bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quantitative Methods of Materials Selection
Authors: Farag Mahmoud M. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
A variety of quantitative selection procedures have been developed to analyze the large amount of data involved in the selection process so that a systematic evaluation can be made. With concurrent engineering, materials and manufacturing processes are considered in the early stages of design and are defined as the design progresses from the concept to the embodiment and finally the detail stages. This chapter illustrates the progressive nature of materials and process selection and defines three stages of selection: initial screening, comparing and ranking alternatives, and selecting the optimum solution. It discusses these three stages of material and process selection in detail. The chapter presents a case study to illustrate the procedure. Although the materials and process selection is often thought of in terms of new product development, there are many other incidences where materials substitution is considered for an existing product. The chapter discusses issues related to materials substitution.
Resistive Strain Measurement Devices
Authors: Tuttle Mark 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Methods of strain measurement can be roughly grouped into two major categories: those based on the behavior of light and those based on electronic devices. This chapter focuses on strain measurements obtained by monitoring resistance changes. This focus is appropriate because at present strain measurement via resistance strain gauges is by far the most widely used technique, although other methods (particularly digital image correlation (DIC)) are gaining in popularity. The chapter discusses the use of engineering shear strain. The most widely used resistive strain measurement device is certainly the resistance metal strain gauge and is originally known as “bonded wire strain gauges”. Strain gauge rosettes are commonly available in three forms: biaxial rosette (also known as a T‐rosette), rectangular rosette, and delta rosette. Liquid metal strain gauges can be used to measure very large strains. They are often used to measure strain in biological tissues such as ligaments or tendons.
Failure Models: Performance and Service Requirements for Metals
Authors: Collins J. A. , Potirniche G. P. , Daniewicz S. R. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the mechanical failure modes most commonly observed in practice followed by a brief description of each one. For uniaxial loading of a machine or structural element, the total elastic deformation of the member may be found by integrating the elastic strain over the length of the element. The two most widely accepted theories for predicting the onset of yielding are the distortion energy theory and the maximum shearing stress theory. Computer‐controlled fatigue testing machines are widely used in all modern fatigue testing laboratories. Three commonly used methods for extrapolating short‐time creep data to long‐term applications are the abridged method, the mechanical acceleration method, and the thermal acceleration method. Erosion corrosion is influenced by the velocity of the flowing corrosive medium, turbulence of the flow, impingement characteristics, concentration of abrasive solids, and characteristics of the metal alloy surface exposed to the flow.
Failure Modes: Performance and Service Requirements for Ceramics
Authors: Munz Dietrich 
Published: February 2015

