bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evolved Cognitive Adaptations
Authors: Sell Aaron N. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractPsychology has frequently drawn on animal behavior for insights into the human mind, but the central theory of biology, that of natural selection, has yet to be fully incorporated into the primary comparative psychology literature. This chapter reviews the adaptationist program (Williams, 1966), a method that allows psychologists to use theories and insights developed in evolutionary biology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology to map the computational architecture of the human mind. As an example of the adaptationist program at work, I review a long standing problem in perceptual psychology: the inconsistent evidence for the ability to assess height and weight from the voice, and then show how the application of this method allows us to derive the hypothesis that the human mind contains cognitive mechanisms for the assessment of formidability. A series of tests of this theory are then reviewed.
Cephalopod Intelligence
Authors: Mather Jennifer A. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractCephalopod intelligence has similarities and differences from that of vertebrates. Both groups have paired lens-type eyes and a sophisticated vestibular system. Cephalopods have a lateral line mechano-reception system, like that of fish, and chemical sensing. The motor systems are quite different, as cephalopods have jet propulsion by the flexible mantle and lateral fins. For grasping, they have many sucker-equipped arms and two flexible tentacles. A hydrostatic skeletal system gives many degrees of freedom of arm movement, but its brain monitoring is unknown. Both groups have paired lateral brain lobes, and cephalopods have two storage areas for learned visual and chemotactile information. Cephalopods are solitary but can play, have personalities, and may have a simple form of consciousness. They have a unique visual skin display system for camouflage and communication with conspecifics. This offers an interesting comparison and contrast to vertebrates as a model for the development of intelligence.
Symbolic Communication in the Grey Parrot
Authors: Pepperberg Irene M. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractFor over 30 years, I have used a modeling technique (the model/rival or M/R procedure) to train Grey parrots to use an allospecific code (English speech) referentially, and then employed the code to test their cognitive abilities. The oldest bird, Alex, labeled 〉50 objects, seven colors, five shapes, quantities to eight, three categories (color, shape, material) and used “no,” “come here,” “wanna go X,” and “want Y” (X, Y being appropriate location or item labels). He combined labels to identify, request, comment on, or refuse 〉150 items and to alter his environment. He processed queries to judge category, relative size, quantity, presence or absence of similarity/difference in attributes, show label comprehension and a zero-like concept; he demonstrated some understanding of phonological awareness, and numerical competence more comparable to that of young children than to nonhumans. His requests were intentional. He consequently exhibited capacities presumed limited to humans or nonhuman primates. Younger birds are acquiring similar competence.
The Evolution of Morality: Which Aspects of Human Moral Concerns Are Shared With Nonhuman Primates?
Authors: Sheskin Mark , Santos Laurie 
Published: February 2013

AbstractMorality is a critical part of human society. This chapter explores the origins of human morality by examining whether nonhuman primate species share aspects of five domains thought to be important in human moral behavior—concerns involving harm, fairness, hierarchy, ingroup allegiance, and purity. Behaviors in the harm domain have received the most attention from researchers, and converging lines of evidence suggest that some primates express harm concerns. The domain of fairness has become a recent focus of primate research, with active debate about whether closely related primates share human-like concerns. Moral behaviors regarding ingroup allegiance, authority, and purity have received the least attention in nonhuman species, though recent work suggests that research with primates might productively pursue the ingroup allegiance and authority domains. Future primate research will continue to elucidate the nature of human morality, and should include an increased focus on the previously neglected domains of ingroup and hierarchy.
Darwin, Tinbergen, and the Evolution of Comparative Cognition
Authors: Shettleworth Sara J. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractDarwin and Tinbergen represent two enduring contrasts in comparative cognitive psychology: in the types of behaviors studied and the kinds of explanations sought. Darwin encouraged the search for human-like behaviors in animals as evidence for evolutionary continuity of mental processes. Tinbergen encouraged the careful causal analysis of animal behaviors as such and eschewed interpretations in terms of anthropomorphic processes. The Darwinian program has reemerged in contemporary research on comparative cognition. Its development and relationship to other areas of behavioral biology are traced. In using behavior as a window onto the animal mind, it is important to remember the lessons of Tinbergen and like-minded behaviorists in psychology. Several of the challenges that arise in attempting to show that other species share complex cognitive processes with humans are discussed in the light of the contrast represented by Darwin and Tinbergen, as are examples of how these approaches are being productively integrated.
