bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Relation of Corrosion to Business Costs★
Authors: WACHTER AARON 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Every business can benefit from reduction of its losses due to corrosion. Awareness of all possible sources of such losses is essential. Unnecessary acceptance of losses is common from chronic corrosion which is tolerated as established custom, and from hidden or indirect effects of corrosion. The importance of corrosion damage is not always proportional to the volume of metal affected.
The functional aspects of corrosion are listed. Analysis is made of the ways in which corrosion enters into the cost of doing business. Explanations are given of the direct and indirect ways corrosion may effect capital investment, operating costs, product sales, maintenance costs, overhead costs and market competitive condition of and company.
Topic of the Month—Stress Corrosion Cracking Of a Gold Wedding Ring
Authors: REINHART FRED M. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
A low karat gold alloy wedding ring that had been buried in a garden was unearthed recently and found to be brittle and cracked in many places. The cracks were identified as having been caused by stress corrosion. This condition probably resulted from the presence of residual internal stresses which were combined either with perspiration of the wearer or with the fertilizer used in the garden, or both.
Current Requirements for Cathodic Protection of Pipe Lines★
Authors: PARKER MARSHALL E. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
The problem faced by the engineer seeking to cathodically protect a buried pipe line is to find the best and most economical way to drain from certain selected points on the line sufficient current to give adequate protection. Three basic methods to this end are placing the line under full protection, placing the line under partial protection and calculating the requirements for complete protection, both using, temporary installations; and measuring the electrical characteristics of the line and calculating its behavior under various proposed systems.
The fourth method—an empirical estimate—is more important than its nature would indicate because certain assumptions based on observation and experience usually are helpful in arriving at a final conclusion.
Principal problems also faced by the engineer are those of securing electrical continuity where joints other than welded are used and insulating the line from other buried structures.
The author recommends a procedure involving steps such as: Determining static potentials, draining interrupted current from selected points and from data thus collected determining the relationship between polarization and driving voltage and attenuation of driving voltage; computing desired effect of combinations of drainage currents.
Also discussed are such questions as technique for making potential readings, various means of plotting data for best use, what constitutes “adequate” protection, where the electrode should be placed in making potential readings and other matters.
Carbon Anode Installed In Electric Cable Conduit★
Authors: DAVIS HOWARD L. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
A high ampere-year impressed anode consisting of graphite rods connected to an insulated header wire has been developed and installed by the Philadelphia Electric Company in its underground conduit system. The rods are two inches in diameter and 18 inches long. They are spaced five feet apart and pulled into a duct in lengths up to 500 feet. Special reels with flat sides are used to handle the anode. The first installation was in 6000 feet of conduit to protect lead sheathed power cables. Direct current is supplied to this anode by one rectifier located in the middle of the conduit run. Tests have indicated that protection has been obtained comparable to that available with continuous metal ribbon anodes, but life expectancy is considerably longer and troubles due to anode separation caused by uneven dissipation of ribbon type anodes is avoided.
On the Passivity of Iron★
Authors: BONHOEFFER KARL FRIEDRICH 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Descriptions are given of the various phenomena associated with the passivation and reactivation of iron in concentrated nitric acid. Covered are apparent and true passivation potential, apparent and true passivation current density, passivity producing and passivity maintaining current density. Information is given also on equivalent current density in a redox system, the role of nitrous acid in passivation by concentrated nitric acid, the corrosion of passive iron, refractoriness toward activation, rhythms and activity waves.
Organization and Activity Of the Corrosion Control Group Of a Large Public Utility★
Authors: McAMIS JAMES W. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Methods developed to accumulate information and direct the corrosion control activities of a utility with 2900 miles of piping with 335,000 meters on service take-offs are discussed. Data are collected in the form of maps, recommendations and drawings of installations. Available information on relative corrosivity of certain areas is plotted to a central map. The Corrosion Control Group generally supervises mitigation measures, with actual work under foremen, who also are responsible for training personnel. Testing of the effectiveness of installations has been limited by lack of time and personnel, but more is expected to be done soon. Use of holiday detectors is recommended.
