bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clandestine Tunnel-4, northern Punchbowl, Korean Demilitarized Zone
Authors: Cameron C. P. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The Punchbowl is a large topographic basin in the rugged T'aebaek Mountains (T'aebaeksanmaek) of east-central Korea. Its steep northern rim is part of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). This terrain was the target of various infiltration attempts in the postwar period and its potential to host clandestine tunnels was indicated by Allied intelligence studies of the early 1970s. In December 1989, at a depth of 145 m in intrusive granodiorite, a coherent cross-borehole electromagnetic anomaly with a signature indicative of an air-filled cavity was recorded by tunnel-search teams using continuous wave and pulsed ground-probing borehole-radar systems. Natural air-filled cavities at this depth were precluded by geological considerations and ground-water elevations. Target-evaluation drilling followed and, on December 24 at 0130 hours, a drill bit penetrated “Tunnel-4.” A borehole television camera provided clear images of artifacts of human tunnel-construction activity. Two and a half months later, Korean engineers, using a Wirth 3-m tunnel-boring machine (TBM), gained access to the tunnel and confirmed its nature and purpose.
Mapping and surveying of the tunnel revealed that (1) the tunnel was constructed by drill and blast methods in Mesozoic intrusive granodiorite, similar to that hosting previously identified DMZ Tunnel-2 and Tunnel-3, and in Precambrian gneiss; (2) the tunnel slopes up to the south at an average grade of 2.3%, ranging from a low of 0.91% to a high of 3.5%; (3) the average cross-sectional dimensions of the tunnel, 1.6 m × 1.6 m, are somewhat smaller than other hardrock tunnels discovered elsewhere in the DMZ; and (4) standard rock-mass rating schemes do not accurately predict tunnel-construction difficulty for hardrock tunnels smaller than 2 m × 2 m in cross section.
Fifty-four years of ephemeral channel response to two years of intense World War II military activity, Camp Iron Mountain, Mojave Desert, California
Authors: Nichols Kyle K. , Bierman Paul R. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
During World War II, U.S. Army personnel lived, trained, and executed mock battles on low gradient piedmonts (~2°) in the Mojave Desert. For example, Camp Iron Mountain (established in 1942 by General George S. Patton, Jr., and used until 1944) housed up to 20000 Army personnel at any specific time. The camp is located on the large alluvial piedmont that extends from the Iron Mountains and is drained by shallow ephemeral channels.
At this camp, we made 18 detailed topographic maps in order to compare drainage networks of six undisturbed control plots and 12 plots disturbed by army activities. There are significant differences between the morphometery of small-scale, ephemeral drainage networks on control plots, on plots bisected by stone-walled walkways, and on plots down gradient of former army roads. Control plot channels are wider (2.05 ± 1.48 m) and deeper (8.8 ± 4.5 cm) than channels in walkway plots (width: 1.19 ± 0.71 m, depth: 7.4 ± 4.1 cm) and in road plots (width: 1.18 ± 0.61 m, depth: 7.2 ± 6.7 cm).
The military’s modification of the landscape affected subsequent channel originations and orientations. Channel heads were found in 76% of the compacted and smoothed walkways. In walkway plots, 80% of walkways caused the orientation of channels to deviate from the steepest piedmont gradient by more than 20°. After more than 50 years, road berms still act as local drainage divides. Down gradient of each intact road berm, there is a wide (20–40 m) zone in which no channels exist. Where channels have developed below intact road berms, they are smaller than channels in undisturbed control plots. Down gradient of breached road berms, wide, braided channels are common. Fifty-four years after camp abandonment, the channel network at Camp Iron Mountain has yet to recover, primarily because rock alignments and road berms continue to influence drainage patterns and local gradients.