Comparative Evolutionary Psychology: A United Discipline for the Study of Evolved Traits
Authors: Vonk Jennifer , Shackelford Todd K. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractSeveral themes have emerged from the chapters in this volume. Some tensions exist between researchers seeking to answer questions concerning the adaptive purpose of human and nonhuman behaviors and capacities, and researchers seeking to shed light on the evolutionary forces giving rise to such traits. These tensions may be dissipated if several unnecessary dichotomies are avoided and researchers thereby embraced nonmutually exclusive stances to different methodological and theoretical approaches. We suggest that those studying humans and/ or nonhumans—whether in the field or in the lab, with large numbers of participants or with few, from a behaviorist or nativist standpoint, asking questions about structure or function, stressing continuity or discontinuity—focus less on absolutes and existing dogma, and more on openness and objectivity. We suggest that, if all researchers with similar goals unite under the single unifying framework of evolutionary theory, many more advances can be made and a more focused field of study will emerge.
Violence Across Animals and Within Early Hominins
Authors: Sherrow Hogan M. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractViolence is common among animal populations, but the term is rarely used in modern behavioral ecology studies and is instead typically reserved for aberrant human behaviors. Despite this, there are virtually no animal populations in which violence, to some degree, has not been observed. Instead, organisms have elaborate behaviors that allow them to mitigate violence when it does occur or attempt to avoid it all together. Here I review two separate, but not mutually exclusive, views on the evolution of violence across animals. I then characterize violence across animals, with special emphasis on apes, including humans. Finally, I present a model for violence in our earliest hominin ancestors.
Suicide
Authors: Brown R. Michael , Brown Stephanie L. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe focus of this chapter is suicide, with emphasis on two evolutionary explanations. One views suicide as a by-product of states, traits, or predispositions that may have been adaptive in ancestral environments. The other views suicide as an evolved response that is conditioned on rare but well-specified environmental circumstances. The chapter considers this second approach—an inclusive fitness model of self-destructive motivation—in some detail. This model identifies circumstances under which self-preservation might be expected to break down—namely, the coupling of low individual reproductive potential with a sense of being a burden to close kin (burdensomeness). Although the model was designed to show how self-destructive phenomena might have evolved in ancestral environments, there is growing evidence to suggest that it is also capable of predicting instances of suicidal thinking and behavior in the present. We review that evidence and include a description of our own program of research that has tested and extended the model.
Parasite Stress, Collectivism, and Human Warfare
Authors: Letendre Kenneth , Fincher Corey L. , Thornhill Randy 
Published: February 2013

AbstractWe recently proposed a new model to explain cross-national variation in the frequency of intrastate conflict based on the parasite-stress theory of sociality. In regions of high pathogen severity, cultures are characterized by xenophobia and ethnocentrism, which function in the avoidance and management of infectious disease. The xenophobia expressed in environments with high pathogen severity creates barriers to intergroup cooperation. These barriers cause greater poverty in environments with increased pathogen severity, in addition to the direct effects of disease on the human capital that is essential to economic growth. Xenophobic groups in competition for resources are unwilling to resolve this competition through cooperative means, and they are more likely to resort to violent conflict. Here, we extend our findings to other categories of conflict. We discuss the implications of our model to the understanding of human warfare in evolutionary context and to foreign aid directed at reducing poverty and conflict.
Resource Acquisition, Violence, and Evolutionary Consciousness
Authors: Gorelik Gregory , Shackelford Todd K. , Weekes-Shackelford Viviana A. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe evolution and development of adaptations result from the gradual selection and inheritance of traits and behaviors that better enable organisms to acquire and maintain resources needed for survival and reproduction. We argue that instances of individual, regional, and global violence are rooted in our adaptations to seek, acquire, maintain, and utilize limited resources, regardless of whether such adaptations are currently successful at doing so. However, violence is not the only strategy employed by organisms to acquire resources; cooperation, reciprocity, and social bonding are behaviors that may likewise prove useful in this endeavor. We speculate about how individual adaptations and their by-products may interact with the adaptations of other individuals and with societal and cultural phenomena, both violently and nonviolently. Finally, we discuss how individual decisions can affect higher level regional and global violence. Individual decisions carry moral weight for the individual in question and for society as a whole. We hope to convince readers that their personal decisions and behaviors have far-reaching consequences on the well-being of others and that an evolutionary consciousness may help us to understand the effects of our personal choices on the existence of individual- and group-level violence.