The Pertechnetate Ion as an Inhibitor Of the Corrosion of Iron and Steel★
Authors: CARTLEDGE G. H. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Theoretical consideration of possible mechanisms to account for the action of inorganic corrosion inhibitors of the XO4n− type led to the discovery that the pertechnetate ion, TcO4−, inhibits the corrosion of iron and carbon steels in aerated water at temperatures from 23 to 250 C, which was the highest temperature investigated. The chemistry and nuclear properties of technetium are such as to make it very useful in studying the inhibitory process. Thus, it has been shown that inhibition may be achieved without precipitating more than radiochemical traces of reaction products on the metal and even this amount is shown to be most probably of secondary origin. Exposures of two years have not been attended by a continuous increase in the amount of precipitated technetium. It was found that even at 250 C 5 ppm of technetium (5 × 10−5 f KTcO4) in distilled aerated water effectively inhibited the attack on an SAE 1010 steel. The inhibition depends upon the maintenance of some minimum concentration of dissolved pertechnetate, the amount being dependent upon the nature of the metal and its surface activity. The evidence points to a weak, reversible adsorption of the inhibitor ion as the source of inhibition. The perrhenate ion, ReO4−, is very similar to the pertechnetate ion in geometry and charge, yet it was found to have no inhibitory properties under any of several conditions studied. The observations make it clear that inhibition arises from some intra-ionic property and it is tentatively suggested that this is a degree of internal polarity sufficient to induce a short-range electrostatic polarization at the interface, whereby the activation energy for the cathodic part of the corrosion process is increased.
Stress Corrosion Cracking Of Hardenable Stainless Steels
Authors: BLOOM F. K. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Hardenable stainless steels, like other high-strength steels, are susceptible to cracking under the combined influence of tensile stress and corrosion, depending on the severity of the stress, the nature of the media and to a large extent, on their hardness. The most severe conditions are acid solutions containing sulfides, which promote entry of hydrogen into the steel and where chlorides are present to promote pitting. In such media cracking may occur in the standard grades under stress at hardnesses of Rockwell C24, in severe marine atmospheres at C40 and in industrial atmospheres at C45. Type 422, a modified 12 percent chromium alloy, tempered at 1200 F to Rockwell C30 and the precipitation-hardening alloys, 17-4 PH and 17-7 PH, overaged to the same hardness level were the most resistant materials tested.
Types 410, 416 and 431 performed as well as or somewhat better than low alloy steels when heat treated to equivalent hardness levels. Tempering them at 1100 F or higher temperatures provided good resistance to cracking in the severest media.
Internal stresses generated during quenching can promote stress corrosion cracking without imposing additional external stresses. Interrupted quenching (martempering) is helpful in minimizing stresses from this source and is recommended as a heat treating practice for valve trim and other parts used fully hardened in service likely to cause corrosion cracking.
The Investigation of an Unusual Cause of Shipbottom Pitting★
Authors: DEVOLUY R. P. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Two unusual and severe cases of shipbottom pitting were encountered within the space of a few years. Although the two incidents occurred in polluted harbors 3000 miles apart, the vessels involved showed the same symptoms. These symptoms were rapid pitting, inactivation of the blackened antifouling paint and good electrical conductivity of the black surface film. The black conversion product, found only in the upper layer of the antifouling paint, was shorted to the steel hull.
A study of the painting history of the vessels involved and of the conditions to which they were exposed in service indicated two common factors were present on ships that pitted. First, there was contact between the antifouling paint and the steel hull and secondly, there was exposure to sulfide forming waters. When one of these factors was missing, vessels exposed to the other condition did not show unusual pitting.
To confirm a theory as to the cause of pitting a series of test panels duplicating conditions experienced in service were prepared. The tests, with suitable controls tended to substantiate the theory advanced. From information so obtained it was possible to recommend simple measures that would prevent the recurrence of the severe underwater corrosion described.
