bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
ARE BAYESIAN DECISIONS ARTIFICIALLY INTELLIGENT? THE EFFECT OF TASK AND PERSONALITY ON CONSERVATISM IN PROBABILISTIC INFERENCE1
Authors: Alker Henry A. , Hermann Margaret G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA 2 × 3 design was used to explore the effects of complexity and importance of decision on conservatism in probabilistic inference. 120 undergraduate males considered either two or three alternatives for one of three problems differing in perceived importance. Upon receiving certain information, subjects indicated which of the several alternative explanations for their problem was more or most probable. These probability statements were compared with “optimal” probabilities arrived at using Bayes' theorem. The more important and complex the decisions were perceived to be, the more conservative the subjects were when compared to “optimal” Bayesian values (p < .01). The differences were more pronounced as the number of alternatives to be considered increased (p < .01). Seven individual difference variables measuring adequacy in processing information were unrelated to conservatism. A process analysis suggested that strongly held initial opinions can limit the judged relevance of subsequent information and, in turn, affect the “optimal” Bayesian decision.
ADDITIVE REPRESENTATIONS FOR TWO‐DIMENSIONAL TABLES
Authors: Pennell Roger 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGiven that we collect observations AiPj from two perfectly crossed factors we may be interested in fitting a model such as f(AiPj) = αi + βj. An iterative method for computing the scale values αi and βj and the function f is developed. The procedure is relevant to problems of finding monotonic transformations eliminating interaction effects preceding analysis of variance and to the classical conjoint measurement model.
THE COUNTBACK METHOD FOR ANALYZING SENSITIVITY DATA
Authors: Lewis Charles 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSensitivity data are defined as involving two response categories, with responses observed at different levels of some variable of interest. The responses are taken to indicate sensitivity to the variable, and, in this regard, may be labeled “positive” and “negative.” Of particular interest in analyzing sensitivity data is the estimation of the 50% point, the level of the variable for which the two responses are equally likely.The countback method provides confidence limits for the 50% point in the special (but important) case when only one response is observed at each level. A lower bound on the confidence coefficient for these limits can be given, assuming only independent responses and the existence of something like a 50% point. No specific model of response probabilities is required, and the variable of interest need not even be continuous.To gain a greater understanding of the countback method, we use it to analyze sensitivity data obtained in an experiment on the perception of depth in pictures. Its performance is also studied in two artificial situations, where the response probabilities can be specified exactly. In the first of these, the probability of a positive response at different levels is given by the cumulative logistic model. The second situation is highly asymmetric, using the logistic model below the 50% point and an errorless model (the positive response probability set equal to 1) above it.For purposes of comparison, two asymptotically efficient estimation methods, namely maximum likelihood and minimum χ2, are also applied to the cases described above. In the two artificial situations, where actual confidence coefficients can be determined, both of these methods fall short of their asymptotic performance levels.The countback confidence limits, by contrast, perform at a substantially higher level than that given as a lower bound by the theory. Moreover, the ability of conservatively chosen countback limits to reject null hypotheses is quite adequate for the purposes of the experiment mentioned earlier. Finally, a simple extension of the countback method to data with more than one response per level is discussed.On the basis of these results, the countback method is seen as taking a significant place among the previously existing methods for analyzing sensitivity data.Appendices are provided for those interested in statistical, simulation, experimental, and historical details.
JUDGMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY1,2
Authors: Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA multivariate analysis of judgments of desirability by 150 judges of 566 MMPI items uncovered 13 judgmental dimensions of psychopathology. The largest corresponded to the mean desirability rating, and the remaining 12 were considered judgmental points of view about the desirability of pathological content. Of these, 10 were identified as follows: Denial of lack of somatic control, Impulsivity vs. religious preoccupation, Femininity, Tolerance of deviance, Oversensitivity and fearfulness, Socially deviant attitudes, Impulse acceptance vs. grandiosity, Listless distractibility, Worry, and Timid cautiousness vs. masculine adventuresomeness. Judgment scales based upon these dimensions proved to be at least moderately reliable, as did the majority of response scales obtained by scoring self‐descriptive responses to these items in two independent samples. Correlations between judgment and response measures of the same dimensions varied over a wide range. Discussion highlighted the complexity of interpreting judgmental viewpoints as trait measures, the role of defensiveness and other response styles as mediators, and the importance of distinguishing trait from method variance.
