bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Bourdieu, Pierre
Authors: Scambler Sasha 
Published: February 2014

AbstractPierre Bourdieu's work provides an interesting framework for exploring the role of health and health care on our lives and the experiences of people living with illness or disability. The premise upon which the work of Bourdieu is built is that the social world cannot be understood through models or groupings such as that of the family or culture. The phenomena which make up the social world in which we live are not naturally occurring, but are culturally and historically bounded and temporal in nature. Furthermore, they are socially constructed within a structural network of social and power relations. Bourdieu's concepts of field and habitus seek to address the ways in which agency and reflexivity (habitus) are shaped by or embedded within structure (field). The framework he outlines offers a novel way of thinking about the complexities of the everyday experiences of life, incorporating structure and agency and providing a way of categorizing the different forms of currency or capital that we use to negotiate the lifeworld and our place within it.
Health, Self‐Rated
Authors: Christine Snead M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Self‐rated health, or self‐reported health (SRH), is a measurement of a respondent's subjective sense of health. The SRH measure is commonly used to capture a general sense of health from the perspective of the respondent. SRH is both a reliable and a valid measurement of health. It has been used widely to study health, and is an excellent predictor of future health.
Health Inequalities, Work, and Welfare
Authors: Bambra Clare 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
It is well established that the work environment is an important social determinant of health, with hazardous working conditions resulting in poor health. Similarly, the negative association between unemployment and health has been subject to intensive scrutiny. However, what is less established is the contribution of the work environment or unemployment to socioeconomic inequalities in health. This entry examines the contribution that work and unemployment play in determining health inequalities and the mediating impact of the broader political and economic context – “welfare state regimes.”
Mental Health and Religion
Authors: Hill Terrence D. , Mannheimer Andrew H. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The pioneering work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) and numerous subsequent studies show us that mental health varies systematically according to religion. While general religious involvement tends to promote mental health, religious struggles tend to undermine it. Taken together, these patterns are of sociological interest because they emphasize that the mental health of individuals and groups is intimately tied to involvement in institutions of religion.
Embryo and Fetus
Authors: Williams Clare 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
In humans, the word “embryo” is used to describe the early stages of pregnancy, from fertilization of the egg by the sperm and implantation, through to approximately the eighth week of pregnancy. The term “fetus” is used to refer to the unborn offspring from then up until the time of birth. However, the ways in which we think about these entities have shifted over time, and continue to shift.
Widowhood
Authors: Williams Beverly Rosa 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe termwidowhooddesignates the marital status of individuals who have incurred the death of a spouse, but have not remarried. The notion of widowhood as a distinctive position in the social structure is deeply rooted in the norms and practices of human societies. The imposition or assumption of widowed status is a process associated with social and psychological vulnerability, often exacerbated by the absence of a clearly articulated social role. Traditionally, widowed persons were set apart from the larger society and treated deferentially for a specified period of time. The timing and method of reintegration into society has varied over time and across cultures; however, the resumption of social obligations is expected.
Health Care Delivery System: Italy
Authors: Maturo Antonio 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The health care delivery system may be defined as the organized set of functions and activities delivered by the state and its subsystems in order to meet the health needs of the population, respecting the dignity of the individual. In Italy, until 1978, care was based on a system of social insurance connected to the workplace, as in France. In 1978, a reform was enacted and the National Health Care Service was established. Nowadays, the regions have the responsibility for the delivery of health care and patients can freely choose among the public or the accredited private providers. The idea is to promote competition between the providers, making the health care sector more flexible and less bureaucratic. Yet, the competition should not be considered a pure market competition, but as a coordinated competition among structures which have to respect many standards and guidelines (managed competition). In Italy, total health care costs were 9.5 percent of the gross domestic product in 2009: lower than in France and in the United Kingdom and significantly lower than in the United States.
Migration, Stress, and Health
Authors: Xi Juan 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Migration is defined as any permanent change in residence. It has long been seen as a stressful life event because it entails tremendous social and economic costs with uncertain benefits. Depending on situations in both the place of origin and place of destination, the migration experiences vary across individuals. The initial high mental distress and the gradual decline of physical health, however, is a common pattern.
