bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Spices
Authors: Wiesehofer Josef 
Published: December 2012

AbstractToday, spices are defined as parts of wild and garden plants that are used as spicing or taste‐giving ingredients in the preparation of all kinds of food and drinks because of their natural flavoring and odor content, but also for the preservation of food and liquids (cf. for antiquity: ColumellaRust. 12.8.1).
Cornelius Nepos
Authors: Serrati John 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCornelius Nepos (ca. 100–24BCE) was a Roman author of the late republican period. He is primarily known for his biographies of Greek, Roman, and Carthaginian personalities. Originally from Gallia Cisalpina, he was well known in Rome's literary circles; he wrote large biographies of his friends Cicero and Titus Pomponius Atticus, of which only the latter survives. Another friend, Catullus, dedicated verses to him.
Aristophanes of Byzantium
Authors: Petrovic Ivana 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAristophanes of Byzantium (ca. 265–190 or 257–180BCE) was Eratosthenes' successor as the head of the (Alexandrian library)and one of the most prominent and influential philologists of the ancient world. Born in Byzantium, he moved to Alexandria, where he was taught by the leading scholars. Some sources list Dionysios Iambos, Euphronios, and Machon as his teachers; others list Zenodotos of Ephesos, Callimachus, and Eratosthenes. His own student, Aristarchus of Samos, was equally prominent, and since Aristarchus tended to agree with Aristophanes, the work of the pupil can be used to provide insight into the editing and exegetical methods of his teacher Aristophanes.
Demetrios I (Seleucid king)
Authors: Iossif Panagiotis P. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDemetrios I (ca. 186 – 150BCE), son of Seleukos IV Philopator and Laodike, became king in 162. In ca. 177, Demetrios had replaced his uncle Antiochos IV Epiphanes as a hostage in Rome in order to fulfill the terms of the Treaty of Apamea (App.Syr. 47).
Astrology, Jewish
Authors: Leicht Reimund 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe belief in the influence of the stars on man's fate and his ability to predict future events through the observation of the heavens, which was a dominant feature of Mesopotamian and later Egyptian cultures, has left only dim echoes in biblical literature (e.g., Amos 5:26; Isa 47:12–13; Jer 10:2).
Babatha
Authors: Rotman Youval 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
In 1961, an expedition of the Israel Exploration Society, led by Yigal Yadin, discovered in the cave known as “The Cave of the Letters” in Nahal Hever in the Judaean desert, a leather pouch containing thirty‐five juridical documents which belonged to a Jewish woman named Babatha from the period just prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt.
Balsam
Authors: Hartmann Andreas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Balsam, an aromatic resin, probably from the
Balsamodendron opobalsamum/gileadensis
, is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as a perfume and drug. It was an important commodity for trade (Ezek 27:17; Jerome
Comm. Ezech
. 8.27). The origin of the balsam tree from southwestern Arabia is reflected in Jewish tradition (1 Kings 10:2; Joseph
AJ
8.174).
Calendar, Jewish
Authors: Stern Sacha 
Published: December 2012

Abstract“Jewish” calendars are best defined in terms of their common, main function in antiquity, that is, determining the dates of biblical and other Jewish festivals. The use of distinctly Jewish calendars for more general purposes, for example, for dating inscriptions and documents, seems always to have been restricted to the Jews of Judaea/Palestine (Stern 2001: 24–7).
Johanan, Rabbi
Authors: Kalmin Richard 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRabbi Johanan lived in Tiberias, a Galilean city with a relatively large rabbinic population. He has aptly been described as the most prominent Palestinian Amora who ever lived (Hyman 1910: 653). The most obvious proof of this claim is the fact that he is mentioned more frequently in classical rabbinic literature than any other Palestinian Amora. In fact, Talmudic sources suggest that the Palestinian rabbinic community in the late third and early fourth centuries consisted primarily of the circle of Johanan's colleagues and students.
Jonathan Maccabaeus
Authors: Bernhardt Johannes C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJonathan was the fifth and youngest son of Mattathias and a member of the priestly family of the Hasmoneans. The main sources for his life and career are 1 Maccabees and Flavius Josephus (seeMaccabees, Books of; Josephus), which give a rather sober portrait of him, echoing that of the biblical judges (1 Macc 9:73).
