bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Digital Public Sphere
Authors: Schäfer Mike S. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe emergence and existence of a digital public sphere has been an issue of intense theoretical debate and numerous empirical studies. Scholars have tried to establish whether and to what extent an online equivalent, or substitute, for the seemingly deficient “old” public sphere has developed. They have analyzed whether participation in online and social media is open and visible to all, how communication is structured in terms of content, reciprocity and style, and what effects such debates have on participants as well as decision‐makers. Overall, they have shown that the digital public sphere tends to successfully make diverse actors and their positions visible, and at least sometimes influences other fora and collectively binding decision‐making. Studies have also shown that although digital public spheres exhibit a range of communicative styles, they only rarely conform to ideas of rationality and civility as advocated by participatory, deliberative theory.
Legitimacy, Democratic
Authors: Parkinson John 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

Legitimacy is the moralization of authority. Democratic legitimacy specifies that what makes the exercise of authority moral is that its
source
is “the people” in some sense; its
procedures
are democratic ones; and its
outcomes
clearly relate to the preferences of the people concerned. However, beneath that definition lie several controversies related to disagreements about the concept of democracy, and the relative weights given to democratic procedures versus good outcomes.
Civil Disobedience
Authors: Celikates Robin 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This entry gives an overview of current debates about civil disobedience as a practice of political contestation that is located between legal protest, on the one hand, and more radical, for example revolutionary, forms of opposition, on the other. It examines the definition, justification, and role of civil disobedience, especially from the point of view of democratic theory.
Alienation, Political
Authors: Knobloch Katherine R. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political alienation denotes estrangement from one's government and political community. The concept of alienation was first introduced by social theorists in the 19th century and experienced a revival in the 1950s and 1960s as political theorists and researchers sought to understand the connection between government, political psychology, and public participation. During this time, several dimensions of political alienation were identified. Among the most important dimensions are political efficacy, isolation, knowledge, and trust. These dimensions can be applied to contemporary debates in political communication and help define routes for future research.
Secrecy
Authors: Pérez Francisco Seoane 
Published: November 2015

AbstractSecrecy applies to all deliberate attempts to conceal information from the public glare. In liberal democracies, where the principle of publicity empowers citizens to hold their governments accountable, the legitimacy of secrecy is usually restricted to the areas of national security and foreign affairs. However, secrecy has also a relevant role in political deliberations, as the publicity of negotiations usually leads to a politicization that might prevent consensual outcomes. Even in political regimes where publicity and transparency are the norm, secrecy and confidentiality play an underestimated role. Journalists rely on anonymous sources to publicize corruption in government. Such is the importance of secrecy in denouncing corruption that some legal systems offer reporters the privilege of maintaining the confidentiality of their sources. Surprisingly, the publication of government wrongdoings is not necessarily conducive to public outcry, as some corrupt leaders continue receiving electoral support. Contrary to what transparency lobbyists believe, there is not a straight causal relationship between publicity and accountability.
Political Communication Culture
Authors: Pfetsch Barbara 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political communication culture refers to the subjective dimension of the media and politics interface as well as to its public representation in contemporary democracy. Special attention must be paid to the comparative study of political communication culture across European countries because this culture is bound to vary by institutional and cultural context. Recent studies about the values and beliefs of political communication actors point to vulnerable exchange relations which are governed by ambiguity and cynicism.
Knowledge, Political
Authors: Ivie Robert L. , Onge Jeffrey St. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political knowledge, narrowly conceived, is the information the general public possesses about politics. Citizens can participate meaningfully in democratic governance only if they are sufficiently informed. Research indicates that the public generally retains a low level of factual information. The citizenry is uninformed about the political process, the structure of government, policy issues, and political actors. This information deficit raises the question of whether the public is capable of making correct decisions and, consequently, if democracy is a viable form of governance. Expanding the concept of political knowledge to include the process of interpretation takes into account ideational schemas. Idea‐based knowledge consists of beliefs, attitudes, arguments, and received wisdom as well as factual information. Conceptualizing politics as a process of persuasion and an exercise in conflict management suggests a more positive prospect for democratic governance.
Game Theory
Authors: Fukumoto Kentaro 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
In game theory, scholars construct generalized models in which players choose actions and obtain utility. Game theorists assume rational choice, that is, players maximize their own utility. A stable situation that results from this setup is called an equilibrium. The reason game theorists focus on the equilibrium is that it is expected to be representative of the real world and the model should explain how the real world operates.
Deliberation
Authors: Richards Robert C. , Gastil John 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

