bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Antimycobacterial Drugs
Authors: Gillespie Stephen H , Murphy Michael E 
Published: April 2013

AbstractAntimycobacterial drugs are used in the treatment of diseases caused by members of theMycobacteriumgenus, including tuberculosis (TB) and leprosy, which have affected man since antiquity, and the nontuberculous mycobacterioses (NTM) that are increasingly recognised. Combination chemotherapy is essential to kill heterogeneous populations of bacterial cells located in different conditions within the host, and to prevent drug resistance. Although combination therapy has been effective in controlling leprosy, the global HIV epidemic and the emergence drug resistance are undermining efforts to control TB. Currently available chemotherapeutic agents are highly effective in managing drug‐sensitive TB, however, the development of new antimycobacterial drugs to manage both drug‐sensitive and drug‐resistant disease is a global health priority. These drugs must be safe, effective and affordable in resource‐limited countries most burdened by TB disease. NTMs are increasingly being identified as human pathogens in both non‐ and immunocompromised patients; more evidence for the most efficacious treatments is required.Key Concepts:Tuberculosis is global health priority with 9 million active cases, and 1.7 million deaths each year, of whom 0.5 million are coinfected with HIV; with 1 in 3 people latently infected globally, there is a huge pool of potential future infection.Mycobacteria are unusual; they are slow growing with a thick waxy cell wall made of lipid rich material which makes penetration by drugs problematic.At any one time, there may be heterogeneous populations of mycobacterial cells in different metabolic states; these may be targeted by different antimycobacterial drugs.Antimycobacterial drugs are used for the treatment of mycobacterial infections, including tuberculosis, leprosy and nontuberculous mycobacateria; the greatest burden of disease is borne by developing countries with limited resources.Combination treatment is required for prolonged periods, usually 6 months or more, to kill heterogeneous mycobacterial cells in different locations within the host, and to prevent resistance developing.Drug resistance develops through spontaneous mutations in the chromosomal DNA. Exposing mycobacteria to monotherapy selects out these resistant strains, as may happen when patients are nonadherent with prescribed therapy.Drug resistance is a major problem in the control of tuberculosis globally; 5% resistant to both rifampicin and isoniazid (MDRTB) the backbones of currently recommended chemotherapy, with around 10% of those also resistant to fluoroquiniolones and second line agents (XDR TB).Leprosy elimination programmes have successfully reduced the prevalence of the disease; patients are rendered noninfectious after the first dose of medication.Nontuberculous mycobacteria are emerging as important human pathogens; there is a pacuity of robust evidence for their optimal management.A large number of new agents with novel mechanisms of action are being trialled to assess their efficacy in treating mycobacterial disease.
Alcoholism
Authors: Wallace Melisa J , Newton Philip M 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Alcohol has been consumed by humans for thousands of years, but its biological effects are complex and poorly understood. Similarly, alcoholism is a common and extremely debilitating condition for which there are no truly effective treatments, in part due to our incomplete understanding of the underlying biology of the condition. This chapter describes current understanding of the biology of alcohol intoxication and alcoholism, with a focus on the neurological and molecular bases for these phenomena. We explain what is known about how alcohol produces intoxication, tolerance and physical dependence, and how these relate to alcoholism. We describe risk factors for the development of alcoholism and how these relate to the acute and chronic effects of alcohol. We also outline the current treatments for alcoholism and some common co‐morbid disorders.

Key Concepts:

Alcoholism, like all addictions, is a disease.

Alcoholism is defined by repeated alcohol consumption despite known adverse consequences. The urge to drink is uncontrollable.

Alcoholism is distinct from the related phenomena of tolerance to alcohol and withdrawal from chronic alcohol exposure.

Alcohol is a weak and nonspecific drug, which acts through multiple molecular mechanisms.

