bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Codex Hermopolis
Authors: Lippert Sandra L 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Designation of a demotic manuscript (third century
BCE
) written on the recto of apapyrus found at Hermupolis Magna (Ashmunein) in Upper Egypt in 1938, now in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo (
P.Cairo
JE 89127–89130+ 89137–89143); on the verso is a mathematical text.
Consensus
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe termconsensussignifies, just as in modern English, agreement: something that is “felt together.” In expressing a harmony between different parts of a larger structure,consensusis close toconcordia. The termconsensusis frequently used in political rhetoric; the concept of agreement is also the foundation of the classical law of contract as developed by the Praetor.
Constitutio Antoniniana
Authors: Buraselis Kostas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Under the term
Constitutio Antoniniana
(C.A.), “(imperial) decision of Antoninus,” we have come to understand the official act (probably 212
CE
) of the second Severan emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, nicknamed Caracalla, to grant the Roman citizenship to all (or nearly all) free inhabitants of the Roman Empire who had not yet possessed this status.
Corpus iuris civilis
Authors: Miglietta Massimo 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCorpus iuris civilis(“corpus of civil law,” an expression created by medieval jurists) refers to the most important compilation of legislative and jurisprudential material (i.e.,legesandiura) ever accomplished in the history of law, ordered by the Roman emperor Justinian (527–65CE), who expressly gave it the efficacy of law.
Kyrios
Authors: Schaps David M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A
kyrios
was anyone who had responsible power (
kyros
) over something. Aperson might be
kyrios
(“entitled”) to do an action (Aesch.
Ag
. 104),
kyrios
to deal with (Soph.
Aj
. 734), or decide (Xen.
Hell
. 2.2.18) a matter,
kyrios
of a household (Aesch.
Cho
. 658) or of astate (Arist.
Pol
. 1281a11). Avalid decision was
kyrios
(Dem. 24.1), an invalid one
akyros
(Andoc.1.8).
Law, Roman
Authors: du Plessis Paul J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe legal history of ancient Rome is commonly divided into five epochs. They are: the Archaic period (753–250BCE); the Preclassical period (250–27BCE); the Classical period (27BCE–284CE); the Postclassical period (284–527CE); and the Justinianic period (527–65CE). Central to this nomenclature, which corresponds broadly to more conventional historical classifications of Roman history such as republic and empire, are notions of growth and decline.
Lex Aquilia
Authors: Miglietta Massimo 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

According to tradition, in the third century
BCE
, an otherwise unknown Aquilius,
tribunus plebis
(“tribune of the plebs”), let the Roman people vote a plebiscite on damage that has come to be the basis of modern civil liability (Gai.
Inst
. 3.210–19 and Ulp. 18
ad edictum
). The
lex Aquilia
was probably the outcome of a combination of previous laws about damage (
Dig
. 9.2.1 pr.), and consisted of three chapters.
Quaestio
Authors: Alexander Michael C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDerived from a verb (quaerere, meaning “to seek”),quaestiorefers to various kinds of investigations. In a Roman legal context it can refer to an interrogation of a witness, often with the use of torture, or a judicial inquiry, or a court designed to conduct such an inquiry. In juristic literature it refers to a discussion of a case, either based on real life or from the classroom, as part of education in the law.
Culpa
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Culpa
can be translated as guilt, fault, or blame. He who is guilty, at fault, or to blame is being held responsible.
Culpa
, therefore, is a concept whose function it is to convey a judgment about responsibility. Regarding the substance of this concept, we can distinguish between two traditions and hence two different meanings of
culpa
, depending on the context in which responsibility is to be assigned.
Aphrodisias (Ninoe)
Authors: Ratté Christopher 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Carian city of Aphrodisias is one of the richest archaeological sites in Turkey. Aphrodisias lies in the Maeander river basin, about 130 km east of the Aegean Sea. The city first became important in the first century
BCE
, and continued to flourish throughout the Roman period.
Eresos
Authors: Schaus Gerald 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Best known as the birthplace of Sappho and Theophrastus, Eresos was one of five city‐states on Lesbos in the Classical period. Located in the southwest of the island, its main settlement lay around an acropolis with some sheltered anchorage at the south end of the main coastal plain. Polygonal (“Lesbian”) enclosure walls, probably archaic, and two early Christian basilicas are among the few remains. It produced fine barley meal (Ath. 3.111f–112a), and the best wine of Lesbos (Gal. 14.28k).
