bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Recent Developments Related to Petroleum Engineering
Authors: Jensen Joseph 
Published: June 2014

Recent developments related to petroleum engineering discussed in this paperare:Drilling wells in with oil or the use of chemical compounds or "mudsolvents" for removing rotary mud from wells in order to increase or makepossible oil production.Comparison of results of electrical logging methods in locating water, asshown in a recent test on a well in the Los Angeles Basin.A new method for logging formations through casing, known as the Stratagraph.

Drilling Wells In With Oil or the use of Chemical Compounds or MudSolvents
During the time that the California fields showed high gas pressures, thepressure of the gas within the formation was sufficiently great to break downthe mud wall or cake formed while the well was drilling. That this did notalways occur was demonstrated by the fact that in some of the older fields newwells sometimes had substantially higher initial productions than other wellsnear by. The explanation seemed to be that some sands were mudded off in theoriginal drilling. Their pressure was then not great enough to break down themud wall in competition with the higher pressure of the sands, but thesituation reversed itself so that a later well benefited by the pressure inthese originally weaker sands. As time passed, in wells deeper than 5000 ft.the difficulty of bringing wells on production became more pronounced. This ledto a hunt for substitutes, of which a number have been tried. The one that hasproved most successful in our experience at Ventura is known as the Nabssolvent.
At well No.1 of the Associated-Ventura Land &Water Co. when it wasrecompleted in February 1936, about 10 days were spent in trying to bring thewell in in the regular manner, but only about 113 bbl. of water could beswabbed from the well, and even this quantity decreased as time passed.
Flow of Gas-liquid Mixtures through Sands
Authors: Muskat M. , Wyckoff R.D. , Botset H.G. , Meres M.W. 
Published: June 2014

The subject of the flow of homogeneous fluids-gases alone or gas-freeliquids-through porous media may be considered at the present time to be fairlywell completed. That is, analytical, graphical, numerical, or experimentalmethods are now available for obtaining detailed descriptions of the behaviorof such homogeneous fluid systems of any reasonable geometry. Thus, satisfactory empirical techniques are now well established for thedetermination of the permeability of porous media for homogeneous fluids, thenumerical magnitude of this permeability uniquely and completely describing aporous medium as a carrier of a homogeneous fluid.
Considering this constant as known, the treatment of a wide variety of specificproblems involving either the flow of gases or liquids has been carried throughto satisfactory conclusions. Beginning with the simple case of strictly radialtwo-dimensional flow of a liquid or gas into a well under steady-stateconditions, generalizations have been developed to apply for systems where theflow is not strictly radial, due either to a lack of uniformity in thereservoir pressures at points distant from the well or deviations fromcircularity of the external boundary. whereby the fluid is being supplied, andfinally, to the lack of complete penetration of the well into the producingstrata. Satisfactory descriptions are now available for cases where gravity isacting as the driving agent inducing the flow of liquid into the well, eitheralone or as a supplement to the effect of pressure. The effect of acidtreatment on limestone wells has been given a reasonable interpretation on thebasis of the fundamental theory of the flow of homogeneous fluids throughsands, as have the important features of the problem of water-coning.
Oil-well Behavior Based upon Subsurface Pressures and Production Data
Authors: Miller H.C. , Burnett E.S. , Higgins R.V. 
Published: June 2014

