bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aphrodite
Authors: Wallensten Jenny 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAphrodite was one of the mightiest Olympians, traditionally known as the goddess of love, sex, and beauty. However, recent scholarship underlines her complex character and has revealed that her sphere of influence was less restricted than formerly thought. Besides presiding over every aspect of sexuality, Aphrodite also filled significant functions in the marine, martial, and political spheres of the Greek cities. It is furthermore clear from the ancient evidence that Aphrodite was not mainly a goddess of women and private life. Among her worshipers were men and women, officials of the polis, and private individuals alike.
Brigantia
Authors: Tomlin R. S. O. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Romano‐British goddess who personified the Brigantes, the largest tribe in Roman Britain, which, according to Ptolemy, extended ”from sea to sea”
(Geog
. 2.3.10) – across the Pennines and most of northern England. Appropriately the name derives from Celtic *frng‐(”high”), like that of the Irish saint Brigit, who may have once been a cognate deity. The only representation is the stone figure from Birrens (Dumfriesshire)
(CSIR
I.4, No. 12=
RIB
2091), a winged female warrior with shield, spear, and orb, plumed helmet with mural crown implying power to protect a city or people, the Gorgon's‐head
aegis
on her breast, and a conical
omphalos
stone beside her. These attributes identify her with Minerva, Victoria, and Dea Caelestis, the North African Juno/Tanit. The only other evidence of her cult and its extent are seven inscribed altars:
RIB
623 (found near Huddersfield, in the masculine form
Bregans); RIB
627 (dedicated near Halifax in 208
CE
, which equates her with Victoria);
RIB
628 (Castleford);
RIB
630 (near Leeds);
RIB
1053 (South Shields);
RIB
1131 (Corbridge, dedicated by a centurion who equates her with Caelestis and Juno Regina, the consort of Jupiter Dolichenus); and
RIB
2066 (Brampton, near Carlisle, dedicated by the imperial procurator of Britain to the ”goddess‐nymph” Brigantia for the well‐being of the emperor Caracalla, probably in 212
CE
). These may imply official recognition in the early third century
CE
, perhaps as personifying the new province of Lower Britain, but the evidence from Birrens, which was apparently abandoned ca. 180
CE
, proves that the cult already existed.
Caelestis
Authors: Bessi Benedetta 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe cult of Caelestis was very significant in Roman North Africa, where it was often associated with that of Saturn. However, unlike that of her companion, the cult of this divinity spread outside North Africa and is also attested in other Roman provinces (Dacia, Britain, Gaul, and Germany) as well as in Rome itself, where the emperor Elagabalus organized a splendid wedding ceremony for her with his god Elagabalus (Herodian 5.6.4–5; Cass. Dio 80.12).
Carmentis and Carmentalia
Authors: Holland Lora L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Carmentis, or Carmenta, is an early Roman goddess, or perhaps one of a divine group, the Carmentes. Her name probably derives from Latin
carmen
(a special utterance, such as a spell, song, or poem), which suggests her original nature as the abstraction of the prophetic voice.
Indigitamenta
such as Postvorta (“Turned Backwards”) and Porrima (“Facing Forward”) help her see into the past and future; but she is also designated a birth goddess, with her helpers' names referring to the position of infants at birth.
Dius Fidius
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The full name of this god who guarded oaths seems to have been Semo Sancus Dius Fidius (
CIL
VI 30795, 30994), although Semo Sancus and Dius Fidius are frequently treated by both ancient and modern authors as separate names referring to the same god.
Dolichenus
Authors: Blömer Michael , Winter Engelbert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe local supreme god of the Kommagenian town of Doliche (today Dülük, southeastern Turkey) was venerated under the name Jupiter Dolichenus throughout the Roman Empire. His original sanctuary is on the summit of a local mountain (modern name Dülük Baba Tepesi), situated 3 km outside Doliche. Excavations conducted there since 2001 have attested to the continuous religious importance of the site since at least the late Iron Age.
Feriale Duranum
Authors: Irby‐Massie Georgia L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A fragmentary papyrus calendar, in four columns, with verso blank,
P. Dura 54
is datable to 223–227
CE
(Severus Alexander); it was found in 1931–1932 in the archives of the
Cohors XX Palmyrenorum
at Dura‐Europos.
