bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cardiovascular Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Gerber Thomas C. , Walser Eric M. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Image formation in clinical CT relies on the mathematical conversion of projection data that have been obtained by measuring the attenuation of a fan-shaped x-ray beam from many angles around the patient. Image formation in clinical MRI relies on the alignment of hydrogen nuclei or protons along an external magnetic field. CT examinations are faster and easier to perform than MRI examinations and, therefore, are more widely offered. CT scans result in a 3-dimensional dataset that can be reformatted in any arbitrary plane after the examination is complete. Most cardiovascular MRI examinations consist of many image acquisitions, and experience is needed to obtain the desired views. Recent technical developments in CT and MRI have facilitated vascular imaging because an entire scan can now be completed during the transit time of one intravenous bolus administration of contrast material. The newer, 64-slice CT scanners and the newer pulse sequences for MRI have essentially replaced diagnostic angiography for large and medium-sized vessels.
Atlas of Congenital Heart Defects
Authors: Phillips Sabrina D. , Cetta Frank 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter presents images and descriptions of various types of congenital heart defects. Scimitar syndrome, atrial septal defect, Ebstein anomaly, Eisenmenger syndrome, coarctation of the aorta, transposition of the great arteries, tetralogy of Fallot, patent ductus arteriosus, and fistulas are reviewed.
Electrocardiographic Diagnoses: Criteria and Definitions of Abnormalities
Authors: Hammill Stephen C. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter is a diagnostic guide for all physicians who evaluate ECGs, and the criteria are of specific value to persons taking professional examinations in cardiology and internal medicine. The criteria are those used in clinical practice at Mayo Clinic, and thus they may differ in minor ways from those used on examinations. Check the specific diagnoses available on the answer sheet. These criteria are not endorsed by any professional examination body or organization.
Cardiac Cellular Electrophysiology
Authors: Lee Hon-Chi 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Ion channels are integral membrane proteins that regulate the traffic of ions in heart cells. They are determinants of the cardiac action potential, which in turn underlies cardiac impulse conduction, excitation-contraction coupling, automaticity, and arrhythmogenesis. Conceptually, the configuration of the cardiac action potential is determined by the sum of ionic current activity at any given time point during the cardiac cycle. Specific cardiac ion channels are discussed along with their clinical relevance according to their participation in the different phases of the cardiac action potential. Various types of cardiac tissues have different ion channel compositions and thus, different configurations of action potentials. Proper cardiac function relies on the coordinated regulation of cardiac rhythm generation and conduction.
Heritable Cardiomyopathies and Channelopathies: Clinical Presentations, Genetics, and Implications of Genetic Testing
Authors: Bos J. Martijn , Ackerman Michael J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The field of genetic cardiac diseases has evolved and discoveries along the continuum of research have been translated into clinical practice. Genetic insights have increased our understanding of the heritable cardiomyopathies and channelopathies, enabled identification of preclinical and potentially at-risk family members, and opened the door for considering new therapeutic options. The genomic revolution, however, has also brought with it the need to acquire a new vocabulary to understand the role of genetics and genetic testing in the evaluation and care of patients with these heritable heart diseases. This chapter discusses the clinical presentations, the most important genotype-phenotype relationships, and the implications of genetic testing for clinical practice for some of the most common heritable cardiovascular diseases: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, long QT syndrome, Brugada syndrome, and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia.
Pediatric Arrhythmias
Authors: Cannon Bryan C. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Although the mechanisms of dysrhythmias in pediatric and adult patients are usually the same, the clinical presentations and management plans may vary considerably. Many aspects of the pediatric ECG such as QRS axis, PR interval, and ventricular hypertrophy voltages are age dependent; therefore, a table of normal values based on age is necessary when evaluating ECGs from pediatric patients. In addition, heart rates are much faster in children, with resting heart rates up to 160 beats per minute being common in children younger than 1 year. The maximum sinus heart rate is also faster in younger patients, with the maximum rate typically being 220 beats per minute minus the age. This is an important fact to note when distinguishing sinus tachycardia from pathologic arrhythmias in this age group. This chapter reviews the salient features of most pediatric dysrhythmias, including their management.
Supraventricular Tachycardia
Authors: Gard Joseph J. , Habib Ammar , Asirvatham Samuel J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Supraventricular tachycardia is a generic term encompassing various arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. This chapter focuses on paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. This arrhythmia is among the most commonly encountered in general cardiology practice, and the 3 most common forms are atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia, atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia, and atrial tachycardia. Clinical features, electrocardiographic recognition, and treatment options are reviewed.
