bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
STATISTICAL THEORY FOR LOGISTIC MENTAL TEST MODELS WITH A PRIOR DISTRIBUTION OF ABILITY
Authors: Birnbaum Allan 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe logistic model of a mental test was introduced by the present writer in Chapters 17 through 20 of Lord and Novick, Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores, where statistical inference methods were developed without assumption of a prior distribution of ability. Such a distribution is assumed in this paper, and corresponding statistical inference methods and distribution theory are developed. Results include detailed investigation of posterior distributions, given observed response patterns; point‐estimation of ability, and its mean‐squared error; and distributions of test scores and their moments. Some computational methods and detailed examples are given.
RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE AS A FACTOR IN ATTITUDINAL AND BACKGROUND DIFFERENCES AMONG COLLEGE FRESHMEN
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T. , Peterson Richard E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTDifferences among four religious preference groups–Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and those with no formal religion (NFR)–in a cross section of 1500 college freshmen were explored by means of the College Student Questionnaires, Part 1. Of the seven CSQ‐1 scales (Family Independence, Peer Independence, Liberalism, Social Conscience, Cultural Sophistication, Motivation for Grades, and Family Status), variation on five was significantly associated with religious preference even after controlling for socioeconomic status and sex. Protestant‐Catholic differences were small compared to the differences between the combined Catholic and Protestant Ss vs. non‐Christians (Jews and NFR's). Differences among Protestant denominations were also slight.
PREACHING AND PRACTICING: THE EFFECTS OF CONSISTENCIES AND DISCREPANCIES IN TUITION AND EXAMPLE ON NORM INTERNALIZATION AND VIOLATION1
Authors: Rosenhan David , Frederick Frank , Burrowes Anne 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFour simulates of child socialization were obtained by varying the extent to which a model verbally instructed and personally exhibited high or low standards of self‐reward. Greatest adherence to a stringent norm occurred among children who were taught and who observed the model practice such a norm. Children who were exposed to a self‐indulgent model tended most to violate both stringent and lenient norms and to evidence ambivalent behaviors, while those who were exposed to a child‐indulgent model violated the lenient norms least. While percept and precept were both powerfully influential for norm internalization, the latter was clearly the stronger determinant. There appeared to be implicit evidence that affective connotations are embedded in what is preached and practiced and that these may be influential for norm violation. The tendency to violate norms may also be some function of the absolute amount of reward a child obtains and the discrepancy he observes between his own rewards and those obtained by others.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN PROBABILITY LEARNING1
Authors: Wainer Howard 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA binary choice learning experiment with noncontingent reinforcement was run. It was found that if the subjects clearly understood that there was no pattern in their schedule of reinforcement, e.g., that it was completely random, they would very quickly choose the maximal gain strategy decreed by game theory. If, on the other hand, they believe that there is a pattern, and that if they “figure it out” they could be right on each trial, they would probability match in the early stages of the experiment as predicted by Estes' probability matching hypothesis. After about one thousand trials, however, the subjects' response levels come close to the extreme asymptotic generalization predicted by Edwards. An amendment to the Estes model is proposed which allows it to predict the observed behavior.
A FOUNDATION OF INTERVAL SCALE MEASUREMENT
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn axiomatization of interval scale measurement based on quaternary and dependent binary relations is presented for certain continuous sets of objects commonly encountered in psychophysics. The proposed initial assumptions appear highly suggestive and admit empirical checks. A sequence of propositions leads to the representation and uniqueness theorems in a direct and strict but rather undemanding way, as it is believed. Complete proofs are given for every step. They do not rely on concepts and results borrowed from alien branches of mathematics.
COLLEGE ACHIEVEMENT IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, HUMANITIES AND NATURAL SCIENCE: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Authors: Centra John A. , Parry Mary Ellen 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study explored the use of the regression technique to compare the mean achievement of senior classes at a number of colleges. Using freshman mean Scholastic Aptitude Test scores as predictors and senior mean Graduate Record Examination Area Test scores (Social Science, Humanities, and Natural Science) as criteria, “higher” and “lower performing” colleges were defined as those above or below the regression line by at least one standard error of estimate. The characteristics of these colleges and suggestions for further refinement of this method were discussed.
