bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Successes and Failures with Oil Spills in the Southeastern Inland Waters
Authors: Smith Al J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a brief review of several spill cases that have occurred in the Southeast in the recent past. Each case describes a unique situation — either in terms of containment, retention or removal methodology.
At Athens, Georgia, a pipeline break caused the closure of the Athens Water Supply System for twenty-four (24) hours. Poor initial retention allowed taste, odors, and some light sheens to pass through the filters at the water plant into the home, causing some sixty-four (64) complaints within a matter of hours. Several inexpensive changes in retention procedures and water treatment techniques returned the situation to normal in a matter of hours.
A pipeline break near Shepherdsville, Kentucky, forced some 16,000 gallons of crude oil into a subsurface layer of gravel. Storage of the oil in this fashion constituted a leaching source for the nearby water course that could have persisted for a year or more. Interception trenches were used to tap the gravel layers and water was forced into the layer up the gradient in order to “flush” the system. Ninety percent recovery was achieved at moderate expense.
A vandalized storage tank adjacent to the Congaree River was emptied of 10,000 gallons of Bunker “C” near Columbia, South Carolina. Elaborate containment and recovery procedures were employed downstream. The oil, however, disappeared — save for minor vegetation stain. Not even a sheen reached the recovery site. River velocity, wind speed, temperature of the water and turbidity are discussed as contributors to this phenomena.
At Jackson, Mississippi, a broken sludge pond dyke at a drilling operation dumped 40,000 gallons of “oil slops” and brine into the Big Black River. Retention on the surface was impossible because of the eight to ten knot river velocity. Light disposable sorbing booms were used to recover an estimated eighty percent of the oil.
At Memphis, Tennessee, a piston film “Herder” was used to aid in recovering a portion of a 100,000 gallon spill. Because of surface debris, wind and river velocity, the Herder forced the oil into difficult tree and brush infested areas. The oil literally “ringed” every obstacle floating – or fixed — in the area. Cleanup costs soared.
Pictures and sketches will be utilized to emphasize technical aspects of each situation.
A Dual Program for Prevention of Oil Spills in Offshore Drilling and Producing Operations
Authors: Wilson R. L. , Shirley O. J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Virtually all oil spills resulting from oil drilling and production activities in the Nation's waterways are caused by accidents. Therefore it follows that prevention of accidents and prevention of oil spills are synonymous objectives. Accidents can be broadly classified into two categories, that is those caused by equipment failure and those caused by human error. A program for accident prevention addressing both causes was developed and has now been fully implemented throughout Shell Oil Company's offshore operations in the Gulf of Mexico.
Codes of Practice for Dealing with Oil Spills at Sea and On Shore: A European View
Authors: Beynon L. R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
For several years institutions concerned with the petroleum industry in Western Europe have been endeavoring to ensure effective cooperation in certain important fields. In one of these, representatives of nine countries have been preparing codes of practice for dealing with oil spills at sea and those which have reached the shore. This paper describes the codes which have been produced.
The codes are intended for the guidance of those people in national bodies, local authorities, industry and elsewhere who may have to undertake clean-up operations. They set out the recommended methods, in order of priority, for six main “location variables.”
1. Open or rough sea (&gt; 1 km from shore)
2. Open sea, close to shore (&gt; 1 km from shore)
3. Estuaries
4. Sheltered, calm waters (including ports and harbors)
5. On shore
6. Ice conditions
The other main variables taken into account are type and quantity of oil spilt. “Oil type” has been subdivided into:
(i) Crude oils which spread on contact with water
(ii) Crude oils which have weathered on the sea
(iii) Water-in-oil emulsions
(iv) Heavy fuel oils
(v) Distillate fuels
(vi) Waxy oils which tend to coagulate into lumps on contact with the sea.
The size of an oil spill has been defined as:
(a) small, if it is less than 10 tons
(b) medium, if it is between 10 and 500 tons
(c) large, if it is greater than 500 tons.
