bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Development of a 150°C Geopig Inertial Mapping Tool for Pipeline Strain Monitoring
Authors: Dreger Bruce , Waslen Doug , Barlow James , Smith James , Clark Melissa , Westwood Stephen 
Published: December 2014

Pipeline strain monitoring using inertially-equipped pipeline inspection tools was developed in 1986 and is now an established method to identify pipe movement and associated bending strain. These pipeline inspections, however, are limited by the operating range of the electronics used in the inspection tools; these tools cannot be used for high-temperature pipelines that require strain monitoring. Suncor required that a high-temperature tool be designed and built for their 60 km Hot Bitumen (HotBit) pipeline from Firebag to Fort McMurray. Suncor approached various In-line Inspection providers to design an inertial mapping tool that would operate at temperatures to 150°C.
Suncor selected Baker Hughes Incorporated (BHI) for this development project based on their reputation and their historical development with respect to pipeline strain monitoring. This paper outlines the development process chosen for this project, the various technical challenges that were overcome, and presents the results from the In-line Inspections performed at three temperatures spanning 120 degrees.
Development and Validation of a Combined UM/UC In-Line Inspection Tool for a 36/48″ Pipeline System
Authors: Seto Laura , Hennig Thomas , Sickinger Thorsten 
Published: December 2014

Within the global integrity program of Enbridge a 36/48″ dual diameter pipeline with a total length of approximately1800 km needs to be inspected for wall thickness and axial cracking in a single run. The line consists of 29 sections, each of an approximate length of 60 km. A challenging characteristic of the line is the 36″ launcher and 48″ receiver in 28 of the sections. Thus, the resulting outer diameter change is about 305mm or 33%. From an intelligent inspection perspective additional boundary conditions had to be taken into account, e.g. tight 1.5D bends and a medium with high attenuation — which is especially important for the crack inspection technology.
Pipeline operator and in-line inspection (ILI) vendor agreed on an extensive testing and qualification program including small scale tests (200 anomalies) and field verifications. Therefore, the operator witnessed pull tests of the 36/48″ UCM tool at the test facility in Stutensee, Germany during the development phase in 2012. The first inspection in an operating pipeline system, as part of the validation process, was made in July 2012 after only 12 months of development and construction. Some shortcomings of the tool concept were observed within the first inspection, which led to an unsuccessful run. Both parties worked closely together to implement some modifications to the tool. In 2012 and 2013 the modified tool was run a total of 29 times, with further runs planned for 2014.
The first excavations have been completed, and show an excellent correlation between tool performance and specification. Further excavations are scheduled for early 2014 that will provide additional feedback to assess and validate the tool. At the time of writing, the 36/48″ tool is fully validated for metal loss defects, and validated for cracks only up to 2.5mm in depth.
The authors will present in detail the development of the tool and the definition of the validation process. Mechanical and operational conditions are discussed. The predefined validation process of the tool is briefly presented and the test results are discussed in detail. Furthermore, field verification results are presented.
Applicability of Mandrel Elbow to High Pressure Gas Pipeline
Authors: Horikawa Hiroyuki , Toma Hideo , Yabe Yasuo , Tsukidate Mitsunori , Suzuki Nobuhisa 
Published: December 2014

Applicability of mandrel elbows to high pressure gas pipelines is discussed in this paper taking into account the seismic integrity to withstand liquefaction-induced permanent ground deformation. Bending test and FE analysis of X65, 45 deg. mandrel elbow with diameter of 24-in were conducted in order to evaluate the seismic integrity for lateral spreading due to liquefaction.
Local buckling behaviors of the closing-mode test was simulated by FEA and calculation of existing seismic design code for high pressure pipelines can estimate maximum bending angle as limit state of the mandrel elbow conservatively. The results clarify that mandrel elbows can be applied to high pressure pipelines using conventional design method including the design code and FEA. In addition, buckling behaviors of the mandrel elbow were similar to those of high-frequency induction bends which have been used for high pressure pipelines in Japan.
Advanced Techniques for Establishing Long-Term Performance of Composite Repair Systems
Authors: Alexander Chris 
Published: December 2014

Although composite materials are used to repair and reinforce a variety of anomalies in high pressure transmission gas and liquid pipelines, there continues to be widespread debate regarding what constitutes a long-term composite repair. The United States regulations require that composite repairs must be able to permanently restore the serviceability of the repaired pipeline, while in contrast the Canadian regulations take a more prescriptive approach by integrating the ASME PCC-2 and ISO 24817 composite repair standards along with a requirement for establishing a 50-year design life.
In this paper the author provides a framework for what should be considered in qualifying a composite repair system for long-term performance by focusing on the critical technical aspects associated with a sound composite repair. The presentation includes a discussion on establishing an appropriate composite design stress using the existing standards, using full-scale testing to ensure that stresses in the repair do not exceed the designated composite design stresses, and guidance for operators in how to properly integrate their pipeline operating conditions to establish a design life. By implementing the recommendations presented in this paper, operators will be equipped with a resource for objectively evaluating the composite repair systems used to repair their pipeline systems.
Identification Method of Oil Pipelines Technical Condition Based Upon Multigraph Models
Authors: Vladova A. 
Published: December 2014

