bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cohort Sequential Designs (Convergence Analysis)
Authors: Warner Schaie K. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A general developmental model is described with the components of age, cohort, and time‐of‐measurement (period). Two of these components are always confounded in the simple developmental designs of cross‐sectional, longitudinal, and time lag approaches. More complex sequential designs are then presented which allow estimation of each separate effect and their interaction. The cohort sequential design allows separation of age and cohort effects. The time sequential design allows separation of age and time‐of‐measurement (period) effects. The cross sequential design allows separation of cohort and time‐of‐measurement (period) effects. It is also pointed out that use of a mixed model approach to test convergence hypothesis that ignores random effects will result in the underestimation of within‐subject effects and overestimation of between‐subject effects. Examples of properly analyzed convergence analyses approaches are identified.
DSM

Workgroup Structure and Process
Authors: Widiger Thomas , Glover Natalie 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The American Psychiatric Association's
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(

DSM

) provides the authoritative list of what are considered to be mental disorders. The

DSM

is an exceedingly powerful document, impacting many important social, forensic, clinical, and other professional decisions. The development of this manual is then an enormous responsibility. Presented herein is a brief history of the development of all prior and current editions of the

DSM

(with a particular emphasis on

DSM‐IV

and

DSM
‐5

), followed by a discussion of the major issues and concerns that arguably should be considered in its development, including personnel selection, critical review, criteria for revision, field trials, and risk–benefit analysis.
Cyclothymic Disorder
Authors: Van Meter Anna R. , Youngstrom Eric A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Cyclothymic disorder is a subtype of bipolar disorder characterized by a chronic and debilitating course of disordered mood. Though epidemiological studies suggest that cyclothymic disorder may be the most prevalent bipolar subtype, it has been largely neglected in research and rarely diagnosed clinically. Symptom overlap with temperament and personality types further limits knowledge about cyclothymic disorder. It may be a diathesis for bipolar disorder I or II, in which case cyclothymic disorder could offer an opportunity to intervene and prevent escalation of mood disturbance. Research including cyclothymic disorder will aid accurate diagnosis and effective treatment of the full spectrum of bipolar disorder, and inform about the developmental trajectory of mood disorders.
Circumplex Models
Authors: Gurtman Michael B. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Circumplex, or circular, models are structural models popular in personality and clinical psychology. Such models assume that the variables defining a particular individual difference domain (e.g., interpersonal traits, core affect, human values) can best be represented as a circle—an array of variables with a circular form. The interpersonal circumplex (of interpersonal traits, problems, and related constructs) is the most developed of these models, and has led to a variety of circumplex‐based measures. Assessment data derived from circumplex measures are structured in ways that suggest certain preferred approaches to analysis and interpretation. Applications of the model to assessment, diagnosis, and psychopathology continue to evolve and be refined.
Spectrum Model
Authors: Boyle Lauren H. , Smith Gregory T. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
When one refers to a spectrum of psychopathology, one refers to a set of conditions that are both related, in the sense of sharing a common cause and some common symptoms, and also separate, in the sense that they also have different symptoms from one another that, presumably, arise from nonshared causes. Frequently, disorders on a spectrum vary in their degree of severity. Common examples include the schizophrenia spectrum, which includes disorders ranging in severity from what is called schizotypal personality disorder to the psychotic disorder of schizophrenia; and the autism spectrum, which includes Asperger's disorder together with the typically more disruptive autism. There is a long history of spectrum models in clinical psychology. These models are praised because they provide linkages across degrees of severity, in contrast to purely categorical description of psychopathology in which gradations of severity are not represented. They are also criticized by researchers who contend that, in reality, there typically are not separate conditions, but rather simply degrees of severity within dimensions of dysfunction.
Family Therapies
Authors: Davis Sean D. , Dattilio Frank M. , Gonzalez Armando 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Rooted in systems theory, family therapy is a branch of psychotherapy that seeks to shift the focus of therapy away from the individual towards reshaping patterns of interactions within relationships. As the field of family therapy continued to evolve over the past half century empirical support has emerged suggesting its effectiveness in treating multiple problems including eating disorders, substance abuse, and conduct disorders. This entry provides a basic description of the key tenets within some of the pioneering (structural therapy and Bowen therapy), postmodern (narrative therapy and solution‐focused therapy), and contemporary therapy models (cognitive behavioral therapy, functional family therapy, and multidimensional family therapy) used to treat family systems.
Prescription Privileges Debate
Authors: Heiby Elaine M. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSince the mid 1980s, clinical psychology has been debating whether to expand its scope of practice to include the functions of independently prescribing physicians throughout the United States and of advanced nurse practitioners in 14 states. The debate has focused primarily on what constitutes adequate medical training for licensed psychologists given their undergraduate and doctoral training lack courses in premedical sciences and medicine. The American Psychological Association proposes less than two years of postdoctoral training for prescription privileges, also referred to as prescriptive authority andRxP. In contrast, psychiatrists complete 10 years and psychiatric advanced nurse practitioners 6 years of premedical and medical training. There has been little progress in the pursuit ofRxP. From 1995 to May 2014, over 173 bills have been submitted to legislatures and only three were signed into law (Territory of Guam, New Mexico, and Louisiana). The effects of these laws upon consumer safety are unknown.
Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (
PCIT
)
Authors: Norman Cheryl McNeil, Meredith , Wallace Nancy 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (
PCIT
) is an empirically supported treatment for young children with behavioral and emotional problems. Unique components of
PCIT
are discussed and detailed descriptions are provided for the two phases of
PCIT
, child‐directed interaction (
CDI
) and parent‐directed interaction (
PDI
). Research findings on the efficacy of
PCIT
for treatment of behavior problems associated with a range of mental health disorders and medical conditions are presented. Research is also presented on the efficacy of
PCIT
with diverse populations and the effectiveness of
PCIT
in community mental health settings. Finally, directions for future research are suggested.
Clinical Interview