Ventricular Tachycardia and Ectopy
Authors: Munger Thomas M. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
A relatively common arrhythmia, ventricular tachycardia (VT) is present in 1% to 2% of patients during the first year after MI. This is the largest subgroup of patients with VT who require treatment. Surgical and catheter ablative techniques—using direct current and, later, radiofrequency energy—have been used in an attempt to eradicate reentrant foci that are responsible for VT in patients who have coronary artery disease. In addition to these patients, there are subsets of patients who have VT that occurs in the absence of coronary artery disease (ie, with dilated cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, infiltrative diseases of the heart, and congenital heart disease). Additionally, VT can emerge in patients with structurally normal hearts; these patients may or may not have associated repolarization syndromes. VT is an arrhythmogenic cause of sudden death, although in patients with normal repolarization and structurally normal hearts, sudden death is rarely a complication.
Syncope: Diagnosis and Treatment
Authors: Shen Win-Kuang 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Diagnosis and prognosis are 2 key objectives in syncope evaluation. The diagnosis of the cause of syncope determines the appropriate therapy to prevent recurrent syncope. The prognosis of a patient with syncope has broader implications, including the risk of recurrent syncope, sudden cardiac death, and overall survival. Prevention of recurrent syncope is determined by the effectiveness of therapy for a given condition. A clear understanding of the interrelationships between diagnosis and prognosis during syncope evaluation allows physicians to deduce an effective management approach. This chapter summarizes key areas for patient evaluation and management, including definition and differential diagnosis of syncope, pertinent history and physical examination findings, appropriate use of diagnostic testing, and treatment of various conditions causing syncope.
Pacemakers
Authors: Cha Yong-Mei , Hayes David L. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Indications for permanent pacing are divided into 3 classes: class I (necessary), class II (may be necessary; cost-benefit analysis needed), class III (unlikely to be of benefit). Common conditions for which pacing may be indicated are classified according to current guidelines. Pacing modes and nomenclature, lead type and implantation, and troubleshooting are also covered.
Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Trials and Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death
Authors: Gersh Bernard J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Since the early 1980s, the development of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) has revolutionized the approach to prevention of sudden cardiac death. Multiple clinical trials have defined the indications for ICD therapy in the prevention of primary and secondary sudden cardiac death. The current understanding of risk stratification is a victory for evidence-based medicine; perhaps no other area of cardiology has been so rigorously evaluated. As such, these fact-driven clinical trials are rich fodder for the cardiology board examination.
Intracardiac Electrophysiology Tracings
Authors: Madhavan Malini , McLeod Christopher J. , Packer Douglas L. , Asirvatham Samuel J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The field of analysis and interpretation of intracardiac electrograms is fascinating but complex and often intimidates the general cardiovascular trainee. For the cardiovascular board examination, however, a very limited and fundamental knowledge of intracardiac electrograms is expected. In this chapter, the normal intracardiac electrogram sequence is introduced and briefly explained; tracings illustrate the main concepts that may be tested on the cardiovascular board examination.
Rheumatic Heart Disease
Authors: Moore Andrew G. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Rheumatic heart disease is the most serious manifestation of acute rheumatic fever and is the most common cause of death in acute rheumatic fever. Rheumatic heart disease is the end result of carditis, which affects 30% to 80% of patients who have acute rheumatic fever. Damage to the cardiac valves, which is the hallmark of rheumatic heart disease, may be chronic and progressive; in conjunction with left ventricular dysfunction, it can lead to congestive heart failure and death. Clinical features, subclinical disease, left ventricular dysfunction, treatment, and management are discussed in this chapter. The special consideration of rheumatic fever in pregnancy is also reviewed.
Epidemiology of Valvular Heart Diseases
Authors: Nkomo Vuyisile T. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Valvular heart diseases are an important public health problem worldwide. They are classically related to rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease are thought to result from an autoimmune reaction to group A streptococcal pharyngeal infection, which leads initially to valve regurgitation (mitral regurgitation more often than aortic regurgitation) and later to valve stenosis (mitral stenosis more often than aortic stenosis). Although the incidence of rheumatic heart disease has decreased markedly in economically developed countries owing to the dramatic decrease in the incidence of rheumatic fever, rheumatic heart disease persists in economically developing countries owing to the persistently high incidence of rheumatic fever.
