bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Empirically Supported Treatments (
ESTS
) and Empirically Supported Principles of Change (
ESPS
)
Authors: Herbert James D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Empirically supported treatments (
ESTs
) are psychological interventions that are supported by quantitative scientific research, and empirically supported principles of change (
ESP
) refer to a treatment's underlying causal mechanisms or to procedures directly linked to those mechanisms. Beginning in 1993, a division of the American Psychological Association established a project for identifying and listing
ESTs
. Although highly influential, this ongoing project has been widely criticized by practicing clinicians and clinical scientists. Some clinicians denounce the project's privileging of scientific data over clinical experience, question the relevance of such data to “real‐world” clinical practice, and decry the perceived encroachment on professional autonomy. In contrast, scientists question the usefulness of the specific criteria used to identify
ESTs
. The field is now moving toward the more flexible concept of evidence‐based practice (
EBP
) supported by scientifically grounded treatment guidelines, although tensions remain over what kinds of evidence should form the basis for clinical practice.
Actor–Partner Interdependence Model
Authors: Campbell Lorne , Stanton Sarah C. E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) is a versatile statistical framework designed to analyze and interpret data obtained from dyads. The model stresses the importance of considering how people influence each other (i.e., that people are interdependent). In particular, the APIM allows researchers to estimate, simultaneously and separately, how a person's independent variable score affects not only his or her own outcomes, but also his or her partner's outcomes. APIM data can be analyzed using both multilevel modeling and structural equation modeling. To date, the APIM has generated interesting and informative findings in many areas of psychology, including romantic relationships, friendships, parent–child relationships, and client–therapist relationships.
Loevinger,Jane (1918–2008)
Authors: Cohn Lawrence D. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractJane Loevinger (1918–2008) made significant contributions to psychometrics, personality theory, and developmental psychology. Trained as a psychometrician, she developed a technique for constructing homogeneous tests, challenged traditional theories of reliability and validity, and proposed that objective tests should be used as instruments of psychological theory rather than mere expressions of “psychotechnology.” She developed a series of measures that eventually led to the construction of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) of ego development and, more importantly, the development of an empirically constructed scoring manual. Loevinger made major contributions to the study of maturity and character development using her technique of microvalidation to continually refine both the WUSCT scoring manual and the underlying developmental model. Her use of microvalidation represents a rare example of the continual interplay between theory, measurement, and data.
Self‐Help/Bibliotherapy
Authors: Nowakowski Matilda E. , Atkey Sarah Kate , Antony Martin M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Self‐help/bibliotherapy includes information, explanations, exercises, and treatments that are completed with little or no assistance from a therapist. Research shows that self‐help approaches are effective for treating emotional disorders, especially when combined with brief regular therapist contact. Self‐help approaches are commonly accepted by both therapists and patients, and have the potential of increasing the accessibility and cost‐effectiveness of psychology treatments. This entry describes empirically supported self‐help books, and discusses the research evidence concerning several popular self‐help books for anxiety disorders and depression. We discuss the costs and benefits of incorporating self‐help approaches into the treatment of psychological disorders.
Quasi‐Experiments
Authors: Steiner Peter M. , Kim Yongnam 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
When randomized controlled trials are not feasible, quasi‐experiments are the second‐best alternative for estimating causal treatment effects. Quasi‐experiments are characterized by an active intervention, but in contrast to randomized experiments, they lack random assignment of treatments to subjects. Instead, subjects deliberately select or are systematically assigned to treatment conditions. According to the type of the assignment or selection mechanism, four basic quasi‐experimental designs can be distinguished: regression discontinuity design, interrupted time series design, nonequivalent control group design, and instrumental variable design. This entry reviews the basic designs, analytic strategies, and the assumptions required for estimating causal treatment effects from quasi‐experiments.
Laws of Nature
Authors: Kincaid Harold 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The nature of scientific laws and their role in science has been a central issue in philosophy of science for decades. A dominant account of laws pictures them as universal regularities and argues that when combined in a systematic way to make theories, laws are essential and central to science. This picture of laws focuses on associations and downplays the role of causes, with causation being seen as a metaphysical nonscientific notion. This general view has been quite influential in psychology and historically fits well with the professional goals of the discipline and widely used statistical methods. Recent developments in history and philosophy of science, however, have called into question this picture of laws. Across the sciences, including parts of physics, laws in the sense of exceptionless generalities are rare. Instead, science produces piecemeal causal explanations. Laws are thus better thought of as identifying causal forces or factors that combine in complex and multiple ways.
