bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparative Cytogenetics
Authors: Breen Matthew 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

In the pre‐genomics era, the field of comparative cytogenetics was restricted to the comparison of banded chromosome preparations of the species being studied. Subsequent application of molecular biology tools to cytogenetics facilitated the development of molecular cytogenetics. In particular, fluorescence
in situ
hybridisation (
FISH
) improved our ability to compare genomes at the chromosomal and subchromosomal levels, leading to much more defined knowledge about the processes of gross chromosomal rearrangements that have occurred during evolution. In the past few years, as more whole genomes have been sequenced, the new wealth of genome information alongside enhanced technologies has advanced cytogenetic studies to a resolution far beyond that of the light microscope. This convergence of genome‐integrated resources with conventional cytogenetics catalysed the emergence of cytogenomics. Using a variety of analytical platforms, cytogenomics provides more detailed study of chromosome changes within and between species, with resolution of just a few kilobases. Within the broader field of comparative genomics, comparative cytogenetics has provided opportunities to understand more about our own genome architecture and function, in the context of the dynamic process of speciation and evolutionary change. In the biomedical arena, the field of One Medicine has embraced a comparative approach to expedite gene discovery using appropriate animal models of disease. This article briefly summarises some of the work that has resulted in a greater understanding of the comparative cytogenetics of mammals, especially in the context of their relationship to the human karyotype.

Key Concepts

Genomes of different species are organised into different chromosome numbers, sizes and morphologies (karyotypes).

While karyotypes differ, cytogenetic approaches may be used to make direct comparisons.

The emergence of high‐quality genome sequences for numerous species provides new tools to make higher resolution comparisons of the chromosome of such species.

Breakpoints along chromosomes that occur in cancer cells may be similar to those associated with speciation.

Chromosome changes in cancers may be shared between species, suggestive of an evolutionarily conserved pathogenetic mechanism.
New‐Generation Vaccine Adjuvants
Authors: O'Hagan Derek T 
Published: July 2015

AbstractThe currently available vaccines represent an outstanding success story in modern medicine, as they are responsible for a huge reduction in morbidity and mortality worldwide. However, it is clear that new approaches are necessary to enable the development of vaccines against more difficult pathogens, which are not yet under control, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), malaria and Methicillin‐resistantStaphylococcal aureus(MRSA). In addition, vaccines are necessary to counter emerging pathogen threats such as pandemic influenza and Ebola viruses. Potential improvements to current vaccines may include the addition of new adjuvants, which are able to induce more potent immune responses, more rapid responses or responses with an expanded breadth of pathogen coverage. New‐generation adjuvants are now becoming available which may enable the development of new and improved vaccines, and this is currently a very active area of research and development.Key ConceptsVaccines are safe and effective and have had a major impact on reducing the impact of infectious diseases in the twentieth century and continue to do so early in the twenty‐first century.Adjuvants are included in vaccines to increase the immune response to the vaccine antigens.Vaccine adjuvants are often necessary to enable vaccines to be effective.Most currently available childhood vaccines contain insoluble aluminium salts as adjuvants.To enable the development of vaccines against some more difficult pathogens, such as HIV and malaria, more potent adjuvants will be required.New‐generation adjuvants normally comprise several components combined together to achieve the best immune response to the vaccine.New vaccine adjuvants will have to undergo extensive safety testing before they will ever be included in licensed vaccines.Recently, it was identified that traditional small molecular weight drugs could perform as adjuvants, opening up the possibility of discovering many more new adjuvant‐active compounds.Formulation science is a key contributor to allow the development of safe and effective vaccine adjuvants.It is becoming increasingly important to fully understand the mechanism of action of vaccine adjuvants, how they work is important.
Autoimmune Disease: Mechanisms
Authors: Fairweather DeLisa , Root‐Bernstein Robert 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

The immune system provides protection against infections and repairs tissue damage induced by physical trauma. Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune response inadvertently inflicts damage to tissues in the body. Similar features between autoimmune diseases suggest that common pathogenic mechanisms could lead to the development of autoimmune disease in genetically susceptible individuals. Activation of specific innate immune pathways is a characteristic of many autoimmune diseases. Innate immune cell activation directs antigen‐specific autoimmune T and B cells to cause tissue pathology under the influence of sex hormones. Thus, most autoimmune diseases occur predominantly in one sex or the other such as type I diabetes, Crohn's disease and myocarditis in men vs. thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis and lupus in women. Importantly, at least 80% of all autoimmune diseases occur in women. Current research targets these common immune mechanisms in an effort to develop better therapies and to prevent autoimmune disease.

Key Concepts

Genes and the environment contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases.

Nearly 80% of autoimmune diseases occur in women.

