bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Electronic Nose Sensors
Authors: Dini Francesca , Di Natale Corrado 
Published: June 2015

The aggregation of gas sensors into arrays was introduced to overcome the limited selectivity of solid‐state gas sensors. Indeed, when complemented by a multivariate data analysis technique, such as those used in chemometrics, sensor arrays might allow for the quantification and identification of compounds with a performance well beyond that of a single device. Such arrays have a very close similitude with the properties of the olfactory receptor neurons. Indeed, similarly to sensors, the selectivity of olfactory receptor neurons is also limited, so that a single olfactory receptor neuron senses many compounds and more than one olfactory receptor neuron sense the same compound. The recognition of a specific compound or a specific blend of compounds is then achieved by the collective response of the olfactory receptor neurons. Due to this parallel between olfaction and gas sensor arrays, the latter ones are now currently nicknamed as “electronic noses.”
In this article, an overview of the sensor technology mostly used for electronic noses is presented together with a discussion about the data analysis methods that enable the recognition of odors from the electronic nose signals. Finally, a short overview of the application of electronic noses to practical cases is provided.
Gait Recognition: Databases, Representations, and Applications
Authors: Makihara Yasushi , Matovski Darko S. , Nixon Mark S. , Carter John N. , Yagi Yasushi 
Published: June 2015

There has been a considerable progress in automatic recognition of people by the way they walk since its inception almost 20 years ago: There is now a plethora of techniques and data that continue to show that a person's gait is indeed unique. Gait recognition is a behavioral biometric that is available even at a distance from a camera when other biometrics may be occluded, obscured, or suffering from insufficient image resolution (e.g., a blurred face image or a face image occluded by mask). Since gait recognition does not require subject cooperation due to its noninvasive capturing process, it is expected to be applied for criminal investigation from CCTV footages in public and private places. This article introduces current progress, a research background, and basic approaches for gait recognition in the first three sections, and two important aspects of gait recognition, the gait databases and gait feature representations, are described in the following sections.Publicly available gait databases are essential for benchmarking individual approaches, and such databases should contain a sufficient number of subjects as well as covariate factors to realize statistically reliable performance evaluation and also robust gait recognition. Gait recognition researchers have therefore built such useful gait databases that incorporate subject diversities and/or rich covariate factors.Gait feature representation is also an important aspect for effective and efficient gait recognition. We describe the two main approaches to representation: model‐free (appearance‐based) approaches and model‐based approaches. In particular, silhouette‐based model‐free approaches predominate in recent studies and many have been proposed and are described in detail.Performance evaluation results of such recent gait feature representations on two of the publicly available gait databases are reported: USF Human ID with rich covariate factors such as views, surface, bag, shoes, and time elapse and OU‐ISIR LP with more than 4000 subjects. Since gait recognition is suitable for criminal investigation, applications of the gait recognition to forensics are addressed with real criminal cases in the application section. Finally, several open problems of the gait recognition are discussed to show future research avenues of the gait recognition.
Uncertainty in training image‐based inversion of hydraulic head data constrained to ERT data: Workflow and case study
Authors: Hermans Thomas , Nguyen Frédéric , Caers Jef 
Published: June 2015