There are few treatment options for alcoholism and those available have only limited success.
Pharmacogenetics
Authors: Novelli Giuseppe , Biancolella Michela 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Pharmacogenetics (PGt) is the study of the influence of individual variations in
deoxyribonucleic acid
sequence on drug response. Drug response includes drug disposition (pharmacokinetics) and drug effect (pharmacodynamics). PGt is applicable to activities such as drug discovery, drug development and clinical practise. Currently, there are more than 200 drugs whose labelling includes pharmacogenetic information. ‘Test required’ examples: Cetuximab, Trastuzumab, Maraviroc, Abacavir, Dasatinib, Glivec, Tasigna, Gefitinib and Herceptin; ‘Test recommended’ examples: Carbamazepine, warfarin, azathioprine, etc. In the coming years, evaluation by regulatory authorities of new medicines may involve increasingly PGt components in pre‐ and post‐approval development, and may therefore depend on reliable PGt information. PGt is a rapidly and continuously evolving field; therefore, PGt studies should reflect on the ‘principles’ or necessary qualities of developing well‐controlled, rigorous and reproducible sample handling and testing procedures.

Key Concepts:

Pharmacogenetics define populations that can have most benefit from a drug.

Pharmacogenetics improve drug development.

Pharmacogenetics predict disease course (to justify more intense or prolonged treatments) (diagnostics and prognostics).

Pharmacogenetics can be used to monitor the effects of the therapy (pharmacodynamics).

Genomic biomarkers predict clinical outcomes (surrogate endpoints).

Pharmacogenetics can be useful to identify new biological pathways involved in drug metabolism and therefore new treatment opportunities.

Pharmacogenetics is applicable to activities such as drug discovery, drug development and clinical practise.

Pharmacogenetics is applicable also in drug disposition (PK) and drug effect (PD).

Pharmacogenetics is necessary to define individual dose adaptation of chemotherapeutics and in general for personalised medicine.

Pharmacogenetics is crucial in genomic biomarkers identification.
Chloroplast Genome
Authors: Howe Christopher J 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Chloroplasts contain a genome that is a relic of the endosymbiont that gave rise to the organelle. These genomes typically contain 100–200 genes and encode proteins important for photosynthesis and other chloroplast functions, although dinoflagellate algae have a greatly reduced and fragmented chloroplast genome. Many nonphotosynthetic taxa retain a remnant chloroplast genome. In some organisms the chloroplast genome may be retained to allow redox‐mediated control of gene expression, whereas in others it may continue to exist because transfer of essential genes to the nucleus is no longer possible. Multiple
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
polymerases are involved in chloroplast transcription in land plants, and post‐transcriptional processing involving nuclear‐encoded RNA‐binding proteins also plays an important part in the expression of the chloroplast genome. Gene expression may be regulated at a number of levels, and redox poise in the organelle may be particularly important for this.

Key Concepts:

Chloroplasts originated in the ancestor of plants and red and green algae by endosymbiotic acquisition of a cyanobacterium, and then spread to many other eukaryotic lineages.

There are other examples of stable acquisition of a cyanobacterium by a nonphotosynthetic host.

Chloroplast genomes are typically 100–200 kbp in size, and include a set of genes for proteins essential to photosynthesis. Other genes present in the ancestral symbiont have been lost or relocated to the nucleus.

Many nonphotosynthetic organisms retain remnant chloroplasts, with genomes, reflecting the fact that photosynthesis is not the only biochemical process that takes place in the chloroplast.

In many organisms, gene transfer from chloroplast to nucleus can still take place, at an unexpectedly high frequency.

Establishment of the chloroplast has resulted in the development of nuclear‐encoded RNA‐binding protein families and, in land plants, additional RNA polymerases that play a central role in chloroplast gene expression.

Post‐transcriptional RNA processing plays an important role in chloroplast gene expression.

In photosynthetic organisms, chloroplast gene expression is closely linked to the organelle's redox poise.

