bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Divestment
Authors: Simmonds Paul 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Companies undertake divestment – the disposal of business activities – to manage their corporate portfolios. In the last 20 or so years, many diversified (related and unrelated) companies have embarked on divestment programs designed to achieve greater focus. Divestment has been driven by a lack of investor and analyst support for diverse companies and strong demand from a thriving private equity industry looking for acquisition targets that can be bought cheaply and turned around in a private company environment and then floated/resold at a profit.
Related Diversification
Authors: Simmonds Paul 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Related diversification is the addition of new activities that have some connection with existing activities. Relatedness may be through adjacent positions in the value system (vertical relatedness) or through similarities in a “core skill” primarily in processes or technologies used (horizontal relatedness). According to the Model of Corporate Development, as single business companies grow they add new activities that are related to their core activities to become dominant business companies and, as those related activities become more substantial, related diversified companies. Some related diversifiers continue to add further unrelated activities to become unrelated diversified companies (conglomerates). In recent years, diversified companies have narrowed their activities seeking greater focus.
Organizational Life Cycle
Authors: Simmonds Paul 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The basic organizational life cycle is a timeline – creation to dissolution – but it may also reflect changes in diversification. The Model of Corporate Development shows increasing diversification reflecting corporate evolution with companies focused on a single business at one extreme and companies with a portfolio of unrelated business activities at the other with dominant business and related diversified companies being intermediate stages. Companies move through the Model as, in pursing growth, they add more and increasingly unrelated activities. The Model reflects the typical organizational life cycle, although companies may choose not to progress beyond a particular stage and, increasingly, may decide to retreat back toward greater focus.
Value‐Based Planning
Authors: Johnson Peter 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Value‐based planning integrates the impact strategies have on shareholder value into strategic decision making. To do this, the value that arises from the pursuit of a strategic option for a business is calculated. Initially, strategy practitioners used payback, return on investment, and discounted return methods to determine the financial value of a strategy. Later, these methods were replaced by approaches based on value‐creating spreads that exceeded capital market requirements, which have found their simplest expression in the concepts of economic value added and return on value added.
Market Share
Authors: McKiernan Peter 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The relationship between market share and returns is one of the most examined topics in economics and management research. The principle is simple – capturing a large market share heralds a multitude of benefits due to the increasing scale of operations but, should these operations become too large, then deceasing economies set in due to control, inefficiency, and regulatory issues. Academics have disagreed on the theoretical explanations of the direct link between market share and profits. They have also disagreed strongly on the statistical evidence adduced in favor of a direct link. Nevertheless, there are general strategy prescriptions that are likely to hold in most markets, and these are summarized in terms of advice for large, medium, and low market share holders.
Brand and Branding
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A brand can be defined as a set of tangible and intangible attributes designed to create awareness and identity, and to build the reputation of a product, service, person, place, or organization. The objective of branding strategy is to create brands that are differentiated from the competition, thereby reducing the number of perceived substitutes in the marketplace, increasing price elasticity, and improving profits. Branding strategies are built on the interdependent frameworks of competitive brand positioning, value chains development, and brand equity management. Competitive brand positioning requires the identification of a distinct market space and a cognitive location as perceived by consumers. Value chain development is based primarily on product development and market development. Product development includes strategic initiatives on product design, product innovation, and the ability to introduce new product lines and category extensions. Market development revolves around pricing strategy, distribution strategy, and marketing communications. Brand equity is the set of assets and liabilities associated with a brand. The trend in branding is moving beyond the customer's perception of a brand, to the measureable metrics of customer satisfaction throughout the value chain.
Industry Analysis
Authors: Grant Robert M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Industry analysis involves the systematic investigation of the firm's proximate environment – as defined by its interactions with customers, suppliers, and competitors – for the purposes of identifying sources of profit. In this entry, we look beyond the Porter Five Forces of Competition framework to consider, first, what we mean by an industry and to consider different approaches to industry analysis including game theory, Schumpeterian (or “hyper”) competition, architectural advantage, and the identification of key success factors.
Externalities
Authors: Avgeropoulos Stephanos , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The price mechanism ideally allocates resources to their most valued and efficient use. But if the private cost of products diverges from the full costs, then resources are misapplied and there can be corresponding over or underproduction of the relevant goods. The forces behind this are called external costs, externalities for short. There are various types of externality with different consequences and differing solutions.
