bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Incorporating Environmental Considerations Into Pipeline Integrity Management Programs
Authors: Taylor Patricia , Wielki Jeff , Shea Troina 
Published: July 2013

Canada’s extensive pipeline grid can be traced back to the 1950s when major crude oil and natural gas finds in western Canada led to the construction of large pipeline systems [1]. Some of the currently operating pipelines in Canada have been operating for over 60 years. With the objective of ensuring that pipelines are suitable for continued reliable, safe and environmentally responsible service, the National Energy Board (NEB) issued the Onshore Pipeline Regulations (OPR) in 1999 (OPR-99) mandating pipeline companies to develop and implement Integrity Management Programs (IMPs).
The OPR-99 allows pipeline companies to tailor the content of the IMPs to particular circumstances. From a life cycle perspective, the majority of pipeline IMPs involve inspection and testing, data management and interpretation, risk assessment, integrity or engineering assessment and pipeline repairs. Despite the evident benefits of implementing IMPs, conducting pipeline repairs can also trigger environmental concerns and permitting requirements. Developing effective Environmental Protection Plans (EPPs) and obtaining federal and provincial environmental permitting in sensitive areas can be time consuming and costly. If these factors and costs are not incorporated to the planning process they can create subsequent delays and financial burdens. Additionally, implementing environmental management practices throughout the life cycle of IMPs will aid pipeline companies in managing environmental issues systematically and effectively while enhancing environmental stewardship and corporate social responsibility. Including environmental setting considerations, identifying regulatory requirements and conducting stakeholder engagement during the earliest stages and throughout the IMP is essential to ensure the sustainability of the Program. This paper describes an integrated management system which incorporates environmental considerations throughout the overall IMP and a strategic approach to information management.
Enhanced Use of ILI Data to Improve Integrity Decisions
Authors: Taylor Collin , Zhu Renkang Rain 
Published: July 2013

With the current generation of in-line inspection (ILI) tools capable of recording terabytes of data per inspection and obtaining millimeter resolution on features, integrity sciences are becoming awash in a sea of data. However, without proper alignment and relationships, all this data can be at best noise and at worst lead to erroneous assumptions regarding the integrity of a pipeline system. This paper will explore the benefits of a statistical alignment method utilizing joint characteristics, such as length, long seam orientation (LSO), wall thickness (WT) and girth weld (GW) counts to ensure precision data alignment between ILI inspections. By leveraging the “fingerprint” like morphology of a pipeline system many improvements to data and records systems become possible including but not limited to:
• Random ILI Tool performance errors can be detected and compensated for.
• Repair history and other records become rapidly searchable.
• New statistically accurate descriptions are created by leveraging the sensitivities of various ILI technologies.
One area of material data improvement focused on within this paper relates to long seam type detection through ILI tools. Due to the differing threat susceptibility of various weld types, it is accordingly important to identify the long seam weld types for integrity management purposes. Construction records of older vintage lines do not always contain information down to the joint level; therefore, ILI tools may be leveraged to increase the accuracy of construction records down to this level. In this paper, the possibility of ILI tools, such as magnet flux leakage tools, ultrasonic crack tools, and ultrasonic metal loss tools, to distinguish different types of longitudinal seam welds is also discussed.
Providing Safety: Using Probabilistic or Deterministic Methods
Authors: Kariyawasam Shahani , Huyse Luc 
Published: July 2013