Lamentations, book
of
Authors: Miller Charles William 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 587/6
BCE
, by the Babylonians, was awatershed moment in the history of ancient Israelite history and religion. To commemorate that event, an unknown author (or authors) created the biblical book of Lamentations, which is a collection of five poems written in Hebrew. The poems offer the reader little factual information about the destruction, but instead provide an emotional tour‐de‐force that exploits language, image, and structure to examine the events and their aftermath from multiple perspectives.
Messianism, Jewish
Authors: Collins John J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe word “Messiah” is derived from the Hebrewmashiach, “anointed one.” The Greek equivalent is christos/Christ. In the Hebrew Bible, themashiach par excellencewas the king (e.g., Ps 2:2), but the term could also be applied to the high priest (Lev 4:3, 5,16, 6:15). In 1 Kings 19:16 Elijah was told to anoint Elisha as prophet. A prophet claims to have been anointed in Isaiah 61:1.
Peraea (Jewish Transjordan)
Authors: Zimmerle William 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The region identified in the New Testament Gospels as “beyond the Jordan,” Peraea was the
regio
that extended east of the Jordan River, and was cited in the writings of the Roman‐Jewish historian Josephus as the area extending south to north from Machaerus, Jordan to Pella, and east to west from Philadelphia to the River Jordan.
Hippiatrica
Authors: McCabe Anne 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe text known as theHippiatricais a compilation of excerpts from seven Late Antique treatises: the Greek veterinary manuals of Apsyrtus, Eumelus, Hippocrates, Hierocles, and Theomnestus; a Greek translation of the Latin text of Pelagonius; and the chapter on horses in the Greek agricultural compilation of Vindanius Anatolius of Berytus.
Jones, A. H. M. (1904–1970)
Authors: Gwynn David M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractArnold Hugh Martin Jones (1904–70) was Professor of Ancient History at University College, London (1946–51) and Professor of Ancient History at Cambridge University (1951–70). His numerous writings include several seminal studies of the cities of the Hellenistic and Roman world and one of the first great works dedicated to the later Roman Empire.
Liber Pontificalis
Authors: Caseau Béatrice 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheLiber Pontificalis ecclesiae romanae, or “Book of the bishops of the Roman church,” is a compilation of biographies of popes starting with St. Peter and ending at the time of Pope Hadrian II (867–72), although some manuscripts end with Pope Stephen V (885–91). Subsequent additions were made to theLiber pontificalis, which extended papal biographies up to the fifteenth century. The manuscript tradition is complex, as theLiber pontificaliswas issued in anumber of succeeding redactions and editions.
R
iegl,
A
loïs (1858–1905)
Authors: Traina Giusto 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Alois Riegl (Linz, 1858–Vienna, 1905) was an Austrian art historian. He read humanities and art history in Vienna, where he became a curator at the k.k. Österreichisches Museum für Kunst und Industrie (1887), subsequently developing an interest in decoration, ornament, and stylistic processes.
Diatheke
Authors: Harris Edward M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Athenian law required that legitimate sons (
gnesioi
), those who were born from a formally wedded mother, inherit the property of their father on his death. If there were no legitimate sons, the property would go to legitimate daughters (Isaeus 3.42, 68). If there were no descendants, the property went to collaterals in a fixed order. An Athenian could not therefore use a will to name an heir of his own choice. As a result, the will (
diatheke
or
diathekai
) served two basic purposes in Athenian law.
Ius Latii
Authors: Straumann Benjamin 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Between the dissolution of the Latin League in 338
BCE
and the bestowal of Roman citizenship on all free inhabitants of the Italian peninsula after the Social War in 89
BCE
,
ius Latii
, the Latin right, designated the legal status of those free Latins who enjoyed the rights of commerce and intermarriage with Roman citizens as well as the
ius migrandi
.
Achaia
Authors: Lafond Yves 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The historical region of Achaia covered the northern coast of the Peloponnese and can be divided into three large and geographically distinct areas: the central area, dominated by the Panachaikon massif, which acts as a natural border between east and west; the mountain ranges of Erymanthos and of Aroania to the south; and the Gulf of Corinth to the north (
see
Corinthian Gulf).
