bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The soil-evolution model as a framework for evaluating pedoturbation in archaeological site formation
Authors: Johnson Donald L. , Watson-Stegner Donna 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Soil and near-surface material affected by pedogenesis is the principal medium in which field archaeologists dig. Soil encases the cultural resources from which prehistoric human behavior is inferred. In fact, the various soil properties, factors, and conditions often determine the extent to which perishable materials are preserved, modified, moved, or destroyed by post-burial processes. The soil is not, however, the same material that was originally present when the artifacts were deposited. The dynamic nature of the soil system is such that changes in its morphology, thickness, and biophysicochemistry occur over time, and the sum of the changes is different from one site to another. Changes may include evolution of new properties, features, and horizons, such as illuvial cutans of clay, humus, iron and manganese, argillic horizons, and concretions, among others. Such endogenous or intrinsically evolved properties and features are termed "pedogenic accessions." Once formed, such accessions may persist, undergo further change, or be obliterated, as when clay cutans are broken up in Bt horizons via shrink-swell action, or when carbonate nodules dissolve following an increase in soil acidity.
Further, some accessions may cause feedback processes that redirect pedogenic pathways in progressive or regressive directions. For example, certain subsoil horizons may gradually increase in density until threshold development is reached (fragipans, clay pans) after which they become barriers to downward water percolation and function as aquitards or aquicludes. Feedbacks such as perched water tables and attendant profile gleying, mottling, and cessation of profile deepening may be triggered. Then there are the
Chert petrography and its potential as an analytical tool in archaeology
Authors: Prothero Donald R. , Lavin Lucianne 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Archaeologists use various properties of stone (lithic) artifacts to determine their sources, which can suggest trade or procurement patterns for the artifacts at a particular site. Sometimes source identification is relatively straightforward, because the ways in which certain artifacts were manufactured are often diagnostic of a particular place and time. In addition to the manmade properties of artifacts, the natural physical properties are often distinctive as well. In the past, chert artifacts were assigned a source based on macroscopic features such as color, luster, inclusions, and texture. Yet these features are not always diagnostic of a single source, and are difficult to assess objectively (Lavin, 1983a; Lavin and Prothero, 1987; Luedtke, 1976). For example, yellow, brown, and red cherts in New Jersey are usually attributed to the "Pennsylvania Jasper," yet the color is deceptive. Many cherts attributed to this source are in fact from other sources, and others from the "Pennsylvania Jasper" source are not yellow, brown, or red (Lavin and Prothero, 1981, 1987).
There are several techniques that can be used for a more refined analysis of chert artifacts. One, neutron activation analysis, has been used successfully by a number of workers (Aspinall and Feather, 1972; De Bruin and others, 1972; Ives, 1974, 1975; Luedtke, 1976, 1978, 1979; Miller, 1982; Sieveking and others, 1972; Spielbauer, 1976). Other geochemical techniques require far more equipment and expertise than are available to most archaeologists. However, pétrographie, or thin-section, analysis is a simple, inexpensive technique that has been standard in geology for over
Applications of high-resolution geophysical methods to archaeology
Authors: Wynn Jeffrey C. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
A quiet but accelerating revolution has taken place in archaeology over the last several decades. Classical archaeological methods, including trenching with trowels and brushes, require an enormous expenditure of human energy. Individuals carrying out this work are often students or local day laborers, working under the supervision of trained professional archaeologists who direct the work around surface manifestations—if any—of ancient human cultural activity. Modern mineral exploration technology, principally of a geophysical character, is now being increasingly incorporated in archaeology to increase the effectiveness of field work.
Despite the proven potential for vastly increasing efficiency, most archaeologists are yet unable to utilize geophysical methods in their work. The main reason is probably that geophysical equipment and contractors are relatively expensive and (with a few notable exceptions such as U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects) archaeology traditionally is a poorly funded profession. Funding for the work usually comes from small grants from academic institutions or from philanthropic contributions, and much of the work is still done on a volunteer or even a pay-forthe- privilege-of-working basis.
A second reason for limited use of advanced technology is time. In the past, several large projects, such as the Tombigbee Waterway, Dolores Reservoir, and Black Mesa coal mining projects in the United States, have involved significant funding by the federal government (John Weymouth, oral communication, 1985). Often, despite large sources of funding, very little, if any, geophysical work (or even trenching) is done because the effort usually is constrained by a pressing need for a land-use decision.
