bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Theological Context
Authors: Bassiouni Mahmoud 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the theological context of the Islamic human rights discourse and takes a closer look at the concepts of sharīʿa, fiqh, and Islamic law. It aims to clarify and differentiate these terms and offer a systematic understanding of them. In a longer historical excursus, it critically examines classical explanations for the stagnation of Islamic law and points to several factors that have fundamentally shaped its formal and substantive development. Based on that, it distinguishes a static from a dynamic conception of Islamic law in order to help explain the differences among the various Muslim positions on human rights.
New Conceptions of the maqāṣid
Authors: Bassiouni Mahmoud 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter engages with the modern Islamic legal discourse and examines several proposals for the reconceptualization of Islamic legal purposes, highlighting two broad strategies: reinterpretation and expansion. The reinterpretation approach seeks to adapt classical legal purposes to contemporary contexts, giving them a new horizon of meaning. The expansion approach aims to broaden the classical catalogue of legal purposes. Critically, the chapter emphasizes the need to adhere to the premises of the classical theory so as to enable a coherent and methodologically sound revision of the maqāsid, rather than relying on arbitrary determinations. To avoid the latter, it is necessary to identify those goods that fulfill the criteria of necessity, universality, and empirical observability.
Brackets
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Brackets can add clarity and simplicity because they help writers avoid shoving an ill-fitting quote into their writing. All the justices use brackets when part of a quote doesn’t quite work, making these sharp parenthetical marks a key part of the legal writer’s toolkit. But too many brackets can get clunky, weighing down sentences. The justices strike a balance. Pairs of brackets appear every other page or less, on average. The examples in this chapter show that when a quotation is essential, meaning that paraphrasing is not an option, brackets can help. The technical details: Use brackets to show a change to a word’s capitalization or a verb tense or when swapping a term or phrase for something else. Also, brackets—and never ellipses—show a change to the start of a quoted sentence, as examples in the chapter show.
Adjectives and Adverbs
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Adjectives and adverbs are essential but often overused in legal writing. Mark Twain advised writers to “kill” the adjectives and adverbs in their writing. But, he qualified: “I don’t mean utterly, but kill most of them—then the rest will be valuable. They weaken when they are close together. They give strength when they are wide apart.” The justices unanimously follow a similar philosophy, devoting only about 5% of their words to adjectives and 3% to adverbs. But they can’t “kill” all these auxiliary descriptors. The precise nature of the law requires elucidation. The crime of murder, for instance, is not just a “killing” but the “intentional killing of a human being.” The definition requires the specificity from the adjective “intentional” to differentiate it from an accidental killing, a legal distinction judges and juries are often called upon to make.
Negatives
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Negative language is unavoidable in legal writing. Words such as unreasonable, unlawful, unlicensed, and unpermitted abound in constitutions and statutes. Laws, by nature, tend to prohibit, rather than permit, as shown with the triple negative in the Eighth Amendment: “Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” All the justices use negative wording and even double negatives on occasion to finesse a point, sometimes for emphasis, sometimes to cut out shades of gray. Among the most amusing is a line from Chief Justice Roberts: “That decision is as inexplicable as it is unexplained.” Even so, most of the justices opt for this wordier option only once or twice a term. Overall, their use of positive wording far exceeds the negative.
Prepositions
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Prepositions are tiny words that often show direction, location, or time. The justices unanimously reject the old adage that you cannot end a sentence with a preposition. All nine make their writing more conversational by not forcing a fix to this archaic standard. All will end a sentence with a preposition when the workaround is awkward or wordy. The justices know that sometimes a sentence is better when this old-timey preposition rule is broken, as Justice Gorsuch shows here: “Congress, of course, didn’t list every public entity the statute would apply to.” Additionally, the justices keep their writing concise by cutting out the unnecessary prepositional phrase.
Pronouns
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Pronouns are a form of shorthand that, by their nature, too often fail to fully stand for what they are describing. Pronouns can create confusion when used improperly. Gender pronouns can offend and exclude individuals who are non-binary or whose gender is undisclosed or unknown. The justices have shown a willingness to use more inclusive pronouns. While some legal writing experts argue that the Court should go further and adopt the non-binary they, the legal profession is not yet uniform in its approach. The rules in this chapter explain where things stand now, along with tips on fixing common pronoun mix-ups and making writing more inclusive. For instance, at the first opportunity in 2020, a six-justice majority chose to use the correct personal pronouns when ruling in favor of a transgender woman. The Court did so again at the next opportunity, in 2023.