Aiolis
Authors: Iren Kaan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAiolis could be considered in two parts: island and land, which could also be divided into southern and northern Aiolis. Island‐Aiolis consists of Lesbos, Nasos, and Tenedos. Southern Aiolis is, broadly speaking, between Smyrnean and Elaitic Gulfs, and Northern Aiolis is the offshore from Elaitic Gulf to Ilion.
Aitolia
Authors: Scholten Joseph B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAitolia is a region in the west central Greek mainland. Inhabited by the late Paleolithic era, if not earlier, it had a large population by the Classical and Hellenistic ages (Thuc. 3.94.4). Aitolia's rugged topography, however, had a profound impact on the sociopolitical development of these inhabitants – the Aitolians – whose behaviors were frequently seen by the outside Greek world as uncouth, and sometimes as un‐Hellenic.
Aigina
Authors: Baxter Kristen , Figueira Thomas J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe island of Aigina (85.9 km2) is located in the Saronic Gulf, about 29.6 km from the Piraeus. Archaic and early Classical Aigina was a strong commercial and naval power, with two harbors and anemporion(Dem.Against Aristocrates211; EphorusFGrH70 F 176; cf. Ps.‐SkylaxPeriplus53).
Lindos
Authors: Higbie Carolyn 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLindos was one of three Dorian cities (Ialysos, Kameiros) on the island of Rhodes, off the coast of Asia Minor and northeast of Crete. In a sanctuary on its acropolis was a temple to Athena Lindia. Lindos preserved its long history, stretching back from the age of heroes through the Hellenistic monarchies, in an inscription known as the Lindian Chronicle.
Orontes
Authors: Zimmerle William 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Orontes River (Arabic
Nahr al‐‘Āṣt̄)
is one of the main rivers of the Levant, flowing for about 400 km through modern‐day Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. Like the Nile River in Egypt, the Orontes flows upstream from the south to the north, beginning in the Al‐Biqā‘ (Bekaa) Valley, voyaging through Lebanon and Turkey, and emptying into the Mediterranean Sea near Samandaği.
Phaselis
Authors: Brandt Hartwin 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In the early first century
CE
the ancient geographer Strabo praised the city of Phaselis for its beauty and its three natural harbors (Strabo 14.3.9), but he was not sure whether to call it a Lycian or a Pamphylian city. In fact, Phaselis played a special role in the Lycian–Pamphylian border area.
Priests and priestesses, Egypt
Authors: Bednarski Andrew 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Both of these terms are misleading translations of titles connected to temple functionaries. The bearers of these titles need to have been neither well versed in religious doctrine nor full‐time employees of a religious institution. Confusion over these titles has also arisen by their translation as “prophet.” The typical Egyptian priest's duties in fact focused on the maintenance of the temple and on cult figures’ daily needs, not on prophecy.
Ahmose Nefertiry
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Ahmose‐Nefertiry was a daughter of Seqenenre Taa and Ahhotep, being nursed as a child by the Lady Rai. She subsequently became sister‐wife of Ahmose I, and mother of Amenhotep I, together with at least prince Ahmose‐ankh and princess Sitamun.
Animal mummies
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Egyptians mummified animals (Ikram 2005) as well as humans. Mummification was carried out in order to preserve the body so that the soul (ka andba) could inhabit it in the Afterlife, or, in some instances, to preserve meat against spoilage for eternity (Ikram 2005: ch. 2).
Khufu (Cheops/Kheops)
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Khufu (more fully Khnumkhufu; Greek: Kheops) was the second king of the 4th Egyptian Dynasty, the son of Sneferu and his wife, Hetepheres. He seems to have reigned for a little over two decades, but little is known of the events of that time, apart from some activities in remote quarrying locations. Khufu's one certainly identified wife was Meryetyotes I, with a second lady, Henutsen, known from later sources. The king had at least six sons – two of whom, Djedefre and Khafre), subsequently occupied the throne – and three daughters. A number of members of the royal family occupied senior governmental posts, including that of vizier.
Curses, Egypt
Authors: Régen Isabelle 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn modern collective imagination, ancient Egypt is closely connected with the curse of the pharaohs. The most popular expression of it is the so‐called curse of King Tutankhamun (18th Dynasty), which appeared in the media less than one year after the discovery of his tomb in 1922 and was related to supposedly mysterious deaths (Silverman 1988).