The problem of technical condition identification of aging oil pipelines in Russian Federation and in the world is relevant, since a significant number of them have been in service for over 30 years. More and more of them are getting closer to running out of normative resources. Within a method for reducing the size of task of identifying the technical condition of oil pipelines there were created special types of multigraph models (MGM) with interval-valued states of geometric characteristic of metallic shell defects.
Depending on oil pipelines operation time, the behavior of proposed models has been examined and operating performance with due account for technical condition identification has been determined, also the possibility of diminishing scope of inspections and repair works was shown. Multigraph models proposed here contain a set of states, which were singled out for the first time according to the analogue variable and are connected with multidirectional arcs with intensities of damage calculated on the relative amount of defects in the states.
Limit States Design for Onshore Pipelines: Methodology and Implications
Authors: Nessim Maher A. , Adianto Riski H. , Stephens Mark J. 
Published: December 2014

A limit states design approach for onshore pipelines has been developed as part of a three-year joint industry project. The approach covers both natural gas and low vapor pressure (LVP) liquid pipelines and addresses key design conditions, including burst, equipment impact loads and plastic deformations during hydrostatic testing. The results are described in a set of design guidelines that can be used as a basis for a limit states design standard.
The design methodology is based on two limit states categories, namely ultimate limit states representing large leaks and ruptures, and serviceability limit states representing excessive deformations. For ultimate limit states, a safety class system is used to characterize pipelines based on the anticipated severity of failure consequences as determined by pressure, diameter, product, population density and environmental sensitivity. Simple deterministic design rules are then developed to ensure that appropriate reliability levels are met for each limit state category and each safety class.
Comparisons between the wall thicknesses resulting from limit states and conventional design methods are given for a wide range of pipeline diameters, pressures, grades and location classes (for gas pipelines). The results show that the limit states design approach results in thicker walls for small diameter pipelines (especially in highly populated or environmentally sensitive areas) and lower wall thicknesses for larger diameter, higher pressure pipelines (especially in areas with low population densities). The reason for this trend is explained and the potential for its acceptance by designers and regulators is discussed.
Ductile Fracture Behavior of Bainite-MA Dual Phase Steels
Authors: Shimamura Junji , Yasuda Kyono , Ishikawa Nobuyuki , Endo Shigeru 
Published: December 2014

In order to achieve safety and reliability of the pipeline installed in seismic region, it is quite important to apply the high-strength linepipes with sufficient strain capacity against buckling and weld fracture by the seismic ground movement. Dual-phase microstructure control is an essential measure for improving strain capacity of linepipe steels. Ferrite-bainite or bainite-MA microstructures are practically applied to the linepipes for the strain-based design to achieve higher deformability which has low Y/T (Yield/Tensile strength) ratio and high uniform elongation even after pipe coating. On the other hand, dual-phase steels tend to show lower Charpy energy in the upper shelf region than single-phase steel. It is considered that void nucleation and growth is enhanced in the dual-phase steels due to the strain concentration at the boundary between two different phases, resulting in early cracking in the specimen that leads to lower Charpy energy.
The Charpy energy of the bainite-MA dual-phase steels was strongly affected by the volume fraction and size of MA. In the case of Bainite-MA steels with fewer volume fraction of MA and smaller size of MA, the sample showed higher Charpy energy. Ductile fracture behavior was investigated through several kinds of Charpy impact tests in order to clarify the effect of these microstructure differences on the Charpy energy in the upper shelf region. From the SEM observation, it was found that void nucleation was enhanced in the sample with higher volume fraction of MA and larger size of MA. It is considered that the increase of boundary area that works as void nucleation site affected these results. Experimental results were mainly discussed in this paper.
Allowable Pressure Cycling Limits for Liquid Pipelines
Authors: Sutton Aaron , Hubert Yvan , Textor Steven , Haider Syed 
Published: December 2014

