bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Globalization Backlash
Authors: Berezin Mabel 
Published: May 2015

AbstractBacklash against globalization has become a defining feature of the first decade of the twenty‐first century, from the Seattle riots in fall 1999 to the recent riots and strikes within Europe to protest government austerity measures. The global financial crisis has exacerbated nascent backlash and contributed to its spread. Backlash against globalization within global power centers takes two forms: a left leaning collective public protest against global capitalism and a right leaning defense of national sovereignty. The left variation occurs outside of standard political institutions, which is often, but not exclusively, NGO (nongovernmental organization) driven and usually involves expressive public demonstrations and disruption; the right variant occurs within institutions, particularly nationalist political parties and electoral systems. The right and the left share a mutual animus toward globalization and progress narratives. The left variant receives more media attention; the right is more durable as it is embedded within national political systems. Scholars acknowledge “globalization backlash.” Yet, the phenomenon has been under‐theorized as well as under‐empiricized and covers a range of disparate issues. A first step in a research agendavis‐a‐visthe concept would be to establish the parameters of the phenomenon. What forms of social action might we attribute to the cultural, social, economic, and political forces of globalization, and which actions have other causes? The second issue is to identify the differences between institutional and extra‐institutional backlashes. The former is potentially more enduring, whereas the latter opens the door to iterations of public violence.
Globalization of Capital and National Policymaking
Authors: Hall Steven R. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThrough a combination of economic, political, and technological changes, capital has become increasingly mobile across borders. This globalization of capital markets has created constraints on national policymaking. Fearing the loss capital inflows and the destabilizing effects of capital outflows, governments have incentives to avoid enacting policies that investors dislike. Applied across countries, this creates pressure for governments to compete for capital inflows by progressively reducing regulatory and tax burdens. Ultimately, this could lead to a race to the bottom that ends in complete deregulation. Yet, scholarship shows that while this pressure on governments exists, there has not been complete convergence of policy across countries. Instead, there remains persistent divergence as states do maintain some autonomy across a number of policy choices. This essay explores how recent research explains this interaction between the globalization of capital and national policymaking autonomies. Financial crises in the United States and Europe have challenged our understanding of how systemic risk can and should be managed in a world of mobile capital. Moving forward, scholars must build on the lessons from these crises.
Grandmothers and the Evolution of Human Sociality
Authors: Hawkes Kristen , Coxworth James E. 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
We differ from the great apes in so many ways. Yet they all belong to our hominid family, and some are even more closely related to us than they are to each other. One distinctive human feature is our much great longevity, a difference that the Grandmother Hypothesis might explain. Grandmothering not only helps account for our long life spans but also changes childrearing in ways that may explain why distinctly human capacities for social engagement and mutual understanding evolved in our lineage. We review the background to this Grandmother Hypothesis and summarize it and related findings from evolutionary modeling and empirical measurements of both grandmother effects and social capacities of human infants. Then, we point to questions arising for social development, discriminating grandmothers, future mathematical modeling, and social strategies of men, as well as the physiology of human aging.
Group Identity and Political Cohesion
Authors: Huddy Leonie 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThis entry examines the conditions under which group identities become politicized, the psychology underlying this process, and the consequences of political identities for political cohesion and engagement. The political consequences of membership in various demographic and religious groups played a central role in the earliest voting studies and these findings have been theoretically and empirically enriched by an active research focus on social identities within social psychology. Foundational research has identified the underpinnings of cohesive group political behavior in the existence of chronic strong group identities, an established link between the group and politics, and the emergence of group norms fostering a distinct political outlook and political action. Recent research has focused on dynamic aspects of group political cohesion, including threats to the group's status, the convergence of distinct identities, and factors that arouse strong emotions likely to foster collective action. Numerous questions remain unanswered about the conditions under which group political cohesion emerges. One set of questions concerns the origins of chronically strong identities in personality factors such as agreeableness and extraversion. Another set of questions touches on the origins of group identity in situational contexts that promote uncertainty. Finally, the degree to which group leaders can elicit cohesion and conformity, and the situational elements that promote such influence, is a very promising avenue for future research.
