bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Douglas, Mary
Authors: Ng Reuben 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Mary Douglas was born on March 25, 1921 in San Remo, Italy and died May 16, 2007 in London, England. One of the most influential British social anthropologists, Douglas was author of more than 300 published works, including 15 books, and her ideas have garnered a wide following. As an indication, her 15 books generated more than 200 reviews in fields from management to medicine. For her contributions to social science and society, Douglas was elected to the British Academy in 1989, and awarded the
Commander of the Order of the British Empire
(CBE; 1992) and
Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire
(KBE; 2007). The latter conferred the title “Dame.”
Drenth, Pieter
Authors: van Hoorn Willem 
Published: October 2013

AbstractPieter Drenth was born on March 8, 1935 at Appelscha, the Netherlands. The major part of his academic career has been connected to the VU University at Amsterdam. At this university he studied psychology from 1953 to 1958 and received his Ph.D. in 1960. The subject of his doctoral study wasA psychological investigation into the motives of vocational choice. In 1962 Drenth was appointed as lecturer and in 1967 full professor in work and organizational psychology and psychodiagnostics. In 2006 he officially retired from his alma mater. His unusual talent for managing academic institutions culminated in his role as Vice Chancellor of the VU (1983–1987) and the highly acclaimed Presidency of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) from 1990 to 1996. In recognition of these academic achievements and other social service he was recognized as Royal Commander in the Order of Orange‐Nassau. Drenth received honorary doctorates, from the University of Ghent, Belgium (1981) and from the University René Descartes, Paris, France in 1996. He has supervised 40 Ph.D. dissertations. Drenth has worked in two main fields in cross‐cultural psychology: 1) cross‐cultural testing; and 2) comparative international research in organizational psychology.
Dual Inheritance Theory
Authors: Vauclair Christin‐Melanie , Fischer Ronald 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Dual Inheritance Theory, or gene‐culture co‐evolution theory, proposes that human behavior is shaped by both biological and sociocultural inheritance systems with their own selective mechanisms and forms of transmission. Biological inheritance is shaped by the information contained in genes. Genetic evolution follows Darwinian laws of natural selection. Genetic mutations that provide an adaptive advantage for carriers in a specific environment are more likely to be passed on to future generations. To the extent that the environment remains stable, these traits then can eventually change the population's genetic makeup regarding this specific trait. This view has been dominant in biology and evolutionary psychology to explain behavioral diversity.
Emic‐Etic Approach
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Lambert Kimberly 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Emic
and
etic
have been used in various fields such as linguistics, social science, research methods, and cross‐cultural psychology. Emic and etic were originally coined in 1954 by the linguist Kenneth L. Pike, from (phon)emic and (phon)etic respectively, to refer to two complementary ways of analyzing behavioral data. then adapted the use of emic‐etic to cross‐cultural psychology. Subsequently, researchers engaged in cross‐cultural psychological work have employed these two epistemologies, and scholars use these two different approaches to the study of human systems, psychology, and cultural differences.
Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Gharib Afshin 
Published: October 2013

