bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Background and recent applications of military geology in the British armed forces
Authors: Rosenbaum Michael S. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Military geology involves the application of geological science to the decision-making processes required by military command; hence the individual geologist needs to be professionally experienced in applied geology and trained in military staff work and doctrine.
The importance of establishing an adequate and relevant database of information is now widely recognized and the trend for its compilation has been toward digital recording in support of the existing paper library information. The provision of geological information together with its interpretation and the means of giving advice are now established components of decision support within headquarters at Corps and Division. Generally the tasks have to be dealt with in emergency situations and so time is very short by comparison with comparable civilian projects. What is primarily required is a rapid assessment of the ground conditions within the context of the prevailing military situation. For the advice to be useful, it has to be presented in a manner compatible with the standard military format and avoiding use of technical jargon.
Construction work is required in support of the battle: preparing defenses, supporting an advance and consolidating the new positions. Interaction of these works with the ground and the supply of natural materials, particularly water, requires characterization and management sensitive to the contemporary military operations. Local supplies, even if undamaged, are unlikely to be able to sustain the quantities required by the influx of large numbers of troops. Health risks from poor water, not only due to natural bacteria but also deliberately contaminated from terrorist sabotage or NBC attack, require that suitable supplies be established early in the campaign.
Recent actions in the Falkland Islands, the Persian Gulf, and mainland Europe demonstrate how military geology has been used, directly or indirectly, by the British armed forces. The trend throughout the 20th century has been of increased mobility during armed conflict, although the scale of operations has varied enormously.
Recent activities in military geology at the U.S. Geological Survey
Authors: Leith William , Matzko John Rodney 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Over the past 25 years, the focus of military geology at the U.S. Geological Survey has moved away from classical “terrain intelligence” traditionally used by ground forces (e.g., surface construction, trafficability), and toward the strategic assessment of very small areas of the Earth's surface—such as a single underground nuclear test site or foreign underground facility. Along with this change in focus has come a demand for great precision in the remote assessment of rock properties, as the users of geologic data assess the detailed effects of the rock environment on both weapons testing and targeting. The recent opening of the former Soviet Union has provided sources of “ground truth” for evaluating remote assessments of geology made over three decades. These sources have proved the efficacy of making reliable and detailed estimates of foreign geologic environments primarily through the use of published reports and satellite image data. Current U.S. Geological Survey efforts are in two broad fields: geologic support for monitoring treaties limiting nuclear testing and geologic assessments at the sites of underground structures. Nuclear test monitoring at low seismic magnitudes, where many seismic events may occur per day in countries in which nuclear proliferation is a concern, will require the construction of digital geologic data sets that can be used in an operational mode. Recent work in this area includes the assessment of mines and mine blasts as sources of seismicity and the feasibility of constructing large cavities for clandestine testing. Evaluation of underground facilities is also a subject of increasing interest. Without a “nuclear option,” a nation's targeting strategies must rely on a combination of “smart” penetrating weapons and a detailed knowledge of the penetrability and shock-wave propagation of the near-surface materials. Geologic data are also required for many other types of facility monitoring, both remote and on-site.
Potable water well design for Humanitarian Civic Action well drilling missions
Authors: Baehr John N. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Geologists from the U.S. Army Engineer District in Mobile, Alabama, have supported military water well drilling missions throughout the world. Many of these missions supported design requirements for Humanitarian Civic Action (HCA) wells but did not follow standard military water well construction practice. These design requirements have often been the result of local well construction regulations or the need for well yield that exceeded typical design.
Each branch of our military has water well drilling capability, and most drilling systems are similar in depth and hole size ratings. Standard well completion kits for mobilization have been developed for construction of wells up to 455 m (1,500 ft) deep. Normal training for military well drillers has been limited, and the emphasis is on completion of a tactical, low-yield well where many potable well construction practices are not required.
Humanitarian Civic Action well drilling missions have become an integral part of Nation Assistance exercises. Some HCA wells required special training, modifications to drilling equipment, and special well designs to meet the goals of the exercise. The probability of success had to be high for these missions to be approved. Consequently, civilian geologists were used to support the siting, well design, and procurement of materials. Some of these complex missions required on-site consultation. A specialized team of personnel including geologists, hydrogeologists, and geophysicists, designated the Water Detection Response Team, was assembled during the 1980s by the Corps of Engineers to site well drilling locations for military drilling operations and is used for many HCA missions.