Information obtained from subsurface pressure and temperature measurementsin oil wells now is recognized as invaluable to geologists, engineers, andoperators of oil properties. Available only during the past few years, dataresulting from subsurface-pressure surveys in oil wells already have foundwidespread application in the estimation of reserves and in the, planning ofcomprehensive oil-field development programs. Subsurface pressure andtemperature data, together with measurements of fluid volumes produced byindividual wells and specific gravities of the fluids, also are included in thefundamental information essential in, studying the movement of oil, gas andwater through reservoir sands to wells. Heretofore, laboratory findings wererelied upon almost entirely for information, pertaining to the mechanics offlow of fluids through porous media, because there was no way to checklaboratory results with actual performance in underground formations untilsubsurface pressure and temperature instruments were developed. Laboratory andfield experiments now lend themselves to closer correlation-a fact that willaccelerate the interpretation of many phenomena that occur when oil and gasflow through reservoir rocks, thousands of feet below the surface of theearth.
This paper summarizes the results obtained thus far in a Bureau of Mines studyof certain data pertaining to subsurface pressures and production of wellsproducing oil and gas (and water). For wells that have been studied, flowingnaturally under volumetric or hydraulic control, a simple relation has beenfound between the mass rate of fluid (oil, gas and water) production., and thecorresponding drop in pressure in the reservoir sand. The equated relationembodies a productivity factor or ?index? expressed in terms of mass rate offluid production per pound drop in pressure through the sands. The equation asdeveloped is an expression of the ability of a well to produce, which permitscomparison on a uniform basis of the productivities of different wells.
The Productivity Index
Authors: Haider M.L. 
Published: June 2014

Much has been said and written on the shortcomings of the open-flow andrestricted potentials of oil wells to determine their relative ability toproduce. The oil industry in general is agreed that the open-flow potential inparticular is grossly inequitable, wasteful and expensive, but that potentialis still used in many pools. This is partly because no thoroughly satisfactorysubstitute has been found and partly because operators are reluctant to adoptother methods that have been suggested; or, as Hamlet would say, we wouldrather "bear those ills we have than fly to others we know not of.
In a great many pools the use of tubing potentials has been substituted foropen-flow potentials, but open-flow potentials through casing are still beingused in many pools, particularly in Oklahoma, although the expense of suchpotentials has been pointed out many times. In one of the most recent pools inOklahoma it is the practice to take open-flow potentials through the casingwith the tubing out of the hole. The well is usually tubed after it is drilledin for the purpose of washing it in and cleaning the hole. After preliminarytests are run the tubing is pulled under pressure preparatory to taking thepotential. After the potential is taken the tubing is rerun, under pressure. Inorder to accommodate the large capacity of the wells, it is customary to setthree separators, six vent lines and large oil-storage tanks. It isconservatively estimated that the equipment not needed for producing the wellcurrently but which is installed solely for the purpose of establishing largepotentials costs the operator at least $5000 per well-approximately 35 per centof the cost of equipping a well for production. Such needless expenditureconstitutes an economic waste in addition to the gas that is wasted in takingpotentials.

Meaning of Productivity Index
A method of measuring the relative ability of wells to produce without openflow that shows considerable promise is the Productivity Index.
Cooperative Development Plan for Buena Vista Hills Oil and Gas Field, Kern County, California
Authors: Nickerson C.M. 
Published: June 2014

The possibility of deeper production in the Buena Vista Hills was firstconsidered in 1933. At that time, however, the heavy state curtailment programserved to deter any operator from drilling test wells, which, if successful, might upset the proration schedules. Because most of the acreage was held byseveral major operators and the remainder by substantial independents, theadoption of a plan of cooperative development was considered desirable. Such aplan was formulated for the development of any deeper oil and gas horizons thatmay be found to exist. This plan, which was signed by the Secretaries of theNavy and of the Interior on behalf of the United States on July 9, 1936, is noweffective for the development of lands within the area shown on Fig. 1. Unlikemost unit plans, the present cooperative development plan permits each operatorto drill and produce his own wells.
For the purpose of this plan the Buena Vista Hills field is divided into twopools. The present production is classed as the" old pool," while anyfuture production below a certain marker which roughly coincides with thebottom of the Santa Margarita formation is included in the" pool" towhich the provisions particularly apply.
Naval Petroleum Reserve No.2 lies within the area and constitutes the majorportion of the Federal leases subject to the plan. There are 39,040 acres and27 operators within the area. Twenty-six operators controlling 99.5 per cent ofthe acreage have signed the agreement.