Qualifiers and Intensifiers
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Qualifiers, such as quite and somewhat, add vagueness to what would otherwise be a black-and-white description, while intensifiers, such as really and very, pile on to one’s point. With qualifiers and intensifiers, some writing experts will say to give them up. But all the Supreme Court justices use qualifiers and intensifiers in moderation to maneuver through gray areas of the law. They do not shy away from tempering their points with qualifiers or augmenting them with intensifiers. This chapter shows how the justices use these less-than-specific descriptors. The words just, rather, and so are the most popular choices among the justices. Even the word that’s loathsome to some, literally, appears a few dozen times in Supreme Court opinions. And in some cases, the justices even double up and use a pair of intensifiers or qualifiers.
Verbs
Authors: Barton Jill 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Strong, active verbs are a signature of U.S. Supreme Court opinions. The justices do not just confront or deal with legal issues. They grapple, battle, tangle, tackle, unravel, delve, combat, ferret out, fumble, and plow through them. They pick powerful verbs to expound on the scenes playing out in cases. They take care to elect exactly the right action, choosing everyday verbs along with more singular ones. The basic lessons here: keep subjects and verbs close, and make sure the subject and verb match, especially in complicated sentences. The more advanced lessons: Pick a variety of dynamic, active verbs over inert, passive ones or nominalizations, which are verbs disguised as clunky nouns and adjectives. The justices use vigorous verbs to energize their writing or create a flowing cadence. Or they skip the verb altogether to create a pithy fragment.
Mobilization versus Pacification
Authors: Wang Frances Yaping 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Chapter 6 employs automated text analysis to examine the content of mobilization and pacification campaign media, revealing their subtle differences in valence, narratives, and emotions. Typically, mobilization campaigns lean towards a negative tone, whereas pacification campaigns tend to be more positive. Both campaign types consistently incorporate distinct themes and manipulate diverse emotions with varying intensities. These discoveries provide valuable insights into the strategic deployment of propaganda, illustrating how China molds public opinion to align with its foreign policy aims. Grasping these subtleties is essential for deciphering the true motives of authoritarian regimes like China and understanding the impact of these media campaigns.
Religion as Framework
Authors: Loewy Shacham Ilanit 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter argues that in the Āmuktamālyada, Śrīvaiṣṇavism is not simply a topic presented through the court-poem idiom, but rather an all-encompassing ideological and poetic framework. Specifically, the chapter focuses on two often-ignored episodes in the Āmuktamālyada in which Śrīvaiṣṇava doctrine plays a central role, tracing the changes these two stories underwent from their Sanskrit purāṇic origins, through references to them in treatises and commentaries by the Śrīvaiṣṇava ācāryas in Maṇipravāḷa, and into the different form they take in Kṛṣṇadevarāya’s poem. The comparisons highlight how deeply Śrīvaiṣṇava discourse influenced Kṛṣṇadevarāya, shaping everything from narrative content and construction to philosophy, poetics, and vocabulary.
Conclusion
Authors: Loewy Shacham Ilanit 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The conclusion argues that while the Āmuktamalyada encompasses the physical, literary, and ideological space of Sanskrit poetry and the royal court, it is equally rooted in the Śrīvaiṣṇava community—its geographic contours, philosophy, history, and literary corpus. Similarly, though the Āmuktamalyada is influenced by Śrīvaiṣṇava hagiographic texts, it differs from them in content and organization. It is through the expansion of the Śrīvaiṣṇava community that kings, kingship, and empire are given room in the text, but they are subordinated to the community of devotees who act as Viṣṇu’s proxies. The conclusion reiterates that the Āmuktamalyada is indicative of the complex, multilingual settings of sixteenth-century South India, where literary texts were engaged in, and indebted to, their local surroundings and, at the same time, connected to larger cultural and poetic spaces.
Conclusion
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
In the first half of the twentieth century, eight leaders—Wilson, Lenin, Hitler, Churchill, FDR, Gandhi, Ben-Gurion, and Mao—overcame obstacles to obtain power in their countries. They adopted what were for the time radical political ideas and sought to put them into practice. All were prolific and effective readers, writers, and/or speakers. Most qualified as outsiders in their societies and could only have come to power in the unusual circumstances of the first half of the twentieth century, All were determined and skillful in the pursuit of power. The impact of their careers on the societies in which they lived, and on the world, varied widely, ranging from benign and constructive to murderously disastrous.
Before the First Flood
Authors: Conca Ken 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter sketches the earliest efforts of Howard County to address its problem of flood risk. The chapter focuses on two policy initiatives: a countywide flood-risk assessment exercise and a controversial “rain tax” to fund stormwater management programs. The risk assessment demonstrated several problems with risk modeling and reveal some of its embedded value judgments. The rain tax exposed deep divisions over where to draw the line between private property and public responsibility. These precursor episodes anticipated controversies that would later erupt in Ellicott City, a historic mill town in the county that recently suffered two fatal flash flood disasters within 22 months.
