bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures: An Expedited Settlement Approach
Authors: Smith Donald P. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for implementing the Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulations under the provisions of the Clean Water Act (CWA) as amended by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90). These regulations apply to a wide array of facilities involved in exploration, production, refining, manufacturing, distribution, and processing. The agency conducts SPCC inspections as a method of validating compliance with these regulations. In an era of government re-invention, budget constraints and in the spirit of better customer service relations, EPA Region VI has developed an innovative means of obtaining facility compliance with the SPCC regulations. It is formally known as the expedited settlement approach. The purpose of this approach was to provide a more efficient and effective means of validating environmental compliance. The approach is a combination of simplified inspection and enforcement procedures with emphasis upon compliance assistance. The program's initial emphasis is directed at production facilities. The approach is designed to address environmental violations, which are easily correctable and generally have resulted in chronic type spills. This paper will examine the parameters of the expedited settlement approach, its application and implementation through the use of case studies. The results of the case studies will provide a barometer for the success and shortcomings of this type of approach.
Lessons Learned in Ecological Risk Assessment Planning Efforts
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Scholz Debra , Aurand Don V. , Pond Robert G. , Clark James R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
There is growing interest in the United States for using the full mix of environmentally appropriate countermeasures during spill response to achieve the highest level of environmental protection and recovery possible. Determining the right mix of technologies, including mechanical recovery, shoreline cleanup, dispersants, and monitoring (no active response), is particularly challenging in sensitive and valuable estuaries through which high volumes of bulk oil shipment transit.
This paper summarizes an ecological risk assessment (ERA) project to consider the potential effectiveness and effects of using dispersants, in addition to conventional countermeasures, to mitigate the impacts of oil spilled into the marine and nearshore environments and to facilitate preparedness efforts at the federal, state, local, and industry level. Sponsored by industry and federal and state agencies, the primary goal was to bring technical and resource experts together to use their collective knowledge and experience in methodically comparing the trade-offs associated with the use of various countermeasures in Puget Sound, Washington.
The ERA process used for Washington State waters was the first ERA that specifically addressed oil spill response options in U.S. coastal estuaries. It occurred as a follow-up to several other preparedness activities jointly sponsored by government and industry. The project team learned several important lessons, which were used to refine the process as it subsequently was applied in California and Texas in 1999.
The Sergo Zakariadze Response and Refloating: Timelines are not Concrete
Authors: Servidio Joseph 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
On November 18, 1999, the 605-foot Russian-flagged motor vessel Sergo Zakariadze lost steering while returning to the Port of San Juan, Puerto Rico after the passage of Hurricane Lenny. The pilot and vessel's crew attempted to engage various alternate and emergency steering systems to regain control without success. The vessel's engine engaged full astern too late, and the Sergo Zakariadze grounded with over 200,000 gallons of oil and over 17,000 tons of cement dust aboard. The vessel grounded at the base of the historic 500-year-old Castle El Morro, just 50 yards outside San Juan's economically vital Bar Channel.
A Unified Command (UC) was established with the following overall incident objectives: safety of people (responders, crew, public); removal of oil/fuel from the vessel; protection of cultural, archeological, and environmental resources including underwater resources; protection of the San Juan Bar Channel; and removal of the vessel from its El Morro location. A three-phased response was mounted: (1) removal of oil products onboard the vessel, (2) removal of cargo necessary to refloat the vessel, and (3) refloating of the vessel. Encountering and overcoming a myriad of logistical, environmental response, weather, and operational challenges, the Sergo Zakariadze was refloated successfully on March 29, 2000. The response included oil lightering, cement dust offload, set-up cement removal, and vessel salvage operations.
Although the response spanned 4 months, it was viewed as very successful from community, media, and stakeholder perspectives. This success was due to the UC being composed of a broad cross section of stakeholders, an aggressive outreach effort, an active listening program, and recognition of actual and potential community perceived hazards associated with the response operation. This paper will describe some of the issues and challenges that the UC addressed and some of the lessons that were learned. This paper will not recount the details of all facets of the actual response and salvage operations.
Challenges Associated with Oil Spill Response in Remote Regions of Western Alaska
Authors: Hutmacher W. J. , Rodriguez R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Western Alaska is, to say the least, remote. The area is vast, unforgiving at times, and notorious for offering rugged coastlines, severe weather conditions, and home to numerous species of birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, and fish. To get an understanding of the size of this state, Alaska spans about 20 degrees of latitude (1,200 miles) and more than 45 degrees of longitude (2,700 miles). The coastline area runs from Cape Puget in the Gulf of Alaska to the Alaska Peninsula, to the Aleutian Islands thence north to Barrow including, the Bering and Chukchi Seas, and thence east through the Beaufort Sea to the U.S.-Canada border. Traveling north to south, the region is classified as arctic, subarctic, or marine coastal.
