bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Megara
Authors: Gaukroger Louise 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Megara is located in the Megaris between Attica and the Peloponnese and is its principal city. The settlement is protected by mountains which almost surround the plain. South of the city the Geranian mountain range provides a natural barrier, and to the east more mountains hinder access to central Greece. The allegiances of Megara were of strategic importance during the Peloponnesian War in the fifth century
BCE
, as occupying the mountain passes obstructed invasion forces. There were three ports in the Megaris. Nisaia, on the Saronic Gulf, was closest to Megara. Pegai and Aigosthena were on the Corinthian Gulf, providing a trade link to Sicily and Italy. The island of Salamis was in Megara's territory during the Archaic period, until it was lost to Athens in the time of Solon.
Perge
Authors: Martini Wolfram 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Perge was one of the most eminent and ancient cities in Pamphylia, on the Gulf of Attaleia (modern Antalya). It is located 20 km to the east of Attaleia, 11 km north of the Mediterranean coast, and 4 km west of the River Cestrus (modern Aksu) in a fertile alluvial plain. Three important roads led to Perge: the later
Via Sebaste
from the north‐west, out of western Anatolia; the road from the sea port of Magydos from the southeast; and from the east the road from the river port on the Aksu near Solam, which continued to the Pamphylian cities of Sillyon, Aspendos, and Side.
Sagalassos
Authors: Waelkens Marc 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAccording to surface finds of late Bronze Age pottery, the origin of Sagalassos, located just north of Ağlasun and ca. 109 km north of Antalya in southwest Turkey, may go back to the late Bronze Age, when the settlement may have been a border stronghold of the Luwian state of Arzawa Minor, possibly known as Salawassa in fourteenth‐centuryBCEHittite sources.
Asyut
Authors: Kahl Jochem 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAsyut (Greek: Lykopolis), situated 375 km south of Cairo on the western side of the Nile, was capital of the thirteenth Upper Egyptian nome. Attested since the Old Kingdom, the city played an important role in Egypt's history because of its location near Gebel Abu‐el Feda, where the Nile narrows, and the beginning of a desert road probably identical with the later‐known Darb al‐Arbain. This important strategic position explains Asyut's Old Egyptian etymology: Saouti “The Guardian.”
Food, drink, and feasting (Egypt)
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Food is the foundation of any society. The ancient Egyptians acknowledged its importance in their daily and religious life by showing different aspects of food production and consumption on the walls of temples and tombs, thereby reifying its existence for eternity. Food production was a key part of the economy, and the king controlled much of Egypt's agricultural land and its produce, as well as its livestock, particularly cattle.
Bastet
Authors: Lazaridis Nikolaos 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBastet was an ancient Egyptian goddess, whose cult probably first appeared in the city of Bubastis her name in Egyptianmeant “she of Bubastis.” Bastet was the benevolent version of more aggressive goddesses, such assekhmet and tefnut. Shewas the daughter of Re (seere and re horakhty) and mother of Mihos, a lion god of Lower Egypt.
Coptos
Authors: Meyer Carol 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCoptos (Koptos; ancient Gebtiw; modern Quft, Qift, or Qeft) lies on the Nile's east bank, 38 km north of Luxor. It was the capital of the Fifth Nome (Two Falcons) at least as early as the 6th Dynasty (Adams 1997: 1). Min was Coptos' patron god and the majority of information concerning the area comes from excavations at his temple.
Diplomacy, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Shaw Garry J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEgypt's isolation from the rest of the world – deserts to the east and west, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Nile cataracts to the south – gave rise to a philosophy of dangerous outsiders who threatened to disrupt the ordered world of the Egyptian state. Consequently, foreigners are typically depicted subjugated; the king symbolically tramples the enemies of Egypt and smites their leaders. Nevertheless, foreign trade was occurring early in Egyptian history with Mesopotamia, while Asiatic goods are known from the 1st Dynasty royal tombs at Abydos.