Hellespont
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) is a narrow strait of primeval and enduring strategic importance, separating mainland Asia from Europe; indeed, northwest Asia Minor from the Thracian Chersonese (modern Gallipoli peninsula;seeChersonese, Thrace) and south‐east Thrace.
Iasos
Authors: Fabiani Roberta 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIasos (now Kiyikislacik) lies on a peninsula of the Carian coast. Ancient sources call it an island‐town, with a poor territory, whose main economic resource was fishing (Strabo 14.2.21); but its wealth (Thuc. 8.28.3) also derived from agriculture and commerce. Its red marble was renowned in imperial times.
Karystos
Authors: Reber Karl 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Karystos is a city on the southern tip of the island of Euboea where, according to legend, the Dryopes lived (Thuc. 7.57.4). The area at the foot of the Ochi mountains was already settled in the prehistoric era. Homer (Il. 2.539) mentions it as one of six Euboean cities that participated in the Trojan War under the leadership of Elephenor of the Abantes.
Kassope
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Kassope, the political center of ancient Kassopia, a part of Thesprotia in southwestern Epirus, was founded by the Kassopaeans before 350
BCE
through the synoecism of neighboring villages on the slopes of Mount Zalongo (near modern Kamarina), at the northern end of a vast and fertile plain extending down to the Gulf of Ambrakia.
Long Walls, Athens
Authors: Conwell David H. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFrom Classical through early Hellenistic times, the Long Walls established a fortified connection between the inland city of Athens and its harbors. These fortifications, each one some 6 km in length, prevented enemy forces from conquering Athens simply by occupying the coastal plain so as to separate the city from its navy. Ancient literary and epigraphic sources document four major building phases, the first three of which are represented in the archaeological record. Because the structures were directly associated with a naval strategy, one may chart their history broadly based on fluctuations in Athenian naval strength.
Lycia
Authors: Gygax Marc Domingo , Tietz Werner 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe ancient region of Lycia comprises the entire modern Teke peninsula on the southern coast of Asia Minor, bordering Caria in the west and Pamphylia in the east. To the north, the westernmost ranges of the Taurus mountains shield Lycia from Phrygia and Pisidia. The political and cultural borders vary through history. This is especially true in the west, where Telmessos is the last place with traces of the indigenous Lycian language and Krya the last with rock‐cut tombs in the Lycian style, whereas Kaunos in imperial times was part of the Roman province of Lycia. The landscape is characterized by a few large fertile plains and a rough hinterland with scarce arable areas.
Mesene (Charakene)
Authors: Hauser Stefan R. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMesene (Greek; Middle Persian:Mēšān/Mēšūn; Syriac:Maysān/Mayšān; Arabic:Maisān) was the name of the southernmost part of the Mesopotamian alluvium where the Euphrates and Tigris, joined by the Karkhah River (Eulaios), having crossed swamps, reach the Persian Gulf (Mare Erythraeum). Geographical limits are the desert in the west, the swamps in the north, Elymais in the east, and the Gulf in the south. Politically, Mesene was the successor of the Seleucid “Satrapy of the Erythrean Sea.” Both included Bahrain (Thilousa) and minor islands in the Gulf.
Messon sanctuary
Authors: Williams Hector 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Messon, or “the middle” of the island of Lesbos near the eastern end of the Gulf of Kalloni, housed a sanctuary of Zeus, Dionysos, and a local goddess (perhaps identified with Hera) near the intersection of territories of the cities of Mytilene, Methymna, and Eresos; it was a place where the three cities could meet for festivals and common gatherings from at least the seventh century
BCE
.
Paktolos
Authors: Daubner Frank 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Lydian river Paktolos, today Sart Çayı, flows from the Tmolos through Sardis and feeds the Hermos. In Antiquity, it was renowned for containing gold and electrum which was used for the first coinage of the Lydian kings and caused their proverbial wealth. In Strabo's time, the gold was exhausted (Strabo 13.1.23, 13.4.5), but the
Pactoli liquores
(Prop. 1.14.11) persisted as literary
topos
in Roman poetry.