Heterarchy
Authors: Crumley Carole L. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractHeterarchy addresses the diversity of relationships among elements in a system and offers a way to think about change in spatial, temporal, and cognitive dimensions. Definitions of heterarchy are remarkably consistent across a variety of disciplines and while the work they do is extraordinarily diverse, taken together they permit a concise definition. A general‐purpose definition that suits a variety of contexts is the relation of elements to one another when they are unranked, or when they possess the potential for being ranked in a number of different ways, depending on systemic requirements. Heterarchy does not stand alone but is in a dialectical relationship with hierarchy (where elements are ranked). The concept of heterarchy offers an arena for examining the potential of a system, organization, or structure for diversity and change. In general, heterarchical relationships are sources of difference and dynamism, and they may be spatial, temporal, or cognitive. This essay outlines the convergent origins of the concept, examines the evidence for the ubiquity of heterarchy in human societies and in mathematical and biophysical contexts, explores its application in the social sciences, and advances understanding of how heterarchical thinking can help envision the human future.
Heuristic Decision Making
Authors: Carmines Edward G. , D'Amico Nicholas J. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThe idea of decision‐making shortcuts, or heuristics, originated in psychological work explaining why individuals diverged from rational behavior. Political scientists have viewed shortcuts more positively. Applied to research on voter decision‐making processes, scholars have discovered the ubiquitous use of shortcuts by voters. These shortcuts are simplified decision‐making strategies that help voters compensate for a lack of detailed political knowledge about candidates and issues. Despite their widespread use, scholars continue to debate over whether these shortcuts are truly useful tools in helping citizens make good choices in the voting booth. Recent work has suggested that one fruitful way to resolve this debate is to consider the influence of political institutions and the ways in which they structure the decision environment. In this essay, we explore the psychological origins of heuristic research, its application to political science, and the ensuing debates over the efficacy of these shortcuts. We end with a discussion of recent research on institutions and the decision‐making environment, and how these factors might alter what scholars know about heuristic decision making.
Hierarchical Models for Causal Effects
Authors: Feller Avi , Gelman Andrew 
Published: May 2015

AbstractHierarchical models play three important roles in modeling causal effects: (i) accounting for data collection, such as in stratified and split‐plot experimental designs; (ii) adjusting for unmeasured covariates, such as in panel studies; and (iii) capturing treatment effect variation, such as in subgroup analyses. Across all three areas, hierarchical models, especially Bayesian hierarchical modeling, offer substantial benefits over classical, non‐hierarchical approaches. After discussing each of these topics, we explore some recent developments in the use of hierarchical models for causal inference and conclude with some thoughts on new directions for this research area.
Higher Education: A Field in Ferment
Authors: Richard Scott W. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractHigher education in the United States is in the throes of change as existing institutions are being challenged and new forms and modes of educational delivery are appearing. To understand and examine these changes, three versions of the “organization field” perspectives are employed. The first emphasizes the forces that have created and perpetuated the existing configuration of colleges and universities. The second stresses the ways in which colleges compete for scarce resources and engage in strategic behavior to survive and gain advantage in a highly competitive and contested arena. And the third focuses attention on consumers (students) rather than providers (colleges), noting alternatives that are emerging to offer training and education outside of the conventional providers. In combination, these perspectives identify varying players and processes that collectively are shaping the future of higher education.
History and Epistemology of Anthropology
Authors: Appadurai Arjun 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
This essay describes the field of social and cultural anthropology. The central concern of this subfield of anthropology is the study of human variations as a defining feature of the evolution of human societies and cultures. It stands in contrast to the development of other social and behavioral science disciplines that are based on evolutionism and has a stronger affinity to the humanities than these other disciplines. The present status of theory and research in social and cultural anthropology is described and promising courses of development going forward are identified.
