bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gender Identity Disorder/Gender Dysphoria
Authors: Zucker Kenneth J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Gender identity
refers to a person's basic sense of self as male or female.
Gender dysphoria
refers to the distress one experiences when one's gender identity does not match one's assigned sex at birth, which often leads to the strong desire to become a member of the other gender. Research suggests that gender identity differentiation is the result of a complex interplay among biological and psychosocial factors. There are various therapeutic approaches, including both psychosocial and biomedical interventions, designed to reduce gender dysphoria.
R
osenhan Pseudopatient Study
Authors: Ruscio John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
In a famous study, professor of psychology and law David Rosenhan and seven other mentally healthy colleagues sought admission to mental hospitals to determine whether their “sanity” would be detected in these “insane” environments. Sufficiently distressed to seek professional help and complaining of auditory hallucinations, each “pseudopatient” was admitted, diagnosed with schizophrenia (or, in one case, manic depression), and ultimately discharged after an average stay of 19 days with a modified “in remission” diagnosis. Based on the pseudopatients' extensive notes of their experiences, Rosenhan criticized diagnoses as unreliable and invalid as well as implicating them in the mistreatment of patients. Though the logic and evidence supporting these conclusions has been challenged by many commentators, the classic pseudopatient study continues to exert an influence on clinical psychology.
Psychiatry
Authors: Noll Richard 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Psychiatry is one of the oldest specialty professions in medicine, arising after 1800 in small communities of European, British, and American physicians who were physically, socially, and professionally isolated in asylums for the care and management of persons suffering from severe disturbances of thought, emotion, and behavior (“insanity”). In the twentieth century psychiatry turned its attention to milder psychiatric conditions (e.g.,“neurosis” or “neurasthenia”) in the general population, changing its mission and treatment methods. Competing views of mental disorder as biologically specifiable categories of disease (promoted by Emil Kraepelin), as dimensional psychosocial “reactions” (Adolf Meyer), or as mental mechanisms of personality (Sigmund Freud) have not been resolved by biomedical, psychological, or statistical methods.
Sexual Dysfunctions
Authors: Alavi Sanam Bamshad , Sanderson William C. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSexual dysfunction refers to a cluster of disorders related to an individual's impaired sexual functioning. Characteristic symptoms vary across disorders, but may include lack of desire for sexual activity, inability to reach orgasm, and the experience of pain during sexual intercourse. While psychological variables may affect one's sexual functioning, it is important to note that physical and health‐related problems might have a significant impact as well. The diagnosis of a specific sexual dysfunction disorder requires identifying the particular symptoms experienced by an individual and ruling out medical conditions and other organic causes, such as substance use effects. This entry will provide a brief overview of the categories of sexual dysfunction and their prevalence, as well as psychological and emotional factors associated with them. In addition, psychotherapeutic options for treatment are briefly discussed.
B
andura,
A
lbert (b. 1925)
Authors: Davison Gerald C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Reviewed here is the professional life of Albert Bandura, one of the most highly cited scholars in the entire history of psychology. From a modest childhood in rural Canada, Bandura emerged as an innovative theorist and ingenious experimentalist in the development of a social cognitive theory that placed strong emphasis on the human capacity to control both the external and internal environment. His work on modeling and complex social cognition has had a profound influence on our conceptions of personality development and change, including the burgeoning field of cognitive behavioral therapy. In recent years, his work has been applied to large‐scale societal efforts to improve human health and safety and to help people make choices in creating meaningful lives for themselves.
American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP)
Authors: Nezu Christine Maguth 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) is a national‐in‐scope, nonprofit credentialing organization that has been awarding board certification in professional psychology specialties for 65 years. This entry provides a description of the organization's development, current membership, and importance as the gold standard for board certification in 14 professional psychology specialties currently under theABPPorganizational umbrella.
Addiction and Violence Risk
Authors: Douglas Kevin S. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAn association between addiction (and other substance‐related problems) and violence has been found across hundreds if not thousands of studies. Converging evidence from multiple countries exists across epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental, and meta‐analytic studies. Addiction is associated with numerous forms and severities of violence. Alcohol has the strongest and largest body of evidence as a (potentially causal) risk factor for violence. Stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamines are also consistently found to be related to violence. Most major violence risk assessment instruments incorporate some index of addiction or other substance‐related problem as a risk factor. Four main explanatory models—psychopharmacological, systemic, economic compulsion, interactional—for the link between addiction and other substance‐related problems are reviewed.
