bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cognitive assessment
Authors: Powell Graham E. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractPsychometric methods based on classical test theory have permitted the development of reliable and valid tests assessing a wide range of intellectual and cognitive functions. Test results assist in formulation and diagnosis, guide rehabilitation and management, provide baseline measures to detect change, and generally assist clinical decision-making regarding such issues as capacity. Tests and assessment procedures are being further developed so as to improve their ecological validity, enabling better prediction of real-life behaviour and functioning.
Neurotransmitters and signalling
Authors: Sharp Trevor 
Published: January 2013

AbstractBy the end of the 19th century it was recognized that signalling from one neurone to the next occurs at specialized contacts – Sherrington coined the term ‘synapse’. It took another 50 years for scientists to accept that information passes between neurones principally through the movement across synapses of chemicals and not electrical current. Today changes in chemical transmission at brain synapses are accepted as being key to the successful drug treatment, and cause, of many forms of psychiatric illness. This article focuses on general aspects of chemical transmission and describes some recent advances relevant to psychiatry that point the direction of future research. Otto Loewi identified the first chemical neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, in 1921. Today evidence suggests that there are many tens if not hundreds of molecules in the brain that have neurotransmitter properties. These molecules include not only the three major classes of neurotransmitters—amines, amino acids and neuropeptides—but also specific purines, trophic factors, inflammatory mediators (chemokines and cytokines), lipids, and even gases. Examples of molecules that serve neurotransmitter functions in the brain are listed in Table 2.3.4.1. This list is not exhaustive and more are likely to be discovered.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Authors: Bullmore E. T. , Suckling J. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a relatively new technique for measuring changes in cerebral blood flow. The first fMRI studies, showing functional activation of the occipital cortex by visual stimulation and activation of the motor cortex by finger movement, were published in the early 1990s. In the years since then, fMRI has been used to investigate the physiological response to a wide variety of experimental procedures in both normal human subjects and diverse patient groups. In the next 10 years, fMRI will probably establish a role for itself in radiological and psychiatric practice; currently the clinical role of fMRI is limited to specialized applications such as assessment of hemispheric dominance prior to neurosurgery. The outstanding advantage of fMRI over alternative methods of imaging cerebral blood flow, such as positron emission tomo-graphy (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), is that it does not involve exposure to radioactivity. This means that a single subject can safely be examined by fMRI on many occasions, and that the ethical problems of examining patients are minimized. Functional MRI also has superior spatial resolution (in the order of millimetres) and temporal resolution (in the order of seconds) compared with PET and SPECT. In this chapter, we provide an introduction to technical issues relevant to fMRI data acquisition, study design, and analysis. An introduction to the basic physical principles of magnetization and nuclear magnetic resonance, and the technology, is given in Chapter 2.3.7. Many excellent specialist texts covering all aspects of functional magnetic resonance imaging are available for the reader seeking more detailed treatment of the issues.
Psychoneuroimmunology
Authors: Dantzer Robert , Kelley Keith W. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMind-body literature, in the form of magazines and self-help books on stress and healing, is full of definitive claims for the existence of powerful influences of emotions and psychosocial stressors on the immune system, leading to onset or progression of cancers or infectious diseases. This literature often makes explicit reference to research in psychoneuroimmunology to support these claims. Psychoneuroimmunology is a multi-disciplinary field that has grown rapidly during the last three decades at the crossroads of immunology, behavioural neurosciences, neuroendocrinology, and psychology. It studies mechanisms and functional aspects of bidirectional relationships between the brain and the immune system. Although still controversial, there is evidence that psychological events including emotions can and do influence the outcome of infectious, autoimmune, and neoplastic diseases via modulation of cells of the immune system. A surprising finding has been that immune events occurring in the periphery also affect mood, behaviour, and metabolism by modulating brain functions, thereby providing a biologically important link between the immune system and brain. The original discovery that activation of the innate immune system in the periphery causes clinical signs of sickness that are processed in the brain is now being extended to the involvement of the immune system in depressive disorders. This new information has solidified the idea that neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, neural pathways, and immune-derived signals such as cytokines are the minimal essential elements that permit the immune system and brain to communicate with one another. These new data offer the unexpected conclusion that the immune system is likely to be involved in not only how emotions affect health but also how immune events regulate the development and expression of emotions.