Cerebrovascular Disease and Carotid Artery Stenting
Authors: Spittell Peter C. , Holmes David R. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Carotid artery disease is common in patients with atherosclerosis in other vascular beds (ie, coronary and peripheral arteries) and has a wide spectrum of clinical presentations (asymptomatic carotid bruit, TIA, or stroke). Given the dire consequences of stroke and the fact that stroke may not be preceded by warning symptoms or signs such as TIA, there has been great interest in predicting and identifying patients at risk. Identification of carotid artery stenosis has been an important component of this process. Carotid endarterectomy is superior to medical therapy for patients with symptomatic carotid artery disease and a high-grade stenosis, including carotid territory or retinal TIAs or nondisabling stroke with an ipsilateral high-grade carotid artery stenosis. The increased morbidity and mortality associated with carotid endarterectomy in high-risk patients formed the rationale for the application of carotid artery stenting. Pertinent clinical trials are also reviewed.
Vasculitis
Authors: Wennberg Paul W. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
By definition, vasculitis is inflammation of a vessel. Practically, vasculitis is a diverse group of diseases that are as difficult to classify as they are to diagnose and treat. Large, medium, and small arteries, capillaries, and venules may be involved. The presenting symptoms vary by the organ system or systems affected. Both primary and secondary causes of vasculitis exist, and several conditions can mimic vasculitis. This chapter discusses types of vasculitis grouped by vessel size, with cardiovascular pathology emphasized whenever appropriate.
Heart Disease in Women
Authors: Best Patricia J. M. , Hayes Sharonne N. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in women, outnumbering deaths from all other causes combined. Each year, more than 500,000 women experience a myocardial infarction and more than 250,000 die of coronary artery disease. Furthermore, the prevalence of cardiovascular disease in women, including coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, stroke, and hypertension, exceeds that in men in the population older than 55 years. Because of the higher proportion of women in the aging population, each year more women die of cardiovascular disease than men. Diagnostic testing, disease manifestions, and treatment options for women with cardiovascular disease are reviewed in this chapter.
Heart Disease in the Elderly
Authors: Syed Imran S. , Murphy Joseph G. , Wright R. Scott 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Older patients have more heart disease than younger patients; they also benefit more from aggressive medical therapy but at the cost of a higher incidence of adverse side effects. Heart weight increases about 1 g per year between ages 30 and 90 years, probably owing to left ventricular hypertrophy secondary to an age-related increase in systolic blood pressure. Ventricular hypertrophy leads to significant changes in cardiac function with age, including an increase in left ventricular stiffness, reduced filling during early diastole, and a prolonged diastolic isometric relaxation phase. The conduction system undergoes marked changes with age, including the loss of 50% to 75% of the pacemaker cells of the sinoatrial node and fibrosis of the specialized conduction tissue of the bundle of His. The result of these physiologic changes in relation to diagnosis and treatment of heart disease in the elderly are reviewed in this chapter.
Acute Coronary Syndromes
Authors: Wright R. Scott , Kopecky Stephen L. , Murphy Joseph G. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The leading cause of death in western societies is an acute coronary syndrome. Acute coronary syndrome occurs when there is acute destabilization of a previously stable atherosclerotic plaque within the coronary circulation, usually due to plaque rupture or plaque erosion that results in acute myocardial ischemia. Acute coronary syndrome classification includes four frequently overlapping conditions (unstable angina, ST-elevation myocardial infarction, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death), each of which are reviewed in this chapter.
Adjunctive Therapy in Acute Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Wright R. Scott , Syed Imran S. , Murphy Joseph G. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Adjunctive therapy for acute myocardial infarction should be initiated immediately the diagnosis is suspected—in many cases before the diagnosis confirmation or definitive reperfusion therapy is instigated. Adjunctive therapy should include the following (absent any contraindications): aspirin, oxygen, morphine, intravenous unfractionated heparin or subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin, β-blockade (initially intravenously and then orally), and nitroglycerin (except in patients with hypotension or suspected right ventricular infarction). Each component of adjunctive therapy is reviewed in this chapter, as well as management of diabetes mellitus and the long-term use of adjunctive therapy.
Reperfusion Strategies for ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Murphy Joseph G. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The cause of ST-elevation myocardial infarction is rupture or erosion of an atheromatous plaque that leads to formation of an occlusive intracoronary thrombus. ST-elevation myocardial infarction is a medical emergency, comparable to major trauma in which a rapid, abbreviated clinical assessment trumps a comprehensive, but slower, clinical evaluation. Primary Percutaneous coronary intervention is the treatment of choice for all consenting patients, provided primary percutaneous coronary intervention can be performed in a timely manner by an experienced team, generally considered to be within 90 minutes from medical presentation.