El‐Hiba
Authors: Redmount Carol A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

El‐Hiba lies on the east bank of the Nile in northern Middle Egypt, about 55 km south of modern Beni Suef. The site is comprised of two main parts: an imposing walled town mound with a small limestone temple to Amun erected by Sheshonq I, Libyan founder of the 22nd Dynasty; and a series of outlying cemeteries with numerous burials, mostly disturbed, cut into the surrounding desert. Kamal worked first at Hiba in the late nineteenth century; Grenfell and Hunt followed him in 1902/3 and recovered enough papyri, mostly third century
BCE
, from mummy cartonnage to generate two monographs. Junker excavated burials at the site for three days in 1911; Ranke completely excavated Sheshonq I's temple and explored Greco‐Roman houses on the town mound in 1913/14. An Italian expedition excavated burials and Greco‐Roman and Third Intermediate period material on the town mound in 1934/5. In 1980, a University of Washington mission worked one season at the site. The current University of California, Berkeley team began work in 2001.
El‐Omari
Authors: Wilson Penelope 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A Neolithic settlement and cemetery site at the entrance to Wadi Hof on the eastern bank of the Nile, 3 km north of Helwan. Radiocarbon dates give a range for the site from around 4600 to 4200
BCE
. Excavations discovered several strata of occupation, with locally produced pottery, imported and local flints, and stone vases, perhaps from Palestine. Faunal and floral evidence suggests that the settlement was engaged primarily in food production. The cemeteries suggest that the population wore shell, bone, and pebble jewelry as personal adornment, and that society was at an early level of complexity. The shells may have been obtained from the Sinai and the Red Sea coast, using domesticated donkeys as the principal means of travel.
Esna/Latopolis
Authors: Liszka Kate 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Esna/Latopolis, called Iunyt or Ta‐seny by the ancient Egyptians, is located in the third Upper‐Egyptian Nome, about 55 km south of Luxor on the west bank. Although there are Predynastic remains nearby, Esna clearly was a major town from the 12th Dynasty. Middle Kingdom tombs with funerary stelae and blocks from a chapel of Senwosret I (
see
Senwosret (Sesostris) I–IV) mark its beginning. These blocks were later reused in a Coptic church. This cemetery was used until the early New Kingdom, and its tombs were reused during the 20th to 22nd Dynasties. A necropolis of mummified Nile perch (
Lates niloticus
), sacred to the goddess Neith, patroness of the area and later identified with Athena (
see
Animal Mummies), exists south of the town. The Greeks named Latopolis after this fish.
Family, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Sabbahy Lisa 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Getting married and having children in ancient Egypt was clearly the societal norm. Ideally, the ancient Egyptians expected marriage to be monogamous and lifelong, although divorce certainly existed and did not seem to affect remarriage. A recent study based on literary and artistic evidence concluded “affection and love were an integral part of the ideals of marriage in ancient Egypt” (Gee 2008: 103).
Fish, fishing, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Brewer Douglas J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Nile River, the most dynamic natural feature in Egypt, is not only the source of the country's legendary agricultural fertility, but also is a rich fishery. Fish and fishing permeated nearly every aspect of ancient Egyptian culture, from basic sustenance to a symbolic role in beliefs of the afterlife. Tracing the history and development offishing and fish use in ancient Egypt requires the examination of three important sources: skeletal remains, artistic representations, and textual references.
Kamose
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Wadjkheperre Kamose was the immediate successor of Seqenenre Taa II. The two kings' relationship is uncertain: it has generally been assumed that he was his elder son, although it has also been suggested that Kamose may have been a younger brother of Taa and may have acted as senior coregent while Ahmose I was a child. His highest regnal year was Year 3.
Kenamun/Qenamun
Authors: Shirley J. J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Kenamun was the chief steward of king Amenhotep II (ca. 1427–1400
BCE
) and the chief steward of Peru‐Nefer, Amenhote II's naval center and garden estate near Memphis. His monuments include a tomb in Thebes (TT93), funerary cones and statuettes, statues, and shwabtis/ushabtis, including one of glass.
Maat
Authors: Ikram Salima 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Maat was the goddess of cosmic order or balance, as well as truth. She was the foundation of Egyptian religion (
see
Religion, Pharaonic Egypt), society, and worldview. Maat was depicted either as an ostrich feather or as a goddess wearing a feather in a fillet. The feather of Maat played a key role in the Judgment of the Dead (
see
Afterlife, Pharaonic Egypt), as it was weighed against the heart of the deceased in order to see if s/he had lived an ethical life and not violated the laws of Maat or social order.
