bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Careers in Criminal Justice, Private Sector
Authors: Bing Robert L. , Collins Veronica 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This essay provides information about careers in criminal justice within the private sector. The growth of the private sector is discussed. Career opportunities in the private sector are discussed in the following categories: law enforcement, courts, corrections, and non‐traditional fields. Despite the phenomenal growth in the private sector, a call to caution is offered, with recommendation about the need for evidence‐based practices.
Penal Colonies
Authors: Worley Robert M. , Worley Vidisha B. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThroughout the history of corrections, criminal justice officials throughout the world have utilized penal colonies as a form of punishment. While a variety of different nations have experimented with penal colonies, the British, French, and Russian governments are known to have been quite aggressive in transporting prisoners to remote areas. Interestingly, penal colonies are still present today. The detention camp at Guantanamo Bay is a modern‐day penal colony where officials have incarcerated individuals who are suspected of engaging in terrorism against the United States.
Arraignment
Authors: Kubena Jiletta L. , Lillemon Kanon Bernard 
Published: January 2014

AbstractArraignment is an important Constitutional right guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment. Arraignments are generally brief hearings whereby criminal defendants are informed of the criminal charges against them, and occur at both the federal and state level. Due to arraignment being one of the simplest processes, in terms of procedural rights, few cases with arraignment violations have reached the Supreme Court. This is especially true when comparing arraignment with the large number of cases generated by other rights given in the Sixth Amendment. However, arraignments can vary considerably depending on differing states' applications of arraignment procedures.
Boot Camps for Juveniles
Authors: Penly Hall Gina 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCorrectional boot camps are a controversial alternative sanction for adjudicated juveniles that emphasize a militaristic style of operation. Program characteristics vary with the political atmosphere of the jurisdiction in which the boot camps are running, but most focus on rehabilitating offenders within a punitive environment. Goals are similar across the board, with most programs aiming to reduce recidivism and reconviction while controlling costs associated with juvenile detention. Empirical research indicates little or no benefit of juvenile boot camps with regard to these and other goals.
Residential Treatment Centers
Authors: Larkin Heather , Dean Erica 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Youth crime continues to be a major public health concern throughout the United States. Residential treatment centers (RTCs) offer a comprehensive approach to address complex needs, accepting referrals of youth involved in the juvenile justice system. Research demonstrates the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and risk behaviors that play a role in juvenile justice involvement. Responding to multi‐problems among youth with backgrounds characterized by adversity, RTCs typically combine various mental health and other interventions, including school, within the context of a therapeutic milieu. Restorative integral support (RIS) usefully articulates a whole‐person approach that brings interventions together while taking earlier adversity into account. Service outcomes action research (SOAR), an interdepartmental partnership between a university and two RTCs, helps to build knowledge of how services are effectively combined to serve high‐risk youth experiencing multiple problems. It is important to understand the effectiveness of RTCs for multi‐problem youth with backgrounds of adversity. In addition to saving further costs associated with ACEs, restoring healthy developmental processes benefits everyone by helping individuals become productive members of society.
Policewomen and Matrons
Authors: Rabe‐Hemp Cara 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe exact role of women in policing has fluctuated significantly in the past hundred years. Early on, women were employed in the male‐dominated occupation of policing as prison matrons, entrusted with the task of guarding juveniles and women inmates. During wartime, policewomen would continue to fulfill stereotypically feminine jobs primarily focused on protection of young girls and the suppression of social evils, including dance halls, liquor sales, and gambling. It was not until women began encroaching on typical male police duties that the debate on the skills and abilities of female officers began. This debate peaked in 1972, with the Civil Rights Act, which unlocked the door to patrol for female officers. In the almost 40 years that have followed, women have made considerable gains in acquiring high ranks and roles within police organizations, despite facing considerable obstacles in integration.
Child Savers
Authors: DeTardo‐Bora Kimberly A. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The 1890s to the 1920s Progressive Era of the United States represented a time in which the child savers flourished. These white, college educated members of the middle and upper class, created informal charities and grassroots organizations that led to the creation of a juvenile court as well as reform in compulsory education, child labor, juvenile institutions, and juvenile probation. While reform was sweeping the country, a lot of attention was being given to the movement that took place in Chicago. Many notable women such as Jane Addams, Lucy Flower, Julia Lathrop, and Lousie de Koven Bowen, and men such as Charles Loring Brace and Benjamin Barr Lindsey, immersed themselves into humanitarian and philanthropic efforts to serve dependent, neglected, and delinquent youth. Some claim that they applied their bourgeoisie specific norms to reform the system in an altruistic and benevolent way, while others have argued that the movement was just an attempt to secure the interests of the middle and upper class, and to impose greater state‐supported social control.
