bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Stress, Social Capital, and Health
Authors: Anderson William A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Within sociology, stress is generally defined as an event or circumstance that results in acute or chronic discomfort or dis‐ease for the individual. The function of stressors and their relationship to health outcomes is conceptualized in the stress process model that outlines how stressors affect health outcomes and how that relationship is affected by mediating resources such as social support. Social capital refers to the resources that arise from social relationships and social structure. Social capital is hypothesized to be related to health in that it provides an individual with resources to cope with otherwise health‐deleterious circumstances and events. Within stress and health research, social support is the most widely studied form of social capital. Other forms such as trust, civic engagement, and giving/volunteering have not been widely studied.
Health Behavior
Authors: Cockerham William C. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractHealth behavior is the activity undertaken by individuals for the purpose of maintaining or enhancing their health, preventing health problems, or achieving a positive body image. It is not limited to healthy people trying to stay healthy, but also includes the physically handicapped and persons with chronic diseases who seek to control, minimize, or contain their affliction through positive forms of health behavior, such as diet, exercise, and avoiding smoking.
Health Care, Communication in
Authors: Iedema Rick 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry reviews the field of communication in health care research. It explains that health care communication is constituted of a range of practices that are quite traditional, and of a range of communication processes that are more recent, still emergent, and rather complex. Examples of traditional health care communication practices are clinician–patient consults and team handovers. More recent communication processes have arisen in response to health policy reform, pushing how clinicians communicate into new domains. To provide an overview of the field, the entry first looks at conventional domains of communication, such as doctor–patient consults and clinical handovers. It then exemplifies emergent kinds of communication by describing clinical incident investigation and open disclosure of those incidents to victims (i.e., patients) who have suffered clinician‐caused harm. Finally, these developments are summarized as three distinct trends defining contemporary health care communication practices.
Social Epidemiology
Authors: Cwikel Julie G. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSocial epidemiology, as a subdiscipline of epidemiology, has grown in its relevance to modern medicine due to its intersection with behavioral medicine, sociology, health psychology and health interventions related to acute and chronic illness and health promotion to maintain health. In this entry, social epidemiology is defined as the systematic study of health and illness states, well‐being and social conditions and their determinants using public health and social sciences methods to develop interventions and programs that reduce the adverse impact of health hazards and promote and maintain health. The history of trends in public health from Europe, South Africa, and the United States are described as providing the basis of social epidemiological theory, and research methods and modes of practice in social epidemiology are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the use of both qualitative and quantitative research tools to address public health challenges, and the SOCEPID model is offered as a heuristic guide to social epidemiological practice.
Midlife
Authors: Waite Linda J. , Hanis‐Martin Jennifer L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Midlife usually refers to the period of an individual's life approximately between the ages of 40 and 65. Midlife, or middle age, is a European–American construction of mature adulthood according to chronological, biological, and medical terms, and is generally associated with declining vitality and the passing of youth, but also with peak performance and generativity. The concept of midlife as it is thought of now was not really possible until life expectancy was above 40 years, occurring in the late nineteenth century, when life expectancy began to rise sharply from about 46 to around 80. Until recently we learned about midlife primarily through studying other stages of life. But since the 1970s midlife has been identified as a topic worthy of study on its own, which is usually attributed to the recent, sharp increase in the number of middle‐aged adults. Currently in the United States about 80 million people are aged 45 to 65 – that is, 26 percent of the population.
Health and Disease, Emotional Geographies of
Authors: Davidson Joyce 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Emotional geographies of health and disease explore how the affective aspects of place condition our understanding and experience of illness and wellness. Emotional geographers pay particular attention to spatial and scalar relations, not least in terms of embodiment and the emotionally laden negotiation of overlapping identities that are assumed by, or imposed upon, patients and carers. Scholars working in this field draw heavily on the work of feminist and phenomenological approaches and take inspiration from scholars working in non‐representational theory and psychoanalysis. This intellectual heritage aligns emotional geographers more closely with social rather than medical models of health and disease. Practitioners tend to focus on the lived aspects of health, understood not simply as the absence of disease. This entails exploration of what it feels like to embody deviations from an ideal health status in terms, for example, of disability, disorder, and differences of other (including cognitive and psychosocial) kinds.