Geology of the Buena Vista Hills
The Buena Vista Hills consist of a low range in the southern portion of the SanJoaquin Valley, and are roughly parallel to the adjacent Temblor range to thesouth. The Elk Hills oil field parallels the Buena Vista Hills a? few miles tothe north.
Gas Caps, Their Determination and Significance
Authors: Gregory P.P. 
Published: June 2014

Natural petroleum gas occurring in the oil-bearing reservoirs is found toexist either as free gas associated with the oil and/or in solution in the oil. In some virgin fields practically no free gas is encountered under thereservoir conditions of pressure and temperature, although in other fields aconsiderable section of the "pay" horizon is occupied by free gas. Inother words, a given oil field mayor may not have a gas cap before theexploitation takes place. However, when the reservoir pressure is reduced to apoint below the critical saturation pressure by withdrawals of fluids from theproducing formation, the gas dissolved in the oil inevitably begins to come outof solution and becomes free gas. Under the controlled methods of productionand drilling, a portion of this gas is produced with the oil to the surface anda portion of it remains within the reservoir to accumulate at higher structurallevels toward which it migrates by virtue of its low specific gravity. The rateof growth of a gas cap in a given structure depends primarily upon the rate ofdecline in the reservoir pressure. If the rate of pressure decline is rapid, the gas cap likewise will grow rapidly. On the other hand, shrinkage in thegas-cap area was noted in some fields in which reservoir pressures wereincreasing.

Determination of Gas-Oil Contact and Thickness of Gas Cap
The gas-oil contact can be conveniently located in the process of drilling awell and by electrical logging. However, very little can be found in thepetroleum literature concerning methods of predetermining gas-oil contacts inproducing reservoirs. Therefore, the writer feels justified in describingbriefly a simple, workable, and inexpensive method of determining gas-oilcontacts and outlining the limits of gas-cap areas in a field where suchknowledge may be essential for efficient production and developmentoperations.
The method involves the determination of the following data:Structuraldata, such as the depth or elevation of the top of "pay" horizon;reservoir pressures;tubing and casing pressures at the well head;static oil-pressure gradient;static gas-pressure gradient.
T.P. 917
Excessive Pressures and Pressure Variations with Depth of Petroleum Reservoirs in the Gulf Coast Region of Texas and Louisiana
Authors: Cannon G.E. , Craze R.C. 
Published: June 2014

This paper discusses the results of a study of reservoir pressures in theGulf Coast area of Texas and Louisiana, showing the general relation of thereservoir pressure to its subsea depth, as well as excessive reservoirpressures that have been encountered. The latter are particularly important inmud-control work, and the data show why it is necessary to use muds having arelatively high density in many of the deeper wells drilled in this area. Onlya comparatively few of the wells drilled in the Gulf Coast that haveencountered excessive pressures are discussed, but as far as is known thoseomitted fall within the range of pressure observed by the writers.

Measurement of Pressures
The following methods were used to determine the values of the originalpressures:Estimation of original pressure from subsequent pressure behavior of fields.This method is not precise, and was used only in a few of the older fields inwhich better methods of obtaining original pressures were not available. Onlynormal pressures were determined by this method.Measurement of shut-in pressures soon after completion of the firstproducing well. With one exception, all pressures measured by this method werenormal, this well having a pressure slightly higher than normal.Measurements of pressure in connection with drill-stem tests.Estimates from the maximum hydrostatic head of mud that failed to preventflow from the high-pressure formations into the hole. This method is not exact, tending generally to indicate low pressures.

Normal Pressures
All pressure measurements available are plotted in Fig. 1, with originalpressure at the water-oil contact as abscissa and subsea depth as ordinate.
Pressure Drilling Operations at Kettleman Hills, and Effect on Initial Production Rates
Authors: Winterburn Read 
Published: June 2014

This discussion covers only one method of pressure drilling-that developedin the Kettleman Hills field. Thus it is probable that many departures from theprocedure herein described would be advisable, and perhaps necessary, in usingthis method of drilling wells in other localities.