While pressure fluctuation is an inherent part of operating pipelines, review of historic operations of several pipelines in the years leading up to a failure shows a trend in the severity level of the pressure cycling. It was recognized that moderate to severe levels of pressure cycling are not acceptable on a pipeline for an extended period of time. As a result, pipelines that are operating at, or worse than this severity level have a higher likelihood of failure due to the potential fatigue crack growth induced by the pressure fluctuations.
Enbridge has developed a managed approach to addressing the ramification linked to reducing pressure cycling on its system to address both existing and new assets. This approach is presented in paper IPC2014-33485 “Pressure Cycle Management”. This paper discusses the particulars for establishing targets to help with driving and monitoring the success of pressure cycling mitigation activities.
Each pipeline is given different pressure cycling targets using a risk based approach taking into account the current condition and pipe properties of the pipeline, i.e. cracking susceptibility. Factors like feature population and distribution, vintage of pipe, longseam weld type, failure history, ILI technology used to inspect the pipeline, and when the last hydrostatic test took place are taken into account when determining the pressure cycling targets. The more susceptible to in-service crack growth that a pipeline represents, the more stringent the pressure cycling targets will be.
Pressure cycling severity is determined with a methodology based on TTO Number 5 and fatigue modeling. The challenge is in converting the pressure cycling severity target into meaningful cycling targets that can be used to reduce the cycling. The severity target is transformed into typical maneuvers performed on the pipeline to give operators and schedulers an idea of how many cycles and of what magnitude they have to work with to still meet the cycling severity target.
Inspection Technologies for Traditionally “Unpiggable” Liquid Pipelines
Authors: Higgins Amy , Dale Ryan , Ellestad Brian , McTavish Mark 
Published: December 2014

Enbridge safely operates thousands of miles of piggable pipelines throughout North America. Within stations and terminals however, much of this piping has been uninspectable using conventional free-swimming in-line inspection technologies due to design and/or operating conditions. As a result, other direct assessment inspection techniques have been used to determine the condition of these assets. Seeing the need for smarter and more effective inspection and screening technologies for unpiggable pipes, many inspection tool vendors have developed new tools that can inspect these lines, although these often require pipe modifications.
The Enbridge’ Facilities Integrity group manages the integrity of all unpiggable piping and associated piping components associated with approximately 25 tank farms and over 150 pump stations. Inspections are planned based on a systematic analysis of integrity threats and consequence based risk factors. Inspection techniques are selected on a case-by-case basis to best manage the integrity of the asset based on the defined threats. Successful execution of these inspections is dependent on support from many functional areas. The effectiveness of the procedures for the planning, resources, inspection, repair/remediation, and incorporation of the findings is critical to the success of the program.
Enbridge is constantly looking for proven technology that will improve the integrity management of these assets. Enbridge is also actively supporting the development of new technologies that, once proven, will change the way we think about integrity management. Tethered inspection tools, bi-directional free swimming tools and tools that can navigate tight fittings and short radius bends are just a few of the new and innovative in-line inspection technologies Enbridge has been investigating over the past few years. In addition, Enbridge is currently involved in trials and validation of several inspection tools for the purposes of initial screening including guided wave technology, above ground screening methods, and tools that can detect corrosion under insulation.
This paper will discuss Enbridge’s experience with these new inspection technologies, highlighting the planning and preparation required to successfully complete these inspections, the benefits and challenges associated with these technologies, and the ongoing work being done to improve the application of these technologies in the future.
Assessment of an Existing Hot Tap Connection on the Bord Gáis Éireann Brighouse Bay Gas Export Terminal
Authors: Boothby Peter , Canty Graham , Andrews Robert , Slater Simon 
Published: December 2014

A previous IPC conference paper (1) described the technical challenges associated with the installation of a new hot tap connection, supplementary to an existing hot tap connection, on the Bord Gáis Éireann Brighouse Bay high pressure gas export terminal in the UK. Work carried out to verify that the hot tap connection would be fit for purpose included a pipe stress analysis, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA). These assessments were performed because the split tee shell thickness and consequently also the circumferential fillet weld leg lengths did not achieve the 2 × carrier pipe thickness criterion required by UK specifications for applications where design stress levels exceed 30% specified minimum yield strength.
Subsequently, it was identified that the existing hot tap connection installed in 2001 also did not meet the 2 × carrier pipe thickness criterion. Furthermore the material grade was lower than that for newer hot tap, i.e. P355 compared with P460 and the tee had been chamfered down from 50 mm to 40 mm at the ends, leading to reduced section circumferential fillet welds. This resulted in a leaner design than that for the newer hot tap and an ASME B31.3 area replacement calculation revealed that the area replacement ratio barely achieved the 1.0 requirement of the code suggesting a limited tolerance to system loading. Consequently similar stress analysis, FEA and ECA assessments to those previously undertaken were also subsequently performed for the existing hot tap connection. This paper provides details of the analyses and results obtained to determine the integrity of the existing hot tap split tee assembly which required a bespoke approach and a need to challenge conventional thinking.
Pipeline Integrity Data: Managing Past, Present, Future
Authors: Porter Todd , Donaho Darrell 
Published: December 2014