The primary objective of a good engineering design or maintenance process is to provide safety with optimized resources. Most parameters and models used in engineering have uncertainty — some more so than others. Probabilistic assessments strive to account for these uncertainties explicitly while the deterministic methods account for uncertainties implicitly by using conservative inputs and safety factors. Deterministic methods are preferred by many due to their simplicity. However if inputs and safety factors are not defined prudently with explicit consideration for uncertainties and consequences they can lead to unsafe or unduly conservative solutions.
The main objective in using reliability based methodologies is to provide consistent safety by explicitly accounting for uncertainties in a probabilistically quantified manner. Reliability methods also allow the articulation of the level of safety. This level of consistency in safety cannot be achieved in a deterministic analysis using safety factors because uncertainties are not accounted for explicitly and consequently the uncertainties lead to variable solutions. However safety factors can be calibrated using reliability methods so that more consistent safety levels can be assured when using deterministic methods.
There is a relationship between the reliability level and the deterministic safety factors. This relationship between reliability levels and deterministic safety factors is examined both from a mathematical and practical perspective. Consequently it is shown that reliability based methods can be used to calibrate deterministic methods to improve the consistency of the safety level with due consideration to underlying uncertainties and consequences. This kind of calibration is used in other industries such as structural design and nuclear facilities. Providing more consistent safety enables optimization of maintenance activities which enables the safest system to be provided with available resources.
Currently the pipeline industry uses deterministic methods with conservative inputs that are not based on risk or safety principles. Consequently there is a large variation in the inputs and safety factors used in the industry. Some examples of these are safety factors used in response to inline inspection that vary from the reciprocal of the design factor to 1.1 for all location classes.
This paper shows that the maximum safety factor achievable for a given design is defined by the original design factor and the ratio between flow stress and yield strength. It also shows the inadequacy of using safety factors that are not risk based. The paper focuses on the importance of using a sound risk based rationale for appropriate safety factors in deterministic methods.
A glossary of terms is provided at the end of the introduction.
Effects of Detector Dynamics on Magnetic Flux Leakage Signals From Dents and Gouges
Authors: Clapham Lynann , Babbar Vijay 
Published: July 2013

The current study was designed to model the dynamic effects of detector ride and magnet liftoff on Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) signals from dents as well as gouges that have significant denting. The MFL tools have long been used for the detection and sizing of corrosion defects. This is comparatively straightforward for a number of reasons, one of which is that the MFL detector assembly can ride relatively smoothly along the inner pipe wall surface. This is not the case when significant denting is present, since the dent presents a perturbation in the pipe wall that can cause liftoff of the detector or magnet system. Since the tool travels at relatively high speeds down the pipe, the dent itself can cause the detector to lose contact with the trailing half of the dent. In addition, the magnet pole piece may experience partial liftoff as it traverses the dent, thus causing a change in the local flux density.
In this study results from ‘static’ measurements are compared with a dynamic case in which detector liftoff is simulated through modeling and experiment. Results are discussed regarding the severity of MFL signal loss at the trailing edge of the defect as a result of detector liftoff.
The effect of partial liftoff of the magnet as it passes over the dent is also examined. Magnet liftoff is found to increase the local magnetic flux near the liftoff region, causing the MFL signal from the dent wall to increase rather than decrease in the vicinity of magnet liftoff region.
A Study of Deformation Behavior of Double Jointing Girth Welds
Authors: Yokota Tomoyuki , Murakami Yoshiaki , Sakimoto Takahiro , Satoshi Igi , Endo Shigeru 
Published: July 2013

Demand for double jointing technology is increasing to improve pipeline construction productivity. Submerged arc welding (SAW) utilized for double jointing is likely to cause a much wider heat affected zone (HAZ) than those of typical field welding by gas metal arc welding (GMAW), and it should be taken into account for strain-based design of high strength line-pipes. However, guidelines for SAW welds properties to ensure strain capacity of high strength line-pipes such as X80 have not been established yet.
In this study, a submerged arc weld joint was produced using tensile strength (TS) over-matching welding consumable. API standard type transverse weld tension test was conducted to measure local elongation at weld metal, HAZ, and base material. Elongation at weld metal increases prior to base material, but soon after that elongation at the HAZ softening region and base material adjacent to the HAZ catch up with the elongation in the weld metal, and finally, deformation concentrates at the HAZ softening region before final fracture.
Deformation behavior of the joint was analyzed to verify applicability to double jointing girth welds for strain-based design. From finite element (FE) analysis of notched wide plate test which characterizes tensile strain capacity of a pipeline, it is suggested that ductile crack would not initiate before base material start necking in this particular TS over-matching weld joint in which the defect size is 1mm of notch depth and 25mm of notch length. Thus, the weld joint would be applicable for double jointing girth welds based on strain-based design.
J-Resistance Results From Multi-Specimen and Single-Specimen Surface Notched SEN(T) Geometry
Authors: Pussegoda Lakshman N. , Tiku Sanjay , Park Dong-Y. , Tyson William R. , Gianetto Jim 
Published: July 2013

