bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Orthotic Correction of Postural Unleveling in a Patient With Ankylosing Spondylitis
Authors: Lipton James A. , Mitchell Lisa J. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The authors describe the case of a patient with ankylosing spondylitis who was treated with orthotic devices for postural unleveling. The patient described specific pre-existing postural problems, both static and dynamic, that had been present for many years. A unilateral 9-mm gel heel lift was used, followed by custom-molded orthotic devices that incorporated the heel lift. The patient reported immediate resolution of these symptoms after orthotic treatment, as well as increased functionality and satisfaction in activities of daily living, which coincided with the leveling of his posture. The orthotic devices were used until the patient underwent total hip arthroplasty, at which point the orthotic treatment was discontinued.
Constraining surface carbon fluxes using in situ measurements of carbonyl sulfide and carbon dioxide
Authors: Berkelhammer M. , Asaf D. , Still C. , Montzka S. , Noone D. , Gupta M. , Provencal R. , Chen H. , Yakir D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractUnderstanding the processes that control the terrestrial exchange of carbon is critical for assessing atmospheric CO2 budgets. Carbonyl sulfide (COS) is taken up by vegetation during photosynthesis following a pathway that mirrors CO2 but has a small or nonexistent emission component, providing a possible tracer for gross primary production. Field measurements of COS and CO2 mixing ratios were made in forest, senescent grassland, and riparian ecosystems using a laser absorption spectrometer installed in a mobile trailer. Measurements of leaf fluxes with a branch‐bag gas‐exchange system were made across species from 10 genera of trees, and soil fluxes were measured with a flow‐through chamber. These data show (1) the existence of a narrow normalized daytime uptake ratio of COS to CO2 across vascular plant species of 1.7, providing critical information for the application of COS to estimate photosynthetic CO2 fluxes and (2) a temperature‐dependent normalized uptake ratio of COS to CO2 from soils. Significant nighttime uptake of COS was observed in broad‐leafed species and revealed active stomatal opening prior to sunrise. Continuous high‐resolution joint measurements of COS and CO2 concentrations in the boundary layer are used here alongside the flux measurements to partition the influence that leaf and soil fluxes and entrainment of air from above have on the surface carbon budget. The results provide a number of critical constraints on the processes that control surface COS exchange, which can be used to diagnose the robustness of global models that are beginning to use COS to constrain terrestrial carbon exchange.
Extremely intense ELF magnetosonic waves: A survey of polar observations
Authors: Tsurutani Bruce T. , Falkowski Barbara J. , Pickett Jolene S. , Verkhoglyadova Olga P. , Santolik Ondrej , Lakhina Gurbax S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA Polar magnetosonic wave (MSW) study was conducted using 1 year of 1996–1997 data (during solar minimum). Waves at and inside the plasmasphere were detected at all local times with a slight preference for occurrence in the midnight‐postmidnight sector. Wave occurrence (and intensities) peaked within~±5° of the magnetic equator, with half maxima at ~±10°. However, MSWs were also detected as far from the equator as +20° and 60° MLAT but with lower intensities. An extreme MSW intensity event of amplitude Bw = ~± 1 nT and Ew = ~± 25 mV/m was detected. This event occurred near local midnight, at the plasmapause, at the magnetic equator, during an intense substorm event, e.g., a perfect occurrence. These results support the idea of generation by protons injected from the plasma sheet into the midnight sector magnetosphere by substorm electric fields. MSWs were also detected near noon (1259 MLT) during relative geomagnetic quiet (low AE). A possible generation mechanism is a recovering/expanding plasmasphere engulfing preexisting energetic ions, in turn leading to ion instability. The wave magnetic field components are aligned along the ambient magnetic field direction, with the wave electric components orthogonal, indicating linear wave polarization. The MSW amplitudes decreased at locations further from the magnetic equator, while transverse whistler mode wave amplitudes (hiss) increased. We argue that intense MSWs are always present somewhere in the magnetosphere during strong substorm/convection events. We thus suggest that modelers use dynamic particle tracing codes and the maximum (rather than average) wave amplitudes to simulate wave‐particle interactions.
