bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quality vs. Quantity: The Consequences of Elevated CO2 on Wood Biomaterial Properties
Authors: Anderson Philip S L 
Published: June 2024

Synopsis
Since the late 1800s, anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel consumption and deforestation have driven up the concentration of atmospheric CO2 around the globe by &gt;45%. Such heightened concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are a leading contributor to global climate change, with estimates of a 2–5° increase in global air temperature by the end of the century. While such climatic changes are mostly considered detrimental, a great deal of experimental work has shown that increased atmospheric CO2 will actually increase growth in various plants, which may lead to increased biomass for potential harvesting or CO2 sequestration. However, it is not clear whether this increase in growth or biomass will be beneficial to the plants, as such increases may lead to weaker plant materials. In this review, I examine our current understanding of how elevated atmospheric CO2 caused by anthropogenic effects may influence plant material properties, focusing on potential effects on wood. For the first part of the review, I explore how aspects of wood anatomy and structure influence resistance to bending and breakage. This information is then used to review how changes in CO2 levels may later these aspects of wood anatomy and structure in ways that have mechanical consequences. The major pattern that emerges is that the consequences of elevated CO2 on wood properties are highly dependent on species and environment, with different tree species showing contradictory responses to atmospheric changes. In the end, I describe a couple avenues for future research into better understanding the influence of atmospheric CO2 levels on plant biomaterial mechanics.
Combining Morphological Characteristics and DNA Barcoding Techniques Confirm Sea Urchins of the Genus Echinometra (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in Marine Habitat Located at Extreme Regions of the Caribbean Sea
Authors: Belford Stanton G 
Published: June 2024

Synopsis
Echinometra spp. are pantropical echinoids found in benthic marine habitat throughout the Caribbean, Atlantic, and Indo-West Pacific oceanic regions. Currently, morphology and molecular data are sparse for echinoids observed along the northeastern coast of Toco, Trinidad, where they are relatively common. Additionally, accurate species identity for Echinometra spp. remains dynamic at both northernmost and southernmost parts of the Caribbean Sea. Although distribution of sea urchins in the genus Echinometra have extensively been studied throughout the Atlantic and Indo-West Pacific, information on its range of distribution at the edge of the Caribbean Sea is lacking. In this study, the mitochondrial Cytochrome c Oxidase subunit I (mt COI) gene was amplified using polymerase chain reaction, then sequenced. Based on successfully obtained gene sequences for 581 base pairs, the echinoid species Echinometra lucunter and Echinometra viridis were identified for black and red color morphotypes from Trinidad (n = 23) and Key Largo, Florida (n = 6), respectively. Furthermore, these specimens were genetically identical to species identified in other studies for Puerto Rico, Panamá, Honduras, and Belize. Although morphological variations, such as spine and test color occur throughout Echinometra spp., molecular identification using the barcoding technique confirmed E. lucunter color morphs for the first time in Trinidad. Since the status of E. lucunter populations, specifically at the most northern and southern regions of the Caribbean Sea is dynamic, further studies using gene markers are essential in determining species distribution, in light of current trends in climate change.
Sarcopenic obesity predicts short- and long-term outcomes after neoadjuvant chemotherapy and surgery for gastric cancer
Authors: Duan Chunning , Wu Mingru , Wen Xia , Zhuang Lvping , Sun Jianwei 
Published: June 2024

Abstract

Background
Sarcopenic obesity (SO) affects outcomes in various malignancies. However, its clinical significance in patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) for locally advanced gastric cancer (LAGC) remains unclear. This study investigated the impact of pre- and post-NAC SO on postoperative morbidity and survival.

Methods
Data from 207 patients with LAGC, who underwent NAC followed by radical gastrectomy between January 2010 and October 2019, were reviewed. Skeletal muscle mass and visceral fat area were measured pre- and post-NAC using computed tomography to define sarcopenia and obesity, the coexistence of which was defined as SO.

Results
Among the patients, 52 (25.1%) and 38 (18.4%) developed SO before and after NAC, respectively. Both pre- (34.6%) and post- (47.4%) NAC SO were associated with the highest postoperative morbidity rates; however, only post-NAC SO was an independent risk factor for postoperative morbidity [hazard ratio (HR) = 9.550, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.818–32.369; P &lt; .001]. Pre-NAC SO was independently associated with poorer 3-year overall [46.2% vs. 61.3%; HR = 1.258 (95% CI = 1.023–1.547); P = .049] and recurrence-free [39.3% vs. 55.4%; HR 1.285 (95% CI 1.045–1.579); P = .017] survival.

