bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The G, William Holmes Research Station, Lake Peters, northeastern Alaska, and its impact on northern research
Authors: Dutro J. Thomas 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Arctic scientific research station at Lake Peters, northeastern Alaska, epitomized scientific field studies in the north for nearly two decades after its founding in 1958. More than 80 scientists based at the station during the years of greatest activity conducted research in 20 scientific disciplines. Some of the more detailed projects involved: Pleistocene and bedrock geologic mapping, geomorphology, glaciology, meteorology, hydrology, physical and biological limnology, botany, archaeology, ichthyology, mycology and ecology.
Lake Peters, one of the Neruokpuk Lakes, is a large, deep glacial lake, located in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in the northeastern Brooks Range. Lake Peters, adjoining Lake Schrader, and the surrounding country are ideally situated for research in various scientific disciplines probing the Arctic environment. Located in one of the more scenic parts of Alaska, the lakes and surrounding mountains also draw a number of visitors each year for recreational camping, hiking and mountain climbing.
The facility was officially named the G. William Holmes Research Station in dedication ceremonies held at the station June 21, 1970. Holmes, a U.S. Geological Survey geologist who died during the winter of 1970, helped establish the station in 1958 and conducted early geological research in the area.
The role and development of the Smithsonian Institution in the American geological community
Authors: Yochelson Ellis L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
For more than three decades, from its founding in 1846, the Smithsonian Institution served, not only as a focus for what federal geology there was, but also published scholarly papers on earth sciences, and helped inform the general public about the earth and its history. The educational activity of exhibiting collections increased greatly with the opening of a distinct museum building in 1881. Starting from 1879, the growing collections of the U.S. Geological Survey served as a bond between that organization and the Smithsonian. The opening of a new and far larger museum building in 1910 stimulated further growth of this relationship, but there was little increase in scientific staff of the U.S. National Museum for the next four decades; most of the geologists at the Museum were paid by the Department of the Interior. Despite its limited staff, the Museum performed its function well as a national repository; the mineralogical collections in particular grew to worldwide prominence. Surmounting difficulties of little financial or technical support, a few dedicated individuals on the museum staff published significant papers in the 1930s and 1940s. In the post-war decades, the Museum grew dramatically both in physical size for collection storage and in scientific staff. It is now a preeminent research institution; the principal areas of strength in geological research are in meteoritics, volcanology, and the systematic study of many fossil groups, although contributions are being made in many other subjects. The collections of geological objects cannot be duplicated; the institution will continue
Rummaging through the attic; Or, A brief history of the geological sciences at Yale
Authors: Skinner Brian J. , Narendra Barbara L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Commencing with the appointment of Benjamin Silliman as Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in 1802, the history of instruction and research in the geological sciences at Yale can be conveniently divided into seven generation-long stages. Each stage was characterized by a group of faculty members whose interests and personalities imparted a distinct flavor and character to the institution; as those faculty members left, retired, or died over a decade-long period of change, responsibility for geological studies passed to a new generation.
The first stage began with the appointment of Silliman; the second started in 1850 as Silliman’s career drew to a close and J. D. Dana, his son-in-law, was appointed to the faculty, and brought the first Ph.D. degrees in the United States. The third stage commenced in 1880, and the fourth beginning in 1900, brought the first faculty appointments specifically for graduate instruction. The fifth and sixth stages saw the formative moves that welded different administrative units together, leading to today’s Department of Geology and Geophysics. Stage seven, commencing in 1965, includes the present (1984), but holds the seeds of stage eight.
The increasing diversity of research activities in geology has led to a doubling of the number of geological faculty employed at Yale approximately every 50 years. The number of Ph.D’s awarded has increased at a parallel rate. We suggest the size of the faculty will probably double again by the year 2035 and that production of Ph.D’s will probably rise to a rate of 12
A chronology from Mohole to JOIDES
Authors: Shor Elizabeth N. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
In the late 1950s, when the competition was strong among oceanographic institutions, an idea arose that was larger than any of them could handle alone. This was the concept of drilling a hole through the crust of the earth to the mantle that came to be called the “Mohole Project.” It was a radical approach: to make a gigantic leap forward in exploration of the earth’s interior through the sea floor, going far beyond the technology of the day to the limits of what was possible, but not tested and proven. Although the project acquired funding early, the impetus was lost when an unexpected contractor was selected with whom the originators did not work smoothly.
Simultaneously, some geologists were urging the drilling of many deep sedimentary sites in the ocean. The geologic community was divided over the merits of drilling a single hole to the mande versus drilling a number of shallower holes. The Mohole Project was cancelled by Congress as a line item when cost estimates soared. The program to drill at many ocean sites survived, briefly as LOCO and CORE, and finally in 1964 as JOIDES, the scientifically productive Joint Oceanographic Institutions Deep Earth Sampling.
