bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Wavelength‐Dispersive
X
‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis: Part
II
Authors: Jenkins Ron , Kuczumow Andrzej 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Wavelength‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence (WD‐XRF) is a recently well‐grounded technique, with unbeaten application in some significant fields: metallurgy, geological analysis, and forensic science. Up to now, the method was rather conservative in construction systems and rate of the progress. Wavelength‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometry is characterized by very good spectral resolution for photon energies below 5 keV; total stability of devices in operations, both repeatable and long‐lasting; excellent quantitation; and clear peak shapes enabling chemical speciation. WD‐XRF systems operate by sequential elemental analysis. The classical version of method is suffering from very low rate of transforming of supplied energy in the final photons, what has effect on the significant cost of device and operation. Now, the progress is going. New multilayer interference mirrors (MIM) are replacing older multilayers, improving the spectral resolution of the structures mentioned and they are applied for analysis of very light elements. Also recently, the combinations of polycapillary half‐lenses, full lenses, or doubly curved crystals (DCCs) enable to overcome the essential drawback of old versions: some new devices became lightweight, with small consumption of energy, with the ability of focusing the exciting beam. All the progress widens the possibility of speciation analyses. New unexpected fields grew, e.g. the trials of quantitative differentiation of species in biology, by the use of multielemental analyses what should complement traditional Linnaean systematics.
Atmospheric Aerosols, Analysis of
Authors: Smichowski Patricia , Gómez Darío R. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The increasing concern about air pollution and climate change has attracted the interest of researchers for assessing the presence, as well as the health and environmental impacts, of a diversity of atmospheric pollutants including airborne particles. Primary particles are introduced into the atmosphere through a variety of processes including natural and anthropogenic sources, while secondary particles are formed in the atmosphere by physical and chemical transformations. Airborne particles consist of a mixture of materials generally complex, which can contain organic and inorganic compounds and biological material. The determination of the chemical composition of aerosols is a challenging task for analytical chemists. Their contribution for understanding the role that different chemical components play in the source identification, transport, health impacts, and radiative properties of airborne particulate matter (APM) has been, and still is, crucial for the advance of atmospheric chemistry. For obtaining reliable results, the expertise for selecting adequate, sensitive, and selective analytical techniques for the determination of ions, metals, metalloids, carbonaceous, and organic compounds is of prime importance. This article focuses on the main analytical techniques employed for the determination of inorganic components of atmospheric aerosols.
Methods for the Determination of Arsenic Speciation in Rice: A Review
Authors: Wang Zhongwen , Forsyth Don 
Published: December 2012

AbstractArsenic contamination is an emerging environmental problem. A number of incidents around the world have been reported as a result of exposure to arsenic. Although most of the incidents reported are due to exposure from groundwater, contaminated well water, and occupational exposures, in recent years, research on arsenic exposure from food sources has increased. Recent research trends of studying arsenic in rice has captured the public's attention because elevated arsenic levels were found in rice and rice products available in the market place. This emerging issue prompted governments, academic, and private laboratories to develop and implement methods for the analysis of arsenic speciation in rice and rice products. The purpose of this article is to provide a general overview of the existing analytical methods that are used to extract and measure arsenic species in rice. Sample preparation, extraction methods, separation methods, detection methods, and other alternative methods are reviewed. Considerations regarding quality control procedures, such as certified reference material (CRM), speciation stability, etc., are also discussed.
Death Penalty and Age
Authors: Salekin Karen L. , Allen Rebecca S. , Wood Mary E. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn a landmark decision, the Supreme Court of the United States banned the execution of offenders who were under the age of 18 years at the time of their offense. In their 5–4 opinion, the Court stated that there had been a growing national consensus against the death penalty for youthful offenders, and noted their belief that these offenders were less culpable for their actions because of deficits in decision‐making ability, impulse control, and maturity. Of interest, in 2006, the Court declined to hear a case that addressed the constitutionality of the death penalty for aged prisoners (i.e.,Allen v. Ornoski). For many years, it has been recognized that the process of aging is associated with changes in cognitive abilities that may negatively impact flexibility of thought, perspective taking, decision making, and memory. It can be readily seen that these deficits, like those associated with youth, may put the aged prisoner in a position in which the imposition of capital punishment violates the Eighth Amendment of the United States Constitution. To date however, this issue has not been heard by the Supreme Court.
Materials Science
Authors: Anderson Robert N. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe discipline of materials engineering and science spans the physical and chemical makeup of materials, as well as the strength, toughness, and other mechanical properties that are critical to taking appropriate decisions in product design, the relationships between and among materials, and, finally, the analysis of actual or potential failures. This discussion of materials engineering and science will explain the most important terms and concepts used when describing and investigating materials failures. It will discuss some common failure modes for the four classes of materials: metals, ceramics/glasses, polymers, and composites. Failure analysis procedures, including methods of testing and microscopic examination, will be discussed. A list of useful materials science and engineering references is provided for further background reading.