Major Depressive Disorder
Authors: Samuel Winer E. , Salem Taban , Bartoszek Gregory , Snodgrass Michael 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Major depressive disorder is a mood disorder that affects millions of people each year, in many cases leading to disability or even suicide. Its symptoms, as outlined in the

DSM
‐5

, include low mood, fatigue, loss of pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, difficulty sleeping or eating normally, trouble concentrating, and thoughts of death or suicide. These symptoms have been described in many forms throughout history, dating back at least to the time of Hippocrates (460–370
BC
) and the ancient Greek diagnosis of melancholia. Modern clinicians and researchers have proposed a variety of cognitive, biological, and social/environmental theories to explain the cause of major depressive disorder. The disorder is commonly assessed via clinical interview and/or self‐report questionnaires. First‐line treatments for major depressive disorder include psychotherapy and antidepressant medications.
Thematic Apperception Test
Authors: Mihura Joni L. , Meyer Gregory J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a performance‐based personality instrument published by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan in 1943. For decades, the TAT has ranked among the three most widely used personality assessment instruments in clinical settings, along with the Rorschach inkblot method and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The test consists of 31 cards with achromatic images, typically involving people, a subset of which the respondent is given and instructed to tell a story. Storytelling tests like the TAT are unique in they rely on a person's implicit intrapersonal and interpersonal narratives. Some formal TAT scores exist but are rarely used in clinical practice. Instead, clinicians typically use a variant of Murray's original interpretive approach that evaluates the need (internal motivation), press (external influences), and outcome of each story. Although the TAT has wide research base, the lack of commonly accepted scoring guidelines and norms has impaired researchers' ability to systematically assess its validity.
Facilitated Communication
Authors: Mostert Mark P. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Facilitated communication (
FC
) is a technique used to enable non‐communicative individuals to communicate through the use of a communication device. The client's hands are placed on a communication keyboard, supported at the wrist by a facilitator. Typed content is assumed to emanate from the client, with facilitator support for stability purposes only. Empirical evidence, however, overwhelmingly demonstrates that the technique is ineffective and that the facilitator, not the client, generates the typed communications.
Qualitative Methods
Authors: Leitner Larry M. , Hayes, Katherine J. , Imai Hideaki 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Qualitative research differs from quantitative scholarship in fundamental epistemological ways. This entry describes epistemological differences and explores their implications for issues such as reliability, validity, significance, generalizability, objectivity, and the nature of data. Each section focuses on one of six approaches to qualitative research (narrative, grounded theory, phenomenological, participatory action research, intuitive inquiry, and ethnography), and includes an illustration of how the approach has been used in clinical psychology. Finally, this entry discusses the ways in which qualitative researchers present their data, as well as issues for the field to consider for future development.
Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (
BASC
‐2)
Authors: Kamphaus R. W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (
BASC
‐2), is indeed a system, in that it includes a wide range of measures and scales designed for the comprehensive assessment of child behavioral and emotional adjustment, mental health, subsyndromal mental health symptoms, and behavioral and emotional competencies. The system includes the widely used teacher, parent, and student self‐report ratings scale, as well as college and early elementary grade self‐report forms, progress monitoring forms, clinician and classroom intervention guides, the Parenting Relationship Questionnaire, a developmental history form, the Student Observation Scale for classroom observations, the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System, and other supplementary materials. Information about the administration, scoring, interpretation, and reliability and validity evidence related to the core
BASC
‐2 rating scales is presented.
Benchmarking Studies of Psychotherapy
Authors: Barkham Michael , Saxon David 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAbenchmarkrefers to a point of reference against which other measurements can be compared, and it can be viewed as a static phenomenon, whereasbenchmarkingis a more dynamic process that goes beyond a direct comparison and is akin to the concept of continuous quality improvement. Four types of benchmarking have been described that reflect increasing sophistication and can be termedinternal,competitive,functional, andgeneric processbenchmarking. However, there are important methodological considerations to consider when carrying out benchmarking studies.
Child Custody
Authors: Kuehnle Kathryn , Kirkpatrick H. D. , Drozd Leslie 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe meaning of the termfamiliesis changing. Divorce remains a possible significant psychosocial event for millions of American children. Even though divorce outcomes for children are complex, we know some of what can be done to predict negative and positive outcomes. Although the applied definition of thebest interests of the child(BIC) remains unclear across the United States, there are numerous, significant contextual factors that a parenting plan and timesharing evaluator can address that will likely be helpful to the family court. For good reasons, the termschild custodyandcustody evaluationsare being replaced byparenting planandtimesharing evaluations. Family law courts, practitioners, and family law forensic evaluators are urged to seek an applied consensus on BIC parenting plan and timesharing recommendations that are forensically sound (i.e., built on the relevant scientific literature) and derived from a psychological BIC analysis.