Humor and satire, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Lazaridis Nikolaos 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe meaning of humor, as a culture‐and individual‐bound social activity, the effectiveness of which is entangled in the subtleties of human interaction and communication, is incommunicable (cf. Guglielmi 1979a; Apte 1985: 13–14; Palmer 1994: 11 ff.).
Meidum
Authors: Warden Leslie Anne 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Meidum, ancient

d
d snfrw

(“Sneferu endures”), is an archaeological site on the west bank of the Nile, in the Fayyum depression. It is best known for its 4th Dynasty pyramid, referred to simply as the “Meidum Pyramid,” which is flanked by a non‐royal cemetery. Meidum is the southernmost royal necropolis of the Old Kingdom.
Menkaure (Mycerinus)
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Menkaure (Greek Mykerinos) was a king of the 4th Egyptian Dynasty. His mother's name began with the letter “K,” probably Khamerernebty (I); his father appears to have been his predecessor, Khafre (Chephren). Menkaure seems to have had at least two wives, one of them probably Khamerenebty II, and at least one son, Khuenre. It is unclear how Menkaure's successor, Shepseskaf, was related to him. Virtually nothing is known of the events of his reign, which the Turin King List seems to indicate lasted eighteen years.
La Graufesenque
Authors: Schaad Daniel 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Archaeologists have linked this toponym to one of the Roman Empire's largest production and marketing centers of sigillata ware. It is a settlement whose ancient name –
Condatomago
(
s
) (
Tab. Peut
.) – referred to its topographical (
condate
: confluence) and economic situation (
magos
: market) within the territory of the Ruteni, in the province of Aquitania. In the second and first centuries
BCE
it shared its eastern boundaries with the Gabali and Volcae Arecomici and, from the Augustan period on, the cities of the province of Gallia Narbonensis.
Spalatum (Split, Spalato): Diocletian's Palace
Authors: Schrunk Ivancica , Studer‐Karlen Manuela 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Spalatum is the traditional name for the location of Diocletian 's palace, which was transformed into a city in the early Byzantine time and still constitutes the urban core of Split on the coast of central Dalmatia in Croatia.
Akephalos
Authors: Pollard Elizabeth Ann 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Greek adjective
akephalos
, literally “headless,” was used as the name or title of a divine power of the Greco‐Egyptian magical tradition. Greco‐Egyptian papyri and amulets, from the third to fifth centuries
CE
, mention a Headless One who appears to be efficacious in spells for revelation (
PGM
2.1–64, 7.222–49, 8.64–110).
Graces
Authors: Smith Amy C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Graces, known by their Greek name Charites (sing. Charis) are young and benevolent models of feminine grace. Homer does not specify their number and ages, but Hesiod explains that they are three daughters of Zeus and Eurynome (a daughter of Okeanos), named Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and Thaleia (Theog. 907–9); they live with Himeros (Desire) on Olympos, beside the Muses (Theog. 64); and they assisted with the birth of Pandora (Op. 73).
Carinus (Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCarinus (born ca. 250/255CE;PLREI 181;PIR2A 1475) was Roman emperor from 282 to 285. A serious problem in assessing Carinus is the prejudice of the sources, which present him as debauched, the seducer of the wives of the nobility, and even as the husband of nine successive wives (Historia Augusta, Car.16.7); he put innocent men to death on false charges, even those who had taunted him at school. Such stories, when they are not the fiction of the sources, are likely to be the spin of emperors who succeeded him. One wife only, Magnia Urbica, with the style Augusta, is known from inscriptions and coins.
Contubernium
Authors: Sage Michael 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn a military context, acontuberniumsignified a group of soldiers who ate and slept together. In temporary camps, they shared a leather tent and a mule to carry the tent and other heavy loads; while in permanent encampment, they were assigned two rooms in the barracks: one for sleeping and the other for storage. This was the basic infantry both in the legions and in the auxiliary forces of the imperial period.
Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDiocletian was Roman emperor from 284CEuntil his abdication in 305 (PIR2A 1627;PLRE1.253–4;RE142). His date of birth was probably December 22, ca. 243 (he was sixty‐eight at his death in 312).