Developmental psychology through infancy, childhood, and adolescence
Authors: Yule William , Woolgar Matt 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTaking a developmental perspective to mental health issues should apply across the lifespan. Psychiatrists working with adults need to understand where their clients are coming from and where they are going to. They need to understand the pleasures and pressures that children bring to their parents, and where appropriate they should be considering the impact of parental illness on the children. The institutionalized separation of child and adult psychiatry (in terms of service delivery) should not lead to a separation in ways of considering the developmental context of presenting problems. This chapter has shown that there are many small, focused models of development that deal with discrete areas of development. Stage theories emphasize differences at different stages; social learning theories emphasize continuities on processes of development. As long as practitioners are aware that when they say a child is at a particular stage, this is but a rough guide to describing the child, which may be fine. It is when such models are taken literally, that oversimplification leads to poor practice. There is no one overarching theory of child development and while this may be inconvenient for examiners, it truly reflects the rich diversity of human development. By paying more attention to the interactions between biological, social, and psychological factors, a better understanding of healthy, normal development will emerge. Empirical studies will help identify risk and protective factors which in turn will lead to better mental health promotion and more effective interventions when mental disorders manifest.
Psychology and biology of memory
Authors: Meyer-Lindenberg Andreas , Goldberg Terry E. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMemory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. This cognitive function plays a key role in psychiatry. Dementia and the amnesic disorders have memory dysfunction as a defining feature. Intrusive and recurrent emotional memories are one of the most distressing symptoms in post-traumatic stress disorder. Although not as obvious, problems with memory are also commonly revealed on testing in schizophrenia. Remembered episodes are often a focus in psychotherapy, as is the acquisition of new habits and response patterns. An ability to understand and assess memory is therefore important for the practising psychiatrist. In this chapter, basic neurobiological and psychological information on memory will be reviewed. We have tried to cover a very broad field in a concise manner and give the interested reader a sense of the key memory systems and subsystems that are thought to be important for human information processing in health and in disease. We have emphasized the conceptual over the theoretical and key findings over the experimental details where possible. At times, we have not carefully separated the cognitive and neuroanatomical levels of analysis, both because they are sometimes almost inextricably bound and because it made our explanations clearer not to do so. Necessarily but not happily, we have omitted many important and active areas of investigation.
Dementia: Alzheimer's disease
Authors: Lovestone Simon 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAlzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementias incur huge costs to society, to the families of those affected, and to the individuals themselves. Costs to society include both direct costs to health and social services and indirect economic costs in terms of lost productivity, as carers are taken out of the workplace, and the economic costs to those families caring for or funding the care of their relative. Increasingly, as treatments become available, these costs are targets for change and are part of the cost–benefit analysis of new compounds, especially the largest single direct cost, that of the provision of nursing and other forms of continuing care. Apart from the financial cost to families there is the emotional impact resulting in distress and psychiatric morbidity. As the population ages, these costs pose substantial social and economic problems. Although lifespan itself has remained static, the numbers of elderly in both developed and developing societies is increasing rapidly. In the developed world the sharpest projected growth is in the very elderly cohort—precisely the one that is at most risk of AD. Within the developing world, the total number of elderly people is projected to rise substantially, reflecting to a large part better child health and nutrition. For countries in South America and Asia, with large and growing populations, the costs involved in caring for people with dementia in the future will become an increasing burden on health and social services budgets. In the absence of such services families will inevitably shoulder the main part of providing care, although the very process of development is associated with increasing urbanization and, to some degree, a diminution of the security provided by extended family structures.
Frontotemporal dementias
Authors: Gustafson Lars , Brun Arne 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Nosological classification of organic dementia is based on current knowledge and theories of aetiology, including genetics, clinical picture, the pathological substrate, and the predominant location of brain damage. This chapter is concerned with dementia syndromes caused by a degenerative disease primarily affecting the frontal and temporal lobes, named frontal-lobe dementia or frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The terminology should be viewed from a historical perspective. The relationship between localized cortical atrophy in dementia and symptoms of aphasia was first reported by Pick in 1892. The pathological account of this lobar degeneration by Alzheimer in 1911 described ‘ballooned’ neurones (Pick cells) and argentophilic globes (Pick bodies), and the clinicopathological entity was named Pick's disease. In the 1980s, attention was drawn to a larger group of frontal-lobe dementias associated with frontotemporal cortical degeneration. The Lund–Manchester consensus of 1994 delineated the prototypical clinical syndrome of FTD with three neuropathological constituents, frontal lobe degeneration of non-Alzheimer type (FLD), (alternatively designated ‘dementia lacking distinctive histology’), Pick's disease, and motor neurone disease (MND) with dementia (FTD-MND). The 1998 consensus on clinical diagnostic criteria for frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) encompassed two additional dementia syndromes; progressive non-fluent aphasia (PA), and semantic dementia. Corticobasal degeneration (CBD) and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) have also been associated with FTLD. A changing clinical classification is shown in Fig. 4.1.3.1. The addition of important genetic and histochemical characteristics has further added to the complex classification of FTD and FTLD with a risk of developing numerous and partly competing definitions. FTLD may be further subclassified into forms positive or negative for tau and ubiquitin. The ubiquitinated form will be referred to as FTD-U, which is synonymous to FLTD-U.