AbstractIn inverse problems, investigating uncertainty in the posterior distribution of model parameters is as important as matching data. In recent years, most efforts have focused on techniques to sample the posterior distribution with reasonable computational costs. Within a Bayesian context, this posterior depends on the prior distribution. However, most of the studies ignore modeling the prior with realistic geological uncertainty. In this paper, we propose a workflow inspired by a Popper‐Bayes philosophy that data should first be used to falsify models, then only be considered for matching. We propose a workflow consisting of three steps: (1) in defining the prior, we interpret multiple alternative geological scenarios from literature (architecture of facies) and site‐specific data (proportions of facies). Prior spatial uncertainty is modeled using multiple‐point geostatistics, where each scenario is defined using a training image. (2) We validate these prior geological scenarios by simulating electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) data on realizations of each scenario and comparing them to field ERT in a lower dimensional space. In this second step, the idea is to probabilistically falsify scenarios with ERT, meaning that scenarios which are incompatible receive an updated probability of zero while compatible scenarios receive a nonzero updated belief. (3) We constrain the hydrogeological model with hydraulic head and ERT using a stochastic search method. The workflow is applied to a synthetic and a field case studies in an alluvial aquifer. This study highlights the importance of considering and estimating prior uncertainty (without data) through a process of probabilistic falsification.
Replicating the 1970s' Weddell Polynya using a coupled ocean‐sea ice model with reanalysis surface flux fields
Authors: Cheon Woo Geun , Lee Sang‐Ki , Gordon Arnold L. , Liu Yanyun , Cho Chang‐Bong , Park Jong Jin 
Published: June 2015

AbstractThe 1970s' Weddell Polynya is simulated in the framework of a coupled ocean‐sea ice model forced by reanalysis surface flux fields. A rapid emergence of strongly negative wind stress curl over the Weddell Sea intensifies the cyclonic Weddell gyre and thus causes the relatively warm and salty Weddell Deep Water (WDW) to upwell, generating an open‐ocean polynya by melting sea ice or hindering its formation. Once the polynya occurs in the austral winter, the underlying water column is destabilized due to the combined effect of the high‐salinity WDW, a massive cooling at the air‐sea interface, and the ensuing brine rejection from newly forming ice, thus inducing open‐ocean deep convection. Further analysis shows that the buildup of a large heat reservoir at depth by the mid‐1970s was a necessary condition to establish the Weddell Polynya of the 1970s.
Use of a forest sapwood area index to explain long‐term variability in mean annual evapotranspiration and streamflow in moist eucalypt forests
Authors: Benyon Richard G. , Lane Patrick N. J. , Jaskierniak Dominik , Kuczera George , Haydon Shane R. 
Published: June 2015

AbstractMean sapwood thickness, measured in fifteen 73 year old Eucalyptus regnans and E. delegatensis stands, correlated strongly with forest overstorey stocking density (R2 0.72). This curvilinear relationship was used with routine forest stocking density and basal area measurements to estimate sapwood area of the forest overstorey at various times in 15 research catchments in undisturbed and disturbed forests located in the Great Dividing Range, Victoria, Australia. Up to 45 years of annual precipitation and streamflow data available from the 15 catchments were used to examine relationships between mean annual loss (evapotranspiration estimated as mean annual precipitation minus mean annual streamflow), and sapwood area. Catchment mean sapwood area correlated strongly (R2 0.88) with catchment mean annual loss. Variation in sapwood area accounted for 68% more variation in mean annual streamflow than precipitation alone (R2 0.90 compared with R2 0.22). Changes in sapwood area accounted for 96% of the changes in mean annual loss observed after forest thinning or clear‐cutting and regeneration. We conclude that forest inventory data can be used reliably to predict spatial and temporal variation in catchment annual losses and streamflow in response to natural and imposed disturbances in even‐aged forests. Consequently, recent advances in mapping of sapwood area using airborne light detection and ranging will enable high resolution spatial and temporal mapping of mean annual loss and mean annual streamflow over large areas of forested catchment. This will be particularly beneficial in management of water resources from forested catchments subject to disturbance but lacking reliable long‐term (years to decades) streamflow records.
Language
Authors: Osterhout Lee 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

Unlike the communicative systems of other species, human language allows us to transmit an essentially unlimited set of meanings to other people. Spoken language is an evolved skill and is acquired at an early age by all normally developing humans. Written language is a human invention that must be intentionally learned. The unique expressive power of language derives from the human ability to combine smaller units of language into larger ones, at multiple levels. Sounds can be combined to form words, morphemes can be combined to form complex words and words can be combined to form phrases, clauses and sentences. These combinations are governed by complex grammatical rules. Language production and comprehension are ‘real‐time’ processes that rely on specific cognitive abilities and neural circuitry. Information about the neurobiology of language comes from studying the consequences of brain lesions and from electrophysiological and brain imaging studies of healthy individuals.