Wood
Authors: Cowell Anthony M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Wood and wood products are used universally. The forensic analysis of wood can be important in both criminal and civil cases. The distribution and variation of timber sources are described and ecological factors are reviewed. Timber can be identified by its origin, DNA, appearance, growth rings, and microscopic structure. Wood products such as paper, cardboard, and fiberboard retain some of the natural traits of the timber source. Such traits include fiber length and fiber width, which are critical to the engineering performance of the final product. Forensic analysis of fiber length is an invaluable tool for identifying and comparing wood‐based samples. A method for analyzing fiber length is described. This consists of the maceration of timber samples followed by the analysis of fiber length distribution. Methods using DNA profiling are also described.
Alcohol: Interaction with Other Drugs
Authors: Brick John 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPrescription medications as well as over‐the‐counter medications are widely used. Many of these medications have psychoactive effects when used alone, but in combination with ethyl alcohol, a common toxicological factor in forensic evaluations, may result in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions. This article reviews the use of and pharmacological interactions between alcohol and analgesics, antibiotics, anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, antidiabetics, antihistamines, antipsychotics, cardiovascular medications, other alcohols, statins, opiates, sedatives, and stimulants. The importance of individual characteristics, experimental design, and drug interactions is discussed in the context of forensic evaluations.
Catalysis of Organic Processes by Metal Phenolates
Authors: Serra Maria Silva , Murtinho Dina M. B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTransition metal catalysts with phenolates as ligands constitute an extensive class of complexes with application in a great variety of catalytic transformations.Because phenol groups can be sterically and electronically modified by the introduction of substituents with different characteristics, the door is opened to a myriad of catalysts with characteristics of reactivity and selectivity for promoting innumerous transformations of synthetic interest in organic chemistry. Metal phenolates have therefore become essential participants in catalytic organic synthesis, including catalytic asymmetric synthesis. Oxidations of alkenes, sulfides, alcohols and alkanes, additions of trimethylsilylcyanide, diorganozincs and nitroalkanes to CO and CN bonds and Diels–Alder reactions are some examples of the types of reactions that are promoted by these catalysts.This chapter provides an overview of recent advances in the catalysis of organic processes by metal phenolates, with emphasis on the last decade.
Molecular Capsules Based on Metal Complexes with Resorcin[4]arenes and Pyrogallol[4]arenes
Authors: Deakyne Carol A. , Fowler Drew A. , Atwood Jerry L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Metal‐organic nanocapsules (MONCS) have generated widespread interest in recent years because of potential applications in a number of areas, including catalysis, pharmaceutical delivery and information storage. The focus of this chapter is metal complexes for which upper rim hydroxyl groups of resorcin[4]arenes or pyrogallol[4]arenes are ligated to the metal. The stereostructures of the arene macrocycles are discussed in terms of the effect of the R group on the thermodynamic stability of the crown conformation preferred for capsule formation. Studies on hydrogen‐bonded capsules that led to the development of the MONCS are described. Finally, the structures and properties of the MONCs are compared and contrasted with respect to choice of macrocycle, metal, R group, guest, and size.
NMR of Organoselenium and Organotellurium Compounds
Authors: Panda Arunashree , Singh Harkesh B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis chapter gives a systematic account of and surveys the available data on77Se and125Te NMR spectra of organochalcogen compounds such as chacogenols, mono and dichalcogenides, chalcogenolates, tetra and hexa substituted chalcogen compounds, chalcogenyl halides, chalcogen‐containing heterocycles and macrocycles, chalcogen‐oxygen/nitrogen compounds, etc. The review is based on the literature from 1985 to 2011 and includes 780 references. The77Se/125Te NMR spectra of organochalcogen compounds reveal expansive chemical shifts (δSe/δTe) leading to sharp sensitivity of these nuclei (Se/Te) to their environment such as solvent, temperature, molecular geometry, ligand backbone, oxidation state, chelate ring size, steric strain, etc. This is well illustrated by the advantageous use of this spectroscopy in the successful determination of the solution state structure of several organochalcogen compounds. It is noted that the125Te and77Se chemical shifts of a large number of structurally similar organotellurium and selenium compounds show linear relationship.
