bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Learning Disorders
Authors: Berkule Samantha B. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractLearning disorders refer to a group of disorders related to difficulties in reading, mathematics, writing, and focusing attention in scholastic or working environments. Although they are often diagnosed during childhood, they can have pervasive impacts on daily functioning throughout the lifespan. The primary disorders that fall under the umbrella category of learning disorders include reading disorder, writing disorder, mathematics disorder, and attention disorders. Diagnoses of individual and comorbid learning disorders have increased over time, leading to varying points of view regarding the qualifications for the diagnoses as well as gender, cultural, and ethnic disparities in diagnoses. One particular ongoing debate involves whether or not males are diagnosed more than females, and whether these diagnoses are in error. Methods for assessment, diagnosis, and subsequent treatment, vary in their effectiveness and empirical support. However, a common recommendation across disorders is to assess, diagnose, and secure treatment as early as possible.
Comorbidity
Authors: Lee McCluskey D. , Keeley Jared W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Comorbidity is the presence of more than one psychiatric disorder in a single individual. The implications of comorbidity are determined by how mental disorders are conceptualized. The study of the overlap between two or more psychiatric disorders has many important implications for assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. The categorical diagnostic system of classification of mental disorders has been widely used for many years, but in recent years a dimensional approach to classifying mental disorders has been gaining support. Both the
DSM
and
ICD
are based on the categorical model, which is associated with high comorbidity rates among psychiatric disorders. Alternative models have been proposed to better capture comorbidity, and efforts have been made to revise the
DSM
and
ICD
in this regard.
Wechsler Intelligence Scales (
WAIS
,
WISC
,
WPPSI
)
Authors: Willis John O. , Dumont Ron , Kaufman Alan S. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The WISC, WAIS, and WPPSI have enjoyed an unprecedented research and clinical history since the Wechsler‐Bellevue Intelligence Scale was published in 1939. The current fourth editions of the tests have departed considerably from the Verbal‐Performance organization of the scales that characterized all versions through the WISC‐III, WAIS‐III, and WPPSI‐III, although a psychologist from the 1940s would immediately recognize the current Wechsler scales. The latest editions of the scales reflect contemporary research and theory in cognitive neuroscience, neuropsychology, and psychometrics and continue to be the most popular “IQ tests” in the world.
Psychotherapy Analog Studies
Authors: McNeil Daniel W. , Hayes Sarah E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Analog research is one of many types of investigational designs that can be employed to study the processes and/or outcomes of psychotherapies. The research methods in psychotherapy analog studies involve participants and/or settings that are analogous, or similar, to the actual clinical phenomena of interest. A primary advantage of psychotherapy analog studies is to increase internal validity by enhancing rigor of the methods. Although analog methods have been criticized for lacking application to “real life,” they have various strengths, including easier access to, and convenience of, securing the necessary sample size of participants. Furthermore, these approaches help protect individuals with more severe forms of psychological disorders by testing methods first on analog participants, who are likely to be psychologically healthier. The most common type of analog research today involves analog patients.
Clinical Neuropsychology
Authors: Hill Benjamin D. , Westervelt Holly James 
Published: January 2015

AbstractClinical neuropsychology is an applied neuroscience that focuses on brain–behavior relationships. It is a young field in clinical psychology but has deep historical roots in classical neurology and mental testing. Clinical neuropsychology is a largely assessment‐driven specialty in clinical psychology that requires an advanced psychometric background. Additionally, the professional practice of neuropsychology requires proficiency in neuroanatomy, behavioral neurology, and cognitive neuroscience. There are a variety of assessment approaches in clinical neuropsychology, including fixed battery, flexible battery, and process approaches. Training in the field takes 11–13 years starting at the undergraduate level and entails specialized training at the doctoral, internship, and postdoctoral levels. Clinical neuropsychologists routinely practice in medical settings and assist with differential diagnosis of cognitive disorders, but treatment planning and cognitive rehabilitation are also in the purview of the specialty.
Eyewitness Identification and Lineup
Authors: Kovera Margaret Bull , Austin Jacqueline L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Eyewitnesses have a profound impact on jury verdicts. Although the testimony that eyewitnesses provide can be powerful, their identifications can be inaccurate, and such mistakes contribute to wrongful convictions. Two categories of variable affect the accuracy of eyewitness identifications: estimator and system variables. Estimator variables include characteristics of the witness, perpetrator, or witnessing conditions that are not under the control of the criminal justice system. System variables include characteristics of the investigation that may be controlled by the criminal justice system. This entry reviews the empirical evidence on the effects of both estimator and system variables on eyewitness accuracy.