Key Concepts

Human language is an evolved system for transmitting an enormous array of specific meanings.

The lexicon is a store of symbols for concepts, and syntax is a body of rules for combining them.

The speech planning process is revealed by a careful study of speech errors.

Our ability to perceive distinctive speech sounds depends on
categorical perception
.

We compute separate representations of sentence meaning and grammatical form.

The brain region most closely linked to language is the cortex surrounding the sylvian fissure in the left hemisphere.

Specific language disorders can occur with restricted damage to particular brain structures or regions.
Orbiviruses and Bluetongue Virus
Authors: Mertens Peter , Mohd Jaafar Fauziah , Attoui Houssam 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

Bluetongue virus
(BTV) is the type species of the genus
Orbivirus
within the family
Reoviridae
(the largest double‐stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA) virus family). BTV is an arthropod‐borne pathogen that is transmitted by the bites of its vector, the
Culicoides
biting midges, which transmit the virus between its ruminant hosts. The virus can infect most species of domestic and wild ruminants. BT clinical signs are most common in sheep and some species of deer. In recent years, the distribution of BTV has changed considerably, particularly in Europe. New outbreaks have occurred each year from 1998 in southern and central Europe, involving several strains from 10 different serotypes. In 2006, BTV serotype 8 caused an outbreak approximately 5° further north in Europe than ever before, infecting ruminants in a wide area across northern Europe. A new virus (
Toggenburg virus
) has been identified in goats from Switzerland in 2008 and designated as the twenty‐fifth serotype of BTV and another one isolated from goats in Corsica in France more recently and was designated as serotype 27. Additional serotypes have been detected/isolated, bringing now the number of serotypes to 29.

Key Concepts

Genus
Orbivirus
is the most diverse genus of family
Reoviridae
containing 32 virus species.

Bluetongue disease affects mainly sheep causing severe clinical signs and high mortality.

Bluetongue virus
is transmitted by competent species of
Culicoides
midges.

Phylogenetic analysis identifies two major groups of orbiviruses, those with their subcore shell protein (T2 protein) being the VP2 and those with the T2 being VP3. Orbiviruses are nonturreted members of family
Reoviridae
, and the atomic structure of BTV core has been determined.
Pathogenic Viruses: Clinical Detection
Authors: Zuckerman Mark 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

The clinical and laboratory diagnosis of the viral aetiology of an individual's illness involves understanding their clinical symptoms and signs, how the host's immune system responds to a viral infection as well as which diagnostic tests are the most sensitive and specific to detect that virus or the host's immune response. Once the choice of test is made, the correct specimen must be collected and the results of these tests interpreted in the context of the clinical picture. Detection of viral RNA and DNA has revolutionised clinical virology and has resulted in being able to detect emerging virus infections and measure the amount of the virus, known as viral load, in different samples. These tests are critical in monitoring viral infections as well as the response to antiviral therapy. In addition, automated nucleotide sequence analysis has helped in the investigation of outbreaks of infection.

Key Concepts

Viral infections cause a broad range of illness which depends on viral virulence, susceptibility of the host and in particular whether the host is immunocompetent or immunocompromised. The host immune response may also be critical in the pathogenesis of the infection.

The relative importance of virus‐induced or immune‐mediated pathogenesis differs for each virus, and the symptoms that occur during a viral infection may be due to either mechanism or both.

The symptoms with which the patient presents to the doctor and the signs that the doctor notes during a physical examination are important guides to make a differential diagnosis.

Specific symptoms or symptom complexes may suggest a specific viral infection.

An understanding of the central and/or peripheral target sites where viral replication occurs, as well as the assays available for detection of virus, viral antigen or viral nucleic acid, helps decide which type of specimen to collect.