North American paleomagnetism and geology
Authors: Verhoogen John 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This paper sketches out developments in North American paleomagnetism that have markedly affected geological thought, to the exclusion of those related mostly to the past character and properties of the earth’s magnetic field or to magnetic properties of rocks. Early work (1948) at the Carnegie Institution’s Department of Terrestrial Magnetism was mainly directed, as was also that of P.M.S. Blackett in England, at elucidating the past behavior of the geomagnetic field and its origin; proving or disprov-ing continental drift was not a primary objective, and the concept of sea-floor spreading was, of course, still unheard of. The first surprise came with the discovery of numerous reversely magnetized igneous and sedimentary rocks. It took about 10 years to establish that most of these reversed rocks reflected field reversals rather than self-reversal con-tingent on mineralogical composition. The development of a magnetic time scale based on the chronology of field reversals was of paramount geological significance as it led to confirmation of the Vine-Matthews hypothesis and to plate tectonics; it is now widely applied to worldwide stratigraphie correlations. Unexpected “abnormal” directions of magnetization in pre-Tertiary rocks were first interpreted in terms of polar wander, or, in the case of deformed rocks, in terms of magnetostriction and stress-induced anisotropy; they became accepted by British paleomagnetists as evidence for continental drift a few years before their American colleagues reached the same conclusion. Paleomagnetism has further affected geological thinking by establishing, through determination of the earth’s paleoradius, the improbability of Carey’s expansionist views and, most
The anticlinal theory of oil and gas accumulation
Authors: Galey John T. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The anticlinal theory of oil and gas accumulation was conceived in the Appalachians by recognition of the relationship of the structure of the strata to the occurrence of gas and oil. A New England M.D. who had migrated to southern Ohio made the first recorded observation of this relationship before 1836, but pronounced no theory. A quarter century later, in 1861, another New Englander pronounced the first theory from observations on the Ontario Peninsula, Canada. Four months later, an Ohio college professor made observations in West Virginia and independently pronounced essentially the same theory. It was employed successfully there until 1865, after which the concept languished until 1878 by reason of its misapplication. The first successful application of the theory in Ontario had followed its pronouncement by only a year.
Prior to the inception of the natural gas industry in 1884, the anticlinal theory was successfully utilized in the search for oil by knowledgeable prospectors. But they often discovered gas instead of oil, and gas was not then a saleable commodity. Nevertheless, this gas was soon to provide the impetus for the inception of the natural gas industry. The anticlinal theory was reintroduced in 1885 at a propitious time to provide the most viable means, the interpretation of the structure of the rocks, of obtaining a continuing supply for a rapidly growing gas industry. By 1901, its understanding aided the discovery at Spindletop in East Texas of the greatest oil gusher the world had ever known and “began a new era of civilization.”
The development of earthquake seismology in the western United States
Authors: Bolt Bruce A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This paper traces the growth of seismology in the western United States, giving emphasis to geological connections. Pre-instrumental foundations of a science of earthquakes were laid late last century by geologists, especially G. K. Gilbert. These early studies were based largely on Quaternary tectonic structural features evident in the west. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake resulted in a tremendous increase in seismological research and knowledge, including H. F. Reid’s “elastic rebound” fault theory of the seismic source, theses on seismic hazards, prediction, seismometry, and other related topics. Significant growth of seismographic networks in California under the auspices of the University of California, Berkeley, and the California Institute of Technology, led to many geologically valuable results on such issues as seismic activity, tectonic patterns, and focal mechanisms. This discussion covers the period up to about 1960.
Geology from space
Authors: Lowman Paul D. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This paper reviews the development of geologic remote sensing of the Earth and earth-like bodies from space in the 1946–1984 period. Topics include sounding rocket photography, hand-held photography from Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, and Skylab missions, the Earth Resources Experiments Package carried on Skylab, Landsats 1 through 5, the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission, Seasat, and geologic remote sensing experiments carried on two Shuttle missions. Extraterrestrial bodies discussed include the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and the outer planets and satellites. Data from earth-orbital experiments have been used in oil, mineral, and ground-water exploration, for research, and for geologic education, the most promising applications being in structural geology. Visual range images from Landsat have been the most widely used, but infrared data have also been used successfully for compositional mapping and as indirect indicators of structure, composition, and ground-water distribution. Orbital radar images have proved valuable for structural studies. Extraterrestrial remote sensing has in effect opened up a new solar system by providing close-range data for 17 extraterrestrial bodies previously accessible only by astronomical techniques. Remote sensing from space has been one of the most valuable and unexpected results of space flight.
