bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Organ Donation and Race
Authors: Kierans Ciara 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Race in the context of organ donation is a domain where biology, genetics, society, and culture overlap in frequently troubling ways. Despite the insistence among many in the social and natural sciences that there is no such thing as race, important questions about the status of race as a classificatory category continue to be raised. Race remains endlessly controversial, problematic in its uses, and widely contested.
Gender and the Body
Authors: Broh Beckett A. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractWhile biological differences certainly exist, significant scholarly work has indicated that observed differences between women and men result much more from social, not biological, processes, and women's characteristics are undervalued relative to men's in many societies. Cultural and structural forces focus attention, develop meaning, and assign value to female and male bodies. In turn, female and male bodies are used to construct and reinforce cultural notions of gender. These social forces affect women's and men's behaviors, life experiences, and life outcomes.
Disease Diffusion
Authors: Schærström Anders 
Published: February 2014

AbstractDiffusion is a spatial–temporal process, the spread of something between locations – a movement across space and a change through time. As an explicit spatial phenomenon, diffusion is a core issue and concept in geography. Thus,disease diffusionrefers to the variable spatial occurrence of ill health, such as the epidemics of infections, caused by the spread of disease agents through space and time. Conventionally, diffusion studies have focused on infectious diseases, but the occurrence of non‐infectious disorders may display similar trends in space and time. Disease diffusion constitutes an urgent public health issue on local, regional, national, and global levels.
Gender and Mental Illness
Authors: Busfield Joan 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Research provides evidence of a distinctive gendered landscape of mental illness, with women and men differing in the types of disorder they commonly experience – a landscape that is not specific to Western societies. While there are no marked gender differences in the rates of psychoses like schizophrenia or in dementia, women have higher levels of affective disorders, such as depression, and of anxiety disorders, and men have higher levels of substance abuse and conduct disorders. Consequently the observed gender difference in overall levels of mental illness depends on what disorders are included in the measure. The gendered patterning of mental disorders is now usually linked to differences between women and men in gender‐related tendencies to internalize or externalize their feelings, women more often internalizing their feelings and men more often externalizing them. While such differences may be influenced by genetic factors, they also relate to the socialization of women and men in childhood – a gender socialization that is linked to the expectations of what is required of them in adult life. Further differences in women's and men's social situations also have a direct impact on the gender‐related expression of feelings in the face of life events and difficulties.
Biopolitics
Authors: Filipe Angela M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Biopolitics, as defined by Michel Foucault, is what makes life and its mechanisms enter the explicit calculations of government. As with other notions in the philosopher's work, biopolitics evokes a methodological turn to the archaeological or genealogical inquiry which permeated his entire work. This aspect would be groundbreaking not only in terms of approach but also in terms of substantive studies he carried out in such topics as medicine, psychiatry, childhood, and sexuality throughout the 1970s and 1980s. In one way or another biopolitics has inspired innumerous research pieces across the human and social sciences and has permeated a wide range of concerns and debates in contemporary thought, summarized here as regimes of government of life; identity, biosociality and biocitizenship; and vital and micro‐biopolitics.
Health Inequalities
Authors: Lang Thierry , Lombrail Pierre 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSocial inequalities in health are extremely high internationally, but they exist also within each country, even in the poorest countries. All stages of life are involved in health inequalities; they are constructed and become established over time, and certain inequalities present during childhood are the harbingers of others in adulthood. The causes of inequalities are multiple, and several levels of explanation coexist, including both proximal causes and fundamental causes. A large number of areas are concerned, including education, access to employment and working conditions, retirement age, housing policy, and lastly policies of redistribution, by taxation and by direct financial aids. Inequalities can be worsened by changes or innovations whose overall effects on health are nevertheless positive. Access to care and the cost of care have direct effects on inequalities. But even if barriers are absent at this level, this is not enough to guarantee equality of care. Social inequities in health both equate to, and result from, social inequities in general.
Mental Illness in the United States, Treatment of
Authors: Watson Dennis P. , Wright Eric R. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the historical changes that have occurred regarding the treatment of mental illness in the United States. Both the locus and focus of treatment have shifted significantly since the eighteenth century. People displaying symptoms of mental illness are no longer considered patients in need of institutionalization, but are instead consumers who have the right to direct their own care in community settings. Along with this shift, recovery, rather than symptom management, has become the primary goal of treatment.
Communities of Practice
Authors: Vaughan Suzanne , Dornan Tim 
Published: February 2014