The chloroplast can also influence the expression of nuclear genes.
Arabidopsis thaliana
as an Experimental Organism
Authors: Serino Giovanna , Gusmaroli Giuliana 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

In the recent years

Arabidopsis thaliana

has undoubtedly emerged as the model experimental organism for essentially all aspects of plant biology, due to its short generation time, its small genome size and the availability of its complete
deoxyribonucleic
acid sequence. In addition,
Arabidopsis
has proven to be an ideal organism for studying plant development at the molecular, cellular, organismal and ecological level. By concentrating their efforts on a single model system,
Arabidopsis
scientists have made outstanding advances in almost any field of plant research. Further, discoveries made in
Arabidopsis
have been translated to other plant species such as economically important crops, as well as to animal systems, including complex human disease processes.

Key Concepts

Arabidopsis
is a small flowering plant, which has emerged as the primary experimental organism for the study of all aspects of plant biology.

Arabidopsis genome has been fully sequenced in 2000 and contains approximately 27 000 genes.

Several molecular tools have been established to identify
Arabidopsis
transcription profiles, epigenetic landscape, protein and metabolite composition.

Gain of function and loss of function transgenic lines for specific
Arabidopsis
genes can be easily made or obtained from public collections.

Most of the information on
Arabidopsis
research is available from dedicated websites.

Discoveries made in
Arabidopsis
can be easily translated to other plant species, as well as to animal systems.
Shoots and Buds in
Arabidopsis
Authors: Truernit Elisabeth 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

The shoot is the above‐ground part of higher plants. To produce new shoot tissue, repetitive organ formation takes place at the tip of shoots and in floral buds by the activity of stem cell systems, called shoot and flower meristems. The shoot meristem is set up during embryogenesis and, after seedling germination, produces leaves, stems and eventually flowers. One of the key issues of the shoot meristem is to maintain a balance between cell proliferation and differentiation. A complex set of genetic and hormonal regulation ensures the maintenance of undifferentiated cells in the centre of the shoot meristem and the initiation of organ primordia at its flanks. While shoot meristems are indeterminate structures, in flower meristems stem cell maintenance ceases once the floral organs have been generated.

Key Concepts:

The shoot apical meristem produces the above‐ground organs of plants.

Stem cells located in the centre of the shoot meristem are maintained by a self‐regulatory gene expression network involving the
WUSCHEL
and
CLAVATA
genes.

Cytokinins play a role in meristem cell proliferation and in stem cell positioning.

Auxin is essential for organ primordia formation.

The shoot meristem is established during plant embryogenesis.

In floral meristems, stem cells are only maintained for a limited time.
Flowers
Authors: Hileman Lena C 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Flowers are the reproductive structures of the flowering plants (angiosperms, class Magnoliopsida). The best evidence suggests that flowering plants arose in the Cretaceous, and that following their origin, rapid and expansive diversification in flower form ensued. Modern‐day flowers vary widely in size, symmetry, presence or absence and shape of floral organs, colour, colour patterning and arrangement of flowers in higher order inflorescence structures. This extensive diversity in flower form is strongly linked to the evolution of reproductive strategies, with many variations in flower form and colour representing adaptations that enhance reproductive success. These include adaptations that enhance cross‐pollination between individual plants, especially floral diversification that has resulted from an evolutionary history of plant–pollinator interaction.

Key Concepts:

A number of key characteristics distinguish the reproductive structures of flowering plants from reproductive structures of other seed plants.

Recent work in model flowering plant species has resulted in a deep understanding of the genetic mechanisms that control flowering and flower developmental patterning.

Following their origin in the Cretaceous, flowers diversified rapidly in size, shape and colour.

Flower diversification is largely the result of natural selection favouring modifications that enhance reproductive success through either self‐fertilisation or cross‐pollination.
Endodermis and Exodermis in Roots
Authors: Schreiber Lukas , Franke Rochus B 
Published: April 2013

