bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
THE INTERNAL CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF THE GRE GENERAL TEST ACROSS HANDICAPPED AND NONHANDICAPPED POPULATIONS
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Bennett Randy Elliot , Jirele Thomas 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the factor structure of the GRE General Test across handicapped and nonhandicapped groups, The handicapped student groups included two groups of examinees taking timed, standard administrations and one taking an extended‐time, large‐type administration. A simple, three‐factor model, consisting of Verbal, Quantitative, and Analytical item types was posed. Using the covariance matrices, this model was tested for invariance with respect to the number and intercorrelation of factors, the pattern of factor loadings, and the equality of scale units. To investigate observed discrepancies in factor structure, a higher‐order factor solution using the correlation matrices was also computed.The three common‐factor model provided a good fit in the nonhandicapped population and a moderately good fit for visually impaired students taking a standard administration. The least adequate fit was found for the visually impaired group taking the large type exam and for physically impaired students taking a standard administration. While the verbal and quantitative factors fit reasonably well in these two groups, the analytical factor fit less adequately, with the item types composing this factor–analytical reasoning and logical reasoning–behaving more as separate factors. For both groups, Analytical scores appeared to have a different meaning from those for nonhandicapped students.For visually impaired students taking the large type exam, a lower relationship between the verbal and quantitative factors was noted. This lower relationship indicates, relative to nonhandicapped students, an increased likelihood of achievement growth in one area independent of the other. This finding underscores the importance of interpreting Verbal and Quantitative scores individually rather than as part of a composite.Findings from this study should be interpreted with caution because of the small sample sizes on which results are based and because the study only provides one component of the evidence required to make summative judgments of test validity. Further evidence from predictive and item validity studies should add to the information base required for drawing policy and procedural implications about the development and the use of the General Test for handicapped examinees.
SOME PROPERTIES OF THE PEARSON CORRELATION MATRIX OF GUTTMAN‐SCALABLE ITEMS
Authors: Zwick Rebecca 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTAlthough perfectly scalable items rarely occur in practice, Guttman's concept of a scale has proved to be valuable to the development of measurement theory. If the score distribution is uniform and there is an equal number of items at each difficulty level, both the elements and the eigenvalues of the Pearson correlation matrix of dichotomous Guttman‐scalable items can be expressed as simple functions of the number of items. Even when these special conditions do not hold, the values of the correlations can be computed easily by assuming a particular score distribution. These findings are useful in conducting research on the properties of scales.
EFFECTS OF TEST PREPARATION ON THE VALIDITY OF GRE ANALYTICAL SCORES
Authors: Powers Donald E. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTTest score improvement has been the major concern in nearly all the extant studies of special preparation or “coaching” for tests. Recently, however, logical analyses of the possible outcomes and implications of special test preparation (Anastasi, 1981; Cole, 1982; Messick, 1981) have suggested that the issue of test score effects is but one aspect of the controversy surrounding coaching; the impact of special preparation on test validity is an equally germane consideration. Though the assumption is sometimes made that coaching can serve only to dilute the construct validity and impair the predictive power of a test, some kinds of special preparation may, by reducing irrelevant sources of test difficulty, actually improve both construct validity and predictive validity.This study examined the relationships of both internal and external criteria to GRE candidates' performance on several analytical ability item types, obtained under several test‐preparation conditions. The purpose was to assess the effects of these various preparations on test reliability and validity. The preparation conditions were those previously shown to be effective, in varying degrees, in improving examinee performance on two of three analytical item types (Powers & Swinton, 1982, 1984). The data for this study were those collected by Powers and Swinton (1982, 1984).The study results suggest that GRE analytical ability scores may relate more strongly to academic performance after special test preparation than under more standard conditions and that they may relate less to measures of other cognitive abilities (verbal and quantitative scores). No consistent effects were detected on either the internal consistency or the convergent validity of the analytical measure.