Antisocial Personality Disorder/Psychopathy
Authors: Patrick Christopher J. , Brislin Sarah J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This entry reviews the historic background for the diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy along with modern conceptions of these disorders and empirical findings pertaining to their correlates and causes. In doing so, the entry discusses these clinical conditions in relation to a broader integrative model of impulse control disorders that encompasses substance‐related problems along with impulsive sensation‐seeking tendencies and aggressive behavior of differing types. Approaches to prevention and treatment of these conditions are also reviewed.
Biomedical Model
Authors: Strickland Casey M. , Patrick Christopher J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The biomedical model posits that all physical and mental illnesses are due to measurable, physiological deviations from normal, healthy functioning. The notion that all mental illnesses are diseases of the brain, first advanced by Wilhelm Greisinger, is a strict application of the biomedical model within a psychological context. The model's philosophical and historical origins, including the scientific principle of reductionism, are discussed. The biomedical model's exclusion of psychological and social factors as essential to mental illness has led to a number of criticisms of the model. Alternatives to the biomedical model in psychological science include Engel's biopsychosocial model, which provides for inclusion of psychological and social factors in definitions of disease. The biomedical model has had a profound influence on medical and psychological science and continues to drive research efforts directed at identifying physiological underpinnings of psychological disorders.
Pragmatism
Authors: Sisti Dominic A. , Brendel David H. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Pragmatism refers to the American philosophical tradition that began in the late nineteenth century with the work of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), William James (1842–1910), and John Dewey (1859–1952), all of whom developed complementary but distinctive theories about the nature of reality (metaphysics) and knowledge (epistemology), logic, psychology and free will. This entry first presents an introduction to the key features of classical Pragmatism and, second, describes a contemporary pragmatic method for analysis and action on ethical issues encountered by clinical psychologists.
Art, Dance, and Music Therapies
Authors: Brandsma Lynn L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Art, dance, and music therapies comprise the helping professions known as the creative arts therapies. Although clinical psychologists, counselors, and other mental health and medical professionals can integrate the creative arts into their work, the approaches also represent unique disciplines with distinct programs of study and professional recognition. Although there is a rich clinical literature describing creative arts interventions with a wide range of populations, scientific research on their efficacy is limited. The existing research consists mostly of uncontrolled pilot studies, and the few randomized trials that have been conducted are marked by methodological limitations that preclude conclusions regarding the specific effectiveness of these interventions.
M
ischel,
W
alter (b. 1930)
Authors: Babeva Kalina N. , Davison Gerald C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Walter Mischel (b. 1930) is a distinguished researcher in the fields of social, personality, and clinical psychology, holder of a named chair at Columbia University, and author of numerous scholarly works. He is widely known for his research on delayed gratification (e.g., The Stanford Marshmallow Experiments) and his contributions to personality theory and assessment. In particular, Mischel's work has improved significantly our understanding of the wide within‐person variability in behavior that cannot be explained through global, stable personality traits. His cognitive–affective processing system (
CAPS
) model stresses the importance of internal processes (social, cognitive, and motivational) that are triggered by different situations and that influence behavior. Mischel's approach to personality and assessment has been integral to evidence‐based therapy interventions that rely on functional‐analytic assessment rather than trait‐oriented psychodiagnosis.
Barnum Effect
Authors: Rosen Gerald M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The
Barnum effect
is a phenomenon wherein people accept personality statements that apply to most everyone, as if these statements provide insight into their own traits. In actuality, the contents of universally valid statements fit any and all individuals by virtue of their triviality. The Barnum effect highlights the importance of taking base rates into account when considering the incremental validity of psychological tests from which personality descriptors are derived.
Antidepressant Research Controversies
Authors: Spielmans Glen I. , Kirsch Irving 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Despite their wide usage, several important issues remain unresolved regarding the efficacy and safety of antidepressants. A large volume of clinical trials has shown that antidepressants outperform placebo—but the margin of superiority is debatable, and there are some groups who receive minimal or no benefit from medication. Effectiveness in real‐world clinical settings has received less investigation but appears quite modest. Studies of long‐term efficacy have been complicated by conflating withdrawal effects with evidence favoring long‐term benefit. Mechanisms of antidepressant action remain elusive, as drugs with several differing pharmacological profiles have achieved similar efficacy. Some treatment‐related adverse events are well established, whereas some important potential adverse events (including suicidality and hostility) remain under investigation. Systematic assessment of treatment‐related adverse events is sparse.