Iovis epulum
Authors: McDonough Christopher M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Iovis epulum
, “feast of Jupiter,” was an elaborate feast celebrated publicly in Jupiter's honor on the Capitoline hill during the
Ludi Plebeii
on the Ides of November and, at least from Augustan times, during the
Ludi Romani
on the Ides of September.
Lua
Authors: Holland Lora L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLua, also called Lua Mater and Lua Saturni, is an obscure Italian goddess known only from literary references. There are no extant images of Lua, nor is there archaeological evidence for her cult. Scholars connect her name with the Latin verbluere, “to suffer, to make amends for,” as well as the Greek verbluō, “to lose” (de Vaan 2008: 353). Beyond that, they have agreed on little.
Pax deorum
Authors: Johnson Michael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Pax deorum
(“peace of the gods”) denotes the central goal of Roman state religion: a mutually beneficial state of peace between Rome and its deities, with the gods safeguarding Rome's public welfare (
salus publica
; cf. Cic.
Rab
.
perd
. 5) and the Romans providing the gods their desired worship and cult.
Procharisteria
Authors: Taylor Martha C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Procharisteria, or festival of “Thanks in advance,” known to us only from lexicographical sources, was an Athenian festival in which, according to the
Suda
(s.v., P 2968) “all those in office sacrificed to Athena when the plants are beginning to grow, and winter is already ending.”
Religion, Persian
Authors: Jong Albert De 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn order to gain an overview of the variety of religion(s) in the Iranian world in antiquity, scholars need to make difficult choices. Since Iranians rejected the use of writing for literary and religious purposes (relying on oral transmission for both), there are few sources that can help out. Much of the discussion is dominated by attempts to combine the sources we have and give an estimate of the ways in which they are connected.
Roma, Goddess
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe “goddess of Rome,” ordea Roma, refers to two related, but distinct conceptions. The first was a Roman god or goddess who protected the city of Rome, but whose identity was kept secret to prevent enemies from luring this tutelary divinity elsewhere. A favorite topic of speculation for ancient scholars, candidates include Jupiter, Luna, Ops, and Eros, among others (Macrob.Sat. 3.9.4; Plin.HN28.18; LydusDe mens. 4.73; Plut.Quaest.Rom. 61; Servius DanielisAen. 2.351).
Sacrifice, Greek
Authors: Naiden F. S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe term “sacrifice,” from the Latinsacra facere, “to do sacred things” (renderable into Greek ashiera rezein), denotes a congeries of Greek practices. Best known is the slaughter of animals as offerings to the gods, often (but not always) before a meal at which the worshippers ate most of the flesh of the animal while consigning part to the gods or to the officiants.
Theoria
Authors: Rutherford Ian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Greek wordtheoriameans “watching,” and has two special senses in Greek culture: first, a religious delegation sent by a Greek city, to consult an oracle or take part in a festival at a sanctuary outside its territory, and second, philosophical contemplation.Theoriain the first sense is attested from the sixth centuryBCEuntil the Roman Empire, but the sources are particularly rich in the Hellenistic period. Sacred delegates were calledtheoroi, were often led by a so‐calledarchitheoros, and if they went by sea, the vehicle was atheoris‐ship.
Confarreatio
Authors: Hersch Karen K. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOf the three methods by which a Roman woman could enter into themanusof her husband (confarreatio,usus, andcoemptio), onlyconfarreatioseems to have been understood by Romans as a religious wedding ceremony accompanied by the acquisition ofmanus.Ususimplied cohabitation for one uninterrupted year, andcoemptiothe exchanging of goods or money in a symbolic sale.
Colonies, Roman Empire (east)
Authors: Mitchell Stephen 
Published: December 2012

AbstractColonies in the Eastern Roman Empire did not differ formally or in legal status from their counterparts in Italy and the western provinces, but their context poses a substantially different set of historical questions for modern observers to investigate. Westerncoloniae, self‐governing communities of Roman citizens, were not sharply distinguished in the provincial landscape ofmunicipia, Romanized towns whose magistrates acquired citizenship and whose populations assimilated Roman life‐styles. Colonies in the east contrasted with the prevailing pattern of Greekpoleisin the origin of their inhabitants, in language use, in the legal rights of their citizens compared to those of other free‐born subjects of Roman rule in the east, and in their ideological orientation.
