bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
SOCIAL CONFORMITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION1
Authors: Witkin Herman A. , Price‐Williams Douglass , Bertini Mario , Christiansen Björn , Oltman Philip K. , Ramirez Manuel , van Meel Jacques 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study examined the role of socialization experiences in the development of psychological differentiation. In each of three countries (Holland, Italy, Mexico) two villages were selected as presenting a contrasting picture with regard to degree of emphasis on conformity to family, religious and political authority. It was hypothesized that within the pair of villages in each country children from the village which stressed social conformity would tend to be more field dependent and show other signs of less developed differentiation than children from the village in which social conformity was less emphasized. In each of the six villages approximately 100 children (boys and girls, aged 9‐11 and 13‐15) were studied. Differentiation was assessed by a battery of tests of field‐dependence‐independence and the figure‐drawing test. In every comparison of mean test scores between pairs of villages, in each of the three countries, children from the village in which social conformity was stressed obtained scores reflecting less differentiated functioning. Village differences were significant for every measure of differentiation in all three countries. Additional analyses of the data from the tests of differentiation and other tests used yielded results essentially consistent with findings from previous studies.
AGE CHANGES IN SIZE‐VALUE PHENOMENA*
Authors: Baker A. Harvey , Rierdan Jill , Wapner Seymour 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAlthough replicable size‐value phenomena have been observed, no consensus obtains regarding their explanation. Toward assessing the tenability of contending formulations, subclasses of size‐value phenomena were defined, ontogenetic predictions for these subclasses were extrapolated from three different formulations, and these different predictions were tested in two ontogenetic studies. The findings support an explanation of sire‐value phenomena in terms of the role of schemata.
EPISTEMIC STYLES, INDIVIDUALITY, AND WORLD‐VIEW12
Authors: Royce Joseph R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIndividual epistemic styles (i.e., ways of knowing) of rationalism, empiricism, and metaphorism are seen as higher order personality integrators which are the primary determinants of individual differences in world‐view. More specifically, variations in epistemic style hierarchies and their corresponding cognitive profiles reflect variations in cognitive (i.e., both abilities and styles) strengths and weaknesses. If rationalism, for example, is dominant in the hierarchy, this means the resulting world‐view is based on an essentially thinking cognitive structure. Similarly, if we are considering a case of ultra‐empiricism or metaphorism we have examples of perceptual or symbolic dominance respectively. This means the resulting world‐view is based primarily on the processes of perceiving or symbolizing, even though some cognitions of the total set emerge from the processes of thinking as well. Thus, all world‐views are encapsulated (i.e., less than the totality of reality). The precise form encapsulation takes depends primarily upon one's psycho‐epistemological profile.
INFANT INTELLIGENCE TESTS: THEIR USE AND MISUSE1
Authors: Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTData from a variety of infant intelligence test scores make clear that it is not possible to consider (1) that infant intelligence is a measurable, stable and unitary construct, (2) that there is a general g factor easily discernible in infancy, (3) that there is stability of scores both within and across scales, or (4) that there is predictability across age. These facts are discussed for their implications for models of intelligence, the use of intelligence tests in infancy, and finally intervention programs. It is concluded that the implicit model of general intelligence rests upon its function for society rather than its scientific merit. An alternative model of infant development is offered which is related to the acquisition of specific skills, the learning of which is dependent upon the match between the subject and the nature of the learning experience.
STIMULUS INTENSITY MODULATION: A PERCEPTUAL‐COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LIFE STYLE IN THE ELDERLY1
Authors: Mishara Brian L. , Baker A. Harvey 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGerontological research and theory have largely ignored individual differences and been remarkably unconcerned about the possibility that individuality in processes reflected in perceptual‐cognitive style may mediate differences in important domains of attitudes and behaviors in the elderly. It was here hypothesized that various aspects of life‐style (including engagement) reflect the postulated dimension of modulation (i.e., augmenting vs. reducing) of stimulus intensity. Using the Kinesthetic Aftereffects (KAE) task as the index of stimulus intensity modulation (SIM), a consistent pattern of significant relationships was found between KAE and varied aspects of life style, including the behaviors studied by Engagement Theorists. These findings support the formulation that in the elderly, SIM, as indexed by KAE, can predict individual differences in various aspects of life style. Implications for aging, and the construct of “engagement,” are discussed.