Suggestibility
Authors: Scullin Matthew H. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Since the late nineteenth century, concerns have been raised about the influence of clinician suggestions on an individual's recall of past events. These concerns started to receive increased attention from researchers in the 1980s when the use of a range of suggestive therapeutic techniques designed to recover repressed memories of trauma in adults increased in popularity, resulting in significant numbers of patients supposedly recovering memories of childhood abuse, ritualistic abuse, and alien abductions. Almost concurrently, large numbers of children began testifying about bizarre and ritualistic abuse they had supposedly undergone. Suggestibility has also been implicated in the development of dissociative identity disorder, inaccurate eyewitness memory, and false confessions. This entry reviews research on the role of suggestibility in areas that are relevant for clinical practice.
Materialism versus Dualism
Authors: Worley Sara 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Materialism is the doctrine that the world is entirely physical, whereas dualism is the doctrine that there are two fundamentally different kinds of things in the world: mind and bodies. Dualists say that minds are not made out of physical stuff, and they are not subject to the laws of nature. There are a number of arguments for dualism, ranging from concerns about free will, to religious concerns about life after death, to the difficulty of explaining consciousness in physical terms.
However, there are also serious problems with dualism, including the problem of explaining how the mind and body interact, and the fact that materialism seems, overall, the simpler theory.
M
oniz,
E
gas (1874–1955)
Authors: Roosevelt Rodney W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Egas Moniz (1874–1955) was a Portuguese neurologist and politician born to a prominent family in the small coastal village of Avanca. Most of his close family died before he reached adulthood. He was married to Elvira de Macedo Dias and had no children. Moniz studied medicine at the University of Coimbra, graduating in 1899. He pioneered the cerebral angiogram and shared the 1949 Nobel Prize in Medicine for the prefrontal leucotomy (lobotomy). He was also a prolific author and active in government until the rise of the Salazar regime in 1926.
Mind, Theories of
Authors: Worley Sara 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Historically, a common view about the mind in Western culture has been a dualist one. That is, the mind is something fundamentally distinct from matter, made out of different “stuff” and obeying different laws. In recent years, more materialistic views have come into favor, which claim that the mind is nothing but the functioning brain. However, there are a whole range of theories about just what the relationship is between mental states and brain states. Some theorists claim that each particular type of mental state (pain, for instance) can be identified with a particular type of brain state. Others claim that each mental state can be identified with particular set of behavioral dispositions. Still others claim that having mental states is a matter of being subject to a particular set of interpretive strategies.
Etiology And Causality
Authors: Worley Sara 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAlthough talk of causality is ubiquitous in both science and everyday life it is far from clear how we should understand causality. Theories about causality range from those that understand it in terms of regularities to those which understand causation in terms of the exchange of conserved quantities to those which say that the idea of causation is foundational, so it cannot be understood in other terms. Furthermore, especially with regard to the problems of the etiology of psychiatric and psychological disorders, there are concerns over how we should understand the relationship between explanations of behavior in terms of reasons and explanation of behavior in terms of causes.
Phenomenology (Clinical)
Authors: Kaler Rupinder , Broome Matthew 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Clinical phenomenology was developed in the twentieth century and has become increasingly utilized as a means of examining patients' experience and behavior in a rigorous and systematic way. A discipline conceptualized and propagated by Karl Jaspers (1883–1969), clinical phenomenology is part of day‐to‐day practice in psychiatry. Description of a patient's mental state using the phenomenological approach is termed descriptive psychopathology, which is formulated by use of the Mental State Examination (
MSE
). An
MSE
provides a framework of documenting the experiences of a patient to facilitate formulation of a diagnosis and a case conceptualization.
Galton,SirFrancis (1822–1911)
Authors: Revelle William 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSir Francis Galton (February 16, 1822–January 17, 1911) was among the preeminent psychologists of the nineteenth century. Born to a wealthy English family, he was able to devote his life to a variety of scientific inquiries. Although best known to psychologists for his pioneering work on the correlation coefficient and the study of individual differences in intellectual ability, he also did fundamental research on behavior genetics, meteorology, and the use of fingerprints for identification.
Alcohol‐Related Disorders
Authors: Schroder(deceased) Stephanie , Sher Kenneth J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Problem drinking has been defined in a number of ways throughout history; current definitions focus on exceeding what are considered to be healthy levels of alcohol consumption and meeting criteria for an alcohol use disorder (
AUD
), where alcohol causes impairment in functioning.
AUDs
are a prevalent problem in the United States, with one study finding 8–9% of adults to meet criteria for a recent (past 12 month)
AUD
. This entry reviews the individual and environmental risk factors for
AUDs
, their course, theories on their development, the effects, and their treatment.