Risk Stratification After Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Thomas Randal J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Risk stratification after MI is the process of estimating the risk of future CVD events in survivors of MI. This process helps health care providers tailor short- and long-term management plans, with the goal of applying cost-effective treatments that are most appropriate for the risk level of the patient and that are most likely to optimize the patient's quality and quantity of life. Several strategies are available to help risk-stratify patients after MI, according to their risk of future CVD events. The strategies include various patient characteristics and test results that can help risk-stratify patients at every point along the health care continuum, from the initial evaluation by emergency medical technicians to the evaluation visit in the physician's office a month after hospital discharge.
Pregnancy and the Heart
Authors: Connolly Heidi M. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Approximately 2% of pregnancies occur in women who have heart disease. Congenital heart disease is the predominant form of heart disease among pregnant women in developed countries, whereas rheumatic heart disease predominates in developing countries. Heart disease does not preclude successful pregnancy but increases the risk for both mother and baby and requires special management. This chapter discusses the normal hemodynamic changes that occur during pregnancy and the resultant effect on common cardiovascular diseases.
Adult Congenital Heart Disease
Authors: Ammash Naser , Warnes Carole A. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Remarkable improvement in outcomes for patients with congenital heart disease has occurred over the past half century owing to better diagnostic tools leading to early recognition and enhanced surgical repair. Now it is estimated that 85% of all newborns with congenital heart disease will reach adulthood. Given the growing population of adults with congenital heart disease (increasing by 5% per year), there are more adults than children with congenital heart disease. This chapter addresses topics germane to the treatment of adults with congenital heart disease.
Systolic Heart Function
Authors: Miller Wayne L. , Olson Lyle J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The myocardium is composed of cardiac myocytes enveloped in a dense extracellular matrix of collagen, the main structural protein of the heart. The coupling of cardiac excitation (an electrical event) and contraction (a mechanical event) is fundamentally molecular. Relaxation is brought about by the active reuptake of calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Thus, calcium is essential to the excitation-contraction coupling, and when the calcium concentration decreases to a critical point, contraction ceases. These heart functions, their mechanical determinants (ie, preload, afterload, contractility, and heart rate), and physiologic measures of left ventricular systolic function are reviewed in this chapter.
Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction
Authors: Borlaug Barry A. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Heart failure affects nearly 6 million Americans and represents the leading cause of hospitalization among patients 65 years of age and older. Of the total heart failure population, approximately half of patients with heart failure have heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. This chapter reviews the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.
Dilated Cardiomyopathy
Authors: Chen Horng H. , Dandamudi Sanjay 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Dilated cardiomyopathy is a myocardial disease characterized by dilation and impaired contraction of one or both ventricles. It is an important topic to review for cardiovascular examinations, and special attention should be paid to the general features, etiologies and evaluation of this disease process, all of which are covered in this chapter.
Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Authors: Kushwaha Sudhir S. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Restrictive cardiomyopathy is defined as myocardial disease that results in impaired ventricular filling with normal or reduced diastolic volume of either or both ventricles and normal or near-normal systolic function and wall thickness. The condition usually results from increased stiffness of the myocardium, which causes pressure within the ventricles to increase precipitously with only small increases in volume. This chapter reviews the pathogenesis, natural history, clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and treatment of restrictive cardiomyopathy.
Catheter Closure of Intracardiac Shunts
Authors: Reeder Guy S. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Percutaneous closure of an atrial septal defect is first-line therapy for carefully selected patients and has been performed in more than 30,000 patients since first described in 1976. Features of 9 commonly used devices for closure of the atrial septum are discussed in this chapter. Indications for catheter closure of atrial septal defect and possible complications are included. Attempts at ventricular septal defect closure have been mostly limited to defects in the muscular ventricular septum and, more recently, the perimembranous ventricular septum. Impingement on the atrioventricular and semilunar valves and on the conduction system has limited treatment of inflow septal ventricular septal defects.
Principles of Coronary Stenting
Authors: Murphy Joseph G. , Barsness Gregory W. , Gulati Rajiv 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Coronary stents are classified as bare-metal stents composed of metal alone and drug-eluting stents composed of a core of metal covered with a drug-eluting layer that slowly releases antiproliferative medications. The major late benefit of PCI stent placement over PTCA alone is the marked reduction in coronary restenosis and the resultant lower rate of late target lesion revascularization seen in almost all coronary patient subsets studied to date in randomized trials. This chapter reviews current guidelines for stent implantation, consideration for surgery after stent implantation, and possible complications resulting from stent implantation.