Archaeological geology in western Canada; Techniques, approaches, and integrative theme
Authors: Wilson Michael Clayton 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Integration of geology and physical geography with archaeology in Canada dates from before 1900, and was summarized in part by Noble (1972). Early geological surveys were conducted by scientists of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada who collected information not only about geology, but also about native place names, archaeological sites, and a host of natural history topics (for example, Dawson, 1885; Tyrrell, 1887). Subsequently, geologists Ernst Antevs and W. A. Johnston became involved in research and speculation concerning the early peopling of North America through the “ice-free corridor” between Laurentide and Cordilleran ice masses.
Not surprisingly, then, interdisciplinary studies involving the earth sciences and archaeology were traditionally viewed as important elements included in university archaeology curricula in Canada. The cooperation embodied in archaeological geology was already established, as it was in many other areas of the world, by the 1960s. Examples from that period of geological studies at archaeological sites in the Arctic and Subarctic include Mackay and others (1961) and MacNeish (1964). MacNeish was a strong advocate of interdisciplinary archaeological studies during his tenure at the University of Calgary in the mid-1960s. In Saskatchewan, geological and pedological studies were integral parts of early projects by the Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History (Wettlaufer, 1956; Wettlaufer and Mayer-Oakes, 1960). If anything, these excellent studies more strongly exemplified the archaeological geology ideal than many that followed. Early work in Manitoba by Johnston (1946) underscored the significance of glacial Lake Agassiz in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene history of
North American continent-ocean transitions over Phanerozoic time
Authors: Speed Robert C. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter presents a synthesis of the structure and Phanerozoic tectonic evolution of continent-ocean transitions around nearly the entire North American continent. Its objectives are to compare and contrast the modern transitions and Phanerozoic histories of specific margins of North America discussed in other chapters of this book and in the Transect displays (see Foreword) and to present ideas on processes in the evolution of continent-ocean transitions.
A word about the focus on the continent’s margins and their place in the global scheme of tectonics may be warranted. The modern transitions between the North American continent and adjoining oceanic basins are where plate tectonics has most recently affected the continent aside from rigid translation. At active margins, where oceanic lithosphere underrides or slides along the continent, the development of the margin is ongoing and may have been continuous over a long time. In contrast, at passive margins where the continent has split and sea-floor spreading has occurred, the continent-ocean transition was developed in a discrete event and was discontinuous in time. At passive margins, the most recent North American transitions range from Holocene to mid-Mesozoic. At collisional margins, where the North American continent is or was on the underriding plate, the development of the margin was also discrete and discontinuous. As with passive margins, an existing collisional margin is generally the product of an ancient event.
During the development of all margin types, the motions between the North American plate and adjacent plates have commonly been broadly distributed and nonuniform
Continental margin of the eastern United States
Authors: Rankin Douglas W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The continental margin of eastern North America has been studied as part of the North American Continent-Ocean Transect Program by synthesizing existing data along six corridors, each at least 100 km wide, between Newfoundland and Georgia that extend from the Phanerozoic craton to the oceanic crust. The term Phanerozoic craton is used here for a cratonal area that has not undergone significant deformation since the beginning of Phanerozoic time. One of these corridors is in Canada (Dl; Haworth and others, 1985), and two additional Canadian transects (D2 and D3; Keen and Haworth, 1985a, 1985b) cross the present continental margin, but do not extend westward to the craton. Herein I analyze the evolution of the eastern continental margin as depicted by the five corridors or transects, El through E5, prepared or in preparation for the United States. The five transects in eastern United States are outlined in Figure 1 and are as follows.
E1, Adirondacks to Georges Bank (Thompson and others, 1993). The corridor length is 1000 km.
E2, New York Appalachian basin to the Baltimore Canyon trough (Drake and others, unpublished). The corridor length is 860 km.
E3, Pittsburgh to Baltimore Canyon trough (Glover, 1989; Glover and others, unpublished). The corridor length is approximately 850 km.
E4, Central Kentucky to the Carolina trough (Rankin and others, 1991). The corridor length is 1100 km.
E5, Cumberland Plateau to Blake Plateau (Hatcher and others, 1994). The corridor length is approximately 1280 km. Because of the time constraints, E2 and E3 will not
Crustal structure and evolution of the southeastern margin of North America and the Gulf of Mexico basin
Authors: Buffler Richard T. , Thomas William A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Gulf of Mexico basin on the southeastern margin of North America is one of the most extensively studied basins in the world. Most of this work, however, has been concentrated on the shallower parts of the thick sedimentary section around the periphery of the basin, primarily related to the search for oil and gas and other minerals. Although comparatively little is known about the details of the more deeply buried parts of the sedimentary section and the crust below, enough geological and geophysical data exist now to enable compilation of a reasonable framework for the entire basin and document the evolution of the crust in general terms. The crust in the region contains the record of three successive phases of plate motion:
1. Divergent motion. Late Precambrian to early Paleozoic rifted margin and early Paleozoic south-facing passive margin along the southeastern edge of the North American craton.