British military geologists through war and peace in the 19th and 20th centuries
Authors: Rose Edward P. F. , Rosenbaum Michael S. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The first geologists employed in government service in Britain had military appointments: J. MacCulloch from 1809 to 1826 in England and Scotland, and J. W. Pringle followed by J. E. Portlock from 1826 to 1843 in Ireland. The founder of the British Geological Survey in 1835, and his successor as director-general in 1855, both had military origins. Several early influential members of the world's oldest geological society, founded in London in 1807, had military connections. From 1819 to about 1896 geology contributed to military education in Britain at the East India Company's military college, the Royal Military Academy, the Royal Military College, the Staff College, or the School of Military Engineering.
However, professional geologists were not strictly used as such in the British army until the 1914–1918 world war, and then they were primarily used in response to problems of static battlefield conditions on the western front in Europe. W. B. R. King guided development of potable ground-water supplies; T. W. E. David guided siting of mine tunnels and dugouts, and other geologists served with the Tunnelling Companies of the Engineer Corps.
Geologists were used more widely in the more mobile conflicts of the 1939–1945 world war: notably W. B. R. King in France and the United Kingdom, F. W. Shotton in North Africa and northwest Europe, and J. V. Stephens in Italy. These and others were all to some extent concerned with water supply, but increasingly geologists became involved in terrain assessment for military purposes (e.g., airfield sites, ground trafficability, quarrying of aggregates, and effects of aerial bombing).
In both wars there were but few British military geologists; most were granted Emergency Commissions in the Royal Engineers for their war service. Only since 1949 has the corps maintained continuity of geological expertise through a small team of reserve army officers. This team now provides support for regular forces in both peace and war.
British applications of military geology for ‘Operation Overlord’ and the battle in Normandy, France, 1944
Authors: Rose Edward P. F. , Pareyn Claude 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
British geologists participated for more than a year in the planning of “Operation Overlord,” the Allied invasion of northwest France. Following D-Day on June 6, 1944, they contributed to the subsequent 11-month operational phase in western Europe, including the initial 3-month battle for Normandy.
Beachhead maps were prepared prior to the invasion at 1:5,000 scale from published topographic and geologic maps, aerial photographs, and secret ground reconnaissance. They indicated the character of the beaches and cliffs, distribution of different surface sediments, and other factors likely to affect cross-beach mobility. Airfield suitability maps were made to indicate the distribution within enemy territory of candidate areas for the rapid construction of airfields. After the invasion, between June 7 and August 13, 1944, 20 airstrips, mostly 1,100–1,500 m in length, were completed in the British occupied area of Normandy. Geological information was used to guide the systematic development of road metal. Initially, weak Jurassic limestones were quarried, as at Creully; later, stronger Paleozoic quartzites were worked, as at Mouen, southwest of Caen. Stone produced by the Royal Engineers in Normandy quickly rose to a peak monthly total of more than 140,000 tonnes in August 1944. Water supply intelligence and the control of well siting and drilling were geologist's responsibilities. In 1st Corps area, about 50 water points were established, with 12 operational at any one time. Water in Normandy was obtained largely from rivers and existing wells, supplemented by 33 new boreholes.
Geologists were also used to assess the effects of aerial bombing; soil conditions affecting cross-country vehicular movement; ground conditions for river crossings; and the nature of the sea floor beneath the English Channel. Normandy thus provides a case history of British military geology “par excellence.”
Dearly bought ridges, steep access valleys, and staging grounds
Authors: Cameron C. P. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Steep and broken terrains of the T'aebaeksanmaek dominate east-central Korea and the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). These terrains are controlled by geologic elements, prediction of which can be used advantageously by the military commander. Narrow valleys and ridge slopes are controlled variously by trends of fault zones, major joint sets, and metamorphic foliations. The trends of these elements follow predictable patterns and have influenced the evolution of harsh, rugged terrain that complicates mechanized infantry mobility and logistic resupply. Slope-stability problems arise from weathering on both natural slopes and oversteepened road cuts. Of equal significance in terrain analysis of this region are the distributions of intrusive granite bodies and their history of weathering and erosion during the Quaternary. The granite masses commonly weather deeper and are more easily eroded than the quartzose schist and gneiss they intrude. Resistant metamorphic rocks generally form ridgelines and hill crests, whereas granite plutons characteristically form wide, bowl-shaped valleys and depressions. By an unfortunate coincidence of geology and geopolitics, many of these granite-floored features are located just north of the 38th parallel; they provided important staging grounds for the North Korean (NK) invasion of South Korea in June 1950.
Severely contested high points of these terrains were won in a series of costly Allied ground operations during the summer and fall of 1951. The significance of these operations, conducted while negotiations at Panmunjon bogged down, escaped some authors of Korean War history who disagreed about whether the enormous human sacrifice needed to secure the ridges was worthwhile. Terrain analysis of this sector clearly shows that with these victories Allied forces secured the strategic high ground controlling north-south access routes and assured that the final line of demarcation would not follow the original border along the 38th parallel. The Allies seized the staging grounds from which the NK II Corps divisions had launched their invasion of the central and eastern sectors. In “elbowing” the line northward, the Allies also secured the mountainous salient that bounds the 1950 “invasion corridor” on its eastern flank. Arguably, their sacrifice bought long-term peace on the Korean Peninsula. Worthwhile indeed!