COMPUTER‐BASED VERBAL SCORE REPORTS: I. PSAT1
Authors: Harasymiw Stefan J. , Helm Carl E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA system for analyzing PSAT score profiles and producing “conversational” interpretations in the form of letters to be sent to candidates is developed. The system utilizes a problem‐oriented computer language for the description of the analysis. This description or script is then used by the computer to produce letters in a form suitable for mailing to candidates.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENT THEORY OF CERTAIN SETS ADMITTING A CONCATENATION OPERATION
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper contributes to the theory underlying unidimensional scaling on the “basis of a concatenation operation defined on pairs of objects of certain continuous and ordered sets M. After stating the axiomatic base, main emphasis is placed on inferences about structural properties of M, such as reflexivity and commutativity of the concatenation operation through an entirely nonmetric and general treatment. It is shown that reflexivity holds either throughout or just for a single element and that commutativity of two different elements holds either generally or in no instance. These statements are independent. The study employs ad hoc defined concatenation operations which formally and necessarily satisfy first the reflexivity requirement and then, in addition, commutativity. Using this means, the existence and essential uniqueness of scales of M with linear expressions for the various concatenation operations are established. The rules by which the parameters entering into these expressions change under admissible scale transformations are derived.
GROUP RISK TAKING AND FIELD DEPENDENCE‐INDEPENDENCE OF GROUP MEMBERS*
Authors: Wallach Michael A. , Kogan Nathan , Burt Roger B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIf groups of male adults are systematically composed in terms of the field dependence‐independence of their members, they exhibit a number of differences in risk‐taking phenomena. Although field‐dependent and independent groups both shift on the average toward greater risk taking after discussion, longer discussion among field dependents enhances the risky shift, while longer discussion among field independents reducesor even reverses the risky shift. Further, among field dependents but not among field independents, the larger the individual's own risky shift, the stronger his tendency to attribute a risky shift to the group of which he is a member. These together with other findings support the view that responsibility diffusion causes enhanced risk taking by field‐dependent groups.
THE TESTING SITUATION AS A POSITIVE SOURCE OF INFLUENCE1
Authors: Mulry Ray C. , Roberts Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe present study was concerned with the control of reflective effort during testing and with the effects of different testing situations in the determination of an increase in this behavior. Greatest reflective effort was predicted on difficult items in situations which emphasize to respondents that their test responses are of significance and do lead to personally relevant consequences. As predicted, reflective effort, as measured by the time taken to answer individual items, increased on difficult items as consequences of testing increased. Moreover, longest latencies were obtained on difficult items in the testing situation of greatest consequence and shortest latencies were obtained on easy items in the testing situation of least consequence. It is our contention that the unobtrusive measure of reflective effort is a useful incidental test‐taking behavior which can provide important information about the nature of the test‐taking process.
HOSTILITY IN DIPLOMATIC COMMUNICATIONS: A STUDY OF THE 1914 CRISIS
Authors: Zinnes Dina A. , Zinnes Joseph L. , McClure Robert D. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA Markovian model is proposed to account for the hostility in the diplomatic communications exchanged between the six key countries 38 days prior to the outbreak of World War I.The central assumptions of this model are that (1) the intensity of a decision maker's perception of hostility (P) depends only on the immediately preceding perception and the intensity of the hostile messages most recently received (R), and (2) that the intensity of his expression of hostility (E) depends only on his immediately preceding expression of hostility and his current perception of hostility. Preliminary tests of this model involve showing that under certain conditions the (1) P and E transition matrices are a first‐rather than zero‐order Markov chain, when R and P are held constant, respectively, and (2) R and P affect the P and E transition matrices, respectively.
A DESCRIPTION OF POINTS OF VIEW IN ESTHETIC JUDGMENTS IN TERMS OF SIMILARITY DIMENSIONS
Authors: Klein Stephen P. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTPrevious research indicated that there were three dimensions underlying the way expert judges evaluated two sets of drawings as being similar or different. Related research also disclosed that there were three viewpoints about the overall artistic quality of these drawings. In the present analyses, the drawings' factor loadings on the three similarity dimensions were correlated with their factor scores on the three viewpoints. The results of this investigation were consistent with previous descriptions of the drawings' characteristics that distinguished the different viewpoints.
“TEST‐WISENESS” ON PERSONALITY SCALES1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTest‐wiseness on self‐report personality scales was explored, using measures of accuracy in estimating the frequency of endorsement of personality items, estimating their social desirability, and identifying and “keying” items that measured the same factor, as well as indices of ability to change scores on standard personality scales when they were administered with “fake‐good” and “fake‐bad” instructions. These variables generally did not correlate with each other, and they had only moderate and scattered correlations with personality scales administered with standard instructions. The test‐wiseness measures were generally uncorrected with ability and cognitive style tests and defensiveness scales, but they did correlate consistently with social desirability response style scales.