AbstractA reliable design of components requires the knowledge of the possible failure modes under service conditions and knowledge of the material properties describing these failure modes. The failure in ceramics starts from flaws introduced during fabrication or surface treatment. Due to the scatter in the size of the flaws, the strength also shows a large scatter, which is much larger than in metals. The different failure modes are characterized by material properties and relations between the applied loading in terms of stresses or stress intensity factors and the materials response in terms of lifetime or plastic deformation. The flaws leading to failure can be described as cracks. Therefore, the methods of fracture mechanics can be applied to describe the flaw extension behavior. The failure probability of components undermultiaxial loading can be calculated applying multiaxial Weibull theory, where the flaws are described as randomly orientated cracks.
Tribology Measurements
Authors: Sahoo Prasanta 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Tribology deals with the technology of lubrication, control of friction, and prevention of wear. Successful design of machine elements depends essentially on the understanding of tribological principles. Wear particle analysis and industrial tribology form an important part of tribological measurement. Over the years different methods have been devised to study the topography of surfaces. This chapter presents a brief outline of some of the methods: surface profilometer, optical microscopy, and advanced techniques for surface topography evaluation. Two basic types of devices are commonly used for the measurement of friction force, viz., the piezoelectric force gauge and strain gauge transducer. The tribological behavior of any material depends on its material characteristics. The materials are in general characterized using four quantities: hardness, Young's modulus and the elasticity limit, toughness, and residual stresses. Characterization of a lubricant is an essential part of any study related to lubricated wear and friction.
Vibration and Shock
Authors: Rao Singiresu S. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
For the analysis and design of mechanical and structural systems, it is essential that the analyst or the designer have a thorough understanding of the basic principles of vibration and shock. A physical system is to be replaced by a mathematical model in order to predict its vibration behavior. A study of the vibration characteristics of a single degree of freedom system is extremely important in the study of vibration and shock because the approximate or qualitative response of most systems can be determined by using a single degree of freedom model for the system. Most mechanical and structural systems have distributed mass, elasticity, and damping. These systems are modeled as multi‐(n)‐degree‐of‐freedom systems to facilitate analysis of their vibration behavior. A continuous vibratory system will have infinite degrees of freedom. Vibration and shock isolation denotes the storage of energy temporarily and its release in a different time relation.
Product Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Authors: Lewis Gordon 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Major changes in product design practices are occurring in all phases of the new product development process. These changes will have a significant impact on how all products are designed and the development of the related manufacturing processes over the next decade. The obvious goal of any new product development process is to turn a profit by converting raw material into finished products. Designing for manufacturing and assembly (DFM&A) is a technique for reducing the cost of a product by breaking the product down into its simplest components. All members of the design team can understand the product's assembly sequence and material flow early in the design process. The most beneficial outcome of DFM&A is to reduce part count in the assembly, which in turn will simplify the assembly process, lower manufacturing overhead, reduce assembly time, and increase quality by lessening the opportunities for introducing a defect.
Design‐for‐Environment Processes and Tools
Authors: Fitzgerald Daniel P. , Gogoll Thornton H. , Schmidt Linda C. , Herrmann Jeffrey W. , Sandborn Peter A. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractDesign for environment (DfE) is “the systematic consideration of design performance with respect to environmental, health, and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle”. DfE is one of many possible design for X (DFX) activities that comprise concurrent engineering techniques that seek to address product life‐cycle concerns early in the design phase. Thus, it is similar to design for manufacturing (DFM) and design for assembly (DFA). This chapter reviews DfE tools, methods, and strategies that have been developed and implemented to help manufacturing firms create environmentally benign products. It identifies one way to create a DfE process, something that many manufacturing firms are now attempting to do, and discusses the use of this approach at a particular manufacturing firm. In manufacturing firms where the safety objectives and environmental objectives are quite different in scope, other types of DfE processes will be more effective.
Product Design and Manufacturing Processes for Sustainability
Authors: Jawahir I. S. , Wanigarathne P. C. , Wang X. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractSustainability requirements are based on the utilization of available, and the generation of new, resources for the needs of future generations. A relatively less‐known and significantly impacting element of sustainability is sustainable manufacture, which includes sustainable products, processes, and systems in its core. This integral role of sustainable manufacture, with its three major functional elements (innovative product development; value design, and manufacturing processes; and value creation and value recovery), all contributing to the sustained growth through economic sustainability component, has been discussed. The application of basic sustainability principles in product design and manufacture serves as a catalyst for sustainable products to emerge in the marketplace. This chapter presents a case study, which provides a description of how sustainability measures can be selected along with an approximate method for modeling these measures for optimizing machining processes for maximum sustainability. The machining processes are considered as a generic case for manufacturing processes.
Measurements
Authors: Hixson E. L. , Ripperger E. A. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThe four independent standards that have been defined are length, time, mass, and temperature. Temperature is one of four fundamental quantities in the international measuring system. Temperature is fundamentally different in nature from length, time, and mass. In measurement practice four terms are frequently used to describe an instrument. They are accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and linearity. Two basic questions that must be considered when any measurement is made are: How has the measured quantity been affected by the instrument used to measure it? Is the quantity the same as it would have been had the instrument not been there? There are two ways of estimating the error in a measurement. The first is the external estimate. This estimate is based on knowledge of the experiment and measuring equipment and to some extent on the internal estimate. The internal estimate is based on an analysis of the data using statistical concepts.
Mathematical Models of Dynamic Physical Systems
Authors: Preston White K. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThe design of modern control systems relies on the formulation and analysis of mathematical models of dynamic physical systems. Physical systems are represented by connecting the terminals of pure elements in patterns that approximate the relationships among the properties of component devices. The element laws and system relations together constitute a complete mathematical description of a physical system. There are two fundamental approaches to the analysis of linear, time‐invariant systems. Transform methods use rational functions obtained from the Laplace transformation of the system I/O equations. State‐variable methods use the vector state and output equations directly. Simulation is almost always carried out with the assistance of computing equipment. Four methods can be used to construct a phase portrait: (1) direct solution of the differential equation, (2) the graphical method of isoclines, (3) transformation of the second‐order system into an equivalent first‐order system, and (4) numerical solution using simulation.
Basic Control Systems Design
Authors: Palm William J. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
The purpose of a control system is to produce a desired output. The control system is seen to provide two basic functions: to respond to a command input that specifies a new desired value for the controlled variable and to keep the controlled variable near the desired value in spite of disturbances. This chapter presents a brief overview of some available transducers and error detectors. It discusses actuators and devices that are used to implement the control logic. The control logic elements are designed to act on the error signal to produce the control signal. The algorithm that is used for this purpose is called the control law, the control action, or the control algorithm. The chapter provides an overview of the general categories of digital controllers that are commercially available. This is followed by a summary of the software currently available for digital control and for control system design.
General‐Purpose Control Devices
Authors: Christensen James H. , Kretschmann Robert J. , Chand Sujeet , Yokoyama Kazuhiko 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
The responsibility of the general‐purpose control devices (GPCD) is the coordinated control of one or more machines or processes. To be truly general purpose, a GPCD must be programmable; that is, its operation is controlled by sequences of instructions and data stored in internal memory. Communication interfaces for programmable controllers provide many different combinations of connectors, signal levels, signaling rates, and communication services. Programmable controllers have historically been used as programmable replacements for relay and solid‐state logic control systems. Distributed numerical control (DNC) has two primary functions: (1) computer‐assisted programming and storage of NC programs in computer memory and (2) transfer, storage, and display of status and control information from the numerical controllers. A computer‐aided design (CAD) system typically comprises a graphics display terminal, a computer, and several software packages. The chapter explains the composition of a typical robot system and the procedure for developing its working program.
Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS): Design and Application
Authors: Zaghloul M. E. 
Published: February 2015

