bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Media Democracy
Authors: Donges Patrick 
Published: November 2015

AbstractMedia democracy is a common but also controversial characterization of modern democracies. The term claims that the media, the communication in the media, and the distinctive media logics have a key influence on the structures, actors, processes, and contents of democratic will formation and decisions. To date, media democracy does not have the status of an elaborated theoretical concept. Moreover, the balance of potential increases and losses in the democratization of (mass‐) media‐dominated public policy is ambivalent. The state of the debate is that political systems are never completely mediatized and that the dichotomy of one political versus one media logic must be reconsidered for future studies.
Social Movements
Authors: della Porta Donatella , Mattoni Alice 
Published: November 2015

AbstractSocial movements are (a) mostly informal networks of interaction, based on (b) shared beliefs and solidarity, mobilized around (c) contentious themes through (d) the frequent use of various forms of protest. Communication assumes a central role in the articulation of each of these definitional aspects. Early studies on the topic underlined the weak position of social movements with regard to mass media, on the one hand, and the role of movement‐near media as a space of alternative communication, on the other hand. Recent developments in the literature underline the agency of social movements in the making of political communication flows, positioning them in a multilayered media environment. At the same time, research has flourished on the role of Internet tools and web platforms in the strategic and expressive activities of social movements. Future research would benefit from cross‐media, cross‐time and cross‐country comparisons on the use of media in social movements.
Cultivation Theory
Authors: Morgan Michael , Shanahan James , Signorielli Nancy 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Cultivation theory argues that a primary function of mass communication is the stabilization and perpetuation of dominant social structures and power arrangements, not change. Cultivation analysis findings illustrate the long‐term, more general, and pervasive consequences of cumulative exposure to television's messages. The phenomenon of mainstreaming in cultivation theory shows that, in relation to political issues, television cultivates common perspectives. Cultivation analyses consistently find that heavy television viewers are more likely to say they are “moderate,” and to avoid calling themselves either “liberal” or “conservative.”
Authoritarianism
Authors: Dobek‐Ostrowska Bogusława 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Authoritarianism is a broad set of beliefs, practices, and institutional arrangements that highlight the subordination of people under unaccountable and often unquestioned authorities. The term is used in social science in different contexts, as a personality type, an ideological concept, a political regime, and a method of meaning construction. Authoritarianism as a type of political regime is located between totalitarianism and democracy.
Professionalization
Authors: Holtz‐Bacha Christina 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe notion of professionalization as used in the field of political communication has shifted from the narrow focus on communication experts (consultants) and the election environment to a broader perspective that understands professionalization as a process of adaptation in view of changes of society and the media. In this respect, professionalization is a dynamic development that involves political communication processes in general and is not limited to election campaigns.
Posters, Political
Authors: Geise Stephanie 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Fulfilling central functions in campaigns, the political poster is a specific, well‐established medium of visual political communication rich in traditions and still important in contemporary political discourse. Although displaced in the United States since the 1960s by TV commercials and now playing a secondary role there—with few exceptions such as Fairey's Barack Obama HOPE posters—the political poster has lost little in actuality in Europe (e.g., France, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Turkey) and South America and is increasingly important in developing countries (e.g., India, South Africa) that lack a conventional mass‐media infrastructure. Since its early development, the poster's functions for political communication have changed little. Posters have always been a medium of flash communication, transferring textually or pictorially highly condensed information and actualizing political issues and actors. During political campaigning, political posters obtain an overview of political actors, parties, candidates, and most relevant campaigning topics. As scientific resource, they provide a vivid insight into historical and contemporary political communication.
Pharisee Effect
Authors: Neiva Eduardo 
Published: November 2015

AbstractAlthough conventional wisdom supposes that religious arguments determine the outcome of electoral disputes, significant empirical evidence and theoretical reasons counter this supposition. It is not always the case that religious messages shape an unbeatable strategy, when political campaigns are planned and arguments crafted for the general public. The public rejection of religious proclamations as a political plan of action defines the pharisee effect. Hence, even in a political region inclined to favor religiosity, campaigns built around religious fervor do not, necessarily, succeed.
Third‐Person Effect
Authors: Wei Ran , Lo Ven‐hwei 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

