bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Privacy
Authors: Stiles Paul G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

In its simplest form,
privacy
is a term that describes a person's right “to be left alone”—to keep things about themselves out of the public domain, and selectively control disclosures of such information. Privacy should be distinguished from
confidentiality
(protection of information typically gained in a professional context) and
privilege
(information protected in a legal context). The
right to privacy
has a long history in American jurisprudence, evolving from the concept of slander and libel in tort law to the recognition by the U.S. Supreme Court of a constitutional right to privacy. Clinical psychologists should be aware of privacy provisions in the American Psychological Association Code of Conduct as well as several state and federal laws (e.g., Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) and take appropriate actions to put in place policies, training, and technology to ensure the privacy of their clients and others is protected.
W
itmer,
L
ightner (1867–1956)
Authors: Routh Donald K. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Lightner Witmer (1867–1956) founded the first psychology clinic in the world in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1907 he gave clinical psychology its name and began publication of the first scholarly journal in the field, The Psychological Clinic. He trained the first generation of clinical psychology PhD students. His work was also important in the development of the related fields of speech pathology, vocational counseling, and school psychology.
Amicus Brief
Authors: Modecki Kathryn Lynn 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Filing amicus briefs in strategic legal cases is, arguably, one of the central means by which psychologists realize public policy objectives. The American Psychological Association (
APA
) regularly submits amicus curie or “friend of the court” briefs in legal cases to which psychological research might usefully inform the evidence base. Several authors argue that social scientists have a duty of care to inform legal policy, which otherwise might be based on anecdotal experience or on judicial assumptions regarding human nature. However, these experts also encourage cautious optimism around the role of
APA
amicus curie briefs in judicial decision making. Social scientists, they advise, should bear in mind the myriad of other issues, both legal and practical, that the judiciary will necessarily consider when making its decisions, beyond the body of research described in
APA
amicus briefs.
Training Models in Clinical Psychology
Authors: Routh Donald K. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThere are three major training models in American clinical psychology, all of which require a doctoral degree: the scientist–practitioner model (Boulder conference, 1949), the scholar–practitioner model (Vail conference, 1973), and the clinical scientist model (Bloomington conference, 1994). Elsewhere in the world, there is a distinctive British model, approved in 1987, requiring a doctor of clinical psychology degree, and EuroPsy, the generic model approved by the European Federation of Psychologists' Associations, requiring the equivalent of a research‐based master's degree plus a year supervised postgraduate professional experience.
Intellectual Disability
Authors: Schalock Robert L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThis article focuses on intellectual disability, a construct that is operationally based on demonstration of significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. It must also be manifest prior to age 18. The article discusses intellectual disability in the context of an ecological model of disability that considers human functioning across multiple dimensions and views etiology as multifactorial. The article describes current thinking about best practices regarding the conceptualization and clinical/community support of individuals with intellectual disability. In particular, it advocates for the use of classification systems that take into account the multiple dimensions of human functioning and recommends aligning person‐ and service‐delivery classification and support practices.
S
kinner,
B
.
F
. (1904–90)
Authors: Vargas Julie S. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

B. F. Skinner (1904–90) developed a science of behavior based upon selection by consequences. Based on his laboratory research in which he documented moment‐to‐moment changes in the rate of behavior under differing contingencies, he began what became known as behavior analysis. In his book
Verbal Behavior
, Skinner extended his analysis to contingencies over talking and thinking without appealing to internal structures or processes. Linguists and psychologists objected to the neglect of internal agencies they considered necessary to account for the complexity of language. Skinner addressed cultural design in
Walden Two
and
Beyond Freedom and Dignity
. In the latter, he argued that to create what we call freedom, contingencies that control our behavior must be addressed. Critics maintained that one's destiny resides inside each individual, an essentialist position that Skinner consistently opposed. Skinner combined laboratory research, invention of practical devices, philosophical writings, cultural design, and behavioral technology, all within a behavioral science that promoted reinforcing properties of actions as a way to improve the human condition.
Amnesic Defense
Authors: Jelicic Marko , Merckelbach Harald 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Offenders, especially those who have committed violent crimes, often claim memory loss for their criminal acts. Various explanations for this type of amnesia have been proposed. One explanation is that, due to excessive alcohol consumption, drug use, or a medical condition at the time of the offense, individuals are unable to store information into memory. A second explanation holds that, due to a mismatch in mood during and after the offense, offenders are unable to retrieve details of their crime. A third explanation contends that a substantial portion of individuals claiming memory loss for their crime are feigning their amnesia in order to obstruct police investigation and/or reduce responsibility for their acts. Tools and strategies to evaluate the authenticity of crime‐related amnesia are addressed.