GENERALIZATION OF SAT® VALIDITY ACROSS COLLEGES
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis study, which focused on the validity of the SAT‐V and SAT‐M, used data from 99 validity studies that were conducted by the Validity Study Service of the College Board. In addition to test validities based on first‐year college averages, which were calculated using institutional data, validities for each college were also estimated for two other groups—applicants for admission to the colleges, and all SAT takers. These last two estimates were based on range restriction theory.Substantial validity generalization was found: the assumption that applicant pool validities were all equal, together with sampling variance and the effects of selection, accounted for 36 percent and 34 percent of the variation of the SAT‐V and SAT‐M validities, respectively. The hypothesis of equal validity in pools like those of all SAT takers, plus sampling variance and the effects of selection, accounted for 53 percent and 33 percent of the variation of the SAT‐verbal and SAT‐mathematical validities, respectively. However, significant institutional uniqueness remains, though part of that uniqueness consists of variation in the reliability of first‐year college average.For these data, substantial validity was the rule. The average validities were quite high, rising to .55 for either SAT‐V or SAT‐M true scores for all SAT takers, and 95 percent of the observed validities were above .13 for SAT‐V and .10 for SAT‐M. Values below these may be owing to accidents of sampling, computing errors, or criterion defects, and it should be noted that 95 percent is a conservative standard. Studies with slightly higher validities may be questioned as well, perhaps repeated, and the criterion examined carefully.A hypothesis that validities for SAT‐V and SAT‐M might differ across institutions but have the same ratio was also tested. It was thought that departures from this second assumption might lead to the detection of institutional types. However, significant departures from the equal‐ratio hypothesis tested at the 5 percent level occurred for about 5 percent of the institutions, so no detection of institutional types occurred.
GENERALIZED VARIANCE FUNCTIONS FOR A COMPLEX SAMPLE SURVEY
Authors: Johnson Eugene G. , King Benjamin F. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTFor a national survey of reading ability among young adults using a multistage, stratified probability sample, generalized variance functions (GVF) were estimated. That is, an attempt was made to express the estimated variance of a statistic as a function of that statistic and other characteristics of the variable of interest. With GVFs estimated from a development sample of variables, predictions of sampling variance were made for other variables in a confirmation sample and comparisons made with conventional jackknife estimates. Conclusions were drawn about the feasibility of use of GVFs, with emphasis on the margin of additional error that is introduced.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MINIMUM COMPETENCY TESTING PROGRAMS AND STUDENTS' READING PROFICIENCY: IMPLICATIONS FROM THE 1983–84 NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN READING AND WRITING
Authors: Winfield Linda F. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTExploratory studies presented in this report used multilevel data obtained in the 1983–84 National Assessment of Educational Progress to investigate the relationship between minimum competency testing (MCT) programs and student reading proficiency. A “school effects” paradigm was used in Study 1 to assess the effect of a school‐level MCT program after adjusting for students' age, sex, region of the country, family background, school‐level composition, and socioeconomic status, students' academic behaviors, school‐level remedial program, and instructional dollars per pupil. Within‐race/ethnic group analyses were conducted to investigate whether or not the effect of MCT programs on reading proficiency was similar for each race/ethnic group. The second study examined the relationship between the type of state testing program and reading proficiency for each grade cohort after adjusting for students' age, sex, district and school‐level SES variables, family background, and race. These studies demonstrate the limits and potential of using NAEP data to inform public policy issues.
DOES GUESSING REALLY HELP?
Authors: Angoff William H. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis study examined the claim that attempting, or guessing at, more items yields improved formula scores. Two samples of students who had taken a form of the SAT‐verbal consisting of three parallel half‐hour sections were used to form the following scores on each of the three sections: the number of attempts, a guessing index, the formula score, and (indirectly) an approximation to an ability score. Correlations were obtained separately for the two samples between the attempts (and the guessing index) on one section and the formula score on a second section, partialling out ability as measured on the third section. The partial correlations so obtained hovered near zero, suggesting, contrary to conventional wisdom, that attempting more items and guessing are not helpful in yielding higher formula scores, and that, therefore, formula scoring is not disadvantageous to the student who is less willing to guess and attempt an item that he (she) is not sure of.