Aqueous Corrosion of Aluminum (Part 2-Methods of Protection Above 200 C)
Authors: DRALEY J. E. , RUTHER W. F. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
At elevated temperatures most aluminum alloys in water suffer severe penetrating attack, resulting in their relatively rapid destruction. This penetrating attack is explained in terms of mechanical damage as a result of diffusion of corrosion-product hydrogen into the metal.
It is prevented by adding to the water cations which are reduced on the aluminum to form deposits of low hydrogen overvoltage metals. It is also prevented in untreated water by using aluminum alloyed with the same metals. Alloying metals observed to be beneficial are nickel, copper, cobalt, iron and platinum, with nickel probably the most effective.
There has been developed an alloy, containing approximately 1 percent nickel in 1100 aluminum,which appears to be completely safe against the penetrating attack up to 350 C. It is easy to make and is workable. It probably can be used, from a corrosion resistant point of view, wherever its normal reaction rate with water or a solution is tolerable. Penetration rates in static distilled water range from approximately 0.5 mg/dm2-day at 150 C to 18 mdd at 350 C (0.3 to 9 mils per year). They are higher where there is significant flow velocity of water past metal. 6.4.2
Casing Corrosion in the Hugoton Gas Field★
Authors: KOGER W. C. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
A casing leak survey in the Hugoton Gas Field was made to obtain information with which the casing corrosion problem could be evaluated and the most severely affected areas located. It was determined that leak frequency was relatively low but that leaks usually resulted in decreased deliverability or loss of the well. Because the pool is expected to be productive for another 30 years, the seriousness of the problem was not reflected entirely by current leak frequency.
Work to date indicates current application based on indications derived from surface potential measurements is sufficient to protect the wells and that the required current is obtainable from galvanic anodes. This latter fact is important because each well is located in the center of a section.
Interference from rectifier installations has been found in the field, presenting a new problem in efforts to protect casing cathodically from corrosion. 8.4.3
The Structure of Oxide Scales on Chromium Steels
Authors: YEARIAN H. J. , RANDELL E. C. , LONGO T. A. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
The structure of the oxide scale formed on commercial chromium steels containing 5 to 26 percent Cr when oxidized in air or oxygen at temperatures from 700 C to 1160 C for times up to 100 hours were determined by X-ray diffraction methods, supplemented in some instances by chemical analysis. Two distinct types of scale were observed: A type scale occurs when the rate of metal loss is less than approximately 10 mg/cm2/day, and B type when the attack rate is in the excessive range. For exposures near the critical conditions an initial A type scale transforms to B type during oxidation.
The essential component of A type scale is Cr2O3. This is usually accompanied by aFe2O3 in an amount which increases with the iron content of the alloy (i.e., with rate of attack). At high temperatures or long oxidation times, dilute solid solutions of each of these phases in the other are formed. When the alloy contains a few tenths percent of Mn, the A type scale may also include copious amounts of MnCr2O4, especially for high chrome alloys and for low temperature oxidations in air.
B type scale is more complex than A scale and may be considered as two layers. The outer layer is duplex and is similar in all respects to the Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 layers of the scale on pure iron. The major constituent of the inner layer, corresponding to the FeO layer on pure iron, is a solid solution, FeFe(2–x)CrxO4, of the spinel type. Throughout most of the layer x varies slowly, but near the metal it rises rapidly to x = 2 and near the Fe3O4 layer it falls rapidly to x=0. The mean value of x lies in the range of about 0.5 to 1.5. The greater the chromium content of the alloy, the higher the temperature and the longer the time of oxidation, the larger is the value of x. In cases of very high attack the series of spinels is accompanied by a series of wustites which are modified by chromium additions ranging downward to zero at the Fe3O4 layer. For 10 to 20 hour oxidations at 925 C and at 1000 C the chromium fraction of total metal in the inner layer is about 1.8 times its value in the alloy, whereas the excess is only about one percent in the scale as a whole.