Pisa
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Pisa was the district of
ELIS
around
OLYMPIA
. Whether Pisa was a separate city or not was disputed even in Antiquity (Strabo 8.3.31). The name itself is pre‐Greek. The classical ethnic is
Pisates
(Pind.
Ol
. 4.11; Eur.
IT
1). In the Hellenistic period, it is
Pisaios
(Paus. 5.8.6). The original extent of the territory of Pisa is not known, but it probably included the area annexed by Elis and contiguous with Olympia northward to Elis. The extent of its territory south of the Alpheios River was described differently by Hellenistic geographers (cf. Strabo 8.3.7, 3.11).
Adaima
Authors: Midant‐Reynes Beatrix 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The site of Adaima is crucial for understanding the Predynastic cultures of Upper Egypt. Located 8 km south from the modern city of Esna, Adaima occupies an area of 35 ha and consists of a large settlement and two necropoleis. It was occupied from the end of Naqada I (ca. 3900
BCE
) to the 3rd Dynasty (ca. 2700).
Akhmim
Authors: Elias Jonathan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Akhmim, a city located 470 km/290 miles south of Cairo, opposite Sohag, was in ancient times a center of worship of the fertility god Min, his consort Isis (local variant Aper‐Set), and their child Horus. The settlement developed in Predynastic times upon the eastern bank of the Nile at a strategic bend.
Atum
Authors: Nelson‐Hurst M. G. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Atum (
Itm
), often called “Father of the Gods,” was the first god of creation and head of the Ennead (initial nine gods) in the Heliopolitan tradition. He was most often depicted in the likeness of a king, as a fully human man wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, though with a uniquely‐shaped beard. Atum's principal geographic centers were at Heliopolis and Pithom (
Per‐Tem
).
Bakenrenef (Bokkhoris)
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Wahkare Bakenrenef (Greek: Bokkhoris) was the second king of the 24th Egyptian Dynasty that briefly ruled the north of Egypt following the withdrawal of Piy (Piankhy) to Nubia after his invasion ca. 734
BCE
. Bakenrenef was the successor of Tefnakhte, who had previously been prince of the west, ruling northwestern Egypt from Sais, and had taken royal titles. Little is known of Bakenrenef's reign, which lasted ca. 724–718, only a few scarabs and a vase–found in an Etruscan tomb at Tarquinia, Italy–being known, along with the record of the interment of a sacred Apis bull in his year 6.
Khafre (Chephren)
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

It appears that Khafre reigned for around twenty‐five years during the second half of the twenty‐sixth century
BCE
. He was a son of Khufu, and is depicted as such in the later propagandistic folktale contained in Westcar Papyrus. Khafre came to the throne following the reign of his brother Djedefre and possibly also that of the latter's son Setka. Khafre had at least four wives – Meresankh III, Khamarernebty I, Hekenuhedjet, and Persenet – and at least ten children (Dodson and Hilton 2004: 52–3).
Letters, letter writing, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Warburton David A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLetters offer direct access to private and state interests. Aside from their disparate contents, the mode of address clearly defines the social relations between sender and recipient: the official position of the higher‐ranking individual usually determines the order in which names are listed. Most letters betray very little information, consisting of platitudes for the most part, matters of particular relevance usually being referred to obliquely.
Cosmetics, Egypt
Authors: Depietro Dana D. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Cosmetics may refer to any number of powders, lotions, compounds, tinctures, or other preparations ultimately centered on the attempt to make the body more attractive by superficial means. In ancient Egypt personal hygiene, appearance, and ritual purity were of tremendous importance. Cosmetics, then, were widely used by both sexes and were inextricably intertwined with ritual, trade, medicine, and sexuality.
Djet
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Horus Djet was a king of the 1st Egyptian Dynasty, around the thirtieth/twenty‐ninth centuryBCE. He was probably a son of his predecessor Djer, while his wife was presumably Merneith, known to be the mother of his successor, Den. To judge from the late Abydos temple offering lists, his personal name seems to have been Ita.
