bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Augusta Treverorum (Trier)
Authors: Binsfeld Andrea 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Augusta Treverorum was established as the central location of the
civitas
of the Celtic Treveri during the Augustan era. Although there were pre‐Roman settlements in the region around the Trier valley, there are none that can be interpreted as a precursor settlement to the later Roman city (Clemens and Lohr 2002; but see Gilles 1992).
Bononia (Boulogne)
Authors: Blonce Caroline 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Roman town of Bononia (Boulogne‐sur‐Mer), in Gallia Belgica, was the most important secondary agglomeration of thecivitas Morinorum. From the first centuryBCEto the fifth centuryCE, the town grew up around two sites, Bononia and Gesoriacum. At the end of the third century or the beginning of the fourth centuryCE, it became the chief city of the newcivitas Bononensium.
Morgantina
Authors: Bell Malcolm 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLocated in east central Sicily near the town of Aidone, Morgantina was founded in the Late Bronze Age and inhabited until the first centuryCE. The foundation legend (Strabo 5.6.1; Dion. Hal.Ant. Rom. 1.12.3) held that the first settlers came from the Italian mainland. In language, material culture, and burial customs, early Morgantina was closely related to the town‐dwelling Sikels of eastern Sicily and Lipari. By ca. 600BCEimported Greek pottery reached the site, and there is extensive evidence for Greeks in the local population.
Oceanus
Authors: Beaulieu Marie‐Claire 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Oceanus was both a mythological character and a geographical reality, the Atlantic Ocean. As a mythological character, Oceanus was a Titan, the son of Ouranus and Gaia, described as a large river encircling the earth. Oceanus' offspring with Tethys were the Oceanides and all the rivers and springs of the earth, even those that flowed underground such as the Styx (Hes.
Theog
. 361, 368, 789). In some cosmogonies, Oceanus was the origin of all creatures and gods (Hom.
Il
. 14.200–1; 244–6; 301–2; Thales, DK 11, A1; 11–13;
Orph.Fr
. 15–16, 25, 107 Kern).
Rome, city of: 3. Augustan
Authors: Holliday Peter J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSince the city's appearance had not reflected its greatness and glory and was constantly plagued by floods and fires, Augustus so wholly remade it that he could justly claim that he found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. He also made it safe for posterity, as far as humanly possible. (Suet.Aug. 28).
Rome, city of: 6. Hadrianic and Antonine
Authors: Beckmann Martin 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRome reached its peakancientpopulation when, in the second centuryCE, it supported as many as one million inhabitants – a number twice that of even the largest rival city in the Mediterranean. This statistic is impressive in itself, but it is also important as a striking illustration of the unique nature of the city within the Roman Empire, where no other city even came close in total population. Rome's privileged position was due primarily to one factor: it was home to the emperor, who controlled activities in the city either directly or through the appointed prefects and other officials who by the Antonine period had supplanted the traditional senatorial magistrates responsible for the maintenance of the urban fabric and its inhabitants (Hammond 1959: 444–6). The emperor's influence on the population and the physical structure of the city can hardly be overestimated – nor can the extent to which the monuments of the capital are able in turn to illuminate the character of the ruler: the intense familial piety of Antoninus Pius, the restraint of Marcus Aurelius, the insanity of Commodus and, most interestingly of all, the mysterious character of Hadrian.
Rome, city of: 7. Severan and third century
Authors: S. Lusnia Susann 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
At the beginning of the Severan period, Rome was recovering from plague outbreaks during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus (Cass. Dio 73[72].14.3–4) and a fire that had done extensive damage to the city's center in 192 (Cass. Dio 73[72].24); Herodian 1.14.2–6; Tucci 2008).
Valentia (Valencia)
Authors: Aranegui‐Gascó Carmen 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A Latin colony called Valentia was founded (Livy
Per
. 55) in the middle of the Mediterranean coast of Hispania Citerior in 138
BCE
(
see
hispania), just before the end of the war against the Celtiberians (Viriatus was defeated in 133).
Lixus
Authors: Gascó Carmen Aranegui 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Founded in the eighth century
BCE
, Lixus (modern Larache, Morocco) was the main Phoenician town on the Atlantic coast of North Africa. Over time, it had Punic, Mauretanian, and Roman cultural phases. Along with nearby Cadix (Strabo 17.3.2), it controlled traffic through the Straits of Gibraltar (
Herakleous Stelai
).
