bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Return migration and ethnicity
Authors: Tsuda Takeyuki 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Return migration refers to first‐generation immigrants who move back to their country of origin after a period of living abroad, which can last from a few years to decades (see Gmelch 1980; Long & Oxfeld 2004; Markowitz & Stefansson 2004). The reasons for return migration are quite varied. Partly because of the increased speed and lower cost of international travel in a globalized world, the amount of temporary, sojourner migration may be on the rise. Many economic labor migrants intend to live abroad for only a limited amount of time to work and earn as much money as possible and then return home. Others are admitted by receiving governments on temporary visas (work visas or guest‐worker programs) and are required to repatriate after their visa expires. Host country governments have also sometimes implemented policies to encourage immigrants to return home, especially for those who were admitted as guest workers (Rogers 1981; Dustmann et. al. 1996). Asylum‐seekers may be forced to return if their application for asylum is rejected by the host government. Likewise, undocumented immigrants may also be apprehended and forcibly deported.
Roma migrations
Authors: Montesino Adrian Marsh and Norma 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTo write the history of any population presents scholars with multiple challenges. The past record of any population group, in all its diversity and complexity, with a range of differing and shifting identities and a past of sometimes bewildering contingency, is inevitably one that seeks, to some extent, to gloss over this complexity and diversity in the interests of presenting a consistent “rational” ethno‐history. The complexity of these challenges is illustrated by the contested nature of the nomenclature or categories that should be used to define the various groups that have been historically described as “Gypsies” (Roma, Travelers, Sinti, Dom, Lom, etc.) by others and sometimes by themselves (for example, “Egyptians” in medieval Byzantium, early modern England, and modern Kosovo). We use a variety of terms in this essay, including the plural form Romani peoples (Rromane dzenein the Romani language) because it reflects this complex diversity, one that is intrinsically related to the experience of migration. The recognition of the cultural, ethnic, and social heterogeneity of the groups included in the category “Roma” is in itself a serious questioning of consistent generalizing about “the Gypsies.” Existing research in the field of Romani history is in large part an investigation of the history of Romani migrations and the construction of “narratives of journey” that underpin the epistemological and normative assumptions made by many scholars and researchers. Such narratives have themselves become the basis for political mobilization amongst Romani people by autochthonous organizations, in the process of challenging discrimination and seeking equality, over the past 40 years.
Roman colonization
Authors: de Ligt Luuk 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAccording to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian who wrote a history of regal and early republican Rome in the final decades of the 1st centuryBCE, the Roman practice of founding colonies in newly conquered territories started as early as the reign of Romulus, who is credited with the foundation of Fidenae (DH 2.53.4). Dionysius describes the colony as a garrison of three hundred men. Modern historians regard Romulus as a purely legendary figure and find it difficult to believe that Dionysius or his sources had any reliable information about historical events that took place in the 8th centuryBCE. It seems clear, for instance, that Dionysius' description of Romulean Fidenae was inspired by the citizen colonies of mid‐republican times (cf. below). The reliability of the tradition (e.g. Livy 1.33) which credits the fourth king, Ancus Hostilius, with the foundation of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber is also doubtful. Archaeologists place the establishment of the first fortified settlement at Ostia between 380 and 350BCErather than in the second half of the 7th centuryBCE(Cornell 1995: 321).
Rural migrant workers in the construction industry, New Delhi, India
Authors: Prosperi Valentina 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
India is a huge country and its own history has been formed by the migration of entire populations across and between its borders. In the present neoliberal era, immigration to urban India guarantees a controlled and disciplined labor supply and facilitates the capital in keeping the working class fragmented along regionally and socially constructed divides. This is well illustrated by the case of the construction industry in New Delhi. The lives of construction workers are characterized by the harshness of their working conditions and the lack of social mobility. However, the advance system – according to which workers are paid before the beginning of the working season, when they need the money most, for example to celebrate weddings, and by which means intermediaries can secure laborers at the lowest cost – and the debt trap do not seem to be key explanatory factors, as observed by scholars writing on other Indian sectors and contexts (Breman 1996, 2008; Guérin 2009: 170). In what follows I shall suggest what the explanatory factors may be in cases like that of New Delhi, with reference to medium‐ to large‐scale development projects characterized by the massive use of migrant labor.
Scalabrinian missionaries and migration
Authors: Battistella Graziano 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Missionaries of St. Charles (Scalabrinians) are a Roman Catholic congregation of religious devoted to the human and spiritual welfare of migrants. Founded in 1887 by Blessed John Baptist Scalabrini, bishop of Piacenza, Italy, the congregation initially provided assistance to Italian migrants in the Americas, but nowadays they are involved in the ministry to all migrants, and are present in all continents.