MOTIVATION AND CAPACITY IN CHILDREN'S CREATIVITY1
Authors: Ward William C. , Kogan Nathan , Pankove Ethel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn attempt was made to distinguish between capacity and motivational interpretations of individual differences in children's creativity. Creativity tasks required the child to name as many ideas as he could that met a simple problem requirement. Tasks were given under “base line” conditions and with a reward of one cent for each idea given. If task motivation is the critical determinant of performance, reward should decrease the differences between high and low scorers by decreasing the range of motivation with which the task is approached. However, if these individual differences reflect capacity, reward should increase or leave unchanged the difference in number of ideas given by more and less fluent children.Reward led to an increase in mean number of ideas which was consistent across levels of creativity. Thus, while motivating conditions may alter the level at which the group performs, the data suggest that individual differences in performance derive from differences in capacity rather than motivation for divergent ideational production.
ESTIMATION AND TESTING OF SIMPLEX MODELS
Authors: Jöreskog Karl G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTVarious statistical models for simplex structures are formulated in terms of the well‐known Wiener and Markov stochastic processes. A distinction is made between a perfect simplex and a quasi simplex. For each model the problems of Identification and estimation of the parameters and that of testing the goodness of fit of the model are considered. All models may be estimated by a general method for covariance structures developed by Jöreskog (1970), but in some cases simpler methods may be used, in which case these are presented.
REGIONS OF SIGNIFICANT CRITERION DIFFERENCES IN APTITUDE‐TREATMENT‐INTERACTION RESEARCH1
Authors: Cahen Leonard S. , Linn Robert L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThree techniques (Johnson‐Neyman, Potthoff, & Erlander & Gustavsson) for obtaining confidence regions for the difference between regression surfaces are compared. The techniques are potentially useful for analyzing data from aptitude‐treatment‐interaction research (ATI). The three techniques are found to yield substantially different sized confidence regions when applied to the same data, therefore possibly leading to different decisions in an aptitude‐treatment‐interaction study.
FACTOR ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS SCHOOL GRADES
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGrade point averages are sometimes criticized as criteria for predictor studies on the grounds that they report an uncontrolled conglomeration of different underlying abilities. However, a factor analytic examination of the grades obtained at two graduate schools of business indicated that the grades were factorily simple, requiring the postulation of only one underlying ability.
FACTORIAL INVARIANCE OF ABILITY MEASURES IN GROUPS DIFFERING IN INTELLIGENCE AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS1
Authors: McGaw Barry , Jöreskog Karl G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTScores on 12 aptitude and achievement tests for 11, 743 subjects, subdivided into four groups according to intelligence and socioeconomic status, were used. A technique, developed by Jöreskog, for simultaneously factor analyzing data from several populations was used to determine whether there was factorial invariance over the four groups.A model, in which the same factor pattern (matrix of factor loadings) was assumed to hold for the four groups, was fitted to the data. Goodness of fit indices suggested the model fitted satisfactorily. Differences in the factor dispersion matrices and mean factor scores for the subpopulations were then examined and discussed.
EFFECTIVENESS OF REMEDIATION IN JUNIOR COLLEGE1
Authors: Sharon Amiel T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTRandomly selected groups of students required to take remedial courses at two community colleges were placed in regular courses on an experimental basis. The experimentally placed students were compared with those who enrolled in a regular course after passing a remedial course and with those who did not require remediation. Comparisons were made on ability, interest, motivation, persistence, and performance. The English remedial course had no effect on student satisfaction but produced a small improvement in subsequent performance. The mathematics remedial course eliminated some of the dissatisfaction with the regular course and had a significant effect on subsequent course work. The placement procedures appeared to be more effective in assigning students to appropriate mathematics than to English courses.
COMPONENT SELECTION IN FOUR‐, EIGHT‐, AND TWELVE‐YEAR‐OLD CHILDREN1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Morgan Judith S. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA method was devised for examining developmental changes in children's component selection–i.e., the disposition to discriminate among stimuli on the basis of a selected component. In an experiment to develop an optimal measure, problems of three levels of difficulty were administered to children of ages 4, 8, 10, and 12. According to data from an initial phase of the task, the problem of intermediate difficulty level, involving five stimuli, proved to be the most appropriate for developmental assessment of component selection. Results for this problem indicated a general tendency for children to select the shape component of stimuli differing in color and shape, with little developmental change in this tendency. In a second experiment, using similar materials, component selection was found to decrease from ages 4 to 8 and to remain constant from ages 8 to 12. These results were interpreted to be inconsistent with the notion, implied by certain theories, that children's tendency to exercise component selection should increase with age. Further information regarding this process was provided by (a) a three‐dimensional measure in the first experiment and (b) two variations of the task in the second experiment that were designed to ensure attention to shape.