Mentuemhat
Authors: Pischikova Elena 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Mentuemhat (mntw‐m‐h3t) was one of the most prominent and powerful figures of the late Kushite‐early Saite Dynasties under the rule of Taharqo and Psamtik I. Fourth Priest of Amun, Mayor of Thebes, and Governor of Upper Egypt, he had more power and control over the Upper Egyptian administration and clergy than his formal titles indicate. A large area from Elephantine in the south to Hermopolis in Middle Egypt, including Thebes and Abydos, was under his authority, making him an informal king of Upper Egypt. He is known as a great builder, who initiated or supervised numerous new projects and repairs in Thebes and Abydos.
Naga el‐Deir
Authors: Podzorski Patricia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe series of cemeteries at Naga el‐Deir (also spelled Nag el‐Der, Naga‐ed‐Dêr) cover approximately 2 km on the east bank of the Nile opposite Abydos and date from early Predynastic (ca. 3800BCE) through Coptic times (after 400CE).
Women, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Sabbahy Lisa 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
There is abundant evidence, both written and pictorial, for women in ancient Egypt. We can glimpse the lives of royal, noble, as well as peasant women, although there are limitations on how clearly we can comprehend their actual status and role in ancient Egyptian society. Most of the pictorial evidence we have is from tombs, which only royalty or nobility could afford to build, and the reliefs and statuary in them show a perfect world meant for the eternal afterlife, not a truly realistic depiction of everyday life. Royal woman had their own tombs, but non‐royal women shared the tomb of their husband and are shown according to an elite male perspective, produced by male artists and craftsmen.
Neithhotep
Authors: Callender Vivianne 
Published: December 2012

AbstractUsually rendered as Neith‐hotep, the queen's name means “Neith (the creator‐goddess) is content.” On her cylinder‐seal impressions, however, we have the complementary quail chick, so Hetepu‐Neith is another possible reading (“How gracious is Neith”). Names with Neit/Neith were quite common during the 1st Dynasty.
Economy, Pharaonic
Authors: Warburton David A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractUnderstanding the economy of Pharaonic Egypt demands the recognition of four different realities: (1) the economy changed over the millennia: historical development is as relevant as the make‐up of the economy. Economics as we understand it was one of the creations of the first states; (2) although Bronze Age civilization was urban, economically it was agricultural, yet not a subsistence economy.
Alesia
Authors: Reddé Michel 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Alesia, the
oppidum Mandubiorum
, was the location of Julius Caesar's famous siege and victory over Vercingetorix in 52
BCE
(
Bellum Gallicum
8.68). Little is known of the Mandubians, who lived between the Lingones (capital Langres) to the north, and the Aedui (capital Bibracte (Mont Beuvray)) to the south.
Augusta Emerita (Mérida)
Authors: Edmondson Jonathan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Augusta Emerita (modern Mérida) was a Roman colony—the Colonia Iulia Augusta Emerita—founded in Spanish Extremadura on the banks of the River Anas (modern Guadiana) in 25
BCE
, according to Cassius dio (53.26.1), for the “older soldiers” of the Legions V Alaudae and X Gemina engaged in Augustus' campaigns against the Cantabrians and Asturians in the far north of Spain.
Boscotrecase
Authors: Powers Jessica 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Boscotrecase is a modern town located almost 20 km south of Naples on the southern slopes of Mount Vesuvius, just west of Boscoreale and north of Pompeii. Sporadic excavations have revealed several Roman villas that were destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79
CE
. Wall paintings from the best known of these villas, the so‐called villa of Agrippa Postumus, are among the finest that survive from the Augustan period.
Cillium (Kasserine)
Authors: Cherry David 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Cillium was located in a comparatively fertile part of the Tunisian upland steppe, approximately 150 miles south‐southwest of Carthage, at a strategically important pass in the Aurès mountains, between Djebel Chambi, Tunisia's highest mountain (5066 ft), and Djebel Semmama. In antiquity, the pass allowed seasonal movement between the semi‐arid, mostly pastoralist region south of Cillium and the rich grain‐producing areas to its north. The region was home to several semi‐nomadic tribes, notably the Musulamii and the Fraxii.
Hadrian's Wall
Authors: Witcher Robert 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

“Hadrian's Wall” is the modern name for the complex of military works which defined the northern frontier of the Roman Empire for three centuries. A series of linear fortifications extended 117 kilometers across the Tyne‐Solway isthmus from Wallsend (
Segedunum
) in the east to Bowness‐on‐Solway (
Maia
) in the west.