2. Convergent motion. Late Paleozoic diachronous Appalachian-Ouachita orogenic belt, including foreland thrust belts, interior belts, and accreted terranes.
3. Divergent motion. Early to middle Mesozoic rifted margin and middle Mesozoic to present passive margin centered around a small ocean basin (present Gulf of Mexico basin).
Mesozoic rifting introduced a new set of extensional faults, including a northeast-trending rift set and a northwest-trending transform set. Some faults used planes of weakness related to late Paleozoic compressional structures, and the Mesozoic transform system essentially duplicated an early Paleozoic transform system. Mesozoic extension resulted in a broad area of stretched or attenuated continental crust (transitional
Phanerozoic tectonic evolution of Mexico
Authors: Ortega-Gutiérrez Fernando , Sedlock Richard L. , Speed Robert C. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
We present a tectonic evolution of Mexico over the past 600 m.y., with focus on the position of southern margin of Proterozoic North America in Mexico, the Phanerozoic events that shaped this margin, and the accretion of terranes that built Mexico out from that margin to its present configuration.
The evolution of Mexico is a peculiar and difficult problem in tectonics. Whereas the kinematic history of the region of Mexico, for example, the end of Proterozoic continental breakup, the collision of North and South America in the late Paleozoic, the drifting apart of those two continents in the Mesozoic, and the motions of plates in the Pacific basin relative to North America in Cretaceous and Cenozoic time, is reasonably well known, the kinematics of terranes now in the region is poorly understood. In large part, this disparity is due to the extraordinary extent and volume of Cenozoic volcanism. Although such volcanism informs us about Cenozoic convergence, it cautions that the crust of Mexico has probably undergone major modification in Cenozoic time. Moreover, the volcanic cover limits greatly the direct access to older rocks and structures necessary to develop the story of an evolution that is well resolved in space and time. A tectonic synthesis of Mexico thus requires more assumptions than for most mountainous regions.
Our model of tectonic evolution of Mexico attempts to satisfy both far-field and sparse near-field kinematic histories and existing geologic and geophysical data. This chapter is a companion to an in-depth synthesis of data, identification
Synopsis of geologic history portrayed along Corridor C-3
Authors: Howell D. G. , Vedder J. G. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Corridor C-3 (Fig. 1) traverses the transition from oceanic crust to cratonal rocks of North America along a 1,500-km transect from offshore southern California to central New Mexico (Howell and others, 1985; Gibson and others, 1985). The western end of the transect is offshore in an oceanic seamount province of the Pacific plate. Eastward, it crosses the southern California borderland and emerges onshore in the batholith-dominated Peninsular Ranges. C-3 spans the Salton trough, a transform rift floored by nascent oceanic crust, and the Basin and Range structural province, formed by extension and disruption of cratonal rocks. The eastern end of C-3 is on the stable craton.
Neogene tectonism has severely disrupted the older structural grain between the oceanic lithosphere and the craton. Much of this young tectonism is attributed to interactions along the plate edges after the spreading ridge system separating the Pacific and Farallon plates inpinged upon the North American plate in late Oligocene time. Two triple junctions—one migrating northward, the other southward relative to the Pacific plate—formed as the spreading system moved eastward relative to the North American plate. The San Andreas fault system began to develop within a broad zone of right shear as the triple junctions moved apart. The main strand of the San Andreas is but one of many northwest-trending right-lateral faults in the system. The boundary between the Pacific and North American plates is best perceived as a broad zone of right shear rather than a specific fault trace.
The continental crust of the
Modern active oceanic margins of North America
Authors: Huene Roland von , Riddihough Robin 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Modern convergent and strike-slip margins are crossed by six continent/ocean transects (Fig. 1). Along these margins, continental and oceanic crust are separated by a seismically active tectonic contact, which is the boundary between the North American Plate and the Pacific or Cocos Plates. Four transects cross convergent margins where oceanic crust underthrusts continental crust (A-2, B-2, B-3, and H-2). One transect (B-l) is across the Queen Charlotte Transform Fault, a part of the Pacific-North American plate boundary, which is as long as the better-known San Andreas Fault. Another transect (A-3) crosses a collision zone and the controversial transition fault zone, which is interpreted by some as a highly oblique thrust and by others as inactive during the past 5 m.y. or more, and only recently an active fault.
We summarize here the tectonic interpretations of these boundaries made by the transect teams, and results from work completed after the transects were assembled. After transect compilation, the multichannel seismic records across active margins in A-2 and H-2 were reprocessed, and a new record was acquired in the B-2 transect area.