Portfolio Management
Authors: Smith Chris 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Portfolio management describes a strategic perspective wherein the grouping of businesses under the corporate umbrella is viewed and managed as a portfolio of investments. Managed at the corporate level via its financial parameters the individual business is part of a collective that is put together in order to optimise an overall investment objective such as cash flow, risk, growth etc. In the 1970s and 80s many different matrices were developed, mainly by strategic consulting firms such as the Boston Consulting Group and McKinsey, that placed the businesses in sectors of a grid. The grids reflected an interaction between various business and industry dynamics. The most famous of these derived from the interaction of market share and market growth rate which produced the quadrants (“Boston Boxes”) labelled ‘cash cow’, ‘dog’, ‘question mark’ and ‘star’. The profitable ‘sell and break‐up’ strategies of corporate raiders proved the empirical death knell for portfolio management as an active corporate strategy following theoretical insights that investors could manage a portfolio for themselves and did not need an intervening corporate layer to do so for them.
Vertical Integration Strategy
Authors: Mukherjee Kankana 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Vertical integration strategy is concerned with the vertical scope of the firm and involves decisions regarding which stages of the vertical chain should be outsourced and which should remain within the organizational boundaries of a firm. This is often referred to as the “make versus buy” decision. It also involves decisions on the type and formality of the vertical arrangements. The decision of whether or not to vertically integrate has been motivated by (i) physical (ii) strategic and (iii) efficiency based considerations. In case of certain production processes, technological interdependencies provide a straightforward motivation for vertical integration. Strategic motives, on the other hand, relate to gaining market power or neutralizing the power of existing and potential competitors. Efficiency motives consider the economies of scale and learning economies that can be achieved by the market firms. The balance between transactions costs involved in using the market versus the administrative costs associated with vertical integration is also considered. A significant feature of the current trend is the hybrid nature of many vertical relationships in the form of strategic alliances, partnerships, and joint ventures that seek to benefit both from the flexibility of market transactions and the reduced transactions cost of integration.
Zaibatsu Structures
Authors: Collinson Simon 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Zaibatsu are a distinctive Japanese form of conglomerate characterized by family ownership and a relatively high level of business diversification. Present‐day horizontal (
kinyu
) type
keiretsu
, particularly Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Sumitomo, are the descendents of pre‐World War
II
zaibatsu. Group members are linked via cross‐shareholdings and/or senior management committees, co‐development and management exchange mechanisms and informal relationships. Their influence has diminished since the beginning of an extended recession in Japan.
Globalization
Authors: Segal‐Horn Susan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

In economic terms, “global” is about
linkages
: across the world economy; across countries; across industries; and how companies integrate their operations across countries worldwide. However, in strategy terms it is industries and markets that globalize, not countries. When an industry globalizes it undergoes structural shifts, so the organizations within it find that their position in one country is significantly affected by their position in another country. Five factors have been the dominant drivers of change from local to global industry structures: cultural homogenization and the convergence of markets; economies of scale and scope; technological developments; deregulation and the lowering of trade barriers; and strong international competitors. Globalization has had a great impact on the structure of local markets around the world. This has led to criticism and opposition and the growth of antiglobalization protests. Globalization is reversible. The spread of globalization has been driven by technological development and deregulation. It can be blocked in the same way: by increasing regionalism and protectionism. Despite early views that globalization was about global standardization, this is not what has occurred. Few companies or industries lend themselves to “naive” global strategies. These require some degree of adaptation to regional and national conditions. There are almost no standard global products or services. Instead there are similar products or services with a standard core, but adapted elements that are adapted to meet the expectations of different consumers in different markets in different parts of the world.
Guanxi
Authors: Luo Yadong , Guo Guangrui 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Guanxi, a Chinese concept, refers to drawing on connections in order to secure favors in personal relations. It differs from the western concept of networking or friendship. In this note, we explain the nature, principles, and characteristics of guanxi. We also demystify the economic rationale and the business functions of guanxi. Finally, we introduce several theoretical frameworks to explain the guanxi‐performance link and summarize some seminal empirical results on this topic.
