bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ensuring Compliance with Standards on the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy
Authors: Rockwood Laura 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has provided unbiased independent verification for over fifty years, within the legal authority granted to it by its member states and the resources which it has been given to carry out that authority and has been able to respond to shifting perceptions of proliferation threats. It has also been engaged in verifying the disarmament of nuclear weapon programmes in Iraq, South Africa, and Libya, and developed ‘black box’ techniques for verifying material dismantled from nuclear weapons in non-nuclear states. To ensure the continued adherence by states to the 1970 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to their respective safeguards agreements, and to reduce the risk that additional states attempt to circumvent their non-proliferation undertakings, it is necessary: to strengthen the IAEA's verification capabilities; to minimize the risk of break-out; and to address the underlying motivations of states. A set of concrete steps that could be taken under each of these headings are suggested.
How to Depart from the Existing Dire Condition of Development
Authors: Jouannet Emmanuelle 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Classical International Development Law (IDL) has not kept its promises despite continuing attempts to implement it. Major legal principles such as the right of peoples to self-determination, sovereignty over natural resources, and the right to nationalize against just compensation have helped to found and consolidate the sovereignty of newly independent states and let them properly consider their development. However, the set of legal norms that were subsequently adopted, which are legally binding and have been provided with some effectiveness, have proved extremely disappointing in their application. The new IDL of the post-Cold War years, which currently applies concurrently with conventional law on the matter seems no more effective. To change the existing dire condition, three options are open: sticking to the neo-liberal pro-market paradigm — an economically efficient but socially unfair solution; jettisoning any model of development — a blind alley; and changing the rules of the global economic system, and creating a new and fair New International Economic Order. This third option aims at changing the rules of the global economic system, recasting the Bretton Woods financial institutions, changing the rules of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and revising the World Trade Organization in a more equitable direction so that it finally refocuses relations between the various North(s) and South(s).
Realism, Utopia, and the Future of International Environmental Law
Authors: Francioni Francesco 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
International environmental law, in spite of its impressive development at the level of treaty law and notwithstanding the abundance of soft law instruments, declarations, and ‘understandings’, remains an immature and underdeveloped body of law. What are the prospects for further developments? At the normative level, a ‘realistic utopia’ entails the recouping of the original promise of the environmental movement, that is the conceptualization and the legal treatment of the natural environment as a ‘public good’ to be administered in the interest of all and of the generations to come. At the institutional level two approaches are possible: consciously to shunning the need for institutional reform as too costly and ineffective and rely on market mechanisms of self-regulation and transnational private enforcement; and a reform of the institutional system of environmental governance by creating effective multilateral institutions that can mirror what has been done in international economic law and human rights. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive. They should be complementary because the first one can hardly work without the other.
Combating Terrorism: Proposals for Improving the International Legal Framework
Authors: Ginkel Bibi van 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This chapter assesses the bottlenecks and pitfalls identifiable in the counterterrorism system of the UN, as well as in the international legal system. The success rate of any possible suggestions for improving these measures will depend on evolution geopolitics and the power structures as we know them today. Thus, before anything else, the scenarios of different developments in geopolitics are discussed. Finally, some proposals for improving the current system are made, thereby taking into account the circumstances necessary to make that happen.
Uses and Abuses of Cyberspace: Coming to Grips with the Present Dangers
Authors: Murray Andrew 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Of key importance to the challenge of cyberspace to all areas of law is the distinction between space and cyberspace. Space is the lawyer's natural environment. It represents our place in the physical environment and is the cornerstone of our legal systems, domestic and international. Cyberspace is the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks, and computer processing systems. How does the rule of law apply in cyberspace? If we are to have any hope of producing effective de facto jurisdiction for cyberspace content, international lawyers must first accept there is a distinction between space and cyberspace. Cyberspace may (when viewed from the space of the physical environment) look like a communications media. There are areas where international cooperation and perhaps even formalization of law through treaty obligations are likely to be successful. They include e-commerce where the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce has been extremely successful in bringing harmony and international recognition; intellectual property rights where a number of the World Intellectual Property Organization treaties and others such as the recently finalized Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement have been or are likely to be effective; and a number of criminal law measures where the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime has been effective in providing cooperation on matters of illegal interception and computer-related fraud. However, if lawyers want to create de facto control over content it cannot be done through legal documents; it must be done through a web of terms and conditions of service and through Lessigian code-based solutions.
