, cavalry horses, and followers are the most significant factor influencing an army's logistic capability. The maintenance of the safety of the army's food supplies and the health of the troops has been vital for any competent commander.
Arming Romans for Battle
Authors: Campbell Duncan B. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter reports on the understanding on Roman armor, specifically discussing the development of Roman arms and armor. Archaeology offers actual examples of Roman arms and armor. Polybius describes a shield that was conventionally known as the scutum and which is possibly the same item as the beautifully preserved oblong shield discovered at Kasr al-Harit. The Roman soldier often utilized the shield's protruding boss (umbo) as a supplementary weapon. The pilum was designed to bend on impact. The pectorale was a well-established feature of Italian armor. Cavalry helmets are believed to have differed from infantry versions, again owing to the peculiarities of cavalry fighting. It is noted that the distinction between citizen legionaries and peregrine auxiliaries ended with Caracalla's universal granting of Roman citizenship.
Epaminondas at Leuctra, 371 b.c.
Authors: Buckler John 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter addresses the time of Theban general Epaminondas at Leuctra, specifically reviewing his battle in Leuctra. Leuctra in 371 BC was established as one of the most dramatic and decisive battles of the period. Under the leadership of Epaminondas, the Thebans judged the peace to be nothing more than a legal pretext for renewed war. The novel and totally unexpected arrangement of Epaminondas's army is shown. His stunning victory at Leuctra was due to his combination of seven military dispositions, and his preparation of cavalry casts striking light on an important aspect of the battle and on Xenophon's duplicitous account of the battle itself. In conclusion, Epaminondas's designs at Leuctra combied the traditional and the novel as never before. Thus, no one can or should claim that everything he did was original.
Demetrius “the Besieger” and Hellenistic Warfare
Authors: Martin Thomas R. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter describes the ideas of Demetrius Poliorcetes on Hellenistic warfare, specifically taking the conventional position that Hellenistic warfare designates warfare as conducted and conceptualized in the aftermath of the lifetime of Alexander the Great. It also presents the salient events in Demetrius's riches-to-rags history as a commander, king, and god. His career contributes several examples of the momentous scale that Hellenistic battles could attain and also provides evidence for the propensity for large-scale battles to occur in Hellenistic warfare. In addition, it offers notable data for changes in the possible political and religious meanings of war. It is shown that over the long term, the divinization of a living human being who promised liberation was the most enduring and most consequential result of the changes in the meanings of war in the Hellenistic period.
The Second Punic War
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter discusses the first world war of the ancient Mediterranean: the Second Punic War. It was fought on two continents from Spain and Africa to the Aegean, and was marked by the generalship of the initially victorious Hannibal and the ultimately victorious Scipio Africanus. The war shows that Punic military strength still matched Rome's. Hannibal successfully employed all the elements of an ancient army, and was not only an attractive and successful leader but a careful one. The Romans' solution to his tactics was to avoid battle entirely, instead shadowing his army as it marched and meanwhile molesting his Italian allies or Hanno's secondary force. Since Punic armies were comprised of non-Carthaginian conscripts and mercenaries, and Punic fleets seldom opposed big battles, manpower losses fell largely on Libyans, Spaniards, Gauls and others. In general, the high quality of agriculture in Punic North Africa impressed the Romans.
Media Literacy: History, Progress, and Future Hopes
Authors: Arke Edward T. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter aims to introduce the subdiscipline of media literacy through the examination of the genre’s history, current challenges, and possible future directions. With roots dating back to the late 1920s, the idea of educating consumers about the content and production methods of media messages has been attempted in a number of ways and venues. With media consumption a large part of most people’s leisure time, the need to get individuals to more critically engage the messages continues to be an important educational objective. The largest challenge, however, is the lack of government support for such an initiative coupled with an apparent lack of awareness on the part of most people. What needs to occur is a more organized and systematic approach for the inclusion of media literacy instruction in secondary and higher education.