The experimental data are compared and contrasted with existing information and are qualitatively interpreted by use of a tentatively proposed Fe-Cr-O phase diagram and a special theory of alloy oxidation. 3.2.3
Intrinsic Protection of Water Mains
Authors: UNZ M. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Inherent protection against corrosion hazards is essential in water supply systems. External corrosion is reduced by the use of cement coatings and separation of heterogeneous line sections. Internal galvanic action, especially in prestressed concrete structures, is eliminated by separation or matching of materials. A complete solution of the problem is attained only by electrically nonconducting pipe. Internal corrosion and blocking of pipes can be prevented by water treatment.
Investigations on an irrigation system confirm that bare or bituminous coated steel components are anodic to cement coated lines. Irrigation outlets during the dry season also usually are anodic to the trunk line. In anodic areas a chemical absorption process takes place in the cement coating, which intrinsically increases its protective value. The presence of an adequate layer of pure cement over the steel surface is essential for this protective effect. 7.2
Corrosion of Type 347 Stainless Steel and 1100 Aluminum In Strong Nitric and Mixed Nitric-Sulfuric Acids★
Authors: DILLON CHARLES P. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Rapid corrosion of a Type 347 stainless steel-clad tank was encountered in the storage of a mixed acid of the composition 85 percent nitric acid-13.5 percent sulfuric acid-1.5 percent water. A laboratory investigation of the mechanisms of attack in this and similar acids shows severe vapor-phase corrosion of austenitic stainless steel above 95 percent total acidity. The attack was unaffected by chloride or metal ion contamination. 1100 aluminum has been found in both laboratory tests and in field experience to be an effective and economical substitute in this service. The aluminum alloy is corroded in the liquid phase at total acidities below 95 percent. 4.3.2
What Does Corrosion Really Cost?
Authors: HIRSCHMANN W. B. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Determination of the cost of corrosion is not a simple, straightforward job. A part of the problem depends on what is meant by corrosion and what is meant by cost. This paper is a guide for isolating the cost of corrosion. By also taking into account the effects of taxes and the time value of money, a measure is obtained of the cost of corrosion which is credible, and which is meaningful in relation to other costs and the net earnings of an organization. 1.2.2
The Role of Nickel and Nickel Substitutes In Jewelry Making
Authors: MAIRS K. H. , WILLIAMS J. M. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Numerous laboratory tests are reported of couples between 24 and 10 karat gold, sterling silver, 800 silver, 430 stainless iron, composition, 10 percent nickel silver, 18 percent nickel silver, aluminum bronze, LC nickel and 305 stainless steel in both acid and alkaline synthetic perspiration. Expected potential difference occurred between the materials and gold. Type 305 stainless steel showed the least tendency to corrode with the copper base alloys showing the greatest tendency toward corrosion. Potentials in acid perspiration were greater than those in alkaline.
The authors conclude alloys which develop protective films are more satisfactory than those which do not. Resistance of nickel is not entirely satisfactory but no single substitute has the general usefulness of nickel. Under many conditions Type 430 stainless iron is not sufficiently resistant to be useful in jewelry making.
Methods of Preventing Corrosion in Sewerage Systems★
Authors: SPINDEL ERVIN 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Means of preventing deterioration of structures handling sewage or exposed to the fumes from sewage are discussed. Relative merits and application techniques of chemical additives are considered. Recommendations concerning control through design to increase velocity or eliminate vapor space are weighed. Application of and results achieved through ventilation of sewers are reported in some detail, including service results on installations over periods up to 16 years.
Control through use of materials resistant to the corrosives in sewage is outlined. Special cements, clay and plastic liners, special jointing materials and protective coatings for metallic and non-metallic materials at treatment plants are mentioned. Cathodic protection as an effective control measure is considered and recommended where feasible.