Health, Political Economy of
Authors: Cockerham Geoffrey B. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The political economy of health is rooted in the development of the concept of political economy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It has, however, only emerged as a research program over the last few decades. Much of this research utilizes a Marxist, class‐based approach to explain the quality of health both within countries as well as globally. It has tended to focus on political, economic, and psychosocial factors in explaining health outcomes. A key contribution of the political economy of health is its emphasis on how these factors affect health. This approach goes beyond biology and medicine in researching how national economic policies and public interventions by the state may impact and contribute to the quality of population health.
Structural Functionalism
Authors: Dew Kevin 
Published: February 2014

AbstractStructural functionalism is a sociological approach that dominated in the middle part of the twentieth century, and is particularly associated with the work of Talcott Parsons. Its foundations can be found in the earlier work of sociologists and anthropologists, with Émile Durkheim being a significant theorist in this regard. A basic premise of structural functionalism is that society needs a certain level of social cohesion, solidarity, or integration in order to function, and structural functionalists can be regarded as attempting to identify, and perhaps promote, the sources and forms of social cohesion.
Medical Education and Pierre Bourdieu
Authors: Brosnan Caragh 
Published: February 2014

AbstractA recent development in the sociology of medical education is the application of concepts from the work of French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. This has seen the reconceptualization of earlier theoretical standpoints and has helped to highlight previously under‐researched areas of medical education. Four specific aspects of medical education that Bourdieusian work has significantly contributed to understanding are discussed: the socialization process and development of the medical habitus; embodiment in medical training; struggles over legitimate knowledge; and social justice in medical education.
Africans, Health of
Authors: van Rensburg Dingie , Engelbrecht Michelle 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Africa is a vast continent, divided into the sub‐Saharan south and the Arab north. The diverse geographic, cultural, and societal makeup explains the varying morbidity and mortality patterns, and shapes the health‐related beliefs, behaviors, and practices of Africans. Socioeconomically, the least developed countries in the world are in Africa, implying huge backlogs in living standards and a widespread lack of health services. Consequently, Africans generally fare poorly on core health indicators (infant, under‐5, and maternal mortality), and are heavily burdened by communicable diseases. Increasing globalization, Westernization, and urbanization have changed the living conditions and lifestyles of Africans, with concomitant increases in non‐communicable and lifestyle diseases. Over centuries, African health systems have been shaped by multiple factors. Western‐type health care was introduced by waves of Europeans settlers and missionaries. However, Africans strongly maintained traditional ways of explaining, diagnosing, and treating disease. From this emerged mixed health systems, variably containing elements of traditional and allopathic care, and delivered in free‐market (private) and state‐provided settings. Western‐type care remains in many African countries weakly developed and urban‐concentrated. Amid chronic shortages of resources, new care models are emerging. The general availability of African traditional healers means that large proportions of Africans prefer African traditional healing over allopathic medicine.
Medical Education and Evidence‐Based Medicine
Authors: Yardley Sarah , Dornan Tim 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Evidence‐based medicine (EBM) dominates the current era of medical research and practice. The concept of EBM has now traveled beyond its original context into the field of medical education. This entry describes key historical developments in the construction of EBM, alongside a critical analysis of its strengths and limitations. The transferability of EBM principles into medical education is considered alongside problems which EBM could address within education and problems which its use created. An outline of different research ontologies and epistemologies is used to contextualize further discussion of evidence and theories of knowledge within medical education before turning to the classification of education evidence. This entry concludes with an overview of current emphases in research and theory before considering future directions for the use of “evidence” in medical education. Illustrative examples are used throughout.
Health Care Delivery System: South Africa
Authors: Moorman Julia , de Jager Pieter , Volmink Heinrich , Naidoo Shan 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Since South Africa's first democratic elections in 1994, the country's health care system has gone through several distinct periods in terms of restructuring. Between 1994 and 2004 the health care system underwent a period of post‐apartheid reconstruction. This was followed by a period between 1999 and 2004 that was characterized by a period of changing disease profiles. The period from 2004 to date has seen an expansion of primary health care services, and today, in 2013, significant health care reforms are underway.
Income Inequality Hypothesis
Authors: De Maio Fernando G. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The income inequality hypothesis asserts that an individual's health is influenced not only by their own level of income, but by the level of inequality in the area in which they live. It has been an integral element of the social determinants of health literature. The hypothesis draws on several interrelated fields of study, including psychosocial research on chronic stress, social capital research on the strength of community ties, as well as work from political economy on the health effects of neoliberalism. New research has signaled the need for a more global approach to the hypothesis.