Abstract

Communities of practice is a sociocultural theory of learning. Initially described in a book by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991, the term
communities of practice
refers to the social environment in which learning takes place. Communities of practice theory has been adopted widely within and outside health care, and it proves to be a useful lens through which to investigate the situated learning of health care professionals who have well‐established traditions of apprenticeship. Communities of practice theory takes a mid‐level stance between structure and agency, describing how practices shape and are shaped by individuals. More recently Wenger has developed the concepts within communities of practice theory to reflect the importance of individual identity formation in learning and competence.
Drugs: Public Policy
Authors: Rooke Catriona 
Published: February 2014

Abstract“Drugs” are a category of substances that influence human sensation, perception, mood, and behavior. A wide range of drugs are currently used for non‐medicinal purposes. The ways in which their production, circulation, and use are controlled varies substantially: from the prohibition by international law of a range of substances including opiates and cocaine to the minimal control of caffeine. Sociological, anthropological, and historical studies of drugs have demonstrated that the positioning of a drug as legal or illegal is the result of social processes and have underlined the socio‐legally constructed nature of modern understandings of drugs. The contemporary public debate on drug policy has been dominated by debates over prohibition versus legalization of drugs. These discussions are seen as closing off considerations of the social issues that are at the root of many of the harms attributed to drug use or policies.
Patient Trust
Authors: Pollock Kristian 
Published: February 2014

AbstractTrust involves the confident expectation that an institution or person can be relied upon to honor implied or established commitments to an individual and to protect their interests. It is particularly salient to the experience of being a patient, where matters of health and illness carry huge personal significance. Trust is widely assumed to be valued highly by patients and significant to health care outcomes, for example, by promoting willingness to seek and comply with treatment and perhaps even as a core constituent of “therapeutic relationships.” As yet, there is little justification for concerns that patient trust is declining in response to social and cultural changes affecting the organization and delivery of health care in advanced industrial societies. However, the promotion of the patient as an expert consumer and self‐manager of health and illness directly challenges patient trust in professional expertise. It is not yet clear how the tension between the desire for trust, dependency, and informed autonomy may be resolved.
Public Health
Authors: Henry Emmanuel , Gilbert Claude 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe notion of public health differs from that of health per se insofar as it concerns not individuals but groups and populations. Thus, with the notion of public health, the main concern is the health of a collective of any nature. The focus is on the way in which groups exposed to health risks are identified, distinguished, and controlled, and more generally on the way in which societies are governed today. As Michel Foucault showed, we tend to think of government less as a direct relationship between a sovereign and individuals/subjects, than as the way of controlling and framing the relatively autonomous lives of a population; in other words, as a biopolitics.
Health, Men's
Authors: Speice Travis D. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The growing literature discussing men's health identifies ways that biology and social factors influence men's health outcomes. Social constructions of masculinities, combined with other social factors such as age, race, marital status, and socioeconomic status all influence men's health behaviors and likelihood of illness. Additionally, cultural considerations also affect men's health outcomes, particularly on a global scale.
Sex, Sexuality, and Health Geography
Authors: Sothern Matt 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Medical geographers have long mapped the differences in mortality and morbidity between men and women. Since geography's cultural turn of the 1980s, health geographers have increasingly explored the way socially constructed gender norms influence health behaviors and outcomes. Working with an understanding that health is more than simply the absence of disease, health geography has stressed how geographically differentiated economic structures impact on women's health; the gender bias in the provision of formal and informal health care in a variety of settings; and how the experiences of living with ill health are figured through gender and spatial structures.
Hospitals in the United States
Authors: Budrys Grace 
Published: February 2014

