bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Alamanni
Authors: Lawrence Thomas Christopher 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Alamanni or Alemanni (“All Men”) was a loose confederation of Germanic groups, including the
Lentienses, Bucinobantes, Brisigavi, Iuthungi
, and the
Suebi
, first attested in the third century
CE
. As a Roman geographic designation, “Alamannia” served to indicate the general region that these tribes occupied, particularly the
Agri Decumates
, opposite Roman provinces on the upper Rhine‐Danube frontier.
Alphabets and scripts, Late Antiquity
Authors: Richter Tonio Sebastian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLate Antiquity saw a remarkable multiplication and spread of alphabets throughout the eastern Mediterranean and beyond. Scripts of important early Christian literature, such as the Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic, Visigothic, Georgian, and Syriac, but also the Persian Avesta script and the Sogdian, Manichaean, and possibly Mandaic alphabets, emerged in the third to fifth centuriesCE; the Arabic, Old Nubian, Old Uyghur, and Orkhon alphabets developed in the sixth to eighth centuriesCE; Glagolitic and early Cyrillic occurred in the ninth and tenth centuries.
Berytus
Authors: Jones Hall Linda 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBerytus was a Roman colony founded by Augustus for his veterans. The city, famed for the teaching of Roman law in the Late Antique era, was also economically successful due to its involvement in the trade and production of purple dye and silk fabrics. Wine production is confirmed by both archaeological finds and literary sources. A diverse economy was supported by agricultural productivity and the manufacture of glass, linen, various metal objects, and books. Occupying a key position on many ancient land and sea routes, Berytus was a center of cultural interaction until the devastating earthquake and tidal wave of 551CE.
Caliphs, rightly guided
Authors: Melchert Christopher 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCaliphs, rightly‐guided (Ar.Al‐khulafa' al‐rashidun)are, according to Sunni Muslims, the first four successors to the Prophet Muhammad and, in descending order, the most virtuous of the Prophet's Companions: Abu Bakr (r. 632–4), 'Umar (r. 634–44), 'Uthman (r. 644–56), and 'Alī (r. 656–61).
John of Damascus
Authors: Kontouma‐Conticello Vassa 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIt is very difficult, in the life of John of Damascus, to determine what can be accepted as history and what can count as legend. It must be said here that theVita Ioannis(ca. 1000CE), the principal source used by his biographers, is not very reliable. Information given by John himself, as well as some sources that predate theVita, allow us to date him approximately to 655–745. John's life‐span thus corresponds to the presence of the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus (661–750). Within this time frame, four periods can be distinguished:
Katholikoi of Persia
Authors: Wood Philip 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
In Late Antiquity, the Church of the East was located in Sasanian Mesopotamia and claimed authority in Fars and India. It was governed by the bishops of Seleukeia‐Ktesiphon, who were later styled katholikoi and Patriarchs. The term “katholikos” was also employed for the ecclesiastical primates of Armenia and Georgia, and implied the existence of auto‐cephalous churches within the wider patriarchate of Antioch. This authority developed periodically between the fourth and seventh centuries, but this process of development also created new histories for the early period of the church and back‐projected later titles and structures.
Nessana
Authors: M. Sijpesteijn Petra 
Published: December 2012

AbstractNessana was a town (Arab ‘Awjā al‐Ḥafīr) in the Negev desert near the current Israeli‐Egyptian border. Lying on the ancient trade route connecting Sinaï with Beer Sheba and on to Gaza and Jerusalem, the town functioned as a military checkpoint and way station for pilgrims and other travelers.
Papyrus, Greco‐Roman period
Authors: Fournet Jean‐Luc 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPapyrus, invented by the ancient Egyptians, quickly became the main writing material used in the Mediterranean world and was employed until ca. 1100CE, when it ceased to be used in Constantinople. The Greeks adopted it at least from the sixth centuryBCEonwards. Owing to its dry climate, Egypt is the only country to preserve in any quantity the texts written on papyrus during the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine periods. The bureaucracy developed by the Ptolemaic administration may have intensified, there more than elsewhere, the use of papyrus – and later the Roman administration took advantage of this situation.