Ethical Decision Making
Authors: Lindsay Geoff 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter explores the use of ethical codes to support ethical decision making. The nature of codes is examined with reference to ethical principles, domains of practice, cultural factors, and function. Distinctions are made between using codes for developmental/educative purposes, as working to assist decision making, as a basis for regulatory bodies’ decision making, and as public statements. Three levels of complexity for decision making are proposed, from relatively automatic responses based on experience to analysis of ethical dilemmas. A model of decision making is proposed, drawing upon that of the Canadian Psychological Association. Its use is exemplified by a vignette describing decision making using the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations’ Meta-Code of ethics.
Principles of Indigenous Ethics and Psychological Interventions
Authors: Tassell Natasha A. , Herbert Averil M. L. , Evans Ian M. , Young Patricia TeW. A. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe importance of indigenous principles in undertaking psychological assessment, interventions, and applied research is increasingly being recognized and acknowledged in most formal codes of ethics for psychologists. Nevertheless, specific ethical guidelines still tend to reflect the established assumptions of the dominant academic cultures. This chapter highlights additional principles and relevant issues at different levels of ethical judgment. At the deepest level are fundamental concerns over power differentials, especially when interventions are designed, controlled, and evaluated by practitioners from majority populations (colonization). At other important levels there are questions concerning the recognition of indigenous knowledge, alternative worldviews regarding psychological well-being, and different cultural values with respect to privacy, consent, and the rights to effective treatment. At a more practical level are issues of treatment acceptability and access, adequacy of the evidence base, prioritization of treatment targets, and training and career development opportunities for indigenous practitioners.
Principles, Standards, and Guidelines that Impact Test Development and Use and Sources of Information
Authors: Oakland Thomas 
Published: February 2013

AbstractTest development and use may constitute psychology's most important technical contribution to the behavior sciences. Tests are found universally, albeit distributed unevenly. Despite their somewhat widespread use, ethics codes from only 20 psychological associations address issues associated with test development and use. However, services from professionals engaged in test development and use are likely to find general guidance from policies promulgated by international (i.e., World Health Organization, International Union of Psychological Sciences, and the International Association of Applied Psychology) and regional professional associations. Guidelines from the International Test Commission specifically address issues important to test adaptation and use. Guidelines from the American Psychological Association, British Psychological Society, and Canadian Psychological Association also are featured. Prominent sources that provide information on tests are identified.
R&D Costs and Returns to New Drug Development: A Review of the Evidence
Authors: DiMasi Joseph A. , Grabowski Henry G. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article reviews the extensive literature on R&D costs and returns. The first section focuses on R&D costs and the various factors that have affected the trends in real R&D costs over time. The second section considers economic studies on the distribution of returns in pharmaceuticals for different cohorts of new drug introductions. It also reviews the use of these studies to analyze the impact of policy actions on R&D costs and returns. The final section concludes and discusses open questions for further research.
Financing Research and Development
Authors: Nicholson Sean 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article examines whether market distortions and failures prevent biopharmaceutical firms from raising the optimal level of R&D funding and, if market failures exist, how markets have adapted to ameliorate their impact. The first section reviews the amount and sources of biomedical R&D spending in the United States over the last ten years and presents limited information on spending in other developed countries. The second section explores how pharmaceutical and biotech firms finance their R&D and whether either type of firm appears to be at risk of not raising enough to finance all projects with positive net present value. The third section discusses the theoretical arguments for why biopharmaceutical firms may spend either more or less on R&D than the socially optimal amount. The fourth section reviews empirical studies of whether firms in general are financially constrained and then, more specifically, whether pharmaceutical and biotech firms are financially constrained. The final section reviews whether venture capital firms and the market for alliances between biotech and pharmaceutical firms are able to address possible underinvestment in R&D due to financial constraints.
Cost of Capital for Pharmaceutical, Biotechnology, and Medical Device Firms
Authors: Harrington Scott E. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article provides new estimates of systematic risk and the cost of equity capital for the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device sectors. The main analysis employs data for pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device firms with publicly traded stock on US exchanges (including foreign-owned firms) with at least $100 million of market capitalization during the periods 2001–2005 and 2006–2008. Two frameworks are used for estimating firms' risk and the cost of equity capital: the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) and the empirically driven three risk-factor model of Fama and French (the F-F model). The article is organized as follows. The first section briefly reviews prior work and discusses the likely relation between the cost of equity capital and R&D intensity. The next section outlines the CAPM and F-F models and their empirical implementation. The data and samples are discussed in the third section. The fourth section presents beta and cost of equity capital estimates for equally weighted portfolios formed by sector and by sector and firm size. The fifth section presents results concerning the relationship between individual firm betas and R&D intensity, and it is followed by a final concluding section.