Carbides: Transition‐Metal Solid‐State ChemistryUpdate based on the original article by Walter Lengauer,Encyclopedia of Inorganic ChemistrySecond Edition © 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Lengauer Walter 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBasic properties and use of transition‐metal carbides and carbonitrides are presented in this article. Starting from crystal chemistry, bonding, and preparation, the article also briefly discusses analytical chemistry of chemical and physical carbon analysis as well as thermodynamics. Phase diagrams of groups 4, 5, and 6 transition metals with carbon are presented, together with the most important transition‐metal carbonitride systems Ti CN. A large part is devoted to the solid‐state properties because they make carbides and carbonitrides interesting materials for applications. The presentation of these properties includes hardness, thermal properties, conductivities, carbon diffusivity, and elastic properties. Some ternary and quaternary carbonitrides are also discussed. Several of these properties are given as a function of temperature and composition. A variety of examples for bulk application of carbides in modern hardmetal and cermet types are included, such as printed circuit board drills, stone drills, and drills for metal machining with cooling channels, functionally graded surfaces of hardmetals for cutting and milling, and ultra‐hardmetals for water jet cutting nozzles. Layers and diffusion barriers are only briefly addressed.
Metallic Materials Deposition: Metal‐Organic PrecursorsUpdate based on the original article by Charles H. Winter, Wenjun Zheng and Hani M. El‐Kaderi,Encyclopedia of Inorganic ChemistrySecond Edition, © 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Winter Charles H. , Knisley Thomas J. , Kalutarage Lakmal C. , Zavada Mark A. , Klesko Joseph P. , Hiran Perera T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis review describes metal‐organic precursors for the growth of metal‐containing thin films by chemical vapor deposition (CVD)‐based methods. The major emphasis is on precursors that have been reported since 2004, which corresponds to a time of major growth in this field. Progress in the development of metal‐organic precursors is documented for the main group, lanthanide, and group 4– 11 elements. In the main group elements, there has been considerable research activity directed toward the identification of strontium and barium precursors, due both to the technological importance of mixed oxide phases and the inherent difficulties in obtaining volatile, stable thermally complexes of these large metal ions. Aluminum, gallium, and indium have also been the subject of intense investigation because of the importance of many phases containing these elements. The group 4 and 5 elements titanium, zirconium, hafnium, niobium, and tantalum have been the subject of considerable precursor development activity because of the importance of several mixed oxide phases and the applications of zirconium oxide and hafnium oxide as high‐permittivity gate materials in microelectronic devices. Growth of metal nitride films of these elements has also been an active area of research for use as barrier materials in microelectronic devices. The deposition of copper and other first‐row transition‐metal films from metal‐organic precursors is driven by the urgent need for copper metalization procedures in microelectronics device manufacturing. The atomic layer deposition (ALD) growth of the noble metals ruthenium, rhodium, iridium, palladium, and platinum has been a very active research area. The current state of metal‐organic precursor development is presented for each of these metallic elements.
Alkaline Earth Metals: Organometallic ChemistryUpdate based on the original article by Jacob S. Alexander, Marites Guino‐o, Maria Felisa Zuniga, Roger C. Hahn and Karin Ruhlandt‐Senge,Encyclopedia of Inorganic ChemistrySecond Edition, © 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Goos Alan G. , Rosado Flores Peter J. , Takahashi Yuriko , Ruhlandt‐Senge Karin 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe organometallic chemistry of the alkaline‐earth metals has undergone a renaissance during the last 20 years with heavy organoalkaline‐earth metal compounds becoming recognized as an area of organometallic chemistry with significant potential. Intense research efforts have provided a series of synthetic methodologies that provided access to a rapidly growing family of compounds not thought possible only recently. As a result, this improved insight did not only provide the basis for a more detailed understanding of the metal‐ligand bonding characteristics but also paved the way toward a number of applications including uses as diverse as in polymerization initiation, organic synthetic chemistry, catalysis, and materials chemistry. This article summarizes some of the recent, exciting developments in regards to alkaline‐earth organometallics.
Low‐Oxidation‐State Main Group CompoundsUpdate based on the original article by Charles L. B. Macdonald and Bobby D. Ellis,Encyclopedia of Inorganic ChemistrySecond Edition, © 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Macdonald Charles L.B. , Ellis Bobby D. , Swidan Ala'aeddeen 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe synthesis and chemistry of compounds containing groups 1, 2, and 13‐15 elements in unusually low oxidation states or valence states is presented. In general, the oxidation or valence state of an element influences the chemistry of the compounds in which the atom is found. For the main group elements, compounds containing elements in lower‐than‐usual oxidation or valence states exhibit significantly different structural features, modes of bonding, and chemistry than is observed for compounds containing the element in a more typical oxidation state. The elements of the s‐block form a limited number of low‐oxidation‐state compounds and the elements of groups 16‐18 are generally found in the lowest available oxidation state. Thus, this article provides an overview of the following classes of low‐valent main group species: the chemistry of group 2 elements in the +1 oxidation state, the chemistry of group 13 elements in oxidation states lower than +3, the chemistry of group 14 elements in oxidation states lower than +2, and the chemistry of the group 15 elements in oxidation states lower than +3. Numerous exemplary modes of reactivity are presented, and the utility of some low‐oxidation‐state compounds as catalysts or precursors to materials is acknowledged.