Rubicon
Authors: Hunt Patrick 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In the first century
BCE
the Rubicon River marked the frontier boundary between Roman Italia and the province of Gallia Cisalpina, now on the Adriatic coast, where this narrow and short (ca. 27 km long) watercourse flowed into the sea from the Apennine foothills north of modern Rimini, ancient Roman Ariminium (Talbert 2000: 1, 589, 591).
Ahura Mazda
Authors: De Jong Albert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAhura Mazda was the main deity of the Zoroastrian pantheon. Ahura Mazda (“the Wise Lord”) is first attested in the Gathas of Zarathushtra, the oldest Iranian texts in existence. The Gathas are dedicated wholly to him, for they praise him above all other spiritual beings. He is eternal and uncreated, the creator of everything and the maintainer of cosmic harmony. He is wholly good, and all evil is attributed to his opponent, Angra Mainyu. Although the two parts of his name are flexible in the Old Avestan texts, his name became fixed in the Younger Avesta. It occurs as a single name in the Old Persian inscriptions, which mention him frequently, as creator of heaven and earth, maintainer of truth, and protector of the Achaemenid king.
Amazons
Authors: Mayor Adrienne 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLegendary enemies of the Greeks, Amazons were fierce archer‐horsewomen who gloried in war, hunting, and sex. From their supposed homeland on the Black Sea, they were thought to occupy the fringes of the “civilized” world (Scythia and Libya). As described by Homer, Herodotus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Pausanias, Appian, and others, the Amazon lifestyle was a reverse image of Greek maledominated society. In folk etymology,a‐mazonwas said to mean “one‐breast,” but “not breastfed” is more likely; the name may also derive from the Iranian word for “warrior.”
Angitia
Authors: Glinister Fay 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA goddess widely worshipped by the Central Appenine peoples, especially the Marsi, in whose territory she had an impressive sanctuary complex, with sacred grove, at Luco dei Marsi beside the Fucine Lake (Verg.Aen. 7.759;CILIX 3074;ILLRP7, a dedication of booty).
Cereres
Authors: Bessi Benedetta 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWith few exceptions, generally among Italic peoples, the cult of the Cereres is mainly attested in North Africa, where it was introduced by the Punic general Hamilcon in 396BCEin expiation for his attack on the sanctuary of Demeter and Kore in Syracuse (Diod. Sic. 14.63, 70, 77). After the fall of Carthage, the Numidian kings contributed to the popularity of these divinities across North Africa, and the cult was eventuallyrevived after the foundation of the Roman colony of Carthage with the institution of a priesthood and a local era in their honor.
Epona
Authors: Thornton Daniel James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Epona was a Celtic goddess characterized in the Greco‐Roman world by her protection of horses. Her worship was particularly prevalent in the Roman west, where the main centers of her cult were Gaul and the Germanic frontiers. While she initially appears to have been representative of a typical fertility goddess, over time Epona became closely associated with the Roman cavalry. In this way she became continually invoked alongside the ternary Celtic goddesses the Matres, Suleviae, and Campestres, closely connected both to the parade grounds and to the training fields of the cavalry (Irby‐Massie 1996).
Groves, sacred, Greece and Rome
Authors: Bonnechere Pierre 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe “sacred grove” (Greekalsos, pluralalse;Latinlucusornemus) is a difficult concept to define. Theoretically, it differs from wild wood, flower and vegetable garden, vineyard, and orchard. Yet the overlap among these concepts is such that precise distinction proves impossible. Since the definitions by late lexicographers rely more on deductive reasoning than on any real knowledge, their statements are inconclusive and sometimes in contradiction to concrete cases. Archaeological evidence has long been disappointing: landscaping has only recently attracted the attention of researchers, but many sanctuaries were excavated long ago. However, recent excavations seem promising.
Lupercalia
Authors: Glinister Fay 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A pastoral festival at Rome (February 15), conducted by the
flamen Dialis
(Ov.
Fast
. 2.19–36, 2.267–452; Dion. Hal.
Ant. Rom
. 1.79.78, 1.80.1; Plut.
Rom
. 21.3–8,
Quaest. Rom
. 68, 111; Serv.