Political deliberation is a form of collective decision‐making about policy issues, in which a group thoroughly analyzes a problem, scrutinizes proposals that reflect a variety of perspectives, and then chooses a well‐reasoned solution. The practice of deliberation is described from its development in ancient Greece and Rome through the medieval period and the rise of modern deliberative institutions, and up to today's practices involving a variety of deliberative institutional designs. The long history of deliberative theory is recounted, from its roots in Aristotle's
Politics
through its revival in recent theories of democracy. Major methodologies employed in the empirical study of deliberation and notable findings of such research are explored.
Marketing, Political
Authors: Lilleker Darren G. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical marketing is a discipline that seeks to explain developments in political strategy and communication as well as propose tools for analyzing the relationship between political organizations and their stakeholders. In particular it is suggested marketing can bring politics closer to citizens by making party programs more relevant, more in line with public attitudes, and more appealing. While there are significant debates around the extent that marketing can explain or be applied to politics, as the discipline matures it offers interesting new perspectives that may have both analytical and practical benefits for understanding and shaping the behavior of political parties in modern democracies.
Communication Theory
Authors: Baym Geoffrey 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

Drawing on the social sciences and humanistic schools of thought, the field of political communication divides into three broad theoretical paradigms. The dominant approach is a
functionalist
paradigm that understands communication as a process of input variables and outcome effects. An
interactionist
paradigm considers communication to be a form of social action. A
culturalist
paradigm views communication as playing a constitutive role in shaping identities and political cultures. Built on differing definitions of communication, the three paradigms identify different kinds of problems as worthy of study, and privilege different methodologies. The cleavages among them threaten disciplinary coherence, but also provide a range of theoretical tools in a rapidly transforming media ecosystem and political environment.
Scandal, Political
Authors: Harmer Emily , Stanyer James 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political scandals are an important and increasingly visible feature of political communication in democracies. This article starts by defining political scandals before exploring Thompson's typology of political scandal. It examines the many causes that underlie scandals, before looking at the role of journalists and the media as crucial actors in the manufacturing of scandal. Finally, it looks at the consequences of political scandals. It should be noted that not all authors see scandals as necessarily significant; some see scandals as largely inconsequential distractions which are produced by a media culture that has become preoccupied with personalities and celebrity.
E‐Government
Authors: Jamil Marques Francisco Paulo , Abilio Pereira Marcus 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
E‐government includes activities related to developing and optimizing processes typical to state bureaucracy by using digital media. E‐government projects comprise at least two dimensions: internal (the cooperation and integration of different levels of government agencies, for example) and external government operations (to improve interaction with citizens and market). Initially, e‐government initiatives aimed to make the state more efficient and effective, while reducing the costs of government activities. However, in recent years, literature has shown an attempt to promote the change from a government‐centered approach to a citizen‐centered approach to create at an atmosphere that involves citizens in the decision‐making process. There are two barriers that hinder the success of e‐government programs: institutional and cultural. The digital divide is another challenge facing e‐government projects.
Progressive Movement
Authors: Soderlund Gretchen 
Published: November 2015

AbstractEarly 20th‐century industrialization and urbanization were central to the development of United States' political communication and media. Rapid economic and demographic changes were met with an increase in social movements, paralleling developments occurring elsewhere. However, unprecedented population growth madeUScities particularly ripe for experimentation in political communication. The groundwork for the contemporary media system was laid during the Progressive Era.
Risk Communication
Authors: Gutteling Jan M. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Risk is a central issue for policy areas as diverse as health, safety, technology, environment, and finance. Risk communication is seen as one of several policy instruments to achieve risk management goals in these areas. In this entry the complexity of risk communication as an academic discipline is discussed. Several risk communication models are presented, as well as some thoughts on what new directions are to be expected and which important questions are to be addressed in the future.
Political Sociology
Authors: Mayer Nonna 
Published: November 2015