It is felt that our present knowledge is adequate to ensure that, with correct preparation, the task of clean-up may be tackled with confidence of success.
Oil/Sorbent Harvesting Systems for Use on Vessels of Opportunity
Authors: Sartor James D. , Foget Carl 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A system for harvesting mixtures of oil and sorbent materials, primarily straw, which could be utilized for the recovery of floating oil from water was developed for use on vessels of opportunity.
A three-phase test program was conducted to evaluate candidate system components and operating specifications for the oil/sorbent harvesting system. The first phase of the program involved testing individual system components and operating parameters as to their effectiveness in picking up sorbents only. The first phase was conducted under actual conditions in a saltwater slough. The second phase of the test program entailed evaluating those operating characteristics of the harvesting system components selected in the first phase using crude oil and various sorbents in a test tank. The third phase of the test program entailed the installation of the complete system on a vessel of opportunity (an LCM), and demonstration of the ability of the system to operate under actual conditions. The system was evaluated both in the San Francisco Bay and off Coal Oil Point, Santa Barbara, where sorbent materials were dispensed over natural oil slicks.
The system utilizes commercially and readily available equipment which, with minor modifications, was assembled on-site onto available vessels. The system was found to be very effective in recovering sorbents (straw and polyurethane foam) from the water surface.
Prevention — the Best Method of Controlling Pollution
Authors: Jr. Frank C. Folger, 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
By far the best method of controlling pollution is to prevent its occurrence in the first place. Prevention is the result of pre-planned, voluntary action, carried out under conditions controlled by the operator. Containment and countermeasures, no matter how well planned and executed, are still involuntary re-actions, carried out under emergency conditions over which the operator has limited or no control (at least initially). The primary objective of an environmental management program must therefor be to prevent pollution.
This paper discusses techniques and procedures which are practical, readily applied, and easily administered. They can be incorporated into day-to-day operations with no disruption, and a minimum of additional effort. The paper considers equipment design (with particular respect to whether or not original design is still suitable for current operating conditions), alarm and shut-down systems, inspection and testing, maintenance, and operation. The paper also considers personnel training, definition of duties and responsibilities, and interdependence of personnel to achieve a common objective.
Toxicity and Avoidance Tests with Prudhoe Bay Oil and Pink Salmon Fry
Authors: Rice Stanley D. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
With the potential of oil pollution harming Alaska's marine resources, experiments were conducted at the National Marine Fisheries Service, Auke Bay Fisheries Laboratory to determine the concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil that are acutely toxic to pink salmon fry in fresh water and seawater and also the concentrations of this oil that the fry would avoid. Observed 96-hour TLM values were 88 mg of oil/liter of water in fresh water and 213 mg/liter in seawater in June and 110 mg/liter in seawater in August. Among fry held in seawater, older fry were more susceptible to oil toxicity than younger fry and older fry were also more sensitive in their detection and avoidance of oil; older fry in seawater avoided oil concentrations as low as 1.6 mg of oil/liter of water. The avoidance of oil by salmon fry was quite apparent and suggests that there is potential for oil pollution to change their migration behavior.
A Reinvestigation of Southern California Rocky Intertidal Beaches Three and One-Half Years after the 1969 Santa Barbara Oil Spill: A Preliminary Report
Authors: Cimberg Robert , Mann Steven , Straughan Dale 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Ten rocky intertidal beaches in southern California, which were surveyed for a 12 month period following the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, were reinvestigated in June and July of 1972. Data from this 1972 survey as well as data collected during the same months on the same beaches in 1969 and 1970 were analyzed by forming beach groupings using cluster analysis. This analysis indicates that sand movement and substrate stability are the two most important factors affecting the presence of marine organisms on these beaches during this period. Overall, the effect of the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill on the presence and abundance of rocky intertidal organisms was less important than other environmental factors. Most mortalities reported were localized in tide pools and high intertidal areas.