Staff safety, care in specimen separation to avoid errors and maintaining virus viability are important issues for proper handling of specimens for viral diagnosis.

Laboratory diagnostic methods are divided into viral antigen or nucleic acid detection and serological techniques.

Automated nucleic acid extraction, sample handling and real‐time PCR platforms have revolutionised nucleic acid detection and quantification, making these methods part of routine laboratory service provision.

Automated nucleotide sequence analysis can be used to determine antiviral resistance mutations and subtype or genotype of the virus and investigate outbreaks of infection.
Amyloidosis
Authors: Benson Merrill D 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

The amyloidoses are a group of β‐structure protein deposition diseases that may be systemic or localised, sporadic, hereditary or associated with chronic inflammation. Many serum proteins are capable of forming β‐structure and participate in the formation of 10 nm fibrils which are the hallmark of amyloid deposits. These proteins include immunoglobulin light chains, several proteins synthesised mainly by the liver (serum amyloid A, fibrinogen, apolipoproteins AI and AII, leukocyte chemotaxin factor‐2) plus lysozyme, cystatin‐C, gelsolin and probably others not yet identified. Pathology is the result of displacement of normal tissue structures. The systemic forms of amyloidosis may cause the nephrotic syndrome and renal failure, cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure, hepatic failure and bowel dysfunction in varying combinations and degrees of severity.

Key Concepts

Amyloidosis is a generic term to designate any biologic condition where protein fibrils measure 8–12 nm and aggregate to form deposits in extracellular space of most body organs.

Many proteins have the potential to form amyloid fibrils. Some have extensive β‐structure, a prerequisite for fibril formation, while others may acquire β‐structure during catabolism (metabolic processes).

Some normal proteins have properties to form amyloid fibrils. Alzheimer β‐protein and transthyretin have this capacity.

Mutation either inherited or acquired in some proteins can accelerate the path to amyloid fibril formation.

Treatment of amyloidosis may target reduction of the amount of precursor protein available for fibril formation or alteration of metabolic processes intrinsic to the generation of amyloid fibrils.
Mixed T‐ and B‐Lymphocyte Deficiency Disorders
Authors: Vihinen Mauno 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

Mixed immunodeficiency diseases are intrinsic defects of the immune system affecting both B and T cells and thus the adaptive immune system. Mixed or combined immune deficiencies may also be associated with or secondary to other diseases. Patients have severe symptoms and the condition can be fatal unless properly treated. Early and reliable diagnosis is in many instances crucial for the efficient treatment of these diseases as delayed diagnosis and management can cause severe and irreversible complications, even the death of the patient. Combined immunodeficiencies, which are a heterogeneous disease group, appear throughout the immune system and affect several crucial genes and proteins. The symptoms and signs vary significantly between the different forms of combined immunodeficiencies. Despite variations in single factors, both B‐ and T‐cell responses are affected in these diseases.

Key Concepts

Combined immunodeficiency affects both B and T cells.

Lymphocytes are white blood cells including B and T cells.

Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation, the intravenous infusion of autologous or allogeneic stem cells collected from bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord blood, re‐establishes haematopoietic function in patients.

V(D)J recombination is genetic recombination which randomly selects and assembles segments of genes encoding specific proteins in the immune system.
Jean‐Baptiste Lamarck
Authors: Corsi Pietro 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

More quoted than read, hailed as a prophet or vilified as a confused mind, Lamarck remains an enigmatic figure in the history of evolution theories. A reading of his entire corpus reveals a naturalist who considered himself as a physicist and a natural philosopher, rivalling the great materialistic synthesis of the Enlightenment. Properties of an eternal matter and eternally active physical laws could explain the indefinite cycles of the Earth as well as the working of the nervous fluids, capable of producing all our emotional and intellectual life. Even religious ideas resulted from the operations of our brain. His reference to the giraffe stretching its neck to reach leaves occurs only three times in thousands of pages. What he was really concerned with was the explanation of the taxonomic tree in terms of non‐linear modifications gradually brought forth by extremely slow changes in the geo‐climatic environment. To him, Nature was a blind, patient and constantly active set of laws deprived of all intention or goal.
Liquid Chromatography
Authors: Mansoor Mohammad Azam 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