Mental and Physical Gendered Health Links
Authors: Needham Belinda L. , Hill Terrence D. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Mental health research clearly shows that women have higher rates of internalizing disorders, including mood and anxiety disorders, while men have higher rates of externalizing disorders, including impulse control and substance use disorders. Physical health research demonstrates that while women are more likely to have chronic debilitating conditions, such as arthritis and migraines, men are more likely to have life threatening conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and cerebrovascular disease. In this entry, we discuss the evidence that gender differences in mental health contribute to gender differences in physical health.
Professional Deviance
Authors: Banja John 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry discusses various facets of “professional deviance.” Beginning with a characterization of the term, the author will proceed to explain deviating or non‐conforming work behavior as essentially compensatory, meaning that system operators will usually violate rules, protocols, standards, regulations, etc., because they understand the deviation to be necessitated by various pressures exerted by their work reality. The entry concludes with recommendations that might diminish professional deviance, but also notes that such behaviors will predictably occur as byproducts of the human penchant for experimenting and accommodating their work organization's productivity expectations.
Stress Proliferation
Authors: Ward Brian W. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Stress proliferation is defined as the development or expansion of a stressor or set of stressors within and beyond a situation, resulting in additional stressors that were not originally present. In other words, it is the phenomenon of how an initial stressor can produce further stressors. Not only is understanding the function of stress proliferation important in itself, but knowledge of this phenomenon can also help bring better understanding to various physical and mental health outcomes experienced by an individual, and the pathways (whether direct or indirect) that lead to these outcomes.
Parenthood and Health
Authors: Cross Jennifer Moren 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Parenthood is a ubiquitous social role around the world. It represents a paramount role transition and serves as a principal organizing framework for one's life. Given how pervasive parenthood is, there is a surprising paucity of social scientific research on the interplay of parenthood and physical health. Existing evidence largely falls under three domains – socioeconomic, social ties, and health behaviors – and is summarized here.
Substance Abuse and Social Policy
Authors: Freudenberg Nicholas , Heller Daliah 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSubstance use policy regulates psychoactive drug use in society. Since the early twentieth century, national governments and international bodies have enacted legislation, policies, and programs to reduce psychoactive drug use and its related harms. This history reflects an ongoing effort to balance public health and public safety related to substance use, with the emphasis shifting in response to sociopolitical trends. Several sectors, including health care, law enforcement, the military, and national governments play a role in creating substance use policies. Policies can have unintended as well as intended consequences at the local, national, and global levels. By focusing on desired outcomes such as reduced direct and indirect harm associated with drug use, policymakers can increase the likelihood of success.
Impact of Business and Corporate Practices on Health
Authors: Freudenberg Nicholas 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Business and corporate practices play an increasingly important role in shaping population health. They influence every aspect of human experience, from diet, air pollution, work, and health care to personal identity, lifestyle, sexuality, and governance. Businesses influence health through various pathways, including the impact of their production practices on the health of workers and the larger environment, their products on the health and lifestyle of consumers, and their political practices on governance and the ability of the state and civil society to protect public health. Businesses have both positive and negative influences on health; the goal of public health is to propose and implement policies and programs that maximize the former while minimizing the latter. In response to the growing power of corporations to shape health, a variety of countervailing forces have emerged. These include global alliances of governments and civil society groups that set standards for corporate behaviors that influence health, non‐governmental organizations that take action to promote corporate social responsibility for health, government regulation, and social movements and advocacy campaigns to modify harmful business practices.
Social Psychology and the Stress Process
Authors: McLeod Jane D. , Caputo Jennifer L. , Erving Christy L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The stress process model has deep roots in the symbolic interactionist and social structure and personality traditions within sociological social psychology. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the centrality of meaning in social life, an emphasis that informs a key tenet of stress research that the effects of stressors on outcomes depend on their meanings to the person. The social structure and personality tradition emphasizes the macro‐structural origins of proximate life experiences, an emphasis that is evident in research on the role of stress in health inequality. The greatest potential contributions of social psychology to research on the stress process combine these emphases in analyses of the macro‐structural and interactional origins of the meanings of stressors.