AbstractEvolutionary psychology applies evolutionary theory to explain aspects of human thought and behavior. Evolutionary psychology begins with a few important assumptions: 1) the human mind is the product of a long evolutionary history; 2) for much of that history, our species lived in an environment (hunter‐gatherer groups on the savannas of Africa) very different from the environments most of us find ourselves in today; 3) therefore our minds have evolved as adaptations for survival in that ancestral environment (called the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness, or EEA); and 4) the mind is composed of many separate “modules,” each evolved to solve specific problems important in our EEA. These modules include mental processes for finding and keeping mates, competing with rivals, finding food, and other evolutionarily important skills.
Experiment
Authors: Beins Bernard C. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The word
experiment
has a specific meaning in psychological research that it does not have in some other disciplines. Psychologists consider a research study to be an experiment when the investigator can control assignment of participants to groups, as opposed to using existing characteristics of participants (e.g., ethnicity of the person) as the criterion for inclusion in a group. In addition, in an experiment, the researcher manipulates an independent variable, creating at least two groups in order to see whether an outcome measure, a dependent variable, changes as a function of the manipulation. In some sciences (e.g., astronomy), an experiment is any research project involving data collection.
Experimenter Effects
Authors: Beins Bernard C. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The goal of research is to identify predictable relations among variables. In experimental research, investigators seek causal connections; in correlational research, psychologists examine non‐causal associations. One phenomenon that can obscure actual relations among variables is experimenter effect, in which the researcher's intentional or inadvertent behaviors influence research participants. When the researcher's behavior influences participants, the validity of the data diminishes. Although psychologists use the term
experimenter
effects (or experimenter bias), the phenomenon can also occur in non‐experimental research designs.
Extreme Response Style
Authors: Beins Bernard C. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Extreme response style (ERS) is the tendency to respond to questions on a Likert‐type scale by using response options on the ends of the continuum. ERS can involve either negative or positive responses, depending on the tendency to select either very low or very high values or points. Its obverse is middle (or middling) response style (MRS).
Eysenck, Hans Jürgen
Authors: Maynard Donna‐Maria 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Hans Eysenck was born March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany to Eduard and Ruth Eysenck (stage name Helga Molander), who were actors. He died in London in 1997 at the age of 81. Following his parents’ divorce, Eysenck was raised by his maternal grandmother, eventually leaving Germany at age 18 when the Nazis came to power; as an active Jewish sympathizer, his life was in danger. He spent a year at the University of Dijon studying literature and history, and then moved on to England where, after taking prerequisite courses at Pitman College, he enrolled at the University of London. He completed the Ph.D. in 1940, working under the supervision of educational psychologist Sir Cyril Burt.
False Uniqueness Effect
Authors: Pope Jay W. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe false uniqueness effect refers to a tendency for people to underestimate the similarity and overestimate the distinctiveness of personal attributes and variables, compared to the general population. The distortions exhibited by the false uniqueness effect can reveal both positive and negative biases about the person making the estimates. For example, a man who is clinically depressed may not be aware that many other people experience grief and sadness throughout their lives, and thus may feel that his own suffering is more severe than the suffering of others. In contrast, some students with high grade averages may overestimate the extent to which their scholastic achievements qualify them for admission to a competitive university, because they are not aware of the many equally qualified applicants applying to the same institution.
Field Independence
Authors: Hood Kristina , Belgrave Faye Z. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractField independence is a cognitive style that is characterized by an analytic cognitive orientation. An analytic cognitive orientation is a way of thinking that involves rule‐based categorization of objects, a narrow focus in visual attention, attributional bias toward internal causation, and the use of formal logic in reasoning. This type of thinking is usually contrasted with holistic cognition. Holistic cognition is characterized by thematic and group‐based categorization of objects, a focus on contextual information and relationships in visual attention, and an attributional bias toward external causes. Field independence is also associated with preferences for individualist problem‐solving, formal rule‐based logic reasoning, and individual responsibility. People who are field independent tend to perceive items from the external world as discrete objects.
Figurative Cultures
Authors: Dutch Susan E. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The term
figurative
, as it pertains to culture, was first used by Margaret Mead to describe the process of cultures preparing for the future and adapting to change. According to Mead, how this process transpires varies with the rate of cultural change. Because cultures may change either imperceptibly, moderately quickly, or extremely rapidly, three types of cultures are proposed: postfigurative, cofigurative and prefigurative, respectively. In all cases, three generations (children, parents, and grandparents) are assumed to be needed to learn to adapt to environmental variations; however, which generation provides the model for dealing with the future will differ as the pace of cultural change escalates.
Focus Group
Authors: Gondim Sonia Maria Guedes , de Freitas Araujo Saulo 
Published: October 2013

AbstractFocus group research is a method in which a setting is created for social interaction among four to twelve people, with the purpose of discussing a particular topic, guided by a moderator. It is included in the category of group interviews, although it is distinguished by the interviewer‐interviewee relationship, the structuring of the procedures, and the directiveness of moderator style. Having great popularity in the marketing area since the 1950s, only in the last 20 years has its popularity increased more broadly in the social sciences. despite a few books and articles on focus group methodology having been published in the 1980s, the number of empirical articles grew mainly beginning in the 1990s, when the publication level surpassed 200 annually and expanded into diverse areas.
Formal Operations
Authors: Thompson Dennis , Aysan Ferda 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