Aen
. 8.343).
Mother goddesses
Authors: Roller Lynn E. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSeveral deities were celebrated for their role in divine procreation. The Greeks honored Ge, the Earth, as the mother of all life on earth and sea and sky (Hom. Hymn30), and Rhea, wife of Kronos, as the mother of six Olympian gods (Hom.Il. 15.187; Hes.Theog. 453–8).
Pontifex, pontifices
Authors: Johnson Michael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The pontiffs (
pontifices
; sg.
pontifex
; etymology disputed) were priests of the Roman state religion who held office for life and formed, with the flamens, king of rites (Rex Sacrorum), lesser pontiffs (
pontifices minores
), and Vestal Virgins, the
collegium pontificum
, one of the four major priestly colleges.
Septemviri epulones
Authors: Várhelyi Zsuzsanna 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

This priestly college, literally, “seven men for sacrificial banquets,” was established by plebiscite (
see
Plebiscitum) at the instigation of the tribune C. Licinius Lucullus in Rome in 196
BCE
(Livy 33.42.1), and one ofits first three members was Licinius himself.
Superstition
Authors: Rives James B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn the context of Greco‐Roman antiquity, the notion of “superstition” (from Latinsuperstitio) covers religious practices and beliefs that the social and cultural elite regarded as inappropriate or socially subversive. Given the absence of any clearly defined and universally acknowledged standard of correct practice and belief, the range of behaviors that could be characterized as “superstition” varied considerably.
Sicily
Authors: Zambon Efrem 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
According to Thucydides, Sicily was first occupied by the Sicanians, after whom the island was called Sicania. The Elymians of western Sicily are said to be Trojan fugitives that settled in Entella, Segesta, and Eryx; later, the Siculians crossed from Italy, defeated the Sicanians and pushed them to the west.
Caecina Severus, Aulus
Authors: Evans Richard 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Portrayed as a blunt military man attached to old‐fashioned virtues, Caecina Severus (Cass. Dio 55–6; Suet.
Tib
. 16.1; Tac.
Ann
. 1.37, 64, 3.33; Velleius 2.109) proposed unsuccessfully that provincial governors ought not to be accompanied by their wives when on overseas appointments.
Claudius II (Marcus Aurelius Claudius Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBorn May 10, perhaps in 214, in one of the Danubian provinces (theHistoria Augustaclaims Dalmatia or Dardania), Claudius II (PLREI 209;PIR2A 1626;RE82) was Roman emperor from (September?) 268 until his death in (August?) 270, and most noteworthy for virtually concluding the campaign against the invading Goths, thereby removing for many decades any serious threat they posed to Roman security.
Didius Severus Iulianus Augustus, Marcus
Authors: S. Lusnia Susann 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Didius Severus Iulianus (PIR2D 77) became emperor following the murder of Pertinax on March 28, 193CEby the praetorian guard (Cass. Dio 74(73).8–10; Herodian 2.5;Hist. Aug. Pert. 10–11;seePraetorian Cohorts). The same praetorians declared Didius Iulianus emperor when he offered them a higher donative than Sulpicianus, the city prefect and father‐in‐law of Pertinax. Both Cassius Dio (74(73).11) and Herodian (2.6) portray the men as bartering with the soldiers in the praetorian camp for control of the empire, while theHistoria Augustabiographer gives a more neutral account (Hist. Aug.Did.Iul. 2.6–3.3). The choice of Iulianus as a successor to Pertinax may not have been haphazard. The later Latin writers – Victor (Aur. Vict.Caes. 18), Eutropius (8.16), and theHistoria Augustabiographer (Did.Iul. 3.7) – all state or, in the case of theHistoria Augusta, hint that Iulianus was involved in a plot to remove Pertinax, a possibility explored in recent scholarship (Appelbaum 2007). Iulianus called upon Cornelius Repentinus, his son‐in‐law, to replace Sulpicianus as city prefect (Hist. Aug. Did.Iul. 3.6). Iulianus may have been a distant relative of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and he benefited from the patronage of Domitia Lucilla in his early career (Hist. Aug.Did.Iul. 1.3–4; Chausson 2000: 850). The career of Iulianus prior to becoming emperor is recounted in theHistoria Augustabiography (Did.Iul. 1.1–2.3). Epigraphic evidence (CILVI 1401, VIII 24094) generally supports and elaborates upon this account.