Liquid chromatography, with various modes, is a technique, which deals with the separation of molecules in samples by using specific solvents or buffers. Liquid chromatography or high‐pressure liquid (HPLC) is a popular quantitative analytical technique applied in many areas of chemical, biomedical and pharmaceutical sciences. HPLC is used for separation, detection and measurement of amino acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, trace elements and ions in various types of samples. It is also used for the analysis of polymorphisms in genes coding for specific proteins or enzymes. HPLC is widely used in diagnostic and research purposes in industry, hospitals, educational and research institutions. Liquid chromatography currently accounts for about 60% of separation technology applied in life sciences worldwide. HPLC analytical methods have high assay precision, specificity and accuracy.

Key Concepts

HPLC is an important analytical technology used worldwide.

HPLC is used for the analysis of micro‐ and macromolecules in human body fluids, water and food items for research and diagnostic purposes.

HPLC is also used for the analysis of polymorphisms in genes coding for the enzymes.
Two‐Dimensional Crystallisation of Membrane Proteins and Structural Assessment
Authors: Fotiadis Dimitrios , Engel Andreas 
Published: June 2015

AbstractTwo‐dimensional (2D) crystallisation of membrane proteins reconstitutes them into their native environment, the lipid bilayer. Electron crystallography allows the structural analysis of these regular protein–lipid arrays up to atomic resolution. The crystal quality depends on the protein purity, its stability and on the crystallisation conditions. The basics of 2D crystallisation and different recent advances are reviewed and electron crystallography approaches summarised. Progress in 2D crystallisation, sample preparation, image detectors and automation of the data acquisition and processing pipeline makes 2D electron crystallography particularly attractive for the structural analysis of membrane proteins that are too small for single‐particle analyses and too unstable to form three‐dimensional (3D) crystals.Key ConceptsStructural integrity and full biological activity require membrane proteins to be embedded in the bilayer. However, structural assessment at atomic resolution can be achieved only if milligram‐amounts of purified membrane protein are available. Therefore, their solubilisation by detergent cannot be avoided. The advantages of 2D crystallisation concern the reconstitution of the membrane protein in the bilayer and the possibility to study the structure of small and large membrane proteins by electron crystallography.
Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB)
Authors: de Chadarevian Soraya 
Published: June 2015

Abstract

The Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, founded in 1962, gathered several research groups working on the structure and function of nucleic acids and proteins under one roof. The laboratory played a key role in the formation of the new science of molecular biology. Between 1962 and 2013, LMB researchers collected 10 Nobel Prizes for research performed in the laboratory, making it one of the most successful research institutions. The laboratory attracted many young researchers from around the world who spent their formative years at the LMB before moving on to set up their own laboratories, often exporting part of the LMB research culture. The LMB pursues fundamental research, but since the 1980s, it has also played an important role in technology transfer and in the creation of biotech start‐ups in the Cambridge area.

Key Concepts

The LMB was the first institution to carry the term ‘molecular biology’ in its name. It played a key role in the formation of the new science.

For a long time in Britain, the LMB was regarded as synonymous with molecular biology.

The LMB is independent from the University of Cambridge. It is funded by the Medical Research Council.

Many of the important achievements of the LMB lay in the development of innovative approaches for molecular structure determination, including X‐ray crystallography, electron microscopy, computational methods and sequencing techniques.

The Sanger Institute in Hinxton, funded by the Wellcome Trust, started out as s a spin‐off of the LMB, dedicated to the sequencing of model organisms and the human genome.

The LMB pursues fundamental research, but since the 1980s, it has also played an important role in technology transfer and in the creation of biotech start‐ups in the Cambridge area.