El‐Kab
Authors: Huyge Dirk 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Upper Egyptian site of El‐Kab (ancient Egyptian Nekheb, Greco‐Roman Eileithyiaspolis) is extensive (about 16 sq km) and contains monuments from all periods of Egyptian history from the Final Paleolithic (ca. 7000
BCE
) down to Coptic times. The principal deity of El‐Kab was the vulture‐goddess Nekhbet (“She of Nekheb”), who, with the cobra‐goddess Wadjet of Lower Egypt, was one of the two tutelary deities of pharaoh himself, as well as being the goddess of Upper Egypt.
Famine and food shortages, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Manley Bill 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Nile cuts a course through the Sahara Desert. For much of its length the river is fringed by farmland, until it sweeps out across a marshy delta. Nearasyut, a single branch leaves the main flow to irrigate the broadfayyumregion. Otherwise, Egypt is arid and hostile. Rainfall is rare and often destructive, reducing homes and granaries to mud and unleashing flash floods. Nevertheless, because of the Nile's constancy, Egypt is exceptionally fertile, and life for most Egyptians through history has been lived at subsistence levels but not usually in hardship.
Fayyum
Authors: Davoli Paola 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe pseudo‐oasis of El‐Fayyum is avast region (1,827 sq km) and a Governorate in the Western Desert of Egypt. Its capital is Medinet el‐Fayyum, Shedet in the Pharaonic period, Krokodilopolis/Ptolemais Euergetis in the Ptolemaic period, and Arsinoiton polis in the Roman period.
Forts, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Mumford Gregory D. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA fort is often defined as a “fortified building,” or “fortified position,” while military historians recognize three basic types: a refuge (place of retreat), a stronghold (essentially a center securing an area), and strategic defenses (an integrated line of fortifications controlling a broad region or frontier) (Gilbert 2004: 99). The materials, designs, sizes, population (“garrison”), aims/functions, and locations of fortifications vary widely throughout antiquity, while innovations over time are closely related to geographical location (i.e., landscape), changing sociopolitical and economic circumstances, means, and needs, and advances in and adaptations against military technology, siege tactics, and other strategies. This entry covers Egyptian fortifications from the late Predynastic through Pharaonic periods (ca. 4000‐332BCE).
Hekanakhte (Heqanakht)
Authors: Allen James P. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A funerary priest (“ka‐servant”) of the Vizier Ipi, Heqanakht is known only from a series of papyri composed by and for him in regnal years 5–8 of Senwosret I (ca. 1957–1954
BCE
). The documents consist of four letters, four accounts, and four fragments. They are significant for their unparalleled depiction of the daily life and economy of a middle‐class Egyptian family during the Middle Kingdom.
Hyksos
Authors: Bietak Manfred 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHyksos is the Hellenized version of the Egyptian word, Heqa Khaswt, “Rulers of foreign countries” – a term used originally for foreign chieftains and adopted, according to the Turin King List and monumental evidence, by the rulers of the 15th Dynasty for official use and by contemporary vassal‐dynasties on account of their Syro‐Palestinian descent.
Law, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: David Arlette 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn its general meaning oflegal system or legal norms, the law of Pharaonic Egypt, from the Old Kingdom to pre‐Demotic Egypt, in principle originated from the royal persona in times of strong central government: the monarch embodied all the powers of the state through holding a divine office. His word was recorded in decrees with normative value; he was considered supreme judge and head of the executive power, and delegations of some of his competences remained theoretically under his control. Since the Old Kingdom, the vizier (two viziers for Lower and Upper Egypt, respectively, mainly during the New Kingdom) was associated with the administration of justice and the functioning of the courts, assisted by a host of agents and scribes.
Literacy, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Zinn Katharina 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLiteracy, understood as the ability to read and write, was the trigger for and prerequisite of ancient Egyptians entering into a good profession, rank, and high social status, as stated in the “Instruction of Ani,” one of the Egyptian wisdom texts: “One will do all you say if you are versed in writings” (Lichtheim 1976: 140). This could happen regardless of social rank at birth, as to rise socially was possible for literate people.
Lykopolis/Asyut
Authors: Duquesne Terence 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Lykopolis, more properly Lykonpolis, means “City of Wolves,” and is the classical name for the ancient city known to the Egyptians as Saut(i) (“The Guardian,” or “[Place] of the Guardian”). The Arabic form Asyut or Siut is derived from the Egyptian name. Both the hieroglyphic and the Greek names refer to the god Wepwawet or Upwawet, the tutelary deity of Asyut who is represented as an ever‐watchful and often warlike jackal. Asyut is siuated in the center of Egypt, 407 km from Cairo, and in antiquity was the last settlement on the way to the oases of Upper Egypt.