A study on ionospheric scintillation near the EIA crest in relation to equatorial electrodynamics
Authors: Chatterjee S. , Chakraborty S. K. , Veenadhari B. , Banola S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEquatorial electrojet (EEJ) data, which are considered as a proxy index of equatorial electric field, are analyzed in conjunction with equatorial ionosonde, total electron content (TEC) and scintillation data near the equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA) crest for the equinoctial months of high solar activity years (2011–2012) to identify any precursor index of postsunset evolution of equatorial electron density irregularities and subsequent occurrence of scintillation near the northern EIA crest. Only geomagnetically quiet and normal electrojet days are considered. The diurnal profiles of EEJ on the scintillation days exhibit a secondary enhancement in the afternoon to presunset hours following diurnal peaks. A series of electrodynamical processes conducive for generation of irregularities emerge following secondary enhancement of EEJ. Latitudinal profile of TEC exhibits resurgence in EIA structure around the postsunset period. Diurnal TEC profile near the EIA crest resembles postsunset secondary enhancement on the days with afternoon enhancement in EEJ. Occurrence of equatorial spread F and postsunset scintillation near the EIA crest seems to follow the secondary enhancement events in EEJ. Both the magnitude and duration of enhanced EEJ are found to be important for postsunset intensification of EIA structure and subsequent occurrence of equatorial irregularities. A critical value combining the two may be considered an important precursor for postsunset occurrence of scintillation near the EIA crest. The results are validated using archived data for the years 1989–1990 and explained in terms of modulation effects of enhanced equatorial fountain.
Seismic and geodetic evidence for grounding‐line control of Whillans Ice Stream stick‐slip events
Authors: Pratt Martin J. , Winberry J. Paul , Wiens Douglas A. , Anandakrishnan Sridhar , Alley Richard B. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe tidally modulated, stick‐slip events of Whillans Ice Stream in West Antarctica produce seismic energy from three locations near the grounding line. Using ice velocity records obtained by combining time series from colocated broadband seismometers and GPS receivers installed on the ice stream during the 2010–2011 and 2011–2012 austral summers, along with far‐field seismic recordings of elastic waves, we locate regions of high rupture velocity and stress drop. These regions, which are analogous to “asperities” in traditional seismic fault studies, are areas of elevated friction at the base of the ice stream. Slip events consistently initiate at one of two locations: near the center of the ice stream, where events associated with the Ross Sea high tide originate, or a grounding‐line spot, where events associated with the Ross Sea low tide initiate, as well as occasional high‐tide events following a skipped low‐tide event. The grounding‐line site, but not the central site, produces Rayleigh waves observable up to 1000 km away, through fast expansion of the slip area. Grounding‐line initiation events also show strong directivity in the downstream direction, indicating initial rupture propagation at 1.5 km/s, compared to an average of 0.150 km/s for the entire slip event. Following slip initiation, additional seismic energy is produced from two sources located near the grounding line: first at the downstream end of Subglacial Lake Engelhardt and second toward the farthest downstream extent of the ice stream. This evidence suggests that the stronger, higher‐friction material along the grounding line controls motion throughout the stick‐slip region.
Police Misconduct
Authors: Papazoglou Konstantinos 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Police misconduct refers to any inappropriate behavior on the part of any police officer that violates police policy, morality, or/and the law, and may also entail some type of personal benefit for the police officer involved. In a police misconduct situation a police officer behaves in an improper, immoral, or/and illegal way that discredits his/her position. Police misconduct can be individual misconduct or organizational/institutional conduct that violates the law or ethical codes. The nature, causes, and prevention of police misconduct are discussed in this entry.
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
Authors: Lynn Owens Jennifer 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCriminology and criminal justice researchers employ data from numerous sources when conducting studies in the field of juvenile justice; however, two associated surveys of American youth have proven especially useful: the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97). The self‐report measures of deviant and delinquent behavior contained in both the NLSY79 and NLSY97 enable researchers to address some of the most fundamental questions in juvenile justice research and to explore topics as diverse as parental incarceration, peer relations, bullying, adolescent substance abuse, and youth employment.
Suicide, Assisted
Authors: Lopes Giza 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry covers the topic of “assisted suicide.” The conceptualization and legality of different types of aid in dying are discussed and the main legal cases regarding each of these types are cited. The entry also covers, briefly, the implementation of “assisted suicide” in Oregon, Montana, and Washington and where possible it provides up‐to‐date facts about those who choose to die with the help of a physician. A brief history of the issue, a summary of public opinion on the matter, the main pro and con arguments, as well as the status of the law in other countries are also presented.
Money Laundering
Authors: Huff R. Michael 
Published: January 2014

AbstractMoney laundering is the federal crime of “transferring illegally obtained money through legitimate people or accounts so that its original source cannot be traced.” As its legal definition implies, money laundering is inextricably linked to the criminalized activity, or predicate crimes, it promotes or facilitates. Predicate crimes range from activities traditionally associated with organized crime to tax evasion to kidnapping. It has been noted that there are now, at the federal level, about “two hundred predicate offenses for money laundering, including terrorist finance.” Terrorist finance can now be treated as a predicate offense.
