bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Criminal Victimization
Authors: Davies Kim , Foley Allison 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Criminal victimization can be defined as being harmed by crime, which may appear straightforward but, until late in the twentieth century, individuals harmed by crime were largely ignored by criminal justice agencies and the public in many Western countries. This entry will discuss how the victims’ rights movement successfully brought victims’ issues to the attention of the government and the criminal justice system. Additionally, it will report on the measurement and prevalence of criminal victimization, before discussing the consequences it can have for those who experience it. These consequences may be financial, physical, or psychological; they might be short‐lived or long‐lasting, and are felt by more than those who experience it directly.
Care, Managed
Authors: Scheid Teresa L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry provides a definition of managed care and describes the various ways in which health care is managed. The history of managed care in the United States and elsewhere is described. Managed care represents a major change in the delivery of health care services. Sociological research has examined managed care constraints on professional autonomy, and the ethical dilemmas health care providers may experience when demands for cost containment conflict with professional standards. More research is needed on how managed care has changed access to health care for different populations.
Medicalization and Medicines
Authors: Norris Pauline 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Medicalization refers to the processes by which problems come to be understood and treated as medical conditions. Medicalization often results in the use of pharmaceuticals. There has been a dramatic increase in the amount of medication consumed in the Western world in the past few decades, and this has led to concern about the medicalization or pharmaceuticalization of an increasingly wide range of phenomena, including aspects of the normal aging process, and risk factors for disease (such as high cholesterol). Attention has been paid to the gendered nature of medicalization but less to the socioeconomic and ethnic variation in medicalization. Differences in access to medical treatment have been widely and extensively documented, but these have rarely been linked to the concept of medicalization.
Adolescent Fertility and Early Marriage
Authors: Rizzo Helen Mary 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAcross the globe adolescent fertility, particularly pregnancy and childbirth before the age of 20, is a serious social and health concern. Adolescent fertility increases the probability of maternal and infant deaths and morbidity and it is also associated with increased risks of dropping out of school and limited opportunities in the job market, which can negatively affect the well‐being of young women and their children. While most adolescent fertility in industrialized countries is the result of unplanned pregnancies by unmarried teenagers, in many places in the global south, adolescent fertility is a result of early marriages and most pregnancies are wanted. However, even under these conditions, early pregnancies are associated with health risks to both mothers and children.
Mental Illness and Stigma
Authors: Pescosolido Bernice A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
While all illnesses present concern and, often, fear to individuals and their caretakers, some conditions are singled out as stigmatized. Stigma refers to the prejudice and discrimination associated with the conditions that are enacted through social relationships and that devalue the person's humanity. Mental illness represents a classic example and, as a result, has been the focus of much theory and empirical research. Different types of stigma (public, self or internalized, provider‐based, courtesy) have been identified. The documented effects of stigma are profound, including restricted opportunities and even a shortened lifespan. Recent research has questioned claims about trends in stigma over time and across countries.
Biomedicalization
Authors: Clarke Adele E. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractBiomedicalization theory argues that biomedicine is being transformed from the inside out by densely elaborating technoscientific interventions such as computer and information sciences as well as biosciences such as molecular biology, genetics, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and pharmacogenomics, and medical technologies such as visualization.Accompanied by growing responsibilities for our biological/somatic citizenship, these technosciences allow and provoke new kinds of interventions, changing how we think about and live “life itself.” The “bio” in the concept of biomedicalization signals the increasing importance of life sciences and technologies to biomedicine and the centrality of Foucauldian questions of biopolitics. There are five central (and overlapping) processes of biomedicalization: (1) major political economic shifts; (2) a new focus on health, risk, and surveillance; (3) the technoscientization of biomedicine; (4) transformations of biomedical knowledges; and (5) transformations of bodies and identities. While medicalization as the increasing jurisdiction of medicine over new areas of life continues, biomedicalization is expanding rapidly and transnationally. Biomedicalization is characterized by a strong orientation toward the future, socioculturally paralleling its bioeconomic/biopolitical focus on speculative biocapital development. Crucially, biomedicalization theory is neither inherently nor solely a critique of biomedicine. It is an insistence that the increasing centrality of sciences and technologies in biomedicine be addressed.