Maadi
Authors: Hartung Ulrich 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Predynastic settlement of Maadi is the site of an eponymous Chacolithic Lower Egyptian culture which spread during the first half of the 4th millenniumBCEfrom the Fayyum in the south throughout the Nile Delta. The site is located in the southern suburbs of Cairo, covering an area ca. 1.5 km long and 200 m wide. Today, large parts of the site are destroyed or threatened by the rapidly growing city of Cairo.
Medinet Habu (Djeme)
Authors: Wilfong T. G. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMedinet Habu, to the west of modern Luxor (ancient Thebes) in southern Egypt, is the site of the mortuary temple of Rameses III. The temple and its enclosure became a site of habitation, and eventually (in the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods) developed into a small town called Djeme, best known from its final stages in the Late Antique and Byzantine periods, and ultimately abandoned around the year 800CE.
Nekhbet
Authors: Monkhouse Wendy 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A female deity who took the form of a vulture, Nekhbet was the guardian of Upper Egypt. Originally a local deity of El‐Kab, as early as the 1st Dynasty Nekhbet had become one of the “Two Ladies” (
nbty
), the vulture and cobra goddesses closely associated with the king. Royal identity was partly configured through the king's
nbty
name, each goddess representing power over and allegiance from Upper or Lower Egypt. The vulture headdress worn by royal women from the Old Kingdom onwards is also linked to Nekhbet.
Pottery, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Orel Sara E. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Pottery is the most common artifact at archaeological sites in Egypt. Pot fragments cover the ground, providing a marker of human activity thousands of years ago. We find pottery in a wide variety of contexts, from tombs to towns to temples. Its durability, as well as the easy availability of the raw material, low cost of manufacture in hours worked, and simplicity of the requisite technology, make it an essential tool for the study of ancient Egyptian culture. Pottery has been used to date the habitation of sites, determine the primary activity conducted in a certain area, and reconstruct the ethnic identity and social status of the ancients.
Sokar
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Sokar, one of Egypt's many falcon deities, was depicted in a variety of ways: as a sitting falcon; as a falcon‐headed mummiform man; a falcon‐headed man, often standing triumphantly upon serpents; and as a tumulus surmounted by a falcon's head, which is sometimes set into a
henu
barque, whose prow is maybe adorned with the head of an antelope or bull, with an
int
‐fish, and falcons or swallows crowning the hull. He originated in the Memphite region and probably was a god of craftsmen, primarily metalworkers and thus was associated with Ptah. However, he was soon also associated with the Memphite necropoleis and funerary matters, as well as being a chthonic god throughout Egypt.
Wadjyt, Wadjet
Authors: Cody Madeleine E. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
This ancient Egyptian goddess is the patron deity of Per‐Wadjyt (“House of Wadjyt”), later the Greek Buto, now modern Tell el‐Farain in the northwestern Delta, a site identified with the semi‐mythical towns of Pe and Dep. Her name may mean “The Green or Fresh One,” or “She of the Papyrus,” the heraldic plant of Lower Egypt.
Agri Decumates
Authors: Wells Peter S. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The term
agri decumates
was used by Tacitus in
Germania
29.4 to designate the territory east of the upper Rhine, south of the Taunus hills, west of the modern town of Welzheim, and north of the Swiss border; most of it was in the modern state of Baden‐Württemberg. The meaning of the term is unclear and has been the cause of much debate. Tacitus implies that the land was sparsely populated before being settled by emigrants from Gaul and that it became incorporated into the expanding empire.
Antonine Wall
Authors: Breeze David J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Antonine Wall was the northwest frontier of the Roman Empire for about 20 years from 142
CE
. Forty Roman miles (60 km) long, it crossed northern Britain from modern Bo'ness on the Firth of Forth to Old Kilpatrick on the Clyde. For much of its length it lay on the southern edge of the Midland Valley of Scotland, which formed a great trough in front of the Wall and was probably very boggy at the time.