Evolution
Authors: Sela Yael , Shackelford Todd K. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractEvolution by natural selection is the only known process capable of producing complex biological systems. Natural selection drives evolution and produces change over time in gene frequencies in a population. Organisms are vehicles for genes, and continually struggle to survive and reproduce. Adaptive problems resulting in differential reproductive success give rise to evolved inherited traits, or adaptations. All organisms possess adaptations constructed by natural selection, which exist because they propagate the genes that built them. Evolution is the only theory that offers a causal, naturalistic explanation for the striking diversity of life on Earth. Speciation occurs when lineages split, such that all life is related through common ancestry. This knowledge provides a unifying, metatheoretical framework for the life and social sciences, and is a source from which to generate novel hypotheses. When evolution by natural selection is properly understood and applied, nothing in the life and social sciences makes sense except in the light of evolution.
Attention/Cognitive Bias Modification
Authors: Schofield Casey A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Cognitive bias modification (
CBM
) refers to a variety of computer‐based tasks designed to manipulate cognitive processes (e.g., attention and interpretation) that are proposed to play a role in the development and maintenance of emotional disorders. Via repetition of simple tasks,
CBM
procedures are designed to “train” cognitive biases that preferentially process disorder‐congruent information. Cognitive theories propose that modification of these biases will result in reduced emotionality in the face of subsequent stressors. Empirical work evaluating
CBM
procedures has demonstrated that
CBM
reliably modifies cognitive processes of attention and interpretation, although the strength of the effect varies across study parameters. The impact of
CBM
on emotionality is less clear, although the current evidence suggests these procedures may have some benefit in clinical populations. Important limitations exist in the current research, including limited work evaluating the endurance of these effects.
M
eyer,
A
dolf (1866–1950)
Authors: Muller René J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Adolf Meyer (1866–1950) was the most influential psychiatrist of his time in North America—until his concept of mental illness and its treatment was superseded first by Freud's psychoanalysis, then by biological psychiatry. By putting a patient's freedom front and center, and construing most mental illness as a misuse of freedom that wounds both mind and body, Meyer sought to overcome the limitations he believed our Cartesian heritage had placed on understanding the thoughts, emotions, and actions of those who are mentally ill. His psychobiology was an attempt to characterize the ultimately inseparable psychological and biological changes that are part and parcel of pathologically altered mental states.
Structured versus Semistructured versus Unstructured Interviews
Authors: Mueller Anne E. , Segal Daniel L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe clinical diagnostic interview is used in the mental health field to help clinicians assign reliable and valid psychiatric diagnoses. This diagnostic process has significant applications in both clinical and research settings. Clinical interviews vary with respect to how much structure they have, ranging from completely unstructured to completely structured. This entry reviews three types of clinical diagnostic interview (unstructured, semistructured, and fully structured interviews) and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of each. The entry also includes a brief review of popular semistructured and structured diagnostic interviews for clinical and personality disorders.
Client‐Centered Therapy
Authors: Erekson David M. , Lambert Michael J. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractDeveloped in the 1940s by the American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902–87), client‐centered psychotherapy is focused on the client taking responsibility for discoveries and decisions in psychotherapy while the therapist creates an optimal growth environment through genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard. Client‐centered theory posits that each individual's experience is divided into a conscious self‐concept and an organismic self, or who one believes one should be and who one truly is, respectively. In an optimal change environment, clients find congruency between these two and shift from being guided by external frameworks to being guided by inner experiences. Client‐centered psychotherapy is supported by research as efficacious and has been provided to children and adults for a broad range of problems and diagnoses.
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders/Somatoform Disorders
Authors: Bledowski Jozef , Levenson James 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The
DSM‐5
somatic symptom and related disorders category refers to a spectrum of psychological conditions, which primarily manifest with physical symptoms that are associated with abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In previous editions of the
DSM
, analogous conditions were referred to as somatoform disorders and required that associated physical symptoms could not be entirely accounted for by an underlying medical condition, another psychiatric condition, or the effects of a substance. Prior to the publication of the
DSM‐5
, the psychiatric diagnostic classification system listed seven somatoform disorders, which were somatization disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, conversion disorder, pain disorder, hypochondriasis, body dysmorphic disorder, and somatoform disorder, not otherwise specified. Somatization disorder was the flagship diagnosis in this category. With the advent of
DSM‐5
, somatization disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, most of pain disorder, and hypochondriasis were combined and redefined as somatic symptom disorder, and the focus of the diagnostic criteria was changed.