Corinth
Authors: Freitag Klaus 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe urban center was situated in the northeast Peloponnese near the Isthmus, and was strongly fortified since the fifth centuryBCE. The neighboring polis to the northeast was Megara. To the west, Corinthian territory bordered on Sikyon (Strabo 8.6.25) and in the south and southwest on Kleonai, Argos, and Epidauros.
Gardens, Roman
Authors: Giesecke Annette L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe wide range of meaning applied to the Latin word for garden,hortus, is indicative of the immeasurable importance of gardens in the Roman world. Thehortusmay be a garden devoted primarily to the production of vegetables and fruit, an agricultural plot or vineyard, a farm property, a suburban or urban villa with its gardens, or a pleasure garden. In the case of garden estates and pleasure gardens, however,horti, the plural ofhortus, is the usual designation. In a more specialized sense,hortusandhortialso connote the philosophical school of Epicurus.
Latin language, Roman Empire (east)
Authors: Kreinecker Christina M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Roman Empire was a conglomerate of cultures, nations and also, therefore, of languages. Contact between languages was part of everyday life, in particular within the military, the administration, and among merchants. As the Romans successfully expanded south and east from 63BCE, the end of the Third Mithradatic War, to the time of Trajan, they took control of regions that had been under Greek cultural influence from the time of Alexander the Great, in which native languages were gradually, but definitely replaced by Greek in the public sphere, especially in the cities. The Romans, therefore, encountered an existing Greek linguistic infrastructure, which could be used by their administration. Latin played a role at official level, but was largely irrelevant to everyday life.
Athenaeus Mechanicus
Authors: Rance Philip 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Athenaeus, conventionally styled “Mechanicus” in modern literature, was the author of a short treatise on siege‐engines, entitled
On Machines (Peri mechanematon)
and addressed to a “most august Marcellus.” The date, authorship, and context of this work were long disputed, but scholarly consensus since the nineteenth century holds that the dedicatee was most probably M. Claudius Marcellus (42–23
BCE
), nephew and son‐in‐law of Augustus.
Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus) Davis
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAurelian, Roman emperor 270–5CE(PIR2D 135;PLRE1.129–30;REDomitius 36), was born September 9 in (probably) 214, in what would later be the province of Dacia Ripensis, south of the Danube.
Claudius Quintillus(Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Perhaps born ca. 220
CE
, of Danubian origin, Claudius Quintillus (
PLRE
I 579;
PIR
2
A 1480) was Roman emperor for two or three months in the summer of 270. His acceptance of the throne, mainly on the basis of being the younger brother of his predecessor Claudius II, displayed the problems of hereditary succession when it did not produce the most capable candidate at a time when the empire faced critical economic and military problems.
Comites
Authors: Whately Conor 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Comites
, singular
comes
, literally “counts,” could be a number of things, from officials and commanders to elite cavalry regiments. Originally, the term applied to high‐ranking senators and
equites
who accompanied the emperor, and it was only later that it was applied to military officers, officials, and cavalry regiments. The term seems to have become formalized under Constantine I.
Corbulo, Gnaeus Domitius
Authors: Gallia Andrew B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA charismatic and physically imposing general, Corbulo (4BCE?‐67CE;PIR2D 141;RE50) became famous as a commander of Roman armies under Claudius and Nero. His high profile reflects the increasing opportunities for political advancement available to ambitious men of undistinguished ancestry under the Julio‐Claudian emperors, as well as the limitations and dangers that sometimes attended their careers.