AbstractAt the crossroad of sociology and political science, political sociology studies the social bases of power and domination. From the postwar era dominated by the radio to the age of Internet and social media, one of its central topics is the communication flow between citizens and the state. Special attention is given to studies of voting, public opinion, political culture, political participation and political talk. They explain the effects and limitations of political persuasion by elites and the changing forms of political expression from below.
Visual Communication
Authors: Griffin Michael 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The broad field of visual communication studies extends beyond the political, yet has a long relationship with political communication due to the historical and the metaphorical relevance of pictures and framing for political theorizing, the centrality of visual images in political propaganda and advertising, and the apparent power of pictures to influence public opinion through political news. The growing dominance of television in politics in the second half of the 20th century led to “image bite” politics, presenting a special challenge for tracking the role and function of visual images in political discourse. While approaches to the study of political image‐making and management have become more sophisticated, theoretical and methodological challenges remain to fully comprehend the nature and function of visual imagery and define and distinguish measurable visual patterns and elements.
Nongovernmental Organizations
Authors: Lang Sabine 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are vital to organizing citizens in the 21st century. Their performance, however, is still measured primarily in terms of policy outcomes. Not until recently have political communication perspectives been introduced into the study of the NGO sector. NGOs engage with their constituents and donors as well as with the media and larger publics in a rapidly changing communication environment. They advance their issues not primarily by way of using the traditionally contentious repertoires of social movements. Instead, they employ more professionalized communication strategies that are geared towards institutional influence. In addition, member‐based organizations give way to more loosely network‐based advocacy coalitions without a defined membership base. Finally, NGO communication is shaped by an altered media environment, in particular the loss of specialized journalist knowledge in areas of NGO expertise as well as the increasing role of new media and online advocacy.
Mass Communication
Authors: McQuail Denis 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The concept of mass communication was coined in the early 20th century in response to the rise of mass media of press, film, radio, and television. It linked features of social structure and change, including the political system, to the core features of media systems. A central place was allocated to an expectation that mass media in this predominant form would exert great political and social power as instruments or on their own account. Decades of communication research have been devoted to these issues, latterly to the idea that the “demassification” of public communication media on the basis of new online technology has fundamentally changed the relationship between media and society, generally for the better. The question remains open, and the concept reduced in scope and relevance, redefined but not eliminated. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Leadership, Political
Authors: Barisione Mauro 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical leadership is a process that involves at least one person aspiring to rule a country, party, or other organization, and a large group of followers. Being based on a mixture of coercion and discourse, political leadership places special emphasis on communicative forms of persuasion such as visions, slogans, images, and frames. The communication of political actors has become increasingly personalized, but findings on the effects of leader images on actual voting behavior remain somewhat inconclusive. The leadership styles in populist right‐wing and left‐wing parties constitute a particularly important topic for future research, as does the use of new social media technologies by political leaders that might lead to a new model of leadership that overemphasizes responsiveness and followership.
Political Culture
Authors: da Silva Filipe Carreira , Clark Terry N. , Vieira Mónica Brito 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThis article critically discusses the field of political culture research. It reviews the historical development of the concept of political culture since the 1950s. It examines some of the key authors and approaches in political science and political sociology. Special attention is paid to the conceptual and methodological innovations of the last few decades, including neo‐Tocquevillian, multicausal, and neo‐Durkheimian approaches to the study of the concept.
Local Government
Authors: Coelho Vera Schattan P. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractLocal government is the level of government which is most decentralized from the central state and, thus, closer to the citizens. Its territorial borders and its fiscal, administrative, and political capacities and powers are defined by its relationship with intermediary and central governments. Local government enables one particular set of state–society relations that can positively impact local development, service delivery, citizen participation, and accountability.
Religion
Authors: Maraffi Marco 
Published: November 2015