Disability Theory
Authors: Goodley Dan 
Published: February 2014

AbstractTheories of disability have developed over the last 30 years in response to the politicization of disabled people and the growing awareness of this political praxis in a myriad of social science, humanities, health, and social welfare disciplines. Disability theory has also connected with and troubled the professions of medicine, social care, social work, psychology, education, nursing, midwifery, and physiotherapy. In similar ways to other transformative enterprises, such as feminism, critical race, postcolonialism, queer, and Marxism, disability theory has developed in highly nuanced, historically contingent, and socioculturally responsive ways. When one thinks about the development of disability theory it is possible to identify a number of aims and ambitions. This entry provides an inevitably partial but hopefully illuminating account of some of the contributions of disability theory.
Differential Exposure
Authors: Gibson Philip A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The differential exposure hypothesis is a key sociological contribution to the stress and health literature. It proposes that individuals in disadvantaged social status groups are exposed to more stressors than those occupying advantaged social status groups. Research on differential exposure has progressed from investigating the influence of stressful life events to incorporating the effects of cumulative stressors. The genesis of the differential vulnerability hypothesis, which suggests that disadvantaged social status is related to increased vulnerability to stress, provides an alternative to differential exposure. Research in the field of stress and health continues to test the relative merits of differential exposure and differential vulnerability, reflecting the ongoing structure–agency debate inherent in sociological research.
Substance Abuse Etiology
Authors: Cheung Yuet‐wah 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThis entry summarizes some of the major factors at the biological, psychological, and social levels that influence drug abuse. Biological factors include the euphoria effects of drug abuse as reinforcement, and genetic predisposition to drug abuse. Examples of psychological factors are reward‐seeking, impulsivity, temperament, self‐control, impaired personality, and self‐efficacy. Social factors pertain to the socio‐demographic characteristics of the individual and also the societal conditions that impact on the individual's drug abuse behavior. The causality between various factors and substance abuse can be reciprocal. Also, factors at the same level and at different levels can interact to affect substance abuse.
Stress Management: Health Workers
Authors: Baker Lisa 
Published: February 2014

AbstractHealth workers deal day to day with stresses that are unique to their position. Working within settings and contexts that serve people with medical and mental health needs can produce an environment filled with stressors. While not unique to health care, some specialty occupations and work environments exhibit characteristics that are more likely to generate occupational stress than others. Typically those jobs include high responsibility, little down time during the work day, difficult requirements, the possibility of negative outcomes or consequences, lack of personal control and lower recognition. Health workers outside of medical organizations, such as paramedics and emergency medical technicians, are also susceptible.
Medical Schools as Professional Workplaces
Authors: Ovseiko Pavel V. , Buchan Alastair M. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractDespite their different historical origins and separate development up until the beginning of the twentieth century, different types of medical schools around the world have been following convergent paths ever since. Today, medical schools in most countries are part of universities and have research and education facilities embedded in their affiliated or owned teaching hospitals. Academic physicians and scientists employed by medical schools form the core part of academic health centers, with the tripartite mission of research, education, and patient care. Practitioners and scholars alike have traditionally focused on the integration of the academic and clinical enterprises and how different models of organizational relationships and governance arrangements could improve the delivery of the tripartite mission. In recent years, there has been a marked change in the approach to the promotion of academic–clinical integration, with an emphasis on alignment and organizational culture.
Vaccination as a Public Health Measure: Challenges
Authors: Poland Caroline M. , Poland Gregory A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Despite the widespread availability of safe and effective vaccines, population‐level vaccine coverage rates lag far behind ideal levels. The result is continued outbreaks of disease, epidemics, and substantial morbidity and mortality. While multiple causes for this state of affairs are discernible, three major issues are challenges associated with developing, promulgating, and implementing vaccine recommendations; challenges with educating health care providers and the populace on the need for recommended vaccines; and challenges with the provision of vaccines. In this entry we discuss each of these challenges, and offer both illustrations and feasible solutions.