DESIRABILITY JUDGMENTS AND SELF‐REPORTS AS PREDICTORS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the usefulness of desirability judgments of personality items as an indirect measure of the judge's personality. Self‐reports and judgments were compared on separate forms of five personality scales. With a few striking exceptions, the two kinds of measures were generally unrelated, and they had markedly different patterns of correlations with behavioral measures of conformity. In general, self‐reports only correlated with conformity for subjects who were unsuspicious about the conformity procedures, but judgments correlated with conformity for unsuspicious and suspicious subjects. Both self‐reports and judgments correlated with response styles and intelligence, but the self‐reports were more extensively involved with the response styles. The differential functioning of the two kinds of measures could not be attributed to the operation of response styles or intelligence, nor did these latter variables moderate the relationship between self‐reports and judgments.
EFFECTS OF ANGER–AROUSING INSTRUCTIONS ON PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Bloxom Bruce 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTPrevious research indicates greater negative self–report is obtained under anger–arousing conditions than under neutral conditions. In the present study, a personality questionnaire was administered under anger–arousing and neutral conditions. Differences between item means under the two conditions corroborate previous findings. Item factor analysis results are found to differ systematically between the two conditions.
TASK AND MOTIVATIONAL INFLUENCES ON THE ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVE AND INTELLECTIVE ABILITY IN CHILDREN1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Morgan Frank T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe present study was designed to test two major hypotheses: (1) that game‐like contexts will induce higher creativity levels than will test‐like contexts, and (2) that in game‐like contexts creative and intellective performance will be unrelated to each other, whereas in test‐like contexts, these two kinds of performance will be positively related. A total of 104 fifth‐grade children (52 males and 52 females) in four separate classrooms participated in the study. Two of the classrooms were assigned to the game‐like condition and the other two to the test‐like condition. Two creativity tasks of an associative type and a vocabulary test were administered. Kuhlman‐Anderson IQ scores were available for almost all subjects. No clearcut superiority for test‐ or game‐like contexts in reference to creativity level was observed. Rather, effects varied dependent upon the task, the criterion of creativity, anxiety and defensiveness levels of subjects, and the sex of the subject. With regard to the second hypothesis, overall correlational differences were not found. However, when test anxiety was employed as a moderator variable, results consistent with the hypothesis were obtained. Implications for future creativity research with children are spelled out in the paper.
THE NATURE AND CORRELATES OF LAW SCHOOL ESSAY GRADES1
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Klein Stephen P. , Hart Frederick M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between a number, of characteristics of a set of essays to the grades assigned to them. The essays were written by 79 law students from 16 law schools who answered a common question as part of their regular final exam in Contracts. High grades on the essay were found to be related to identifying and writing on major rather than minor issues, arguing both sides of an issue while pushing strongly for a particular conclusion, and using legal jargon. Poor handwriting and composition errors were related to low scores.
A SURVEY OF CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY GOVERNING BOARDS DURING 1968–1969
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA survey of the presidents of 536 institutions participating in a 1968 study of college and university trustees was conducted to determine what changes, if any, had occurred in the composition of their governing boards in the direction of greater representation of groups not previously found in such positions. The data suggest that very few institutions–only 3% of the national sample–added students or faculty members to their boards during the 18 months since the time of the original trustee study. Increases in trustees from other groups not previously well represented on governing boards, however–e.g., Negroes, women, persons under the age of 40–were substantial. Differences between types of institutions are noted.
A COMPARISON OF SCORES EARNED ON THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE BY NATIVE AMERICAN COLLEGE STUDENTS AND FOREIGN APPLICANTS TO U. S. COLLEGES
Authors: Angoff William H. , Sharon Amiel T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was administered to a group of 71 native speakers of English enrolled as freshmen at a western state university. Although as a group they scored low on ACT English–their mean fell at the 29th percentile relative to the ACT norms group of college‐bound high school seniors–their scores on all five parts of TOEFL, as well as on the total, were considerably above the mean of 34,774 foreign applicants to U. S. colleges. Moreover, their distributions were extremely narrow and highly skewed negatively, indicating that the test was much too easy for them and confirming the hypothesis that while TOEFL discriminates adequately among foreign students, it is, consistent with its design, inadequate for differentiating among native Americans. Further support to this conclusion was found in the low correlation (.64) between TOEFL and ACT English, a test which is expressly designed to differentiate among native English speakers. Finally, plots of item difficulties for the American and foreign groups revealed a clear item x group interaction. This was interpreted to signify that the items had different “meaning” for the two groups. The plots also showed that all but 17 out of the 270 items in the five parts of TOEFL were easier for the American group than for the foreign group; and within this group of 17 items, 15 represented a type of item content which afforded a ready explanation of their unusual behavior. These data all appear to point in the same direction and, in sum, support the hypothesis that TOEFL avoids the kinds of discriminations that are not intended for it. Consequently, these data are taken as clear evidence of the construct validity of the test.