Purpose of Pressure Drilling
By the early part of 1936, formation pressures in the heavily produced northend of the Kettleman North Dome field had declined to range from 1000 to 1500lb. per sq. in. This low pressure, combined with the depth of the wells (8000to 9000 ft.) permitted Water to be filtered out of the mud into the producingsands during drilling operations. The loss of water was indicated by loss offluid from the suction tank while drilling, accompanied by an increase in mudweight. It was found that when water was added to the mud stream at such a rateas to keep the fluid level in the suction tank constant, the mud weight wouldnot vary. This indicates that water only was forced into the sands. The rate ofthis loss at various wells ranged from 2 to 5 bbl. per hour. At some placescomplete loss of circulation occurred, and drilling mud to the extent of 200 to1000 bbl. had to be pumped into the sands before returns were regained. It wasbelieved that these conditions had already begun to harmfully affectproduction, and that such effect would become more pronounced as formationpressures continued to decline. Pressure drilling with oil was introducedbecause it eliminated the danger of loading 'the formations with mud andwater.
Some Considerations in the Selection and Installation of Gravel Pack for Oil Wells
Authors: Coberly C.J. , Wagner E.M. 
Published: June 2014

Sand produced with the oil in many fields is one of the major causes of wearand down time on pumps, tubing, gas anchors and other equipment. Arresting thisproduction of sand at its source would materially increase the life of suchequipment and reduce production costs.
It is possible to materially reduce or eliminate sand trouble in some fieldsby the judicious selection of the openings in perforated liners. However, inother fields this is impossible because of fineness of the sand, poorcompaction of the formation, low bottom-hole pressures, or other conditions. Insuch cases, gravel packing seems to offer a practical and relatively simplesolution of the problem.
Gravel packing of wells, especially water wells, is not new. However, theselection and placing of the gravel have heretofore not been given sufficientstudy, and for that reason the results often have been unsatisfactory. Ananalysis of the problem is presented herein, with the hope of showing thatgravel packing can be put on a rational basis and made a practical method ofcorrecting a condition that has been a constant source of trouble to the oilindustry. Three problems are considered:selection of the proper mesh"gravel" to hold the formation in question,proper placing of thegravel,selection of a properly perforated liner to hold the gravel.

Selection of Liner
The third problem named is the most readily solved. It would seem that aperforated liner that will hold back all of the gravel should be selected. Inthis way the pack will remain permanently intact. This will require a slothaving a width equal to or less than the diameter of the smallest grains in thegravel pack. While a slot with a width twice the grain size at the tenpercentile of the gravel pack would hold the gravel in the accepted sense, thesmall quantity produced during the period the slot bridge is being built upmight be enough to cause the pack to settle, allowing the production ofsufficient formation sand to brand the installation a failure.
T.P. 960
The Origin of Petroleum
Authors: Berl E. 
Published: June 2014

This may be a most unnecessary paper-from what does crude oil come and howwas it formed? Many people, inside and outside of the petroleum industry, believe that we have actually enough oil, and that we can easily produce veryimportant products from this extremely valuable raw material. The writerbelieves, however, that the answer to this question concerning the parentmaterial and the formation of oil is of broader interest, because it may bethat from the answer to these problems it would be possible to get answers toother important industrial questions. Therefore, a study in this line seems tobe justified, and the writer will submit some of the results which he hascollected during more than ten years with many very capable collaborators, towhom his thanks may be expressed on this occasion.