Body, Medicine and the
Authors: Strathern Andrew J. , Stewart (Strathern) Pamela J. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThis entry deals with changing interrelations between ideas and practices of medicine and ideas regarding the body. Its major purpose is to highlight the cultural and linguistic linkages that tie together medicine and the body in specific cross‐cultural case studies. It presents first a discussion of the assumptions made about the body in classic biomedical thinking, and proceeds to contrast these assumptions with other cases, where notions of healing the whole person rather than an autonomous body are in play. This topic is pursued by means of the theoretical approach of embodiment. Materials from Chinese culture, from the Navaho people, from Turkey, and from the Temiar people are considered, in order to illustrate different ways in which embodiment theory illuminates the relationship between medicine, the body, and the total environment in which people live.
Stress among the Homeless
Authors: Wasserman Jason Adam 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
In some ways, homelessness can be viewed as a situation of extreme poverty, thereby reflecting all of the same related health disadvantages. However, there are aspects of homelessness not necessarily encountered by housed people who are poor. These pose unique risks and challenges for health among the homeless generally, and their experience of stress in particular. Indeed, homeless people report significantly higher levels of stress than do housed low‐income people, and this is especially true among children. Focusing primarily on the United States, this entry explores ways in which stress results from the condition of homelessness, its effects on the health of homeless people, and the mechanisms of coping that they employ.
Prenatal Diagnosis and Screening
Authors: Vassy Carine 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The purpose of prenatal diagnosis is to detect fetal anomalies. A large number of these anomalies cannot be cured; therefore, one of the principal steps taken for an anomaly considered to be serious is to abort. These techniques are now widely used in industrialized countries, where the number of anomalies identified and the levels of detection are on the increase. What differences from the norm are deemed unacceptable? Should public authorities fund these tests in order to avoid inequality, where access is available to higher income levels only? How can we avoid a routinization of screening which prevents women from understanding that they must make choices? How can we stop disabled children from being considered as medical errors?
Homelessness and Health Internationally
Authors: Polakow Valerie , Brooks Marva 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Homelessness is an urgent international issue that confronts both rich and poor nations and is integrally tied to poverty as wars, famine, natural disasters, and vast degrees of inequality have led to recurring circles of impoverishment. Homelessness represents the worst consequences of poverty and ensuing economic and social deprivation, and the global financial crisis of 2008 onward has exacerbated its impacts. Currently, 1 billion people lack adequate shelter and, of that number, 100 million are homeless. The damaging impacts of homelessness are far‐reaching, contributing to acute health problems, impaired child development, family and community instability, restricted agency and disempowerment, and eroded human capabilities. Mental illness increases the likelihood of homelessness for single adults, while gender violence represents a critical factor that precipitates homelessness among women and children. Global solutions include the development of sustainable human settlements, social protections, broad social housing provisions, and affirmation of fundamental human rights.
Elderly, Health of the
Authors: Arora Amit , O'Neill Andrew 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAdvances in medicine, sanitation, and industry over the past two centuries have produced significant improvements in global health and longevity. Many citizens of Western countries can now expect to live into their eighth or ninth decade, possibly even longer. However, while most older people enjoy good health, those who do not can suffer marked morbidity, placing significant demands on their health care systems, families, and societies. In this entry, we summarize the current trends in health as we age, addressing two major areas of concern – mental health and non‐communicable diseases. We go on to discuss the challenges of caring for an older population, including medical and social care provision, and combating discrimination against this vulnerable group. Finally we look to the future and emphasize the importance of proactive national policymaking in anticipating health demands, nurturing informal care provision by families, and promoting healthier lifestyle choices.
Mental Illness in Adolescence and Young Adulthood
Authors: Mossakowski Krysia N. , Robles Andrew 
Published: February 2014

AbstractIt is important for social scientists to study mental illness during adolescence and young adulthood. Adolescence is considered to be the life stage that generally represents the teenage years. According to sociologists, adulthood is when adult social roles (e.g., spouse, parent, and full‐time employee) have been achieved. We explore the definitions of adolescence, the transition to adulthood, emerging adulthood, and young adulthood. Research suggests that the timing of the transition to adulthood has intriguing mental health consequences. Although sociologists emphasize that the transition to adulthood does not have a definitive length, this early life stage is known as pivotal for the development of symptoms of psychological distress and the onset of mental illness. In particular, rates of distress, depression, and alcohol abuse/dependence peak during young adulthood. We also discuss the research evidence and some gaps in our knowledge about the effects of different social statuses – socioeconomic status, gender, race/ethnicity, marital status, and sexual orientation – on mental health among adolescents and young adults. Finally, we argue that public policies and interventions need to target the prevention of mental illness by focusing on the social risk factors in adolescence and young adulthood.