In his early work Jean Piaget (1896–1980) concentrated on cognitive development during infancy and childhood. It was not until the publication of
The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence
that he discussed in detail cognitive development during adolescence and the stage known as formal operations. At that time he maintained that the stages of cognitive development were invariant in sequence and universal. Only one other work was devoted to formal operations, which was published many years later in the journal
Human Development
. For Piaget formal operations includes abstract reasoning, and the ability to see multiple possibilities when solving a problem. When a child enters formal operations, which Piaget originally argued begins at about age 11 years, thought also becomes increasingly logical and flexible.
Freud, Sigmund
Authors: Carpreso Fátima Siqueira , de Freitas Araujo Saulo 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Sigismund Schlomo Freud (1856–1939; he shortened his name in 1877) was born in Pribor (today in the Czech Republic) and spent most of his life in Vienna, where he graduated in medicine and produced the greatest part of his work. He died in London, where he had moved to escape the persecution of the Jews after the fusion of Austria and Nazi Germany. Freud's unlikely course from clinical work in nervous disorders to social theory, which includes the foundation of psychoanalysis, is explained by the internal logic of his work's development. Freud started his scientific career as a neuroscientist – first doing research on the anatomy of the nervous system and later in the field of neuropathology. His collaboration with the Viennese clinician and physiologist Josef Breuer (1842–1925) and his brief contact with the French neurologist Jean‐Martin Charcot (1825–1893) in the 1880s introduced him to the theoretical and clinical problems related to investigation and treatment of hysteria. This change in Freud's scientific interests represented a decisive step toward the creation of psychoanalysis.
Gabrenya, William K., Jr
Authors: Keith Kenneth D. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
William Gabrenya is Professor of Psychology at Florida Institute of Technology. Following completion of the B.A. in psychology at Ohio University (1974) he earned the M.A. (1977) and Ph.D. (1979) in social psychology at the University of Missouri‐Columbia. He then spent two years as a postdoctoral research associate at Ohio State University before joining the faculty of Florida Tech in 1981, where he has remained since that time.
Gambia
Authors: O'Donnell Deborah A. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
This entry focuses on the changing social conditions and explanatory models of mental illness in a small West African country, The Republic of The Gambia. Experiencing rapid urbanization and modernization, traditional notions of mental health and illness in The Gambia are changing markedly. Cultural psychologists have articulated that, during times of societal change, taxonomies of knowledge evolve, previously unconnected beliefs become intertwined, and altered life practices serve to modify interpretative frameworks. All of these cultural processes are playing themselves out in contemporary Gambia.
Geertz, Clifford
Authors: Rich Grant J. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Clifford Geertz was born August 23, 1926 in San Francisco, California, and served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. With funding from the G.I. Bill, he graduated in 1950 from Ohio's Antioch College, where he studied philosophy and English. He and his wife, Hildred, whom he met at Antioch, both went to graduate school at Harvard, where they studied under such luminaries as Gordon Allport, Talcott Parsons, and Clyde Kluckhorn in the multidisciplinary Department of Human Relations. Geertz received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1956. He was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences in Palo Alto (1958–1959), and an assistant professor at the University of California, Berkeley (1959–1960). He taught at the University of Chicago from 1960 to 1970 and then at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton from 1970 until 2000, when he became emeritus. In 1978–1979 he taught at Oxford University. Geertz conducted fieldwork at a variety of sites, including Java (1952–1954, 1971, 1984, 1986), Bali (1957–1958), and Morocco (1963–1964, 1968, 1972, 1976).
Gender Role Ideology
Authors: Sánchez‐Herrero Silvia A. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Gender roles (essentially culturally defined) refer to the set of behaviors performed differentially (and considered appropriate by the society) by men and women at home, at work, and in other public and private spheres in the context of a specific culture. Gender role ideology adds the element of valuation, the opinion about which roles men and women should hold.
Gender Socialization
Authors: Natacha Foo Kune M. R. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Gender socialization is the process whereby members of a society learn and reproduce attitudes and behaviors sanctioned by that culture for a given sex. In this process, personality and hierarchies are also transmitted, which has implications for who has power in a particular society. Although some evidence suggests that biology underlies some gender differences, such as through hormones, much evidence also suggests that gender socialization reinforces (and perhaps creates) gender differences.
Gender
Authors: Wong Stephanie J. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The distinction between men and women has historically been based on biological sex, such as anatomical differences. It was a long‐held belief, particularly through a biological perspective, that differences between men and women were innate and attributable to nature rather than environmental factors. However, dating back to the nineteenth century, Freud's classic psychoanalytic theory reflected a cultural perspective in shaping this distinction. For instance, Freud viewed women as more passive and as the “other” compared to men. In recent years, researchers, theorists, and practitioners have begun to explore the sociocultural construction of these differences, particularly through the labeling of the term
gender
.
Gestures
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Gestures are primarily hand movements (although we can see them in head and facial movements as well) that are used basically for two purposes: to illustrate speech and convey verbal meaning. Gestures are interesting because they are a form of
embodied cognition
; that is, they are movements that express some kind of thought or the process of thinking. They likely coevolved with adaptations in our physical anatomy and cognitive and language capabilities, allowing for more rapid and efficient communication systems that went beyond words and verbal language.
Goodnow, Jacqueline
Authors: Serpell Robert 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Jacqueline Jarrett Goodnow, born in 1924 in Queensland, Australia, received her B.A. from the University of Sydney in 1944, and Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1951. She then worked at several universities in the United States, including George Washington University, from 1951 to 1972. She then returned to Australia, where she was based at Macquarie University from 1972 to 1990. She attained the rank of professor in 1976, and was named emerita in 1991.
Gough, Harrison G
Authors: Keith Kenneth D. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Harrison Gough, born in 1921, is professor emeritus in the Department of Psychology at the University of California at Berkeley, where he served on the faculty from 1949 until his retirement in 1986. He received the B.A. in sociology from the University of Minnesota (1942), then enlisted in military service, subsequently returning to Minnesota and completing the Ph.D. in 1949. His mentors at Minnesota included Paul Meehl.
Gudykunst, William B
Authors: Miller Richard L. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