Sustainability of military lands
Authors: Albertson Paul E. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Military land managers are faced with questions of landscape stability and sustainability. Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, was selected to test these concerns because it has been the site of engineering training for over 50 years. Prior to U.S. Army occupancy, the landscape was undergoing disequilibrium resulting from historic land use activities. An integrated approach was used to examine landscape changes using existing information and technologies to answer geomorphic inquiries of equilibrium and recovery. The lack of a long-term sediment record was supplemented by performing soil-loss modeling. Soil simulations were done using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) to simulate the effect of changing land use and land cover on soil loss. The aerial photographic record offered a means to create land cover for RUSLE simulations. The sustainable or acceptable soil-loss rate is known as the soil loss tolerance. Simulation of soil loss using 1938, 1955, 1976, and 1997 aerial photographs identified "hot spots" where soil loss was greater than tolerance. The results show that past Army training activities caused more soil loss than did presettlement activities, but that estimated soil loss from current training is less than loss rates before military occupancy of the landscape. Current best management practices are leading to landscape restoration within accepted soil loss tolerance. This study supports the U.S. Army’s commitment to landscape stewardship, which is essential for land-use sustainability.
Predicting fracture properties in weathered granite in denied areas
Authors: Ehlen Judy 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter describes a model developed to predict fracture properties of weathered granite in denied areas, predictions made using imagery, and a test undertaken to determine prediction accuracy. This project is part of a geotechnical characterization of weathered granites that will be used to predict weapons effects at denied sites. Joint spacings, orientations, and trace lengths were measured in four field areas near the denied sites. Three-dimensional models of field measurements from an analogue area and lineation data derived from imagery over this area and over two denied sites were sampled to determine mean joint spacings in simulated horizontal and vertical boreholes, mean joint trace length, joint intensity, termination percent, mean rock block width and volume, and RQD (Rock Quality Designation) at the denied sites. The simulated data were regressed against scale in log-log space and the equations for the best fit were used to calculate the predictions.
The predictions made for the denied sites are realistic compared to measurements made in the four field areas. They are within the standard deviations of field measurements and generally fall within the range of measurements made in the four field areas. Most predictions are within 25% of field measurements in the analogue area. The accuracy of the predictions was assessed by selecting one of the field areas as a denied area, and then using the same procedures to make predictions for the same set of variables. These predictions are very similar to the field measurements; most lie within 10–15%, indicating that predictions made using these procedures are accurate as well as realistic.
Geologic evaluation of a site for a nuclear power plant
Authors: Adair Merlyn J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The scope and detail of geologic studies made for a nuclear power plant site far exceed those made for any other type of engineering structure. The regional and local physiography, geomorphology, geologic history, lithology, stratigraphy, and structural geology must be studied through (1) reviewing the literature, (2) discussions with local, academic, State and Federal geologists, geophysicists, and seismologists, and (3) original geologic mapping, geophysical studies, and subsurface investigations. Reviews of previous studies in the region are an important part of the evaluation of any site; they help to identify, and form the basis for, additional detailed studies of particular geologic conditions and features which may be significant to that site.
All historical earthquakes that could have been felt at a proposed site should be identified. All historical earthquakes of modified Mercalli (MM) intensity greater than IV or magnitude greater than 3 which have been reported within 200 mi (320 km) of a site are listed and shown on epicenter maps that also show significant tectonic structures within 200 mi of the site. The maximum potential earthquake for the site is evaluated from a consideration of the regional and local geologic setting and the historical seismicity. The maximum vibratory ground motion that safety-related plant structures and equipment are designed to withstand is defined on the basis of an evaluation of the maximum potential earthquake and the assumed location of the earthquake that will produce the maximum vibratory ground motion.
Geologic, seismic, and man-made hazards significant to the site are identified and evaluated. The soils and rock underlying a site are investigated to determine their characteristics and behavior under static and dynamic loads. Safety Analysis Reports (SARs) for the site are prepared. They document the studies which were made by the applicant; they also document that pertinent reports and studies by others were considered. The SARs provide the basis for the conclusions as to the geologic suitability of the site and the basis for the parameters selected for engineering design.
