bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
IMPROVING MINORITY RETENTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A SEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES
Authors: Clewell Beatriz C. , Ficklen Myra S. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTAttrition of minority students from postsecondary education represents a major obstacle to attainment of equal educational opportunity. Gains in admission rates of minority students that have been made over the past decade have been eroded by their higher attrition rate. From a policy perspective, the most important issue is not merely why students drop out, but what can be done to prevent withdrawal.This study examined programs and policies at four four‐year predominantly White institutions with good minority retention in an attempt to identify variables that enhance minority retention. The institutions studied were: Boston College, California State University‐Fresno, University of North Carolina‐Greensboro, and Purdue University. These schools varied in terms of institutional environment, including selectivity, size, and proportion of minorities on campus; rationale for developing minority retention efforts; grade level of students served by special programs; and scope and type of services. The differences we found across institutions demonstrate that retention efforts for minority students can be developed and carried out successfully in many different ways, at different types of institutions.Although we found much diversity among the programs, we also found that there were certain common characteristics across programs–characteristics that appear to be elements of successful retention efforts. These characteristics are: the presence of a stated policy on minority enrollments; a high level of institutional commitment; a substantial degree of institutionalization of the program; comprehensiveness of services; dedicated staff; systematic collection of data, monitoring, and follow‐up; strong faculty support; and non‐stigmatization of participants.From our study, we developed a general model that represents steps needed to formulate a retention program. The steps are: making a policy decision to enhance minority retention, conducting a needs assessment and developing a data base to examine minority enrollment patterns, implementing a program and monitoring and evaluating this program. This model emphasizes that retention efforts include all parts of the institution and constitute an ongoing process in which changes are made as needed.We hope that other colleges and universities will view the programs described in this report as models from which to gain ideas for adaptation in their own settings.
A NEW ESTIMATOR OF THE VARIANCE OF THE MANTEL‐HAENSZEL LOG‐ODDS‐RATIO ESTIMATOR
Authors: Phillips Abraham , Holland Paul W. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTA new variance estimate for the Mantel‐Haenszel log‐odds‐ratio is proposed and compared to the proposals of Hauck, Breslow, and Flanders in two special settings where reasonable variance estimates are known. The new variance estimate is symmetric in the sense proposed by Ury and is derived in a similar manner to the proposal of Flanders. A second variance estimate that is only valid for the special case of (1,M)‐matching is also discussed and compared to the more general estimator.
USING ESTIMATED ITEM OBSERVED‐SCORE REGRESSIONS TO TEST GOODNESS‐OF‐FIT OF IRT MODELS
Authors: Wingersky Marilyn S. , Sheehan Kathleen M. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper presents an investigation of a method for assessing the goodness‐of‐fit of IRT models using estimated item‐observed score regressions. An advantage of this method is that examinees are assigned to cells on the basis of an observed quantity, their observed number‐right score. The method for assessing goodness‐of‐fit currently used assigns examinees to cells on the basis of an estimated quantity, their estimated ability. Comparisons are made between the two methods using simulated and actual data. A disadvantage of the new method is that it cannot easily handle tests where many examinees do not finish.
THE VALIDITY OF VARIOUS METHODS OF TREATING MULTIPLE SAT® SCORES
Authors: Boldt R. F. , Centra J. A. , Courtney R. G. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTA review of the literature concerned with validity data and policies for various methods of treating multiple scores is reported, as are analyses of data from the College Board Validity Study Service. The analyses evaluated the use of SAT‐V alone, SAT‐M alone, and the use of both in combination. The methods for treating multiple scores that were studied were to use the score from the administration with the highest V + M, the highest score, the most recent score, and the average. Best results, in terms of the highest average validity, were achieved using average V + M. Also evaluated were weighted combinations where all scores were used, but the highest or most recent received a unique, empirically determined weight. The use of the empirically determined weights was not superior in cross‐validation.The combinations of variables, and the four methods of treating multiple scores that did not involve the determination of empirical weights, were evaluated in regression equations developed using one‐time testers. All treatments of multiple scores resulted in underprediction of actual grades, with the highest score providing the least amount of underprediction. However, the discrepancy between predicted and actual grades varied greatly across institutions.Data from the Student Descriptive Questionnaire (SDQ) were cross tabulated with the number of retests. It was found that first test score‐level, income, and race were all related to the frequency of retesting.
DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING AND THE MANTEL‐HAENSZEL PROCEDURE
Authors: Holland Paul W. , Thayer Dorothy T. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe Mantel‐Haenszel procedure is a noniterative contingency table method for estimating and testing a common two‐factor association parameter in a 2×2×k table. As such it may be used to study “item bias” or differential item functioning in two groups of examinees. This technique is discussed in this context and compared to other related techniques as well as to item response theory methods.
PLOTTING IN THE MODERN WORLD
Authors: Wainer Howard , Thissen David 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper reviews standards for effective graphical presentation and then surveys microcomputer software currently available vis‐a‐vis their adherence to those standards. This review spans IBM PC (and compatibles) as well as Apple MacIntosh software. We conclude that software designers are more concerned with ‘the quality of the stroke’ than they are with the quality of the graph. This is analogous in writing to be more concerned with caligraphy than with language. We found that the best of the available packages could be twisted to yield good graphs, but that their default options were very poorly chosen. The major exception to this rule was MacSpin D2 Software, Austin, Texas), which provided an enormously helpful graphic tool to the data analyst.Included in the review is a discussion of both software and hardware considerations as well as numerous examples.
ANOTHER LOOK AT INTER‐RATER AGREEMENT
Authors: Zwick Rebecca 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTMost currently used measures of inter‐rater agreement for the nominal case incorporate a correction for ‘chance agreement.’ The definition of chance agreement is not the same for all coefficients, however. Three chance‐corrected coefficients are Cohen's κ, Scott's Π, and the S index of Bennett, Goldstein and Alpert, which has reappeared in many guises. For all three measures, chance is defined to include independence between raters. Scott's Π involves a further assumption of homogeneous rater marginals under chance. For the S coefficient, uniform marginals for both raters under chance are assumed. Because of these disparate formulations, κ, Π, and S can lead to different conclusions about rater agreement. Consideration of the properties of these measures leads to the recommendation that a test of marginal homogeneity be conducted as a first step in the assessment of rater agreement. Rejection of the hypothesis of homogeneity is sufficient to conclude that agreement is poor. If the homogeneity hypothesis is retained, Π can be used as an index of agreement.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON PATTERNS OF ABILITIES IN NORTH AMERICA1
Authors: Vernon Philip A. , Jackson Douglas N. , Messick Samuel 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe chapter examines cultural influences on patterns of abilities in North America or, more specifically, in the United States. After a brief review of the major models of intelligence and mental ability, the evidence for and against the “patterns‐of‐abilities hypothesis” is discussed, along with the major shortcomings of this interpretation as it pertains to between‐group differences in ability profiles within the United States. Next examined are cultural influences on cognitive styles as potential organizers of ability patterns and, finally, cultural influences not on profiles but on average levels of ability performance.
ANALYTICAL REASONING SKILLS INVOLVED IN GRADUATE STUDY: PERCEPTIONS OF FACULTY IN SIX FIELDS
Authors: Powers Donald E. , Enright Mary K. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis study was intended to provide information on the role of analytical abilities in graduate study. Graduate faculty in six fields of study (chemistry, computer science, education, English, engineering, and psychology) were asked to judge:
the importance for academic success of a wide variety of analytical skills
the seriousness of various reasoning errors
the degree to which a variety of “critical incidents” had affected their estimations of students' analytical abilities.
Faculty members were generally able to discriminate among the various skills, errors, and incidents they were asked to consider, although the vast majority of skills, for example, were rated to be at least moderately important on average. Some skills were viewed as extremely important in all disciplines. More typically, however, disciplines varied quite markedly with respect to faculty perceptions of the importance, seriousness, and impact of these skills, errors, and incidents.Several relatively interpretable dimensions were found to underlie particular clusters of reasoning skills. These dimensions or factors involved (a) the analysis and evaluation of arguments, (b) the drawing of inferences and the development of conclusions, (c) the definition and analysis of problems, (d) the ability to reason inductively, and (e) the generating of alternative explanations or hypotheses. These dimensions were judged to be differentially important for success in the six disciplines included in the study.The study results would appear to have definite implications for developing future editions of the GRE analytical ability measure. For instance, some reasoning abilities that were perceived as very important are well represented in the current version of the analytical measure but others are not. That some abilities appear to be much more important in some fields than in others would imply the need to carefully balance the measurement of various reasoning skills to ensure fairness to test takers from different fields of study. Fairness should be aided by including for measurement those skills rated as consistently important across all disciplines. Finally, the several dimensions underlying various clusters of reasoning skills should be applicable to extending the test specifications for the current version of the analytical measure.