Regional geomorphology of North America
Authors: Graf William L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Geomorphology is the study of earth-surface processes and forms. As a component of the fields of geology and geography, geomorphology is particularly concerned with change: progressive changes through time or changing spatial distributions at the earth ’s surface. Geomorphology as a science views the objects of its study as collections of elements in complex systems that are groupings of forms and related processes. Because these groupings have regional manifestations strongly controlled by geologic materials and structures, the geomorphic systems of North America have a definable regional expression that serves as a method of organizing knowledge. The Geological Society of America ’s publication series celebrating the Decade of North American Geology and the Centennial of the founding of the organization is generally organized according to geographic regions, so it is appropriate that this companion volume to the series also adopts a regional framework (Figs. 1 and 2).
The geomorphologic divisions of the continent depicted in Figure 2 are broad generalizations. Discussions in subsequent chapters that more specifically define the extent of each division use boundaries suggested by workers several decades ago. In the United States, for example, the modern geomorphologic divisions derive from the efforts of Neville M. Fenneman, who in 1913 proposed to the Association of American Geographers that geomorphic divisions would be useful in research (Fenneman, 1914). Later, a committee chaired by Fenneman and consisting of M. R. Campbell, F. E. Matthes, Douglas Johnson, and Eliot Blackwelder produced a map with three orders
Central Lowlands
Authors: Mickelson David M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
“The craton was the focal point for the development of glacial geology in North America.” So begins a summary of nineteenth century contributions to the study of glacial geology on the North American craton by Totten and White (1985). In that paper they trace the development of early ideas about the origin of till from its association with drift ice forward in time to our present concept of till being deposited by an ice sheet that moved into the Central Lowland from the north, producing many of the landforms we see today. Familiar names such as Hitchcock, Whittlesey, Newberry, Chamberlin, Gilbert, and many others attest to the importance of studies of glacial deposits in the Central Lowland in the development of early ideas in glacial geomorphology.
In this chapter I discuss only the development of glacial geomorphological concepts in the glaciated region. Because of space considerations, the very important developments in stratigraphic interpretation, dating, and Quaternary history of the Central Lowland are not covered. Because Totten and White (1985) give a detailed discussion of the development of ideas concerning the glacial geology of the North American craton, I will only briefly summarize contributions of the nineteenth century before discussing the more recent development of ideas in more detail. Much of the following discussion is summarized from Totten and White (1985).
The effectiveness of glacial erosion was widely debated in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Newberry (1862,1870) and Whittlesey (1866) were instrumental in the development of the concept that
Basin and Range
Authors: Dohrenwend John C. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Basin and Range physiographic province is an ideal natural laboratory for geomorphologie research. The more than 400 mountain ranges and intervening basins within the province provide similar topographic settings with similar tectonic origins for large populations of landforms (e.g., alluvial fans, pediments, fault scarps, faceted spurs, range front embayments, pluvial lake shorelines). Samples from these landform populations can be selected and studied in a manner somewhat analogous to the design of a controlled laboratory experiment, that is, by keeping most geomorphic factors (e.g., lithology, structure, tectonic history, climatic history, physiographic setting, etc.) closely constrained, and then studying the effects of variation in the remaining factors on specific aspects of process or form. However, this approach has not been widely utilized. Recent research emphasis has encouraged the intensive study of local areas, and regional studies of specific processes or landforms have not been widely pursued. Moreover, the province is relatively remote and largely undeveloped so that access to many areas is difficult. Consequently, the geomorphology of large areas of the Basin and Range remains, for the most part, unstudied and unknown.
Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Province
Authors: Walker H. Jesse , Coleman James M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Province differs from most other geomorphic provinces in North America in that it has a large suboceanic area (685 × 103 km2) in addition to its subaerial segment (1,166 × 103 km2; Table 1). The subaerial portion, usually referred to as the Coastal Plain*, extends from Long Island in New York (with outliers in Martha’s Vineyard and Cape Cod) to the Mexico border in Texas and includes all or part of 19 states. The suboceanic portion, which composes part of North America’s Continental Shelf, extends from the Canadian border south and west to the border with Mexico.
The unifying character of this province stems mainly from a geologic history that has recorded alternating periods of submergence and emergence. Thus, all parts of the province have experienced coastal processes at one time or another, and most areas several times. However, over many parts of the province the surface expression of these processes has been destroyed or highly modified by erosion or burial. Most of the suboceanic portion of the province was subaerial as recently as 18,000 years ago, whereas parts of the subaerial portion of the Coastal Plain have not been submerged since the Cretaceous. The interface between the two divisions has been near its present elevational position for only some 5,000 to 6,000 years.