How Networks Form: Homophily, Opportunity, and Balance
Authors: Lewis Kevin 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
Owing to rapid advances in available data and methods, social network analysis has recently been propelled into a new era: Instead of documenting patterns in static network structures, we are increasingly able to pinpoint the principles governing the evolution of these structures as well as how they emerged in the first place. In this essay, I trace the contours of this new trend. First, I describe foundational research on three mechanisms of network generation that have received particular attention in the literature: homophily, opportunity constraints, and structural balance. Next, I outline cutting‐edge research that has built on this foundation. In just the past several years, scholars have broadened prior approaches into larger, encompassing analytic frameworks; disentangled the various underlying processes that give rise to observed patterns in network structures; and distinguished between attribute‐driven network change and network‐driven attribute change—all largely thanks to advances in modeling tools that have overcome prior obstacles and enabled theoretical progress. Finally, I discuss three directions for future research. While recent scholarship has revolutionized our understanding of network dynamics, our grasp of how tie‐generating mechanisms operate and interact remains comparatively shallow; counterintuitive divisions exist between major sites of relational research and there remains much room for comparative work; and for all the promise of computational social science, there is risk that this movement will return us to the descriptive techniques of prior days but on a much larger scale.
Household Economy
Authors: Lein Laura , Tillotson Amanda 
Published: May 2015

AbstractDebates about poverty—the nature of poverty, the measurement of poverty, and appropriate responses to poverty—are at the core of a great deal of research, policy debate, and political discussion. Since the 1950s the prevalence of poverty in the United States has been measured against a national poverty income line that is recalculated every year. A great deal of poverty research concentrates on income levels: how these are assessed, and their implications for family and individual well‐being. Furthermore, access to a number of poverty programs is based on the poverty line or a related measure of income.At the same time, there is increasing interest and debate concerning the construction and meaning of household expenditures—in particular, how poverty households undertake spending. While the discussion of budgets is just one part of a much larger literature on household economy, the study of household budgets and expenditures, particularly for low‐income families, illuminates how poverty incomes affect families, and how families in a consumer society cope with the implications of their low income. Key questions include the following:Can households meet basic expenditures on poverty incomes? Are US households in poverty able to support their basic needs, and, if not, what is that gap between income and expenditure?Do poverty incomes subject households to material hardship, and, if so, what are the experiences of hardship? To what extent overall does material hardship mark family life in the United States?Along what dimensions do the expenditures of low‐income families vary? How do regional differences, different household needs, and other factors put pressures on impoverished US families?
The Impact of Learning Technologies on Higher Education
Authors: Pentoney Christopher S. , Halpern Diane F. , Butler Heather A. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractDemand for higher education has created a need for learning technologies that can accommodate the individualized needs of an increasing number of students. Thinking, learning, and memory have been studied extensively in their own right, but additional research on these topics in conjunction with advanced learning technologies is needed. Developers of computerized tutoring systems, massive online courses, and educational games will benefit from forward‐thinking studies. Limitations are constantly being lifted, and research must increase in pace to ensure the integrity of upcoming learning technologies.
How Do Labor Market Networks Work?
Authors: Rubineau Brian , Fernandez Roberto M. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThe informal seeking and sharing of job opportunity information via contacts are the dominant mechanisms for both the supply and demand sides of the labor market. Despite many decades of scholarly scrutiny, we have established little certainty about the mechanisms through which labor market networks operate. Much of this uncertainty results from single‐perspective investigations of a fundamentally triadic process. Network‐mediated job search is not merely a version of the classic two‐way matching problem with some additional network factors but is rather a three‐way matching problem with three distinct agentic decision makers: the job seeker, the job screener, and the social contact acting as a connector. This essay summarizes what is currently known about the operation and consequences of labor market networks, their mechanisms, and their contextual dependencies. We show how the perspective of a triad of actors presents new opportunities for resolving current contradictory empirical findings and areas of ongoing debate. Progress on this topic requires both careful causal research isolating mechanisms affecting a particular actor and integrative research on how these mechanisms interact among the triad of actors.