Mendelian and Molecular Genetics
Authors: DiLalla Lisabeth Fisher , Mullineaux Paula Y. , DiLalla David L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractGenetic influences are important for almost every psychological behavior, including clinically relevant traits and disorders. This entry reviews some basic genetic definitions, provides a discussion of the history of genetic research as it applies to human behavior, and then discusses behavior genetic research with a focus on clinical psychology findings. Mendelian genetics, behavioral genetics, and molecular genetics studies have demonstrated the value of considering genotype when investigating the etiology of psychological variables. Although the picture is complicated as genes correlate with and interact with the environment and other genes, nonetheless this is clearly a critical road to follow for future research as we strive to understand the underpinnings of psychological behaviors.
Rational/Theoretical Approach to Test Construction
Authors: Ruscio John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
When creating self‐report measures of personality or psychopathology, a theory of the target construct is often used to guide the development of potentially useful items. Under the rational/theoretical approach to test construction, the process both begins and ends with informed judgments based on theory. This approach is a reasonable place to start but inadequate by itself. It encompasses three important strengths—the simplicity of the approach, the transparency of measures, and the intuitive appeal of test results—that also entail serious limitations. For example, there are no mechanisms to identify poorly functioning items, to evaluate whether scales or subscales include homogeneous items, to iteratively improve the psychometric properties of score reliability and validity, or to prevent the proliferation of measures of constructs that are differently named but that actually represent a common, core construct.
Difference Scores
Authors: Schoemann Alexander M. , Gallagher Matthew W. , Little Todd D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Difference scores are used commonly in clinical psychology to characterize change across two time points. Traditionally difference scores are computed by subtracting each individual's score at Time 1 from his or her score at Time 2. An alternative method of estimating difference scores, residual difference scores, is through regressing Time 2 scores onto Time 1 scores and saving the unstandardized residual for each individual as the change score for each person. We contrast traditional gain with residual difference scores, discuss the limitations to estimating difference scores with manifest variables, and discuss a latent variable model to estimate difference scores.
Diathesis‐Stress Models
Authors: Monroe Scott M. , Cummins Lori F. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractDiathesis‐stress models provide useful ways to think about and organize information about how external factors (e.g., life stress) and internal factors (e.g., constitutional vulnerability) may operate together in causing disorder and disease. In actuality there are several types of diathesis‐stress model. For example, there are several ways in which both the stress and the diatheses may be conceptualized and defined, and these may vary with respect to the particular kinds of disorder investigated. Furthermore, there are distinctly different ways in which stress and diatheses may operate in relation to one another to bring about illness. Recent advances in molecular genetics, as well as intriguing conceptual extensions of the diathesis‐stress model, hold promise for enhancing the utility of this general approach for better understanding the causes of mental and physical disorders.
Psychometric Validity
Authors: Brian Hood S. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Psychometric validity is one of the central concepts in psychological assessment. It is a characteristic the presence of which signifies that an assessment and the inferences drawn from the results of the assessment were executed properly and warrant endorsement. However, psychometric validity is also a concept surrounded by controversy. This controversy is largely philosophical and brings to bear classic debates in the philosophy of science over scientific realism and empiricism. Much of the current debate over psychometric validity is simply a debate over what constitutes measurement in the psychological sciences and what are reasonable aspirations for those who construct and administer psychological tests.
Efficacy Versus Effectiveness Research
Authors: Dalrymple Kristy L. , Gaudiano Brandon A. , Weinstock Lauren M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Over the past several decades, researchers have sought to examine the beneficial effects of psychotherapy using methods that have been shaped over time by seminal studies. One such methodology considered to be the “gold standard” in psychotherapy research is the efficacy trial, which tests a treatment under highly controlled conditions. An additional approach, the effectiveness trial, tests an efficacious treatment under more naturalistic conditions to determine how it will perform in typical clinical settings. Examples of these two types of design are provided, as well as a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of methodology. Given these advantages and disadvantages, researchers often conduct studies that combine the best elements of efficacy and effectiveness trials based on their particular research question. The different ways that these two methods are combined in hybrid efficacy‐effectiveness studies also are discussed.
Epistemology
Authors: Worley Sara 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Questions important for epistemology include the nature and limits of knowledge and what distinguishes knowledge from mere belief or opinion. In recent years, epistemology has devoted a great deal of attention to the question of how knowledge should be defined. A traditional view, that knowledge is justified true belief, has proved not to be completely satisfactory. Another set of questions revolves around the idea of justification, including questions of how much justification is required for some belief to count as knowledge and what the structure of justification is.