SELECTING THE “BEST” REGRESSION WHEN FACED WITH MISSING OBSERVATIONS
Authors: Rubin Donald B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe sample multiple correlation coefficient is often used to select a subset of independent variables that “best” predicts a dependent variable, Y. If the data are partially missing, the choice of best predictors often should reflect not only how correlated the predictors are with Y but also how likely they are to be observed. Thus, an independent variable that is highly correlated with Y but also is difficult to record (i.e., is often missing) may not be as useful a predictor of Y as a less correlated but easily recorded independent variable. A generalization of the multiple correlation coefficient is defined which is appropriate when there are missing values but is identical to the multiple correlation coefficient when there are no missing values. An example of its use is presented.
FACULTY ACCEPTANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: ATTITUDES TOWARD EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES AND COMPUTER‐ASSISTED INSTRUCTION AT COMMUNITY COLLEGES
Authors: Alderman Donald L. , Mahler William A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTeacher resistance is often cited as a primary reason behind schools' reluctance to adopt instructional technology. This study concerns faculty beliefs about educational practices and attitudes toward computer‐assisted instruction at community colleges. The major dimensions of such beliefs and attitudes, as well as faculty comments and responses to specific questions, help in understanding school acceptance of instructional technology. Completed surveys from approximately 300 faculty members at six colleges indicated current opinions about educational practices and provided a baseline of initial attitudes toward CAI.
THE REACTIVE EFFECTS OF NEGOTIATING DETOURS: COGNITIVE STRESS AND THE RESTRUCTURING OF MENTAL MAPS
Authors: Ryan Michael P. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA spatial analogue of a dissonance manipulation was used to test the claim that the mere acquisition of incongruent data produces cognitive reorganization. Undergraduates ranked distances among 13 campus landmarks before and after detouring around an imaginary barrier on embedding new landmarks in their mental maps. Scaling procedures revealed that barrier detours generated structural distortions of existing cognitive maps whereas landmark substitutions did not. The detour transformation produced systematic biases in subjects' postmanipulation maps; the substitution transformation was completely nonreactive. It is concluded that mental acts which create momentary distortions of cognitive structure can permanently reshape one's internal representations.
PREDICTION OF COLLEGE ACHIEVEMENT AMONG MEXICAN‐AMERICAN STUDENTS IN CALIFORNIA
Authors: Warren Jonathan R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTEquations for the prediction of college grades from test scores and high school grades were compared for Mexican‐Americans and other students at three universities of the California State University and Colleges system. With rare exceptions, regression equations for the prediction of grades for Mexican‐Americans did not differ from those for other students at the freshman, sophomore, or junior level. The prediction of senior year grades did require different equations for Mexican‐Americans, but the direction of the difference was reversed at the two universities involved. The need for separate prediction equations for Mexican‐American applicants to college is not supported. Nevertheless, the modest size of the multiple correlation coefficients, usually in the range from .30 to .50, suggests that considerations other than test scores and prior grades should enter admission decisions. The few comparisons across universities did not indicate a need for different equations for different institutions, but a difference in grade distributions at the two institutions compared suggests that the question be examined again with more substantial data. Men and women differed in their prediction equations, although neither sex was consistently over‐nor underpredicted. Men, however, almost invariably showed higher test scores and lower grades at all levels than did women.
COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE IN THE 12‐WEEK‐OLD INFANT: THE EFFECTS OF BIRTH ORDER, BIRTH SPACING, SEX, AND SOCIAL CLASS
Authors: Lewis Michael , Gallas Howard 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwelve‐week‐old infants were given a battery of perceptual‐cognitive tasks. These tasks included the Corman‐Escalona Scales of Object Permanence, the Mental Development Index of the Bayley Scales, and an attention task measuring habituation and dishabituation. The data failed to show any sex or social class differences, although the MDI was affected by birth order with first borns showing superior performance. In general these three measures of perceptual‐cognitive ability were unrelated. These data are used to question the notion of a “g” factor in infancy and therefore the usefulness of a test of infant intelligence.
THE SIGI PREDICTION SYSTEM: PREDICTING COLLEGE GRADES WITH AND WITHOUT TESTS
Authors: Norris Lila 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper gives an example of how to predict college grades in the absence of tests. It describes components of the prediction system which is one section of the computer‐based System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI). Students who use the SIGI prediction system are provided with detailed criterion information and then asked to rate themselves on “achievement factors” and give estimates of their performance. These ratings and estimates, as well as self‐reported high school record and biographical data, are used as predictors in a regression analysis.Predictive validities for final grades in four courses at Illinois State University were examined. Since students at ISU are required to take ACT, separate analyses were run using SIGI variables, ACT scores, and SIGI plus ACT. Consistent findings were found across the four courses: (1) multiple R's, using two or three SIGI variables, are quite high, falling in the range of .45 to .66,(2) SIGI variables afford a higher level of prediction than do ACT scores, and(3) the addition of ACT scores to SIGI variables does not appreciably improve the prediction levels.
VERBAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY OF HIGH SCHOOL JUNIORS IN 1974: A NORMS STUDY OF PSAT/NMSQT
Authors: Jackson Rex , Schrader William B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study was undertaken to obtain current information on the performance of a national sample of all high school juniors on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT). The distributions of scores for such a sample are useful in score interpretation because they make it possible to find a student's relative standing in a suitable reference group. Beginning in 1960, results of similar surveys have been used to prepare national norms for the PSAT and SAT. Because the students taking these tests are self‐selected with respect to ability, national norms based on all students provide a useful supplement to descriptive statistics based on test candidate groups. The steady decline of SAT scores beginning in 1963–64 suggested the need for new data to replace those obtained from a similar study conducted in 1966.The sample design for this study was similar to that used in the surveys conducted in 1960 and 1966. Provision was made, however, to replace nonparticipating schools in the initial sample with similar schools. Substantial attention was given to evaluating the representativeness of the sample by comparing participating with nonparticipating schools on the basis of geographical region, control, and percentage of minority students and by comparing student data for the norms sample with data from the National Longitudinal Study.The results of this study were compared with those of the 1960 and 1966 norms studies. These comparisons, although not definitive, should be considered in assessing whether a shift in the ability level of high school students generally can help to account for the SAT score decline.
MEASURING THE APPROPRIATENESS OF MULTIPLE‐CHOICE TEST SCORES1,2
Authors: Levine Michael V. , Rubin Donald B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA student may be so atypical and unlike other students that his aptitude test score fails to be a completely appropriate measure of his relative ability. We consider the problem of using the student's pattern of multiple‐choice aptitude test answers to decide whether his score is an appropriate ability measure. Several indicators of appropriateness are formulated and evaluated with a simulation of the Scholastic Aptitude Test.
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND THE ROLE OF VISUAL FRAMEWORKS IN THE PERCEPTION OF SIZE
Authors: Sigman Eric , Oltman Philip K. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe relationship between the field‐dependence dimension and the influence of visual frameworks on the perception of size was examined. Two spatial arrangements were used so that the influence of the frame would lead to an illusion in one instance and a more veridical response in the other. While the relatively field‐dependent subjects showed a greater error in the illusion condition, they showed more veridical size judgments in the condition in which use of the visual framework could contribute to more accurate size matching. Field dependence and field independence are viewed as perceptual strategies, each of which may be adaptive in certain situations.
THE USE OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE STRUCTURES FOR ASSESSING THE PSYCHOMETRIC UTILITY OF MULTIPLE CRITERIA IN DIFFERENTIAL PREDICTION STUDIES
Authors: Rock D. A. , Werts C. , Flaugher R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIt is assumed that the dependent variables in differential prediction studies, test bias studies, analysis of variance and covariance designs are characterized by certain psychometric properties which are invariant across the subgroups of interest. More specifically, the validity of the results in such analyses depend on the assumption that the dependent variables are measuring the same constructs in the same metrics with equivalent reliabilities across all subgroups. Systematic procedures are outlined for testing these assumptions.
COGNITIVE STYLES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL CAREERS*
Authors: Goodenough Donald R. , Oltman Philip K. , Friedman Florence , Moore Carol Ann , Witkin Herman A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTRecent research has shown that academic choice and achievement may be partly a function of the student's standing on the field‐dependence‐independence cognitive‐style dimension. The results of two longitudinal studies suggest that information about field dependence‐independence may be of value for student guidance in the medical setting. The first, a study of college undergraduates who early expressed an interest in medicine, showed that these cognitive styles play a discernible role in determining who will eventually enter medical school. The second, a study of medical students, showed that field‐dependent and field‐independent students subsequently tend to choose different medical specialties. These results are consistent with cognitive‐style theory, which proposes that field‐independent people will choose vocations that require cognitive restructuring skills, whereas field‐dependent people will choose vocations that require greater social‐interpersonal involvement.
THE USE, ACCEPTANCE, AND IMPACT OF TAKING THE SAT—A TEST FAMILIARIZATION BOOKLET
Authors: Powers Donald E. , Alderman Donald L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe College Board recently published Taking the SAT, a booklet designed to improve candidates' familiarity with the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the Test of Standard Written English (TWSE), which is administered with the SAT. Prepublication copies were mailed to a random sample of SAT candidates, and the recipients, after taking the tests, were surveyed for their perceptions of the booklet and its influence on their test‐taking. An equivalent random sample received only About the SAT, a briefer Board publication that Taking the SAT is to replace, and were surveyed for their test‐taking experiences and their opinions of the older test familiarization booklet. Test scores of the students in both groups were subsequently obtained from SAT score files for comparison.The survey showed that the first group had reacted positively to the new publication and used it extensively. These candidates perceived numerous benefits from its use, some of them greater than the benefits perceived by candidates who had used only the older, briefer publication. The analysis did not, however, uncover any effects of the new booklet on scores for any section of the SAT or TSWE. Nevertheless, many students believed that Taking the SAT had helped them achieve higher scores.The report documents the strong points of the new booklet and makes recommendations for improving some sections in future editions.