Prion disease
Authors: Collinge John 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe human prion diseases, also known as the subacute spongiform encephalopathies, have been traditionally classified into Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), Gerstmann–Sträussler syndrome (GSS) (also known as Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker disease), and kuru. Although rare, affecting about 1–2 per million worldwide per annum, remarkable attention has been recently focused on these diseases. This is because of the unique biology of the transmissible agent or prion, and also because bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), an epidemic bovine prion disease, appears to have transmitted to humans as variant CJD (vCJD), opening the possibility of a significant threat to public health through dietary exposure to infected tissues. The transmissibility of the human diseases was demonstrated with the transmission, by intracerebral inoculation with brain homogenates into chimpanzees, of first kuru and then CJD in 1966 and 1968, respectively. Transmission of GSS followed in 1981. The prototypic prion disease is scrapie, a naturally occurring disease of sheep and goats, which has been recognized in Europe for over 200 years and which is present in the sheep flocks of many countries. Scrapie was demonstrated to be transmissible by inoculation in 1936 and the recognition that kuru, and then CJD, resembled scrapie in its histopathological appearances led to the suggestion that these diseases may also be transmissible. Kuru reached epidemic proportions amongst the Fore linguistic group in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea and was transmitted by ritual cannibalism. Since the cessation of cannibalism in the 1950s the disease has declined but a few cases still occur as a result of the long incubation periods in this condition, which may exceed 50 years. The term Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease was introduced by Spielmeyer in 1922 bringing together the case reports published by Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Several of these cases would not meet modern diagnostic criteria for CJD and indeed it was not until the demonstration of transmissibility allowed diagnostic criteria to be reassessed and refined that a clear diagnostic entity developed. All these diseases share common histopathological features; the classical triad of spongiform vacuolation (affecting any part of the cerebral grey matter), astrocytic proliferation, and neuronal loss, may be accompanied by the deposition of amyloid plaques.
Dementia in Parkinson's disease
Authors: Mindham R. H. S. , Hughes T. A. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Parkinson's disease has been regarded as a neurological condition mainly affecting motor function and arising from specific lesions in the brain stem. The recognition of dementia in Parkinson's disease is of importance in management but the possibility that motor and cognitive functions may be located in the same region of the brain is of theoretical importance.
Dementia due to Huntington's disease
Authors: Folstein Susan , Margolis Russell L. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHuntington's disease (HD) was first described in 1872 by an American physician living on Long Island, New York. His father and grandfather practised medicine in the same community, so he had access to case notes from several generations of families who lived there. This long period of record keeping allowed him to document a hereditary form of chorea, similar to ‘common (Sydenham's) chorea’, but progressing over many years to death. Its sufferers had a tendency to insanity and suicide. Huntington's brief essay, which also included a clear description of autosomal dominant inheritance, remains one of the classical descriptions of a medical disorder.
Alcohol-related dementia (alcohol-induced dementia; alcohol-related brain damage)
Authors: Marshall Jane 
Published: January 2013

AbstractLong-term heavy alcohol consumption causes significant brain abnormalities and impairs cognitive functioning. A number of terms have been used to describe these effects, including: ‘alcohol-related dementia’, ‘alcohol-induced dementia’, and ‘alcoholic dementia’. The more pragmatic umbrella term ‘alcohol-related brain damage’ (ARBD) is also used. The literature is beset with limitations, in particular the lack of a diagnostic gold standard, and the difficulty in making a clinical diagnosis. Many individuals labelled as having an alcohol-related dementia are, in fact, suffering from the Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS). (This is a specific neuropathological disease caused by thiamine deficiency, which can occur secondary to alcohol misuse. It is considered in Chapter 4.1.12.) When considering the topic of ‘alcohol-related dementia’ it is probably sensible to take a broad clinically-based diagnostic view that includes both WKS and other cases of ‘dementia’ that appear to be alcohol-related. Alcohol-related dementia should be recognized as a preventable condition. However, identification is hampered by a lack of clarity in terminology, and a lack of standardized and specialized screening instruments and assessment procedures. These individuals make repeated use of Accident and Emergency Departments, general medical, and long stay wards. Early identification would reduce their need for these services. Abstinence is the key to recovery. Treatment services should be integrated and flexible.