International Guidelines on Victimization
Authors: Toggia Pietro 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Victimization is a person's direct or indirect experience of physical, emotional, and psychological harm or loss of life or property in the hands of an offender. Victimization has become, particularly since the mid‐1980s, a momentous issue and a focal concern at the international, regional, and national level. Hence, the protection and fair treatment of victims and respect for their rights have increasingly gained global attention within the last two decades. In view of this, the need has arisen to establish standardized and uniform international guidelines on victimization; the United Nations (UN) and its agencies have spearheaded this global cause, with the cooperation of member states, nongovernmental advocacy groups, humanitarian organizations, community activists, and academic institutions. On November 29, 1985, the UN General Assembly issued a Declaration on basic principles of justice for victims of crime and abuse of power. This was the first step toward the universal recognition of victims of crime as well as victims of abuse of power.
Chesney‐Lind, Meda
Authors: Burke Alison S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractMeda Chesney‐Lind is firmly established as one of the leading feminist criminologists in the United States. Her attention and research efforts focusing on girls and women in the criminal justice system cover delinquency, gangs, and system responses to female crime. Chesney‐Lind is a prolific writer and researcher and many scholars believe her work, dedicated to delinquent girls, changed the course of criminology.
Crime and the Economy
Authors: Monticelli David M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Crime and the economy are two measurable disciplines that are so intertwined that when one speaks of impacts on one it is difficult not to speak of impacts on the other. Retail companies measure theft in terms of “shrinkage,” insurance companies state that fraudulent claims cost millions of dollars each year and increase the cost of insurance, commercial and residential developers often take into account crime rates before starting new developments, and many investments—such as shopping centers—are eventually lost to crime because the cost of operating them is no longer profitable. Moreover, within the world economy, the impacts of crime in one nation are often felt in another, whether strong or weak, free or closed. There is also a political cost to crime as politicians opt for politically attractive programs while disregarding programs that provide long‐term economic growth and the subsequent benefits therefrom such as lower crime rates. This entry will explore the ways in which crime and the economy interact with each other in a number of select venues.
Police Handling of Crime Victims
Authors: Tucker Jane M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractOver the last 40 years, the treatment of crime victims has changed in the American criminal justice system. Once considered to be only witnesses in the adversarial criminal justice process, political and social movements have drawn attention to the rights of crime victims. This entry reviews the historical treatment of crime victims by police and the criminal justice process. Starting with the development of studies in victimology, the entry reviews social and political movements that made significant changes in the way law enforcement officers handle victims of crime. Specific attention is devoted to victims and crimes that have historically been ignored or minimized by the criminal justice system (i.e., women, children, rape, domestic violence, child abuse).
Critical Criminology
Authors: Schwartz Martin D. , DeKeseredy Walter S. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Critical criminology is an umbrella term that covers a wide range of theories and perspectives on crime, the definition of crime, and crime causation. What they all have in common is an opposition to the core propositions of mainstream, state‐supported, or traditional criminology. They find the origins of crime embedded in the economic structure of society, and in particular the unequal class system, the unequal race and ethnicity systems, and the unequal gender systems of modern societies, all of which result in unequal distributions of power and material resources. Within this framework, critical theorists might place their emphasis on any number of issues, some of which are explained here.
National Prison Congress
Authors: Hanser Robert D. , Bailey Sheldon D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry details the emergence of the National Prison Congress, also sometimes referred to as the National Correctional Congress, which first met in 1870. The activities of this important historical governing body are outlined in this entry. Likewise, the involvement of well‐known persons in the history of American and European corrections is discussed, demonstrating the influential nature of the National Prison Congress to the field of corrections. Due to this historical event, the National Prison Association was established, which is known today as the American Correctional Association.
Intellectual Property Theft
Authors: Warburton Christopher E. S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIntellectual property right is the right to enjoy the benefits of ownership of intangible assets as a result of unique intellectual work. Intangible assets such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets, which confer exclusive rights on their owners to produce and market the unique attributes of their goods under specific conditions and for a legally defined period of time, do not have physical existence like machines and computers. But like machines and computers, which depreciate over a period of time, they also lose value over a period of time that is estimated by amortization. These rights can be violated through the theft of intellectual property, such as copyright and trademark infringement and counterfeiting.