Risk Assessment/Violence Prediction, Sexual Offenders
Authors: Jeglic Elizabeth L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSex offender risk assessment and violence prediction have evolved over the past two decades due to a need to effectively manage sex offenders and protect public safety. The two main types of sex offender risk assessment are clinical and actuarial. Actuarial methods have been shown to be more effective in predicting both sexual and violent recidivism among this population. Although numerous actuarial instruments have been developed, only a few, such as the revised Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool (MnSOST‐R) and the Static‐99, have received sufficient empirical support to be utilized in sex offender decision making.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (
REBT
)
Authors: David Daniel 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Rational emotive behavior therapy (
REBT
) was the first form of cognitive behavioral therapy founded by the American psychologist Albert Ellis. According to the
ABC
model of
REBT
, the impact of various activating events (e.g., the death of a close relative; A) on various psychological consequences (C) is mediated by cognitive processes (cognitions/beliefs; B).
REBT
focuses on specific cognitions, namely rational and irrational beliefs. Rational beliefs are logically, empirically, and/or pragmatically supported, and generate functional consequences (e.g., functional feelings, adaptive behaviors). Irrational beliefs are illogical, nonempirical, and/or nonpragmatic, and generate dysfunctional consequences (e.g., dysfunctional feelings, maladaptive behaviors).
REBT
has been tested in hundreds of studies and summarized in various meta‐analyses/reviews, which support the main ideas of the original theory and the general efficacy/effectiveness of practice, but also invalidate some proposals of the original model.
REBT
supports a progressive research program and innovative practice in the clinical field.
Panic Disorder
Authors: Bunaciu Liviu , Feldner Matthew T. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Panic disorder (
PD
) has been well studied over the last four decades. This entry provides an overview of the presenting features and clinical correlates of
PD
, and it reviews the primary psychobiological risk factors associated with this condition. Following a discussion of prominent existing models of etiology and maintenance, a review of assessment methods and empirically supported pharmacological and psychological treatments of
PD
is presented.
Computerized Psychotherapy
Authors: Andersson Gerhard 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Computerized psychotherapy can take many forms, including stand‐alone programs, virtual reality programs, cognitive bias modification, and different types of internet‐delivered psychotherapy. Of these, internet‐based cognitive behavioral therapy (ICBT) is the most well‐investigated format. There have been more than 60 controlled studies on ICBT, and it has been shown that when guidance is provided, ICBT can be as effective as face‐to‐face psychotherapy. A therapeutic alliance is formed in ICBT with the internet therapist, but it is unclear if specific therapist skills are needed or if administrative support is enough. Guided ICBT has been developed and tested for a range of problems, including anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and health problems such as chronic pain. Challenges faced include negative attitudes towards computerized psychotherapy and dissemination.
High‐Risk Designs
Authors: Alloy Lauren B. , Boland Elaine M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
High‐risk designs are considered one of the most powerful methods for testing hypotheses about vulnerabilities, risk factors, and potential causal processes involved in various forms of psychopathology. There are two specific types of high‐risk designs: genetic high‐risk designs and behavioral high‐risk designs, which became more prevalent in the psychological community following early landmark studies in the realms of schizophrenia and mood disorders research. High‐risk designs continue to be a popular methodological choice for studies of stress‐diathesis models of the etiology and course of many psychological disorders. High‐risk designs can generate more specific information about predictors of illness onset and course, and allow for the examination of potential moderating variables that may serve to protect some participants from developing the disorder.
Homework in Psychotherapy
Authors: Petrik Alexandra M. , Kazantzis Nikolaos 
Published: January 2015

AbstractHomework in psychotherapy is defined as between‐session tasks or activities that provide therapeutic benefit for the client. Homework is used extensively across a broad range of therapeutic approaches and for a large number of client presentations. The role of homework varies among psychotherapies, playing a more central role in some approaches than others (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy). Empirical evidence supports the benefits of homework in promoting positive symptom change and increasing client functioning. Some of the important elements identified within this area of research include homework adherence and homework quality. Methodological considerations and implications for clinical practice and training are discussed.