Authors: Sommers‐Flanagan John , Abeje Zeleke Waganesh , Hood Meredith H. E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The clinical interview is foundational to psychological or mental health treatment. It involves a professional relationship between a mental health provider and a patient or client and is used across all major mental health treatment disciplines. Although defined differently by different authors, the clinical interview includes an informed consent process and has as its primary goals (a) initiation of a therapeutic alliance, (b) assessment or diagnostic data collection, (c) case formulation, and/or (d) implementation of a psychological intervention. This entry includes information about the history/evolution of clinical interviewing, an outline of the typical interview process or structure, distinctions between unstructured, semistructured, and structured interviews, and contemporary developments (i.e., the science of clinical interviewing, techniques as relational acts, and cultural adaptations). The future of the clinical interview as a central method for initiating psychotherapy or counseling is bright.
Informed Consent, Psychotherapy
Authors: Pomerantz Andrew M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Informed consent to psychotherapy involves a capable prospective client voluntarily choosing to enter treatment after he or she has been informed about the treatment by the therapist. Although informed consent to psychotherapy is an ethical obligation, it is also an opportunity for clinical benefit. It provides the therapist the chance to educate the client and correct any misconceptions; and it can also facilitate a strong, healthy, collaborative therapeutic alliance, widely considered a cornerstone of successful therapy. Variation exists in what information is provided, how the procedure takes place (e.g., written form and oral discussion), and when it happens. Increasingly, informed consent to psychotherapy is recognized as an ongoing process, with various types of information being covered at various points in the therapy process, rather than as a static, single event.
BipolarIIDisorder
Authors: Alloy Lauren B. , Molz Adams Ashleigh R. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractBipolarIIdisorder is categorized as a “softer” bipolar spectrum disorder, characterized by the history of at least one hypomanic and one major depressive episode. Lifetime prevalence in epidemiological studies varies from 0.4% to 2%. BipolarII, although “softer” than bipolar I disorder, has been shown to be more highly associated with suicide attempts and completion, perhaps because its course is weighted toward depressive episodes. Behavioral approach system and social rhythms theories, both of which have accrued convincing evidence, provide promising causal models for bipolarIIdisorder, as they do for other bipolar spectrum conditions. Treatment for bipolarIIdisorder involves mood stabilizers with or without adjunctive selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and psychotherapies.
Mediators versus Moderators, Conceptual Distinction
Authors: Westfall Jacob , Judd Charles M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Given a causal hypothesis that one variable
X
affects another
Y
, the question of mediation refers to the mechanism that produces that causal affect. A meditational analysis is conducted by identifying plausible mediating variables (
M
) and controlling for these statistically. The question of moderation is whether a causal effect differs in magnitude as a function of some third variable. A moderation analysis is conducted by examining if the effect of
X
on
Y
depends on a moderator (
M
) such that there is a statistical interaction between
X
and
M
.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Authors: Rasmussen Jessica , Wilhelm Sabine 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Body dysmorphic disorder (
BDD
) is a persistent and impairing preoccupation with a perceived defect or flaw in physical appearance that is not observable or appears slight to others. Individuals with
BDD
are focused on specific aspects of their appearance (e.g., skin, face, and hair) and engage in repetitive, ritualistic behaviors (e.g., mirror checking, excessive grooming, and surgery seeking) to hide or improve the perceived flaw.
BDD
can cause significant psychosocial and occupational impairment, as well as severe emotional distress.
BDD
is a common disorder and is associated with high rates of suicidal ideation or suicide attempts. Recent advances in the understanding of
BDD
have led to the development of evidence‐based treatments for the disorder. First‐line treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy and psychopharmacology (e.g., serotonin reuptake inhibitors [
SRIs
]).
Agoraphobia
Authors: Milosevic Irena , McCabe Randi E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Agoraphobia is an impairing mental disorder characterized by fear and avoidance of situations where escape might be difficult or where help might not be available in the event of panic‐like, incapacitating, or embarrassing symptoms. The median age of onset for agoraphobia is 20, and risk factors for its development include the presence of panic disorder and phobias, female gender, and younger age. Common comorbidities include anxiety, trauma‐related, depressive, substance use, and somatoform disorders. Genetics, personality traits, cognitive factors, and learning processes contribute to the etiology of the disorder. When left untreated, agoraphobia has a chronic and unremitting course. Empirically supported treatments of agoraphobia include cognitive behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy.
Battered‐Child Syndrome
Authors: Carter Sherrie Bourg 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Battered‐child syndrome is a clinical condition diagnosed in children who are found to have serious, nonaccidental physical injuries, generally caused by a parent or adult caretaker. The diagnosis is most commonly made by a pediatrician, emergency room doctor, child protection team physician, or forensic nurse practitioner after a thorough medical examination. Common symptoms include bone fractures, internal bleeding or trauma, head injuries, cuts, burns, bite marks, choke marks, bruising (particularly those in the shape of a hand, fist, or belt), lash marks, cigarette burns, and/or black eyes for which there are no reasonable explanations. Therefore, interviews with the adults caring for the child around the time of the injuries are often a critical component of the overall assessment. In some cases, X‐rays, scans, or other types of imaging are used to substantiate the diagnosis.
Association of Consulting Psychologists (
ACP
)
Authors: Farreras Ingrid G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The Association of Consulting Psychologists (
ACP
) was the second professional organization to represent applied interests. Although the American Association of Clinical Psychologists had been establishment in 1917 as the first organization to represent clinical psychologists, it dissolved in 1919 in favor of the creation of the American Psychological Association's (
APA
) first section, the Clinical Section (renamed “Division” after the 1945 reorganization). The
APA
Clinical Section, however, did not meet the needs of clinical psychologists. The
ACP
, reorganized in 1930 from the 1921 New York State Association of Consulting Psychologists, addressed early professionalization issues such as professional standards, requirements for postgraduate training, certification and licensure issues, membership requirements, and codes of ethics. It eventually merged with other regional associations to form the American Association for Applied Psychology in 1937.
Human Figure Drawings
Authors: Taylor Whitney D. , Lee Catherine M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Despite controversy, human figure drawings (HFDs) remain popular projective tools in clinical practice. Proponents believe that these techniques provide access to unconscious thoughts and experiences that the examinee would otherwise be unable or unwilling to share. Critics note that these techniques lack the standardization, reliability, validity, and normative data needed to be considered psychological tests. The history and development of HFDs are described. Psychometric evidence is reviewed, followed by an examination of current practices. Although HFDs may serve as a rapport‐building strategy for clients with limited verbal ability, no scientific evidence justifies their use in clinical assessment.
Burnout
Authors: Leiter Michael P. , Maslach Christina , Frame Kelly 
Published: January 2015