Strategic Leadership
Authors: Hooijberg Robert , Lane Nancy 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Strategic leadership is about translating an organization's vision into reality. Most of the research in this area has emphasized the characteristics and interpersonal skills leaders need to accomplish this translation. But this research has largely ignored what we call “instrumental leadership,” which instead focuses on developing and deploying organizational resources to support a consistent implementation of the organization's vision. These organizational resources include, but are not limited to, budget allocation processes, human resource deployment, and investment and divestment decisions. We briefly review some key definitions of strategic leadership, point out some of their weaknesses, and offer instrumental leadership as a concept that overcomes those weaknesses.
Business History
Authors: Hoskin Keith 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Business history in modern form begins with Alfred Chandler who constructs as a new object of analysis “administrative coordination.” Historical work today follows his breakthrough in tracing the effects and expansion of this object of analysis in the spread of the multiunit enterprise, of economies grounded in “imperfect competition and misallocation of resources,” and of interplays between strategizing subjects in the coordinative force‐field (e.g., as managers vs. owners, as cooperative alliances and cartels, in the construction of “the customer”). Additionally, research now has global geographical scope, and incorporates the study of such issues as gender, ethnicity, and elite formation, while deepening the studies of business functions, of the growth of management knowledge and education, and of business–government relations. Radical theorizing also proliferates on both managerial and antimanagerial sides of current debates. The possibility emerges of new horizons for thinking the relations of business history to strategic management. One such horizon involves thinking “administrative coordination” as object of analysis alongside Michel Foucault's newly discovered focus on “governmental management.” We wait to see if or when such rethinkings may shift the boundaries of business history and strategy discourses in the way that Chandler did.
Technology Evolution
Authors: Rosenbloom Joshua L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractTechnology refers to the techniques by which inputs of labor, capital, and natural resources are transformed into outputs, and technology evolution is the process by which the relationship between inputs and outputs changes over time. Technology evolution is by far the most important cause of improvement in the material standard of living. Although technology has evolved throughout human history it is only since the Industrial Revolution that sustained technological evolution has been achieved. Many scholars would argue that sustained technological advance is the defining characteristic of modern capitalist economies. After a brief discussion of the consequences and history of technology evolution this chapter provides an overview of the cause of technology evolution, how new technologies diffuse into wider use, the tendency of technology to evolve in a path dependent manner, and the factors encouraging and inhibiting the transfer of technology between regions and countries.
Technological Transition: S‐curve or Step‐and‐Wait
Authors: Sood Ashish , Tellis Gerard 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This entry encompasses Technology S‐Curve that describes the phenomenon of technological evolution and suggests that technologies evolve through an initial period of slow growth, followed by one of fast growth culminating in a plateau. The field does not enjoy a single, strong, and unified theory of technological evolution. However, an emerging, and probably the most compelling explanation, revolves around the dynamics of firms and researchers as the technology evolves through the three major stages of the S‐curve of technological evolution: introduction, growth, and maturity. Recent empirical findings suggest there is sparse support for the theory. In contrast to the dominant view in the literature, the path of technological evolution does not resemble an S‐curve. On the contrary, path of technological evolution follow a series of irregular step functions better approximated with multiple S‐curves than a single S‐curve.
Innovation Teams
Authors: Barczak Gloria 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Teams are increasingly being used for innovation and new product development. This article discusses the nature of two types of innovation teams and their advantages and disadvantages. Considerations that need to be made with regard to team size, diversity, and proximity are also deliberated. This is followed by a discussion of how to create effective teams: select members with appropriate functional and interpersonal characteristics, foster communication and cooperation, and provide appropriate rewards. This article concludes with the different roles that team leaders need to play to facilitate team effectiveness.
Evolution of China's National Innovation System and its Challenges In Technological Development
Authors: Hu Mei‐Chih , Mathews John A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article utilized the data available in the various national and international science and technology (S&T) databases that combine firm‐level, industry‐level, and country‐level observations to examine the progress and processes involved in China's national innovation system over the last 20 years.
National Innovation System in Taiwan
Authors: Lu Ta‐Jung , Wann Jong‐Wen 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Taiwan's NIS development began from 1957 and has established a system, over the last five decades, incorporating governmental, academic, and industrial players. The science and technology (S&T) policies are determined and the performance are reviewed by the National S&T Conference, held every four years, and the Executive Yuan is responsible for implementing the policies with the S&T Advisory Group as the executing body. The White Paper on S&T, published by the National Science Council and approved at the Conference of the Executive Yuan, reports the policies and actions on enhancing government S&T organization's efficiency, training human resources, improving the quality of academic research, increasing scientific research funding, encouraging innovative R&D activity. Taiwan's NIS has significantly raised the quality and capability of S&T of both the academia and industry to deliver outstanding performance.