Mental Illness and Crime
Authors: Franklin Kathryn B. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCrime and mental illness are inherently linked. Mental illness commonly presents with deficiencies in reasoning, perception, and functioning, facets that have the propensity to cause maladaptive behavior patterns that lead to criminal, delinquent, or abnormal behavior. The disorders that commonly arise in studies, discussions, and analyses of crime, deviance, and delinquency tend to fall under the broad categories of disorders first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence; substance‐related disorders; schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders; mood disorders; sexual and gender identity disorders; and personality disorders.
Longitudinal Research
Authors: Lamphere Renee , Holler Timothy J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractLongitudinal research refers to the collection of data over an extended period of time. Some of the most notable longitudinal research designs include the US Census and Monitoring the Future studies. While longitudinal research designs are often more expensive and time‐consuming than cross‐sectional designs, the results often provide rich information that cannot be obtained through alternate designs.
Digital Forgery
Authors: Cheddad Abbas 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWith the advancements in computer‐related technologies more data are created in digital form, allowing easy control over the handling, collection, storage, and dissemination of such data. Unfortunately, this progress, in spite of its technical advantages, may have brought with it a great deal of risks, especially the ones related to the security of digital documents. Forgery has become a worry for a range of organizations such as governments, universities, hospitals, and banks, paving the way to the creation of new crime fighters known as digital detectives who are part of the scientific investigation taskforce. Needless to say, issues that surround both individuals' privacy and security have gained significant concern in recent years among both legislative and scientific research communities. In today's technological world, confronting criminals is no longer a matter of security forces on the ground. Often, criminals are able to achieve more in the digital world—the internet. Thus, it is of paramount importance for non‐technically oriented readers to expand their horizons in order to understand some aspects of this cybercrime. To this end, digital image manipulation and detection are highlighted in their broad sense without delving into deep technical details, though further reading resources are furnished.
National Institute of Justice
Authors: Hendrix Nicole 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) is the research, development, and evaluation agency of the United States Department of Justice. The Office of Justice Programs, a branch of the Department of Justice, is comprised of the NIJ, along with the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA), Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), Office for Victims of Crime (OVC), and other program offices.
Aftercare and Reentry
Authors: Dum Christopher P. , Fader Jamie J. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
One of the key phases of the juvenile justice process is reentry. When released from reform schools, juveniles are expected to successfully reintegrate into their families and communities and develop from adolescents into adults. This process is mediated by juvenile aftercare, which provides postrelease services in the community such as employment assistance, educational programs, vocational skills, and counseling, as well as supervision, usually in the form of probation.
United Nations Crime Conventions
Authors: Bar‐ness Gabriel 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
United Nations Crime Conventions are a set of international legal instruments conventions and protocols broadly covering the topics of transnational organized crime and corruption, drugs, and terrorism, ratified between 1961 and 2003. Though criminalization requirements and the enhancement of training and mutual legal aid are common in nearly all conventions, each convention varies in both scope and substance, conventions regarding terrorism being largely limited to certain events and phenomena, and conventions against organized crime and corruption encompassing broader circumstances and functions.
Human Smuggling
Authors: Siegel Dina , Zaitch Damin 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Human smuggling is based on a consensus between smuggler, smuggled, and his/her family (which usually guarantees or effectuates payment). However, unauthorized immigrants are violating immigration laws and human smugglers are profiting from enabling illegal immigration. Both human smuggling and its criminalization can in fact be regarded as a product of restrictive migration and asylum policies. Stringent border controls and internal controls are the traditional ways to identify and detain illegal migrants and catch the smugglers.
Probation and Probationers
Authors: Palomares Ernestina 
Published: January 2014

AbstractProbation refers to the conditional freedom, granted by judges to offenders, as long as offenders meet certain conditions. Probation officers monitor the behavior of probationers, making sure they comply with conditions of probation. Conditions of probation usually consist of three types, namely standard conditions, punitive conditions, and treatment conditions. Probation is often described as a sanction, sentence, process, and contract.
Peer Groups and Delinquency
Authors: Kashea Pegram 
Published: January 2014

AbstractResearch indicates that there is a strong relationship between peer groups and delinquency. To explain this relationship, researchers have used several theories, such as Sutherland's differential association theory, Akers' social learning theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory of self‐control, and Agnew's general strain theory. To better understand how peers cause delinquency, researchers have examined the makeup of delinquent peer groups, the types of activities that peer groups engage in, and how members within these groups interact with one another as well as with other individuals in society.