AFFECT JUDGMENT AND FIELD DEPENDENCE
Authors: Rapaczynski Wanda , Welkowitz Joan , Sadd Susan 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTen women, 5 low scorers (field‐dependent) and 5 high scorers (field‐independent) on the Group Embedded‐Figures Test, listened to 24, 15‐minute‐long segments of a series of therapy sessions and were then asked: (a) to adopt the role of the patient and rate the warmth felt by the patient toward the therapist, and (b) to adopt the role of therapist and rate the warmth felt by the therapist toward the patient, using a 4‐point rating scale. The accuracy of subjects' ratings was evaluated against the criterion of actual ratings made by patient and therapist after each therapy session. As predicted, field‐dependent subjects were more accurate in judging warmth than field‐independent subjects. In addition, there was a significant interaction between subject's cognitive style and the person being judged. Field‐dependent subjects were more accurate in the role of patient than in the role of therapist; the opposite was true for field‐independent subjects. Suggestions are made as to possible routes used by field‐dependent and field‐independent subjects to judge emotions experienced by others.
THE PERFORMANCE OF NON‐NATIVE SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH ON TOEFL AND VERBAL APTITUDE TESTS
Authors: Angelis Paul J. , Swinton Spencer S. , Cowell William R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study examined the performance of two groups of non‐native English speakers on the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and an appropriate verbal aptitude test. One group of graduate applicants took both TOEFL and the verbal section of the Aptitude Test of the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE). Another group of undergraduate applicants took TOEFL, the verbal section of the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), and the Test of Standard Written English (TSWE). Data are presented showing how native and non‐native speakers compare on each set of tests. Information is also provided to aid in interpreting test results for non‐native speakers who have taken both types of test. The appendix to the report summarizes item reviews, by specialists in English as a Second Language, which suggest future directions for TOEFL test development.
TEST VALIDITY AND THE ETHICS OF ASSESSMENT
Authors: Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTQuestions of the adequacy of a test as a measure of the characteristic it is interpreted to assess are answerable on scientific grounds by appraising psychometric evidence, especially construct validity. Questions of the appropriateness of test use in proposed applications are answerable on ethical grounds by appraising potential social consequences of the testing. The first set of answers provides an evidential basis for test interpretation and the second set provides a consequential basis for test use. In addition, this paper stresses the importance of construct validity for test use since it provides a rational foundation for predictiveness and relevance, as well as the importance of taking into account the value implications of test interpretations per se. By thus considering both the evidential and consequential bases of both test interpretation and test use, the roles of evidence and social values in the overall validation process are illuminated, and test validity comes to be based on ethical as well as evidential grounds.
FEEDBACK AS AN INCENTIVE FOR RESPONDING TO A MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE
Authors: Powers Donald E. , Alderman Donald L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe effect of offering respondents feedback on questionnaire results was investigated in a national mail survey of college‐bound secondary school students. It was found that offering feedback had a significant positive effect on response rate, but the magnitude of that effect was slightly less than the increase in response rate resulting from a shorter questionnaire and considerably less than a follow‐up contact with nonrespondents.
ISSUES OF EFFECTIVENESS AND EQUITY IN THE COACHING CONTROVERSY: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL AND TESTING PRACTICE1
Authors: Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTMultiple sources of controversy over coaching for scholastic aptitude tests are addressed. These include disputes over the meaning of scholastic aptitude, over the meaning of coaching, over the nature of the fundamental research questions, over the adequacy of the empirical evidence for coaching effectiveness, over the possible implications of effective coaching for student performance and for test validity, and over the consequent ethical imperatives for educational and testing practice. Three possible outcomes of coaching having different implications for college performance are discussed — genuine improvements in the abilities measured by the test resulting in commensurate increases in test scores; enhanced test‐taking sophistication (item familiarization, guessing, pacing) resulting in increased test scores that are more accurate assessments of ability; and, heightened test‐taking artifice (stratagems and answer‐selection tricks) resulting in increased test scores that are inaccurately high assessments of ability. The first two if realized would be beneficial from the standpoint of both test validity and student performance, while the third is only incidental with professionally made tests. A framework for gauging the practical utility of coaching effects is presented and several ostensible yardsticks of coaching impact are discounted as largely irrelevant.