Wetlands and erosion studies in support of military training, Camp Shelby Training Site, Mississippi, USA
Authors: Patrick David M. , Boyd Suzanne A. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Interdisciplinary geologic studies at Camp Shelby Training Site, located in southern Mississippi, have supported military training requirements as well as natural resources conservation on this 134 000-acre National Guard facility by delineating Go and No Go areas for tank maneuver corridors, and by identifying causes of erosion. No Go areas include intermittent and perennial streams, wetlands, slopes in excess of ten percent, and critical habitats. Go and No Go areas were identified and delineated in the field, with the No Go areas clearly marked on the ground by painting the trees if the corridor was wooded or with fence posts if the corridor had been cleared. When it was necessary for a maneuver corridor to cross a stream or wetland, crossing sites were identified, and permits were obtained from the Corps of Engineers. A two-category hydrogeomorphic classification of wetlands was developed that consisted of bottomland and upland wetlands. Bottomland wetlands are further classified as riparian if adjacent to stream channels, or backswamp if they occur in stream valleys distal from the channel. Upland wetlands were classified as either side slope when they occur on valley walls or upland flat if they occurred on the upper portions of slopes. The wetlands classification scheme was found to conform to the lithostratigraphy of the training site; for example, bottomland wetlands are associated with the fine-grained sediments of the Hattiesburg Formation (Miocene) whereas the upland wetlands were associated with perched water tables in the coarse-grained Upland Complex (Pliocene-Pleistocene). These relationships, in turn, contributed to the development of an updated and enhanced geologic map of the training site. The outcrop patterns of the Hattiesburg and Upland Complex were found to correlate with the locations of critical habitats, including those of the gopher tortoise, red cockaded woodpecker, and the Louisiana quillwort. Evaluations of upland and channel erosion in the impact area did not reveal adverse conditions from range firing. Localized erosion was, however, commonly associated with unsurfaced roads. Most channels appeared relatively stable; however, certain ones exhibited knickpoints that were slowly migrating upstream and are the subject of ongoing study.
Freeze-thaw–induced geomorphic and soil changes in vehicle ruts and natural rills
Authors: Gatto Lawrence W. , Halvorson Jonathan J. , McCool Donald K. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Land managers of military training lands must conserve the soil to ensure that training can continue on those lands. However, military maneuvers damage vegetation, break up soil crusts, loosen the surface soil, change soil-surface geometry, compact the soil, and often form ruts in which runoff is concentrated. The constrained flow in ruts can detach and transport far more sediment than can unchanneled, overland flows. Rills often form in ruts as a result. However, natural processes in the soil alter the impacts of maneuvers over time, and our objectives were to measure how soil freeze-thaw (FT) cycling changes compacted soil and the geometry of military-vehicle ruts and how these changes compare to those in natural rills. We established research sites at Yakima Training Center (YTC) in south central Washington and Ethan Allen Firing Range (EAFR) in northwestern Vermont and made field observations and measurements at these sites over two winters. The cross sections of tank ruts at YTC became smoother as soil from rut crests slid into the rut during thaw. Tank ruts at EAFR were shallower than those at YTC and smoothed over the winter, but rills also formed in the ruts over one winter. Scattered soil slumps occurred along the sides of deeper rills at EAFR during spring thaw, but the slumped sediment was removed by subsequent flows. FT at both sites reduced the mean penetration resistance and bulk density of the top 5 cm of soil in ruts. Below 5 cm, resistance and density were statistically greater in than out of ruts at YTC, especially where the soil contained 15% water by volume during maneuvers. Saturated hydraulic conductivity in and out of ruts at YTC was not statistically different when ruts were formed in soil that contained 5% water, was lower in 75% of straight ruts made in soil containing 15% water, and was lower yet in curved ruts. Surface-water runoff at YTC began sooner in ruts than on adjacent, unrutted soil, and runoff rates were 67% to 77% higher due to the persistence of subsurface soil compaction in ruts. Incipient rills formed in tank ruts at EAFR after one winter on the 7% and 18% slopes. In-rut rills up to 11-cm deep formed on the 21% and 31 % slopes. The adjacent, untrafficked soil on any of the slopes showed no new rills. These results can be used to parameterize soil-erosion models used by land managers of military-training lands in cold regions.