INTERRELATIONS IN CHILDREN'S LEARNING OF VERBAL AND PICTORIAL PAIRED ASSOCIATES1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFour short paired‐associate tasks were administered to 144 subjects at each of grades 3 and 6 and 112 subjects at grade 9. The four tasks, entitled Pictures, Concrete Words, Abstract Words, and Japanese Characters, contained response elements of the types indicated in their titles. Planned comparisons in mean level of performance involved the first three tasks. Performance on Pictures was found to be superior to Concrete Words, and Concrete Words was superior to Abstract Words, with the former effect reaching significance for grades 3 and 9 and the latter for grades 3 and 6. In a correlational analysis, involving all four tasks, the correlation between Pictures and Concrete Words was found to increase across grade levels to a greater degree than the correlation between any other pair of tasks. This last result was paralleled in data from an auxiliary experiment and was interpreted to suggest a developmental increase in children's use of verbal processes along with imagery to learn pictorially presented materials.
COMPARABILITY OF SCORES FROM DIFFERENT TESTS THOUGH ON THE SAME SCALE
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTScores from tests in the same battery are put on scales which are the “same” in some sense, so that certain interpretations are made easier. This is often done when scores for different tests are obtained on different population segments, especially such as newer, more varied batteries of test offerings. It is felt that traditional erroneous expectations about the meaning of scaled scores may be carried over into the new situations and hence certain of these expectations are discussed. It is suggested that when special properties of scales are considered valuable for the users of a new battery, active technical steps beyond those of traditional scaling are required to assure that these values are implemented.
MOTHER‐INFANT INTERACTION AND INFANT DEVELOPMENT AMONG THE WOLOF OF SENEGAL1
Authors: Lusk Diane , Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTCaretaker‐infant interaction within the first year of life was studied in a group of ten Wolof infants. Using observational techniques as well as standard testing procedures, several results emerge: The pattern of caretaker‐infant interaction was more strongly related to age of infant than any other variable investigated. The often‐found result that African infants show precocious development within the first year was confirmed for the Wolof. No relationship between the interaction measures and tests of cognitive and motor skills was found.
EFFICIENCY OF ESTIMATION WHEN THERE IS ONLY ONE COMMON FACTOR*
Authors: Lord Frederic M. , Wingersky Marilyn S. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTExplicit formulas are derived for the asymptotic sampling variances and covariances of the maximum likelihood estimators for factor‐analysis parameters in the special case where there is just one common factor. The effect of the number of variables on these variances and covariances is indicated. A formula is given showing to what extent the usual covariance between two of a set of variables can be estimated more efficiently when there is known to be just one common factor.
ESTIMATING PARENTS' CONTRIBUTION TO COLLEGE COSTS: THE ACCURACY OF THREE MEASURES OF SUCCEEDING YEAR FAMILY NET INCOME
Authors: Horch Dwight H. , Sharon Amiel T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe accuracy of each of three measures of future income was investigated for a sample of families who filed Parents' Confidential Statements with the College Scholarship Service in two consecutive years. The three income measures investigated were: (1) parents' reports of current (1968) income, (2) parents' estimates of 1969 income, and (3) predictions of future year (1969) income made by application of least squares regression parameters to parents' estimate of income. Two types of accuracy were considered. The first was the accuracy of prediction assessed by the correlation between the predictors (current or estimated income) and the criterion (actual 1969 income). This analysis indicated that the best single predictor of actual income was estimated income, with a validity coefficient of .86, and was followed closely by current income, with a validity coefficient of .83. The accuracy of each income measure was also investigated by assessing the median discrepancies between parents' contribution associated with each income measure and the contribution associated with actual 1969 income. Current and estimated income result with about equal frequency in substantial (>$100) undercalculations of parents' contribution; but use of current rather than estimated income would result in substantial (>$100) overcalculations for approximately 31,000 additional CSS families. In addition, needs analysis procedures that rely on either current or estimated income place low income families at a disadvantage by overstating their future year income. This study suggests least squares regression as one possible approach to remove this inequity.
ON A STATISTIC ARISING IN TESTING CORRELATION1
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

SUMMARYThis paper is devoted to the study of a certain statistic, u, defined on samples from a bivariate population with variances σ11, σ22 and correlation ρ. Let the parameter corresponding to u be ν. Under binormality assumptions the following is demonstrated. (i) If σ11 = σ22, then the distribution of u can be obtained rapidly from the F distribution. Statistical inferences about ρ = ν may be based on F. (ii) In the general case, allowing for σ11 ≠ σ22, a certain quantity involving u, r (sample correlation between the variables) and ν follows a t distribution. Statistical inferences about ν may be based on t. (iii) In the general case a quantity t' may be constructed which involves only the statistic u and only the parameter ν. If treated like a t distributed magnitude, t' admits conservative statistical inferences. (iv) The F distributed quantity mentioned in (i) is equivalent to a certain t distributed quantity as follows from an appropriate transformation of the variable. (v) Three test statistics are given which can be utilized in making statistical inferences about ρ = ν in the case σ11 = σ22. A comparison of expected lengths of confidence intervals for ρ obtained from the three test statistics is made. (vi) The use of the formulas derived is illustrated by means of an application to coefficient alpha.