The pipeline industry has recognized the need for an improved process to manage pipeline integrity data, in order to better serve the needs of; business, operations and engineering, to satisfy corporate governance requirements and state and federal regulatory compliance. The use of an industry data model such as Pipeline Open Data Standard (PODS), provides the foundational database structure for storing pipeline construction, operations and maintenance data. This provides an effective means to understand current state of the pipeline, but is not designed to store historical and large volume data sets.
Kinder Morgan along with other pipeline operators, presented a requirement and provided guidance on development of a Managed Integrity Data Process (MIDP) platform that augments typical PODS database implementations. This approach uses extensible methods and structure to further enable storage of the complete history of the pipeline and facilitate; time series analysis, trending, forecasting, and prioritization, to support integrity management decisions. The platform includes; data alignment tools for condition assessment from ILI/CIS surveys, management of pipeline history and providing an environment to deliver quick, accurate, and complete access to the integrity data via a WEB-UI.
In addition to storing pipeline condition information, the database architecture and surrounding process tools manage changes in pipeline position resulting from; relocation / reroutes, replacement and resurvey, while maintaining associated data attributes with these spatial location changes. The user has a complete GIS graphical view and synchronized tabular data view, showing changes to not only attributes, but changes in Class Location, HCA’s, and Risk results. This enables enhanced root cause, trend and forecasting capabilities. This paper will discuss; implementation, experience gained, and the value points within the various stakeholder groups, from the pipeline operator perspective.
Practical Applications of Bed Scour Calculations: Two Case Studies
Authors: Burge Leif M. , Chaput-Desrochers Laurence , Guthrie Richard 
Published: December 2014

Pipelines can be exposed at water crossings where rivers lower the channel bed. Channel bed scour may cause damage to linear infrastructure such as pipelines by exposing the pipe to the flow of water and sediment. Accurate estimation of depth of scour is therefore critical in limiting damage to infrastructure. Channel bed scour has three main components: (1) general scour, (2) bed degradation, and (3) pool depth. General scour is the temporary lowering of the channel bed during a flood event. Channel bed degradation is the systematic lowering of a channel bed over time. Pool depth is depth of pools below the general bed elevation and includes the relocation of pools that result from river dynamics.
Channel degradation is assessed in the field using indicators of channel incision such as channel bed armoring and bank characteristics, through the analysis of long profiles and sediment transport modelling. Pool depth is assessed using long profiles and channel movement over time. The catastrophic nature of bed lowering due to general scour requires a different assessment. A design depth of cover is based on analysis of depth of scour for a given return period (eg. 100-years). There are three main steps to predict general scour: (1) regional flood frequency analysis, (2) estimation of hydraulic variables, and (3) scour depth modelling. Typically, four scour models are employed: Lacey (1930), Blench (1969), Neill (1973), and Zeller (1981), with the average or maximum value used for design depth.
We provide herein case studies for potential scour for pipeline water crossings at the Little Smoky River and Joachim Creek, AB. Using the four models above, and an analysis of channel degradation and pool depth, the recommended minimum depth of cover of 0.75 m and 0.142 m, respectively, were prescribed. Variability between scour models is large. The general scour model results varied from 0.45 m and 0.75 m for the Little Smoky River and 0.16 m to 0.51 m for Joachim Creek. While these models are more than 30 years old and do not adequately account for factors such as sediment mobility, they nevertheless do provide usable answers and should form part of the usual toolbox in water crossing scour calculations.
Managing Large Tank API 653 Re-Inspection Projects
Authors: Greaves Thomas H. 
Published: December 2014

Every 20 years hydrocarbon storage tanks are taken out of service for API 653 mandated inspections and repairs. While the tanks are out of service other work is often completed. This paper chronicles the steps taken to ensure all the work is identified, budgeted for, scheduled, and completed in a timely and cost effective manner.
This paper assumes the reader has a working knowledge of atmospheric hydrocarbon storage tanks.
On KLJN-based Secure Key Distribution in Vehicular Communication Networks
Authors: Cao X. , Saez Y. , Pesti G. , Kish L. B. 
Published: December 2014

In a former paper [Fluct. Noise Lett. 13 (2014) 1450020] we introduced a vehicular communication system with unconditionally secure key exchange based on the Kirchhoff-Law–Johnson-Noise (KLJN) key distribution scheme. In this paper, we address the secure KLJN key donation to vehicles. This KLJN key donation solution is performed lane-by-lane by using roadside key provider equipment embedded in the pavement. A method to compute the lifetime of the KLJN key is also given. This key lifetime depends on the car density and gives an upper limit of the lifetime of the KLJN key for vehicular communication networks.