In a collaborative program, J-R results were compared from multi-specimen and single-specimen procedures for toughness testing with single-edge notched tensile loaded SEN(T) specimens. Grade 483 MPa (X70) grade pipeline steel was used to prepare surface notched axially loaded specimens. Test procedures followed the multi-specimen method and a single-specimen recommended practice recently developed at the CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory (recently name-changed to CanmetMATERIALS) in a program jointly funded by PERD, PRCI, and DOT. The multi-specimen method adopted side grooves with the objective of comparison with results from the single–specimen method. The specimen geometry was B × B for both test procedures. The target ao/W was about 0.5.
The multi-specimen testing was performed at BMT Fleet Technology. The single-specimen testing was performed at the CANMET laboratory, formerly located in Ottawa.
The paper describes experimental and analysis details, and compares results from the two techniques, using J expressions developed at CANMET. The results showed similar J-resistance curves at small crack extensions for both techniques, and higher J-resistance values at larger crack extensions for the multi-specimen method. The results are discussed in terms of initial crack length and the analysis methods adopted for the two techniques. Validity criteria according to ASTM E1820 were applied and the results are presented.
Advanced Insights on Composite Repairs
Authors: Alexander Chris , Souza Jim 
Published: July 2013

In response to inquiries from pipeline operators regarding the long-term performance of composite materials, manufacturers have performed additional tests to evaluate the performance of their composite repair systems. Insights were gained through these additional tests that demonstrated the long-term worthiness of the composite system. Of particular importance were two types of tests. The first involved the application of strain gages between layers of the composite repair system that was used to reinforce a corroded pipe test sample. As the sample was pressurized the strain gages permitted a comparison between the measured values and design stresses per the ASME PCC-2 design code. The second series of tests involved pressure cycling a 75% corroded sample to failure. In addition to the inter-layer strain measurements, the pressure cycling provides an important insight regarding the long-term performance of the composite repair.
This paper addresses how the ASME PCC-2 Code, along with additional well-designed tests, can be used to design a composite repair system to ensure that it adequately reinforces a given defect. As composite materials are being used to repair pipeline anomalies beyond the corrosion-only defects, it is essential that pipeline operators utilize a systematic approach for ensuring the long-term performance of composite repair systems.
Considerations for Implementation of Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) for Pipeline Control Systems
Authors: Sahraei Alireza 
Published: July 2013

Safety instrumented systems are now well recognized and utilized by various operational companies in oil and gas majorly in integrated plants such as refineries, upgraders and petrochemical plants based on the both reliability and availability of these systems to prevent and mitigate any risk associated with any high consequence initiating event. The SIS requirements are well developed and globally accepted within IEC61511 and ISA84.01 standards in which the safety lifecycle requirements have to be met. The initial implementation of SIS in each plant has always been a challenging program because it needs tremendous effort to develop processes and procedures to meet any single clause of the lifecycle. At the same time, following the engineering best practices is another key factor of success for this implementation.
However, in pipeline operations industry, there are additional aspects regarding risk management, design, operations and maintenance of the SIS, which have to be considered in addition to all code requirements and considerations on the integrated plants such as refineries, as mentioned above. These special considerations should not be underestimated and have to be dealt with as special requirements for the industry. These aspects raise sets of technical challenges for any implementation initiative and other planning or execution challenges which are directly related to the safety lifecycle.
Standardization and Delegation of Pipeline Sizing Calculations
Authors: Garwood Dan 
Published: July 2013