GENERALIZATION OF GRE GENERAL TEST VALIDITY ACROSS DEPARTMENTS
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThis study of the validity of the GRE General Test used data from predictive validity studies that were conducted by the GRE Validity Study Service (VSS) in 79 graduate departments. The performance criterion was first‐year grades in graduate school. Observed validities were computed, and for each graduate department validities were also estimated for groups at two other stages of selection–applicants for admission to the department, and all GRE takers.Two validity generalization hypotheses were tested. One was that the General Test's validities were equal across studies; the other was that the General Test's validities had equal ratios across studies, that is, that the level of the validities might vary from institution to institution but the ratios would be constant. These hypotheses were applied for VSS groups, applicant groups, and all GRE takers, and implied validities (validities that would be observed if the hypotheses were true) were calculated. When the implied validities were compared to the observed validities, it was found that the assumption of equal validity did not account well for differences in the level of observed validity of the GRE General Test. The equal ratio hypothesis accounted for the observed validities rather well, possibly due to overcapitalization on chance, but departmental discipline was not significantly related to the degree of fit of observed to implied validities.At all levels of selection, the study yielded applicant validities that were predominantly positive. This lends support to the presumption that the General Test's validity is transportable, i.e., institutions that do not use the General Test can, if they adopt it, expect it to prove valid. In view of the scarcity of very low or negative validities, studies revealing such validities should be questioned.
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF THE GRE ANALYTICAL TEST: A RESOURCE DOCUMENT
Authors: Duran Richard , Powers Donald , Swinton Spencer 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the study reported here was to plan further research aimed at understanding how the current version of the GRE analytical measure reflects cognitive skills that are important to success in graduate education. Several activities were completed, including selective literature reviews of (a) cognitive and psychometric research on reasoning and (b) more general educational research on the role of reasoning in higher education. The two analytical item types included in the current test were analyzed to determine more precisely the kinds of basic skills that underlie their solution. Based on these activities a summary was made of the major thinking and language skills that seem to be required for successful performance on the test. Two major conclusions that were reached are that (1) although there is a considerable body of research on reasoning, thinking, and problem solving, there are few well‐developed models or theories to guide the measurement of analytical ability and (2) although reasoning, critical thinking, and other such processes are assumed to be requirements of successful academic performance, there is little documentation of the specific involvement of these skills in graduate education. Based on these general conclusions and other more specific findings, further work has been planned and is proposed in a separate document.
A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF ITEM OPTION REARRANGEMENT ON THE LISTENING COMPREHENSION SECTION OF THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Authors: Golub‐Smith Marna L. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe study was conducted to provide information for the TOEFL program about the effects of option rearrangement as a means of increasing test security during administrations of the listening comprehension section of the TOEFL. Two forms, consisting of items whose options were systematically scrambled, were spiraled together with the base versions during the pretesting phase of test development. The results indicated that scrambling an item's options does produce differences in both the estimated item response functions and equating functions. Therefore, it was recommended that this procedure not be adopted for the operational program.
THE DUTCH IDENTITY: A NEW TOOL FOR THE STUDY OF ITEM RESPONSE THEORY MODELS
Authors: Holland Paul W. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe Dutch Identity is a useful way to reexpress the basic equations of item response theory (IRT) that relate the manifest probabilities to the item response functions (IRFs) and the latent trait distribution. The identity may be exploited in several ways. For example: (a) to show how IRT models behave for large numbers of items – they are submodels of second‐order log‐linear models for 2J tables; (b) to suggest new ways to assess the dimensionality of IRT models – factor analysis of matrices composed of second‐order interactions from log‐linear models; (c) to give insight into the structure of latent class models; and (d) to illuminate the problem of identifying the IRFs and the latent trait distribution from sample data.