AbstractThis chapter discusses some aspects of the design of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices, and describes the structure of some of those devices. The fact that the field of MEMS largely grew out of the integrated circuit (IC) industry has been noted often. To verify that the devices function, the designer has to model the MEMS device. The modeling involves writing the equation of motion or physical modeling of the performance of the device. Finite‐element techniques are used to solve these modeling equations. There are a variety of computer‐aided design (CAD) tools to aid the designer in the simulation and modeling of the device. After designing and simulating MEMS and deciding on the materials they will contain and the processes needed to make them, the next concern is which fabrication facility to employ. The materials and microfabrication processes used are unlimited to realize MEMS devices.
Steam Turbines
Authors: Peng William W. 
Published: February 2015

Abstract
Energy conversion from thermal form (heat) to mechanical form (force or torque) are generally done through the fluid medium of either water/steam or air/gas. Cogeneration and combined‐cycles plants have become more popular in recent years due to their higher overall plant efficiency. Most turbines are designed at the high‐power condition (but not the maximum power) and are required to operate at a constant speed for some variation of output power. In a combined‐cycle power plant, the hot gas exhausted from a shaft power gas turbine is used to generate steam to drive a steam turbine. It can generally be designed such that the required equipment can be selected from the existing models (including gas turbine, steam turbine, and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)). For the steam turbine driving an electric generator, the shaft rotating speed has to be constant in order to generate electrical output of constant frequency.
Electromyography of crural and pedal muscles in tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella): Implications for hallucal grasping behavior and first metatarsal morphology in euprimates
Authors: Patel Biren A. , Larson Susan G. , Stern Jack T. 
Published: February 2015

ABSTRACTA hypertrophied peroneal process of the hallucal metatarsal, as seen in prosimians, has been linked to a powerful hallucal grasp via the contraction of the peroneus longus (PL) muscle causing adduction of the big toe. Electromyography (EMG) studies of lemurs and lorises, however, have concluded that PL is not substantially recruited during small branch locomotion when powerful hallucal grasping is needed most, and have suggested that there is no link between PL activity and peroneal process size. If this is correct, then we should also observe no change in PL activity when strong hallucal grasping is required in anthropoids because they have a relatively smaller peroneal process for PL to act on. This study addresses this hypothesis by evaluating EMG of crural and pedal muscles in capuchins (Sapajus apella) walking on substrates of different diameters. During locomotion on the narrow substrate (3.1 cm) that should elicit a strong hallucal grasp, we observed an intense increased recruitment of adductor hallucis, but only sustained, rather than markedly increased, PL activity. This indicates that PL is not involved in powerful hallucal grasping in capuchins, and confirms similar findings previously documented in prosimians. We continue to reject the hypothesis that a large peroneal process is an adaptation for powerful grasping and further argue that its morphology may not be related to PL's ability to adduct the hallux at all. In addition, the morphology of the peroneal process should not be used to assess hallucal grasping performance in fossils. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:553–564, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Fouling control on microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes: Effects of morphology, hydrophilicity, and charge
Authors: Kumar Rajesha , Ismail A. F. 
Published: February 2015