Battlefield terrain and engineering geology in the eastern Chorwon Valley, central Korean Peninsula
Authors: Cameron C.P. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The terrain of the eastern Chorwon Valley is geologically complex, controlled by spatial relationships between Precambrian metamorphic rocks, Mesozoic granite, and locally intense structural deformations within and adjacent to major faults. Fundamental controls of terrain are overprinted by cycles of deep weathering and erosion during Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations, as well as by accelerated human impacts during the twentieth century. Geological characterization, terrain analysis, and Korean War history here provide significant lessons in the use of battlefield terrain.
Military access, mobility, and the orientation of attack corridors in this area are predominantly a function of major tectonic faults, and (to a lesser extent) lithology. Severely tectonized granite rock mass extends outward for 300 m to 2 km from major fault zones. Erosion of highly weathered granite in some of these zones forms elongate valleys. The easily-ripped saprolite by-products of granite weathering provide in situ construction materials (sand and gravel), soft foundations prone to boggy conditions in some areas, reasonable groundwater supplies near the fault zones, and an overall situation suitable for staging and military infrastructure. Resistant Precambrian metamorphic rocks form rugged terrain suitable for defensive positions. These hard lithologics support steep ridges and towering hills in and around the eastern Chorwon Valley in the Kumhwa vicinity. The (often) strongly magnetic character of some of the metamorphic rocks complicates the location of mines and unexploded ordnance in this sector of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).
Military engineering on the Rock of Gibraltar and its geoenvironmental legacy
Authors: Rose Edward P.F. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The 400-m-high Rock of Gibraltar is a partly overturned klippe of Early Jurassic dolomitic limestone, notched by raised shorelines and flanked by Quaternary scree breccias and windblown sands. It dominates a narrow 5-km-long peninsula jutting south from Spain at the western entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. Fortified from at least 1160 to World War II successively by the Moors, Spanish, and British, and subjected to 15 major sieges between 1309 and the Cold War of 1947 to 1989, Gibraltar is arguably one of the most densely fortified and fought over places in Europe. Stone walls, bastions, and numerous artillery positions built to enhance the natural defenses of the coastal cliffs now provide a tourist attraction, but constrain development of the modern city. Occasional rockfalls and the need for slope-safety measures are continuing concerns, especially in areas of scree breccia quarried to provide fill for the extension of a Royal Navy harbor between 1893 and 1905 and a Royal Air Force airfield largely between 1941 and 1943. Water supply has posed a problem throughout the history of the fortress, leading to innovative development of rainwater catchment areas on natural slopes, dual potable/sanitary water supplies, and projects to enhance these by cloud condensation or groundwater abstraction, before near total commitment to desalination from 1993. Tunnels and underground chambers are major features of the Rock. Mostly excavated in five phases between 1782 and 1968 to provide access, reservoirs, accommodation, or storage, they now total over 50 km in length, generally unlined. Tunnel integrity is dependent on excavation technique and bedrock characteristics.
From the early eighteenth century to recent years, much of the major construction work on Gibraltar was directed and often carried out by Royal Engineers. In 1994, disbandment of 1st (Fortress) Specialist Team RE brought over two centuries of British military engineering on the Rock to an end—and provided a legacy of works and land now largely inherited by civilian bodies responsible to the Gibraltar government.
Application of remote-sensing data to nuclear power plant site investigations
Authors: McEldowney Roland C. , Pascucci Richard F. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Remote-sensing data for studies of nuclear power plant sites are acquired by aerial surveys and satellite programs and include satellite photography (Landsat and Skylab); conventional black-and-white, color, and color infrared photography; thermal infrared imagery; radar imagery (side-looking airborne radar); and airborne geophysical surveys, such as aeromagnetic and aeroradiometric surveys.
In general, existing data from such surveys are relatively inexpensive to obtain and offer a synoptic overview of the area, provide a large amount of information for the scale involved, and afford a technique of sampling that does not disturb the sample.
In current methods of analysis, the photography, images, and maps are brought to a common scale, and existing structural geologic data are compared with a new data set, usually in the form of lineaments. The field investigations that follow include reconnaissance and detailed geologic investigations of the lineaments to detect evidence of faulting; then ground geophysical surveys, boreholes and trench studies are made. These field investigations add "ground data" to the remote-sensing base and aid in evaluating the significance of any geologic structure so defined.
Two examples of recent fault studies for nuclear power plant sites, one conducted in the Virginia Piedmont tectonic province and the other in the Maryland Coastal Plain province, illustrate the potential value of remote sensing in the site selection process. When correlation of geologic maps with the several remote-sensing techniques is undertaken early in the planning stages of the siting study, it is possible to locate the nuclear power plant away from potentially hazardous geologic structures or to avoid such ambiguous geologic features as are impossible to adequately define in terms of site safety.