AbstractBurnoutrefers to the emotional depletion and loss of motivation that result from prolonged exposure to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is one of the most widely accepted scales and is composed of the three dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. With more than 35 years of research and a solid theoretical foundation, researchers in this field are increasingly dedicating themselves to the development of effective and lasting interventions to reduce job burnout. Successful interventions include the consideration of the individual within the context of the workplace. New research focuses on job engagement, the opposite of burnout, which might suggest effective solutions for alleviating or preventing burnout.
Counseling Psychology
Authors: Banyasz Alissa M. , Baker David B. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Counseling psychology is a specialty within professional psychology with roots in the vocational guidance movement. This specialty is viewed as an integration of twentieth‐century developments in vocational guidance, psychological testing, and psychotherapy. Counseling psychologists work as academicians, practitioners, organizational consultants, and social justice advocates. Counseling psychology is distinguished from other specialties by its focus on human strengths, multiculturalism, and social justice.
Reminiscence/Life Review Therapy
Authors: Hyams Adriana , Scogin Forrest 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Reminiscence and life review therapies were initially conceptualized by Robert Butler (1927–2010), who drew from Erik Erikson's developmental challenge of ego integrity versus despair. Other theorists' conceptualizations are also presented. Discussed in this entry are approaches and considerations for conducting these therapies, professionals who use them, and settings in which they are carried out. Research has found that they increase socialization, self‐esteem, mood, life satisfaction, and quality of life. However, other studies have shown little evidence of improvement. Possible sources of the mixed empirical findings are discussed. Longitudinal research is needed to establish beneficial and negative aspects of the therapies and any long‐term effects.
Interpersonal Circumplex
Authors: Pincus Aaron L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe interpersonal circumplex (IPC) is an empirically derived and validated structural model of interpersonal functioning at multiple levels that serves as a key conceptual map for the contemporary interpersonal paradigm in clinical psychology. Through 60 years of interpersonal theory and research, the IPC has evolved into a metastructure based on the constructs of agency and communion with integrative implications for all aspects of clinical science and practice. The IPC provides a comprehensive system to view and understand the whole person via individual differences, psychological processes, and relational dynamics.
Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (
ASEBA
)
Authors: Achenbach Thomas M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (
ASEBA
) instruments obtain and compare reports and ratings from multiple informants to assess the behavioral, emotional, and social problems and adaptive functioning of people from age 1½ to 90+ years. With translations in 90 languages,
ASEBA
instruments have multicultural norms with which to evaluate scores in relation to norms for many societies. Over 8,000 publications report use of the
ASEBA
in 80 societies and cultures.
ASEBA
scales include adaptive functioning, competence, empirically derived syndromes,