De rebus bellicis
Authors: Tomlin R. S. O. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

De rebus bellicis
(“On Military Matters”) is the inadequate title given to a late Roman illustrated treatise preserved with the Notitia Dignitatum and other works of reference in the lost
Codex Spirensis
, a manuscript of the late ninth to early tenth century which survives in five copies of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba Imp. Caesar Augustus)
Authors: Broadhead Will 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGalba (3BCE–69CE), emperor from early June of 68 to January 15, 69, was born of a prominent and wealthy family and was from his youth close to the highest circles of the Julio‐Claudian court, where he enjoyed the particular favor of the empress Livia. Under Tiberius and Caligula, he was entrusted with a series of important positions: the praetorship, the governorship of Aquitania, the consulship (33), and the governorship of Upper Germany (40–2). Galba developed a reputation for strict but highly capable leadership; he was even considered by some as a legitimate potential successor to Caligula in the brief window preceding the accession of Claudius in 41 (Suet.Galb.7). claudius then entrusted him with a special appointment as proconsular governor of Africa (44/5), where he succeeded in quelling a revolt, for which he was rewarded with triumphal ornaments and membership of three prestigious priesthoods.
Gallienus (Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRoman emperor, born ca. 218, Gallienus (PLRE1.383–4;PIR2L 197;RELicinius 84) was joint Augustus with his father Valerian (Publius Licinius Valerianus Augustus) from autumn 253 till the latter's capture by the Persians in 260; his own reign continued till his murder in 268. Probably the last Roman emperor who could claim genuine aristocratic antecedents, his actions would lead to the end of senatorial involvement with the army and pave the way for the Illyrian military emperors of the later years of the century and thus for the reforms of the empire under Diocletian and Constantine I.
Numerian (Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractNumerian (born ca. 255/260CE;PLREI: 634;PIR2A 1564;RE174), younger son of the emperor Carus (Marcus Aurelius Carus Augustus), was Roman emperor from 283 to 284 Assessment is complicated by his presentation in the sources as an excellent character (unlike his debauched elder brother Carinus (Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus)), with great skill in oratory, and able to compete in poetry with Nemesianus (SHA Car. 11.1–2).
Ostorius Scapula, Publius
Authors: Tomlin R. S. O. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

As Publius Ostorius Scapula (date of birth unknown, but he died in 52
CE
, probably aged about fifty) was presumably the son of the like‐named Perfect of Egypt, he must have enjoyed high favor in pursuing a senatorial career, which would have included the command of a legion, but only his last post is known, as the second governor of Roman Britain (47–52).
Pescennius Niger, Gaius
Authors: Bingham Sandra J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gaius Pescennius Niger (ca. 135–194
CE
) was emperor for a brief period in the late second century, one of three men vying for control of the empire in the turbulent period after the death of Commodus (Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus) during which time two emperors were killed within five months.
Philip (Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus)
Authors: Bonura Christopher 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Julius Philippus Augustus, or more commonly Philip the Arab (ca. 204–249CE), was a Roman emperor who ruled during the period of military and political instability known as the “Crisis of the Third Century.” His reign was noteworthy for the celebration of the one thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome, which he organized, as well as his general tolerance toward Christianity which, accurately or not, earned him a reputation as the first Christian emperor among later Christian writers.
Verginius Rufus, Lucius
Authors: Gallia Andrew B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWhen rebellion against Nero broke out in Gaul and Spain in 68CE(seeIulius Vindex, Gaius; Galba), Verginius (15–97CE;PIR1V 284;RE 27) was governor of Upper Germany, with three legions at his disposal (seeGermania (Superior and Inferior)).
Archers, archery
Authors: Salazar Christine F 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe bow–the weapon of choice of Apollo, Artemis, and Eros/Cupid–was used for sports (e.g., Plut. Alex. 23.4), hunting (e.g., Suet. Dom. 19), and warfare throughout antiquity. Although both theIliad(23.850–83) and theOdyssey(19.571–81; 21.73–185, 393–423) feature archery contests, in battle the archer, killing from a safe distance, is held in contempt (e.g.,Il. 11.385–7, where “archer” is used as a term of abuse).
Germanicus
Authors: Rowe Gregory 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Germanicus (15
BCE
–19
CE
) was a Roman prince under the emperors Augustus and Tiberius. Born into the established Augustan monarchy, he received the name
Germanicus
as part of posthumous honors to his father, Livia's son, the elder Drusus (9
BCE
), and added the name
Caesar
when Tiberius adopted him and Augustus adopted Tiberius (4
CE
). Soon after, he married Agrippina the Elder, Augustus' granddaughter, and the couple eventually had nine children.