This paper will discuss the challenges faced by federal, state, and local agencies, and responders while responding to vessel casualties in the remote regions of Alaska. The geographic area of the state this paper will focus on is known as Western Alaska and is composed of the Alaska Peninsula, Aleutian Islands, the islands of Bristol Bay, and Pribilof Islands. The bodies of water surrounding Western Alaska are the Gulf of Alaska, North Pacific Ocean, Bristol Bay, and Bering Sea.
Response Plans for Animal Fat and Vegetable Oil Facilities
Authors: Davis Barbara D. , Hunt Walter (Bud) , Yoshioka Gary , Holler Elisabeth 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) requires regulations for owners or operators of certain facilities to prepare and implement response plans. In 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published the facility response plan (FRP) regulation for nontransportation-related facilities with oil discharges that could cause substantial harm to the environment. This regulation has been modified for facilities that handle, store, or transport animal fats and vegetable oils. EPA has found that petroleum oils and animal fats and vegetable oils share common properties and produce similar harmful environmental effects. The similarities and differences between these classes of oils were considered in development of the new rule. In comparison to U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)-regulated facilities, EPA-regulated facilities usually have far greater worst case discharges (often one or two orders of magnitude larger), a larger number of oil transfers, and greater diversity of structures and processes, which can lead to oil discharges in many ways over a range of volumes. EPA has promulgated a new methodology for calculating planning volumes for a worst case discharge of animal fats and vegetable oils. The methodology is similar to that used in the rule for petroleum oils, but the factors in the two new tables are more appropriate for estimating on-water and onshore recovery resource needs for animal fats and vegetable oils. This paper examines research findings on the properties and environmental fate of animal fats and vegetable oils and describes new response planning requirements for animal fat and vegetable oil facilities.
Addressing the Challenges of Freshwater Spills
Authors: Oliveira Beatriz M. , Keller Mark 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to highlight and expand on key oil spill issues in inland and freshwater areas identified during the March 2000 Freshwater Spills Symposium in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The event attracted approximately 250 participants with significant representation from industry, federal, state, tribal, and local governments, including international attendees. This paper has been developed based on well-received presentations; authors worked with symposium presenters to revise and update material for a broader audience.
The symposium promoted coordination of prevention planning and response efforts among federal agencies, states, tribes, local communities, and industry. Prominent issues included scientific and technical aspects of spills and spill sources, fuels management, Indian tribes perspectives on regulation and prevention, and nontraditional spill sources and substances. Scientific and technical issues presented included oil spill research in the Great Lakes, and shoreline and wetland remediation techniques. The symposium also featured a discussion of opportunities for scientific investigation immediately following spills.
Fuels management focuses on the entire oil life cycle from production, through refining, storage, and distribution. It encourages regulators that address different parts of the life cycle to understand each other's functions, and promotes better understanding of the oil industry among all regulators.
Challenges for tribes include the need to prevent spills from rural storage facilities while maintaining fuel storage capacities that communities depend on. The Alaska Rural Bulk Fuel Consolidation Project demonstrates how to marshal resources to repair or replace decaying infrastructure. Tribal governments also face the challenge of regulating oil production, storage, and transportation facilities. Strong working relationships between states, tribes, and federal agencies help meet the challenge.
Nontraditional oil spill sources and non-petroleum oils are increasing concerns. Major tire fires have resulted in large releases of pyrolitic oil. Tire fires present a variety of hazards to human health and the environment. Response to tire fires and associated oil releases requires coordination with multiple response entities. Responding to spills of vegetable oils can present challenges to small rural emergency response units.
Efforts to address these issues, and other concerns specific to inland and freshwater spills, are vital to meeting the goal of full and effective implementation of oil pollution laws and regulations.
Preventing Oil Spills in the Twenty-First Century: An Ecological Economics Perspective1
Authors: Elliott James E. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
In the next 20 years, global shipping is expected to triple, with over 90% of all materials moving via ship (G. Miller, U.S. Representative from California, letter to the U.S. Coast Guard, June 8, 1998). With this unprecedented growth in maritime transportation, there will likely be unprecedented growth in the number of oil spills. This increase in global trade, and ultimately pollution, is founded in the belief that an ever-expanding economy is both possible and desirable. Today, the majority of policy makers and economists strive to stimulate economic growth and globalization regardless of the long-term implications to the environment. The economic theory used to derive these goals assumes environmental sources and sinks are infinite relative to the economy and the environment is a subset of the economy.