During most of the province’s history, a number of geomorphic processes have been operative upon a relatively gently sloping surface consisting of rocks that generally increase in age upslope. In addition
Erosion, sedimentation, and fluvial systems
Authors: Smith Lawson M. , Patrick David M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The development of knowledge in erosion and sedimentation parallels the growth of the geological sciences. In his Illustration of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth, Playfair (1802) provides lucid descriptions of erosional processes, illustrating their significance in the evolution of landscapes. Sir Charles Lyell (1830) described in uniformitarian terms the nature and importance of erosion and sediment transport. The power of rain to erode surface materials was discussed by Greenwood in 1857. Reports of the exploration of the American Southwest by the U.S. Geological Survey in the latter half of the nineteenth century are replete with the consideration of the impact of erosion and sedimentation in shaping the landscape. Most notable among these reports are those of G. K. Gilbert, whose keen observations and analytical powers allowed him to develop the basis for many of today’s important concepts in fluvial geomorphology (Gilbert, 1880).
As the geological sciences moved into the twentieth century, Gilbert continued to provide theoretical bases for the comprehension of erosional and sedimentary processes. His classic discussion “The transport of debris by running water” was the result of years of flume studies and field observations (Gilbert, 1914). Gilbert’s contributions in this paper include not only a detailed discussion of processes but one of the first analytical statements regarding the impact of man on a fluvial system. Twenhofel’s (1932) famous Treatise on Sedimentation advanced our fledgling knowledge of sedimentary processes. From the field of soil conservation, Bennett (1939) synthesized existing knowledge of the impact of agricultural practices on erosional processes and sedimentation.
Volcanic activity
Authors: Schuster Robert L. , Mullineaux Donal R. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter discusses some of the ways volcanic activity can affect structures, developments, facilities, and other engineering works. It is vitally important to recognize the possible effects of volcanic activity on these works of man. The large variety of volcano-related hazards now recognized records a marked recent growth in the understanding of these phenomena. The increasing application of systematic observation and analysis to current volcano-related events and to old deposits of previous events throughout the world has greatly increased our understanding of volcanic phenomena; the threat to life and property from these hazards can now be significantly reduced or avoided by careful forethought by geological scientists, engineers, and planners. Public demand, however, may prevent the withdrawal from use of lands that are affected only once in hundreds or thousands of years, and a low degree of risk in such places may be judged to be economically and socially acceptable.
Volcanic eruptions are widely known and feared, yet few of their specific effects are familiar to most people. Volcanoes affect people in many positive ways; for example, erupted materials commonly produce highly fertile soils. However, the immediate effects of volcanoes on people and their engineering works are frequently negative. Although in many countries volcanic activity is a constant and severe threat, it represents only an occasional danger in the United States. That danger is serious enough, however, to warrant preparatory planning in Hawaii, Alaska, and other western states.
Nonexplosive eruptions that produce lava flows are familiar volcanic phenomena; although they present little danger to people’s lives, they can severely damage property.
Glacial deposits
Authors: Coates Donald R. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Today, glaciers cover 10 percent of the Earth’s land area, whereas 30 percent was covered during the maximum glaciation of the Quaternary Period. Although 20 percent of the Earth’s surface has a direct glacial heritage, another 12 percent was impacted by glacially related climates and sediments. Moreover, wind-blown silt, or loess, and long-travelled outwash have also affected many terrains, as in China, eastern Europe, and the Missouri-Mississippi Valley region. The glacial deposits that cover 10 million km2 in North America have profoundly influenced the terrain and must be accounted for when making land-use decisions, whether for agriculture, urbanization, or planning and construction.
The applied geological scientist must consider and understand the vast differences that occur in the many different types of glacial deposits in order to successfully utilize the natural materials and/or sites for man’s use and his engineering works. Each of the different glacial sediments, whether till, ice contact, or outwash, will exhibit different physical characteristics when subjected to man-induced changes. These different properties become manifest when the deposits are exposed in excavations, bearing loads are emplaced, or the material is utilized for construction purposes. Furthermore, there are many dissimilarities among glacigenic sediments even within broad categories. For example, lodgement till has entirely different values of consolidation, permeability, and density than either melt-out till, or flowtill. Many failures of engineering works have occurred when these quality differences have not been recognized in the field (see Kiersch, chapters 1 and 22, this volume).
Glacial deposits create their own landforms and landscapes, and proper identification of these terranes can prove important to the applied geologist.