bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Neuroanatomy for the Movement Disorder Specialist
Authors: Halliday Glenda M. , Tan Rachel , Cartwright Heidi 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Normal voluntary movement is achieved by the coordination and refinement of neural activity from many interconnected brain regions onto populations of motor neurons. Conscious neural control is achieved through activation of corticospinal neurons in frontal motor cortical regions. These regions have diverse functions, with the primary motor cortex directly innervating motor neurons and other motor cortices mainly innervating excitatory and inhibitory spinal interneurons. Interconnections between the cortex and thalamus determine cortical activity, facilitating information transfer from one cortical region to another through feedforward and feedback mechanisms. These thalamocortical relays are regulated by two major subcortical systems—the basal ganglia and the cerebellum. The basal ganglia process cortical information to inhibit thalamocortical motor activity through three intersecting pathways (hyperdirect, direct, and indirect). The cerebellum processes cortical, brainstem, and spinal information to excite thalamocortical and bulbospinal motor activity. In order to automate some purposeful movements, networks of brainstem and spinal neurons (called central pattern generators) interact relatively independently, following appropriate cortical stimuli. In addition, muscles require a certain level of tone to be able to move body parts and a great deal of coordination to maintain postural control during movement. This is achieved involuntarily through a network of excitatory and inhibitory reticulospinal and spinal interneurons. Disruption to different parts of this complex neuroanatomical network produces very diverse movement abnormalities.
Functional Aspects of the Basal Ganglia
Authors: Wichmann Thomas 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical structures, including the striatum, the globus pallidus, the substantia nigra, and the subthalamic nucleus. Current hypotheses regarding the behavioural function of these structures exploit several major anatomical characteristics that have been identified over the last decades. One is that the basal ganglia participate in a family of segregated and similarly structured circuits that also involve thalamus and cortex. Therefore, depending on the cortical inputs, the basal ganglia may perform the same general processing functions in motor and non-motor domains of behaviour. Another functionally relevant feature is that they provide strong inhibitory inputs to their downstream targets. Modulation of the degree of inhibition of thalamic and cortical activities is thought to be relevant for response inhibition functions, limiting cortically initiated behaviours, as well as in action selection or in the scaling of movement parameters. A third functionally important characteristic is that synapses in the major input structure of the basal ganglia, the striatum, were found to be highly modifiable. The strengths of corticostriatal synapses appear to be constantly adjusted to situational demands through the interplay of neuromodulators such as dopamine and acetylcholine, leading to the hypothesis that the basal ganglia are critical for learning functions, specifically for procedural or reward-based learning, or the acquisition of movement sequences. However, several major gaps remain in our understanding of basal ganglia anatomy and function, specifically with regard to their descending (brainstem) projections, and their interactions with other brain regions, such as thalamus or cerebellum.
Movement Disorders: Structural and Functional Imaging
Authors: Brooks David J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
In this chapter the value of structural and functional imaging for diagnosing, understanding, and managing movement disorders and their complications will be discussed. The relative roles of magnetic resonance imaging, transcranial sonography, positron emission tomography (PET), and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) will be contrasted. It is argued that imaging biomarkers play a valuable role in supporting diagnoses in parkinsonian disorders when these are unclear and in providing a rationale for the use of dopaminergic medications. Imaging can also detect subclinical disease activity in at-risk subjects and monitor the functional effects of putative neuroprotective and restorative therapies.
Genetic Techniques, Impact and Diagnostic Issues in Movement Disorders
Authors: Brás José , Hardy John 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Genetic techniques have recently revolutionized the fields of research and diagnosis for a variety of disorders, including movement disorders. Research has moved from single-gene analysis to whole-genome assays, and these have greatly increased our knowledge of the aetiology of these diseases. In parallel, diagnosis using these approaches is becoming a reality that implies lower cost and a much shorter turnaround time. In this chapter we will discuss how these technologies have changed the field of molecular genetics of disease and how they are applicable to diagnostic approaches.
Parkinson’s Disease: Premotor Features, Diagnosis, and Early Management
Authors: Schapira Anthony H.V. , Gallagher David 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease, the initial clinical features of which are the result of loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of the midbrain. As the disease progresses the involvement of additional brain areas in the degenerative process produces predominantly non-dopaminergic, non-motor features (e.g cognitive decline and autonomic dysfunction). Although the classic clinical triad of bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor still defines PD and enables a diagnosis, it is recognized that the disease process has evolved for many years, if not decades, before these clinical features appear. Certain non-motor symptoms may appear before a diagnosis of PD can be made, and these may represent risk factors for the disease or even prodromal PD. These features include hyposmia, rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder, depression, and constipation.