SEARCH FOR PATTERNS OF SUCCESS ON GRE GENERAL TEST ITEMS
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe impetus for the present study comes from the rather inconclusive results from “test bias” studies, which can be characterized as studies to determine whether ethnic, racial, or gender groups differ from the rest of the population taking the GRE General Test in terms of patterns of item difficulty. The results of such studies have been sufficiently weak as to suggest that test items are not strongly “biased” for any particular subgroups of test takers as defined by race, gender, or ethnicity. It is possible, however, that (a) there are subgroups of test takers whose patterns of item difficulty differ but whose members are demographically mixed, or (b) there are no groups for whom item difficulty differences exist (except for overall level of performance on the test. The potential groupings that underlie test performance are called latent groups because they are not defined beforehand, but are a product of the study. Latent groups are defined as groups that differ in the patterns of their item difficulties.To clarify the results of bias studies, the present study sought to discover latent groups of examinees by utilizing only test performance data. Factor analyses were performed to determine lower bounds for the numbers of latent groups. Two types of coefficients were analyzed: the proportion of joint successes on pairs of items, and phi‐coefficients. Both types of coefficients were well accounted for by a single factor. This result implies the existence of no more than one group.To be sure that the effects of group heterogeneity were not being masked, test takers who described themselves as White were sampled down so that the responses of other demographic groups could more strongly effect the results. However, using either of the coefficients analyzed, a single factor still accounted very well for the relationships among test items.Clearly, if any latent group structure were to be detected, a more sensitive approach was required. Thus, the subsequent approach adopted examined the value of each residual after a given number of factors was extracted. This approach led to a three‐group solution for the verbal subtest, and a two‐group solution for the quantitative subtest. This pattern of item difficulties suggested that these groups were differentiated due to bends in the item characteristic curves, rather than through demographic effects. In addition, a large number of groups were identified for the analytic subtest, but the vector of item difficulties proved to be essentially proportional. Also, demographic and item content information proved uninterpretable. It was concluded that the tests were essentially unitary as intended.
EQUATING THE SCORES OF THE PRUEBA DE APTITUD ACADÉMICA™ AND THE SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST®
Authors: Angoff William H. , Cook Linda L. 
Published: September 2014

ABSTRACTThe present study is a replication, in certain important respects, of an earlier study conducted by Angoff and Modu (1973) to develop algorithms for converting scores expressed on the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test (sat) scale to scores expressed on the College Board Prueba de Aptitud Académica (paa) scale, and vice versa. Because the purpose and the design of the studies, though not all of the psychometric procedures, were identical in the two studies, the language of this report often duplicates that of the earlier study. The differences in procedure, however, are worth noting, and it is hoped that this study will contribute in substance and method to the solution of this important problem.The study described in this report was undertaken in an effort to establish score equivalences between two College Board tests—the Scholastic Aptitude Test (sat) and its Spanish‐language equivalent, the Prueba de Aptitud Académica (paa). The method involved two phases: (1) the selection of test items equally appropriate and useful for English‐ and Spanish‐speaking students for use as an anchor test in equating the two tests; and (2) the equating analysis itself. The first phase called for choosing a set of items in each of the two languages, translating each item into the other language, “back‐translating” independently into the original language, and comparing the twice‐translated versions with their originals. This process led to the adjustment of the translations in several instances and, in other instances, to the elimination of some items considered too difficult to be translated adequately. At this point both sets of “equivalent” items, each in its original language mode, were administered as pretests, chiefly to determine whether the two response functions for each item were sufficiently similar for the items to be considered equivalent.On the basis of these analyses two sets of items—one verbal and the other mathematical—were selected for use as anchor items for equating. These were administered again (in the appropriate language) at regularly scheduled administrations of the sat and the paa. An item response theory (irt) model was used to equate the paa to the sat, with the anchor items serving as the link in the equating process.The equating itself showed definite curvilinear relationships in both verbal and mathematical tests, indicating in this instance that both sections of the paa are easier than the corresponding sat sections. The results also showed good agreement between the current conversions and the 1973 Angoff‐Modu conversions for the mathematical tests, but not so close agreement for the verbal tests. The reasons for the difference are (speculatively) attributed to improved methodology in the present study, especially for the more difficult verbal equating, and to the possibility of scale drift in one or the other test (or both tests) over the intervening 12 to 15 years since the last study.