bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Parole and Parolees
Authors: Barfield‐Cottledge Tiffiney 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Parole is the early release of prisoners from prison for re‐entry to society. Social and environmental characteristics of prisoners affect decisions to grant parole because these factors are related to successful reintegration to society. The structure of parole varies from one jurisdiction to another; however, some common features of parole include supervision, enforcement, counseling, and employment. Parole and parolees appear to be permanent fixtures in the American criminal justice system, even though some jurisdictions have abolished parole.
M
aritime Piracy, History of
Authors: Reger W. M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Maritime piracy is rooted in the earliest human occupation of the seas. Civilized societies, following Roman law, defined the pirate as the “common enemy of all” or the “enemy of all mankind,” and so, from early on, pirates and states have been natural enemies. Maritime piracy possessed a greater degree of organization, better equipment and information intelligence than other types of maritime crime, and involved participants from the poorest fishermen to the most powerful crime syndicates, warlords, and rogue military forces. It occurred in the interstices between states where authority was unwilling or unable to act against it, and was shaped by geography. Men became pirates because of poverty, misfortune, war, rebellion or patriotism, but also to protect, feed, or enrich their own communities. Historically, piracy has been characterized by a relatively high degree of social organization, characterized in some cases with better equipment, training, more focused motives, and rules and codes of behavior that could be strict and whose violation could bring severe punishment, especially for stealing and desertion. This entry discusses key details of piracy throughout history, from the Sea Peoples, a loose confederation of tribes who raided the late Bronze Age states of the eastern Mediterranean, to the pirates that operated in Ancient Greece and Rome, Europe, the Caribbean, and in Asia.
Elements of a Crime
Authors: Foster Michelle L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In the area of criminal law there are specific elements of conduct that need to be shown to have existed at the time of an offense. If the prosecution is unable to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the main elements occurred, then the defendant cannot be found guilty of the crime for which he or she has been charged. The main elements of a crime incorporate actus reus, mens rea, and concurrence between both actus reus and mens rea. Additional components of a crime include harm, causation, and attendant circumstances. Each of these elements are described in this entry.
Actus Reus
Authors: Foster Michelle L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIn the area of criminal law, defendants cannot be found guilty of a crime without the prosecution proving beyond a reasonable doubt the elements of criminal conduct. One of the elements of a crime includes the criminal act, known as actus reus. Actus reus means guilty act. Thoughts alone on the part of the individual are not illegal or criminal; there must also be a concurrent act.
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act
Authors: Moriarity Raquel 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act was first enacted in 1974 with the goals of preventing and controlling juvenile delinquency by providing assistance to state and local governments. The Act strives to improve the juvenile justice system through four main provisions: (i) the deinstitutionalization of status offenders provision, (ii) separation provision, (iii) jail removal provision, and (iv) disproportionate minority contact provision. Since the inception of the Act it has been revised and reauthorized multiple times on the basis of continued research into the juvenile justice system and the evolution of juvenile justice practices.
Firearms
Authors: Kopacki Christopher G. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Firearms have been ingrained in the American culture since the beginning and were instrumental in the nation's expansion. They are a source of great fascination, intrigue, and debate. Firearms are one of the most distinguishing symbols of the police and criminals alike. Firearms are the weapons most often used during a homicide in the United States. Often referred to as the instrumentality effect, guns are more likely to produce death than other types of weapons. Much research has been conducted into firearm crime and violence. Many laws have been enacted to help control firearm crime. In turn, the police have participated in a number of proactive, community‐oriented initiatives to reduce gun violence.
Drug Use
Authors: Lutman Brandon , David Reitzel John 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Drug abuse has become so deeply entrenched within the American cultural fabric and intertwined with American history that it currently stands as one of the most prominent domestic issues. Numerous studies show that the United States leads the world in the amount and types of drugs consumed while simultaneously spending billions of dollars each year combating both the illicit drug trade and treating drug abusers. By the 1970s, rising crime rates and drug use became a focal point for politicians. It is within this context that President Nixon addressed the drug issue in a well‐known speech in which he called drugs “public enemy number one.” Drug policies enacted since that time have focused on eradicating the drug trade. However, not only have they failed to have any significant impact on drug use or sales, they helped shepherd in an era of get tough criminal justice that led to severe prison overcrowding and a further expansion of the drug war.