Non-motor Symptom Management in Parkinson’s Disease
Authors: Tolosa Eduardo , Gaig Carles , Acevedo Lillian 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Interest in non-motor symptoms (NMS) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) has increased in recent years. Unlike the classic motor symptoms that can respond to dopaminergic treatment and functional neurosurgery, NMS generally fail to improve with currently available treatments. Consequently, they are a major source of disability and frequently impact negatively upon the patient’s quality of life. Interest in NMS in PD has also increased after it became evident that some NMS antedate the classic motor signs of PD. An understanding of the nature of NMS in pre-motor PD may provide information about the causes of PD and aid in the study of drugs with neuroprotective potential.
Multiple System Atrophy (MSA)
Authors: Wenning Gregor K. , Krismer Florian 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is an adult-onset atypical parkinsonian disorder (APD) characterized by either rapidly progressive levodopa-unresponsive parkinsonism or a cerebellar syndrome associated with early autonomic failure. According to current consensus criteria two motor subtypes can be distinguished clinically, namely a parkinsonian variant labelled MSA-P and a cerebellar variant labelled MSA-C . Abundant (oligodendro-)glial cytoplasmic inclusions (GCI) represent the histopathological signature lesion that is accompanied by a selective neuronal multisystem degeneration. The principle component of GCIs is α-synuclein, a finding which firmly places MSA among other α-synucleinopathies such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). Currently, the management of MSA patients is based on symptomatic treatment targeting parkinsonian and autonomic features. Although research into disease-modifying strategies has accelerated, effective neuroprotective treatments are still lacking.
Dystonia: An Overview
Authors: Bhatia K.P. , Stamelou M. , Bressman S. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Dystonia is a movement disorder characterized by sustained muscle contractions which cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures. Dystonia is a feature of a heterogeneous group of disorders with various aetiologies, pathophysiology, and phenotypes. Primary dystonias include conditions in which dystonia is the only sign (e.g. DYT1/6), while in dystonia-plus syndromes further signs are present (e.g. DYT5/11); in both primary and dystonia-plus syndromes there is no secondary cause or neurodegeneration. Eleven genes have been identified as causing these disorders, and the phenotypic spectrum varies from young-onset generalized or adult-onset focal dystonia to complex clinical pictures with parkinsonism, myoclonus, or paroxysmal forms. Dystonia can also be secondary to an identified neurological condition (e.g. brain lesions, infections, use of dopamine receptor blocking drugs) or heredodegenerative, when dystonia is a feature amongst other signs of a heredodegenerative disorder (e.g. Wilson’s disease). The differential diagnosis between primary/dystonia-plus and secondary/heredodegenerative dystonia is dictated by clinical clues (age of onset, distribution, other signs), but also by supportive investigations, and is crucial for genetic counselling, prognosis and treatment. Primary dystonias plateau after some years and their distribution depends on age at onset, while heredodegenerative dystonias tend to progress and their distribution depends on the underlying condition. With regard to treatment, botulinum toxin injections are the first-line treatment for primary adult-onset craniocervical dystonia, oral treatment and deep brain stimulation of the internal segment of the globus pallidus seem to be more efficacious for young-onset generalized forms, and the treatment of secondary/heredodegenerative dystonias depends on the underlying condition.
Paroxysmal Movement Disorders
Authors: Armstrong Melissa J. , Weiner William 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Paroxysmal movement disorders are characterized by distinct episodes of abnormal movements. These episodes have abrupt onset, variable duration, and a discrete conclusion on top of a normal or stable neurological baseline. Clinical phenomenology during the attacks is divided into dyskinesia—including chorea, athetosis, dystonia, and/or ballismus—and ataxia. By convention these are labelled paroxysmal dyskinesias and episodic ataxias. Because of the intermittent nature of these movement disorders, diagnosis is usually made from clinical and family history. Recent advances in genetics have identified causative mutations for many of these disorders.
A Companion to the Classification of Mental Disorders
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A Companion to the Classification of Mental Disorders provides essential reading as a background and supplement to both the recently produced DSM-5 and the forthcoming ICD-11. It focuses on the processes of classification and diagnosis, and the uses for these classifications. This resource emphasises the dangers of regarding any current psychiatric classification as true or complete, in view of the present partial state of knowledge about the causes and mechanisms of most mental and behavioural disorders. It is unique in containing a number of chapters that give a brief history of the cooperative efforts and projects necessary for the production of internationally agreed psychiatric classifications. The discussion begins in 1965 with the US/UK Diagnostic study, the preparations for ICD-8 with its first international glossary, and the International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia, designed and coordinated by the World Health Organization. While recognizing the importance of the innovations of the DSM series of classifications of the American Psychiatric Association, the resource also takes a truly international perspective. The expert authors are well placed to do this, having been personally involved in many of the collaborative studies and developments discussed.