The Toxicity of Crude Oil and its Components to Freshwater Algae
Authors: Kauss P. , Hutchinson T. C. , Soto C. , Hellebust J. , Griffiths M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Field and laboratory experiments have been conducted to determine the toxicity of crude oil to freshwater algae. In the field, experiments were continued for a two year period and changes in the abundance and species composition of phytoplankton tabulated. Species were found to differ markedly in their response to an oil spill—varying from considerable suppression of growth to stimulation.
In the laboratory, the effects of aqueous extracts of seven crude oils on a selected test species, Chlorella vulgaris, were determined. Marked differences in toxicity, as indicated by reduced growth, were found to exist between oils. Work with oil extracts of different ages suggests that the short-term toxicity of oils is due to the rapid loss of volatile compounds. Differences in the toxicity of selected aromatic components of crude oils—benzene, toluene, o-xylene and naphthalene—were observed and are believed to relate to an increase in methylation. Aqueous crude oil and naphthalene depressed the 14C-NaHC03 uptake (i.e. photosynthesis) of Chlamydomonas angulosa. 14C-naphthalene was rapidly taken up by Chlamydomonas cells. However, release of this compound was much slower, and, in unwashed cells, seemingly dependent upon cell division.
Possible mechanisms of crude oil toxicity are discussed.
Respiratory Response of Juvenile Chinook Salmon and Striped Bass Exposed to Benzene, a Water-Soluble Component of Crude Oil
Authors: Brocksen Robert W. , Bailey Howard T. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Interest surrounding the potential effects of crude oil on aquatic organisms has increased in recent years due to the incidence of accidental oil spills. There are few experimental results reported, however, dealing with the effect on aquatic species of water-soluble aromatic hydrocarbons contained in crude oil. Such compounds are highly toxic to mammals.
Experiments were conducted using juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, and striped bass, Morone saxatilis. The fish were exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of the aromatic hydrocarbon benzene, for periods ranging from 1–96 hours. Prior to exposure, and after exposure to the benzene, respiration rates of individual fish were measured. Results show increases in respiratory rate up to 115 percent above that of control fish after exposure periods of 24 hours for striped bass and 48 hours for chinook salmon. Fish exposed to benzene concentrations of 10 ppm for periods longer than those listed exhibited a narcosis that caused a decrease in respiratory rate. The narcotic state induced by exposure to benzene was shown to be reversible when the fish were placed in fresh water and kept for periods longer than 6 days. Possible biochemical mechanisms leading to this response are hypothesized.
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN CRUDE OILS, HEATING OILS, AND MARINE TISSUES*
Authors: Pancirov R. J. , Brown R. A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper primarily covers the first phase of a project to demonstrate analytical methods in their ability to measure individual polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in typical petroleum oils and marine animal tissues. The study of petroleum oils is complete as described herein. Work on marine tissues is in its initial stage as an analytical method is shown to be capable of measuring benz(a)-anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene when added to clams at the 5 parts per billion (ppb) level. Evaluation of results indicate a detectability of 1 ppb.
Eleven to sixteen individual hydrocarbons were measured in samples of a South Louisiana crude, Kuwait crude, a No. 2 heating oil, and a Bunker C fuel. These compounds included the principal 3-to 5-ring aromatics found in petroleum and one 6-ring (benzo(ghi)-perylene). The tricyclics (phenanthrene, methylphenanthrenes) were generally present in the highest concentration and covered the range 26–7677 ppm by weight. Four- and five-ring aromatics occurred in the range &lt;0.5–240 ppm. Concentrations of the most widely studied polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, benzo(a)pyrene and benz(a)anthracene, were similar to one another being present at 0.6 to 2.8 ppm in the crude oils and heating oil, whereas in Bunker C their concentrations were 44 and 90 ppm, respectively Measurements of benzo(a)pyrene by previous investigators are tabulated and compared with those of this paper.
Data are also presented to show that the alkyl-substituted forms of these compounds are present at much higher concentrations than the parent compound itself.