Media Violence, Desensitization, and Psychological Engagement
Authors: Brockmyer Jeanne Funk 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter presents a framework for understanding desensitization to violence as an outcome of exposure to media violence. The term desensitization is defined, and behavioral and psychophysiological research documenting this phenomenon are presented. Aspects of moral evaluation, including empathy and attitudes toward violence, are discussed as proxy measures of desensitization. An individual’s propensity to become deeply involved in media experiences is proposed as one factor that increases the relative risk of desensitization. The term psychological engagement is recommended as an umbrella term for all levels of media involvement. Terms describing the progression of intensity of engagement, including immersion, presence, flow, and psychological absorption are discussed. Future research must be built on definitional consensus in this area. Psychophysiological and behavioral research will be complementary in elucidating the neural and psychological processes that underlie the desensitization process. The role of desensitization in increasing aggression and decreasing helping behavior requires additional study.
Race, Ethnicity, and the Media
Authors: Behm-Morawitz Elizabeth , Ortiz Michelle 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter charts the historical development as well as key findings of media psychology research examining the representations of racial/ethnic minorities in the media and the subsequent effects of exposure to these portrayals. A special effort is made by the authors to document the perspectives used to date to understand such effects, as well as to draw on psychology research that has yet to be applied in this domain. Additionally, suggestions are made for advancing this research both theoretically and methodologically and in light of the new media environment.
Active Video Games: Impacts and Research
Authors: Chamberlin Barbara , Maloney Ann 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Exergames, or games that encourage physical activity, have several documented benefits for users, including increase of daily physical activity, and the potential for game players to reach moderate and even vigorous levels of activity. In addition to physiological impacts, exergames can affect social and psychosocial attributes, such as interest in exergaming, adherence, and motivation. Although research on this new field is in the early stages, this chapter summarizes research findings, giving particular attention to exergaming’s potential in medical, school, and community programs. Based on that research and on their own experience in working with exergames users, the authors share recommendations on best uses of exergames, design guidelines for exergame developers, and areas for future research.
Media Psychophysiology: The Brain and Beyond
Authors: Bartholow Bruce D. , Bolls Paul 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of the effects of consuming media content spanning entertainment, news, and advertising—content that is increasingly delivered over a wide range of technological platforms (e.g., computers, televisions, smart phones)—on the psychophysiological responses of media audiences, focusing in particular on how media content affects neural responses and the ways in which those neural responses act as biological mechanisms of psychological and behavioral responses. The chapter highlights the psychophysiological approach to studying how individuals interact with media, and provides a theoretically and methodologically rich environment for advancing the scientific study of how all forms of mediated experience influence thoughts, feelings, and actions. The chapter focuses in particular on how the media psychophysiology approach has been applied to understanding media violence and persuasion, underscoring the ways in which this approach has provided a way to address questions of long-standing interest to scholars in the field.
Ideology, Culture, and the Cold War
Authors: Shibusawa Naoko 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the issues of culture and ideology during the Cold War. It discusses the ongoing process of reproducing hegemonic knowledge and shows how modernity inflected Cold War policies, and continues to do so in our contemporary moment. The chapter contends that the staying power of ideologies is derived from their personification into binary, anthropomorphic figures, and that this is how an entire country could be depicted and acted upon as if it were a singular, developing human being. It also considers the issues concerning readiness for self-rule and the development of American exceptionalism.
Geopolitics and the Cold War
Authors: Warner Geoffrey 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the geopolitical aspect of the Cold War. It discusses the origin of the term “geopolitics,” and investigates how and why relations between the United States and the Soviet Union deteriorated so rapidly after the World War 2. The chapter highlights the incompatibilities between the ideologies of the two superpowers, and explains that communism and free-market capitalism are polar opposites. It also argues against the claims about the extent to which the Cold War was based on ideological as opposed to geopolitical factors that persisted throughout the conflict.
The Cold War in Southeast Asia
Authors: Guan Ang Cheng 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the history of the Cold War in Southeast Asia. It explains that the onset of the Cold War coincided with nationalist struggles and decolonization, and explains why Southeast Asians should appreciate that the Cold War is a historical event which has significantly affected the development of their countries, particularly in terms of the role of the Cold War in shaping the political development of the nation-states and interstate relations in the region, and the growing interest in rewriting the history of the Cold War.