Sex hormones regulate inflammation and alter autoimmune disease in animal models.

Estrogens increase auto‐antibodies, which are key diagnostic criteria for most autoimmune diseases.

Many theories exist for how infections and chemicals could cause autoimmune diseases.

Microbial and/or chemical activation of innate immunity must occur at the same time as damage to self‐tissues in order for autoimmune disease to develop.

Dysregulation of peripheral immunoregulatory mechanisms is a key characteristic of autoimmune diseases.

Successful treatment of autoimmune diseases might require the targeting of multiple effector pathways.
MicroRNA
s in Cardiovascular Development and Diseases
Authors: Mishra Shivangi , Yadav Tanuja , Rani Anshu , Rani Vibha 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

Small molecule microribonucleic acids (miRNAs) are coming up with a huge impact on the scientific world of therapeutics and diagnostics. These 22–24 nucleotide small noncoding RNAs acting as negative gene regulators are found to be involved in a broad range of homeostasis process. One of the major health‐related concerns in current scenario is the development of heart problems leading to cardiomyopathy and heart failure in extreme conditions. The disease condition is associated with both lifestyle and genetic factors. The role of miRNAs governing the regulation of the genes involved in heart development and diseases is being studied extensively. Some of the miRNAs present abundantly in heart and regulating the process of cardiovascular development and diseases are miR‐1, miR‐133, miR‐499, miR‐208 and miR‐199b. This article presents a brief review on the roles of these miRNAs in cardiac development and diseases along with their potential in heart regeneration.

Key Concepts

A large fraction of miRNAs are expressed in heart regulating the gene expression.

miR‐1/133b, miR‐208/499 and miR‐17‐92 clusters are majorly involved in the cardiovascular systems.

An imbalance or downregulation of the crucial miRNAs is associated with the development of cardiac diseases.

Heart regeneration can be achieved by the exogenous supply of deregulated miRNAs.
Coronaviruses
Authors: Steffen Imke , Simmons Graham 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

Coronaviruses are important human and animal pathogens causing respiratory and gastrointestinal infections ranging from mild to severe. Two highly pathogenic human coronaviruses with high fatality rates, SARS‐CoV and MERS‐CoV, have emerged in different parts of the world in the recent past causing major public health concerns. Several unique features of coronaviruses make them likely the candidates for zoonotic transmissions into the human population: (1) their exceptionally large RNA genomes allow for increased plasticity and diversity, (2) their presence in mammalian (bat) and avian reservoir species with specialised immune functions and increased mobility facilitates their geographical spread and (3) their sophisticated molecular mechanisms of viral entry, replication and assembly involving a number of poorly studied viral accessory proteins complicates the development of suitable therapeutic strategies.

Key Concepts

Coronaviruses contain the largest known viral RNA genomes.

Bats and birds are major reservoirs for coronaviruses.

Two highly pathogenic human coronaviruses, SARS‐CoV and MERS‐CoV, have emerged since the early 2000s.

Coronavirus spike proteins are activated by a variety of proteases, often in a two‐step proteolysis process.

Many coronaviruses utilise exopeptidases as primary cellular receptors.
Hypothesis Testing in Palaeoanthropology
Authors: Makedonska Jana A , Strait David S 
Published: July 2015

AbstractHypothesis testing is used to guide scientific research by narrowing down possible explanations for a phenomenon, using the principle of elimination of alternative scenarios. Thus, scientists test hypotheses by attempting to falsify them. A hypothesis is deduced from observed patterns and aims at linking those patterns to the factors proposed to have caused it. Hypothesis testing is frequently accompanied by statistical tests of null hypotheses, focusing on the inferential analysis of sample properties such as the mean and the variance. For instance, if there is less than a 5% chance that two samples are drawn from the same entity, we reject the null hypothesis and claim that these samples are significantly different. A salient point to keep in mind when testing hypotheses is that a successful evaluation of a hypothesis depends critically on the manner in which it was formulated. Hypotheses pertaining to the origin of modern humans are reviewed and evaluated.Key ConceptsA hypothesis links observed patterns to the factors proposed to have caused it.Scientists do not attempt to prove that a hypothesis is true.Hypothesis testing guides scientific research by narrowing down possible explanations for a phenomenon, using the principle of elimination of alternative scenarios.Statistical tests assess the probability that a hypothesis is true or false.It is important for hypotheses to specify testable predictions.Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the origin of modern humans.Hypotheses explaining modern human origins each make several predictions, some of which can be readily tested using paleontological and genetic data.
Sound Bite
Authors: Bas Ozen , Grabe Maria Elizabeth 
Published: July 2015