Criminal Profiling
Authors: Turvey Brent E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Criminal profiling refers to any means of inferring the traits of individuals responsible for committing criminal acts. Professionals involved in the practice of criminal profiling have historically included behavioral scientists, social scientists, forensic scientists and criminal investigators. Generally, profiling methods tend to be either inductive/nomothetic or deductive/idiographic. Nomothetic methods include diagnostic evaluations, criminal investigative analysis, and to a lesser extent investigative psychology. Idiographic methods include only behavioral evidence analysis. When applied to unsolved cases, some of these methods have been used to help identify criminals, narrow suspect lists, assist with case linkage, develop leads, and design investigative strategies. In court, criminal profilers are often quite limited. They commonly testify on subjects related to their analysis, such as victimology, motive, modus operandi, and case linkage. However, direct opinions about the profile of an offender are often considered unreliable and therefore inadmissible as evidence.
Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.)
Authors: Hanson David J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) is an in‐school drug education program created in 1983 by the Los Angeles Police Department, with assistance from the local school district. The program, taught by uniformed police officers, was later modified to include the topics of anger management, conflict resolution, and violence reduction. It is now used in about 75% of the school districts in the United States and in 43 other countries. Major developments in the rapid growth of D.A.R.E. are described, followed by a review of evaluation research findings, virtually all of which are negative and sometimes indicate that the program has been counterproductive in efforts to reduce drug use. For this reason a new curriculum, “Keepin' it
REAL
,” has been developed and implemented. However, this program needs to be tested systematically before conclusions about its effectiveness can be drawn.
Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome
Authors: Malloy Lindsay C. , Mugno Allison P. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome is a theory of children's reactions to sexual abuse. It describes the process by which some children disclose sexual abuse and the factors that may affect children's willingness to disclose and maintain allegations of sexual abuse over time. It includes the following five components: (a) secrecy; (b) helplessness; (c) entrapment and accommodation; (d) delayed, conflicted, and unconvincing disclosure; and (e) retraction. Considerable controversy exists regarding the theory, and it has been the focus of much debate in the psychological and legal fields. Debate has focused on three main issues: (a) whether the model can be used accurately to diagnose sexual abuse, (b) the appropriate use of the model in legal contexts, and (c) whether there is empirical support for child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome.
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Authors: McGuire Joseph F. , Crawford Erika A. , Storch Eric A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractObsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric condition affecting 1–2% of children and adults. It is characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions that cause impairment and/or distress. This entry provides an overview of the phenomenology, diagnostic history, etiology, clinical presentation, assessment, and treatment ofOCD. Innovative developments and future directions forOCDresearch are briefly discussed.
Functional Analysis
Authors: Haynes Stephen N. , O'Brien William H. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The functional analysis is strongly associated with the behavioral assessment and behavior analysis paradigms. It is often defined as the identification of variables that influence a person's behavior through systematic and repeated manipulation of proximal antecedent and consequent events while observing concomitant changes in the target behavior, for the purpose of guiding intervention strategies. The functional analysis has also been operationalized as a strategy for clinical case formulation. This entry describes the development of the functional analysis, its basic tenets and conceptual foundations, and methods of obtaining information about functional relations that are part of the functional analysis. The entry also provides examples of its clinical applications.
Moral Treatment
Authors: Charland Louis C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Moral treatment refers to a psychological approach to treating mental disorder that arose across Europe and North America around the turn of the eighteenth century. It is mostly associated with the French physician Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) and the English Quaker philanthropist William Tuke (1732–1819). Pinel and Tuke each independently developed their own distinct models of the once popular therapy known as moral treatment. Although moral treatment is often considered to have been a successful therapy in its early years, it was eventually replaced by custodial care on a mass scale and became a travesty of its earlier self.
Exposure‐Based Therapies
Authors: Abramowitz Jonathan S. , Fabricant Laura E. , Jacoby Ryan J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Exposure therapy is a set of psychological treatment procedures designed to reduce pathological fear in individuals with anxiety problems. This entry provides an overview of the history, goals, implementation, and uses of exposure‐based therapies, along with a discussion of the empirical evidence regarding their effectiveness and efficacy. The entry also discusses the use of exposure‐based therapies for specific anxiety disorders.