Equites singulares Augusti
Authors: Zahariade Mihail 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

There were two types of such a corps,
equites singulares Augusti
, referring to the corps that protected the emperor, and
equites singulares legati Augusti
, which served as guards of the provincial governors. The expression
singularis
is in fact older and has two distinct meanings. It began by designating a military charge of ordinance and order; each officer of any rank had in almost all the regiments men charged to execute their orders. It also applied to the detachments formed in the provinces of cavalry men of different nations and chosen individually.
Excubiae
Authors: Ng Michael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Roman army maintained guard posts both within camps and also in areas under its control. These guard posts were known as
excubiae
and the guards (
excubitores
) at these posts would also be the ones who received the watchword or orders, via the Tesserarius, from commanding officers at headquarters (Veg.
Mil
. 2.7). Some of the more well known of these guard posts belonged to the paramilitary
cohortes vigilum
at Rome during the Imperial period. The Vigiles maintained a watch at night for potential fires and low‐level crime, whose perpetrators would be brought before the
praefectus vigilum
or higher authorities. In addition to each cohort's main camp, where the soldiers were primarily based, there were the smaller substations:
excubitoria
. Each cohort maintained two of these substations from which they made patrols. There was one
excubitorium
for each of the fourteen regions in the city of Rome, ensuring equal coverage throughout the city.
Fabri
, military
Authors: Sage Michael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Fabri
, artisans or workmen, formed part of the Roman army at least from the Servian reform of the mid‐sixth century
BCE
. They were organized in two separate centuries, at least one of which specialized in wood‐working. There is no evidence for an overall commander of these workmen, though from the mid‐first century
BCE
we have evidence for the appointed post of
praefectus fabrum.
The position must originally have entailed the command of the
fabri.
They appear not to have engaged in combat. It is likely that the size of these units varied depending on the requirements of specific campaigns.
Appuleius Saturninus, Lucius
Authors: Sampson Gareth C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lucius Appuleius Saturninus (?–100
BCE
) was a three‐time holder of the plebeian tribunate (103, 100, and 99), who used the office to undermine the power of the Senate, in the manner of the Gracchi. Throughout his career he acted in concert with Gaius Servilius Glaucia and was a sometime ally of Gaius Marius. He was murdered in the Senate house during a riot in Rome in late 100.
Astrology, Greece and Rome
Authors: Hübner Wolfgang 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe obvious termastrologiawas employed by the Presocratics andaristotleto signify all kinds of heavenly science, whereas the Platonists preferred the unconventional termastronomia,perhaps because of the double meaning of its second part,nomosas “law” and “melody,” which appears to refer to the Pythagorean idea of spherical harmony. The model of the harmony of the spheres correlates the distances between the planets with the proportions of musical intervals. The Pythagoreans and PLATO integrated the study of the heavens into a universal cosmology that also included human beings. Until the eighteenth century the termastrologiacould signify both kinds of star lore.
Retrospective diagnosis
Authors: Moog Ferdinand Peter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Retrospective diagnosis aims at identifying the illnesses of people who died long ago, mostly of well‐known historical persons, on the basis of available information. Laymen wrongly regard this procedure – which among experts is a highly contentious issue – as the chief task of medical history. However, most publications of this kind are written not by medical historians, but by clinical physicians with ambitions to be historians or by historians interested in medicine.
Sundials
Authors: Hannah Robert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe word “sundial” usually refers to a device that tells the time through the day, as opposed to a simple meridian line, which indicates only midday. The earliest evidence for sundial technology in the Mediterranean comes from Egypt and Mesopotamia. In Egypt, from the middle of the second millenniumBCE, L‐shaped shadow clocks measured the shadow cast through the day, although how is still debated. From ca. 1000BCEin Mesopotamia, there survive written tables of shadow lengths between sunrise and sunset. These tables presuppose some physical means of casting those shadows.
Corruption
Authors: Behrwald Ralf 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMisbehavior by public officers induced by material or other advantages, a universal phenomenon, is of heuristic value in either (1) the observation of changing degrees of corruption (often in the context of models of decline, currently largely discredited), or (2) the analysis of situations in which different sets of values collide, so that labeling a certain behavior as corrupt is controversial. In antiquity, such conflicts frequently arose between ethical standards of equality or good governance, and the norms and codes of aristocratic groups.