Rehabilitation Psychology
Authors: Wegener Stephen T. , Bentley Jacob A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractRehabilitation psychology is a specialty focused on service to individuals with physical and cognitive impairments through the implementation of assessment and intervention procedures that are person‐centered and focused on promotion of health, quality of life, independence, personal choice, daily functioning, and social role participation. Consistent with the current International Classification of Function set forth by the World Health Organization, the field of rehabilitation psychology conceptualizes disability as an interaction between the person, task, and environment. Rehabilitation psychologists practice as members of an interdisciplinary team and implement assessment and intervention procedures aimed at optimizing psychosocial adaptation and enhancing physical, emotional, and cognitive function while minimizing the risk of secondary complications associated with chronic health conditions.
Models of Specific and Nonspecific Change Mechanisms in Mental Health Treatments
Authors: Gelfand Lois A. , DeRubeis Robert J. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractTreatments for mental health problems are often designed to target particular mechanisms. If a mechanism improves outcome in one treatment but not in others, the mechanism is specific to that treatment. If its effects are shared by other treatments, then the mechanism is nonspecific with respect to those treatments. Both specific and nonspecific mechanisms may be altered to the same or to different degrees in different treatments, resulting in a wide variety of possible models of change. When constructing and evaluating models of change in mental health treatment, it can be useful to consider how each treatment would be expected to affect the mechanism as well as how the mechanism would be expected to affect the outcome. As shown in the examples included in this entry, graphical representations of data can be particularly useful. The correspondence of these models to the concepts of statistical mediation (mediators) and moderation (moderators) are highlighted.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Widaman Keith F. , Helm Jonathan L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Factor analysis is a mathematical/statistical method for identifying and investigating dimensions of individual difference in a particular domain. Initially, factor analysis was conducted using an exploratory approach, with no strong a priori theory regarding the number and nature of factors that might be present. More recently, researchers have exploited confirmatory factor analysis, in which explicit hypotheses can be tested regarding the number of factors and the placement of the zero and nonzero loadings in the factor loading matrix. Factor analysis has been crucial for the development and evaluation of current theories regarding the dimensional structures of the mental ability and personality domains, among others. Further, confirmatory factor analysis can be used to test advanced hypotheses, including multitrait–multimethod structures, longitudinal models, and multiple‐group models, that were difficult or impossible to test with exploratory factor analysis. Factor analysis continues to be the most useful and adaptable method for studying the latent structure of behavioral domains, and innovative extensions are developed regularly within this broad framework.
Animal Models of Psychopathology
Authors: Minor Thomas R. , Smith Nancy J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Animal modeling has been central to understanding the psychology and neurobiology of psychopathology. Most treatments in cognitive behavioral therapy have their roots in the conditioning and aversive learning literatures in nonhuman animals. The number of animal models of psychopathology has proliferated since the early work of I. P. Pavlov. Some of these models are more useful than others. Three criteria are discussed that are central to validating an animal model. The study of avoidance learning is reviewed as an illustration of how validation criteria relate to a model and just how difficult the validation process can be. Recent experiments also are discussed that overcome historic problems with avoidance models and may provide new insight into the role of avoidance in anxiety disorders.
Propensity Score Analysis
Authors: West Stephen G. , Cham Heining , Thoemmes Felix 
Published: January 2015

AbstractPropensity scores represent the probability that an individual is assigned to a treatment group given the individual's scores on a set of covariates. Propensity scores are used in nonrandomized studies to equate treatment and control groups on a large number of covariates measured at baseline. Assumptions necessary for propensity score analysis to yield a valid estimate of the causal effect are presented. The five steps involved in a propensity score analysis are reviewed: (a) selecting the covariates, (b) estimating the propensity scores, (c) conditioning on propensity scores, (d) checking covariates for balance, and (e) estimating the causal effect. Complexities including designs with more than two groups, covariates with missing values, multilevel designs, and sensitivity analysis to check for the potential effects of unmeasured covariates are briefly considered. Finally, a short evaluation of the performance of the propensity score approach is presented.
Licensure and Certification
Authors: Hall Judy E. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractLicensure and certification summarizes the mechanisms in place for identifying qualified psychologists, both at the governmental level, and by private organizations that credential licensed psychologists. Those terms are distinguished from and compared to other terms such as credentials, registered, and chartered. Standards for the recognition of psychologists are stated. Organizations that credential psychologists in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom are briefly described. Characteristics of credible credentialing organizations are summarized.