AbstractRoots of terrestrial plants are designed to take up water and nutrients. At the same time, uptake of unwanted compounds, for example toxic, and infection by soil borne pathogens must be avoided. Specific unicellular tissues, the endodermis and the exodermis, allow roots to establish and maintain this selectivity. The endodermis represents an unicellular cell layer separating the central cylinder of the root from the cortex. The exodermis represents an unicellular cell layer located at the outer surface of the root directly below the root epidermis. Both tissues are characterised by specific cell wall modifications. In early developmental stages the anticlinal radial walls exhibit Casparian bands, composed of the polymers suberin and lignin. In a subsequent developmental state a suberin lamella is deposited on the inner surface of endo‐ and exodermal cell walls. These apoplastic barriers, mainly composed of suberin, significantly affect radial uptake of water and dissolved nutrients and radial loss of oxygen.Key Concepts:Casparian bands, composed of lignin and suberin, form characteristic cell wall modifications in radial walls of endodermal and exodermal cells.Suberin lamellae are deposited onto the inner surface of endodermal and exodermal cell walls.Apoplastic barriers in roots are established by the deposition of suberin into and onto the cell wall.Suberised apoplastic barriers in roots help to establish root selectivity in nutrient uptake.The endodermis, forming an ‘inner’ apoplastic barrier in the root, is important in preventing nutrients actively concentrated in the xylem from passively diffusing back to the soil.The exodermis, forming an ‘outer’ apoplastic barrier at the root surface, mainly establishes the root/soil interface between the root and the soil environment surrounding the root.As an adaptation to various environmental stress factors (e.g. drought, salt, heavy metal stress, oxygen deficiency, etc.) suberisation of apoplastic barriers is significantly modified.Fatty acid elongases and cytochrome P450 hydroxylases represent important key enzymes in suberin biosynthesis.
Enteroviruses in Humans
Authors: Romero José R 
Published: April 2013

AbstractEnteroviruses are significantribonucleic acid (RNA)viral pathogens of humans with a worldwide distribution. Humans are the only known hosts for the enteroviruses. Their major route of infection is that of the faecal–oral route. In temperate climates enteroviral infection occurs primarily in the summer and early fall. Infants represent the majority of cases. Enteroviral infection results in viremia and prolonged gastrointestinal shedding of the virus. Enteroviral syndromes involve almost every organ system. Although the majority of infections are asymptomatic or result in a self‐limited infection, fatalities do occur. Especially in neonates or individuals with B‐cell immunodeficiencies. Advances in technology are providing improved understanding of their taxonomy, epidemiology and means of detection.Key Concepts:Enteroviruses have RNA genomes. The 5′NTR of the enteroviruses contain areas of conserved nucleotide identity.Originally five species were described within the genus: polioviruses, the group A and B coxsackievirus, the echoviruses and the numbered enteroviruses. Using modern molecular virologic methods the species have been redefined and novel members of the genus have been identified.Enteroviruses have a worldwide distribution and exhibit strong seasonality. The coding sequence of VP1 is used for the detailed analysis of enteroviruses.Humans are the sole reservoir for the enteroviruses. Infections by enteroviruses are significantly higher in infants.Faecal–oral transmission is the major mode of transmission of the enteroviruses. Infection results in prolonged shedding of the enteroviruses.Understanding the pathophysiology of the enteroviruses is based on the study of prototypic members of the genus: the polioviruses.The major determinant of susceptibility to the enteroviruses is the presence of the receptor required for viral attachment.Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) has replaced tissue culture and mouse inoculation for detection of the enteroviruses. RT‐PCR is more sensitive and faster for the detection of the enteroviruses than tissue culture or mouse inoculation.RT‐PCR diagnosis of enteroviral infections can significantly impact on patient care.Management of enteroviral infections is supportive in nature.
Fungal Infections in Humans
Authors: Jain Neena , Fries Bettina C 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Fungi are pathogenic to humans and cause a variety of diseases in normal and immunocompromised hosts. Fungi can exist as filamentous/mould or yeast form, both forms are able to cause infections in human host. Dimorphic fungi, that is,

Histoplasma capsulatum

also exist and can grow as a filamentous form at room temperature and yeast at body temperature. Fungi can infect any part of the human body including hairs and nails and depending upon their level of penetration is divided into four groups, superficial mycoses, cutaneous mycoses, subcutaneous mycoses and systemic/deep mycoses. Systemic mycoses are often fatal without treatment. Ability to maintain constant body temperature is the natural defence against pathogenic fungi. In the event of infection, accurate diagnosis and often the combination of different treatment modalities are required for a successful treatment.