Introduction
Authors: Ott Dennis , Gallego Ángel J. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter introduces the aims and methods of cartography. It looks into Chomsky's (1965) influential exposition of levels of adequacy in theory construction. Most issues of cartography arise immediately at the higher level of explanatory adequacy. If the goal of linguistic theory is a genuine explanation, researchers should be wary of methods of investigation and modes of explanation, wherein inherent arbitrariness and resultant descriptive power make the completion of the theory a mere matter of time and resources. The chapter mentions that current cartographic literature has revealed changes on the now-common naming of functional projections. It also considers several cartographic assumptions and practices and the notion of descriptive adequacy.
Complementizers, word order, and a non-cartographic approach to the CP-domain
Authors: Bacskai-Atkari Julia 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter elaborates on the notion of complementizer phrases (CPs) in correlation with complementizers, word order, and a non-cartographic approach. It starts with the role of complementizers in typing the clause. Assuming a COMP projection is one of the possibilities in modeling the CP-domain and maintaining constraints on word order, a simple COMP projection is not even descriptively adequate as it would rule out complex wh-phrases to appear in the left periphery and would fail to meet descriptive adequacy. The chapter explains that doubly filled COMP patterns point to the conclusion that the template either fails to meet descriptive adequacy or requires a large set of additional assumptions that are not independently motivated.
Externalization and meaningless movement
Authors: Cinque Guglielmo 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
A long tradition takes word order differences within one and the same language and across languages to be a consequence of movement. More recently Chomsky has made the suggestion that, given the architecture of UG, movement in narrow syntax should have interpretive effects at both interfaces (LF and PF). Any putative movement that has an effect on the PF side but no effect on the LF side should thus be expunged from narrow syntax, with the consequence that any word order difference devoid of LF effects should be confined to the PF interface. This requires an algorithm at PF that converts hierarchical structures to linear order. To assume as an algorithm the apparent fact that the physics of speech leaves just two options (a head either precedes or follows its complements) seems far from being sufficient in that it falls short of accounting for a number of linear order generalizations. Here it is argued that some meaningless movement must be assumed if we want to capture these generalizations and provide a theory of externalization based on the Linear Correspondence Axiom, an algorithm compatible with these generalizations.
Semantic principles of adverbial distribution
Authors: Ernst Thomas 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter supports the scopal theory of adverbials, by laying out the major semantic principles underlying adverbial distribution and showing how cartographic theories cannot adequately handle the main facts of adverbial distribution without massive complications. The most basic ordering of adverbials is a matter of their interacting semantic properties, e.g. probably not vs. *not probably following from probably’s status as a positive polarity item. Such semantic factors also allow straightforwardly predicting which adverbials have freer ordering and which are more restricted. Cartographic theories, by contrast, typically require multiple redundant licensing heads, cannot account for certain exceptional alternate orders, and cannot explain why some adverb classes allow freer ordering and others do not.
The syntactic nature of focus
Authors: Irurtzun Aritz 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The grammar of focus displays a wide range of multimodular effects (in semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology). The classical analysis of focus stemming from the Principles & Parameters framework considered it as an essentially syntactic phenomenon (with interface consequences), and this is still the core idea under the cartographic approaches such as Rizzi’s (1997). However, because of this multimodular nature, alternative approaches have been proposed that conceive of focus as an interface phenomenon that emerges from the interaction of different modules (e.g. Zubizarreta’s 1998 and Reinhart’s 2006 Nuclear Stress Rule-based approaches). Recently, other types of modular interactive proposals have been made that dissociate focus from nuclear stress placement (e.g. Struckmeier 2017 and Titov 2020). In this chapter I criticize such approaches and make a plea for the syntactic nature of focus as the only possible conception with explanatory power. In doing so, I provide evidence from a wide range of phenomena and languages suggesting that focus marking has to be a syntactic phenomenon, with a variety of effects and externalization patterns attested cross-linguistically.
Cartographic “explanations” need explanations themselves
Authors: Struckmeier Volker 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter offers a conceptual and empirical criticism of phrasal movements in cartographic syntax. The chapter argues that present-day approaches to generative syntax warrant the assumption that core aspects of cartographic syntax do not match current conceptual aims. Also, cartographic analyses sometimes struggle to represent certain types of findings, as the chapter illustrates for the case of German scrambling. An alternative, relational, type of analyses is shown to yield better results for the description and explanation of scrambling—and to avoid the conceptual issues of cartography, since it bases only on conceptually necessary relations, rather than cartographic cascades of positions.