THE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PASSIVE TAGGING PROCEDURES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF CRUDE OIL SPILLED ON WATER
Authors: Hunt G. , Horton D. , Levine J. , Mayo D. , Donovan D. , Shelley W. , Jiang L. , Crane R. , Johnson R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Several off-the-shelf passive tagging techniques were used to evaluate the viability of Maine's Oil Conveyance Law to determine the origin of mystery oil spills. Duplicating the operating conditions of the law, ship's samples of all crude oil shipments received during a 15-day period at Portland Harbor were collected. Selected crude oils were subjected to weathering in 500-gallon tanks exposed to the outdoor ambient conditions of Portland, Maine. Subsamples of the weathering spill were taken at several intervals up to 15 days. Attempts were made to correctly match the weathered “unknown” to one of the collection of ships’ samples by passive tagging. Techniques employed included the comparison of gas chromatograms by several procedures, vanadium-nickel ratios, sulfur-nitrogen ratios, and infrared spectra. In a preliminary review of the data, successes and limitations are discussed.
NAVY SHIPBOARD INVESTIGATION OF OILY WASTES
Authors: Smookler A. L. , Harden J. W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The Navy's shipboard oily waste problem is defined. The nature, sources, and generation rates of oily waste produced by Naval ships while in port and at sea under various modes of operation are presented.
In surveys of bilge oily waste conducted on 32 ships, bilge fluid generation rates, while in-port cold iron, ranged from a low of approximately 3,000 gallons per day for various destroyers to a high of 80,000 gallons per day for an attack carrier. These fluids were characterized as approximately 99.9% water; oil films or layers amounted to 0.1% of the total bilge fluid volume. The water layer contained less than 91 parts per million oil and 34 milligrams per liter solids 90% of the time. The principal particulate constituents are defined as approximately 75% organic and 25% inorganic with the major inorganic elements comprised of iron oxide, zinc and aluminum.
Questionnaire surveys of nearly 500 ships, followed by some ship visits, indicate that approximately 10% of all shipboard oily waste is comprised of ballast waters of which 73% is contributed by oilers; over 50% of the remaining ship population accounts for less than 3% of the ballast oily waste.
Additional oily waste sources are defined. Principal bilge fluid sources are identified, and methods of reducing the volume of bilge fluids generated are explained. Survey data indicate that the major effort of the Navy's oil pollution abatement program should be the development of suitable shipboard oil-water separators.
OAKLAND ESTUARY OIL SPILL CLEANUP: A REVIEW OF A MAJOR OIL SPILL CLEANUP IN A TRASH-LADEN ESTUARY EMPHASIZING SMALL BOAT HARBOR CLEANUP
Authors: Hanson James R. , Kochis David M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Shortly before midnight, January 18, 1973, 171,000 gallons of oil spilled into storm drains and waters of the Oakland (California) Estuary. This report covers the $1.2 million cleanup by Clean Bay, Inc., an industry-sponsored oil spill cooperative designated by the U.S. Coast Guard as the principal cleanup contractor. The report includes a day-by-day review of the cleanup experience and an evaluation of procedures, emphasizing problems encountered in cleanup of oil in trash-laden waters. Experience gained in the cleanup of 16 small boat harbors is reviewed, including pre-cleanup arrangements, techniques of consolidating and removing oil around boats and finger-piers, and the final cleanup of marina facilites.
AN ORGANIZATION PLAN FOR MINIMIZING THE DAMAGING EFFECTS OF A MAJOR OIL SPILL
Authors: Alberts Donald A. , Park William C. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Oil handling facilities operate with the potential for an extensive oil spill every day, but fortunately only a few are ever faced with a major discharge. When major spills have occurred, it has developed that on some occasions the party responsible was not fully prepared to organize forces for an effective cleanup. To date, little has been published on a realistic organizational guide to properly prepare personnel in charge. Lacking such guidance, spill cleanup may be costly, inefficient, and/or ineffective and can result in oil being relegated to the environment in lieu of being recovered. A concept for the organization of cleanup forces is presented, based on the authors’ experiences, which will result, if implemented, in a cost-effective and efficient cleanup effort. Problem areas properly addressed will result in an effective operation. Included is a typical line diagram organizational chart, but stressed are basic concepts with specific implementation dependent upon the actual situation.
