bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
LOGISTIC PLANNING FOR OIL SPILL CHEMICAL USE
Authors: Lindblom Gordon P. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The use of chemical agents in oil spill cleanup should be rapid, but not haphazard. As with mechanical measures, both proper equipment and trained personnel must be available in order to employ chemicals most efficiently. This paper reviews those subjects which are particularly important to successful chemical applications, and which must be carefully considered in contingency planning. These are chemical types and their modes of action, design and operation of the equipment required, regulation of chemical dose per unit area, and the limitations (to both boats and aircraft) of a distant operations base.
Various kinds of oil spill control chemicals are likely to be used during a spill incident. Therefore, planning must also provide for flexibility in application equipment design in order to obtain the maximum service per unit. The design and construction of a portable chemical spraying system (which can be used on work boats, tugs, or other vessels of opportunity) is discussed. The adequacy of aerial spray systems is also examined in terms of required pump rates, chemical and equipment load, nozzle types and capacity, spraying time on-site, and volume of chemical delivered. It is shown that small aircraft are only useful near shore, and that (as the spill area increases) several large airplanes will be required.
SKIMMING BARRIER PERFORMANCE EVALUATION: OFFSHORE VERSION AND HARBOR VERSION1
Authors: Lichte H. W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Performance evaluation test programs were carried out for two oil skimming devices, one for the full-scale high seas U.S. Coast Guard Skimming Barrier, and the second for the Scoop, a scaled-down skimming barrier for use in near-shore applications, incorporating a dedicated vessel. The new system was designed to utilize the successful design features of the proven Coast Guard system in a small, easily deployable skimmer for protecting harbors. The test results of the large system with a 19 cubic meter oil load in the barrier indicated 83 percent recovery efficiency at a 109.9 cubic meter per hour recovery rate. The smaller system produced an 84 percent recovery efficiency at an 11.4 cubic meter per hour recovery rate when encountering a 1.1 cubic meter oil-loaded barrier. Both programs provided unique underwater photography of the boom and tension cable lines reacting to water current, waves, and oil.
PERFORMANCE TESTS OF FOUR SELECTED OIL SPILL SKIMMERS
Authors: Schwartz Sol H. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
From April through October, 1977, a series of oil spill skimmer performance tests were conducted at the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT), Leonardo, New Jersey. This program was sponsored by EPA, the Coast Guard, Navy, and Department of Energy combined as the OHMSETT Interagency Test Committee (OITC). The test devices selected were the commercially-available Oil Mop, Inc. Dynamic Skimmer, the Cyclonet 050 mounted on a Zodiac Inflatable boat, the Anti-Pollution, Inc. Clowsor Skimmer, and the Bennett Pollution Controls, LTD., Mark 6E Skimmer.
A total of 198 test runs were performed during which each device was evaluated for recovery of two test oils through a wide range of simulated environmental conditions of waves and currents. The performance indicating parameters were: (1) throughput efficiency, the percentage of oil encountered which is collected; (2) recovery efficiency, the percent oil in the oil/water mixture collected; and (3) oil recovery rate, the volume of oil collected per unit time.
The Oil Mop Dynamic Skimmer produced its highest average throughput efficiency (78 percent) with light oil (9 centistokes—cst) at a tow speed of 200 feet per minute (fpm) in calm water. Highest recovery efficiency (77 percent) was observed with heavy oil (3,000 cst) at 200 fpm in calm water, and maximum recovery rate was established with light oil at a tow speed of 400 fpm.
The Cyclonet 050 showed its highest average performance with heavy oil (550 cst) at a tow speed of 150 fpm. Throughput efficiency was 34 percent in calm water, recovery efficiency was 27 percent in the 0.6 by 26.2 ft (height by length) wave and recovery rate was 14 gallons per minute (gpm) in calm water.
The Clowsor Skimmer was tested as an advancing and stationary system. Highest average results occurred in the stationary mode with heavy oil (1,900 cst) and recovery efficiency was 91 percent. Maximum recovery rate observed was 95 gpm.
The Bennett Mark 6E Skimmer performed best with heavy oil (3,200 cst). Throughput efficiency was 95 percent at a tow speed of 300 fpm, recovery efficiency was 88 percent at 100 fpm, and maximum oil recovery rate occurred at 200 fpm and was measured at 108 gpm.
The general trend of performance for all devices tested showed diminishing performance with increased tow speeds and wave conditions.