The third‐person effect is a simple but intriguing theoretical proposition. It has generated a robust stream of research in the past 30 years. Political communication is one of the topical areas in which third‐person effect research is growing. The literature sheds light on the perception of effects concerning a range of political messages and media, and has documented some real‐world effects of the perception on multiple political behaviors. This chapter reviews a growing body of research that examines public perceptions of media effects
vis‐à‐vis
direct media effects in political communication. The propositions and empirical studies in the existing research are synthesized and critiqued as a means of attaining a deeper understanding of the third‐person effect as a robust research stream and its potential as a full‐blown theory.
Pseudo‐Event
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe termpseudo‐eventis explained, distinguished from the termmedia event, and split into two terms: staged event and mediated event. After clarifying the termevent, the relationship between pseudo‐events (staged and mediated events) and so‐called genuine events is outlined. In addition the relationship between these types of events and the concept ofmediatizationis explained. Empirical data illustrate the development of media coverage on these types of events.
Spin Doctoring
Authors: Valentini Chiara 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Spin doctoring is a derogatory term to define public relations activities for political institutions, political actors or corporations that emphasize or exaggerate the most positive aspects of something. The term does not indicate a profession, like public relations, or a neutral activity, like political communication, but is a biased expression used by journalists to discredit the work of public relations experts. The term is commonly used to refer to campaigns and communications that are based on deception and manipulation. Governments, political actors, and corporations are using this technique to protect their image from criticism, to achieve consensus and public support and to sell their ideas and opinions. In politics, the concept of spin doctoring is tied to the process of mediatization, which has made politicians and political institutions more concerned for their appearance and how they are represented in mass media than the political reality.
Public Interest
Authors: Hanretty Chris 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

Normative media theory and public policy provide different ways in which the media contribute to the
public interest
, which may be defined either as the aggregate of the individual interests or preferences we reveal when choosing between the different media available to us in the marketplace or as the common interest we all share in media that enable us to carry out our role as citizens by providing a broad range of viewpoints and accurate information about different topics. These issues can be explored at a theoretical level, and in relation to public policy, where the idea of public interest is used by regulators, public broadcasters, courts, and professional journalists' associations.
Science Communication and Politics
Authors: Kusafuka Minako , Fujigaki Yuko 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The term “science communication” encompasses a wide variety of activities. These fall into three categories—science outreach, science journalism, and risk communication—although the boundaries between them are not always clear. Science outreach aims at enhancing public awareness and understanding of science. Science journalism is concerned with the communication of science to the public through media such as science journals, newspapers, broadcasts, and the Internet. Risk communication normally involves disseminating information about risks to humans and the environment, including both the risks inherent in everyday life and risks that arise in acute situations, such as natural and industrial disasters and pandemics. More broadly, this category also includes activities to assess and communicate the ethical, legal, and social implications of science and technology. Such activities often take the form of public debate involving people potentially affected by science and technology. As science and technology have become increasingly complex, penetrating into every aspect of social life, science communication activities of all kinds have grown in importance, taking on broader political implications.
Ritual, Political
Authors: Stępińska Agnieszka , Kołodziejczak Małgorzata 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political ritual is a repeated and culturally standardized activity related to a political sphere and/or performed by political actors. It expresses and communicates feelings, concerns, and ideas central for and shared by the community. The fundamental building blocks of ritual are mythic stories, symbolic acts, and words that bring diverse ideas together. Regardless of its level of complexity, every ritual follows some sort of schema or script that consists of techniques, elements, and formats. Political rituals may be used to integrate a society, to develop an identity, to create an image of the world, or—instrumentally—to legitimize or delegitimize political power.
Word of Mouth (
WOM
)
Authors: Boni Federico 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Word of mouth (WOM) is a “pass‐along” process of interpersonal communication, a means of “social diffusion” which has particularly powerful effects especially in its ability to influence people as messages are “passed” and transmitted from person to person. Based on the traditional model of the “two‐step flow of communication,” according to which media messages are mediated through interpersonal relationships, word of mouth includes face‐to‐face discussions as well as so‐called “word of mouse,” online interactions based on social media.
Media Event
Authors: Boni Federico 
Published: November 2015