From an ecological economics perspective, a policy goal of infinite growth will increase oil spills and ultimately be impossible. The earth is finite. The economy depends on the earth's low-entropy matter and energy, such as oil, natural gas and minerals, to exist. The economy is therefore dependent on the earth and is a subset of the environment. Since the earth's sources and sinks are finite, there are limits to the amount of growth possible. Evidence of these limits is the unprecedented loss in biodiversity and global climate change.
The solution to preventing oil spills in the twenty-first century is a paradigm shift that accepts the economy as a subset of the environment and implements economic policies that strive for an optimal macroeconomic scale. According to Daly and Townsend (1993), “an optimal scale is one that is at least sustainable and does not sacrifice ecosystem services that are worth more at the margin than the production benefits derived from the growth in the scale of resource use.” Using the accepted economic theories of Smith and Ricardo, with the steady-state theory of Daly, this paper outlines the roots of the current economic paradigm and offers sustainable political-economic policies to prevent oil spills in the long term.
Anaerobic Biodegradation of Vegetable Oil Spills
Authors: Li Zhengkai , Wincele Demian E. , Wrenn Brian A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Vegetable oil spills are common in the United States and Canada. Although vegetable oils usually are not toxic in the classic sense, at least not to the extent normally associated with crude oil and refined petroleum products, they can cause severe harmful effects in contaminated ecosystems. Since most of the adverse environmental effects of vegetable oils appear to be a result of the presence of the oil on the water surface, on shoreline sediments, or (in emulsified form) in the water column, a prudent spill response is to remove floating and suspended oil from the contaminated water body as quickly as possible. The goal of this research is to investigate a response alternative that is based on sedimentation of floating and suspended oil followed by anaerobic biodegradation in the sediments. The authors' research demonstrates that sedimentation of floating oil by formation of oil-mineral aggregates (OMAs) is possible, and that the interaction between oil and dry clay is crucial to the successful formation of negatively buoyant floes. The rate and extent of vegetable oil biodegradation under methanogenic and iron-reducing conditions in freshwater sediments have also been investigated. Anaerobic biodegradation of vegetable oil occurred in all sediments that were examined, including sediments from a river, a lake, and a wetland. Carbon and electron balances indicate that anaerobic mineralization of the added vegetable oil was complete.
Effect of Pulsed Additions of Nutrients on Oil Biodegradation in Continuous-Flow Beach Microcosms
Authors: Wrenn Brian A. , Zheng Hao , Kohar Eugene S. , Lee Kenneth , Venosa Albert D. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Bioremediation of oil-contaminated shorelines can be effected by providing sufficient quantities of certain rate-limiting nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Although stoichiometry, based on the determination of optimal C:N:P ratios from batch oil-biodegradation experiments, traditionally has been the primary method for estimating required nutrient dosages, recent research suggests that nutrient uptake and microbial growth kinetics may be more important in determining the success of oil spill bioremediation. Because nutrient washout can be relatively rapid in intertidal environments, nutrient application strategies must consider the relative rates of nutrient washout and uptake by microorganisms.
Because there may be significant differences between ammonium and nitrate with respect to both of these processes, a laboratory investigation of the performance of these two nitrogen sources was conducted in continuous-flow beach microcosm reactors. The behavior of these nutrients was compared under abiotic conditions to determine whether ammonium could be retained in oil-contaminated beaches longer than nitrate by ion exchange. Their ability to support oil biodegradation under continuous and intermittent feeding conditions also was compared. No differences between ammonium and nitrate could be detected based on either criterion, but faster oil biodegradation was observed under pulse-feeding conditions than when the nutrients were supplied continuously. The relatively poor performance of the continuously fed systems was attributed to nutrient limitation because the nutrient input rate was less than the nutrient demand rate.
Managing Preparedness in the New Millennium: Applying a Measurement Strategy
Authors: Weber John M. , Hewett Larry , Whitson William , Stalfort David , Loesch Robert , Crawford Jack 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
One of the most vexing questions in the world of oil spill preparedness is “Are we ready?” There is no question that countless energy and resources have been invested in improving oil spill response. The problem arises in trying to determine to what level these efforts have succeeded or where to focus future improvement efforts to fill any gaps.