PLANNING FOR MINIMUM OIL-SPILL RISK: ESTERO BAY DEEPWATER TERMINAL AND PIPELINE
Authors: Mayer Jules F. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Estero Bay, California, located midway between San Francisco and Los Angeles, may be the site of the first deepwater terminal in the United States capable of handling tankers larger than 200,000 deadweight tons. The ships would be moored 2.6 miles from shore at a single point mooring (SPM). Crude oil would be transferred to the San Francisco Bay area by a 280-mile pipeline.
One of the first questions asked by most permitting organizations is, what is the chance of an oil spill and how would you clean it up. The environmental studies for the project have addressed this question with particular attention to the prevention of spillage and, secondarily, to the cleanup equipment and organization required in the event that spillage should occur. Equal consideration is being given to the operational procedures, including use of owner-trained mooring masters. A plan for manpower organization and the pooling of people during an emergency has been developed.
A RISK-ANALYTIC APPROACH TO CONTROL OF LARGE-VOLUME OIL SPILLS
Authors: Paulson A. S. , Schumaker A. D. , Wallace W. A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The frequency of large-volume oil spills is considerably greater than is consistent with prediction based upon traditional methods. The reason for this phenomenon is that standard probability distributions of magnitude of spills do not have the flexibility to admit of very large coefficients of variation, especially for distributions which are highly skewed to the right. Hence, distributions which have large means relative to the median and which have long thick tails are prerequisites for an appropriate treatment of the problem. The class of stable laws provides a convenient method for investigating the empirical oil spill experience: several large spills dominate the total volume of spillage in virtually all accounting periods; e.g., quarterly. Our methodology involves a statistical assessment of “accident-proneness component;” if one exists, the data is further examined to identify insofar as is possible the genesis of the component (s); if none exists, we assess the frequency and severity of discharge for various geographic areas. A new approach has been utilized to fit these long, thick-tailed probability distribution to a U.S. Coast Guard data file on oil spills, the pollution incident reporting system (PIRS), with considerable success. We pay particular attention to the fitted upper tail vis-a-vis the actual upper tail. The agreement, where our methodology is deemed applicable, is very good We also indicate improvements to methodology and applications.
FEDERAL REGULATORY CONTROL OF OIL SPILL REMOVAL METHODS
Authors: Snyder Harold J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The development of federal regulatory controls for oil removal methods is traced from the concerns that were developed over the use of dispersants during the Torrey Canyon incident. The evolution of annexes for chemical use control in the National Contingency Plan is described starting with the 1968 plan to the 1974 version being prepared for publication by the Council on Environmental Quality. Chemical and biological agent data requirements being included in the 1974 version are explained with emphasis on the rationale for selecting the type of data being requested. Possible directions for future federal regulatory control for removal methods are discussed.
A HYDRODYNAMICALLY EFFECTIVE HORIZONTAL OIL BOOM
Authors: Wilcox J. D. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Conventional vertical barrier booms are ineffective in currents in excess of approximately 0.7 knots when placed at right angles to the current. The PACE boom is a horizontal boom that is effective in medium to fast currents and has successfully been tested on the St. Lawrence River in currents of 2.5 knots.
It is a hydrodynamically effective horizontal oil boom that utilizes the natural forces of flowing water to contain spilled oil and/or direct it for recovery. A section of boom consists of two parallel flotation devices each 15 m in length and joined by a suspended segment of netting fastened to a fabric through which water passes but not oil. In operation, interconnected sections of boom are placed across the current in such a manner that surface oil flows under the first flotation device, up through the netting, and over the fabric where it is trapped against the second flotation device. A tangential flow produced between the floats carries the oil across the current to a recovery area.