For all pipeline projects, a method must be chosen to select the pipe diameter. These methods range in complexity from someone’s “gut feel” to transient multi-phase optimization studies. Regardless of the project’s complexity or scope, pipeline sizing calculations require some common decisions. The pipeline designer must decide what fluid flow rates or ranges of fluid flow rates to use in the design. The designer must also determine what criteria to use to select the pipe size (usually fluid velocity, pressure loss, and/or pressure loss gradients).
More complex and rigorous analyses of pipeline projects have some significant advantages. On some projects they may save money by avoiding over-sizing that can occur due to conservative assumptions that are often used in less rigorous analyses. More rigorous analyses typically have the advantage of being run by a very experienced engineer, who is likely to understand the fundamental principles of the calculations better than a less experienced engineer who might run a less rigorous analysis.
There are also disadvantages to the more rigorous design approaches. The software required is often expensive, and training required may also have a significant cost in time and money. The pool of users capable of performing such studies may also be very limited. Complex, rigorous design studies also require more extensive assumptions, which may lead to wider variations in results from one engineer to another. The increased complexity of the analysis makes it more difficult to convey the assumptions to management—limiting the transparency of the design process.
This paper describes a standardized approach to the pipeline sizing process. This approach allows the pipeline designer to delegate portions of the design work to personnel who are not experienced hydraulics engineers. For more complex projects, the standardization is limited to recommended pipe sizing criteria based on velocity, pressure loss, and pressure gradient. For less complex projects, two spreadsheet-based tools have been developed to further standardize the process and allow delegation of design tasks to those not familiar with more complex pipeline design tools.
An Approach for Evaluating the Integrity of Plain Dents Reported by In-Line Inspection Tools
Authors: Bratton Joseph P. , Alexander Tom , Bubenik Thomas A. , Finneran Shane , Heggen Hans Olav 
Published: July 2013

Current federal regulations in the U.S. require excavation of plain dents identified through in-line inspection surveys based primarily on depth. Industry experience, and previous research, has shown that the depth of the dent, alone, is not sufficient to assess dent severity and that releases could occur at dents below the excavation threshold (Dawson, 2006). Canada’s National Energy Board released a safety advisory on June 18, 2010, to all companies under their jurisdiction regarding two incidents involving shallow dents. The safety advisory stated that all integrity management programs should be reviewed and updated where appropriate to address the threat posed by shallow dents. Similar incidents have raised awareness in the United States and elsewhere around the world.
This paper focuses on the fitness for service of dents identified by in-line inspection surveys. The fitness for service assessment provides an estimated remaining life of a dent based on the geometry of the dent and current pressure cycling of the pipeline. Dynamic pressure cycling at each dent location is estimated using the upstream and downstream pressure cycle data, elevation, and distance along the pipe. The dynamic pressure cycle data at each dent is then converted into equivalent stress cycles based on the results of rainflow cycle counting.
Maximum strain levels of the dents are calculated based on the geometry of the dent as determined by radial sensor measurements from the in-line inspection survey. The combination of assessment methods provides estimates of remaining fatigue life and peak strain which can be used for prioritizing the investigation and remediation of plain dents in pipelines.
Finite element analysis (FEA) is performed for one dent to calculate the maximum strain levels and identify stress concentration areas. These results are compared with the values applied during the fitness for service assessment to validate the accuracy and conservatism of the calculation methods used. An idealized dent will be analyzed to investigate the strain calculations in ASME B31.8 and localize maximum strain values.
Recommended ITP for the Quality Assurance of Skelp-End Welds in Spiral Pipes
Authors: Wang Yong-Yi , Liu Ming , Rapp Steve , Collins Laurie 
Published: July 2013