Abstract
A sound bite is an audiovisual segment in which one can see and hear a speaker. In an image bite we see people without hearing them speak—instead a reporter's voiceover narration is heard. The average duration of candidate sound bites in US presidential election campaigns has shrunk from 40 seconds in the 1960s to below 10 seconds, while image bites are growing as a proportion of election coverage. These changes in size of image and sound bites have led to concerns about the media's role in presenting political candidates, in their own words, to the electorate.
Distributed Energy Systems Based on Water Electrolysis Driven by Renewable Electricity
Authors: Zhang Dongke , Zeng Kai 
Published: July 2015

AbstractRenewable electricity such as wind and solar power provides a meaningful sustainable energy source for remote regions, but its intermittency in nature and inherently low power intensities and energy densities require suitable energy storage mechanisms to make it viable. Alkaline water electrolysis can serve as such a means of energy storage. This article outlines a distributed energy system concept involving water electrolysis. The promises of the distributed energy system are discussed in terms of the development and research of water electrolysis. The technical studies for water electrolysis were evaluated and assessed with current literature. By analyzing the opportunities and limitations of water electrolysis in matching their power scales with feasible renewable electricity sources, this work showed that a distributed energy system with a capacity of 200 kWis technically and economically feasible using currently available technologies, indicating the potential of this distributed system for energy supply for remote communities. This work also identifies several key areas where further R&D effort is needed in order to help deploy water electrolysis and hydrogen fuel cell technologies in the utilization of renewable energy.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (
SOFC
)
Authors: Desideri Umberto , Barelli Linda 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

Significant are the potentials of solid oxide fuel cells (
SOFCs
) for high efficiency energy generation, also through renewable sources exploitation (syngas and biogas). For these reasons, they can represent a promising technology in the transition to a low carbon economy. Nevertheless, critical technological issues affecting their durability and reliability, beyond the high cost, still impede their widespread. To deeply analyze the potentials relative to high efficiency generation, different architectures for system integration of
SOFC
and their performance are analyzed, whereas a deep analysis is provided relative to degradation mechanisms limiting the durability of cells.
Combined Heat and Power
Authors: Thorin Eva , Sandberg Jan , Yan Jinyue 
Published: July 2015

AbstractCombined heat and power (CHP) is the simultaneous production of useful heat and power in an integrated process with common fuel or energy source. By integrating heat and power production, it is possible to use the energy source in a more efficient way and by that to reduce the environmental impact includingCO2emissions.The basic process of aCHPplant can be a thermal energy process based on heat engines or a fuel cell process based on electrochemical energy conversion. The capacity can range from several hundreds of megawatts of fuel input to plants delivering electricity and heat through a district heating network of a whole city down to microCHPplants on kilowatt level supplying a one‐family house. The operating load is determined by the heat demand. For systems using a district heating network as the heat load, introducing also other heat demanding processes can be a way to increase the full‐load operating time and the yearly production of electricity from biomass.The balance between the output of power and the heat supply is an important parameter for the performance of the plant. This is described by the ratio between the electric power and the heat power (the so‐called α‐value).Several barriers, related both to the market and regulations, exist for implementation ofCHPand policies are necessary to be able to develop the potential in the world. TheCHPis a cost effective and important solution for reduction ofCO2emissions.
Control and Stability of Future Transmission Networks
Authors: Milano Federico 
Published: July 2015

AbstractThis work discusses control aspects and stability issues of future transmission networks. With this aim, several scenarios are considered, and their behavior is compared with that of a standard power system. In particular, voltage, transient, and frequency stability issues are examined. Scenarios involve changes in the generation devices, transmission lines, and transient behavior of loads. In future power networks, generators are assumed to be distributed and decoupled from the grid through voltage source converters. While AC transmission lines cannot be realistically fully substituted with other transmission devices, a high penetration of VSC‐HVDC devices and superconducting corridors is considered. Finally, loads are considered “active,” that is, able to regulate the frequency and equipped with local energy resources and storage systems. The case study, which is based on the IEEE 14‐bus system, provides a comprehensive comparison of the behavior and the stability of the conventional and future power systems.
Optimal Dispatch and Design of Microgrid System
Authors: Wang Chengshan , Guo Li , Li Peng 
Published: July 2015

AbstractMicrogrid, an effective organization form of distributed generation (DG), improves the operation efficiency ofDGwhile mitigating the negative impacts brought by high penetration ofDG. To achieve these goals, equipment types and capacities should be optimized at the design stage, and optimal dispatch is also essential to ensure the economical construction and operation of microgrid. Optimal dispatch and design is one of the most important research fields in the development of microgrid. Dispatch strategies can be divided into two categories: one is to obtain the optimal operation schedule based on the dispatch optimization model composed of various objective functions and constraints; the other is to adopt fixed strategies including a set of operation modes under a set of typical conditions to dispatch the microgrid in a simpler way. As the microgrid dispatch and design are strongly coupled, the effects of dispatch strategies should be considered at the design stage. Meanwhile, dispatch strategies are significantly affected by the results of the design stage. To deal with the coupling, dispatch and design of microgrid are considered simultaneously in the two‐stage optimization model of microgrid.
Carbon Trading and Carbon Market
Authors: Feng Zhen‐Hua 
Published: July 2015