Key Concepts:

Fungal infections represent the invasion of fungi in tissue.

Only 200 fungal species are able to cause infection to human host, of these only 20–25 species commonly cause infection.

Fungi appearance is either hyphae (known as mould) or yeast. Few are dimorphic and change from one state to other depending on the temperature conditions.

Fungi can cause superficial to deeper infections to human host.

Most of the fungal infections are opportunistic and do not need the human host for survival.

Most fungal infections are airborne and acquired by inhalation or contact of air, soil or surfaces contaminated with spores.

Causes more damage to immune‐suppressed patients, that is, organ transplant recipients and AIDS patients.

Diagnosis is made usually by using simple tests that include microscopic stains, culture and Antibody/antigen tests, in some cases imaging can be helpful for deep‐seated infection diagnosis.

Fungal infection commonly caused by normal flora so the reoccurrence rate is higher than other infection

Allylamines, antimetabolites, azoles, glucan synthesis inhibitors, polyenes, echinocandins and others are the drugs used to cure fungal infections.
Implantable Pumps and Ports
Authors: Buchwald Henry , Rohde Thomas D 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

An implantable pump is a device that can be implanted within the body to deliver a drug or other substance to the same location or another site in the body. In addition to a reservoir and pumping mechanism, an implantable pump usually has a refill septum so that it can be refilled

in situ

and a catheter for remote delivery; an implantable port also has a refill septum and a delivery catheter but lacks a reservoir and an intrinsic pump.

Pumps and ports have been utilised for continuous heparin, chemotherapeutic agents, antibiotic, antispasmotic, analgesic and insulin infusions. The future use of this modality is only limited by the boundaries of imagination.

Key Concepts:

Implantable pumps and ports allow for intravenous, intrathecal and specific organ delivery of drugs and other agents.

They circumvent alimentary tract destruction or failure of absorption, and permit the bypassing of the blood–brain barrier.

These systems can provide constant circulating drug levels. Various continuous and programmable flow devices are available.

Pumps and ports have been utilised for continuous heparin, chemotherapeutic agents, antibiotic, antispasmotic, analgesic and insulin infusions.

The future use of this modality is only limited by the boundaries of imagination.
Fungi and the History of Mycology
Authors: Kendrick Bryce 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Fungi, broadly defined, (1) are eukaryotic, (2) have no plastids or photosynthetic pigments, (3) are therefore heterotrophic (unable to make their own food from inorganic components), (4) are osmotrophic (absorb rather than ingest food), (5) are often opportunistic and capable of exploiting many different substrates, (6) are never amoeboid at any stage, (7) almost always live inside branching networks of microscopic, apically extending, tubular structures known as hyphae, (8) almost all reproduce by unicellular or multicellular spores, (9) generally have haploid somatic nuclei and (10) mostly do not produce flagellate cells. Mycology is the branch of science that studies these organisms.

Key Concepts:

The fungi are classified in two biological kingdoms, which are called Chromista and Eumycota (also known as Stramenopila and Fungi, respectively).

Fungi are composed of hyphae (germ tubes) that arise when a spore germinates. Hyphae have walls of chitin (in the eumycotan fungi) or cellulose (in the chromistan fungi).

The nuclei in somatic cells of chromistan fungi are diploid, whereas those in somatic cells of eumycotan fungi are haploid.

Almost all fungi eventually reproduce by means of spores, usually modified bits of hyphae, which vary greatly in size and appearance.

The ascomycetes and basidiomycetes are characterised by their sexual reproductive structures (teleomorphs), for example, cup fungi and mushrooms.

Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes appear to have lost the ability to develop sexual structures, and survive happily as mitosporic fungi (anamorphs).

Fungi have established mutualistic symbioses with cyanobacteria and chlorophycota (green algae) to form lichens.

The current classification of the fungi and our understanding of their life cycles is to a large extent based on the work of Anton de Bary in the middle of the nineteenth century.