API 5L allows skelp-end welds (SEWs) in finished pipes with some restriction on their position relative to the pipe ends. However, the overall acceptance of SEWs by the pipeline industry is spotty. For large diameter pipes, there could be one SEW for every five to seven joints of pipes. Therefore, allowing SEWs in finished pipes offers meaningful economic advantages to both pipe suppliers and purchasers when the quality of the SEWs can be assured.
A joint industry project (JIP) was formed to develop uniformly acceptable inspection and test plans (ITPs) for SEWs. The JIP members included the five linepipe manufacturers and six pipeline operators. The ITPs were developed through two parallel processes: (1) fitness-for-service analysis of the SEWs under a variety of loading conditions expected in the entire service life of a pipeline, and (2) consensus building based on the best practice and quality control protocols. The JIP group reviewed the suitability of existing QA procedures for SEWs and sought to provide users further assurance by developing supplemental QA/QC procedures. The ITPs contain additional provisions to supplement the requirements of the accepted industry standards, such as API 5L and CSA Z245.1. They incorporated specific quality control measures that address concerns in certain perceived weak points of SEWs, including the effects of coil-end properties, weld quality at T-joints, and open-root forming of the partial-penetration ID weld.
This paper summarizes the deliberation and recommended resolution of several key issues related to the perceived quality concerns of SEWs. A companion paper covers the fitness-for-service analysis of SEWs [1]. The project group, led by respective organizations of the authors, is working with API 5L committee to adopt some of the recommendations in the future revisions of API 5L.
Maximum Likelihood Approach to State Estimation in Online Pipeline Models
Authors: Modisette Jason P. 
Published: July 2013

Hydraulic models of pipelines driven by SCADA usually have many more pressure and flow measurements available that are needed as boundary conditions of the underlying model. These extra measurements can be used to improve the estimate of the true state of the pipeline and to give the hydraulic model some resistance to measurement noise. The process of merging the available SCADA into a form the model can use is called “state estimation.”
A new technique for state estimation based on a maximum-likelihood estimate of the state of the pipeline constrained by the underlying physics will be presented. This method, which will be referred to as Maximum Likelihood State Estimation (MLSE), will be justified by comparison with two traditional methods of state estimation in use in the industry, the approach of breaking the pipeline up into multiple models with pressure boundaries and then rectifying the flows, and the Equal Error Fractions (EEF) method of Van der Hoeven [1].
An example of the application of this approach to a real-world pipeline will also be presented, with performance data as well as some of the deficiencies that were found and how they were corrected.
Cyclic Pressure Testing a Section of 34” Pipe Repaired Using the PETROSLEEVE Technology to Determine the Effect on a 50% Crack
Authors: Wang Rick , Kania Richard , Smyth Robert J. , Smyth Ian R. 
Published: July 2013

TransCanada Pipelines operates a large mainline pipeline transportation system. Engineering analysis and severe testing was performed to confirm that the PETROSLEEVE© Steel Compression Reinforcement Technology would arrest crack extension in large diameter pipe.
This testing involved putting a 50% crack into a section of 862 mm diameter, 9.5mm wall thickness grade 448 pipe. Then a compression sleeve was installed while the pipe was pressurized to 3800 kPa (38% SMYS). Following sleeve installation, the test vessel was subjected to 9000 cycles 7880 to 2960 kPa (80%–30% SMYS); 200 cycles 7800 to 0 kPa (80%–0% SMYS); hold pressures of 8870 kPa (90% SMYS) for 4 hours and 10840 kPa (110% SMYS) for 2 hours.
Following the cyclic pressuring, the crack was metallurgically inspected. It was reported by third party inspection that the compression sleeve reinforcement “can effectively suppress fatigue crack growth of an axial flaw (100mm long × 50% of the wall thickness deep) in the API X65 pipe.”
This paper reviews the engineering and cyclic testing undertaken.