ABSTRACTMembrane‐based separation processes are very susceptible to flux decline because of concentration polarization and fouling problems. Despite the immense applications of low‐pressure driven microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes in various fields, fouling is considered a major negative aspect, and it renders the membrane with a reduced lifetime. The important membrane properties, hydrophilicity, charge, and morphology mainly gained by the membrane during its formation process are considered to be deciding factors in fouling. In this review, we spotlight the effects of the hydrophilicity, charge, and morphology on MF and UF fouling, the principles of the most frequently used instrumentation techniques in predicting these factors, and measures that can be taken for fouling control. The review also focuses on the UF and MF membrane modification techniques used to attain high antifouling characteristics. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015, 132, 42042.
Recurrence rate after absorbable tack fixation of mesh in laparoscopic incisional hernia repair
Authors: Christoffersen M W , Brandt E , Helgstrand F , Westen M , Rosenberg J , Kehlet H , Strandfelt P , Bisgaard T 
Published: February 2015

AbstractBackgroundThe mesh fixation technique in laparoscopic incisional hernia repair may influence the rates of hernia recurrence and chronic pain. This study investigated the long-term risk of recurrence and chronic pain in patients undergoing laparoscopic incisional hernia repair with either absorbable or non-absorbable tacks for mesh fixation.MethodsThis was a nationwide consecutive cohort study based on data collected prospectively concerning perioperative information and clinical follow-up. Patients undergoing primary, elective, laparoscopic incisional hernia repair with absorbable or non-absorbable tack fixation during a 4-year interval were included. Follow-up was by a structured questionnaire regarding recurrence and chronic pain, supplemented by clinical examination, and CT when indicated. Recurrence was defined as either reoperation for recurrence or clinical/radiological recurrence.ResultsOf 1037 eligible patients, 84·9 per cent responded to the questionnaire, and 816 were included for analysis. The median observation time for the cohort was 40 (range 0–72) months. The cumulative recurrence-free survival rate was 71·5 and 82·0 per cent after absorbable and non-absorbable tack fixation respectively (P = 0·007). In multivariable analysis, the use of absorbable tacks was an independent risk factor for recurrence (hazard ratio 1·53, 95 per cent c.i. 1·11 to 2·09; P = 0·008). The rate of moderate or severe chronic pain was 15·3 and 16·1 per cent after absorbable and non-absorbable tack fixation respectively (P = 0·765).ConclusionAbsorbable tack fixation of the mesh was associated with a higher risk of recurrence than non-absorbable tacks for laparoscopic mesh repair of incisional hernia, but did not influence chronic pain.
Association of hospital structures with mortality from ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm
Authors: Ozdemir B A , Karthikesalingam A , Sinha S , Poloniecki J D , Vidal-Diez A , Hinchliffe R J , Thompson M M , Holt P J E 
Published: February 2015

Abstract

Background
There is significant variation in the mortality rates of patients with a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm (rAAA) admitted to hospital in England. This study sought to investigate whether modifiable differences in hospital structures and processes were associated with differences in patient outcome.

Methods
Patients diagnosed with rAAA between 2005 and 2010 were extracted from the Hospital Episode Statistics database. After risk adjustment, hospitals were grouped into low-mortality outlier, expected mortality and high-mortality outlier categories. Hospital Trust-level structure and process variables were compared between categories, and tested for an association with risk-adjusted 90-day mortality and non-corrective treatment (palliation) rate using binary logistic regression models.

Results
There were 9877 patients admitted to 153 English NHS Trusts with an rAAA during the study. The overall combined (operative and non-operative) mortality rate was 67·5 per cent (palliation rate 41·6 per cent). Seven hospital Trusts (4·6 per cent) were high-mortality and 15 (9·8 per cent) were low-mortality outliers. Low-mortality outliers used significantly greater mean resources per bed (doctors: 0·922 versus 0·513, P &lt; 0·001; consultant doctors: 0·316 versus 0·168, P &lt; 0·001; nurses: 2·341 versus 1·770, P &lt; 0·001; critical care beds: 0·045 versus 0·019, P &lt; 0·001; operating theatres: 0·027 versus 0·019, P = 0·002) and performed more fluoroscopies (mean 12·6 versus 9·2 per bed; P = 0·046) than high-mortality outlier hospital Trusts. On multivariable analysis, greater numbers of consultants, nurses and fluoroscopies, teaching status, weekday admission and rAAA volume were independent predictors of lower mortality and, excluding rAAA volume, a lower rate of palliation.

Conclusion
The variability in rAAA outcome in English National Health Service hospital Trusts is associated with modifiable hospital resources. Such information should be used to inform any proposed quality improvement programme surrounding rAAA.