Second generation, identity formation
Authors: Gonzales and Roberto G. , Lee Rennie 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe ways in which today's children of immigrants are choosing to identify themselves ethnically are shaped by a variety of pre‐ and post‐migration factors. Their American experiences are undoubtedly separate and unique from those of their immigrant parents as well as those of their American‐born peers. While the immigrant first generation has a distinct point of reference in the country of origin, the experiences of their children are distinctly American (Portes & Rumbaut 2001). However, many of them carefully balance dual cultures and languages at home and in school. The children of immigrants representing post‐1965 migrations are just beginning to reach adulthood in significant numbers (Kasinitz et al. 2008). Understanding the adaptation among these adult children of immigrants requires attention to the ways in which they are acculturating and coming of age. How they become incorporated into mainstream society will reveal much about their current experiences and what future generations may experience (Portes & Rumbaut 2001: 22).
Sex workers and migration, Europe
Authors: Andrijasevic Rutvica 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Global migration and transnational border crossings of prostitutes is a historical phenomenon that dates back for centuries and prostitutes have historically have encountered legal and social discrimination in countries of destination through the denial of citizenship and residency rights. This contribution focuses on the recent migration of prostitutes (sex workers) from the 1970s to the 2010s.
Silk Road and migration
Authors: Foltz Richard 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe term “Silk Road” was coined in the late 19th century by German explorer Ferdinand von Richthofen to describe the network of overland trade routes which linked the Mediterranean world with China across the central Eurasian land mass since at least the 2nd centuryBCE. However, archaeological evidence suggests human migrations along this west–east corridor dating back even earlier, beginning 4,000 years ago or even more. The prehistoric migrants of that period were likely Indo‐European‐speaking pastoral nomads originating from the region of the Pontic Steppe in Eurasia (Black Sea to Caspian Sea) where the domestication of the horse more than 5,000 years ago dramatically increased human mobility. This mobility, combined with an aggressive warrior culture, allowed the Indo‐European languages (which spread as far as the British Isles in the west and to the Indian subcontinent in the east) to become the most widespread linguistic family in the world.
Skills and migration
Authors: Kuptsch Christiane 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
In looking at skills and migration, this entry will focus on international labor migration, that is, migration that involves crossing a border and is for the purpose of employment. A skill is usually defined as the ability to do something well, and in the world of work distinctions are made between “highly skilled workers” and “workers with lesser skills” or “low‐skilled workers.” Most international labor migration today takes place at the high and low ends of the job ladder, with managers and information technology specialists moving, as well as domestic helpers and construction workers. There is no agreed international definition of what is considered a “highly skilled worker.” Some scholars and official country statistics refer to those with postsecondary or tertiary education as highly skilled; others define a highly skilled worker as someone who earns a salary above a certain level; there are also mixed approaches as under the EU Blue Card program. Someone who is considered highly skilled in one country may only be regarded as a mid‐level technician elsewhere, and the scarcity of skills in certain settings can impact on the definitions.
Slave trade, medieval era
Authors: Schiel Juliane 
Published: January 2013

AbstractSlavery and migration have always been connected, irrespective of time and space. Slaves, often defined as “outsiders who were alien by origin,” have migrated spatially and socially at all times, whereas “the most developed forms of slavery … were those where enslaved individuals were removed a considerable distance from their birthplace” (Lovejoy 2011: 36–37). Thereby, slave migration may be permanent or temporary as slaves could be owned lifelong or manumitted after a certain time, yet their enslavement is in any case a form of “conflict migration” (Bretell & Hollifield 2008: 115–117). As a consequence of war, raid, tribute payment, punishment, indebtedness or impoverishment, slave migration includes violence and constraint (Patterson 1982). Furthermore, in most cases slavery can be considered as a sort of working migration trading people from a region where manpower is abundant to a region where workforce is needed (Meissner et al. 2008: 271).
Social remittances
Authors: Vargas‐Silva Carlos 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The term
social remittances
is used in reference to the ideas, norms of behavior, identities, beliefs, values, expectations, mindsets, worldviews, and social capital that immigrants send to their home countries (Levitt 2001). Immigrants typically do not cut ties with their country of origin, even if they assimilate. They transmit social remittances through their continuous interaction with their home community. These transfers are considered to be a migration‐driven form of cultural diffusion and dissemination.