AbstractThe Kyoto Protocol aims to present three flexible implementation mechanisms in an effort to address climate change, and thus generate a market incorporating carbon emissions as a product: joint implementation (JI); a clean development mechanism (CDM); and an international emissions trade (IET). The carbon market has rapidly developed and expanded to become the new star of global trade: in 2011, trading volume stood at 10.3 billiontCO2, with transactions amounting to $176 billion. Some current regional carbon markets include the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), the New South Wales (NSW), and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI); China has also tried to establish a domestic carbon trading market and has been piloting a carbon emission trading scheme since 2011. Carbon pricing lies at the heart of carbon market operation; therefore, this article analyzes challenging issues in today's carbon markets, including allowances, energy prices, and special events and also provides policy recommendations for establishing a carbon trading market.
Clean Development Mechanism Development in
C
hina
Authors: Duan Maosheng 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

China is the most important clean development mechanism (
CDM
) host country, accounting for more than half of registered project numbers, issued certified emissions reductions (
CERs
), and expected annual emission reductions of the registered projects. The successful development of
CDM
in China is the result of many factors, including, inter alia, significant emission reduction potential, clear domestic rules, clear and special procedures, solution‐oriented priorities at different stages, capacity building on all domestic actors, continuous capacity building, free capacity building activities, successful examples, crucial role of the
DNA
, strong domestic technical capacities, and joint efforts by various stakeholders. The development of
CDM
projects in China has generated many positive impacts in China, besides the implementation of specific mitigation activities. These impacts include but are not limited to promotion of mitigation efforts by the private sector, promotion of the development of the renewable sector, promotion of public awareness on climate change, promotion of consideration of climate change in decision making, improvement of internal management of companies, improvement of monitoring, reporting, and verification capacities, promotion of the development of low carbon technical capacities, generation of local cobenefits, and establishment of
CDM
Fund. The development of
CDM
projects in China also contributed significantly to the development of pilot carbon emissions trading systems in China.
Impacts of Impurities onCO2Pipeline Transportation
Authors: Tan Yewen , Zheng Ligang 
Published: July 2015

AbstractCO2transport is an integral part in the wholeCCS(carbon capture and storage) chain. One of the most important factors affecting this part is the quality ofCO2that is being transported. This is a challenging issue because impurities inCO2vary greatly in quantity and in quality depending on the sources ofCO2. Moreover, the requirement for impurity limits also varies depending on the destination of theCO2. Currently, there is no existing regulation forCO2standard for transport. Yet, this issue could have significant impacts onCO2capture and transportation. This article reviews the operating experiences of the current existingCO2pipelines, outlinesCO2quality guidelines from different institutions, analyzes variousCO2capture technologies and related impurities, explores impurities impacts on pipeline transportation, and outlines the issues facing theCO2transport that need to be solved.
Photovoltaics: Comparison of
PV
Cell Types
Authors: Fraas Lewis M. 
Published: July 2015

Abstract

Photovoltaic (
PV
) cells can be categorized according to application, cell material and structure, and cost within the system application context. The three application areas are terrestrial solar, space solar, and non‐solar. For example, thermophotovoltaic (
TPV
) systems use artificial infrared energy sources at night. The three alternative cell structures are large crystallite silicon cells (mono‐ and multi‐crystal Si), small grain size or amorphous thin film cells (
CdTe
,
CIGS
, and a‐Si), and very high efficiency high power density cells (
InGaP
.
GaInAs
/Ge multijunction cells and
GaSb IR
cells). Cell and module cost are very dependent on production scale, and cell conversion efficiency is very important at the system level. Silicon cells are now dominant in the residential terrestrial solar arena. Thin film cells have intrinsic efficiency limitations because of their noncrystalline nature and have been losing market share to silicon. Multijunction solar cells now have conversion efficiencies over 40% but must be integrated into more complicated concentrator photovoltaic (
CPV
) sunlight systems.
CPV
is very promising for lower cost solar electricity for utility systems in sunny locations at the 100 MW scale but still require production volume and component supply‐chain integration. Infrared sensitive
TPV
cells can be used at night and in cold climates in residential furnaces for combined heat and power (
CHP
) complimenting solar modules on the home rooftop.