Agricola, Gnaeus Iulius
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gnaeus Iulius Agricola (40–93
CE
) was born on June 13, 40 into a senatorial family of Forum Iulii (Fréjus) in Narbonese Gaul. About this time, his father, Iulius Graecinus, was executed by Caligula, and he was raised by his mother, Iulia Procilla.
Alexandrian War (Bellum Alexandrinum)
Authors: Zahariade Mihail 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe content ofBellum Alexandrinum, as it is known from the manuscripts, does not appear to correspond with the title. In addition to the events in Alexandria it relates episodes unfolding in other regions. However, due to the episode which occurred at Alexandria, the title was extended to all the events of the year 47BCE.
Capitol
Authors: Thomas Edmund 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

This steep hill in Rome became central in Roman ideology after the construction in the sixth century
BCE
of an enormous temple to the Capitoline triad of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, from which it took its name. Temple and hill alike became associated with Rome's civic government and imperial mission and later the model for smaller Capitolia in towns outside Rome as a marker of Roman identity.
Colonies, Roman and Latin (Republican)
Authors: Broadhead Will 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The colonies of the republican period, known conventionally as “Roman” or “Latin,” depending on their constitutional status, played a role of the highest importance in the political, demographic, socio‐economic, and cultural history of Roman Italy. Between the foundation of the republic and the age of Augustus, the Romans and their allies founded over one hundred colonies, whose size, status, and purpose varied and evolved over time, as the institution of the colony was used to address a range of strategic and social concerns.
Comitium
Authors: Hopkins John North 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Comitium
was the principal place of assembly for Roman voting groups (
comitia
) during the republic and for a time the judicial seat of the urban praetor. It is located off the north corner of the Forum Romanum, its boundaries the Forum Iulium, Argiletum, Sacra Via, and Arch of Septimius Severus. In addition to its being the original meeting place of the eponymous
comitia curiata
(Varro
Ling
. 5.155), Livy calls it the
vestibulum
of the Curia, which was initially situated on its north rim (45.24.12).
Decemvirate
Authors: Hogg Daniel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheDecemviri legibus scribundis(“Board of ten for the writing of the laws”; 451–c. 449BCE) were, according to the tradition, a quasi‐tyrannical body associated with the publication of the Twelve Tables. These Tables, set up in the Forum in Rome, were a set of laws which remain “the most significant potential indicator of the character of early republican society”. The story of the Decemvirate was considered a turning point in Roman history, and occupies crucial moments in the work of several ancient authors (e.g., Livy 3.9–64; Dion. Hal.Ant. Rom. 10.50–11.44 or 10.1–11.50; Cic.De Rep. 2.54, cf. 2.3; Polyb. 6.11.1; Tac.Ann. 1.1.1). While the Twelve Tables can be reconstructed in part and with caution, the story of the Decemvirate, especially in its second incarnation, is dubious.
Forum Romanum
Authors: Hopkins John North 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Situated in the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, the Forum Romanum was Rome's primary political and economic center and a home to major religious offices during the late Regal period, the republic, and the empire. Though originally its morass environment rendered it inhospitable, in the late seventh century Romans re‐engineered the geography of the valley and began monumentalizing it; by the Middle Republic, textual and archaeological evidence indicates that it was a formal plaza confined by the Regia on the east, a line of shops and bankers, stalls on the north, the Capitoline Hill on the west, and prominent houses on the south. Under Caesar and Augustus, it underwent another architectural transformation and became an austere center of imperial administration.
Fulvius Nobilior, Marcus
Authors: Nice Alex 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

M. Fulvius Nobilior (ca. 231–post–178
BCE
), a member of the plebeian
gens Fulvia
, was a Roman general and statesman. He is most notable for his patronage ofthe epic poet Ennius and for the dedication of the temple of Hercules Musarum in Rome's Circus Flaminius.
Pompeius Magnus Pius, Sextus
Authors: Welch Kathryn 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Sextus Pompeius (69?–35
BCE
), younger son of Cn. Pompeius Magnus and Mucia, the most successful republican leader in the civil wars of 49–31
BCE
, won victories over several Caesarian generals including G. Asinius Pollio in 44, Q. Salvidienus Rufus in 42 and Caesar Octavian (Augustus) on several occasions.