Insanity Defense/Guilty but Mentally Ill
Authors: Kimonis Eva R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The insanity defense is the most commonly invoked of those defenses relating to a defendant's mental state at the time of the offense. The rationale behind the defense is that punishment in the criminal system is not morally justified because the individual had impaired cognitive or volitional control over his or her behavior at the time of the offense. Legal insanity is arguably the most controversial of criminal defenses as a result of several highly publicized cases that have led the lay public to hold several common misconceptions about the defense. In reality, there is little basis for these opinions in the available, albeit relatively scarce, empirical literature on legal insanity. Forensic evaluators called upon to conduct evaluations of legal insanity are tasked with the challenging goal of retrospectively reconstructing the defendant's thoughts and actions at the time of the crime.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Forbes David , Creamer Mark 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Posttraumatic stress disorder (
PTSD
) is a mental health condition that develops in a minority of individuals following exposure to a life‐threatening or other extremely distressing event. The disorder is characterized by four groups of symptoms: (a) reexperiencing the trauma; (b) avoidance and emotional numbing; (c) negative alterations in cognition and mood; and (d) persistent hyperarousal. Prevalence varies considerably depending on trauma type, with interpersonal violence (especially rape) consistently resulting in the highest rates. Risk factors for development and maintenance of
PTSD
include a combination of pretrauma, peritrauma, and posttrauma variables. A variety of evidence‐based treatments are available, with trauma‐focused psychological approaches being the treatment of choice. Pharmacological interventions provide an important second‐line approach.
C
lark,
L
ee
A
nna (
b
. 1951) and
W
atson,
D
avid (
b
. 1953)
Authors: Clark Lee Anna , Watson David 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Lee Anna Clark and David Watson are a husband‐and‐wife team whose major influence was on the ongoing paradigm shift from a categorical to a quantitative, hierarchical, dimensional conceptualization of psychopathology, based on underlying dimensions of mood and temperament/personality. Major contributions included their seminal integrative review on negative affectivity, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and the tripartite model of anxiety and depression. Collectively, but particularly Watson and his students, they developed more than two dozen assessment instruments, and Clark's work in particular contributed to the shift to a dimensional approach to personality disorder diagnosis.
Neo‐Freudians
Authors: Delahanty Everett J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The term Neo‐Freudian refers to a group of psychoanalysts who shared social and professional interests in the United States during the mid‐1930s through the 1940s. Defining aspects of the Neo‐Freudians were (a) their lack of Freudian orthodoxy, which was strongly criticized by their analytic peers; (b) their claim to Freudian ancestry; (c) an awareness of cultural anthropology and the social sciences that led to finding interpersonal and cultural explanations for personality and pathology; and (d) in writing about the person, they used the term “self,” which set them apart from their American analytic colleagues. The most prominent members of this group were Karen Horney (1885–1952), Erich Fromm (1900–80), Clara Thompson (1893–1958), and Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949). Later, their influence would be positive in the development of humanistic psychology and thus positive psychology.
Biopsychosocial Model
Authors: Fiocco Alexandra J. , Mallya Sasha 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Theoretical models of mental health provide essential contributions to our understanding of psychopathology. The important role of theoretical models in predicting, classifying, and treating psychopathology is discussed. Further, a review of the evolution of theoretical models of mental health, from the early medical model to psychological and social models to a more comprehensive biopsychosocial model, is provided. Advantages of the biopsychosocial model are discussed along with its application to psychopathology, including schizophrenia and mood, anxiety, and eating disorders. Although complex, the biopsychosocial model is fundamental for the comprehensive conceptualization of psychological disorders and individualized treatment.
Behavioral Assessment
Authors: Haynes Stephen N. , aimoku Kaholokula Joseph Keawe , O'Brien William H. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Behavioral assessment is a psychological assessment paradigm composed of an integrated set of science‐based concepts about behavior problems, the variables that influence them, and a diverse set of empirically supported assessment methods consistent with those concepts. The goals of the paradigm are to develop and apply the most valid and useful assessment strategies for understanding persons with behavior problems, planning interventions to improve their quality of life, and monitoring the effects of those interventions. The main features of behavioral assessment are its emphasis on scientific methods, multisource assessment, the conditional nature of behavior problems, direct observation, assessment in the client's natural environment, time‐series measurement strategies, specific behaviors and events, functional relations contiguous to behavior problems, an idiographic approach to clinical assessment, multivariate causality, dynamic aspects of behavior and functional relations, and the integration of assessment data into a functional analysis or other form of clinical case formulation.