AbstractHospitals are institutions that reflect the social values and understandings regarding what needs to be done for persons who are unable to care for themselves. Early recorded history describes hospitals as entities set up to care for soldiers during time of war; centuries later hospitals were being established to look after the poor (sick or not) who were not being cared for by friends and relatives.
Race and the End of Life in the United States
Authors: Rosenblatt Paul C. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract“Race” is a concept rooted in racism, and so to understand “race at the end of life” one must understand the devastating power of racism to produce differences between racial groups in life expectancy and infant mortality. In the United States, racial differences in life expectancy and infant mortality reflect the ways that racism has operated and still operates in health care, exposure to environmental pollution, assignment to dangerous jobs, and many other areas of life. There are also historical traumas that play out intergenerationally, particularly among Native Americans, Alaskan Natives, and perhaps Mexican Americans in ways that affect mortality. In the end‐of‐life care people receive, there are to some extent racial differences, and these reflect partly cultural differences and partly past and present realities associated with racism in end‐of‐life care. The story about race and end of life is very much the story of racism in end‐of‐life care.
Professions and the Public
Authors: Pescosolido Bernice A. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe issue of professions in the area of health and illness tends to revolve almost exclusively around the profession of medicine and its powervis‐à‐visother medical groups, including most importantly, nursing. Classical sociological theory maintains that, despite the appropriation of the label “profession” to many occupations in contemporary society, only those occupations that hold a position at the top of a division of labor can truly be called professions. Occupations that are sociologically classified as professions must be autonomous and self‐directing, having gained control over the substance (or content) of their own work. In contrast to early theories of medical professions, these theories, referred to as theories of professional dominance, recognized that power and prestige rested on two factors – gaining as much of a monopoly in healing as possible, and gaining wider societal support. The former, monopoly status, was achieved through a political process of legal licensing (the necessary condition of “professional dominance”), while the latter could only could only come from broader public support (the sufficient condition of “consulting status”).
Health Professions and the State
Authors: Burau Viola 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The relationship between health professions and the state is complex and constantly in flux. This is reflected not least in the changing views of how health professions relate to the state and vice versa. From a perspective of professionalism as a “third logic” of governing, distinct from the state and the market, the relationship between professions and the state emerges as distant and as a matter of conflict over autonomy. In contrast, from the perspective of historical and cross‐country comparative studies, the relationship between professions and the state is seen more as an interplay embedded in highly specific conditions of time and place. This also brings into view the health professions beyond medicine, such as nurses and midwives. Finally, from the perspective of governance the boundaries between health professions and the state become blurred and instead health professions and the state are viewed as an intrinsic part of governing health/health care.
Emergency Departments
Authors: Vassy Carine 
Published: February 2014