Understanding the true gaps in preparedness has become ever more critical. Many government response organizations have faced declining budgets in recent years. Corporate executives are likely to face difficulty justifying large expenditures on preparedness with fewer and fewer large spills. Anecdotal evidence is not enough to support requests for current perceived readiness woes, including additional personnel and equipment. Nor does this evidence provide insight to future preparedness shortfalls. So how do we support decision makers struggling to make wise choices with a limited pool of resources? How do we ensure that public and private response resources complement each other? These questions suggest the need for a commonly accepted preparedness management system.
The authors describe a preparedness assessment system under development by the U.S. Coast Guard that is patterned after Malcolm Baldridge's quality improvement principles and will enable decision makers to better manage preparedness.
Harbor Safety Committees: A Construct for Comprehensive Harbor Stewardship1
Authors: Day Michael H. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The Port of New York and New Jersey is a dynamic port boasting the United States' third largest container port. The 30 billion gallons of petroleum or petroleum products delivered to or originating from the port make it the largest petroleum port in the country, and the 50 million passengers transported annually on New York's waters by public and private ferries play a significant role within a finite system.
Concomitant with increased waterway usage, there also have been changes in the desires of the public and governmental agencies for greater environmental protection, enhanced safety, public access to the waterfront, passenger and cargo security, and stakeholder coordination. The old stepwise incremental issue approach is too narrow to be efficient or effective in meeting these public demands. The port has been moving from a discreet modal analysis methodology, to an integrated systems-based approach in the form of a Harbor Safety Committee (HSC).
A systems-based approach, involving multiple stakeholders, allows for inclusive and combine multiple economic, environmental, and social considerations in analyses to optimize and improve waterways system performance—from both safety and economic perspectives. HSCs also are playing an increasing role in identifying and mitigating risks resulting from increased waterways usage.
New York's HSC is comprised of more than 60 firms, organizations and individuals, all having a vested interest in the port complex and the interaction between the different waterways users.
Applying the “Polluters Pays Principle” to Fund Oil Spill Preparedness in the North East Atlantic1
Authors: Veiga Marlene Calderón , Wonham Jon 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Under Article 6 of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-Operation (OPRC 1990), states individually or in cooperation with industry or others states shall maintain prepositioned oil spill combating equipment. Furthermore, the preamble of the OPRC 1990 and the HNS-OPRC Protocol 2000 reinforce that the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) should be taken into account as a general principle of international environmental law. With a few exceptions, most of the countries have transferred the costs of preparedness measures to the general taxpayer and have made no attempts to allocate this cost directly to the shipping industry in accordance with PPP.
In the North East Atlantic (N??) countries (France, Spain, Portugal, and Morocco), as well as in the majority of countries, the financial costs for maintaining a minimum state of preparedness represent a considerable burden to these governments. Despite this fact, no attempts have been made to transfer this burden to the potential polluter.
Based on the inquiries made into the extent to which the PPP presently is being applied to oil spill preparedness, this paper examines the aspects related to the general application of the PPP in the N?? countries.
Federal Authority for Removing the Threat to U.S. Navigable Waters from Subsurface Oil Plumes1
Authors: Hewett Larry W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper exposes a gap in current practice by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Coast Guard regarding their roles in responding to underground aquifers contaminated by oil. It further suggests a role for the federal government in providing financial, technical, and tactical assistance to state agencies for resolving these challenging environmental threats. As the two primary agencies responsible to ensure the proper cleanup of oil spills, the EPA and Coast Guard strive to maximize public benefit by applying limited federal resources where they can do the most good. In the oil spill arena, that means focusing federal resources on preventing and preparing for threats that have the most potential to cause environmental and economic damage in and around U.S. navigable waters. Yet there is one serious threat to navigable waters yet to be addressed or resolved by either the EPA or Coast Guard. That threat is in the form of hundreds of millions of gallons of oil that has, in some cases, existed for decades in underground aquifers and is continually and chronically seeping into U.S. navigable waters in both the inland and coastal zones. In most of these cases, the federal government concludes the responsibility for removal and remediation lies with state government. Based on assumptions that the Clean Water Act (CWA) does not apply to such cases, the states are denied access to federal removal funds. The author reviews the legislative history, case law and Congressional intent of the CWA. The author argues that certain underground aquifers, because of their proximity to navigable surface waters, fall within the legal definition of “navigable waters” and should therefore be the responsibility of the EPA and Coast Guard to clean under the federal removal authorities of the CWA.