Conclusions
Pre-NAC SO was an independent prognostic factor in patients with LAGC undergoing NAC; post-NAC SO independently predicted postoperative morbidity.
Jurisdiction
Authors: Weißer Bettina 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter expounds on Article 15 of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). Moreover, the provision seeks to prevent safe havens for perpetrators of transnational organized crime by ensuring the jurisdiction of all States possibly affected by transnational crimes. The chapter explains that regulations on jurisdiction are vital since the offences under UNTOC are committed transnationally and fall within the territorial jurisdiction of more than one State. Moreover, regulations must be in line with the international law principles of non-intervention and sovereign equality of States. The chapter also acknowledges the increasing complexity of jurisdictional issues due to transnational crimes committed in cyberspace.
Protection of Witnesses
Authors: Lelliott Joseph 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter highlights the protection of witnesses as per Article 24 of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). It clarifies the importance of witnesses for a successful investigation and prosecution of offences covered by the Convention. The cooperation and reliability of witnesses can be compromised when they fear harm to themselves or those close to them. Thus, Article 24 places an obligation on States Parties to take appropriate protective measures for witnesses and their loved ones as an essential part of criminal justice responses to Convention offences and the rule of law. The chapter explains that States Parties must act in a way consistent with the provision.
Law Enforcement Cooperation
Authors: Taylor Matthew R 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter tackles the notion of law enforcement cooperation as indicated in Article 27 of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). It cites how the provision reflected the main purpose of the Convention by prescribing concrete cooperation measures to enhance law enforcement responses. Moreover, the measures of cooperation between law enforcement entities within Article 27 extended beyond police cooperation. Similar to other articles, the origins of Article 27 correlate to the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. The chapter provides an overview of the interpretation of Article 27, which includes the general obligation of cooperation for States Parties.
Entry into Force
Authors: Schloenhardt Andreas 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article 38 of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). Article 38 provides that UNTOC will enter into force on a specific date when certain conditions are met. Thus, the provision establishes the conditions that need to be fulfilled for UNTOC to enter into force, referencing the main requirement of 40 instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval, or accession followed by a 90-day waiting period. Moreover, the text of Article 38 is loosely based on the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. The chapter acknowledges that the UNTC entered into force on 29 September 2003.
Assistance and Protection of Victims of Trafficking in Persons
Authors: Lelliott Joseph 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes Article 6 of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol, which expands on the provisions of Article 2 and outlines protection and assistance measures for victims of trafficking. It requires States Parties to protect the privacy of victims; grant them appropriate assistance and opportunities to participate during legal proceedings; consider measures to facilitate their physical, psychological, and social recovery; endeavour to ensure their physical safety; and provide them with the possibility of obtaining compensation. It also places an obligation on States to take into account the age, gender, and special needs of victims. Since agreement of the Protocol, a substantial quantity of soft law and other materials have added clarity to the human rights obligations of States when addressing trafficking and, in turn, the scope of protection and assistance owed to victims. There is also broad recognition of States’ obligation to exercise due diligence in identifying victims (and potential victims).
Entry into Force
Authors: Schloenhardt Andreas 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses Article 17 of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. Using much of the same language as Article 38 of UNTOC, Article 17 sets out the conditions that need to be fulfilled for the Protocol to enter into force. The main requirement is the minimum number of 40 instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval, or accession which is followed by a 90-day waiting period. Paragraph 1 defines the point in time when the Convention initially comes into force and paragraph 2 concerns the entry into force for States and regional economic integration organizations that become bound after the date determined by paragraph 1. In accordance with Article 17, the Protocol entered into force on December 25, 2003, the first of the Protocols to do so, three months after the entry into force of UNTOC.
Introduction
Authors: Schloenhardt Andreas , Taylor Matthew R 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol, which was adopted by the General Assembly on 15 November 2000, together with UNTOC and the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. It entered into force on 28 January 2004. On the surface, the Protocol pursues three equally important objectives: to stop the smuggling of migrants, foster international cooperation, and protect the rights of smuggled migrants. Despite these different objectives, as with the Convention and other Protocols, the criminal justice focus is given priority when compared to other aspects. The Smuggling of Migrants Protocol has been widely praised for creating a global legal framework for a common and dangerous phenomenon that affects most countries of the world. Indeed, it defines a crime that occurs worldwide but which few countries have criminalized accurately.
Preamble