Sentencing
Authors: Goulette Natalie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry on sentencing provides a review of past sentencing policy, comparing indeterminate and determinate sentencing systems to each other. Additionally, the prior literature examining race and sex‐based disparities and the influence of judicial characteristics on sentencing outcomes is reviewed. The relevant legal, case processing, and extralegal factors are reviewed. The entry concludes with a discussion of where the future in sentencing research lies.
Life‐Course and Development Theories of Crime
Authors: Newsome Jamie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe life‐course perspective has emerged as a leading paradigm in criminology. Life‐course theories take a developmental approach and emphasize the importance of examining patterns of behavior in each stage of life to achieve a comprehensive understanding of involvement in crime. An individual's life comprises interconnected trajectories, or pathways, that extend across different developmental periods. Shifts from one state to another along a trajectory are known as transitions. Additionally, transitions can produce turning points in which the direction of one's trajectory is altered. Human development is considered a continual process, beginning at conception and continuing over the span of one's life. A variety of factors at each developmental stage of life can explain individual differences in behavior.
Civil Disobedience
Authors: J. DeValve Michael 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Mohandas Gandhi defeated the most powerful empire of his time with a handful of salt. Enslaved by the British Empire for the better part of two centuries, the people of India were able to free themselves without resort to arms. Martin Luther King, Jr., along with James Lawson, John Lewis, and others, were able to claim for African Americans rights they had never enjoyed in America, but had been promised in the United States Constitution and elsewhere. Such things are possible through nonviolent civil disobedience. This entry will define civil disobedience, detail the lives of two practitioners of civil disobedience, offer current examples of the use of civil disobedience, and conclude with an enumeration of key concepts of civil disobedience.
Restitution
Authors: McConnell John A. , McConnell Elizabeth H. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractRestitution refers to money or services provided by offenders to victims for losses or harms incurred by crimes. A popular intermediate sanction, restitution is also regarded as an act of atonement for offenders as it allows offenders to repair injustices and wrongs they have caused victims. Examples of victim losses for which restitution is made include medical expenses, mental health counseling, funeral costs, expenses to restore physical safety, lost or damaged property, lost wages, and travel expenses. Three problems discussed are indigent offenders, determining amounts of restitution, and collecting restitution.
International Rates of Imprisonment
Authors: Okereke Godpower O. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Although the use of imprisonment as a criminal sanction is a universal practice, rates of imprisonment and size of prison populations vary widely around the world. This entry examines the rate of incarceration and number of prisoners globally and shows that both have continued to increase even though crime rates have either decreased or remained the same since 1980. The increases are most noticeable in the United States.
Female Genital Mutilation
Authors: Joseph Janice 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The issue of female genital mutilation (FGM) has attracted considerable attention in the past several decades. It is one of the worst forms of violence against females that affects the physical and psychological well‐being of the victims. It is an international issue that involves several continents. This entry discusses FGM, focusing on the nature and extent of the problem, as well as the response to this traditional practice.
Hoover, J. Edgar
Authors: Calder James D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
J. Edgar Hoover was synonymous with American law enforcement in the twentieth century. A self‐made man and long‐serving federal employee, Hoover rose from clerk in the Justice Department to director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Most recognized for his high standards of personal and professional integrity, he implemented a range of innovations and principles that set new marks of excellence in policing. Never short of controversies surrounding the work of his beloved FBI, Hoover died in May 1972.
Pretrial Service Agencies
Authors: Clark John 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The first pretrial services agency in the United States was established in 1961 in New York City to facilitate the pretrial release of defendants who were too poor to afford their bail bonds. Based on the success of that effort, pretrial service agencies began operation in other counties across the country. The mission of these agencies, however, shifted during the 1970s away from targeting just indigent defendants to providing information and options to the court in all cases. This entry describes the six core functions of pretrial service agencies, as developed through national standards and best practices.
Identity Theft
Authors: Ende Jacob Vander 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Identity theft is the unauthorized use of personal details in order to impersonate someone, usually for the purposes of defamation or fraud. The actual term “identity theft” dates back to a 1991 article in the
Boston Globe
, though the act of stealing another's identity for unlawful purposes goes back at least to 1966, when a man impersonated another in order to fraudulently enlist in the military. Today, identity theft is a fairly inclusive category of white‐collar crime, including numerous areas of fraudulent activity.