Peter the Iberian
Authors: Menze Volker 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPeter the Iberian (ca. 417–491CE) was the most prominent non‐Chalcedonian bishop and holy man in fifth‐century Palestine. He influenced the following generation of non‐Chalcedonians, such as Severus of Antioch, Zachariah Rhetor, and John Rufus, who is probably the author of theLife of Peter the Iberian.
Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius (signoEusebius)
Authors: Sogno Cristiana 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlthough over nine hundred of his letters survive, the reputation of Quintus Aurelius Symmachus (ca. 340–402CE) is indissolubly linked to and conditioned by therelatio de ara Victoriae, an official report in which Symmachus, as prefect of Rome, asked for the restoration of the Altar of Victory and argued for the repeal of Gratian's legislation that had deprived the traditional cults of state support.
Antestatio
Authors: Rüfner Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Antestatio
, the calling of witnesses, was a formal act in Roman civil procedure. If the plaintiff summoned the defendant and the defendant refused to appear in court immediately, the plaintiff was allowed to use physical force to compel him to come. Such use of force was only legal, however, after the plaintiff had called on passers‐by to bear witness to the lawfulness of the procedure.
Arbitration, legal
Authors: Scafuro Adele C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAncient Athenians settled disputes outside the courts in a variety of ways, determined by the subject of dispute and the relative strengths of the disputants. By far the most significant sources for Athenian arbitration are the fifty‐two private orations that represent arguments in forty‐nine trials of the late fifth and fourth centuriesBCE.
Astynomoi, law of the (Pergamon)
Authors: Pitt Robert K. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In 1901 excavations by the German Archaeological Institute in the Lower Agora of
pergamon
uncovered an inscribed Hellenistic law laying out the duties and powers of the city
astynomoi
, a board of magistrates whose responsibilities included care for both city and suburban streets, city blocks and their party walls, water channels, fountains, and cisterns. The inscription provides a wealth of information about Hellenistic city planning and maintenance, as well as offering insights into the legal and procedural framework in which a variety of polis officials, citizens, and slaves operated.
Enktesis
Authors: Scafuro Adele C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Foreigners who stayed in Athens for more than a short period (perhaps a month) and slaves who had been manumitted were registered as metics; as such, they had duties to perform (e.g., they must pay a tax called the
metoikion
); they also suffered restrictions, among which was the incapacity to own land or a house in Attica, except by grant of
enktesis
(“the right to own property”).
Reus
Authors: Rüfner Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Reus is a term of Roman law designating one party to a legal relationship. It was used in a variety of contexts. In contract law,
reus
refers to either the creditor or the debtor of a claim arising from a Stipulatio.
Reus stipulandi
is the person who receives the promise and becomes the creditor.
Reus promittendi
is the person making the promise (
Dig
. 45.2.1). In civil proceedings, the word is used to denote the defendant. The plural
rei
refers to the plaintiff and the defendant collectively. In older usage,
reus
could mean either party (Cic.
De or
. 2.183 and Festus 336). Most frequently, the word denotes the accused in a criminal court.
Testamentum porcelli
Authors: Aubert Jean‐Jacques 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
testamentum porcelli
is a three‐hundred‐word mock testament written before 402
CE
by an anonymous author. Consisting of two parts, it features a piglet about to be butchered asking for a short reprieve to write his will, in which he bequeaths his body parts to distinct groups of people. Exhibiting the usual traits of Late Antique Latin, with no fewer than seven neologisms, its humor depends on pregnant proper names and suggestive puns, mixing sexual, obscene, and culinary words.
Andros, topography and archaeology
Authors: Palaiokrassa‐Kopitsa Lydia 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Andros, the island at the northernmost edge of the Cyclades cluster of islands, lies on the sea lane from mainland Greece‐Attica and Euboea to the rest of the Cyclades and the Eastern Aegean. Its location thus ensured its strategic and commercial importance. Its prosperity was based on shipping, commerce, fishing, agriculture, animal husbandry, and apiculture. Metal works were also prominent due to rich ore deposits.