Authors: Taylor Matthew R 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter highlights the Preamble of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol, which is relatively short but highlights three important themes. These include the need to address the root causes that contribute to migrant smuggling, the value of international cooperation and comprehensive action to prevent and combat the smuggling of migrants, and the need to protect the rights and safety of smuggled migrants. Migrants are smuggled for many reasons, including socio-economic opportunities, to escape conflict or persecution, or for family reunification, among others. In so doing, smuggled migrants often face perilous conditions and may suffer exploitative or degrading treatment. Against this reality, the second clause’s mention of humane treatment and explicit recognition that smuggled persons are rights holders is, therefore, critically important.
Use of Terms
Authors: McAdam Marika 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses Article 3 of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol. Article 3 defines key terms including, crucially, the ‘smuggling of migrants’. The definition of this term focuses on the actions of those who act for financial or material benefit, not on the actions of smuggled migrants themselves or those who may facilitate their movement or otherwise support them for non-profit purposes. This focus on the actions of smugglers, rather than the impact of those actions on migrants, cleaves a clear distinction between smuggling of migrants and trafficking in persons, with exploitation of trafficked ‘victims’ being at the heart of the latter. The provision also defines central concepts of ‘illegal entry’, ‘fraudulent travel or identity document’, and reflecting the particular concern for smuggling of migrants at sea, ‘vessel’.
Security and Control of Documents
Authors: Taylor Matthew R 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter reviews Article 12 of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol, which addresses the role that travel and identity documents play in facilitating the smuggling of migrants. It does this by focusing on steps that States Parties can take in relation to document creation, issuance, and quality, with the ultimate goal of implementing processes that cannot be abused and producing documents that cannot be easily forged or fraudulently used. Article 12 of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol provided the model for the text of Article 12 of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol, which is identical, and thus both should be interpreted in the same manner, as well as similar obligations in regional trafficking instruments. The obligations in Article 12 seek to tackle practices commonly employed by smugglers and their associates that enable migrant smuggling to flourish. Research has demonstrated ‘that a substantial percentage of identity-related crime is associated with offences that involve travel and identity documents that are committed with a view to facilitating organized criminal activities such as trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants’.
Protection and Assistance Measures
Authors: Lelliott Joseph 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article outlines protection and assistance measures. It sets out broad standards for States Parties dealing with smuggled migrants, requiring them to preserve and protect the rights of smuggled migrants, protect them from violence, and render them appropriate assistance where their lives or safety are endangered or they are detained. It also requires States Parties to take into account the special needs of women and children. The article points out that the individual States’ obligations are dependent on their treaty obligations, as well as whether particular rights are deemed to have entered into custom or constitute general principles of international law. It emphasizes that the implementation of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol must not come at the expense of smuggled migrants’ entitlements under international law.
Return of Smuggled Migrants
Authors: Lelliott Joseph 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article considers the fundamental return of smuggled migrants, both to deny them the benefit of being smuggled and send a message to other persons considering attempts at unauthorized entry, as a fundamental part of a strategy to preventing and combatting migrant smuggling. It explains the term ‘return’ in broadly entailing the removal of smuggled migrants from one State to another. It is also concerned with States Parties’ obligation to accept the return of their nationals and those with the right of permanent residence. The article contains provisions requiring States to verify smuggled migrants’ nationality or residency status without undue or unreasonable delay and provide them with any documents or authorizations necessary for travel. It reflects the desire of States Parties receiving smuggled migrants to remove them quickly and without impediment.
Depositary and Languages
Authors: Schloenhardt Andreas 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article is based on Article 41 of the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). It designates the UN Secretary-General as the depositary of the Convention and lists the six authentic languages of the Convention. It also points out that original of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, will be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The article emphasizes that the Secretary-General of the United Nations is designated depositary of the Protocol. It uses the same language as Article 41 of UNTOC and reference is made to its commentary.
Statement of Purpose
Authors: Block Johannes 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article promotes, facilitates, and strengthens cooperation among States Parties in order to prevent, combat and eradicate the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms, their parts and components and ammunition. It points out how the States’ deals in firearms can be part of the problem if regulations pertaining to authorization and use are not taken seriously in the buyer’s country. It also discusses the notorious secrecy of the producing industry that adds to potential issues with oversight and consequent fighting of grey and black market trafficking. The article outlines obligations of States Parties to implement preventive and repressive measures against firearms trafficking. It proposes that an additional aim of ensuring investigation and prosecution of the offences established under the present Law should be added when transposed into national law.