First steps towards international agreement on diagnosis and classification
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
By the time Stengel’s report (noted in the last chapter) was published in 1960, psychiatrists on both sides of the Atlantic had already reacted to the increasing difficulty of communication. They did this by developing glossaries that were systematic descriptions of symptoms that did not rely upon theoretical assumptions or interpretations. The first of these to be published was the UK Glossary of Mental Disorders for ICD-8 (1967), and this led the WHO to produce, after a further period of wide international consultation, the first glossary to chapter V of ICD-8 (1974). During this period, there was a parallel development of standardized and structured interviewing and rating schedules aimed at increasing the inter-rater reliability of the descriptions of symptoms upon which descriptive diagnoses could be based. This happened independently, in the USA (Biometrics Department of Columbia University, New York) in the form of the Mental Status Schedule (MSS), and in London (Institute of Psychiatry, University of London) where the Present State Examination(PSE) was produced.
Developments in the USA
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
DSM-I and DSM-II were not widely used, even in the USA, although DSM-II followed the main headings of chapter V of ICD-7. In the post-WWII war expansion of psychiatry the 1950s and 1960s most psychiatrists USA were oriented towards various types of psycho-dynamic psychotherapy, but academic centres in Washington University, St. Louis and the Biometrics Department of Columbia University in New York retained an strong interest in descriptive psychiatry. When the time came for preparation of DSM-III, R.L .Spitzer of the Biometrics Department was appointed chairman, and he enrolled many psychiatrists in the USA in a variety of working groups and task-forces for the consultations required. The publication of DSM-III in 1980 was a major event for American psychiatry in that it provided a list of symptoms in descriptive terms, by which each disorder could be identified, together with instructions as to how many of the list were required to qualify for the diagnosis. This radical innovation met with some resistance from those members of the American Psychiatric Association who were still predominantly oriented towards psycho-dynamic varieties of psychotherapy, but was finally approved. DSM-III was such a success that it set the basic pattern for a revision (DSM-III-R) in 1987, DSM-IV in 1994. and DSM-IV-TM in 2000.
Large Community-Based Diagnostic Studies in the USA
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
After the publication of DSM-III in 1980, the next major diagnostic event in the USA was the NIMH Epidemiological Catchment Area (ECA) study. This aimed to estimate the distribution of DSM-III disorders in the general population .For this, an interviewing procedure, the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) was developed, which could be administered to selected subjects by specially trained lay interviewers. Five catchment areas were chosen; these were St Louis, (Kansas), Baltimore, Durham (North Carolina), New Haven (Connecticut) , and Los Angeles, each of which contained an already established research centre. The findings of the ECA study, particularly the high rate of co-occurrence of disorders, stimulated the National Co-morbidity Survey ten years later (1990-1992). This used a national probability sample, rather than being restricted to specified catchment areas. The National Co-morbidity Replication Survey ten years after that (2001-2003) confirmed the findings of the previous surveys, although generally reporting somewhat higher rates of occurrence for most of the disorders.
Other large community-based diagnostic surveys
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Several large community-based diagnostic surveys have been carried out in different countries in recent decades, following the ECA studies of the USA. In China, the Chinese National Epidemiological Survey of Mental Disorders was carried out in 1982, using 51,982 subjects in 12 Centres. In the UK in 1995, the Office of Population and Census Surveys conducted a study of Psychiatric Morbidity in four selected groups totalling some 14,000 persons. A collaborative European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders was completed in 2005, using 21,425 subjects in 6 countries, and the World Mental Health Survey of the WHO using 85, 052 subjects in 17 countries was done in 2005. Most of these surveys used the CIDI interview. The results of these surveys were broadly similar, but detailed comparisons cannot be made because different types of mental health statistics were reported from the different surveys. A striking common finding was that large proportions of persons with mental disorders have never sought care from mental health services. These surveys do not have a direct or immediate effect upon the provision of mental health services. In any community, the need for mental health services, the demands made for such services,the availability of services and the governmental and local policies to provide services have a complicated and not direct relationship.