Geologic reports used in evaluation of nuclear reactor sites
Authors: Morris Robert H. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
More than a decade has passed since the earliest geologic reports relating to proposed nuclear reactor sites were completed. Then, guidelines were few, and the safety analysis was brief and general. Today, the geologic portions of Preliminary Safety Analysis Reports (PSARs) and Final Safety Analysis Reports (FSARs) are by requirement more complex. Through the cooperative efforts of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC; formerly the Atomic Energy Commission) and the American Nuclear Society, specific seismic and geologic criteria for nuclear plant sites and a standard format for the presentation of data have been developed. These standards and requirements have shifted the emphasis of power plant siting from one that considered mainly the economics of the site and its proximity to the service area, as in the case of fossil fuel plants, to one that gives important consideration to the geologic suitability of the site.
Geologic studies of nuclear plant sites require a comprehensive exposition of the areal and structural geology, hydrology, and seismicity in addition to site exploration of engineering-geology and foundation characteristics, which are the major concerns in geologic studies for fossil fuel plants. For each site a design acceleration (g) value must be derived from studies of local and regional geology and seismicity. In recent years these studies have resulted in more comprehensive as well as more voluminous reports. Such an evolution has its problems. Reports commonly lack coherence and integration of subsurface and surface geology, particularly in the case of geophysical data. Cross reference is hampered when illustrations differ in scale. The geologic safety analysis should include more basic, original field investigations of the areal geology of the site and the surrounding area.
Mechanisms of surface subsidence resulting from solution extraction of salt
Authors: Ege John R. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Extraction of soluble minerals, whether by natural or man-induced processes, can result in localized land-surface subsidence. The subsidence is caused by partial or total collapse of underground cavities resulting from dissolution of salt or other soluble evaporites. In many cases, subsidence is ultimately related to the strength limit of the overlying rocks that form the unsupported roof above the cavity. Downwarping results where strength of roof spans are exceeded. In other cases, collapse of the undermined roof causes stoping of the overburden rocks. If sufficient underground space is available for the loosely packed rock debris to collect, the void can migrate to the surface and produce surface subsidence, or in the extreme, catastrophic surface collapse. Another mechanism is subsurface erosion of susceptible layers (sandstone, silt, loess) overlying salt cavities. Ground water can erode and transport the loose material down subsidence-induced and natural cracks, or drill holes into the salt cavity. The voids formed in the higher eroded beds can then cause surface subsidence.
Subsidence due to geothermal fluid withdrawal
Authors: Narasimhan T. N. , Goyal K. P. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Single-phase and two-phase geothermal reservoirs are currently being exploited for power production in Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, the United States, and elsewhere. Vertical ground displacements of up to 4.5 m and horizontal ground displacements of up to 0.5 m have been observed at Wairakei, New Zealand, that are clearly attributable to the resource exploitation. Similarly, vertical displacements of about 0.13 m have been recorded at The Geysers, California. No significant ground displacements that are attributable to large-scale fluid production have been observed at Larderello, Italy, and Cerro Prieto, Mexico. Observations show that subsidence due to geothermal fluid production is characterized by such features as an offset of the subsidence bowl from the main area of production, time-lag between production and subsidence, and nonlinear stress-strain relationships. Several plausible conceptual models, of varying degrees of sophistication, have been proposed to explain the observed features. At present, relatively more is known about the physical mechanisms that govern subsidence than the relevant thermal mechanisms. Although attempts have been made to simulate observed geothermal subsidence, the modeling efforts have been seriously limited by a lack of relevant field data needed to sufficiently characterize the complex field system.