Felony Courts
Authors: Koski Connie M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
With the exception of the few states that operate single‐tiered trial court systems, felony courts in the United States are situated at the secondary level of state trial court hierarchies. Felony courts vary in name and structure from state to state, but are commonly known as courts of general jurisdiction. These courts typically handle all criminal matters not resolved in courts of limited jurisdiction and allow for convicted offenders to receive penalties that may be greater than one year of imprisonment. Contrary to popular belief, the majority of criminal cases rarely go to trial. This is true for both felony and misdemeanor cases. And, similar to misdemeanor‐level courts, which are the courts of limited jurisdiction, felony courts have historically been plagued with a variety of issues including heavy caseloads, frequent lack of monetary and structural resources, overworked and often undertrained personnel, and criticisms related to the broad utilization of discretion by courtroom actors.
Sentencing Guidelines
Authors: G. Harmon Mark 
Published: January 2014

AbstractOver the past 25 years sentencing guidelines have represented an important and substantial change in the US criminal justice system. Guidelines were passed to reform (or change) sentencing structures. To date, 19 states and the federal government have adopted some form of sentencing guidelines. Under guidelines, an offender's sentence is largely determined by his or her prior record and offense severity. Guidelines have shifted the structure of sentencing from an indeterminate model—where judges rely on an offender‐centered approach that allows for relatively loose punishment ranges with prescribed maximums—to a determinate model. Sentencing guidelines, as a new model of punishment, move the system to a crime‐centered approach with a structure that mandates more narrowly tailored punishments. The end result provides a substantial reduction in the discretionary power of judges to impose disparate sentences, along with an increased certainty with regard to the type of sentence that may be given.
Judicial Selection and Removal at the Federal Level
Authors: Brennan Pauline K. , Wagoner Stacy A. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Federal judges are appointed to life terms and may work in either trial or appellate courts. Although they have tenure for life, federal judges may still be removed from office at any time for cause. This entry outlines the duties performed by different types of federal judges, the judicial selection and appointment process, and the method by which a federal judge may be removed from office.
Case Study Research
Authors: Elechi, O. Oko , Piper, Doshie , C. Morris Sherill V. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
A case study is a strategy of inquiry. It describes the detailed study of a specific individual unit of study or phenomenon. A case study is more about a choice of what is to be studied than a methodological choice. The focus of case studies is an in‐depth examination of a particular case for its own sake rather than for the purpose of generalizing the findings. Case studies are examples of variable‐oriented research.
Restorative Justice
Authors: Gaub Janne E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractRestorative justice introduces the practice of restoration and reparation into the criminal justice system by including victims, offenders, and the community in the process of reconciliation. The four primary forms of restorative justice are victim–offender mediation, family group conferencing, sentencing circles, and community reparative boards. The most important benefits of these programs are that they yield higher rates of compliance than formal criminal justice sanctions and victims feel that they have been treated fairly through the process. Criticisms include due process violations and concerns of selection bias.
Juvenile Court
Authors: Kurlychek Megan 
Published: January 2014

AbstractToday we are all familiar with the notion of a juvenile justice system: a distinct system of justice designed to keep delinquent children separate from more hardened adult offenders. However, this has not always been the case. There was not always a separate juvenile court. Moreover, the purpose and practice of juvenile justice has changed vastly over the past 113 years since its inception. This entry briefly outlines the historical context that led to the creation of the juvenile court, the operation and distinct processes that hallmark this system of justice, and the major reforms and changes that have shaped the court over the past century. It ends with a discussion of the future of the juvenile court in American justice.
Genetic Theories of Criminal Behavior
Authors: Boisvert Danielle , Vaske Jamie 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

The influence that genes have on antisocial/criminal behavior has begun to receive a great deal of attention in the criminological literature. Studies that assess the association between criminal behavior and genetic polymorphisms do so by way of gene‐behavior studies, gene × gene studies, and/or gene × environment studies. More specifically, researchers from many disciplines have identified genetic polymorphisms that operate either additively, in conjunction with other genes, and/or in interactions with the environment to influence a variety of antisocial behaviors. These genes are primarily related to the serotonin system, dopamine system, and enzymatic system. A review of the most widely studied genetic polymorphisms that influence criminal behavior is provided below, which include: (1) a serotonin transporter polymorphism (5HTTLPR); (2) serotonin receptor polymorphisms (5HT
2A
His452Tyr & 5HT
2A
1438G/A); (3) a dopamine transporter polymorphism (DAT1 3'UTR VNTR); (4) polymorphisms in dopamine receptor genes (DRD2 TaqIA RFLP & DRD4 48bp VNTR); and (5) a monoamine oxidase A polymorphism (MAOA 30bp VNTR). Following this, a discussion on the limitations of this type of research is provided, along with specific directions for future research.