Towards international agreement on classification
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The changes that could be introduced into Chapter V of ICD-9, published in 1978, were comparatively limited because of the conservative policy that applied to all the Chapters of the ICD at that time. Nevertheless, some badly needed improvements were included, such as a better treatment of disorders of childhood and adolescence, and reactions to stress. The Joint Project between the NIMH of the USA and the Division of Mental Health of the WHO was the next major development, with the aim of keeping differences between the forthcoming DSM-IV and Chapter V of ICD-10 to a minimum. This started with literature reviews, leading to a major conference in Copenhagen in 1982, followed by a varied programme of the development of interviewing and rating instruments suitable for use in international cooperative projects. The DIS was expanded into the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), the PSE into the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN), and the International Personality Disorder Examination (IPDE) schedule was also produced. When a draft of the chapter V of ICD-10 became available, the Joint Project also funded the attendance of several WHO advisors at some meetings of the Task Forces that were preparing DSM-IV. The WHO also produced four mutually compatible versions of Chapter V of the ICD-10; these are i) a very short version for the main ICD-10 volume to go with the other 20 chapters of the whole ICD, ii) the Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines (CDDG), the full clinical version for use by psychiatrists in clinical work, iii) the Diagnostic Criteria for Research (DCR-10), and iv) the Diagnostic and Management Guidelines for Mental Disorders in Primary Care (ICD-10-PHC).
Diagnosis in psychiatry
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A diagnosis is best defined as the underlying cause of the presenting symptoms; it is expressed in the terms and concepts of the healer or contemporary doctor. Modern medical knowledge allows physicians and surgeons to make many diagnoses based upon aetiology that lead immediately to specific treatment, but limited knowledge of brain and psychological functions does not allow psychiatrists to do this for many psychiatric patients. The diagnostic process in contemporary psychiatry depends upon interviewing, followed by summarizing the symptoms identified in terms of a chosen diagnostic system. The diagnostician’s perception of the symptoms is rapid, and subject to interpretation; standardised interview and rating schedules, such as the PSE, SCAN, DIS and CIDI have been developed for research purposes that minimise the variation between interviewers. There is still debate about whether to identify diagnostic categories by means of narrative descriptions or lists of criteria or both. In clinical practice there are drawbacks to relying only upon lists of criteria. A dimensional approach to diagnosis is often debated, but the lack of dimensions which can be measured reliably remains a major problem.
How to use a psychiatric classification
Authors: Cooper John E. , Sartorius Norman 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
One of the main uses for case-notes is to help in the diagnosis and treatment of any future episodes of illness. It is therefore worth taking some trouble to include as accurate a diagnosis as possible in the records of a current episode. This chapter contrasts what is probably a very common way of recording a diagnosis with what should be done to give maximum benefit to all concerned.
Injury severity scoring systems
Authors: Rosengart Matthew 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Discerning who the most critically injuredpatients are from among the overall population ofinjured necessitates a method by which to estimate the risk of an outcome, suchas death, and thus identify who would benefit from this higher level of care.Injury severity scoring is simply a means by which to do this, to characterize andquantify an injury. It has been extended to estimating the risk of an outcome(e.g., mortality, morbidity, length of stay). The scores themselvesdraw upon characteristics of the patient (anatomic, physiologic, comorbidity)to construct a summary measure quantifying a patient–s condition after injury.These have been incorporated into a fourth type of score that combines theseelements to enhance the predictive capacity.
Monitors and drains in trauma patients
Authors: Piper Greta L. , Kaplan Lewis J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Monitors are essential for assessment of the critically ill patient. It is necessaryto understand the basics, as well as the intricacies, of when and why touse certain monitors, as well as how to interpret the results within the contextof other clinical signs and symptoms. Intensive-care patient monitors areconstantly evolving to better, faster, and more automated technology, but thehuman physiology behind the newer tools remains the same.
Resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock
Authors: Reynolds Benjamin R. , Watson Gregory A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Shock from massive hemorrhage can be one of the most difficultproblems to manage in the intensive care unit. Severe hemorrhagic shock and the resulting “lethal triad” of coagulopathy, hypothermia, and acidosis are associated with a very high morbidity and mortality. Achieving a good outcomerequires prompt recognition of hemorrhage and institution of measuresto stop bleeding, as well as timely resuscitation and reversal of coagulopathy, hypothermia, and acidosis. In this chapter, we will differentiate hemorrhagic from other types of shockand describe its pathophysiology. Treatment will be emphasized, utilizing theextreme example of “damage control” to guide the discussion.
Orthopedic trauma
Authors: Zelle Boris A. , Siska Peter A. , Tarkin Ivan S. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A significant number of trauma patients sustain musculoskeletal injuries. As comparedto major head, thoracic, abdominal, and vascular injuries, most musculoskeletal injuries are not immediately life threatening. However, the long-termfunctional outcomes of polytrauma patients are often predicated on their orthopedicinjuries. Thus, thoughtful and timely treatment of fractures and dislocationsplays a major role in the management protocol of the severely injuredpatient.