Prefrontal Lobotomy
Authors: Roosevelt Rodney W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The term prefrontal lobotomy, or leucotomy, refers to a variety of surgical procedures that functionally isolate the prefrontal cortex from the posterior portion of the brain for the purpose of treating various severe mental illnesses and for transforming normally agitated patients into docile individuals. In the era before psychosurgery and effective antipsychotic pharmacological therapies, insulin shock therapy, electroconvulsive shock therapy, psychotherapy, and physical restraints represented the entire span of available treatment. None of the available approaches yielded satisfactory results; hence, the medical community was anxious to adopt any new treatment that promised to alleviate refractory psychotic symptoms. The first prefrontal leucotomy was performed by Egas Moniz (1874–1955) in 1935 and was modified and popularized by Walter Freeman (1895–1972). Between the years 1935 and the mid 1960s thousands underwent the surgery before ethical concerns paired with the emergence of effective antipsychotic drug therapy ultimately lead to its disuse.
Descartes' Model of Mind
Authors: Percival Ray Scott 
Published: January 2015

AbstractRene Descartes (1596–1650) was an advocate of a particular form of dualist interactionism, in which the influential materialism of his day played a large role. Descartes argued that there was both mind and body and that these interacted with one another. Materialism, which had received a boost in the seventeenth century with the rise of Galileo's (1564–1642) approach to science, is the doctrine that everything is composed of matter or body and that this fills parts or perhaps the whole of space. Different parts of the world interact by one body pushing another body, making the whole world a clockwork mechanism in which all explanation is based on action by contact and push. Descartes' model of mind was an answer to the question how does the mind fit into such a machinelike world.
Symptom Checklist‐90‐Revised (
SCL
‐90‐R)
Authors: Hildenbrand Aimee K. , Nicholls Elizabeth G. , Aggarwal Richa , Brody‐Bizar Emily , Daly Brian P. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The Symptom Checklist‐90‐Revised (
SCL
‐90‐R) is a self‐report instrument designed to assess psychological symptomatology and distress in adolescents and adults. Overall, the
SCL
‐90‐R is considered a valid measurement of general psychological distress, with high internal consistency and test–retest reliability in both clinical and nonclinical populations. The
SCL
‐90‐R is most frequently used by mental health professionals to assess psychological symptoms and monitor patient progress during and after treatment. The
SCL
‐90‐R is also widely employed for research purposes with normative samples as well as inpatient and outpatient populations experiencing a range of mental health and medical conditions. Despite the instrument's clinical and research utility, findings suggest that the subscales do not adequately discriminate among clinical diagnoses. Thus, the consensus recommendation is that the
SCL
‐90‐R be used as a measure of general distress, rather than as an assessment of individual types of psychopathology.
Psychological Debriefing
Authors: Gist Richard 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Psychological debriefing, particularly the critical incident stress debriefing (
CISD
) rubric, grew exponentially to become one of the most popularized approaches to psychological intervention. Despite its seemingly intuitive underpinnings and its facile training and application, controlled research has consistently demonstrated the approach to be inert at best and to present the possibility of paradoxical inhibition to the natural processes of recovery in at least some recipients. Authoritative guidelines now caution against or even contraindicate its routine application, although it remains in relatively common usage. New and more refined approaches are beginning to emerge but systematic study of their efficacy and impact has yet to be reported. Practitioners are offered recommendations for more responsible approaches to evidence‐informed intervention.
J
ackson,
D
ouglas (1929–2004)
Authors: Jackson Lorraine D. , Jackson Charles Ted 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Douglas N. Jackson (1929–2004) advanced the science of psychological test construction, developed over 20 widely used psychological tests, and emerged as an authority on human assessment. A prolific scholar, he authored approximately 250 scholarly articles and book chapters, and was also successful at putting academic findings to practical use. He developed some of the most rigorous and valid assessments available, measuring personality, leadership, vocational interests, integrity, cognitive ability, psychopathology, and more. These include the Personality Research Form™ (
PRF
), Basic Personality Inventory™ (
BPI
), Jackson Vocational Interest Survey™ (
JVIS
), Multidimensional Aptitude Battery™ (
MAB
), Employee Screening Questionnaire™ (
ESQ
), and Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology™ (with W. J. Livesley), to name a few. His assessments are updated and distributed through the companies he founded, Sigma Assessment Systems, Inc., and Research Psychologists Press, Inc. and are used variously by individuals, professionals, educational institutions, companies, and government agencies.