Charcot,Jean‐Martin (1825–93)
Authors: Barberis Daniela S. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractJean‐Martin Charcot (1825–93), French professor of anatomical pathology, is considered one of the founders of neurology. He participated in the reorganization of the fields of knowledge concerning the nervous system, which resulted in our current division between neurology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, and psychoanalysis. His neurological work rests on discoveries such as the delineation of multiple sclerosis; of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Charcot's disease); of locomotor ataxia, with its peculiar arthropathies (Charcot's joints); and of Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. He is also well known for his work on hysteria, which influenced Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and Pierre Janet (1859–1947).
Ataque de Nervios
Authors: Fernandes Blossom , Hashmi Shazia Iqbal , Essau Cecilia A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Ataques de nervios (
ADN
) is a culture‐bound syndrome whose name translates literally as
attack of the nerves
. The most common symptoms of
ADN
include uncontrollable shouting, attacks of crying, trembling, and heat in the chest that rises into the head.
ADN
is common in Hispanic countries, with a lifetime prevalence among adults in Puerto Rico estimated to range from 16% to 23% and an even higher prevalence in clinical settings (roughly 70%). Between 9% and 26% of Island Puerto Rican children in community and clinical settings, respectively, are also estimated to have
ADN
.
ADN
is often comorbid with other psychiatric conditions, such as anxiety and depressive disorders, and with somatic illness.
Gene–Environment Interaction Designs
Authors: Vrshek‐Schallhorn Suzanne , Tabak Benjamin A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Gene–environment interaction models test for genetic effects that depend upon an aspect of an individual's environment. That is, for certain outcomes, some researchers believe that genetic effects will only be revealed (or will be significantly larger) in the presence of environmental conditions that enhance the likelihood of that outcome. For example, the most common form this research has taken is examining whether a particular polymorphism (a common difference between people in their genetic code) in the serotonin system increases the likelihood of experiencing either depressive symptoms or a major depressive episode in the context of elevated life stress. This entry provides an introduction to gene–environment interaction models and considers their utility, the types of dependent variables examined, the statistical models employed, and the current state of the gene–environment interaction literature in clinical psychology. Future directions, including genome‐wide gene–environment interaction approaches, are discussed. Although a fair amount of behavioral genetic research (e.g., twin studies) has examined gene–environment effects using nonspecific genetic contributions, this entry will focus on molecular genetic approaches examining specific genetic variants.
Truth, Theories of
Authors: Worley Sara 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
There are two main issues confronting anyone thinking about truth: the question of objectivity, and the nature of truth. Objectivity has to do with whether truth is the same for all, or whether it varies from person to person and culture to culture. The nature of truth has to do with how truth should be understood. A traditional answer is that truth is a matter of correspondence with reality. True sentences are those that correspond with reality, and false sentences are those sentences that fail to so correspond. Not only is this theory problematic, there are many other competing theories, including the claims that truth is merely a matter of coherence and the claim that the true is what is useful to believe.
MA
‐Level Practitioners
Authors: Lewis Brianna , Annunziato Rachel A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The mental health field has witnessed a sharp increase in the prevalence of master's (
MA
)‐level practitioners.
MA
‐level practice appears to be blossoming in response to social factors, while organized efforts by representative bodies have resulted in successful actions to extend its recognition and autonomy. There is considerable controversy over whether the scope of practice for
MA
‐level practitioners should be similar to or separate from traditional doctoral‐level psychologists. This entry reviews the history as well as current debate regarding
MA
‐level practitioners. The implications for the field and future considerations are also addressed.
Automatism Defense
Authors: Norris Alyssa L. , Marcus David K. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The automatism defense is rooted in the argument that disturbances in consciousness imply involuntariness, thereby negating criminal culpability. As presumed experts on consciousness, psychologists may be asked to testify in automatism cases. However, there are potential limitations to this testimony. First, the definition and application of automatism have extended beyond the traditional definition of involuntary physical actions, at times requiring experts to speak to intent as well. Second, the defense rests on the level of consciousness present during a crime, and there are no valid measures to postdictally determine consciousness. Moreover, automatism defenses do not require a history of similar impairments, thus requiring experts in some cases to speak to the connections between an accused's actions and a solitary instance of impaired consciousness.
B
eck,
A
aron
T
. (b. 1921)
Authors: Rosner Rachael I. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Aaron T. (Temkin) Beck (b. 1921) is an American psychiatrist best known for creating a school of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy (
CT
).
CT
, conceived in the early 1960s, rose to prominence in the 1980s and is now the dominant approach to psychotherapeutic treatment in North America.