William B. Gudykunst was born in Manning, Iowa in 1947 and grew up in Glendale, Arizona. His first extended cross‐cultural experience came after he completed the M.A. at Arizona State. He served as an intercultural relations specialist in Yokosuka, Japan where he conducted training designed to help U.S. naval personnel and their families adjust to living and working in Japan. After the Navy, he attended the University of Minnesota where he earned a Ph.D. in 1977. Gudykunst was a prolific author and editor of more than 28 books, including
Bridging Differences
(1998),
Cross‐Cultural and Intercultural Communication
(2003), and
Communicating with Strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communication
.
Health
Authors: Ronzani Telmo Mota , de Freitas Araujo Saulo 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

In 1948, the concept of
health
was defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a “complete, biological, social, psychological and spiritual wellbeing.” This definition received some criticism however, because it lacks operationality and because by its standards most people fall somehow within the scope of “illness,” which may lead to a medicalization of society. Despite such criticism, this definition is still broadly used and relates to an important conception, according to which being healthy depends not only on not being sick, but also a number of other factors. Moreover, it reinforces the idea that health is much more than absence of diseases, including also the promotion of preventive actions and quality of life.
Heterogeneous (Loose) Culture
Authors: Fernanda Espinola Maria 
Published: October 2013

AbstractHeterogeneous or loose cultures have no clear or strict rules regarding how individuals should behave. If clear rules exist, members of the culture are unlikely to follow them or the culture is unlikely to enforce them. The opposite of a heterogeneous or loose culture is a homogenous or tight culture. However, cultures differ on the extent to which they are tight or loose. Some cultures are characterized as being tight in certain contexts (e.g., religious beliefs, child‐rearing practices) and loose in other contexts (e.g., education, political orientation). The looseness or tightness of a culture may also vary according to geographical location. For example, areas in the Northeast of the United States are known for being more loose than areas in the South of the country.
High‐Context Cultures
Authors: Chung Leeva C. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall referred to high‐context cultural groups as those whose language system emphasizes how intention or meaning can best be conveyed through the context (e.g., social roles or positions) and the non‐verbal channels (e.g., pauses, silence, tone of voice) of the verbal message. In high‐context cultures, words are left unspoken in routine communication.
Hofstede, Geert H
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Barbuto Isabel G. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractGeert Hofstede is professor emeritus of organizational anthropology and international management at the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands. He is a world‐renowned Dutch social psychologist, researcher, author, and professor. Hofstede was born on October 2, 1928, in Haarlem, the Netherlands, as Gerard Hendrik Hofstede. He is best known for his landmark study on cultural differences ranging over 70 nations. He developed thecultural dimension theorythrough a model of five independent dimensions on national cultural differences, comprising 1) Power Distance, 2) Individualism, 3) Masculinity 4) Uncertainty Avoidance, and 5) Long‐Term Orientation. This model and research on its dimensions are among the most widely cited of cross‐cultural concepts.
Homogenous (Tight) Culture
Authors: Espinola Maria Fernanda 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
One of the cultural dimensions that Hofstede (1980) identified was uncertainty avoidance, which stimulated research on the differences between tight and loose cultures. Homogenous or “tight” cultures have strong values and strict rules regarding what they consider to be acceptable or unacceptable behavior. Moreover, tight cultures tend to punish members who do not adhere to the norms. The opposite of a homogenous or tight culture is a heterogeneous or loose culture. However, cultures differ in the extent to which they are tight or loose. In cultures that are extremely tight, members may be punished with death for disobeying a norm while in cultures that are not as tight, members may be criticized for not following a rule. Additionally, some cultures are characterized as being tight in certain contexts (e.g., religious beliefs, child‐rearing practices) and loose in other contexts (e.g., education, political orientation).