How Form Constrains Function in the Human Brain
Authors: Verstynen Timothy D. 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
In neural systems, form and function are intimately linked; the communication dynamics across networked areas depends on the organization and integrity of the connections between them (i.e., axons and tracts). With the growth of diffusion‐weighted imaging (DWI) and fiber tractography tools over the past decade, it has become possible to visualize the physical architecture of the human brain at an unprecedented resolution. This information has provided the first glimpses into the component circuitry supporting cognition, presenting a unique opportunity for cognitive neuroscientists. For the first time we can visualize the connections in the living brain, allowing us to measure individual differences in anatomical connectivity, relate this connectivity to brain function, and gain insights into the link between white matter architecture and behavior. In many ways, this technology is still in its infancy and its full potential has not yet been realized. Here, I outline the importance of understanding neuroanatomical connectivity as a hard constraint on neural computation. Beginning with an overview of the typical patterns of connectivity seen in neural systems, I go on to show how current neuroimaging tools can visualize several different types of connectivity in the brain. By highlighting recent findings showing how neuroanatomical organization and brain function are related during cognitive tasks, I emphasize the utility that structural brain mapping approaches can have for the broader social and behavioral sciences.
Peers and Adolescent Risk Taking
Authors: Chein Jason 
Published: May 2015

AbstractAdolescent risk taking occurs most often when teens are in the presence of their peers. An extensive body of prior work has attempted to explain this phenomenon with respect to peer pressure, social conformity, and affiliation with deviant peers. Recent experimental work, however, suggests that peer influences on adolescent decision making may be rooted in an even more basic process by which social context alters adolescents' sensitivity to the potential rewards of risky decisions. Emerging findings from empirical studies pursuing this alternative account of peer influences on adolescent decision making are presented, along with a consideration of some key directions for future research.
Identity Fusion
Authors: Buhrmester Michael D. , Swann William B. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractIdentity fusion represents a new form of alignment with groups that motivates personally costly, pro‐group behaviors. The approach posits that fused individuals experience a visceral sense of “oneness” with a group, wherein their personal self (characteristics of individuals that make them unique) joins with a social self (characteristics of individuals that align them with groups). Research has identified several cognitive and affective mechanisms (e.g., sense of agency, invulnerability, familial ties) unique to fusion that help explain why strongly fused persons engage in pro‐group behaviors. For example, fusion robustly predicts endorsement of self‐sacrificial behaviors to save other group members' lives as well as less extreme but nonetheless personally costly acts such as donating money to needy group members. Here, we lay out the basic tenets of the fusion approach, highlight key empirical evidence for fusion theory, and discuss important issues and promising directions for future research on the topic.
Incarceration and Health
Authors: Wildeman Christopher 
Published: May 2015

Abstract

In this essay, I start by briefly discussing the foundational research in this area, which, similar to the study of the consequences of mass imprisonment more broadly, is mostly new. Indeed, all of the foundational research in this field (with the exception of
The Prison Community
and
The Society of Captives
), which considered the mental and physical health of current and former inmates, as well as their mortality risks, was conducted only in the past 25 years. In general, this research finds that (i) the imprisonment period appears to have negative effects on mental health but some paradoxical benefits for physical health and mortality and (ii) former inmates have more health problems and higher mortality risk than a comparison group in the free population. After reviewing this literature, I then review some new research in this area, which shows how incarceration shapes (i) the mental health of current and former inmates, (ii) the health of women connected to current and former inmates, and (iii) the health of the children of current and former inmates. This new research is unique not just because of the breadth of outcomes it considers but also because it uses much more rigorous methods to tease out causal relationships (especially for mental health). I close by discussing directions for research, focusing especially on overcoming obstacles to causal inference, considering effects on inequality, and further returning to the roots of this field, which focused on the acute effects of incarceration on the mental health of inmates.
Innovation
Authors: Jaffe Adam B. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractInnovation is the creation and commercial implementation of a new product or process, often (but not necessarily) based on new technology. Innovation is a major source of private business success and competitive advantage, and is the major long‐term source in growth in per capita income in an economy. The innovation process is characterized by a high level of uncertainty, long lead times, and “spillovers” of economic benefits whereby innovators capture only a portion of the benefits created by an innovation. Intellectual property rights such as patents mitigate, but do not completely solve the problem of firms' inability to appropriate all of the benefits of their innovations. As a result, the private incentive to invest in innovation is lower than the social benefit, and so the private economy will invest too little in innovation in the absence of government intervention. Governments in developed economies support innovation both directly and indirectly.