Hispalis (Seville)
Authors: Hernández Juan Pablo Sánchez 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Hispalis, or Hispal (Pomponius Mela 2.6.4, Plin. 3.3.11, Sil. Ital. 3.392), ’'Iσπαλι (Ptol. 2.4.10, Cass. Dio 43.39.5), or ‘'Iπoλα (Philostr.
VA
5.9) was the administrative and economic center of one of the four
conventus iuridici
into which the province of Baetica was partitioned.
Misenum
Authors: Tuck Steven L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Misenum is a large, steep‐sided promontory of 40 ha rising over 100 m above sea level that defines the northern edge of the Bay of Naples. It projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea, dominating both the Bay as well as the Tyrrhenian and overlooking the islands of Procida and Ischia. Its location served as a natural spot for the cliffside villas of elite Romans in the Late Republican period. In the Roman imperial period it became the headquarters for the Roman navy.
Mogontiacum (Mainz)
Authors: Wilson R. J. A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A double legionary fortress of 36 ha (89 acres), on a terrace above the Rhine at its confluence with the Main, was founded in 13/12
BCE
in support of Augustus' ambition to conquer territory east of the Rhine, to be masterminded by his stepson Drusus. However, Drusus died in 9
BCE
, much mourned by his troops. The 19.6 m (64 ft) high funerary monument outside the fortress to the southeast (“Eichelstein” or “Drususstein”) may well be a cenotaph built in his memory.
Narbo Martius (Narbonne)
Authors: Sabrie Raymond 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Narbo Martius, founded in 118
BCE
, played a prestigious role as the political and religious center of the province of Gallia Narbonensis and made an important contribution to the Romanization of southern Gaul. The motives for founding Narbo Martius were strategic, commercial, and social. Rome chose a site at the base of the Gulf of Lion with direct access to the sea via the Aude River as the basis for the new colony. After the Gallic War in 45
BCE
, Caesar organized a second expansion of the colony and, in 27
BCE
, Augustus stayed in Narbonne to reorganize the colony's administration. Under Diocletian, the province was dissolved and only the western part was administered from Narbonne. The Visigoths made Narbonne their capital from 462 to 501
CE
.
Paestum (Poseidonia)
Authors: Higginbotham James 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn a second wave of Greek settlement in southern Italy, colonists from Sybaris founded Poseidonia (the city's Greek name) at the end of the seventh centuryBCEon the western coast of Italy approximately 80 km southeast of Naples (Arist.Pol. 5.1303a). The colony's location afforded access to the fertile plain while maintaining vital contacts by sea and overland through the Lucanian hills. Strabo (5.4.13) reports that the colonists established a fortified base (teichos) on the sea before moving to another location inland.
Potaissa (Cluj, Romania)
Authors: Alexandrescu Cristina‐Georgeta 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Potaissa
was an important Roman town that developed near the legionary camp on the main strategic and commercial thoroughfare of Dacia. Its ruins lie under the present‐day town Turda. The name is of Dacian origin and appears in the ancient sources (Ptol. 3.8.4:
Patrouissa
; Tab. Peut.;
Rav.Cosm
. 4.7; Ulp.
De cens., Dig
. 50.15.1.8.9).
Puteoli
Authors: Tuck Steven L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Puteoli was founded in ca. 600 as a Greek colony by Cumae and political refugees from Samos and was originally called Dicearchia, the City of Just Rule. Its Greek character continued through its history as seen in its festivals, temples, and personal names. For much of its history, Puteoli was the second city of Italy; as the major harbor on the Bay of Naples, Puteoli was the commercial center of Italy for over 300 years, with special ties to the eastern Mediterranean and the critical trade from Alexandria, notably Egyptian grain. From its position on the northern half of the Bay, it was relatively untouched by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79
CE
, so its role was only briefly interrupted by the devastation that afflicted the southern edge of the Bay.
Rome, city of: 1. Prehistoric (earliest remains)
Authors: Bettelli Marco 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe concept of proto‐urban was introduced into the study of Italian proto‐history by Renato Peroni and his school. This concept is crucial for understanding the development of research into the origins of the city of Rome, especially in light of what is now known about the birth of urban centers in nearby Etruria and other regions of the Italian peninsula between the end of the Bronze Age and the earliest stages of the Iron Age (tenth to ninth centuriesBCE: hereafter, all the absolute dates are given according to traditional chronology).