Elder Abuse
Authors: Smith Christi M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Despite its emergence in the social policy and civil justice arenas more than a quarter of a century ago, there is no federally established definition for elder abuse and no single entity that collects and analyzes elder abuse data. Advances in health and wellness have resulted in an aging population that has more than tripled since 1900. The year 2011 marks the first year that the “baby boomers” will turn 65 years old. The “oldest old,” age 85 and older, is currently the fastest‐growing segment of the population. While it is impossible to accurately assess the number of elder abuse cases, prevalence studies indicate that more than 2 million elderly persons are victims of abuse or neglect each year. The abuse can be physical, sexual, emotional, or financial; it can occur in a variety of environments; and it can be at the hands of a loved one or a stranger. Even a single episode of neglect, mistreatment or abuse can have devastating and fatal consequences for a frail individual. Much further examination and continued investigation into the risk factors and markers of elder abuse are imperative to successfully combat and reduce harmful behaviors targeted toward the aging population.
Women in Prison
Authors: Harris Judith A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIncarceration of females is rising at a significant rate, thus it is important to provide an accurate overview of how women live and work in prison systems. Historically, quality‐of‐life experiences of incarcerated females are often far worse than popular culture leads us to believe. Further, it impacts the lives of female offenders differently than it does those of male offenders. In the 1800s prisons were places of punishment where females convicted of crimes and violations of other moral standards were isolated from society. It was also during this period that prison officials implemented strategies to re‐socialize confined females prior to their release into society. Thus, the incarceration of females has a long history characterized by both punishment and treatment.
Islamic Law Justice Systems
Authors: Malekian Farhad 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe hybrid character of Islamic criminal justice contains similar purposes arising from the principles of legality, proportionality, and humanity. It consists of categories of crimes protecting the principle of the inviolability of the rights of individuals. Its purpose is to provide immunity, rehabilitation, prohibition, and prosecution. The principles of fault or intention (dolus) and negligence (culpa) constitute a basis for the recognition of individual criminal responsibility. Simultaneously, it has developed the rights of accused, victims, and witnesses from the inquisitorial into the accusatorial methods and gives a significant weight to the quality of evidence. In criminal investigations, procedures, judgments, and punishments, the judges of a court must have a basic knowledge of justice. During trial, a sufficient reason may cause mitigation or exclusion of punishment, such as self‐defense. The modern interpretation of Islamic criminal justice condemns harsh punishments and calls for fair penalties based on the rules of law.
Beccaria, Cesare
Authors: Gartner Jen 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) was an Italian economist, criminologist, political writer, and penal reformer who is considered to be the father of modern criminology. Beccaria's best‐known work,
On Crimes and Punishments
(
Dei delitti e delle pene
), was highly influential in the reform of European laws and in the formation of the US Constitution, the US Bill of Rights, and the US criminal justice system.
Left Realism Theory
Authors: Myers Randolph R. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAlthough left realists acknowledge that crime is in part socially constructed, they assert that much of what we as a society label as crime is indeed associated with human misery. For a left realist, therefore, “street” crime isrealenough, especially for the socially disempowered populations who are disproportionately victims of street crime. Much left realist scholarship theorizes about how certain capitalist economic arrangements lead to serious violence and punitive cultural attitudes. Given that economic inequality is at the root of muchrealcrime, left realists focus their policy suggestions on lessening the gap between the rich and poor and eliminating other social injustices.
Exclusionary Rule
Authors: Warnick Julie A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA judicially created rule to protect an individual's US constitutional Fourth Amendment rights, the exclusionary rule excludes evidence in criminal trials that has been obtained as a result of unreasonable searches and seizures by federal and state law enforcement. Any evidence, regardless of the severity of the crime, will be excluded if the courts determine the evidence obtained was a direct result of a law enforcement violation. The rule extends to evidence known as fruits of the poisonous tree—that is, any evidence that is secondary to or derivative of the unlawfully obtained evidence. Since its origin, the courts have carved out exceptions to the rule including good faith, inevitable discovery, purged taint, and independent source. The use of the exclusionary rule remains controversial.
Akers, Ronald
Authors: Dooley Brendan D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Ronald L. Akers (1939–) is most recognized for his contribution to the development of one of criminology's dominant theoretical traditions, differential association/social learning. Merging elements of operant conditioning, drawn from Skinnerian psychology, with Edwin Sutherland's enduring propositions revitalized interest in this theory in the mid 1960s. The seven tenets crafted in his seminal article with Burgess were coined as differential association‐reinforcement theory. This innovation lent itself to more direct tests than the original formulation and as a consequence has generated a wealth of research attention.