Obesogenic Environments
Authors: Jones Andy P. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The idea that characteristics of the environment may be associated with the development of obesity is not new, but the concept has recently gained considerable prominence. The term “obesogenic environment” refers to the role environmental factors may play in determining both nutrition and physical activity. Relevant components of the environment include “microenvironments” (e.g., school, workplace, home, neighborhood), which are influenced by broader “macroenvironments” (e.g., education and health systems, government policy, and society's attitudes and beliefs). While ways in which these environments may influence obesity‐promoting behavior among individuals are not well understood, obesogenic environments are widely accepted as a key driving force behind the obesity epidemic.
Tissue Economies
Authors: Waldby Catherine 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The idea of a tissue economy is that donated human tissues (e.g., blood, embryos, organs, sperm, oöcytes) have a productivity that can be ordered in different ways. While still inside the donor's body, tissues are part of the self and help to sustain the person. Once donated, they can sustain the life and health of the recipients (e.g., blood and organ donation), they may be banked for future use (e.g., cord blood), or they may become elements in laboratory research (e.g., embryonic stem cell lines). In each case, tissues are procured, managed, banked, and circulated in a system designed to maximize their latent productivity. The “tissue economy” approach provides some methodological, empirical, and theoretical tools to analyze how this productivity is ordered, and the ways in which it intersects with other kinds of institutional, provincial, national, and global economies.
Drug Abuse/Dependence
Authors: Bryan Page J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Consumption of drugs by human beings has had a long history, extending millennia before the first written accounts of wine consumption or the smoking of opium. Because drugs take so many different forms and are consumed in so many different ways, the most inclusive definition of “drug” is desirable. Alcohol is certainly a component of human drug repertoires, and archaeological evidence indicates that it is one of the most ancient of plant‐derived drugs. Human trends in drug consumption have moved in the direction of increasing purity and potency of plant‐derived preparations, for example, distilled spirits that evolved from fermented brews of grape juice, malt water, or corn mash. Concepts of drug abuse and drug dependence emerged as potent preparations gained popularity and established perceptions of chronic intoxication. Both of these terms appear aimed at denoting consumers of drugs who are not necessarily addicted to them. “Drug abuse” and “alcohol abuse” have become parts of the names of two national agencies in the United States dedicated to the study of drug‐using patterns. “Drug dependence” denotes a condition similar to addiction but without the additional stigma of vulnerability to withdrawal.
Medical Malpractice
Authors: Ritchey Ferris J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Medical malpractice involves patient injury or death attributed to negligent behavior by a medical practitioner. Establishing a case of medical malpractice is complicated by the complexities and uncertainties inherent in medical practice as well as patient variation in disease prognoses. Establishing a malpractice claim is further complicated by the fact that death and injury (e.g., surgical incisions) are normal parts of medical practice, making it difficult to distinguish medical errors from probabilistically normal treatment outcomes. This ambiguity opens the door for litigation and introduces legal complexities. Over the past four decades changes in medical technology, health care organization, and tort law, and the development of an audit culture, have resulted in malpractice litigation becoming an expected part of medical practice, especially for high‐risk physician specialties. Fear and threat of litigation affect not only individual practitioner treatment choices but also standards of practice and patient–doctor interaction.
Measuring Race/Ethnicity for Health
Authors: Aspinall Peter J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Ethnicity and race are among the most important variables in epidemiology, usage of which has grown significantly in the worldwide medical science literature. Ethnicity data from the decennial censuses has transformed our knowledge of minority ethnic health and health care. Census ethnic categories are now routinely used in public health for the stratification of data and also in population profiling for public health risk assessment. However, debate continues to focus on what should be the conceptual base in race/ethnicity measurement, the use of color categories, and how successfully classifications can capture increasing ethnic diversification. The principle of self‐identification in data collection and the use of categories that yield consistent data are prioritized and concealed heterogeneity in the categories has been addressed by more finely grained ethnicity classifications.
Critical Care
Authors: Goodwin Dawn 
Published: February 2014