Older Theories
There is no doubt that plants were the parent material of coals, but opinion isdivided as to the parent material of crude oil and asphalts. One group ofspecialists believed that they were formed from dead fish. The hydrocarbons ofcrude oil were formed by the splitting off of CO2 from fatty acids formed bythe saponification of the fat (glycerides) of fish. Enormous quantities ofcrude oil are present in many places on the earth, very often in severalnonconnected horizons at the same location. This could hardly be explained bythe so-called" catastrophe theory," which states that fish died throughthe entrance of salt water into fresh water, and vice versa. Furthermore, thistheory cannot explain the presence of aromatic hydrocarbons, which can be foundin nearly all oils, especially in the oil of the Netherlands Indies, which hasmore than 50 per cent of aromatics. Geological and chemical observations bothlead to the belief that the temperature of formation of asphalt, crude oils andcoals, perhaps with a few exceptions, did not exceed 2000 C. Chlorophyll andhaemin derivatives, which decompose above 2000 C., have been found in all thesematerials by Treibs and others.
T.P. 920
Effect of Pressure upon Viscosity of Methane and Two Natural Gases
Authors: Sage B.H. , Lacey W.N. 
Published: June 2014

In recent years there has been an increase of interest in the flow of gasesat relatively high pressures. Hydrodynamic calculation of the energy losses inthe flow of gases in conduits, as well as through the porous solid materialsconstituting natural petroleum reservoirs, requires a knowledge of theviscosity of the fluid at the pressure and temperature involved. Although thereare numerous publications concerning the absolute viscosity of hydrocarbongases at atmospheric pressure, there appears to be little information availablerelating to the effect of pressure upon the viscosity of these gases.
Vogel determined the viscosity of methane at 320 F. and atmospheric pressure. His measurements at 320 F. were later substantiated by the measurements ofRankine and Smith at 630 and 2120 F. Ishida also reported values for theviscosity of methane at atmospheric pressure. Trautz and Kurz measured theviscosity of propane at atmospheric pressure, from 830 to 5300 F., by the useof a short capillary tube. Rappenecker determined the viscosity of gaseousisopentane at elevated temperatures. Day6 made an accurate investigation of theeffect of pressure upon the viscosity of isopentane and isopentane at pressuresfrom 2 lb. per sq. in. t to the vapor pressure at 770 F. (approximately 9.8 and 13.3 lb. per sq. in., respectively). Earhart reported data upon the viscosityof several natural gases measured by the long capillarytube method.
The viscosity of air, at atmospheric pressure and 73.40 F., was measured byHarrington 9 by the rotating-cylinder method. Kellstrom 15 has recently made anelaborate investigation of the viscosity of air at atmospheric pressure.
Pressure Distribution in Oil and Gas Reservoirs by Membrane, Analogy
Authors: Miles Aaron J. , Stephenson Eugene A. 
Published: June 2014

The pressure distribution in a producing oil or gas reservoir has beenobtained mathematically in a limited number of special cases where the boundaryof the reservoirs are simple geometric figures with the wells convenientlylocated within them. Using some of the previous work as a basis, it can beproved that a number of additional problems of pressure distribution can besolved by use of soap film. This method is particularly applicable to areservoir drained by a number of wells, or to a reservoir of irregular shape, or to both. Since this method obtains the pressure distribution, it alsoestablishes the drainage boundaries of the wells.
This paper derives the analogy between the equation representing the pressuredistribution in a reservoir and the equation of the deflected membrane. It alsodescribes the apparatus and the method of operation. The experimental method isemployed to solve a problem whose mathematical solution is known and theresults compared. These are found to be in good agreement.
The method is applicable to any homogeneous liquid, compressible orincompressible, or to a gas, flowing in a reservoir, of uniform thickness, permeability and porosity. The flow state may be either the steady state or thetransient state wherein the density or pressure of the fluid in the reservoirdeclines at a constant rate.

Pressure-Distribution Problem
Fluids encountered in the oil reservoir are compressible and expand and movetoward the drilled hole where the pressure is lowest. The loss of fluid fromthe reservoir lowers the pressure in the more distant parts of the reservoir, permitting the fluids in these parts to expand and move toward the well.
T.P. 919