How to Improve upon the Faulty Legal Regime of Internal Armed Conflicts
Authors: Sivakumaran Sandesh 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
There are two major gaps in the law governing non-international armed conflicts: not infrequently, armed groups do exercise territorial control, yet international humanitarian law has little to say on the point and rebels lack combatant immunity and the associated prisoner of war status; whether or not such individuals respect the law of internal armed conflict, they may be prosecuted and even sentenced to death. Another problem is that there is a growing view that human rights law offers greater protection to the individual and should therefore replace international humanitarian law in the regulation of internal armed conflict, at least when the violence is below the threshold of Protocol II. However, the consequences of a shift from regulation through international humanitarian law to regulation through human rights law have not been fully explored. A study needs to be undertaken to determine whether all rules now applicable in internal armed conflicts are within the capacity of armed groups, whether certain rules need tailoring to meet the involvement of this category of actor, and whether other norms are needed. In the area of enforcement, three recent initiatives suggest that although traditional enforcement approaches may be of limited value, more creative approaches may prove workable. A way forward might reside in working out a new instrument designed to bind armed groups in each situation.
Good Time for a Change: Recognizing Individuals’ Rights under the Rules of International Humanitarian Law on the Conduct of Hostilities
Authors: Pinzauti Giulia 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Given the current state of international law and international relations, in the near future it would be impossible, though highly desirable, to improve the situation of all civilians adversely affected by the outbreak of an armed conflict. It is, however, both necessary and realistic to address the condition of at least those individuals who suffer damage as a result of violations of the rules of jus in bello on the conduct of hostilities (the so-called ‘Hague law’). A belligerent violating international humanitarian law bears responsibility for the breach of such rules and is liable to make reparation for the consequences thereof. Arguably, the time is ripe for recognizing that the rules of the Hague law also protect individuals' rights, and that injured individuals are therefore entitled to remedy and reparation for the wrong suffered. The shift from the traditional paradigm of inter-state responsibility to responsibility of the state vis-à-vis individuals could be achieved through the creation of ad hoc international mechanisms (such as claims commissions) for the processing of individual complaints. In addition, the task of making a major breakthrough would fall to domestic courts and human rights supervisory bodies, which have ample potential for affirming the existence of individuals' rights under the rules of international humanitarian law regulating means and methods of warfare.
The Low Road: Promoting Civil Redress for International Wrongs
Authors: Menon Jaykumar A. 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
International law lacks muscle or, in other words, enforcement power; bones, that is, institutional infrastructure and capacity; and even heart, namely, the capacity to face up to some of the largest issues of our times. Civil litigation in domestic courts offers tremendous potential for redressing international wrongs, loosely defined to be of two types: cross-border matters; these can be addressed either by applying rules of international law, or solely through domestic laws as applied across borders and acts that take place strictly domestically but that nonetheless violate international law, even if their physical aspects are limited to a small inquisition room. Measures designed to improve upon the present conditions include: existing educational efforts for current and future practising lawyers should be increased, and also broadened to include legislators and judges; the collection of evidence in one country for use in litigation in another should be facilitated; and heads of jurisdiction should be broadened: for instance, often the jurisdictional peg is presence of the defendant's offices or person within the forum; property, however, can be an alternate base of jurisdiction.
Another look at accomplishments and incrementality
Authors: Rothstein Susan 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThe chapter reexamines the semantics of accomplishments predicates and argues that despite recent proposals to the contrary, there is a genuine class of accomplishment verbs which is linguistically useful. The chapter argues that lexical classes in general characterise the underlying types of events denotes by verbs. Following Kamp (1979 a,b,) the chapter suggests that the two basic types of events are states and instantaneous changes (what Vendler called States and Achievements). Activities are extended dynamic events, which are iterations of the series of changes which constitutes the minimal activity event (Dowty 1979; Rothstein 2004, 2008a). Accomplishments are likewise extended and dynamic, but are not iterable, since the lexical definition of the event type determines its endpoint. However, within this characterisation of accomplishments, there are subclasses of accomplishments, since different kinds of extended, dynamic, non-iterable events have different properties and may determine their endpoints in different ways. These different subclasses of accomplishments have different grammatical properties, and crosslinguistically the differences may show up in different ways.