Lanthanides: Electronic Structure
Authors: de Bettencourt‐Dias Ana 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The electronic structure of the lanthanides is discussed here. The configurations of the elements as well as of the ions in the oxidation states +II, +III, and +IV are presented. The lifting of the degeneracy of the electronic levels of the +III ions due to electron‐electron interactions, spin–orbit coupling, and crystal field effects is discussed.
Lanthanides: Variable Valency
Authors: Platt Andrew W.G. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The reasons for the restricted range of oxidation states of lanthanides are explained with emphasis on the relative unimportance of covalent bonding. The stability of the +2 and +4 oxidation states of the metals is discussed in terms of the thermodynamics of their formation and decomposition reactions in the solid state and in solution. Stability of Ln
IV
and Ln
II
in the solid state is assessed with respect to decomposition to Ln
III
and disproportionation to Ln
III
and Ln
0
, respectively. The thermodynamic instability of all Ln
IV
and Ln
II
species in aqueous solution is explained by appropriate redox potentials. The kinetic stability for some Ce
IV
and Tb
IV
species in aqueous solution is discussed and the variation of oxidizing ability of Ce
IV
as a function of counterion outlined. Redox data in nonaqueous systems are briefly discussed.
Lanthanides: Group Trends
Authors: Platt Andrew W.G. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Trends in the properties of lanthanide metals and some of their compounds are outlined. The correlation of properties as a function of atomic number and as a function of total orbital angular momentum is discussed. The trends in metallic properties such as metallic radii and chemical reactivity are discussed and explanations of the trends given. The lanthanide contraction and its consequences on the structures adopted by simple salts and coordination complexes are summarized and representative examples given. The variations of a number of important thermochemical properties such as enthalpies of vaporization of the metals, hydration enthalpies, and entropies of the Ln
3+
ions and enthalpies of formation of halides and oxides are outlined and discussed. The relationship of the stability of complexes as a function of atomic number and angular momentum
L
are described with representative examples of halide, aminocarboxylate, and carboxylate complexes.
Lanthanides: Comparison to 3d Metals
Authors: Cotton Simon A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLanthanides superficially resemble the 3 d transition metals, for example, in forming coloured compounds, but there are significant differences. Their reactivity is greater, resembling the Group II elements such as magnesium, reflecting the large negative reduction potentials of the ions. Unlike the 3 d metals, their chemistry is largely of one oxidation state; this is due to large reduction potentials for the oxidation states related by one‐electron reductions common in 3 d chemistry. The lack in 4f chemistry of the very high oxidation states familiar in the 3 d transition series can be linked with the unwillingness of the 4f metals to form strong Ln O double bonds, while the lack of significant variation in the third ionization energyI3is an important factor in maintaining the +3 oxidation state at the end of the lanthanide series. Lanthanide complexes are relatively labile, in the absence of polydentate ligands; one result of this is that certain oxidation states cannot be stabilized by suitable choice of ligand, as with 3 d metals. The lanthanides are developing a rich and complex organometallic chemistry. Unlike the transition metals, little or no use is made of π‐acceptor ligands. One consequence of this is that the organometallics isolated are largely determined by steric factors, rather than the electronic factors embodied in the 18‐electron rule applicable in transition metal chemistry. Very unstable carbonyls are only found at low temperatures, but there are sandwich compounds stabilized by very bulky π‐arenes. In contrast with the 3 d metals, where spin‐orbit coupling is weak and ligand fields strong, the converse applies to the 4f metals. This is again a consequence of the shielding of the 4f orbitals, so that 4f electrons are relatively unperturbed by the ligands. Optical spectra are characterized by weak but very sharp transitions, while the magnetic moments are usually well described by predictions using the Russell‐Saunders coupling scheme for the ground state.
Lanthanides: Carboxylates
Authors: Lu Jia‐sheng , Wang Ruiyao 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis chapter gives an overview on the synthetic and the structural chemistry of rare earth carboxylates, including monocarboxylates and polycarboxylates. The synthesis, coordination modes and geometries, and solid‐state structures are discussed. Special efforts have been made to review the types of the structures and the controls over their syntheses.
Lanthanides: β‐Diketonate Compounds
Authors: Wang Ke‐Zhi 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
This chapter first outlines the types of β‐diketones recently reported for lanthanide coordination complexes, followed by summaries of some representative examples of β‐diketonate lanthanide complexes. Special attention has been paid to the fascinating world of single‐crystal X‐ray structures of these complexes.