ASSESSMENT OF THE ACW-400 OIL SKIMMER BY THE CANADIAN COAST GUARD FOR OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURE OPERATIONS
Authors: Gill Shawn D. , Ryan W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Early in 1978, the Canadian Coast Guard acquired a diesel-powered vessel-mounted ACW-400 oil skimmer developed by Frank Mohn A/S of Norway. The skimmer was landed in St. John's, Newfoundland, where a series of static and field trials were undertaken preparatory to its addition to the hardware countermeasures inventory of the marine emergency organization of the Canadian Coast Guard. The results of these acceptance trials are described hereunder with an evaluation of the unit with respect to the specific requirements of the Canadian Coast Guard. Following this deployment, the ACW-400 was shipped to Tuktoyaktuk on the Beaufort Sea where it became a component of the Canadian Coast Guard contingency plan for offshore petroleum exploration in that theatre. From this experience it was apparent that the ACW-400 was well designed and met the safety, transportability, flexibility, sea-keeping, and oil recovery criteria required to fulfill the specific countermeasures obligations of the marine emergency organization of the Canadian Coast Guard.
A PLAN FOR SCIENTIFIC RESPONSE TO AN OIL SPILL IN THE BEAUFORT SEA
Authors: Wright Dennis G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Exploratory drilling for hydrocarbons under the continental shelf of the Canadian sector of the Beaufort Sea has been actively pursued since 1973. There is a significant probability that at least one major oil spill may occur in this area during the course of exploration and exploitation. It has been demonstrated on previous occasions that an ad hoc approach to studies at the site of a major oil spill results both in major gaps in the information obtained and in inefficient utilization of available logistic resources.
In anticipation that a major oil spill could occur in the Beaufort Sea, a Scientific Response Plan has been developed. The plan consists of 28 integrated scientific studies that would be conducted to assess the immediate impact of such a spill, to provide a base for the assessment of the long-term impact of the spill and to increase the knowledge (and hence predictive capabilities) concerning the behaviour and fate of oil in Arctic marine environments.
Thirteen of the studies are concerned with determining the behaviour and fate of the spilled oil, and fifteen are concerned with determining the biological impacts.
Memoranda of agreement to participate in the implementation of the plan have been signed by the participating agencies. Funding for the plan is being sought from the Canadian Treasury Board in a special two-part submission. Phase I of the submission seeks immediate funding to purchase and stockpile necessary equipment and materials; Phase II requests a guarantee that funds will be made available to implement the response plan, should it ever be necessary.
Coordination of the Beaufort Sea Scientific Response Plan is the responsibility of Fisheries and Environment Canada, Fisheries and Marine Service.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION—A PRACTICAL LESSON USING THREE CASE HISTORIES1
Authors: Juhasz Ferenc 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
In connection with proposed measures to retrofit the existing oil tanker fleet with segregated ballast tanks, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development undertook a cost-benefit evaluation. The examination indicated that for the areas analyzed the availability of data on physical damage is severely limited. This is due partly to the fact that environmental damage data is site-specific and cannot be generalized for other areas. This makes data collection difficult and expensive and the physical evaluation of worldwide measures uncertain. The evaluation also indicated that while marginal changes in oil pollution levels might be insignificant at any particular time, their cumulative, long-term effect could be important. This cumulative effect may not necessarily be measurable with any precision.
The paper also concludes that because only the short-term effects can be measured and only few of them can be valued in monetary terms, the use of “cost-benefit” analysis in the chemical sense could lead to misleading results. Finally, an argument is made for more frequent application of a modified type of quantitative analysis, which would make the evaluation process a formal one and ensure that all the relevant factors are considered.
THE OCCURRENCE OF “WHITE EYE SYNDROME” IN SHRIMP (PENAEUS AZTECUS)
Authors: Minchew C. Douglas , Brown Lewis R. , Ladner Cornell M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This report describes eye lesions observed in brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) which were chronically exposed to low levels of Empire Mix, Nigerian, and Saudi Arabian crude oils in 150 ft × 150 ft × 8 ft estuarine pond ecosystems. In live specimens, the lesions appeared as circular to slightly irregular white spots. In sectioned material, the lesions were characterized by the liquefactive necrosis of the crystalline cones, ommatidia, and all associated structures. Based on the appearance of these lesions in live specimens, this condition has been designated as the “white eye syndrome.”