The monotonicity hypothesis
Authors: Koontz-Garboden Andrew 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis chapter addresses the issue of what are possible and impossible word formation operations from a semantic perspective, exploring the Monotonicity Hypothesis, the idea, itself a consequence of compositionality, that word formation operations do not remove operators from lexical semantic representations. The nature of morphology in the evaluation of this hypothesis is discussed, followed by the presentation of a case study that examines the derivational relationship of state-denoting words (red, broken) to their change-of-state counterparts (redden, broken). Potential counterexamples to the predictions of the hypothesis are discussed and shown ultimately to provide support for the hypothesis, when properly understood. Finally, additional empirical domains worth exploring are discussed.
The Origins of Music
Authors: Stumpf Carl 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This book was first published in German in 1911. The text sets out a path-breaking hypothesis on the earliest musical sounds in human culture. Alongside research in such diverse fields as classical philosophy, acoustics, and mathematics, Stumpf became one of the most influential psychologists of the late 19th century. He was the founding father of Gestalt psychology, and collaborated with William James, Edmund Husserl, and Wolfgang Köhler. This book was the culmination of more than twenty-five years of empirical and theoretical research in the field of music. The first part of the book discusses the origin and forms of musical activities as well as various existing theories on the origin of music, including those of Darwin, Rousseau, Herder, and Spencer. The second part summarizes his works on the historical development of instruments and music, and studies a putatively global range of music from non-European cultures to demonstrate the psychological principles of tonal organization, as well as providing a range of cross-cultural musical transcriptions and analyses. This became a foundation document for comparative musicology, the elder sibling to modern Ethnomusicology, and the book provides access to the original recordings Stumpf used in this process. This book is available for the first time in the English language.
Carl Stumpf: Impulses towards a cognitive theory of musical evolution
Authors: Motte-Haber Helga de la 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
The translation of a text from 1911 in the year 2011 is indicative of the historical significance that befits the author who, for his part, made his mark with seminal writings on music psychology, even if he is not really the founder of the discipline of psychology. Can we still regard Stumpf's consideration of The Origins of Music as timely, or is this merely an interesting historical document? A review of differing theoretical concepts answers these questions and clarifies the significance of Stumpf's text within the framework of an intensive, fifteen-year discussion on the evolutionary origins of music. This chapter discusses the self-contradictory concepts of the evolution of music; a brief summary of significant aspects of the 1911 text; and the psychology of tone instead of psychophysics.
Cognitive Constraints on the Understanding and Acceptance of Evolution
Authors: Shtulman Andrew , Calabi Prassede 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Evolution by natural selection is a theory that has revolutionized the biological sciences yet has remained largely misunderstood by the public. We present an analysis of how evolution understanding is constrained by early developing essentialist biases and test that analysis with a teaching intervention targeted specifically at those biases and the various “pre-Darwinian” misconceptions they license. The intervention was successful not only at increasing students’ understanding of evolution, at both the micro level and the macro level, but also at increasing their acceptance of evolution as a whole. These results suggest that attending to the essentialist nature of students’ preinstructional misconceptions may help improve evolution education and that improving evolution education may, in turn, help improve public attitudes toward evolution.
Encountering Counterintuitive Ideas
Authors: Evans E. Margaret , Rosengren Karl S. , Lane Jonathan D. , Price Kristen L. S. 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis chapter provides evidence for a developmental learning progression, which can bridge the gap between everyday intuition and scientific reasoning about evolutionary change. First, it describes the learning principles that motivate a developmental learning progression and how they differ from those found in the learning progressions constructed by researchers working in formal education. The chapter then focuses on a developmental learning progression for biological evolution and details how children's and adults' intuitive theories about the natural world constrain their understanding of evolutionary theory, rendering it counterintuitive. The chapter then applies the proposed learning principles to children's and adults' emerging grasp of evolutionary theory and describe both age-related changes in children's and adults' reasoning and changes in reasoning following visits to informal science exhibits on evolution.