CT
is widely celebrated for its short‐term, pragmatic, and scientific approaches to treatment and research, which stand in contrast to the long‐term, interpretive, and anti‐experimentalist psychoanalytic approaches of the mid‐twentieth century. Beck is also well known for his Beck Depression Inventory (
BDI
), a widely used psychological test of the intensity of depression.
Primary Prevention
Authors: Seidman Edward 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The field of prevention is described, including its historical antecedents in both public health and community psychology. The progression from tertiary to secondary to primary prevention and promotion is depicted. Each type of prevention is discussed in terms of problem identification, target of intervention, locus, and type of change. These primary prevention intervention strategies have the potential to expand the boundaries, repertoire, and influence of clinical psychology.
World War
II
and Clinical Psychology
Authors: Bazar Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Psychologists brought their expertise to a wide variety of sectors during World War
II
. Building on their experiences of World War I, psychologists assisted the military in various forms of personnel selection, specialized training, instrument, weapon, and machinery design, and morale research. Most significant of this period was the impact on the growth and development of clinical psychology. World War
II
marked the move of clinical psychologists from a heavily psychometric‐focused domain to a primarily clinical setting. The years immediately following the War saw the establishment of new training guidelines and accreditation standards of doctoral programs in clinical psychology along with a drastic expansion in the numbers of psychologists practicing in clinical settings.
Antipsychotics
Authors: Minhas Hassan M. , Philip Noah S. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Antipsychotics are a class of psychiatric medications that are primarily used to treat schizophrenia. In addition to this use, some antipsychotics also have U.S. Food and Drug Administration (
FDA
) approval to treat the mood symptoms of bipolar type I disorder, as adjunctive treatments in major depressive disorder, and to treat irritability associated with autism. Evidence exists for their use in Tourette's disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. The antipsychotics are generally divided into two groups, the “typical” or first‐generation antipsychotics (
FGAs
) and the “atypical” or second‐generation antipsychotics (
SGAs
). This entry describes the different antipsychotics, organized by classification, and includes pertinent clinical information regarding safety and monitoring.
Competence
Authors: Phillips Tasha R. , Otto Randy K. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractCriminal defendants must be competent to proceed throughout the legal process—from the time they are detained and interrogated through sentencing. Whether persons are competent to understand and waive their right to avoid self‐incrimination, understand and participate in the trial process, enter into a plea agreement, waive counsel and represent themselves, appeal, and/or be sentenced, are ultimately legal issues. Forensic psychologists, however, can be of assistance to legal decision makers by describing an examinee's ability to understand and exercise important legal rights, and the degree to which these abilities may be compromised by mental disorder or related impairments.
Effect Indicator Versus Causal Indicator Measurement
Authors: Strube Michael J 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Effect indicators (also called
reflective indicators
) are observed variables that are assumed to be affected by a common underlying latent variable. Scores on effect indicators (e.g., item scores on a personality test, an attitude scale, or an intelligence inventory) are assumed to move in response to changes in the underlying construct—they
reflect
their underlying latent variable. Causal indicators (sometimes called
formative indicators
) are assumed to define and affect the underlying latent variable. The distinction has critical implications for measurement development, the conditions used for empirical tests of a theory, and the nature of statistical analyses used to determine if the data fit theoretical expectations.
Definition of Mental Disorder
Authors: Peterson Destiny , Keeley Jared 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The concept of mental disorder cannot be easily defined. Historically there has been much debate surrounding the concept, but those historical disagreements have shaped how the concept is defined today. Most modern definitions are pluralistic, including multiple components like harm and dysfunction, impairment, statistical deviation, social values, and treatability. Not every piece is necessary for every disorder. For example, one disorder may only contain some components of the broad definition while another disorder may contain different components. The role of subjective values in the definition of mental disorder necessitates that it will always be flexible and transient, changing with society as it develops.
Science–Practice Gap
Authors: Lilienfeld Scott O. , Ritschel Lorie A. , Lynn Steven Jay , Cautin Robin L. , Latzman Robert D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The science–practice gap refers to the discrepancy between the research evidence for clinical interventions and assessment methods, on the one hand, and their routine use in clinical practice, on the other. The sources of this gap are manifold, and include attitudinal differences between scientists and practitioners, cognitive impediments toward grasping the necessity of research evidence to evaluate treatment outcome, misconceptions regarding evidence‐based practice, and pragmatic challenges to the implementation of clinical interventions in real‐world settings. Efforts to disseminate evidence‐based treatments may help to narrow the science–practice gap.