AbstractCritical care relates to the health care given to patients with threatened or established organ failure whose condition, while possibly life‐threatening, is potentially recoverable with close observation and invasive treatment. Admission criteria to intensive care units focus on advanced respiratory support or multi‐organ failure and its technological support, but for social scientists, the field is defined by rather different foci. This entry explores the critical care literature relating to the organization of work, uncertainty and decision‐making, and the relationship between technology and personhood.
Health Professions, Marginalized
Authors: Saks Mike 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThis entry begins by articulating the distinction between marginalized and orthodox health professions. It then gives consideration to the range of groups in the former category and highlights the links with marginalized professions as a whole – drawing attention to debates about the explanations of marginality. The relativity of the marginalization of health professions is demonstrated both within and between societies, which underlines the fluidity of their socially ascribed position. In addition, the strengths and weaknesses of the regulatory framework of such groups are contrasted with those of orthodox health professions – including in relation to both practitioner and client. Finally, it is argued that there is a strong case for further research in this comparatively neglected area.
Homelessness and Distrust of Medicine
Authors: Song John 
Published: February 2014

AbstractIt is well established that trust is essential for the successful delivery of health care and to the support of one's health. Scholars consider it a collective good that is necessary for an effective health care system. And, as trust is in part geographic and related to proximity, it would follow that those most socially disenfranchised would suffer the health effects of poor trust the greatest. Homelessness is not only a social disaster; it is also a public health catastrophe. How trust impacts the uphill challenge to remain healthy while homeless is profound, and contributes to these poor outcomes at every point of contact with health care. There are many contributors to homeless individuals’ distrust for the health care system and health care providers. Many of the causes of mistrust are the same for domiciled populations. However, there are additional reasons for homeless individuals to lose (or never have had) trust in health care systems and practitioners. Also, homeless persons are mistrustful from previous encounters with society, the health care system, and providers. There are many ways to foster and rebuild the trust of homeless persons, some more attainable than others.
Patient–Physician Communication
Authors: Stepanikova Irena 
Published: February 2014

AbstractCommunication is a key element in the diagnostic and therapeutic process. I discuss the history of approaches to the study of communication in the context of physician–patient relationships, selected dimension of communication (instrumental versus socio‐emotional communication and verbal versus non‐verbal communication), factors influencing communicative processes, including race/ethnicity, age, gender, education, organizational/institutional context, and Internet/media, and finally the outcomes of communication, including patient satisfaction, compliance/adherence, health outcomes, and malpractice litigation. I conclude with the discussion of approaches and methods used to study communication in physician–patient encounters.
Poststructuralism and Postmodernism
Authors: Fox Nick J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Poststructuralism covers a number of associated analyses of the relationship between power and knowledge, which have in common the view that knowledge is always contextual, partial, and fragmentary, but also is never neutral and shapes the power relations between individuals or groupings. Poststructuralists reject the notion of a single “truth,” and criticize grand theories or systems of thought that make claims to uncover truth, including religion, science, and social scientific realism. They also suggest that this relationship between power and knowledge can have consequences for subjectivity and identity. Postmodernism is closely associated with poststructuralism, and seeks to undermine the grand narratives of modernist social organization and domination including capitalism, patriarchy, colonialism, and heteronormativity. It adopts poststructuralist epistemologies and ontologies in preference to structuralist explanations, to expose the contradictions within these grand narratives of control or domination. In so doing, it also suggests means to resist and refuse domination.
Gender Paradox (and the Health Myth)
Authors: Liu Hui 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
One of the most robust findings in epidemiologic research throughout the past century is the long‐documented gender difference in life expectancy. In the United States, life expectancy at birth is 75.5 years for men and 80.5 years for women. Although women live longer than men on average, researchers find that women are more likely to report poorer health, suffer higher rates of morbidity, and use more health services than men. This is often termed the “gender paradox” in mortality and morbidity. This entry discusses the prevalence, history, and causes of this paradox.
Genetics
Authors: Vailly Joëlle 
Published: February 2014

AbstractGenetics, defined as the science of heredity, calls upon a rapidly developing field of knowledge and a fertile imaginary, both of which have altered drastically over the past 30 years. The genetic knowledge that is disseminated in society, the alliances that it mobilizes, and the media interest it generates, as well as the attention garnered by patient associations, come together to give a certain precedence to genetic diseases. In this context, various social science analyses show the specificities but also the constant features of these social dynamics around life itself, putting forward notions such as geneticization, biosociality, genetic citizenship, and biocapital. More broadly, they highlight the need to distinguish between the ambitions outlined by the actors involved, the phenomena that can actually be observed, and the idea that a given society harbors of both.
Population Resilience
Authors: Mitchell Richard 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Resilient people or places are those doing unexpectedly well in the face of significant adversity or risk; they are “beating the odds.” Interest in population resilience is part of a wider shift in public health towards studying factors and processes which protect or promote good health. Resilience is, by definition, unusual, but of growing interest as policymakers seek to understand how to help populations avoid the health consequences of chronic and acute adversity.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Authors: Rafalovich Adam 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry provides a brief overview of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The following components are covered: first, a brief history of the disorder since the late nineteenth century; second, a breakdown of the epidemiology of ADHD; third, a discussion of the neurological, psychodynamic, allergenic, and sociological etiologies of the disorder; fourth, a discussion of the prevalent treatment approaches to ADHD; and finally, an explanation of ADHD through a “medicalization” framework.
Middle‐Range Theory
Authors: Siegrist Johannes 
Published: February 2014