Confiscation, Seizure and Disposal
Authors: Block Johannes 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article focuses on confiscation, seizure, and disposal of illicitly trafficked or manufactured firearms, which are crucial measures in the fight against the illegal arms trade. It considers the destruction of confiscated and seized firearms as the most secure way to keep them from returning to the illicit market and is considered best practice by the Working Group on Firearms established by the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). It also applies to the seizure, confiscation, and disposal of any property that is either proceeds of crime or used or destined for use in offences covered by the Convention. The article is important in cases concerning firearms not connected to the Convention’s offences. It obliges States Parties to establish the stated measures for all cases of illicitly manufactured or trafficked firearms.
Settlement of Disputes
Authors: Schloenhardt Andreas 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article provides several avenues for the settlement of disputes between States Parties over the interpretation or application of the Firearms Protocol. It encourages States Parties to settle their disputes through negotiations and permits States Parties to opt out of arbitration and International Court of Justice (ICJ) processes by making a reservation. If negotiations fail to produce an outcome, the dispute may be submitted to arbitration and, if the arbitration did not result in an agreement within six months, the dispute may be referred to the ICJ. The article points out that any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the interpretation or application of the Protocol that cannot be settled through negotiation within a reasonable time will be submitted to arbitration. States Parties may refer the dispute to ICJ by request in accordance with the Statute of the Court.
Depositary and Languages
Authors: Schloenhardt Andreas 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This article designates the UN Secretary-General as the depositary of the Convention and lists the six authentic languages of the Convention. The Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts of the Firearms Protocol are deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. It also emphasizes that the Secretary-General of the United Nations is designated as depositary of the Protocol. The article cites Article XIX(2) of the draft prepared by Canada in 1998 that designated the Secretary-General as the depositary for the Firearms Protocol. It uses the same language as Article 41 of the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC).
Articles 19–23 of the VCLT: Reservations (overview)—flexibility devices in applying treaties in the field of investment
Authors: Pellet Alain , Merlin Jean-Baptiste 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This entry covers the notion of reservations as per provisions within the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT). It defines reservation as a unilateral statement made by a State, whereby it purports to exclude or modify the legal effect of certain treaty provisions in their application to that State. International investment law practice provides no basis for challenging the International Law Commission’s finding of a single legal regime of treaty reservations. Moreover, investment lawmakers took full advantage of the modulation regime being largely modelled on reservations while complementing it with alternative devices without undermining the general reservation regime. The entry explains devising exceptions in treaty-making practice in the international investment law field.
Article 24 of the VCLT: Entry into force
Authors: Voon Tania 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This entry examines the entry into force of treaties pursuant to Article 24 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), with a focus on cases arising before investment arbitration tribunals or the International Court of Justice (ICJ). At least some parts of Article 24 appear to reflect customary international law. Its effects nevertheless depend in large part on the context and wording of the subject treaty, most often the ICJ statute or a bilateral investment treaty. In addition, Article 24 interacts closely with other provisions of the VCLT, most notably Articles 16 and 28, as reflected in disputes that have arisen to date regarding (i) the principle of non-retroactivity of treaties and (ii) a state’s consent to be bound by a treaty.
Article 26 of the VCLT: Pacta sunt servanda
Authors: Yeginsu Can , Pearsall Patrick 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This entry discusses the customary principle of pacta sunt servanda enshrined in Article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT). It sets out the doctrinal requirements and presents the decisions on Article 26. The entry finds that many of the principles identifiable in the interpretation and application of Article 26 and the principle of pacta sunt servanda are common across international dispute resolution fora, including investor-State tribunals. Nonetheless, the latter display a greater willingness to construe the good faith requirement as an autonomous standard, in contrast to other international courts and tribunals. A first explanation for this deviation is the breadth of the applicable law clauses in investment disputes that grant investment tribunals more flexibility than other international courts and tribunals. A second explanation suggests that investors, as non-state actors, are not bound to public international law to the same extent as States. This bestows arbitrators with additional flexibility to consider external norms better reflecting the evolving regulatory needs of a State.