Sojourners
Authors: Lynch Maureen 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe word “sojourner” is sometimes used for a temporary resident, an individual who spends an unspecified period of time in a new, different, or unfamiliar environment. This term may refer to a number of individuals and groups, including students, professors, trainees, technical assistants, tourists, business people, military personnel, missionaries, and foreign service officers. A sojourner spends a relatively moderate length of time (six months to five years) at a new location, typically with the intention of returning “home.” Tourists generally spend too brief a period abroad to be classified as sojourners. Finally, migrants and refugees often reside for a long and unspecified period overseas (Furnham 1987).
South America, immigrant legislation and laws
Authors: Modolo Susana Novick and Vanina 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Although governments have attempted to monopolize the exclusive right to authorize and regulate movement within their territories (primarily international movement) (Torpey 2000) since the French Revolution, their authority to legislate has been limited by international law (Hollifield 1992; Massey 1999). Moreover, the effects of globalization are challenging the efficacy of the sovereign state's control over territorial mobility (Castles & Miller 2003). As a result, in recent decades in South America, as in other parts of the world, migration has been managed through a set of national, bilateral, regional, and multilateral instruments.
South Asia, migration 1850–1970s
Authors: Kaur Amarjit 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Indian migration to British territories in Southeast Asia and elsewhere in the late 19th century corresponded with the expanding Atlantic economy and with world processes relating to the region's past and present narratives. Initial labor migration flows to Malaya and Sumatra (Benkulen) were linked to earlier British trading networks in the Indian Ocean and the transportation of convict labor to the English East India Company factories there. Following South Asia's incorporation into the British empire, there was increasing integration of global Indian migration flows associated with the engagement of distinct labor groups for Britain's far‐flung colonies across the Indian Ocean, westward toward Africa and eastward toward East and Southeast Asia. India essentially provided laborers for plantation capitalism and the production of commodities of empire (foodstuffs, stimulants, and industrial crops); for industrial, port, and shipping systems; and for public sector projects. Workers in the third group constructed railways and roads to connect townships with production areas which led to the transformation of economies.
Southern Africa: gender and migration
Authors: Dodson Belinda 
Published: January 2013

AbstractPatterns and processes of migration in Southern Africa, including their gendering, must be understood in historical context. From the 17th to the 19th century, colonization by the Dutch, British, Germans, and Portuguese brought white settlement to the region, together with the penetration of capitalist agrarian, mining, and manufacturing economies. Imposed upon pre‐industrial African societies, these created new forms and sites of labor demand at the same time as they alienated Africans from the land and resources that had been the basis of their livelihoods. This caused enormous social disruption, including radical changes in family and gender relations and in gender divisions of labor. Across the region, colonialism also brought the establishment of separate countries with fixed national borders, inherited by the region's present‐day states on their independence. The colonial economic, social, and political order meant the creation of cities, along with measures to control population movements both within and between countries. Together, these forces have shaped the political, economic, and social geography of Southern Africa, not least in terms of patterns and trends of human mobility – and indeed immobility. Who moved where, with whom, and under what conditions was determined not only by labor supply and demand, or related livelihood strategies under a new mode of production, but also by systems of social and legal control that operated along both race and gender lines.
Spain and its empire, migration and emigration, c.1450–c.1750
Authors: Soyer François 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe conquest of the “New World” for the Spanish crown was broadly accomplished in the period spanning 1492 to the middle of the 16th century. It has become most notable for the overthrow and destruction of the Aztec and Inca civilizations and the imposition of Spanish colonial rule in both Mexico (1519–21) and Peru (1530s), as well as other regions of the Caribbean and Central and South America. In the wake of these remarkable military conquests, the soldiers settled down in theirencomiendas(land parcels) and exploited the labor of the Amerindian populations “commended” to their care by the Spanish crown. These first settlers were soon followed, however, by thousands of Spaniards who crossed the Atlantic principally to settle in the newly established viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico) and Peru. The conquest of Granada in 1492, and the end of the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula, led Spaniards to cross the Atlantic in order to seek their fortune and find better opportunities for improving their lives than those available in the Old World.
Sri Lanka, migration 1960s to present
Authors: Ukwatta Swarna 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Sri Lanka has long‐established migration flows, both internal and international, that date back to the colonial period (UN 1980; Ukwatta 1986; Dias & Jayasundere 2004). There has been a transformation in the types of these migration flows due to a transformation in global migration, as the International Migration Institute observes (IMI 2006). This transformation is a result of the increasing complexities and dynamics of migration, migration transitions, transnationalism, and policy interventions in migration. Migration has become complex because Sri Lankans are involved not only in permanent and temporary migration but also in trafficking, smuggling, refugee movement, undocumented migration, and internal displacement.