Stress and Migration
Authors: Shuval Judith T. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Stress occurs when an individual confronts a salient situation in which her/his usual modes of behavior are inadequate and the consequences of not adapting are sufficiently disturbing to result in a disruption in homeostasis. Situations are not objectively stressful but are constructed as such by individuals in terms of social and cultural norms. Stress may be viewed as both a cause and a consequence of migration. On the causative level, stress in any given location may act as a motivator of migration – when people believe that they can reduce stress and improve their overall situation by migrating to a different setting. In order for stress to serve as an effective motivator, two conditions are required: (a) a level of stress which is perceived as sufficiently powerful and salient to justify uprooting oneself and one's family from a familiar setting; (b) knowledge about the destination and a belief that conditions there will provide less stress and a more satisfactory setting.
Euthanasia
Authors: Castra Michel 
Published: February 2014

AbstractWhile the notion of euthanasia has been used to depict quite different, and even contradictory, practices, the emergence of this issue is indicative both of a transformation in the way medicine approaches the end of life, and of a new relationship between medicine and society. This is demonstrated in the range of legal and political claims that are made in different countries as assertions of a right to die. These claims articulate a new individualization of death through their characterization of the last days of life.
Pollution and Purity
Authors: van der Geest Sjaak 
Published: February 2014

Abstract“Pollution” and “purity” form a classic conceptual pair in cultural anthropology, mostly applied to ritual status. The solemn and somewhat archaic tone of the two terms betrays their religious pedigree, but pollution and purity are basically about very mundane matters: being dirty and being clean. These everyday experiences lend themselves eminently as metaphors to express positive or negative valuation of nearly everything in human lives. Their efficacy as metaphors lies in the intense visceral emotions of aversion and attraction concerning what is physically dirty or clean. “Dirt” and “cleanliness” may therefore be better terms for an anthropological discourse on everyday experience and the emotions of disgust and desire.
ICT inHealth Care
Authors: Winthereik Brit Ross 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe digitalization of health care work began gaining momentum in the 1990s in Europe and the United States. Since then social studies of information and communication technology (ICT) have taken a substantial interest in health care organizations as sites of investigation. Often based on detailed ethnographies of technology usage and clinical work, sociological and anthropological studies of ICT point to the local and contingent nature of standardized technologies and procedures in health care institutions. One of the conclusions is that to understand technological and procedural standardization – or attempts to standardize – it is crucial to be attentive to dynamic and complex interplays between ICT and its social environment.
Traditional Health Services Utilization among Cancer Patients in Western Countries
Authors: Broom Alex , Kirby Emma 
Published: February 2014

AbstractTraditional health services – including traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines – are playing an increasingly prominent role in Western cancer care, with up to 80 percent of patients utilizing some form of non‐conventional care. The resurgence in public interest in and use of traditional health services reflects a contemporary waning in deference to, and singular reliance on, conventional cancer care. Moreover, it reflects shifting sociocultural values regarding the body, illness, and disease including those related to subjectivity, individualization, agency, and holistic care. While the limits of conventional cancer care have received significant attention, the limits and cultural impacts of traditional health services have received relatively little attention, and warrant exploration to unpack their interplay with recent movements to devolve responsibility to individuals and citizens for their health and well‐being.
Medical School Socialization
Authors: Hafferty Frederic , Cruess Richard L. , Cruess Sylvia R. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractIssues of socialization and the occupational formation of future physicians form an essential foundation for how educators understand and then improve the training of medical students. In this entry, we link early sociological studies of medical school training to the broader conceptual framework of how occupational groups such as medicine ensure that its future practitioners acquire the knowledge, skills, and values that underscore the work of that group. We then explore important conceptual distinctions between occupational and organizational socialization and examine how the structure of training and differences among learning environments help to shape professional identity. We conclude with an overview of current research on medical student socialization and the challenges raised by major initiatives such as longitudinal training, reforming the hidden curriculum, and interprofessional education.
Vaccination
Authors: Moulin Anne Marie 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe principle of vaccination was discovered more than three centuries ago. The many vaccines that have been introduced at distinct times as an official tool for public health have had a considerable impact on societies. Once the instrument of nation‐states, their use is increasingly scrutinized by citizens privileging individual choices. The demand for scientific information has created a permanent forum where ancient and novel strategies and vaccines are discussed – a good model within the social sciences for the study of decision‐making.