Estimation of earthquake size for seismic hazards
Authors: dePolo Craig M. , Slemmons D. Burton 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter presents a structured organization of the various types of seismic-hazard estimates, approaches, scaling parameters, techniques, and data used in the estimation of potential earthquake sizes. This organization is designed to facilitate the use of multiple techniques, so that a greater amount of data can be incorporated into the size estimate. An earthquake size analysis begins with the determination of the type of seismic hazard to be estimated, such as characteristic, maximum, maximum credible, or floating earthquakes. The characteristic earthquake is defined as one that is characteristic of a particular fault or area. The maximum earthquake generally is defined as the largest to occur during a given time period, whereas the maximum credible earthquake is the largest that is reasonably physically possible, irrespective of the frequency of occurrence. Floating earthquakes occur along unidentified sources, e.g., along smaller faults adjacent to the major fault zones. The various types of estimates can be made at different levels of conservatism and probabilities of occurrence. Five approaches to earthquake size analysis are: historical earthquake, paleoseismic, source characterization, regional, and relative comparison approaches. For each of these, various parameters are used to scale earthquake size, including fault rupture length, fault rupture area, fault displacement, seismic moment calculations, and strain rates. Techniques include the specific correlations and equations used in the analysis. Data include the information collected and its associated uncertainties. The combined use of several approaches, scaling parameters, techniques, and data may reduce the overall uncertainty (or increase the confidence) in the analysis. Logic trees offer a useful format for presenting multiple estimates and uncertainties in an explicit manner. It is important to understand the type of earthquake size estimate made (e.g., local magnitude, surface-wave magnitude, or seismic moment), and to be internally consistent about the type used throughout the analysis, most importantly in the techniques and data. Current research in seismic-hazard analysis includes studies in intraplate regions (e.g., central and eastern United States) and on fold-related, subduction-zone, and volcanic earthquake sources.
Implications of the Meers fault on seismic potential in the central United States
Authors: Ramelli Alan R. , Slemmons D. Burton 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The Meers fault in southwestern Oklahoma, with a prominent scarp resulting from late Holocene surface displacement, is the best-expressed late Quaternary surface fault known to occur in a “stable” continental interior (or mid-plate) region (i.e., regions far removed from areas of high tectonic rates). The Meers fault is part of a major fault system that has not been the locus of major tectonic activity since the Paleozoic, and although recent surface displacements have been sizable, average late Quaternary rates have been low, based on a lack of geomorphic expression indicating significant cumulative displacement. Activity of the Meers fault is unusual, because in mid-plate regions, few large historical earthquakes have occurred and recognized cases of late Quaternary surface faulting are very rare.
Based on the extent of surface rupturing and amounts of displacement, the Meers fault appears capable of producing very large events (i.e., M &gt; 7, or possibly even M &gt; 7 ½). Recent events on the Meers fault produced surface displacements of a few to several meters. Such displacements are quite large, relative to the rupture length of about 40 km, and could result from a tendency for mid-plate or long-recurrence faults to rupture with higher stress drops than plate-margin or short-recurrence faults. Studies attempting to evaluate this possibility have produced conflicting results and may indicate this cannot be placed in as simple a context as plate-margin versus intraplate settings. A large earthquake on the Meers fault would produce strong ground motion throughout much of the south-central United States and could cause widespread damage. The existence of a potential source of large earthquakes in a region thought to be tectonically stable suggests that the seismic potential of this and other mid-plate regions may be underestimated.
Surficial slope failures in southern California hillside residential areas
Authors: Merifield P. M. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Widespread damage in hillside areas of southern California resulting from major rainstorms during 1978 and 1980 focused attention on risks to life and property from surficial slope failures, including debris slides, debris flows, and debris floods. Both artificial and natural slopes underwent damaging surficial failures; however, mountain and foothill areas below burned watersheds were affected by considerably more debris than unburned areas. Slopes vegetated with grasses or other ground cover lacking deep root systems were particularly susceptible to failure.