AbstractMedia events are live broadcastings of preplanned historic events. A typology of media events divides them into three categories:contests, representations of conflicts as in political debates or in a sporting event;coronations, rites of passage celebrating a particularly important moment of the political hero; andconquests, events that subvert an institutionalized rule, viewed as charismatic missions. The three categories are connected to Weber's three types of authority—rationality, charisma, and tradition—while for their ritual and ceremonial characteristics media events have become central in political integration. Recently, a broader view of media events has taken into consideration more categories of media events, including divisive rituals, conflicts, and disasters.
Relative Deprivation
Authors: Osborne Danny 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Feeling relatively (rather than objectively) deprived affects how people respond to inequalities. Since documenting this effect, research on relative deprivation has shown that feeling personally deprived motivates individual‐based reactions, whereas feeling that one's group is deprived gives way to group‐based responses to inequality. Subsequent work has examined the antecedents and consequences of feeling relatively deprived, while also highlighting the critical role that affect plays in mediating the relationship between relative deprivation and distinct outcomes. This entry gives an overview of the literature in this area and concludes with a discussion on promising directions for future research.
Extremism, Political
Authors: Landtsheer Christ'l De 
Published: November 2015

AbstractExtremism is the holding of attitudes, opinions, and beliefs that differ from established norms, have potentially dangerous consequences, and/or are held by a relatively small percentage of people. Political extremism applies to those political groups that subscribe to a radically, antipluralist, homogeneous vision of the national community and reject the basic democratic values. It emerges from the left or the right of the ideological and partisan spectrum, and it has multiple forms.
Spiral of Silence
Authors: Ho Shirley S. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The spiral of silence theory describes the process in which people who perceive their opinion to be in the minority are unwilling to express it due to fear of isolation from society. This article gives an overview of the spiral of silence theory. It describes the underlying processes and key assumptions of the theory. It reviews the empirical research findings, focusing on the factors that explain people's willingness to speak out in addition to fear of isolation, the refinement of the measurement procedures for the theory, the test of the major assumptions of the theory in different cultural contexts, and the specification of the contingent conditions which can bring out the key aspects of the theory. With the proliferation of new media, this article reviews recent studies that concentrate on whether the spiral of silence is applicable to computer‐mediated communication contexts when explaining public opinion expression.
Social Justice
Authors: Deranty Jean‐Philippe 
Published: November 2015

AbstractSocial justice concerns the fairness with which the goods and burdens arising from collective life are shared among members of society. The main questions that are raised by the problem of social justice therefore relate to the different dimensions involved in the distribution of social goods: What are the different types of social goods to be distributed? What are the principles underpinning a fair distribution? What are the agents and processes ensuring that the distribution of social goods is fair?
Civic Engagement
Authors: Dahlgren Peter 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Civic engagement points to a fundamental dimension of democracy: that citizens must involve themselves if it is to work. The concept is somewhat slippery, with a number of definitions in circulation. In recent decades discussions have highlighted problematic declines in civic engagement in the democratic societies. The declines are understood as a response to the inabilities of governments to function adequately and to respond suitably to citizens. Also, these declines are portrayed as a consequence of mechanisms of inequality and exclusion, exacerbated by neoliberal developments. At the same there is a considerable reengagement under way; much of it is within the realm of alternative politics. For both mainstream and alternative politics, the media have always had a central position, one which has been enhanced by the Internet and Web 2.0. At the same time there is considerable debate on the actual role played by the Web in this regard.
News Values
Authors: Preston Paschal 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This entry sketches out the various meanings and uses of the concept of news values. It traces the history, evolving meanings, and role of the concept in research focused on understanding what makes the news. It locates the concept in terms of the various layers of research seeking to understand the factors and forces which serve to shape news culture (a key aspect of political communication) in modern western democracies.
Public Affairs
Authors: Sanders Karen B. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Public affairs is a field of study and practice engaged in the understanding and execution of strategic communication on behalf of an organization chiefly in relation to influencing the policy environment to bring it into alignment with its goals. Its activities are oriented toward the scanning of the sociopolitical environment to identify and prioritize key issues for an organization, where it overlaps with the field of issue management. It also seeks to build and maintain relationships with key policy stakeholders, where it overlaps with public relations, to achieve a favorable policy and regulatory environment. Its preoccupation with policy elite perceptions also creates common ground with corporate communication's focus on reputation management.
Priming
Authors: Marquis Lionel 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPriming occurs when previously encountered information (“a prime”) remains temporarily accessible for encoding a target object or retrieving it from memory. The application of this framework to the area of mass communication is discussed. It is argued that “media priming” consists in enhancing thechronicaccessibility of the mental constructs related to topics of media coverage. In turn, this selective “preactivation” of concepts facilitates their subsequent use in evaluations of political objects. In particular, subjects of intense media coverage will tend to outweigh other considerations as ingredients of a political candidate's evaluations. A critical assessment of media priming suggests that it applies to a wider range of situations than is commonly assumed in political science research. However, only few concrete instances qualify as priming in its original psychological meaning, and the need for a proper theory of media priming, is stressed.
Political Communication Imaginary
Authors: Sampedro Víctor 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
A political community is always based on an imaginary that refers to the symbolic ties binding representatives and the people whom they represent. Politicians, journalists, and their publics share a narrative (a vocabulary, metaphors, scripts) about the public virtues and the proper roles to be displayed by both the “professionals” of political communication and lay citizens. Political imaginary has evolved following the dominant ideals of the public spheres that emerged from technological innovations, cultural shifts, and the changing nature of social ties (Edelman, 1988).
Negotiations
Authors: Harris A. W. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The distinction between negotiation and bargaining is represented. Three separate approaches to negotiation are introduced to help in providing a broad outline of the subject. The first approach seeks to achieve a “Pareto‐optimal” outcome for all parties. The second strives to secure a just outcome for each party. The third seeks to assure that all parties engage in “integrative” bargaining, with each party actively seeking to assist other parties obtain what they need, in order to achieve an agreement.
Propaganda
Authors: Michael Sproule J. 
Published: November 2015