HIV/AIDS and Gender
Authors: Mwaria Mercy 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
As HIV/AIDS moves on to its third decade since the initial reported cases, the epidemic continues to wreak havoc on many population groups in the world. Gender is a socially defined construct, which suggests that society assigns and defines roles for men and women and expects them to behave in certain ways. Gender is an important factor in understanding how various sections of the population experience HIV/AIDS and the kinds of risks they face. It is imperative that HIV/AIDS prevention agencies and programs consider how gender intersects with the particular risk factors that they seek to reduce or eliminate among the populations that they serve. A careful consideration of the influence of gender roles in HIV/AIDS care and prevention will ensure that these service providers optimize benefits and address risk determinants among the specific populations that they serve.
Animal Health
Authors: Spencer Adam 
Published: February 2014

AbstractFor as long as humans have lived, our fates have been intimately bound up with the lives of the other animals with which we share the planet. In the earliest days ofhomo sapiensanimals posed both a threat to human life and also a valuable source of food. The development of farming provided a means to utilize the food value of particular animals without the inconvenience and uncertainty of the hunt. As well as food animals, humans have domesticated some species of animals as pets. Today the relationship between animal and human health remains very close, and deserving of the attentions of social scientists.
Professional Trust
Authors: Cruess Richard L. , Cruess Sylvia R. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSociologists state that professions exist as a means of organizing the delivery of the complex services required by society, including health care. In granting professional status to medicine and other healthcare disciplines, society establishes a social contract based on professionalism. As a part of this contract, medicine and other health care professions are granted a monopoly over the use of their knowledge base (licensure), considerable autonomy in practice, the privilege of self or profession led regulation, prestige and financial rewards. In return, the members of the professions and their institutions are expected to be altruistic, abide by codes of ethics, assure the competence of practitioners, and address issues of societal concern within their domains. Essential to the success of this “bargain” is professional trust.
Clinical Trials
Authors: Will Catherine M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The rise of randomized controlled trials, and their current hegemony, in much of medicine is an important topic in social science. Safety and efficacy trials in both healthy volunteers and patients have been required in many countries for approval of drugs since the 1960s, and are also carried out to further the marketing of new drugs as well as investigate their “effectiveness” in general use. According to theorists of “regulatory objectivity,” trials may be seen as serving organizations who wish to regulate professional work, thus appearing to replace or displace clinical judgment. Sociologists have been concerned to explore the practical workings of these medical experiments and the experience of participants. Here debates among physicians, scientists, and patients about appropriate designs have been of particular interest, most prominently around the case of AIDS activism in the 1990s, informing wider debates about lay involvement or expertise in medicine and science.
Childbearing, International Practices
Authors: Goode Keisha , Rothman Barbara Katz , Chen Kuan‐Yi , Stone Nancy 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Childbirth, like other social practices, is influenced and affected by the society in which it occurs. In this entry is a snapshot of nine countries (Ghana, South Africa, China, Philippines, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Brazil, and Peru), representative of four continents throughout the world. Though there are certainly many world regional patterns of childbirth, a detailed account of select countries offers a rich insight into the interconnectedness of childbirth with the social, political and economic system(s) of a given society. They vary widely, but in many cases are similar, in primary providership, model of care, and rates of mortality, morbidity, and cesarean section, among other vital statistics.
Biology and Life Sciences
Authors: Crowe Nathan 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe fields that constitute the life sciences experienced dramatic changes during the twentieth century. From 1901 to 2000, the life sciences splintered into hundreds of specializations: older disciplines fractured into more specific subjects and new disciplines arose from advances in knowledge and technology. Moreover, at the beginning of the century the public had little exposure to the life sciences, reflecting not only the subject's popularity, but also its perceived utility. By 2000, however, discoveries about new genes, drugs, and diseases could be found everywhere, and the life sciences generated immense excitement for both scientists and the general public.
Street Children and Gendered Health Consequences
Authors: Shephard Daniel D. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractMillions of children spend a majority of their time working and living on the streets without adequate adult supervision. These street children are exposed to many health risks due to poverty, hazardous work, lack of service access, and abuse. This exposure is also highly gendered within the street child population. Boys make up the vast majority of street children and therefore are more exposed to many of these risks. Girls are less likely to enter into street life, but once they are there, they are at elevated risk for poor physical and mental health. While research on street children's exposure to health risks has advanced in recent decades, there is a lack of gender‐disaggregated data. The little data that exist suggest that boys are more likely to be addicted to drugs while girls suffer from more mental illness, sexual health problems, and general physical ailments.