Cold War Strategies/Power and Culture—East
Authors: Zubok Vladislav 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the root motives behind the Soviet struggle against the West and the paradigm of Soviet international behavior related to the Cold War. It suggests that decolonization contributed to the Cold War because the decline of European colonial empires in the 1950s created irresistible temptations for Soviet leaders to intervene in parts of the globe previously beyond their reach. The chapter also suggests that the Soviet Cold War consensus began to crumble when the key tenets of the revolutionary-imperial paradigm became suspect in the 1960s and 1970s. These tenets held that the West was determined to destroy the Soviet Union and its “socialist empire” by force.
The Military
Authors: Stone David 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the military history of the Cold War. It explains that most military activities during this period were focused on apocalyptic nuclear war which never came and that the military aspects of the Cold War contributed to its end. The chapter suggests that while the military side of the Cold War did play a major role in ending the Cold War, it was not because of the policies of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, for there is little evidence that they were intended to produce moderation in Soviet leadership. It argues that reforms initiated by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev came from the realization of the decay of Soviet military superiority and the increasing economic burden of defense spending.
Trade, Aid, and Economic Warfare
Authors: Spaulding Robert Mark 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter, which examines the relation among trade, foreign aid, and economic warfare and their role in the Cold War, suggests that these three economic activities are intertwined and explains that subsidized trade with client states is a form of aid while embargoed trade is a type of economic warfare. It argues that trade, aid, and economic warfare co-determined the outcome of the cold war struggle, and that Cold War economic competition and the failures and successes of the rival states paved the way for a new wave of globalization which began in the 1980s and expanded after 1989. The chapter also considers several key developments of the Cold War period that are important components of contemporary globalization.
Human Rights
Authors: Keys Barbara , Burke Roland 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the status and conception of human rights during the Cold War. It suggests that attempts to define, codify, and protect human rights during the Cold War consisted of a series of discontinuities, intersections, and appropriations in which the area of contestation was the scope and content of the term itself. The chapter also discusses how the Cold War influenced different human rights projects, and explains how the eagerness of both the East and West to use human rights issues to wage the conflict raised the profile of human rights.
Race and the Cold War
Authors: Plummer Brenda Gayle 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the issue of race during the Cold War. It contends that racism was part of a Cold War framework in which states marshaled ideological and political resources against the threat of dissolution and subversion from within as well as from without. The chapter suggests that racial consciousness served a dual purpose during the Cold War years. It explains that proponents of racial equality used democratic ideology to argue for the abandonment of all forms of discrimination while proponents of segregation used the Cold War to argue that altering time-honored usages endangered national security.
Introduction
Authors: Dorff Elliot N. , Crane Jonathan K. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins by explaining the rationale behind the study of Jewish ethics and how it differs from “regular” ethics. It then presents an overview of the two parts of this Handbook, the first of which traces the development of Jewish thinking from the Bible to modern times. The chapter demonstrates that throughout history, Jews have been embedded in a larger Western context and influenced by the ethical thought of non-Jews. The second part treats various moral issues, indicating the range of approaches, where available, within the Jewish tradition and community. Finally, the chapter discusses the relationships of Jewish ethics to secular ethical theories and practice, and outlines classical sources for Jewish ethics.
Ethical Theory and Practice in the Hebrew Bible
Authors: Goodfriend Elaine Adler 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter reviews ethical concepts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). Fear of God (yir'at Elohim) is perhaps the most pervasive and powerful notion inspiring social concern and behaviour. The Bible contains multiple ways to motivate people to do what is right and good—ways that are championed by later contributors to Jewish ethical theories. The chapter discusses motivations for ethical behaviour in the Torah; the prophets' views on ethics; works within the “Writings” (Ketuvim) section of the Hebrew Bible; outlooks on human nature and free will; and universal standards for ethical behaviour.