Tarquinii (Tarquinia)
Authors: Colantoni Elizabeth 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Tarquinii (in Latin; Etruscan Tarch(u)na; modern Tarquinia), a prominent Etruscan city‐state, was a place of political, economic, and cultural importance in the Mediterranean world of late prehistory and after. The site is now most famous for its painted tombs.
Colonia Iulia Equestris/Noviodunum (Nyon, Switzerland)
Authors: Dubosson Benoît 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Colonia Iulia Equestris, also known as Noviodunum, was the first Roman colony to be established in present‐day Switzerland. Located at the Swiss plateau's southwestern end, between Lake Geneva and the Jura range, it went through a major development during the first two centuries
CE
, after which it declined, supplanted by the neighboring city of Genava (Geneva).
Cortona
Authors: Fracchia Helena 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Cortona, in central Tuscany, allegedly founded by the Trojan hero Dardanos, was first mentioned by Herodotus (1.57) and later by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Lycophron, and Silius Italicus: the settlement's ancient importance is documented archaeologically by a Villanovan settlement, Etruscan monumental grave circles, and a meeting house, an Etruscan palatial complex, by large princely burial tumuli (eighth–sixth centuries
BCE
) and later chamber tombs (fourth‐third centuries
BCE
).
Via Appia
Authors: Hunt Patrick 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Via Appia – often called
regina viarum
or “queen of roads” since antiquity – was the first of the major Roman roads, begun in 312
BCE
under its namesake Appius Claudius (
gens
Claudia), a patrician who was also a politician (
censor
at the time) with strong plebeian support.
Ara Pacis Augustae
Authors: von Dippe Roger 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Altar of Augustan Peace was authorized by the Roman Senate in 13
BCE
, on Augustus' return from Spain and Gaul. It stood in the Campus Martius and consists of an enclosure wall, measuring 11.6 m by 10.6 m, which surrounds a stepped altar. The relief sculptures of the marble wall project a powerful political message, intended to convince the Roman people ofthe benefits ofAugustan rule.
Abraxas
Authors: Pollard Elizabeth Ann 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAbraxas, also called Abrasax, is a solar deity found in Greco‐Egyptian magical papyri, on magical amulets, and in Gnostic thought. The numerological value of Abraxas is 365 (using the standard numerical equivalents for the Greek letters that make up his name), equaling the number of days in a year and also the numerological value of Meithras, another solar power in antiquity (Leclercq 1907: 132).
Aoros
Authors: Hanesworth Pauline 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAorosrefers to one who has died prematurely: children, the unmarried, and those who die without bearing and rearing children. Dying without the honor attendant upon marriage and children,aoroidwell apart from the regular dead either wandering the earth (Tert.De anim. 56) or situated on the margins of the Underworld (Verg. Aen. 6.426–9).
Apatouria
Authors: Taylor Martha C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Apatouria, an important festival celebrated by Ionians, including Athenians, was for Herodotus one of two criteria of Ionian identity (Hdt. 1.147). In Athens the Apatouria was the central element in the ritual calendar of the phratries, the kinship organizations crucial for determining Athenian citizenship. The three‐day festival occurred in the autumn in the month Pyanepsion and was celebrated at the separate phratry shrines throughout Attica. There was a feast on the first day, and a sacrifice to Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria on the second. On the third day, fathers would introduce their sons for admission to the phratry (and, in effect, to Athenian citizenship). In the normal course of events this occurred during a child's first few years. Our sources suggest that there were various athletic and intellectual literary competitions over the three days in which the children of thephraterescould demonstrate their merit. Ancient scholarship links the Apatouria to the myth of the ritual combat between the Athenian Melanthos (the “dark one”) and the Boiotian Xanthos (the “fair one”) for the kingship of Attica, which Melanthos won through a trick (apate) (HellanikosFGrH4 F23). Although some modern scholars have therefore seen a connection to the ephebes and to rites of passage involving social inversion, the rituals of the festival have no apparent connection to the narrative of the myth, and most modern scholars now link the Apatouria to “the control, maintenance, and affirmation of kinship and of membership in society at every level” (Lambert 1993: 151).