Professional practice and societal organizations
Authors: McClure Cole R. , Sorrough Gail L. , Gray Richard E. , Galster Richard W. , Varnes David J. , Kiersch George A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Today, engineering geologists in private industry occupy key positions in the planning, design, and construction of many different kinds of engineering works. Since the beginning of this century, it typically has been the practice of engineering-construction companies to rely on outside consultants for projects requiring geological expertise. However, with the end of World War II and the rapid development of the early 1950s, engineering-construction companies in North America began to hire geologists as staff members.
A recent survey of the older major engineering-construction companies by Bechtel (1986) established that about half of the firms support engineering geology staffs in-house, while half rely solely on consultants, either individuals or specialty groups. Furthermore, many of the companies that retain engineering geologists in-house occasionally supplement their staff input with the services of outside consultants for a variety of reasons, including fulfilling contractual obligations, enhancing the work capabilities in a specific geographic area, or reinforcing expert opinions in controversial situations.
Today, some of the major engineering-construction companies that support their own in-house geoscience experts include Bechtel Civil, Inc.; EBASCO Services, Inc.; Fluor Engineers, Inc.; Harza Engineering Company; Morrison-Knudsen Engineering Company; United Engineers and Constructors; and Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation.
Bechtel was one of the first engineering companies to hire staff geologists. In the early 1950s, they hired Ben Warner, Victor L. Wright, Robert J. Farina, and Charles P. Benziger to work on a project-by-product basis. However, lack of permanent job status and associated benefits, as well as the inability in those days to advance professionally within the company ranks, was not encouraging to the geologists or beneficial to the company, and consequently, many of these geologists moved on to other professional situations.
Rebound, relaxation, and uplift
Authors: Nichols Thomas C. , Collins Donley S. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Rebound is defined as the expansive recovery of surficial crustal material, either instantaneous, or time dependent, or both, and is initiated by the removal or relaxation of superincumbent loads (Nichols, 1980). The displacements caused by rebound allow elastic and inelastic relaxation of the crustal masses to occur. The outward and upward movements associated with rebound are uplift displacements related to rebound processes. Rebound of geological materials is attributed to stress relief, but the process is poorly understood and the basis for predicting time-dependent rebound has not been clearly established. Not only are changes of stress important to the rebound process, but so are fabric, material properties, and anisotropy of the geologic materials, as well as external environmental factors such as moisture and temperature (Nichols, 1980). The problem of rebound is one with which design and construction engineers must deal, whenever the equilibrium of geologic materials is disturbed, especially in large excavations both surface and underground. In areas where rebound deformations can significantly affect engineering structures, it is desirable to understand rebound behavior, and to determine practical guidelines for prediction of the short- and long-term consequences of rebound.
The phenomenon of rebound undoubtedly has been observed by ancient as well as modern quarry operators, civil engineers, and applied geologists. In the United States and England, recorded accounts of rebound and actual measurements made to study the phenomenon appear in the mid-19th century (Nichols and Varnes, 1984) describing spontaneous and explosive expansion in a wide range of quarried rock types (sandstones, granites, vein rock).
Investigations of existing engineered works
Authors: Fisher Paul R. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Investigations in conjunction with operating engineering works and structures are receiving increasing emphasis throughout North America. The most obvious reason for the investigations is observed distress of the works, while less obvious but common causes are decaying infrastructure, advances in state-of-the-art engineering, and increased regulatory activity due to safety concerns. These latter causes frequently lead to modification of the original design.
In the early 1980s, the need for maintenance and rehabilitation of the nation’s engineering-works infrastructure was recognized and widely published as a national problem of great magnitude. Phrases such as “decaying infrastructure” and “crumbling public facilities” were used by the engineering and construction industry publications or by the general news media. The Public Works Improvement Act (Public Law 98-501) constituted a significant step in formulating a national response to the long-term intrastructure needs of our modern society (ENR, 1985; Pender, 1985).
The relative cost of continuing operations, maintenance, and rehabilitation versus the investment in new construction is increasing. One indicator of the shift is seen in the civil works budget of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In fiscal year 1967, construction and operations and maintenance accounted for 79 percent and 16 percent, respectively, of their budget. In fiscal year 1983, construction accounted for 42 percent and operations and maintenance for 40 percent. In fiscal year 1986, the construction budget was $0.8 billion, and the operations and maintenance budget was $1.4 billion!
Advances in state-of-the-art engineering have produced improvements in design criteria in such areas as earthquake engineering, maximum hydrologic events, strength and deformation properties of soil and rock materials, and methods of analyzing the response of structures to forces acting upon them.