FACTOR COVARIANCE ANALYSIS IN SUBGROUPS*
Authors: Pennell Roger 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe problem considered is that of an investigator sampling two or more correlation matrices and desiring to fit a model of the form . Here the factor pattern matrix, P, is assumed to be identical across samples and we need to estimate φi and Ui. A flexible, least squares solution is worked out and illustrated with an example.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AS A MODERATING INFLUENCE ON EXPECTED ACHIEVEMENT WITHIN A CURRICULUM CHOICE1
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Evans Franklin R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTMethodologies were proposed for combining background and aptitude and/or achievement information in an approach to the classification problem using the concept of under‐ and overachievement. The methodologies were applied to independent samples from four high school curricula. The results suggest that when past achievement and/or aptitudes were held constant (1) groups characterized by overachievement in all four curricula had similar backgrounds as defined by their level and pattern of responses to five biographical variables, (2) groups characterized by underachievement in the four curricula appeared to have similar response patterns but had more variation with respect to level and (3) underachieving groups regardless of curricular choice reported that they spent more time on extracurricular technological projects than did overachieving groups. To a somewhat lesser extent underachievers tended to have fathers who discouraged their going on to college and they (the underachievers) also tended to spend more time on extracurricular reading.
GRADING STANDARDS: THE RELATION OF CHANGES IN AVERAGE STUDENT ABILITY TO THE AVERAGE GRADES AWARDED
Authors: Baird Leonard L. , Fiester William J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe relation of average grades awarded to the average ability of the students was studied in a large sample of colleges. The mean and standard deviation of freshman classes on an ability test, along with the mean and standard deviation of the freshman year grades obtained by classes over a five year period was available for several hundred colleges. Difference scores on the mean and standard deviations were also calculated. Correlational analyses and analyses of colleges that changed most produced the following results: 1) within any given year colleges whose incoming students were bright tended to award higher grades, but there was considerable room for variance from this trend, 2) the average ability levels of colleges change very little, even over five year periods, 3) when the average ability of students increases (or decreases) about the same level of grades are awarded. This is interpreted as suggesting that faculties as a whole have preferred distribution of grades which they use whether their current classes of students are brighter or duller than previous classes.
COMPREHENSION BY 3RD, 6TH, AND 9TH GRADERS OF WORDS HAVING MULTIPLE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS
Authors: Carroll John B. 
Published: August 2014

SUMMARYThe aim was to study the development of children's lexicogrammatical knowledge of words, in particular, their knowledge of the less frequent grammatical usages of words that may occur in more than one part of speech. To develop lists of such words, the grammatical functions of 1220 common words drawn from two word‐counts were examined; about 50 percent were found to be grammatically ambiguous. Data were collected from about 1500 children in grades 3, 6, and 9 to determine in what parts of speech 240 grammatically ambiguous words would be used when the children were asked to write sentences illustrating their uses; about 55 percent of these words were found to be used “infrequently” (according to a certain criterion) in one or more of their possible parts of speech. An intensive study was made of the comprehension, by 2000 3rd, 6th, and 9th grade children, of 65 words with infrequently used grammatical functions. For about 90 percent of these words, it was found that the children had significantly more difficulty in comprehending the infrequent grammatical functions than in comprehending the more usual grammatical functions. In many cases, grammatical function per se was a significant factor; in other cases, differential meanings of the words may also have been a factor. Developmental trends were noted, and it was concluded that acquisition of lexicogrammatical information about grammatically ambiguous words is a slow process that is far from complete even at the 9th grade level. Development of this knowledge is moderately well correlated with general vocabulary knowledge. Because lack of lexicogrammatical information is an important (and generally unrecognized) factor in comprehension difficulties, it is recommended that the English language arts curriculum pay greater attention to the explicit teaching of the less frequent grammatical functions of grammatically ambiguous words. The psycholinguistic implications of the results are discussed.
AN EXTENSION OF THE RELIABILITY CONCEPT TO VECTOR VARIABLES1
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe coefficient of precision type of reliability originally defined for scalar variables is generalized to vector variables and named vector reliability. The new coefficient ranges from zero to one. Additional basic properties of vector reliability are derived. Vector information is defined as a simple function of vector reliability. A number of properties of vector information are demonstrated in order to justify its use as a measure of information contained in a vector variable. Two applications are appended by way of illustration.