AbstractEmergency departments appeared during the second half of the twentieth century and, as such, are relatively new areas of hospitals. These departments are designed to deal with people who wish to receive treatment and who arrive with no appointment – whereas in the past they would have been treated directly in the relevant department. Another characteristic of these departments is that they are open even when all other sources of care are unavailable.
Mental Illness, Anti‐Psychiatry Perspective of
Authors: Wurtzburg Susan J. , Thomson Nicholas 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The anti‐psychiatry perspective of mental illness is a general critique of psychiatry, based on the premise that mental health practitioners lack rigor in their diagnosis of mental illness. While psychiatry has been criticized since its early development in the mid‐nineteenth century, these critiques received more attention from the general public in several developed nations during the 1960s, when several exposés of asylum practices were published. In the United States, this perspective developed into the anti‐psychiatry movement, synchronized with other civil rights‐based American social movements, eventually resulting in the closure of asylums and improved mental health patient rights. Patients themselves played a major role in agitating for psychiatric reform, eventually creating the mental health consumerism movement. Outcomes have been the growth of community‐based mental health services, and a growing homeless, urban‐based mentally ill community.
Social Welfare and Mental Health Care
Authors: Scheid Teresa L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The field of mental health and illness is broad and interdisciplinary; hence the use of the term “social welfare” to capture the interdisciplinary nature of mental health care. Social scientists from the fields of psychiatry, psychology, sociology, social work, nursing, law, and criminology have all contributed to our understanding of what is needed to provide care, support, and treatment to those living with chronic mental illnesses. Psychiatry and sociology offer competing etiologies of mental illness, with psychology and social work articulating integrated bio‐psychosocial approaches. This entry will examine these contrasting views of mental health and treatment, ongoing scholarly debates, and systems of mental health care.
Geographies of Health and Risk
Authors: Curtis Sarah 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Geographies of health are concerned with the associations between health and place and particularly with how and why human health may vary in relation to differences in conditions among places. While much of the “classic” work in the field of medical geography has been concerned with clinically defined diagnostic categories of disease, more recent developments in health geography consider a wider interpretation of health which includes socially constructed ideas of good health and well‐being as well as illness. Health geography is concerned with both mental and physical health.
Health Care Delivery System: Sweden
Authors: Ahgren Bengt 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
In Sweden it is a public sector duty to finance and facilitate the provision of health care. It is thus a “Beveridge” health care system. All residents have accordingly the right to obtain the publicly financed health care. The system is decentralized and includes 21 county councils and 290 municipalities. Furthermore, it rests on a democratic platform: each of these authorities is governed by a parliament, with its representatives elected for a four‐year period at every general election.
Children's Geographies of Health
Authors: Fagg James 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Geographies of health for children and young people (CYP) explores how the health of children and young people is related to the physical, social, and political environment. Central to this body of work is the idea that CYP are differentiated from adults. They are recognized as important social actors whose experiences of place and space, and health and ill‐health vary from adults. Finally, CYP are not a homogeneous group and geographies of health vary across social dimensions and international, national, and local contexts. Children's health geographies can be drawn into two broad types, with quite different underlying epistemologies but complementary in their focus. The first examines the child or young person, or populations of children and young people as the subject of interest. In the context of geographical work, the focus of studies might be independently observed aspects of the young person's health status and of their local circumstances. The second type of study seeks to prioritize the views of children and young people as social actors to gain their views about their experience of health and place. This work is discussed within a framework of landscapes commonly used in broader reviews of health geography.
Geographies of Health Inequality
Authors: Pearce Jamie 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry demonstrates that there are distinct and rising geographical inequalities in health at a range of scales from the global to the local levels. Spatial inequalities in health are of long standing and have been monitored in the United Kingdom since at least Victorian times. It is clear that social, political, and economic forces matter greatly for understanding both social and spatial inequalities in health. Geographical explanations for the spatial polarization of health and why this divide is growing are multifaceted, and include features relating to the ecological, social, and built environments that operate over the life course.
Racism and Health
Authors: Penner Louis A. , Hagiwara Nao 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Members of racial/ethnic minorities typically experience poorer health than do members of racial/ethnic majorities. This entry examines how racism produces disparities between the health of members of disadvantaged racial/ethnic minorities and members of advantaged racial/ethnic majorities. Racism involves beliefs, feelings, and actions that denigrate members of certain racial/ethnic groups. Two pathways link racism to health disparities. The first is through racism's direct impact on people's health. Experiencing racism is a powerful environmental stressor, which activates the same kind of physiological responses that occur during any stressful experience. Continued activation of these responses negatively affects people's health. Racism also negatively affects people's mental health and can cause them to engage in unhealthy behaviors. The second pathway is through racism's negative impact on the health care people receive. Patients who have experienced high levels of discrimination are less satisfied with their medical care and less likely to follow providers’ treatment recommendations. Provider racial bias can affect treatments they choose for minority patients and the quality of medical interactions with them. Minority patients can detect subtle, implicit, provider racial bias and this negatively affects how they react to providers and their health behaviors after medical interactions.
Clinical Trials and Race in the United States
Authors: Scalfani Michael T. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry examines the issues surrounding minorities’ willingness to participate in research studies. This is an important topic because some data shows that minority groups are less willing to participate in health research than are non‐Hispanic whites. At the same time, in order for clinical trials to be generalizable, participation from all groups is required. Without their participation, we will likely witness greater disparity in health outcomes. This topic is complex as it deals with a historical context of minorities’ past experiences with clinical research studies, but also with a growing body of data suggesting that possibly there are other barriers to participation besides willingness that result in minorities being underrepresented in research trials.
Socioeconomic Status and Physical Health
Authors: Budhwani Henna 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSocioeconomic status – comprising education, income, and occupational prestige – is one of the most compelling predictors of physical health and life expectancy worldwide. As socioeconomic status increases, health outcomes improve (known as thesocial gradient in health). Each component of socioeconomic status impacts health through different but interconnected pathways: income represents spending power and thus financial capability to afford medical care. Occupational prestige denotes behaviors associated with work (e.g., working in a mine as compared to working in an office building), and education stands for the ability to access resources through knowledge and skills.