Abstract

Propaganda
denotes persuasive undertakings particularly of a kind projected through mass media on behalf of powerful organizations. Especially in the English language,
propaganda
also connotes the covert diffusion of questionable content to benefit the undeserving. Although
propaganda's
etymology dates to sectarian religious conflicts in 16th‐ and 17th‐century Europe, the term entered the modern political lexicon when the muckrakers began to expose antidemocratic promotions orchestrated by railroads and other large organizations, and later when
propaganda
became a recognized label for wartime and cold‐war communication by enemies foreign and domestic. Because of
propaganda's
strong polemical associations, administrators, professionals, and scientists more frequently describe their work as amounting to
information
,
communication
, or
persuasion
. In contemporary criticism and pedagogy,
propaganda
serves variously as an organizing principle or as a term subsumed under analytic frameworks built around such alternate expressions as
spin
,
doublespeak
, or
critical thinking
.
Parliament
Authors: Marschall Stefan 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Parliaments are traditional representational bodies in liberal democracies that—being directly elected—build reciprocal linkages between citizens and political elites. The general role and relevance of parliaments depend on their capability to communicate and to create a public space. In modern mass‐media societies, parliaments are in danger of losing their communicative powers due to a structural marginalization of parliamentary communication. Whether new channels such as online communication could increase parliaments' communicative resources needs to be addressed by research. In doing so, studies on parliaments could profit from a closer cooperation with communication and media research.
Transnational Political Communication
Authors: Gagliardone Iginio 
Published: November 2015

AbstractTransnational political communication involves interactions among state and non‐state actors across national boundaries. The study of this subject is relatively recent, but increasingly relevant, as non‐state actors such as nongovernmental organizations and multinational corporations proliferate and use a variety of media to influence policies and politics across borders. Different from public diplomacy, transnational political communication is less concerned with how states communicate to foreign publics, and focuses more on how foreign governments and publics can become targets of communications initiated by actors outside of their boundaries. In an increasingly multipolar world, transnational political communication has also become the terrain where competing conceptions of society and the social good struggle for hegemony and to assert themselves in a crowded market of ideas.
Charisma
Authors: Campus Donatella 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Charisma is regarded either as an attribute possessed by some political leaders or as a relational phenomenon that links together leaders and followers. Both in classic and in modern accounts of charismatic leadership communicative skills are among the resources employed by charismatics to persuade followers and maintain their loyalty and devotion. The advent of the mass media era poses also the crucial question: Can charisma be amplified and manufactured through political marketing techniques?