Preventive measures include stricter enforcement of existing grading codes (includ-ing the requirement for a continuous cover of deep-rooted vegetation), stability analyses of surficial failures, regional studies by state and local governments to identify hazardous areas, site-specific investigations by consultants when properties change hands, and increased efforts to educate the public about slope maintenance in order to mitigate slope failures.
Recent developments in landslide mitigation techniques
Authors: Rogers J. David 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief synopsis of landslide repair methodologies developed over the past 70 years. Early attempts at stabilizing slopes focused on em-placement of toe buttresses and inclusion of subdrainage. As earthwork equipment became larger and more capable, the removal and recompaction of entire slide masses became commonplace. Over the past decade, geotextile and geomembrane products have become available that can significantly alter the options for repair, especially under conditions of restricted access or poor weather. In the balance of the chapter, I seek to introduce the reader to some of these products and to case histories of ways in which they have been combined to effect novel solutions to slope stability problems.
Hereditary haemochromatosis mutation frequencies in the general population
Authors: Bradley L A , Johnson D D , Palomaki G E , Haddow J E , Robertson N H , Ferrie R M 
Published: May 2013

Objectives This study aims to expand our knowledge of the general population frequency of two mutations, C282Y and H63D, identified in the candidate gene for hereditary haemochromatosis, and to determine whether the testing can be performed using routinely obtained cheek-brush (buccal) samples. Setting Banked buccal lysate samples, randomised and coded for anonymity, from a cohort of couples who underwent prenatal cystic fibrosis screening in Maine. Methods A multiplex ARMS test was performed on buccal cell lysates to identify the two mutations. Results Genotype frequencies found among the 1001 subjects studied (502 women, 499 men) were: seven C282Y homozygotes, 22 C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes, 97 C282Y heterozygotes, 17 H63D homozygotes, 246 H63D heterozygotes, and 612 individuals with no detectable mutation. The allele frequencies for C282Y and H63D were 0.066 and 0.151, respectively. Conclusions Observed genotype frequencies in Maine are consistent with expectations and with consensus data from five smaller studies. Combined mutational analysis data indicate that homozygosity for C282Y (the genotype found in about 85% of subjects with diagnosed hereditary haemochromatosis) occurs in 51 per 10 000 white subjects of northern European heritage; the corresponding total hereditary haemochromatosis prevalence of about 60 per 10 000 is consistent with previous estimates. The study also confirms that H63D would not be useful in general population screening for hereditary haemochromatosis.
Differences in observer variability of ultrasound measurements of the proximal and distal abdominal aorta
Authors: Pleumeekers H J C M , Hoes A W , Mulder P G H , van der Does E , Hofman A , Laméris J S , Grobbee D E 
Published: May 2013

Objective To assess the observer variability of ultrasound measurements of the abdominal aorta and to study whether observer variability is influenced by the site of measurement or cardiovascular risk factors. Setting Population based screening programme for abdominal aortic aneurysms. Methods For 135 subjects taking part in a screening programme for abdominal aortic aneurysms, two of the three ultrasonographers measured the distal and proximal ultrasound diameter of the abdominal aorta, using B-mode ultrasound, according to the Rotterdam study scanning protocol. Results The mean difference between two different observers was 0.06 mm (95% CI –0.15 to 0.27) for measurements of the distal aorta and 0.32 mm (95% CI 0.09 to 0.55) for the proximal aorta. Maximal differences between observers for measurements of both the distal and proximal aortic diameter were 4.0 mm. Interobserver variability in the proximal and distal measurements of the abdominal aorta was not related to the level of the major cardiovascular risk indicators. However, interobserver variability in ultrasound measurements of the proximal aorta increased with increasing waist circumference and increasing diameter of the proximal aorta. Conclusion Ultrasonographic readings of the distal and proximal aortic measurements can be interpreted within a range of plus or minus 3 mm. Ultrasound measurements are more accurate for the distal than for the proximal measurement. Definition of the aortic diameter based on a combination of both distal and proximal measurement may be more accurate.