Police Culture
Authors: Nhan Johnny 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPolice culture is a set of values that shape how police officers perceive their working environment and act within it. This worldview is shaped by real and perceived dangers associated with police work and characterized by strong group introversion and cynicism toward non‐police individuals and groups. Consequently, an “us versus them” mentality is created and reinforced through officer selection, training, and work experience, which manifests in cynical attitudes toward the public and tacit acceptance of misconduct, metaphorically known as “the blue wall of silence.”
Sellin, Thorsten
Authors: Lindley Don E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJohan Thorsten Sellin, American sociologist and pioneer in the early development of scientific criminology, is considered by many as the father of cultural conflict theory. He began his teaching career as a high school instructor and moved on to become one of the giants in sociology instruction at the University of Pennsylvania. Sellin is revered by his colleagues as one of the giants in the field of criminology. Sellin stressed the importance of cultural diversity (conflict) in modern society, and how legislative laws, reflecting social majority group values and interests, conflicted with less powerful group behaviors. Sellin posited that as heterogeneous societies increased, there would be an increase in individual deviance, thus also increasing the likelihood and frequency of conflict in societies. In addition to his contributions to criminological theory, his role in elevating conflict theory, and his work as an opponent of the effectiveness of the death penalty, Sellin mentored other major theorists, including Marvin Wolfgang and Freda Adler.
Mounted Police Tradition
Authors: Julseth Jason , Ruiz James 
Published: January 2014

AbstractOver the centuries horseback police officers have demonstrated a number of distinct advantages over their bipedal counterparts, but, with the advent of the automobile, electronic communications, and the need to cover large distances faster, the mounted police temporarily fell out of favor. However, police horse patrols witnessed a resurgence in the late 1900s and into the twenty‐first century. This article examines mounted policing in its historical context and demonstrates the cyclical nature of crime control.
Electronic Surveillance
Authors: Clark‐Miller Jason , Brady Hallie C. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Technological advances have enhanced the capacity of law enforcement to monitor criminal conduct, and raised concerns among privacy advocates that the widespread use of electronic surveillance threatens to undermine individual liberties. In this article, we briefly review the debate on the use of electronic means of surveillance as it has played out in the United States and describe some of the current methods of surveillance available to law enforcement agencies. We suggest that state actors are under considerable pressure to regulate their use of electronic surveillance lest they provoke a public response that results in the most promising intelligence gathering tools “going dark.”
Disproportionate Minority Confinement
Authors: Helms Geoffrey C. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDisproportionate minority confinement has been used in the United States to describe the overrepresentation of minority offenders in correctional facilities. The expression was introduced in 1992 when the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention described disproportionate minority youth confinement in the US. Since then, it has been used to describe disproportionality issues in offender populations, including racial disparity and minority overrepresentation.
Scarpitti, Frank
Authors: Van Antwerp Victoria 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Frank Scarpitti is a distinguished scholar in sociology and criminology. His long career explored a wide variety of subjects, including juvenile delinquency, mental health treatment, female criminality, organized crime, and environmental crime. Scarpitti devoted most of his academic career to teaching at the University of Delaware, where he served as a mentor to countless students. He has been honored with numerous awards from the American Society of Criminology and was elected to serve as president for the organization in 1981.
Bentham, Jeremy
Authors: Van Antwerp Victoria , Steele Skylar R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) is one of the most historic and prominent legal philosophers of all time. His contributions to the realm of political science, criminology and criminal justice, and the intersection between politics and humanity continue to spark conversation and influence policy to this day. Although considered quite eccentric, Bentham's ideas and writings have shaped and influenced the modern criminal justice system in the United States and throughout the world. Bentham's inspiration and legacy has lived on in succeeding generations of scholars and administrators throughout the world.
Problem‐oriented Policing
Authors: Stevens Kelli D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractProblem‐oriented policing is a philosophy about policing that suggests certain proactive principles to follow in order for police strategies to be effective; it should not be confused with community‐oriented policing. Fundamental components of problem‐oriented policing include re‐conceptualizing police work in terms of identifying a specific problem, not just viewing police work case by case. This forces the police to examine the root causes of crime and to develop a strategy to address those causes. By examining an issue fully and determining the root cause(s), new information may surface that was previously an unknown contributing factor. The use of critical‐thinking skills and careful planning is essential for the success of problem‐oriented policing.