Elagabalus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus)
Authors: Gorrie Charmaine L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (203/4–222CE), known as Elagabalus, became emperor when he was barely fourteen years old and ruled from 218 to 222. His reign is noted for his eccentric behavior and his attempts, as a hereditary priest, to promote the worship of the god Elagabalus from Emesa in Syria.
Cavalry, Roman
Authors: Zahariade Mihail 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRoman cavalry (Latinequitatus Romanus) represented the mounted force of the Roman army from the very early stages of Rome to the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. Over the centuries, it went through different phases of organization, from an auxiliary and less important corps, whose purpose was to defend the wings of the infantry battle front, to large mobile regiments which could strike decisively to protect parts of the empire that were threatened.
Volusian (Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractVolusian (PIR1V 376), Roman emperor from 251 to 253CE, was the son of the emperor Trebonianus Gallus (Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Augustus) and of Afinia Gemina Baebiana, perhaps born at Perusia (whence the family hailed) ca. 230.
Zama, battle of
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The last battle in the Second Punic War (
see
Punic Wars) was fought in North Africa in autumn 202
BCE
, perhaps on October 19, between Hannibal and the invading Romans under Publius Scipio (afterward nicknamed Africanus;
see
Scipio Africanus (Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus).
Hostilian (Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus, Gaius)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHostilian (PIR1V 8), Roman emperor 249/250–251CE, perhaps born ca. 230–5, was the younger son of the emperor Trajan Decius (Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Augustus) and Herennia Cupressenia Etruscilla.
Flavius Valerius Severus Augustus
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBorn in Illyricum, perhaps ca. 260–265CE, Severus (Caesar 305–306, Augustus 306–307;RE15;PLRE1.837–8) rose from a humble background to be a successful military commander, and though reputedly a heavy drinker and violent, he became the trusted friend – or perhaps tool – of the Caesar Galerius, whose Praetorian Prefect he may have been. At Galerius' insistence, and evidently with Diocletian's consent, Maximian, on abdicating at Milan on May 1, 305, proclaimed him as Caesar rather than his own son Maxentius. On the same day, at Nicomedia, Diocletian abdicated and proclaimed Galerius' nephew Maximinus Daia as Caesar.
Artillery
Authors: Hebblewhite M. K. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Ancient mechanized military equipment designed to shoot projectiles, usually bolts or stones, at a velocity and over a distance a soldier could not have manually achieved, is categorized using the modern term “artillery” (Marsden 1969: 1–2). Artillery was used in siege warfare, field operations, and naval warfare. There were two broad types of artillery in the ancient world. “Tension artillery” derived its propulsive power from a bow‐shaped composite structure. “Torsion artillery” relied on the propulsive power of torsion springs fashioned from hair or sinew.
Arcadius
Authors: Nakamura Byron J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFlavius Arcadius ruled as eastern Roman emperor from 395 to 408CE. Born in 377/8, he was the son of Theodosius I and was earmarked, along with his brother Honorius, to rule a Roman Empire formally divided between them. When Theodosius died in 395, the eighteen‐year‐old emperor assumed the throne of east Rome, ruling from Constantinople. From an early age, Arcadius had been subject to the machinations of powerful members of his court. A student of the philosopher Themistius, Arcadius found little opportunity to utilize his education as emperor.
Coinage, Roman Republic
Authors: Hollander David B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe coinage of the Roman Republic provides crucial evidence for economic conditions, as well as political and cultural developments, in an empire that came to encompass the entire Mediterranean basin in the last three centuriesBCE. Though scholars have challenged or modified some of his conclusions, Michael Crawford'sRoman Republican Coinage(1974), featuring a catalogue of all known Roman issues down to 31BCE, remains the fundamental resource for the study of republican numismatics.
Contio
Authors: Tracy Catherine 
Published: December 2012

AbstractContio(pluralcontiones) was an officially convened public meeting without voting power. By association, the word also referred to the speeches delivered at such meetings. The word was originallyconventio(fromcum+venire; spelledcoventioin thesenatus consultum de Bacchanalibusfrom 186BCE) and meant “coming together” or assembly. The common Greek translation was, confusingly,ekklesia, which was also used to translatecomitia; the clearest English translation is “public meeting” (so that “assembly” can be used to translatecomitiaandconcilium).