AbstractCommunication is at the very heart of all religions. From the presence of religion on the Internet to the effects of religious beliefs on popular advertising, communication and media are integral to religion and the expression of religious belief. The ongoing process of transformation of religion from state‐centered to society‐centered institution is making political communication increasingly vital for religious institutions, policy‐makers, and public opinion at large. Communication of a political character will become an essential aspect of the activities of religions, within a general process of the “mediatization of society” and the challenge of new interactive technologies. These changes have forced social scientists to place religion in an increasingly international, comparative, and global framework, whether their interest is in fundamentalism, charismatic Christianity, new religious movements, or any other major topic of research. The increased awareness of the relevance of the issues involved promises to yield a substantial growth in our knowledge of the interplay between religion and communication.
Political Psychology
Authors: Elad‐Strenger Julia , Mintz Alex 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical psychology is an interdisciplinary academic field drawing on various disciplines in the social and natural sciences. Political psychologists attempt to understand, explain, and predict the effects of psychological dynamics, political structures, and political processes in broad social and historical contexts on political behavior, decision‐making processes, intergroup relations, and other political phenomena, such as terrorism, conflict, and peace. This chapter traces the history of the field, provides an overview of the main topics and central tendencies that have characterized the modern era of political psychological research, and identifies some emerging and promising lines of inquiry in political psychology.
Media System
Authors: Hallin Daniel C. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe concept of media system is fundamental to the use of the comparative method in media studies. This entry explores the intellectual roots of that concept in general systems theory, and a number of issues about the scope and conceptualization of media systems. It examines the strengths and weaknesses of two main approaches to comparative analysis, one focusing on analysis of media systems as wholes, often using case study methods, and one focusing on relationships among variables across systems, often using large‐Nstatistical methods.
Political Participation
Authors: van Deth Jan W. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political participation can be loosely defined as citizens' activities affecting politics. Participation enables citizens to evolve their capacities, to articulate their demands, and to legitimize decisions. The repertoire of political activities expanded considerably, and by now, the list is virtually infinite (ranging from voting and signing a petition to joining a flash mob or buying fair‐trade coffee). Besides, Internet‐based technologies offer opportunities for political communication and mobilization at virtually no costs. Explanations for political participation are divided in supply‐side and demand‐side approaches. Supply‐side approaches stress contextual and situational factors (including institutional and constitutional arrangements). Demand‐side approaches identify individual resources, motivations, and social networks as important determinants. Despite the ongoing proliferation of the modes of participation marginalized and underprivileged social groups constantly participate less than other groups. Debates about a “post‐democracy” underline the continuing tensions between participation and a vibrant democracy.
Radio
Authors: Owen Diana 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Radio is the first broadcast medium, and has been a source of political news and information for almost a century. Radio's power as a medium of democracy or a tool of propaganda has been debated since its inception. The medium has been used extensively by political leaders to address constituents, especially during periods of political stress. Radio brought important events, like elections and war, into the audience's living rooms. With the advent of television, radio's political influence waned. However, radio has adapted to changes in technology and format to remain viable. Talk radio has emerged as a new political medium that attracts a primarily conservative audience.
Media as Political Actors
Authors: Eberwein Tobias , Porlezza Colin , Splendore Sergio 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical communication studies have long described political actors, media, and citizens as distinct actor groups. Various strands of research, however, have shown that there are many reasons to conceptualize media as political actors as well. Particularly in media systems that are shaped by political parallelism, media operate under a high degree of partisanship and pursue open political objectives. Moreover, in the course of a mediatization of political communication, they are increasingly imposing their conditions and rules on political actors who are forced to rely on media to obtain electoral success. Recent debates about the relationship between media, democracy, and participation have emphasized the media's potential as an instrument for civil mobilization and empowerment. However, many of the current shifts in political communication, mainly resulting from advancing commercialization and digitization, are still largely unexplored.
Comparative Research
Authors: Pfetsch Barbara , Esser Frank 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Comparative research guides our attention to understanding how communication phenomena vary in different spatial, cultural, or temporal environments and how macro‐level societal contexts shape communication and outcomes differentially. In this review we argue that the significance of comparative research in political communication has been to describe and explain the effects of system‐level factors on processes of communication on the individual, organizational, or group level. Based on findings from current research we highlight that comparative approach has significantly advanced the study of media and political communication systems, journalism and political communication culture, election campaigning and information environments as well as research on the Internet and civic attitudes. In the concluding section we argue particularly that globalization puts new challenges on comparative research in future communication scholarship.