PATHWAYS TO GRADUATE SCHOOL: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY BASED ON NATIONAL LONGITUDINAL DATA
Authors: Hilton Thomas L. , Schrader William B. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTIn response to widespread concern about the status of graduate schools in the United States, this study was undertaken to investigate:
What proportions of high school seniors enroll in graduate school or professional school.
What proportions of students make certain choices at each of five critical stages in educational development from high school to graduate or professional school.
Whether the proportions making these choices differ for major subgroups of the student population.
How the choices at one stage relate to choices at others.
Whether the proportions for students who reach graduate school differ for those reaching professional school.
Whether the early characteristics of eventual graduate students differ from those of eventual professional school students.
What implications the results of the study might have for the number of students expected to enroll in graduate schools in the late 1980s.
The date analysis relied primarily on data from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972, in which a national probability sample of approximately 22,500 high school seniors was surveyed in 1972 and then resurveyed approximately every two years until 1979. Analysis of data from a survey of 1980 high school seniors provided data on the initial posthigh school choices of a recent cohort.The data analysis indicated that:
By 1979, 3% of the 1972 high school seniors had enrolled full time in graduate school, and 3% had enrolled full time in professional school.
Students reaching graduate or professional school tended to enroll in more demanding high school academic programs and were noticeably more likely to enroll first in four‐year colleges after high school graduation.
The distribution of males and females in the pathways and their educational attainment were similar, except that appreciably fewer females enrolled in professional schools.
Almost as high a proportion of Black students as of White students enrolled initially in four‐year colleges, but a lower proportion received bachelor's degrees.
Students reaching graduate school tended to show approximately the same pattern of choices as students reaching professional school; the professional school students had somewhat higher test scores and educational aspirations, although the differences were small.
Many uncertainties precluded predictions about their absolute numbers, but it is likely that the proportion of future postbaccalaureate students who are female and the proportions from minority populations will be appreciably higher.
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY OF ITEM DIFFICULTY AND DISCRIMINATION
Authors: Scheuneman Janice Dowd , Steinhaus Karin S. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTTraditionally, test item difficulty is a statistical concept, defined in terms of the performance of examinees rather than in terms of intrinsic properties of the item itself. A clearer understanding of the association between item properties and examinee performance, however, would result in numerous benefits, including better prediction and control of item difficulty in the test development process and enhanced construct validity of the test. As a first step toward the goal of achieving such understanding, a theoretical framework is delineated, drawing on both measurement concepts and concepts drawn from cognitive psychology and personality theory. In this formulation, the difficulty of an item is seen as a function of the demands set by the item tasks and the abilities and attributes which the examinee may find necessary or useful in responding correctly to the item. In addition, interactions of examinee abilities and item characteristics may occur where solutions to an item may be reached by using different strategies or abilities and the difficulty of meeting the item demand using these different approaches is not equivalent. Examples from the measurement and psychological literature provide suggestions of a number of examinee characteristics and item properties which might be expected to affect item difficulty. The formulation is then extended to item discrimination. Finally, the literature on verbal analogies is reviewed within the theoretical framework to suggest sources of variation in the difficulty and discrimination of this item type.
CONTENT CHARACTERISTICS OF GRE ANALYTICAL REASONING ITEMS
Authors: Chalifour Clark , Powers Donald E. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTIn actual test development practice, the number of test items that must be developed and pretested is typically greater, and sometimes much greater, than the number that is eventually judged suitable for use in operational test forms. This has proven to be especially true for one item type–analytical reasoning–that currently forms the bulk of the analytical ability measure of the GRE General Test.This study involved coding the content characteristics of some 1,400 GRE analytical reasoning items. These characteristics were correlated with indices of item difficulty, discrimination, and independence from the verbal and quantitative measures.Several item characteristics were predictive of the difficulty of analytical reasoning items. Generally, these same variables also predicted item discrimination, but to a lesser degree. Independence from the GRE verbal and quantitative measures was largely unpredictable.The results suggest several content characteristics that could be considered in extending the current specifications for analytical reasoning items. The use of these item features may also contribute to greater efficiency in developing such items. Finally, the influence of these various characteristics also provides a better understanding of the construct validity of the analytical reasoning item type.
NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN CAREER GUIDANCE: THE INTERACTIVE COMPUTER
Authors: Katz Martin R. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTBeginning in the 1960's, the interactive capabilities of computers provided unprecedented opportunities for the development of computerized career guidance systems. Such systems offered individualized assistance in career decision making to large numbers of people at low cost. Recognizing that each user may present a unique combination of needs, experiences, circumstances, values, interests, skills, styles, and perceptions, a developer can enable a well‐planned system to respond appropriately to these individual differences. A system can not only store, retrieve, and manipulate vast amounts of information, putting great resources at the fingertips of each user, but also bring together many variables – personal, occupational, and educational – and combine them in distinctive ways for each client.These capabilities do not insure that the substance of any system will be of high quality. Much of a system's worth depends on its conceptual framework, the strength of its theory and rationale, the coherence of its functions and structures. The “black box” of theory underlying every system should be opened up and exposed to the light of scrutiny and evaluation.Examples from the principles, research, model, and structures for the System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI) and SIGI PLUS are used to illustrate the links between theory and practice.
LATENT STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe results of equating studies are supportive of the use of IRT methods for TOEFL equating, but there remains a discrepancy between the assumptions of the equating and the diversity of the population served. The IRT model assumes that, except for chance effects, the performance of individuals is entirely accounted for by their status on a single latent proficiency variable. But the TOEFL candidate population appears to be sufficiently diverse that different groups might exist, each with its own latent variable. Informal studies indicate that such is the case. The purpose of the study reported here was to identify such groups, if any, and to explore the implications of the results.The basic and very surprising outcome of this study was the finding that a single factor accounted for virtually all the proportions of joint item successes. This result was obtained for all three TOEFL sections. Also for each section, proportions of joint item success were proportional to the products of the item difficulties. Both of these results indicate that latent group effects are small.The search for groups also consisted of assessing the relative importance of two factors in accounting for examinees' patterns of item success. For an individual, this relative importance was expressed by the angle in a polar coordinate plot of pairs of coefficients of regression of item scores on factor loadings. A large latent group would appear as a mode in a frequency distribution of angles; multiple modes would indicate several latent groups. But a rather smooth distribution of angles for the total group was found, with some ordering, but a great deal of overlap, of the distributions by national origin and language background. Neither national origin nor native language accounted for more than 25% of the variation in the angles.The results of the present study are consistent with the use of section equating using item response theory and with the use of the restrictive assumption of proportionality of item response curves; the probability of correct response is a product of two components, a function of ability and an item constant. This is a single parameter model that could serve as a basis for item calibration and equating. The model would lead to simplified procedures. The result also suggests that, when assembling operational tests, using those items for which the proportion of joint successes is most nearly proportional to their difficulties would reduce latent group effects.The Test of English as a Foreign Language is offered for use by educational institutions with the expectation that the scores from TOEFL examinees are informative on a single scale, essentially without reference to specific examinee characteristics. The present study provides evidence consistent with that expectation. One should be prepared to examine small effects, go outside the domain of measurement, or go outside the typical range of TOEFL examinees to seek substantial departures from the unitary hypothesis.
DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING ON THE BRAILLE EDITION OF SAT‐M
Authors: Bennett Randy Elliot , Rock Donald A. , Novatkoski Inge 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis study attempted to pinpoint the causes of differential item difficulty for blind students taking the braille edition of the Scholastic Aptitude Test's Mathematical section (SAT‐M). The study method involved reviewing the literature to identify factors that might cause differential item functioning for these examinees, forming item categories based on these factors, identifying categories that functioned differentially, and assessing the functioning of the items composing deviant categories to determine if the differential effect was pervasive. Results showed an association between selected item categories and differential functioning, particularly for items that included figures in the stimulus, items for which spatial estimation was helpful in eliminating at least two of the options, and items which presented diagrams that were small or medium in size. The precise meaning of this association, however, was unclear because some items from the suspected categories functioned normally, factors other than the hypothesized ones might have caused the observed aberrant item behavior, and the differential difficulty might be related to real population differences.