Social Learning and Social Structure
, his more recent work, extends this intellectual tradition yet further through incorporating structural variables drawn from an array of other perspectives, including social disorganization and anomie, into the approach. In recognition of these scholastic contributions he has been recognized as President of the American Society of Criminology (1978–9) and earned the organization's Edwin H. Sutherland Award in 1988.
Self‐Report Surveys
Authors: Kubena Jiletta 
Published: January 2014

AbstractSelf‐report surveys are one of the main tools used to collect data in criminology and criminal justice research. Developed out of the need to supplement arrest and victimization data, self‐report research measures crimes not reported to the police or that result in an arrest. It is one of the most frequently used methods to explore the extent of criminality and the etiology of offending.
Electronic Monitoring
Authors: Mathey Christopher L‐P 
Published: January 2014

AbstractElectronic monitoring (EM) originated in the 1960s as a means to modify behaviors. Re‐introduced in the 1980s to reduce prison overcrowding, these programs rely on three technologies; continuous signaling, programmed contact, and global‐positioning satellite systems (GPS). Today, EM is used in offender‐rehabilitation programs sponsored by many probation and parole agencies. One of its most controversial uses is with sex offenders. Despite numerous evaluations of its effectiveness in rehabilitating offenders, the results are unclear. The future use of EM will most likely be based on its costs, effectiveness, and its acceptance as a means of humane rehabilitation.
Defense Counsel
Authors: Bellone Eric T. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDefense counsel (a criminal defense lawyer) represents a defendant accused of a crime. Criminal defendants have a constitutional right to legal representation under the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Defense counsel guides and advises the defendant through the multiple stages of the criminal justice process starting with arrest through to the trial and possible appeal. Defense counsel explains to the client what is happening at every stage in the justice process and ensures the defendant knows and understands their rights. Other duties of defense counsel include: investigating the crime, interviewing the accused, contacting the prosecutor (including plea bargain negotiations), and interviewing witnesses and police.
Arrest
Authors: Nolasco Claire Angelique R. I. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe authority of law enforcement officers to make arrests is restricted by the US Constitution's Fourth Amendment guarantee against unreasonable searches and seizures. The US Constitution expressly requires that arrest warrants be issued only when probable cause exists as determined by a magistrate. Arrests, however, can be made with or without warrant. The US Supreme Court has clarified through case law the permissible conditions under which warrantless arrests can be made. Jurisprudence has also clarified the nature and extent of permissible searches incident to lawful arrests, with or without warrant.
Capital Punishment and Wrongful Convictions
Authors: Carrera Rachel L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractConvicted offenders determined to be innocent, typically through DNA testing, are often described as wrongfully convicted, thus they are exonerated of criminal charges. However, wrongful convictions in which convicted felons are later revealed to be innocent are not the same as cases of “factual innocence” and “legal innocence.” For example, factual innocence is evident when defendants are accomplices to crimes yet do not directly commit crimes. Legal innocence refers to criminal cases where defendants' criminal actions are determined to be legally justified. For example, defendants are often found to be legally innocent in cases where defendants acted in self defense or were intellectually disabled.
Parental Rights, Termination of
Authors: Vesneski William 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe termination of parental rights is a legal procedure used to free children who are victims of abuse or neglect for adoption. The procedure involves longstanding legal doctrines as well as parents' constitutionally protected rights to their children. One of the key federal statutes governing termination is the Adoption and Safe Families Act, passed by Congress in 1997. Termination is an emotionally charged and complex issue requiring continued attention and research.
Drug Crimes
Authors: Circo Giovanni 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The drugs–crime connection has long been a studied topic in the realm of criminal justice. However, the nature of the connection is not altogether clear, and presents researchers with a “chicken and the egg” type question. Does drug abuse stem from those engaging in a criminal lifestyle, or do drug abusers commit crimes because of their drug habits? In order to study the connection between drugs and crime, it is necessary to draw a distinction between the different forms of drug crime. Today, three major distinctions are typically recognized. Use‐related crime refers to crimes committed under the influence of drugs, due to their pharmacological, or chemical, effects. Economically motivated crime refers to crimes that are committed, primarily by addicts, to fuel their drug habits. Finally, systemic crime involves crime related to the illicit drugs trade, due to the prohibition on their sale and distribution.