National Innovation System of Ireland
Authors: Cunningham James A. , Golden William 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article deals with three elements of the Irish National Innovation System namely structures, performance and challenges. The paper begins by outlining the policy context and then focuses on technology trajectories and institutional structures and evolution. In focusing on outputs of the national innovation system key indicators are outlined as well as technology commercialisation initiatives. The paper concludes by outlining the strengths and weaknesses in the Irish National Innovation system and four cultural drivers – entrepreneurship, interconnectedness, responsive policy and education – the have driven it evolution.
Usa's National Innovation System
Authors: Simons Kenneth L. , Walls Judith L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe United States of America (US) has been heralded as the world's premier engine of technological advance. However, recent criticisms suggest that its technological advance may slow down causing economic decline relative to other nations. An examination of the US institutions supporting research and development (R&D) and innovation, and how those institutions have changed over time, shows that the US national innovation system is robust, but that failures to invest in science and technology, education, and technologies that keep the US industrial base competitive create major challenges for the future if the United States is to remain a leading nation in the creation of technologies and in the global economy. Specific sections address R&D incentives, government support, mix of entrepreneurial and large‐firm capitalism, breadth of US technology, R&D‐performing and ‐supporting institutions, the history of US innovation policy, state programs, recent policy initiatives, future innovation concerns, culture, education, immigration, and patent and copyright law. The entry contains figures and tables with data on development, applied, and basic research trends; federal R&D by agency; R&D expenditure trends by performers and funding sources; industry‐specific R&D performance; state‐specific R&D; patenting trends by sector; article output; imports and exports; and VC.
University Licensing
Authors: Olk Paul , Chen Bing 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The industrial organization (I/O) view of strategy assumes that the external environment determines the actions a firm can deploy. The implication of the I/O model for strategic management is that firms identify and seek to operate in environments that provide the best opportunities for competitiveness and profitability. The main concerns of the I/O model are the four industry structures of perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly. The strategic conduct of the firm revolves around policies (such as maximization or optimization of profit levels, growth, sales and marginal utility), pricing objectives (cost‐plus, marginal cost, entry‐deterring price, collusive pricing, price leadership and price discrimination), marketing strategies and advertising, and the extent of innovation and technical change. When measuring performance, strategists and economists focus on profitability, efficiency, product quality and technical progress. The limitations of the I/O model arise from the occurrence of the four underlying assumptions of the theory regarding the effects of the environment of strategy, the homogeneity of resources, capabilities and strategic intent. The assumptions of I/O theory have been challenged by the opposing view of strategy, the resource based view of the firm.
Process Innovation
Authors: Abecassis‐Moedas Céline , Oliveira Pedro 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Innovation is not only the act of creating new things (products/services) and creating them differently (processes) but also a matter of creative setting (market positioning and business model). In particular, process innovation is considered to be the key to a firm's operational efficiency. This article surveys the literature on process innovation through a multidimensional method, exploring the interplay between these three diverse types of innovation. It also presents manufacturing and service process innovation, mass customization, and the relationship between process innovation and performance as the four pillars of the reviewed concept. As an illustrative approach was adopted, each is illustrated with case studies.
Parking Manoeuvres Differ among Drivers with Narrower and Wider Field of View in the Presence of a Spatial Reference
Authors: Douissembekov Evgueni , Navarro Jordan , Michael George A. , Bonhoure Patrick , Gabaude Catherine , Rogé Joceline 
Published: January 2015

SummaryParking manoeuvring was studied in a driving simulator. Younger and older participants were classified according to the extent of their visual and attentional fields of view. The manoeuvres were made either in the presence of a spatial reference on the adjacent pavement (a pedestrian or a parking meter) or with no reference. It was found that the length of manoeuvres varied only among younger drivers depending on the type of spatial reference and the extent of their visual and attentional fields. The participants with wider fields took advantage of the presence of a pedestrian or a parking meter, whereas those with a narrower field of view did not. Furthermore, the individuals with a narrower field of view were disturbed by the presence of a pedestrian on the pavement. This study provides new information to consider in relation to the safety of manoeuvring among drivers with different visual and attentional capacities. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.