Sequential analysis and adaptive designs
Authors: Neuhäuser Markus , Ruxton Graeme D. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses sequential analysis and adaptive designs. Here the sample size of the data set is not fixed but data are collected (and analysed) sequentially until prespecified stopping criteria are triggered. Researchers may consider this type of study when economic, practical, or ethical issues put a particular premium on minimization of the amount of data collected, so this fits very naturally within the general focus of the statistical analysis of small data sets. In addition to classical group-sequential designs, adaptive methods are introduced where design changes after interim analyses are possible. We focus on the Bauer-Köhne approach. R code is given.
Democracy and Political Parties in the Argentine Republic
Authors: Fara Carlos , Graglia José Emilio 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of Argentina’s political party system and prospects for democracy. It explores the evolution of historic parties, such as Peronism and Radicalism, and their role as electoral machines. Additionally, it discusses the emergence of new political forces during periods of social and economic crisis. The chapter emphasizes the shift towards a bi-coalition system and the challenges of maintaining a stable coalition in a federal country. Regarding democracy, it highlights the resilience of Argentina’s 38-year uninterrupted democratic life, despite various challenges, such as authoritarian and populist tendencies, polarization, corruption, and social inequality. The text identifies seven tasks to enhance the democratic system, including promoting accountability, strengthening political parties, and consolidating republican institutions. Overall, it provides valuable insights into the complexities of Argentina’s political landscape and the need for continuous improvements to sustain a thriving democracy.
An Anarchy of Parties
Authors: Teehankee Julio C. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The Philippines is a prototypical example of a presidential or executive-centric party system. For a long time, the Philippines was cited along with the United States as the ‘purest two-party system’. However, several scholars have noted the role of the presidency and the introduction of new electoral rules in relation to the fragmentation of the party system in the post-authoritarian period. While the country reverted to the pre-authoritarian presidential form of government, a multi-party system emerged during the democratic transition. The shift to a multi-party system with a plurality-based electoral system runs counter to the classic tenet of Duverger’s Law that argues that plurality-based elections tend to produce two-party systems. Instead, the post-authoritarian period saw the rise of ‘an anarchy of parties’ in which inter-party competition became more fluid and fragmented. This chapter delineates the pitfalls of the post-authoritarian presidential-based party system in the Philippines.
Introduction
Authors: Kramer Matthew H. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This opening chapter provides a concise overview of the content and purpose of the book as a whole. It differentiates between the matters covered by the book and the chief matters that are not covered by the book, as it draws an important distinction between non-justificatory questions and justificatory questions. It then explains why formal notation is used in the book only sparingly even in discussions of subtle logical matters, and it likewise explains why theoretical rigor is prioritized over appeals to ordinary patterns of discourse. The chapter concludes by outlining the relationship between Rights and Right-Holding and the earlier publications of Matthew Kramer on the philosophy of rights.
Gothic -ei and -iþa
Authors: Miller D. Gary 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Gothic possesses two highly productive suffixes: -ei and -iþa, typically used to derive deadjectival or deverbal abstract nouns. Previous attempts to distinguish these suffixes semantically or based on affixal restrictions have failed. This chapter advances a prosodic analysis of the variation. In close to 100% of its occurrences -iþa attaches to heavy monosyllabic bases, producing, in the citation form, dactylic structures. By contrast, -ei attaches to bases of any size or metrical type. Thus, the actual area of overlap in the competition between the suffixes is heavy monosyllabic bases; -iþa clearly latches onto a prosodic domain. The variation between -ei and -iþa contributes to our understanding of foot structure in early Germanic, while also confirming the existence of long vowels and heavy syllables in Gothic.
Statistical Mechanics and Stochastic Thermodynamics
Authors: Limmer David T. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The theory of statistical mechanics is the best link we have between the imperceptible world of atoms and molecules and our common macroscopic experience. This textbook provides the fundamental rules and relationships of this theory. Through it, students learn how to deduce the properties of materials from an underlying understanding of the behavior of its constituent building blocks. The text covers the basics of systems at rest, as well as those directly manipulated. The former, or equilibrium statistical mechanics, is reviewed in the context of recent results in probability theory, with an emphasis on solvation phenomena and phase transitions. The latter, or nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, has seen tremendous advancement in the last few years, and is integrated into a textbook for the first time. These latter chapters emphasize rates of rare events like chemical reactions as well as single-molecule experiments.