Scipio Aemilianus (Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus)
Authors: Stevenson Tom 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Scipio Aemilianus (ca. 185–129
BCE
), also called Africanus the Younger, was the second of four sons born to Lucius Aemilius Paullus (cos. 182, 168), the conqueror of Macedon in the Third Macedonian War (171–168).
Cursus honorum, Roman
Authors: Beck Hans 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCursus honorum(“career path,” earliest testimonies in Cicero) refers to the order in which Roman politicians were expected to rise through the ranks of public offices (honores). More generally, the term became synonymous with the hierarchy of magistracies at Rome. Although it was praised as a normative force of politics and society by late republican authors, thecursus honorumwas never static. Its evolution is marked by a series of laws on: (1) age requirements; (2) intervals between magistracies; (3) iterations of office; and (4) sequences of certain offices. Thecursuswas a patchwork of rules, requirements, and restrictions. The steady increase in offices, with or withoutimperiumand extraordinary commands, added to the flexible nature of the system.
Decii
Authors: Armstrong Jeremy 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Decii were a plebeian clan in Rome. Possibly originating in Campania, the family was evidently influential in Rome from at least the beginning of the republic, as members of the Decii acted as envoys between the Plebeians and the Senate in 493
BCE
(Dion. Hal.
Ant
.
Rom
. 6.88) and one served as Tribune of the Plebs in 491 (Dion. Hal.
Ant
.
Rom
. 6.33).
Demaratus of Corinth
Authors: Roth‐Murray Carrie 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The accounts of Demaratus state that he was a merchant, and a member of the Bacchiad family of Corinth. When the tyrant Kypselos took control of Corinth around 657
BCE
, Demaratus fled to the important Etruscan city of Tarquinia. He took with him three craftsmen named Eucheir, Diopus, and Eugrammus. Demaratus married an Etruscan noblewoman and had two sons, Arruns and Lucomo. Both sons married Etruscan noblewomen, but Arruns predeceased his father. Not realizing that Arruns' wife was pregnant, at the time of his own death a few days later Demaratus left his fortune to Lucomo. Lucomo and his wife, Tanaquil, later moved to Rome, where he became the fifth king of Rome, ca. 616, known as Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, thereby founding the Tarquin Dynasty.
Epigraphy, Latin
Authors: Saastamoinen Ari 
Published: December 2012

AbstractInscriptions (i.e., texts that are carved or, in some special cases, painted on stone or on some other hard, durable, inorganic material) are a vast source material that complements in a very important manner the information obtained from other sources. The discipline that studies inscriptions written in Latin is called Latin epigraphy (from the Greek wordepigraphein“to write on/over”) and its principal task is to collect and edit all ancient Latin inscriptions. Inscriptional source material poses problems that are partly common with other sources (representativity), and partly unique (stereotypicality).
Fabii, family of
Authors: Farney Gary D. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA Roman patrician, senatorialGens, powerful from the Early Republic to the Early Empire, the Fabii could boast of many consuls, dictators, censors, andtriumphatores. One of the first voting tribes, thetribus Fabia, bore their name. Rome's first native historian was a Fabius, who may be responsible for our knowledge of some of the family's arcana and early history.
Faliscans
Authors: Winkle Christian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe area populated by the Faliscans (ager faliscus) is located in modern‐day Lazio and was delimited by the Tiber in the east, by lake Bracciano and the Monti Sabatini in the southwest, and by the Monti Cimini in the northwest (Potter 1976: 6). In the north, the border of the territory ran presumably from Lake Vico in the west, across Vignanello up to the Tiber in the east, nearby Otricoli. In the southeast, theager faliscusincluded Mount Soracte (Soratte, Plin.HN7.2.19) and bordered on the area of Capena. Therefore, the territory of the Faliscans bordered in the north, the west, and the south on the territories of the Etruscans and in the northeast on that of the Sabines.
Sabines and Samnites
Authors: Van Dusen Rachel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Sabines and Samnites were pre‐Roman Osco‐Sabellian peoples, who inhabited the central Apennines of Italy. According to ancient tradition, the Samnites, along with other Osco‐Sabellians, descended from the Sabines, who originated from a mythic city known asTestruna.