Apollonia Salbake
Authors: Harl Kenneth W. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Apollonia Salbake, Caria, modern Medet, Turkey, 10 km northeast of Tabai (Tavas), was a Carian city on the Harpasos River, a tributary of the Maeander. The city took its epithet from Mount Salbakos to the south. The city is known from coins and inscriptions of the Hellenistic and Roman imperial age.
Askra
Authors: Edwards Anthony T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHesiod, describing Askra, a village in central Boiotia, recalls how his father settled close by Helikon in a miserable village, Askra, bad in winter, oppressive in summer, never good. Hesiod's passing mention of his home village makes it prominent both in the landscape of Greek history and of Greek poetry. Strabo locates Askra forty stades from the city of Thespiai on a rough and elevated site. Both Plutarch and Aristotle attest that Askra was overrun by Thespiai and that the refugees, along with Hesiod's bones, were received by the city of Orchomenos. Plutarch claims in the same passage that Askra is no longer inhabited. Such are the ancient sources.
Chersonese, Crimea
Authors: Muratov Maya B. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Chersonese, often referred to as “Tauric Chersonese” or “Chersonese in Taurica,” was a Greek colony founded by Herakleia Pontica in the last quarter of the fifth century
BCE
. It is located about 5 km west of the modern city of Sevastopol in the southwestern Crimea. Throughout its history, Chersonese was predominantly an independent Polis. It also served as an important Roman center in the Crimea, and later became the major base for Byzantine expansion in the northern Black Sea.
Delos
Authors: Chankowski Véronique 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Delos is a small island situated in the center of the Cyclades Islands, between Rheneia and Mykonos. Established as an archaeological park of 3.5 km
2
and a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1990, it has been excavated since 1873, mainly by the French School of Archaeology at Athens.
Diktynnaion sanctuary
Authors: Sporn Katja 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Overlooking the bay of Menies on the peninsula Rodopou in northwestern Crete lie the remains of the Diktynnaion, the main sanctuary of the Cretan goddess Diktynna. Known since the sixteenth century, the site is identified with the Diktynnaion mentioned in ancient sources. The only archaeological excavations were undertaken by U. Jantzen and G. Welter in 1942, but the documentation was lost in the war.
Karpathos
Authors: Anderson Carl A. , Dix T. Keith 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Karpathos lies midway between Rhodes and Crete, at the southern limit of the Dodecanese. The island is 48 km long, with a steep mountain range (1,200 m at its highest point) running north to south, and one major harbor on the southeastern coast at Pigahdia. The name Karpathos is pre‐Greek, and Diodorus Siculus (5.54.4) reports that soldiers of Minos first settled the island; tombs containing Minoan and Mycenaean pottery have been found at Pigahdia. Karpathos appears in the Catalogue of Ships (Hom.
Il
. 2.676–80) and in the
Homeric Hymn
to Apollo (42–3), and gave its name to the southeastern part of the Aegean Sea (Strabo 2.5.21).
Melos
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMelos is one of the Cyclades Islands, southwest of Delos and westernmost of the arc formed by Naxos, Paros, and Siphnos. In Early, Middle, and Late Minoan times, it was visited by Phoenicians, who sought its obsidian, a flint that was used to make knife blades, arrow‐heads, and instruments for cutting.
Paktyes mountain
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Paktyes mountain, 305–1,524 m in elevation, is a spur of the Messogis range east of Ephesos. At its extreme western part, routes from Ephesos divert, at the north, giving access to the Kaystros River valley and permitting an eastward bend around Mount Galesion to Smyrna. On the south, the route proceeds through upland country, providing access to the Maeander River valley toward Magnesia on The Maeander and Tralles. Magnesia on the Maeander is cited by Strabo (14.1.39) as being the first city one encounters after Ephesos, but he gives it a more specific location on the Lethaios River, which rises in Mount Paktyes and empties into the Maeander.
Spasinou Charax
Authors: Tubach Jürgen 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Spasinou Charax was one of the Greek names for a city founded by Alexander III, the Great as an Alexandria in southern Mesopotamia “between the confluence of the Eulaios on the left side and the Tigris (now the Šaṭṭ al‐‘Arab) on the right side” (Plin.
HN
6.138).