SALES TECHNIQUE AND PERSONALITY AS CORRELATES OF INSURANCE SALES SUCCESS
Authors: Gordon George G. , Barrows Thomas S. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn the insurance industry it has long been accepted that agents who pursue sales leads with whom they have an entre produce outstanding sales performance. A series of interviews with agents suggested, however, that only a relatively small proportion concentrated on such leads. In order to explore this apparent paradox, the present study examined relationships between agents' actual sales and their supervisors' ratings of both their sales approach (“personal” or “impersonal”) and a personality characteristic (“ego strength”). The results suggest that the personality variable is generally related to performance while sales approach is not. Possible reasoning which could have led to the apparently incorrect belief is discussed and some suggestions regarding the findings' import for the industry are noted.
AN INNER PRODUCT MODEL FOR THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OF SYMMETRIC LAYOUTS
Authors: Bechtel Gordon G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA multidimensional scaling analysis is presented for replicated symmetric layouts of pairwise compositions. The replicates may represent individuals, situations, or blocks which contain all pairwise responses generated from a distinct set of objects or treatments. The class of replicates and the class of objects are scaled in a joint space by means of an inner product model which weights each of the dimensions of the space. Least squares estimates of the replicates' and objects' coordinates, and of unscalability parameters, are obtained through a manipulation of the error sum of squares for the model. The solution involves the decomposition of a three‐way least squares problem into three subproblems; two of these are trivial, and the third is solvable by classical least squares matrix factorization.
LIMITING THEOREMS FOR SOME GENERALIZED BUSH‐MOSTELLER MODELS1
Authors: Wolff Hans 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe learning model with experimenter‐controlled events defined by Bush and Mosteller is generalized to a model with time‐dependent learning parameters and with time‐dependent probabilities for the underlying events. The main result is a limiting theorem which in part belongs to the laws of large numbers and to the theory of stochastic approximation.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN EGO FUNCTIONING: EXPLORATORY STUDIES OF AGENCY AND COMMUNION1
Authors: Carlson Rae 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTheoretical formulations of Gutmann and of Bakan were tested in three studies of sex differences in personality. In Study 1, males were significantly more individualistic, objective, and distant in representations of self, others, space, and future. Study 2 found males predominantly “agentic” and females “communal” in reports of significant emotional experiences. In Study 3, seven general predictions from the agency‐communion formulation were tested against 200 abstracts of published research on sex differences. The formulation was judged “relevant” to over 80% of the studies; significant differences were “confirming” of the formulation in 97% of “relevant” studies. Results indicate the importance of qualitative aspects of sex differences in personality and support the agency‐communion formulation as a framework for future inquiry.
ON THE THEORY OF A SET OF TESTS WHICH DIFFER ONLY IN LENGTH1
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a contribution to the sampling theory of a set of homogeneous tests which differ only in length, test length being regarded as an essential test parameter. Observed variance‐covariance matrices of such measurements are taken to follow a Wishart distribution. The familiar true score‐and‐error concept of classical test theory is employed. Upon formulation of the basic model it is shown that in a combination of such tests forming a “total” test, the signal‐to‐noise ratio of the components is additive and that the inverse of the population variance‐covariance matrix of the component measures has all of its off‐diagonal elements equal, regardless of distributional assumptions. This fact facilitates the subsequent derivation of a statistical sampling theory, there being at most m + 1 free parameters when m is the number of component tests. In developing the theory, the cases of known and unknown test lengths are treated separately. For both cases maximum‐likelihood estimators of the relevant parameters are derived. It is argued that the resulting formulas will remain reasonable even if the distributional assumptions are too narrow. Under these assumptions, however, maximum‐likelihood ratio tests of the validity of the model and of hypotheses concerning reliability and standard error of measurement of the total test are given. It is shown in each case that the maximum‐likelihood equations possess precisely one acceptable solution under rather natural conditions. Application of the methods can be effected without the use of a computer. Two numerical examples are appended by way of illustration.