Pharmacological and psychological aspects of drugs abuse
Authors: Nutt David J. , Law Fergus D. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractDrug abuse, misuse, and addiction are major issues in society because of their enormous personal, social, and economic costs and their important psychiatric components. Many drug treatment programmes are run by psychiatrists, and the evidence strongly supports the notion that a significant proportion of severe drug abusers are psychiatrically ill. Moreover, drug misuse appears to be becoming more frequent in patients with other psychiatric disorders, where it can lead to problems in treatment and poorer outcomes. It is therefore essential for all psychiatrists and related health professionals to have a good understanding of the basis of drug misuse.
Alcohol and psychiatric and physical disorders
Authors: Mann Karl F. , Kiefer Falk 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThis chapter covers the clinical symptoms of alcohol intoxication, withdrawal (without complications and with perceptual disturbances, grand mal seizures, delirium tremens, and alcoholic hallucinosis), and psychiatric disorders, including alcohol-induced mood disorders and alcohol-induced anxiety disorders. The effects of alcohol on the brain are covered in detail, including Wernicke’s encephalopathy, Korsakoff’s syndrome, cerebellar degeneration, hepatocerebral degeneration, and foetal alcohol syndrome, as are the effects on the body, including malnutrition and vitamin deficiency, peripheral neuropathy, effects on the muscle, liver, pancreas, skin, and heart, and the relationship between alcohol and hypertension and cancer.
Schizophrenia: a conceptual history
Authors: Andreasen Nancy C. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractWe know that psychotic disorders have been present and publicly recognized at least since classical times because of their portrayals in literature: the madness of Medea, the frenzied behaviour in The Bacchae, or the paranoia of Othello. Perhaps the most ‘valid’ portrayal from a modern clinical perspective is the feigned madness of ‘Poor Tom’ in King Lear. However, the definition and delineation of schizophrenia as a discrete disorder is a relatively recent phenomenon. This chapter covers the founding fathers of the concept: Kraepelin and Bleuler, Schneiderian symptoms, psychosis, and the dominance of diagnostic criteria, and the concept of positive and negative symptoms, finishing with a look present and future developments.
Treatment and management of schizophrenia
Authors: Owens D. G. Cunningham , Johnstone E. C. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe above might be interpreted as inferring that nothing much has changed in the treatment and management of schizophrenia, which remains a somewhat pessimistic, even unrewarding, area of therapeutic endeavour: one that is regressing far less moving on. This is far from our experience and the opposite of the impression we wish to create. Certainly, as far as drug treatments are concerned, no single agent or type of agent now seems more satisfactory across the board than any other, but the challenge to ‘atypicality’ as a valid subgrouping of antipsychotics does not limit options—rather it broadens them, restoring to the treatment repertoire the wide range of choices that is the key to individualized care planning. With psychosocial interventions, there does remain more work to be done in proving absolute efficacy and/or effectiveness and the relative place of each, but in service development and care planning, risk:benefit appraisal is sophisticated enough to encompass what has qualitative value as well as what is quantitatively proven. As in all branches of medicine where chronic and relapsing disease is encountered, restoring order on chaos, fostering engagement and lighting a way forward when none may be obvious are for the highest levels of skill, in which evidence-based practice can provide the direction but not yet the specific path. We are fortunate in now having available to us the greatest ever range of interventions to bring to the care of those who suffer from this most complex and fell disorder. None is comprehensive, all have limitations, but if we wish to provide quality care, care that accounts for the multifarious manifestations patients present, it is our duty to apply not only the experience of others but of ourselves too. There is no ‘quick fix’ in gaining competence in the treatment and management of schizophrenia—and, as yet, no curative ‘holy grail’ either. But there is, more than ever, the opportunity for clinicians to demonstrate real expertise in moulding the range of therapeutics now at our disposal. If that is not reason for medical optimism, what is!