Animals, domesticated
Authors: Brewer Douglas J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Domestication is the process of altering the genetic make‐up of an animal or plant to satisfy the needs of humans. It is an evolutionary process, but the main selective pressure is “artificial” (i.e., interference by humans in the normal life cycle of the animal), rather than natural. This interference can be both unintentional and intentional. It is important to note that selective pressure, be it natural or “artificial,” always acts on genotypic variations inherent in the animal population. In selective breeding, animals with specific traits are consciously chosen for their usefulness to humans rather than for their fitness in the wild.
Animals, non‐domesticated (Egypt)
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Prior to 3000
BCE
Egypt's environment was much wetter, with much of its land away from the river being made up of grasslands punctuated by groups of trees, capable of supporting a diverse range of fauna. As the climate changed, much of the fauna moved south, with some creatures that had adapted to the increasing desert conditions remaining in Egypt.
Armant (Hermonthis)
Authors: Thiers Christophe 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The ancient city of Armant (ancient Egyptian names: Iuny, Iunu, Iunu‐shema, Iunu‐Montu), the Greek Hermonthis and Coptic Ermont, was located 15 km south of Thebes on the west bank of the Nile (Mond and Myers 1940).
Basketry, matting, cordage
Authors: Wendrich Willeke 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Reeds, grasses, sedges, rushes, papyrus, palm leaf, and willow rods were used extensively in the creation of basketry, matting, and cordage. Most of the archaeological information we have available is from Egypt, where the dry desert climate provides perfect conditions for the preservation of organic materials. For the classical world our knowledge of basketry, matting, and cordage is mostly drawn from depictions of these activities in reliefs and paintings. The techniques and materials employed probably predated textile production, and can be attested as early as the Neolithic period, by which time they are well developed and display a very high standard of production, fineness, and decoration (Wendrich 2000;2004).
Cults, private (Pharaonic Egypt)
Authors: El Shazly Yasmin 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIt is very difficult for the modern person to understand the religion of the ancient Egyptians, with its multitude of deities and often contradictory mythologies. One of the most serious problems faced by scholars wishing to comprehend ancient Egyptian religion is the fact that most of the material that has survived comes from two main contexts: funerary and royal. These are invaluable sources of information for students of state religion and the ancient Egyptian attitude to death and the after‐life, but unfortunately they are not as informative for those hoping to understand how the average person perceived and communicated with the divine in his or her daily life.
Dahshur
Authors: Bárta Miroslav 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Dahshur is situated about 45 km south of Cairo and is known for its Old and Middle Kingdom monuments (Alexanian and Seidlmayer 2000). Most recently, some New Kingdom history of the site is also beginning to reemerge. The site was probably occupied as early as the beginning of the Old Kingdom, if not earlier.
Djer
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Horus Djer was a king of the 1st Egyptian Dynasty, around the thirtieth/twenty‐ninth centuryBCE. He was presumably a son of his predecessor Hor‐Aha, but only the name of his mother is confirmed as Khenthap by the Cairo Annals Stone, which also gives his personal name as Iti.
Kushite Period, Egypt
Authors: Ayad Mariam 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOn the eve of the Nubian march northward, Egypt was divided among multiple rival dynasts, who ruled at Tanis, Leontopolis, Bubastis, and Sais in the Delta, and Hermopolis and Herakleopolis in Middle Egypt. Whereas this loose confederacy may be a result of the 22nd/23rd Libyan Dynasty's feudalistic culture, the resulting decentralization of Egyptian government represented a break from Egyptian tradition. The Nubian invaders portrayed themselves as restorers of order, who ruled a unified country.
Faïence
Authors: Nicholson Paul T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFaïence, more correctly termed “Egyptian faïence,” is a non‐clay ceramic material made up of silica and covered with an alkaline glaze, most commonly in a blue or blue‐green color. It is known from the Egyptian Predynastic period through Roman times and has continued into modern times in parts of the Near East (for summaries, see Vandiver 1983; Nicholson and Peltenburg 2000).
Hawara
Authors: Uytterhoeven Inge 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Hawara (
Hw.t‐wr.t
; Аὐῆριs) at the entrance of the Egyptian Fayyum was the burial place of the 12th Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III (ca. 1842–1797
BCE
), who was deified after his death as “Pharaoh Marres”.