International Crimes
Authors: Elechi Oko , Alaniz Heather , Piper Doshie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractInternational crimes are acts that violate international criminal laws. Crimes such as war crimes, terrorism, human trafficking, arms trafficking, drug trafficking, money laundering, smuggling of cultural artifacts, genocide, piracy, and crimes against humanity are notable examples of international crimes. International crimes have been facilitated by globalization, under‐developed borders, and technological advances. International crimes are a major threat to world peace, global economy, security, and stability. Unlike transnational crimes, international crimes do not need to involve more than one country. Essentially, international crimes are capable of undermining the world order. Laws against international crimes are geared towards the protection and promotion of human rights and environmental causes.
Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: Okereke Godpower O. , Racheotes Peter 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCrimes against humanity is a catch‐all phrase adopted by the international community to refer to crimes committed against civilian populations by individuals or governments on the basis of race, class, religion, ethnicity, and/or political views. Within the past 20 years, the United Nations has set up international criminal tribunals to bring people who commit these crimes to justice. The work of such tribunals in Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Cambodia, and other places, along with the efforts of the International Criminal Court, express the desire of the international community to hold people who violate international customary and humanitarian laws responsible for their actions.
Innocence Project
Authors: Murray Rebecca K. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Innocence Project has become an integral mechanism in freeing individuals who have been wrongly convicted by the criminal justice system, along with other projects that form the Innocence Network. In addition to using DNA testing to demonstrate innocence that may result in exoneration, the Innocence Project has launched efforts to educate the public and criminal justice professionals of the risk of wrongful conviction, especially for the poor and people of color. The Project supports reforms that would reduce risk of wrongful convictions, primarily in the areas of eyewitness identification, forensic evidence, and interrogations. Wrongful conviction, which has been highlighted by the Innocence Project, has also affected the debate on capital punishment.
Retribution
Authors: Mikutis Megan J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA controversial approach to punishment, retribution's roots lie firmly planted in ancient legal codes. Traditionally defined as “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” retributive practices developed to include the revived interest in retribution of the 1970s. These practices, both past and present, includelex talonislaws, just deserts, and other forms of retributive justice. These newly formed derivatives of retribution are founded on the rationale that criminals deserve punishment for their actions, whatever the final outcomes of punishments (i.e., rehabilitation or deterrence). Today, in light of major criticisms, retributive justice is changing as alternatives are being considered.
Political Patronage
Authors: McGrath Michael 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Political patronage is the practice of rewarding supporters of a political leader, party, or organization with jobs, contracts, licenses, or other forms of payment or assistance. Until the late nineteenth century patronage was not only legal in the United States, it was a widely accepted means of mobilizing voters, strengthening political parties, and implementing policy agendas. Public sentiment began to turn against patronage in the late nineteenth century with the growing concern over post‐Civil War corruption in Washington and in some of the country's largest cities. Civil service reforms, changes in municipal government, and court rulings have reduced the blatant “spoils systems” for job seekers which flourished in the nineteenth century, but other forms of patronage continue to exist at the local, state, and federal levels. Contracts, licenses, and other benefits can be given to those who have provided political or financial support for parties and elected officials.
Rioting in America
Authors: Elkins Alexander 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry presents a history of rioting in America through critical analysis of two kinds of street justice: the mob and the police. It provides an overview of four periods—the Revolution, the antebellum era, 1865 to 1920, and 1920 to the present—and, for each, identifies the main grievances and aims of rioters and the structure of police work. The argument is that rioting has reflected a republican commitment to self‐rule as well as the local communal character of policing. For most of its history, the American mob tended to uphold, not challenge, established social hierarchies. This changed after 1920: police departments achieved enough autonomy to rise above the interests of the crowd, and minority citizens began to use extralegal street justice in significant number against the police.
Auburn System
Authors: Randol Blake 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The Auburn system, also commonly referred to as the “congregate system” or “silent system,” established with the opening of New York's Auburn State Prison in 1817, and was widely implemented by a number of other states throughout the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s. The Auburn system represented a departure from the colonial prison system and sought to rehabilitate convicts through routines of “industry, obedience, and silence,” which served as guiding principles for the Auburn model (Christianson 1998). There were numerable abuses that occurred under the Auburn system, including but not limited to grueling slave‐labor practices, corporal punishment, malnourishment, assault, rape, and failure to treat disease and other medical conditions. These reported abuses influenced New York Governor John Hoffman to institute penal reforms that led to the development of the Elmira Reformatory in 1876.
Due Process
Authors: Gentes Eric A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry examines the doctrine of due process, which acts as an important limitation on the actions that government can take against persons, and is made applicable to the federal government through the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution and to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. The entry examines the doctrine's historical and legal development, beginning with English constitutional law; the requirements of procedural due process and substantive due process; and the debate about whether there is a constitutional basis for the latter.