Testing Wrappings on Cathodically Protected Submerged Pipe and Fittings★
Authors: CLAYTON H. M. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
All 20-mil tapes failed when tested by the Light, Gas & Water Div. of Memphis, Tenn. in 2000 ohms/cm3 water wrapped over 1-inch pipe carrying impressed voltages of —.85 to —2.5. Ten-mil tapes performed better. The principal reasons for failure were poor adhesives and tape elasticity and memory which tended to pull away wrappings over elbows and caps. Coal tar enamel tested under the same conditions performed well.
Test equipment included a device for measuring the conductivity of the water and a transparent plastic box in which the tested samples were submerged. Close check was kept on applied potentials. A record, was kept of water absorbed by the wrappings. It, is believed increased current flow was caused by water creeping under tapes rather than absorption.
Tests were run for periods of eight weeks, gradually increased voltages having the effect of accelerating the tests. Data are graphed for typical tests and a table of data on a typical sample is given. 5.4.5
The Relation of Thin Films to Corrosion★
Authors: RHODIN THOR N. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Recent studies of thin oxide films isolated from stainless steels and other ferrous alloys have provided new information on surface properties. Correlations between the unique compositional and structural properties of thin films and alloy corrosion behavior in various corrosive environments have been established.
Evaluation of the resistance to pitting corrosion of silicon-modified Type 316L stainless steel is described as a typical example of an application of a film study to corrosion research. In this case, improved corrosion behavior was correlated with a mutual film-enrichment of silicon and molybdenum and a film-depletion of iron. Experimental alloys of improved purity were prepared and evaluated. Effects of alloy purity, carbon content, and alloying additions were found to influence strongly surface behavior and corrosion resistance.
The mechanism of resistance to pitting corrosion and the protective nature of the associated oxide films are interpreted in terms of the chemistry of hydrated heteropoly acids containing oxides of silicon and molybdenum. 3.8.4
Effect of Hot Hydrogen Sulfide Environments on Various Metals★,—A Contribution to the Work of NACE Task Group T-5B-2 on Sulfide Corrosion at High Temperatures and Pressures in the Petroleum Industry from Sinclair Research Laboratories, Inc., Harvey, III.*
Authors: BRUNS FRANK J. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Sinclair platinum catalyst reformers and desulfurizers designed on corrosion rate data taken from literature and laboratory tests had low corrosion rates. However, scaling as a result of high temperature sulfide attack caused clogging and pressure drop.
Plant and bench scale corrosion tests were made using specimens of various steels and alloys directly in catalyst beds. These tests showed that at hydrogen sulfide concentrations considered low only 18-8 stainless steel exhibited sufficient resistance for long time service. Test apparatus is described, procedure outlined and corrosion rates reported on tests made.
Examples of scale formation are shown, constituents analyzed and explanation of scale phenomena offered.
Tests resulted in decisions concerning additional equipment and pointed to certain alloys as desirable for service expected. Refinery corrosion tests of alloy steels and aluminum coated carbon steels were made and corrosion rates plotted, indicating that low chromium steels are satisfactory provided the hydrogen sulfide-hydrogen ratio is lower than 100 ppm. Aluminum coated steels proved to have marked resistance to attack with best results achieved with calorized coatings.
Conclusions on proper material selection related to hydrogen sulfide concentration are given. 3.2.2
Corrosion and Metal Transport In Fused Sodium Hydroxide (Part 2 – Corrosion of Nickel-Molybdenum-Iron Alloys)
Authors: SMITH G. PEDRO , HOFFMAN EUGENE E. 
Published: July 2014

Abstract
Studies were made of the corrosion by fused sodium hydroxide of nickel-rich alloys whose constituents were nickel, molybdenum, and iron exposed at 815 C for 100 hours. The reaction mechanism was found to involve the selective removal of iron and molybdenum from solid solution with nickel and a resultant formation of subsurface porosity. In most cases this porosity was shown to occur in the form of elongated pits which frequently followed tortuous paths and intersected to form a maze of subsurface channels.
Alloys of nickel, molybdenum, and iron containing at least 70 percent nickel showed more resistance to corrosion by sodium hydroxide melts at 815 C than any other alloys which have been tested. 4.7