Ethical Theories in Rabbinic Literature
Authors: Fonrobert Charlotte Elisheva 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter first sets out the difficulties in studying the sources for Jewish ethics in classical rabbinic literature. Not only do rabbinic texts lack the very notion of ethics, they also emerge from different terrains and times and perforce bespeak different moral conclusions if not presumptions on how to reach those positions. However, one exception is texts classified as rabbinic “ethical” literature, which include 'Avot or Pirkei 'Avot and its companion text(s), Avot de-Rabbi Natan. The discussion then turns to the relationship between law and ethics in rabbinic literature; ethical limits to halakhah in rabbinic literature; and issues of universality and particularity in rabbinic literature.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Sinclair Daniel B. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter discusses end of life issues, first describing how the Jewish tradition views the stages of the end of life and how the categories it uses are interpreted differently by Orthodox and Conservative rabbis. It then discusses the degree to which patients have autonomy to decide for themselves what treatments they will accept or reject, including the question of withholding or withdrawing medications, machines, artificial nutrition and hydration, and even the question of killing a terminally ill patient in order to save a viable life. The chapter concludes with a description of the new law in Israel that governs the treatment of patients at the end of life.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Mackler Aaron L. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter discusses the distribution of health care, an issue that has become particularly urgent and controversial in recent years because the median age of populations in most English-speaking countries age has risen, so more people need more extensive medical care. This is happening, though, just, as medical science produces new but often expensive interventions that people come to expect, and, as a result of these factors and others, health care costs have risen dramatically. The chapter considers the Jewish principles that might guide the discussion of who gets what in medical care, and who pays for it.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Zoloth Laurie 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter explores one of the most important new frontiers in medicine—namely, the new genetics—addressing the issues of identity and free will that genetics raises in new ways. It then uses the case of a woman with “the breast cancer gene” as an example of how genetic testing poses excruciating, new questions to the women affected and their families. Aside from the practical questions of what to do when faced with such a diagnosis, does this and the other Ashkenazi Jewish genetic diseases serve as a basis for the “discrimination, stigmatization, and marginalization” of Jews generally? Should Jews and others think of Jews as a “sick” people? For Jews, of course, such discussion of eugenics has a painful past in both the United States and in Nazi Germany. This is complicated yet further by the fact that in some cases, as with the breast cancer gene, the presence of the gene does not guarantee that the woman will have cancer but only adds to the probability of that happening. What, then, if anything, should be done with such a diagnosis? Furthermore, the availability of pre-natal testing for genetic diseases could easily create expectations in the future that families with a history of a particular genetic disease be tested for it, and if they bear a child with the disease, they may be seen as morally delinquent to both the child and society. The analysis brings Jewish concepts and values to bear on these questions.
Variationist Sociolinguistics
Authors: Bayley Robert 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe central ideas of variationist sociolinguistics are that an understanding of language requires an understanding of variable as well as categorical processes, and that the variation witnessed at all levels of language is not random. Rather, linguistic variation is characterized by orderly or “structured heterogeneity.” In addition, synchronic variation is often a reflection of diachronic change. This chapter reviews representative studies and outlines the main assumptions underlying the variationist approach. It presents an example of variationist analysis, using the well-known case of variation between Spanish null and overt subject personal pronouns. Then, the chapter considers a number of relatively recent developments in variationist sociolinguistics including the expansion of the variationist paradigm into new areas such as second-language acquisition and sign linguistics, as well as recent work that combines ethnographic observation and quantitative analysis.
Conversation Analysis
Authors: Seedhouse Paul 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe history of the development of ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis (CA) may be found in Heritage (1984). The principal originator of CA was Harvey Sacks. His most important idea was that there is “order at all points” in interaction—that talk in interaction is systematically organized, and deeply ordered and methodical. This chapter explains why CA methodology proceeds as it does and why it is a suitable methodology for sociolinguists to use. The applicability of CA to sociolinguistics is limited to the study of naturally occurring spoken interaction. Its perspective on interaction, as social action that is expressed by means of linguistic forms in a developing sequence, is in general very compatible with sociolinguistic approaches. Its current stage of growth is marked by linguistic and cultural diversity, and by multimodality.
Language Maintenance and Shift
Authors: Potowski Kim 
Published: February 2013

AbstractLanguage shift is the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialization within a community. In an effort to understand the factors that contribute to language shift and those which seem to militate against it, this chapter explores several immigrant and non-immigrant contexts around the world, with particular focus on the United States. The principal factors—divided into individual, family, community, and broader societal factors—are often interdependent. The discussion also notes the basic tenet emphasized by Fishman (1991) that language maintenance must involve intergenerational transmission of the language. If intergenerational transmission of a language ceases, it can be said that the speakers have shifted to another language. Many of the world’s 6000 to 7000 languages are being lost—by some estimates, up to half of them—mostly due to the spread of a few dominant languages, which many speakers are shifting to.