Hetepheres I
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
A shaft tomb (G7000X) was found in 1925 at Giza close to the Great Pyramid of Khufu, containing the funerary equipment of a King's Mother and God's Daughter, Hetepheres (I), some items of which bore the name of Sneferu, while seal‐impressions bore the Horus‐name of Khufu.
Megiddo
Authors: Heagren Brett H. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe city of Megiddo was one of the more important centers in Canaan. Located at the modern site of Tell el‐Mutesellim and within the strategically significant and fertile Jezreel Valley, it dominated the opening of a key geographical feature, the Wadi 'Ara (modern Nahal 'Iron) pass, which was the shortest route through the Carmel Ridge via Aruna to the (equally fertile and militarily vital) Sharon Plain. This made Megiddo a strategic location on the international coastal highway (theVia Maris), and also served to ensure it was frequently a site for major battles.
Merenptah
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBaenre Merenptah was the thirteenth son of Rameses II, by his wife Isetneferet A, and seems to have been crown prince since the death of Khaemwaset C around his father's Year 55. The King's Great Wife was a certain Isetneferet (C), once assumed – probably wrongly – to be Merenptah's like‐named full‐blood sister; at least two sons are known, crown prince Sethy‐Merenptah A and Khaemwaset D, plus a possible third, Merenptah B. There was also at least one daughter, Isetneferet D.
Montu
Authors: Sheikholeslami Cynthia May 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Egyptian god Montu, an anthropomorphic falcon‐headed solar deity, has a headdress of a solar disk with two uraei in front and double feathers behind, and frequently wears a leather corselet imitating feathers as armor. Montu is the “Horus of Thebes,” agriculturally the wealthiest district in southern Egypt.
Portraiture, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Sourouzian Hourig 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
A portrait is by definition the representation of a person, with a sufficient amount of characteristics for the model to be recognized. The precision of the portrait, that is, the degree of resemblance to the model, varies throughout the history of the portrait. The portrayal of a model may depend on various criteria: the period, the conception of time, the competence of the artist, the artistic tendencies and styles prevalent at a certain time, the current ideal of beauty, the choice of material, the method used, and the impact of light and color. Moreover the expectation of an exact likeness of the model can vary according to numerous criteria, including aesthetic comprehension, artistic criticism, religious conventions, and so on.
Shabaka
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractNeferkare Shabaka was a king of the 25th Egyptian Dynasty and a son of Kashta, who had ruled independent Nubia prior to the intervening reign of Piy (Piankhy). When he came to the throne around 722BCE, Nubian control of Egypt seems to have shrunk back to merely the southern part of the country, with much of the north in the hands of Bakenrenef (Bokkhoris) of Sais. This was rapidly reversed, with Bakenrenef overthrown in Shabaka's Year 2, and the Nubian king installed in Memphis.
Sopdet/Sothis
Authors: Symons Sarah 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Sopdet (or Sothis, via Greek
Σωθις
) is the Egyptian name for the brightest star, Sirius (α Canis Majoris). Sopdet appears as a female star‐deity associated with Isis in the
Pyramid Texts
,
Coffin Texts
, and
Book of the Dead
, and later as a compound deity Isis‐Sopdet. From the First Intermediate Period to the Greco‐Roman period, Sopdet is a member of the Decans, and its annual behavior is described in the Book of Nut as a model for decans. Sopdet is an hour star in Ramesside star clocks and is depicted in astronomical ceilings as a human female or cow.
Temples, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Wilkinson Richard H. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Egyptian temples existed over a vast span of history – from ca. 3500 Bce to 550 Ce, when the last temple was closed by order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. During the course of these four thousand years, many developments took place in the role and functioning of Egyptian temples, so we must be careful to treat generalizations about these structures as such. The physical form of the Egyptian temple also developed during this time from simple prehistoric shrines to massive structures that are among the most impressive of ancient Egypt's architectural wonders. But few temples have survived from pre‐New Kingdom times (before ca. 1560 Bce), and relatively few temples survived in Lower (northern) Egypt, so our knowledge of these structures is greater for New Kingdom and later times, and especially for temples in Upper Egypt.