DSM

‐oriented scales, internalizing, externalizing, and total problems.
ASEBA
instruments facilitate family‐based assessment by providing parallel scale scores for parent and child problems. Practitioners can show each parent the profiles scored from their self‐ratings and their partner's ratings of them, as well as profiles scored from their own ratings, teacher ratings, and self‐ratings of their child.
Antidepressants
Authors: Epstein‐Lubow Gary , Kohn Robert 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Antidepressant medications are used to treat major depressive disorder and other conditions, including anxiety disorders. Many medications have been used to treat depression; the most common prescriptions currently are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The evidence base standard for antidepressant efficacy is the randomized controlled trial. Adverse side effects are commonly, but not always, associated with antidepressant use. Caution should be used when starting a new antidepressant, particularly in children and young adults when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration warns against such use. Antidepressants can be effective treatments when administered alone or in combination with psychotherapy. Caution should be used when stopping antidepressant treatment, due to risk for discontinuation syndrome or recurrence of depressive symptoms.
Probation
Authors: Louden Jennifer Eno , Manchak Sarah M. , Kang Tamara 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Probation is a sentence disposition in the criminal justice system where offenders are supervised in the community by probation officers. Although there has been much debate in the field about the best approaches for supervising probationers, the most effective practices are those guided by the complementary principles of
risk–need–responsivity
and
core correctional practices
. Agencies vary in the extent to which they adhere to these principles, especially when supervising clinically relevant populations. This entry reviews historical and current practices in probation, with particular attention paid to practices for offenders with mental health and substance abuse problems.
Capital Sentencing
Authors: Wood Mary E. , Salekin Karen L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSince the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court has made several decisions that have highlighted the importance of individualized sentencing procedures. These landmark decisions have created a distinct role for clinical psychologists who conduct capital‐sentencing evaluations. This entry describes the history of the death penalty through the lens of these landmark decisions and ends with a discussion on mitigating factors through a developmental psychopathology perspective.
Sequential Analysis
Authors: Bakeman Roger 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Sequential analysis attempts to detect patterns and temporal associations among observed behaviors and is more a data analytic toolbox than one particular technique. It requires the sort of sequential categorical data that result from behavioral observation when trained observers, often working from video records, assign predefined codes to either events or successive time intervals. Using a code‐unit grid to represent sequential data facilitates sequential analysis; columns are untimed events, intervals, or time units reflecting the precision used to record time. Characterizing observer agreement with kappa (Cohen's or variants) may require application of a sequence‐alignment algorithm. Basic contingency indexes are the odds ratio and the related Yule's
Q
. When insufficient tallies require pooling individual cases, log‐linear analysis may be needed to characterize group differences. Computing kappa, basic descriptive statistics, and contingency indexes is facilitated by the code‐unit grid, whose columns serve as computational units.