Commentary on Section I
Authors: Thanukos Anna , Rosengren Karl S. , Evans E. Margaret 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the content of the first section of the book highlighting factors that influence the acceptance and understanding of evolution. These factors are described as constraints within the child, the specific task, and the broader social-cultural environment. It is argued that some of these constraints may lead to misconceptions, and that discussion of how multiple constraints interact to influence both acceptance and understanding of evolution may help educators design more effective methods for teaching about evolution. Other implications for education drawn from the individual chapters are highlighted.
Pattern and Process
Authors: Diamond Judy , Kociolek Patrick 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Of any public institution, natural history museums have the most extensive intellectual and physical resources for teaching the public about evolution. This chapter traces how evolution exhibits in natural history museums have changed over the past century from displays based on collections of biological diversity to experiential teaching units that focus on processes and mechanisms of evolution that are based on contemporary research findings. To assess how well these efforts help people understand evolution will require a significant commitment to experimentally-based learning research to determine how to create meaningful educational change through the experience of visiting exhibits.
Making Connections
Authors: Thanukos Anna , Scotchmoor Judy 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This chapter explores ways that learners’ perceptions of evolution and their perceptions of the nature and process of science may be intertwined. Literature from relevant research in cognitive psychology related to this connection is reviewed. The chapter also examines how misconceptions about the nature and process of science relate to both the learning and acceptance of evolution. The chapter also describes one effort, the Understanding Evolution website, to address public understanding of evolution and the nature of science. The description focuses on the design and goals of the website and evaluates the effectiveness for teaching and learning about evolution.
Cultural Warfare and Styles of Representation in the United States
Authors: Barker David C. , Carman Christopher Jan 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis chapter lays out the argument in a detailed and systematic way. The chapter argues: (a) ordinary people do hold ideological predilections regarding the nature of democratic governance; (b) those predilections stem, in part, from different expectations regarding the nature of democratic governance; (c) such differences in democratic worldviews are partially a byproduct of cultural progressivism/traditionalism. That is, this chapter provides the detailed theoretical rationale undergirding the empirical analyses that follow.
Constituent Perceptions of Representation Styles and Democratic Accountability
Authors: Barker David C. , Carman Christopher Jan 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis chapter explores other ways that trustee-style representation preferences within constituencies could ultimately translate into trustee-style governing styles on the part of elected representatives (and vice versa). Using the same data from previous chapters, the chapter demonstrates that citizens who are represented by Republicans are more likely to say that their representative is a trustee, regardless of their own preferences regarding one or the other style. The chapter also explores matters of democratic accountability: does disappointment in a legislator's representation style translate into lower job-approval ratings (and thus job insecurity) for that representative? And is it worse for those representatives who are deemed not responsive enough, as opposed to those who are considered too responsive? Democratic theory answers both of these questions in the affirmative, and so do our empirical tests. However, Christian traditionalists (and Republicans) are much less likely to express disapproval toward a legislator who is perceived as nonresponsive than are secular progressives (and Democrats). This pattern suggests that trustee-style representatives are much less likely to suffer electoral defeat if they represent culturally Red districts than if they represent culturally Blue ones.
Red Representation, Blue Representation
Authors: Barker David C. , Carman Christopher Jan 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis chapter assesses one of the major implications of our findings that are discussed in the previous chapters. That is, if secular progressives are more inclined to expect instructed delegate-style representation, elect representatives with instructed delegate-styles of governance, and hold those representatives accountable when they fail to deliver, then we should expect elected officials who represent progressive (especially secular) constituencies to respond more consistently to constituent opinion than do those who represent traditionalistic constituencies. Looking directly at roll-call voting behavior on the part of legislators from 1985 to 2010, the chapter provides direct evidence in support of that narrative.
Concepts and Terms
Authors: Peponi Anastasia-Erasmia 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThough absent from the Greek language as a term, the notion of the aesthetic is embedded in archaic and classical thought and encountered in different but equally complex modes of thinking in both poetic and philosophical texts. Early modern approaches to the aesthetic were associated to a considerable extent with a struggle over the definition of the so-called fine arts, emphasizing their exclusiveness, an attitude that encouraged similar approaches to beauty. Such perceptions of the aesthetic were contingent on the cultural conditions within which the discipline emerged in the eighteenth century. Based on the examination of the way intense manifestations of aural pleasure are meditated upon (and not just mentioned) in Greek texts, the book suggests a flexible understanding of the aesthetic, freed from the influential preconceptions of the last two centuries.