Statelessness
Authors: Lynch Maureen 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights clearly states that “Everyone has the right to a nationality” and “No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality, nor denied the right to change his nationality” (UN 1948). Thus in theory no individual should be left without a legal link to any country, but the reality is that more than 12 million people around the world are stateless (UNHCR 2010).
Steerage, slavery, and shipboard insurrections
Authors: Nyaoro Charles Dulo 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
African slaves under European imperialism were thrown together in a new environment with a range of linguistic and cultural differences, not only with other slaves but also with their masters. They found it necessary to adapt and transform their environment so that they could communicate with each other and also with their masters. The starting point therefore was breaking the language barriers. African slaves soon learned European languages including English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. While adapting to European cultures, Africans who were captured and sold in the slave trade remained keenly aware of their heritage and social differences which they actively sought to preserve, as they were transported as steerage on slave ships.
Labor strikes, militancy, and migrant worker collective action
Authors: Ness Immanuel 
Published: January 2013

AbstractSince the origins of capitalism in the early 18th century, strikes and work stoppages have been a frequent means of improving labor conditions and increasing low wages that are unable to provide for the basic costs of social reproduction: food, shelter, health care, and education. Given that recent migrant workers frequently do not have representation in traditional labor unions, they have frequently organized rank‐and‐file associations to defend their interests against employers who have extracted vast profits from their labor through lengthening the workday and in many instances delaying or failing to pay wages. Strikes have been an enduring tactic and strategy for building working‐class power.
Student migration: an overview
Authors: Kang Yoonhee 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe practice of seeking knowledge and intellectual attainment through spatial movement is not a new phenomenon. Indeed, education has long been a major reason for human migration. For example, many Asian mothers still cite the well‐known Chinese proverb that “A good mother is ready to move three times to give [her] children a good education,” a maxim based on the Chinese philosopher Mencius's (372–289BCE) account of his mother's relocation three times to give him the best possible educational environment that would advance his capacity to reason, capacity for cognition, and for analytic reasoning.
Student migration, China to Japan
Authors: Liu‐Farrer Gracia 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Students have long formed a major component of human migration from China to Japan. Since 1896, when 13 excited Chinese young men boarded a French boat leaving Shanghai, hundreds of thousands of Chinese students have arrived in Japan for education. This essay briefly introduces the history of Chinese student migration into Japan in the late 19th and the first half of the 20th century, and focuses on student migration from China to Japan from 1978 to the present. It discusses the socioeconomic and institutional contexts for student migration during recent decades and contemporary Chinese students' economic practices.
Temporary migrant workers and labor organization
Authors: Holgate Jane 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAs the International Labour Organization (ILO), among other organizations, points out, international labor migration is hardly new, but it has become an increasingly topical issue at local and global policy levels (ILO 2010). The extent to which workers are able to seek employment outside their homeland has grown significantly with the expansion of more affordable means of transportation and the dynamics of globalizing forces. The notion of “time/space compression” means that “far‐flung” workplaces have become more accessible to a greater number of migrant workers as spatial barriers have been broken down (Harvey 1990). In the past, migration was often considered in terms of permanency – a move to establish a new home and life in a different country or region, though seasonal and circular migration appeared across the Atlantic in the 19th century.
Temporary migrant workers, globalization, 20th century to present
Authors: Valiani Salimah 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTemporary labor migration is the phenomenon of workers migrating on the basis of temporary work authorizations, which attach the legal status of workers to particular employers and/or particular positions of employment. Temporary labor migration schemes take on various forms: from bilateral and regional agreements for the exchange of labor between states, to changes in national legislation allowing employers easy and accelerated access to temporary migrant workers for varying time periods, to provisions in multilateral trade agreements such as Mode IV of the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services. While labor migration has been a recurring phenomenon in human history (Potts 1990; King 1996), what is new in the post‐1970 period of restructuring in the world capitalist economy is the increased use of temporary migrant labor by employers around the world and state facilitation of this shift.
Trade networks and migration, early modern Europe
Authors: Antunes Cátia 
Published: January 2013

AbstractEuropean trade networks during the early modern period were cause and consequence of migratory flows throughout the world. Even though the contribution of early modern European trade networks to the process of globalization is mostly ascribed to their economic function of transacting capital and products, trade networks also contributed heavily to the movement of people worldwide. In this article we will focus on two types of migratory flows provoked, facilitated by, or resulting from the growth and dynamics of trading networks in the period between 1500 and 1750: temporary employees of trading networks (agents of business) and permanent business representatives (agents of settlement).