AbstractA theory is defined as a set of logically connected explanatory statements that link two or more single observations in a causal way by referring them to a general rule. In the behavioral and social sciences the range of generalization of theoretical statements is restricted, for at least two reasons. First, establishing causality is difficult given the probabilistic nature of most associations under study. Second, human behavior and human societies are complex, variable, and changing over time, thus precluding any simple reduction to universal statements. This entry describes examples of middle‐range theories taken from the social and behavioral sciences with reference to health, such as the “theory of reasoned behavior” and the theoretical models of social support and of an adverse psychosocial environment. All theories, including those of a middle‐range nature, need to be tested empirically. Respective procedures are briefly described, with emphasis on Karl Popper's principle of falsification.
Social Causation of Disease
Authors: Siegrist Johannes 
Published: February 2014

AbstractMedical sociology and social epidemiology are the two main disciplines involved in the scientific inquiry into social determinants of health and disease. A condensed description of the substantial scientific progress achieved in this important area is organized in three parts. The first part demonstrates new insights into socio‐environmental impact on health resulting from the application of multilevel analysis (e.g., “neighborhood deprivation,” “income inequality”). Second, comparative studies on social inequalities in health reveal robust evidence for a social gradient of health in all modern societies, leaving those with lower socioeconomic status at higher risk. The main explanations for this gradient are briefly discussed. Third, a life course approach to social causation of disease is described, illustrating the significance of adversity in early childhood for later health, and emphasizing new societal challenges in the “third age” for healthy aging.
Stress and Work
Authors: Siegrist Johannes 
Published: February 2014

AbstractWork and employment have undergone significant changes over the past several decades. While their social and psychological importance in adult life has not decreased, significant changes have occurred with regard to their effects on the health and well‐being of working people. Physically strenuous work is often replaced by psychomental stress. This entry defines the scientific approach to analyzing stress at work, with a particular focus on two theoretical models of a health‐adverse psychosocial work environment that have been tested with some intensity in epidemiological studies: the demand–control (or job strain) model, and the model of effort–reward imbalance. Following a brief description, selected results underlining their contribution towards explaining links between work and health are given. The final part points to policy implications of this new scientific evidence.
Patient Outcomes in Mental Disorders
Authors: Gallagher Bernard J. , Streeter Jessica L. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractA myriad of treatment options exist for clients with mental illness: hospitalization, community mental health centers, talk therapy, group therapy, and medication constitute but a few. While our ability to treat mental illness through these treatment options has improved greatly over the last several decades, our mental health system still faces numerous problems. Long‐term state hospitals have largely disappeared, while short‐term hospitals focus on medication at the expense of more traditional therapies. Community mental health centers neglect the more severely ill, and often face unwelcoming neighborhoods. And the promise first offered by psychiatric medications in the 1950s has fallen a bit flat, due to highly undesirable side effects, compliance concerns, and their inability to address the social causes of mental illness. These issues, and others, are further compounded by the patient's specific diagnosis, as well as social class, race, gender, sexuality, religion, and culture. As a result, mental health outcomes, while greatly improved, still face numerous barriers, many of which negatively affect the contemporary patient.
Gendered Occupational Hazards
Authors: Caronna Carol A. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractWorkers’ exposure to and experience of occupational hazards are shaped by the gender segregated labor force; gendered labor regulations; gender stereotypes; and the ways daily life is gendered, including the division of unpaid household labor. Scholarship about occupational hazards is shaped by the meanings of “work” and “hazard,” which are contextual and may be gendered. Scholarship about gendered occupational hazards is shaped by the meanings of “gender” in ways that may reify essentialist conceptions of gender as static and dichotomous. Dynamic national, cultural, and social contexts are important to consider as scholars examine the intersections of gender, work, and health.