The Regulation of Medical Products
Authors: Malani Anup , Philipson Tomas J. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article synthesizes and extends, in a nontechnical manner, recent research on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The aim is to shed light on whether the policies of the agency itself are safe and effective when measured in terms of economic efficiency. The first section provides an overview of the role of the FDA in regulating pharmaceutical drugs and medical devices. The second section surveys the existing efficiency rationales for government regulation of the information about and the quality of medical products, and then canvasses the literature for empirical studies on the effects of FDA regulation on innovation and costs. The final section examines the growing role of tort law—specifically, products liability litigation—in supplementing FDA regulation of drug quality.
Incentives to Innovate
Authors: Lakdawalla Darius N. , Sood Neeraj 
Published: February 2013

AbstractEfficient innovation policy requires decoupling of the innovator's private rewards from consumer prices, and instead tying them to the marginal social value of the invention. This is not easy to achieve, but movement toward this goal can be effected through a mix of policy instruments. This article develops this thesis by drawing on the existing theoretical and empirical literature on innovation. It begins with the canonical positive model of innovative activity, along with its various extensions, weaknesses, and criticisms. It then turns to the empirical literature testing and quantifying the implications of this theory and its variants. Next, it moves to the normative implications of economic theory and describes how the empirical literature sheds light on the nature and degree of inefficiency in the discovery and dissemination of innovative goods. Finally, it characterizes various policy approaches to ameliorating these inefficiencies at their root.
Consumer Demand and Health Effects of Cost-Sharing
Authors: Goldman Dana P. , Joyce Geoffrey F. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractWith recent increases in pharmacy spending, pharmacy benefit managers and health plans have adopted benefit changes designed to reduce pharmaceutical use or steer patients to less expensive alternatives. The rapid proliferation of mail-order pharmacies, mandatory generic substitution, co-insurance plans, and multitiered formularies have transformed the benefit landscape. This article focuses on how the salient cost-sharing features of prescription drug benefits may affect access to prescription drugs and what is known about how these features may affect medical spending and health outcomes. The evidence suggests that some patients, including the chronically ill, are very responsive to the cost-sharing arrangements in prescription drug plans. And for certain conditions, the evidence clearly indicates that more cost-sharing is associated with increased use of other medical services such as hospitalizations and emergency department visits. These findings make benefit design an important public health tool for improving population health.
Critical Questioning of Social and Feminist Identity Development Literature: Themes, Principles, and Tools
Authors: Fischer Ann R. , DeBord Kurt A. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractTheory and research in psychology are products of numerous, often unnamed choices made by individuals embedded in systems of power and privilege. Acknowledging and dissecting these effects allow more conscious decision making about the research and theory-making process, ultimately improving work with clients, students, and communities. Building on feminist science studies and the feminist therapy technique of power analysis, the authors take a process-oriented approach, examining the roles of power and privilege in shaping knowledge production and “the literature.” In order to model metacognition and systematic questioning of the “unnamed specificity” pervading research, they first identify overarching principles of how societal factors shape the research process. Next, they articulate practical tools for analyzing the roles of power in any body of psychological research. As a case example, they then apply those tools to relevant research and theory, with particular emphasis on critiquing the feminist identity literature to which the first author has contributed.
From Hottentot to Superwoman: Issues of Identity and Mental Health for African American Women
Authors: Speight Suzette L. , Isom Denise A. , Thomas Anita Jones 
Published: February 2013

AbstractWe are well aware of the gendered and racialized nature of our social world, from structures and systems to internalized ideologies. The social constructs of race and gender are often viewed comparatively, in parallel, or as additive elements. What is often lost is the particularity of the intersections, the unique social locations, and the myriad ways these two combine. For African American women, the “and” of race and gender marks a troubling and complex sociohistorical context that impacts the identity development and mental health of African American women. This chapter examines the social context from the story of Saartjie Bartmann, the “Hottentot Venus,” through the produced images of enslaved African women, to the contemporary projections of “the “strong Black woman.” This discussion is held alongside an examination of theories of identity development and the implications for mental health. Ultimately, this work raises a call for further research and continued dialogue on the development of an authentic sense of self in African American women so that they can speak with their own voice and see themselves through their own eyes.