RELATIONSHIP OF HYDROCARBON SOLUBILITY TO TOXICITY IN ALGAE AND CELLULAR MEMBRANE EFFECTS
Authors: Hutchinson Thomas C. , Hellebust Johan A. , Mackay Donald , Tarn Deborah , Kauss Peter 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Recent studies have demonstrated that under carefully controlled conditions there is a highly significant correlation between the solubilities of a wide range of hydrocarbons and their toxicity to unicellular green algae. 38 different hydrocarbons have been studied, including alkanes, aromatics, polynuclear aromatics, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Toxicity has been determined in terms of the effects of hydrocarbons in solution on photosynthesis using 14 C-uptake as a measure. For each hydrocarbon, it was found that the molar concentration required to cause a 50 percent reduction in photosynthesis could be predicted from a knowledge of its solubility alone. A regression coefficient of 0.97 was obtained on a log plot. Chlorinated hydrocarbons behaved exactly as did other hydrocarbons. The effect of adding or subtracting methyl groups influenced toxicity through the effect on solubility. The linear toxicity/solubility response suggests a common mechanism of hydrocarbon action. Since hydrocarbons are lipophilic, it was hypothesized that the cellular membranes may be the site of cellular disruption. This has been tested by determining the amount of potassium and manganese leakage from algal cells, using neutron activation analysis, when exposed for a given time to equi-molar concentrations of selected hydrocarbons. Loss of relabeled organic material has also been determined in previously tagged cells when exposed to these hydrocarbons. The predictions seem to be very strongly borne out. Implications for the prediction of effects of oil spills on a variety of aquatic organisms are present. The less soluble hydrocarbons are the most toxic on a per mole basis. Partition coefficients appear to provide a key to the common effects.
SENSITIVITY OF 39 ALASKAN MARINE SPECIES TO COOK INLET CRUDE OIL AND NO. 2 FUEL OIL
Authors: Rice Stanley D. , Moles Adam , Taylor Tamara L. , Karinen John F. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The sensitivities of 39 subarctic Alaskan species of marine fish and invertebrates to water-soluble fractions of Cook Inlet crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil were determined. This is the largest group of animals ever tested under similar test conditions with the same petroleum oils and analytical methods. Organisms bioassayed represent several habitats, six phyla, and 39 species including fish (9), arthropods (9), molluscs (13), echinoderms (4), annelids (2), and nemer-teans (2). Sensitivities were determined by 96-hour static bioassays. Concentrations of selected aromatic hydrocarbons were determined by gas chromatography; concentrations of paraffins were determined by infrared spectrophotometry.
Although sensitivity generally increased from lower invertebrates to higher invertebrates, and from higher invertebrates to fish, sensitivity was better correlated to habitat. Pelagic fish and shrimp were the most sensitive animals to Cook Inlet crude oil with 96-h median tolerance limits (TLm's) from 1–3 mg/l total aromatic hydrocarbons. Benthic animals, including fish, crabs, and scallops were moderately tolerant (TLm's to Cook Inlet crude oil of 3–8 mg/l total aromatic hydrocarbons). Intertidal animals, including fish, crabs, and starfish, and many molluscs, were the most tolerant forms to water-soluble fraction of petroleum (TLm's greater than 8–12 mg/l of total aromatic hydrocarbons). Most of the intertidal animals were not killed by static oil exposures. No. 2 fuel oil was more toxic to most species than Cook Inlet crude oil.
Sensitive pelagic animals are not necessarily more vulnerable to oil spills than tolerant intertidal forms — oil may damage intertidal environments more easily and adverse effects may persist longer than in damaged pelagic environments.
COMPARATIVE UPTAKE OF NAPHTHALENES FROM WATER AND OILED SEDIMENT BY BENTHIC AMPHIPODS1
Authors: Anderson J. W. , Kiesser S. L. , Blaylock J. W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The benthic amphipod, Anonyx laticoxae, was exposed to whole oil on sediments or water extracts of Prudhoe Bay crude oil under both static and flowing conditions. Time periods of exposure ranged from 4 to 27 days and, while a range of compounds was present, the only class measured in water, tissues, and sediments was naphthalenes. Compared to levels in the surrounding environment (sediment or water) tissue magnification was least during sediment exposures (2–4 times), greatest in a flowing exposure system (∼1000 times), and intermediate during static water exposure (10–50 times). During a constant exposure to 22 ppb total naphthalenes (0.506 ppm total hydrocarbons) the amphipods reached a threshold of accumulation after about seven days, and the majority of contamination was from alkylnaphthalenes.
Sediment exposures demonstrated relatively low bioavailability of naphthalenes and the route of entry appeared to be via interstitial and water column contamination. It appears that release of naphthalenes from both oiled sediments and tissues is largely controlled by water solubilities of the components, but metabolic processes may supplement this activity.
PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES IN MEASURING THE SOCIAL COSTS OF OIL POLLUTION1
Authors: Meade Norman F. , Anderson Robert C. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Efficient allocation of resources demands that the full social costs and benefits of all economic activities be reflected in market prices. Ignoring the costs of performing damage assessments, all damages caused by oil pollution of marine and coastal environments should be valued and included in the price we pay for petroleum products. Furthermore, widely accepted principles of equity demand that the victims of oil pollution be compensated for their losses. To meet both goals, methods must be developed for measuring the nature and extent of oil pollution damages in economic terms.
Measurement of oil pollution damages to natural resources is an inexact art. Not only do marine biologists and ecologists have an imperfect understanding of damage mechanisms, but economists, whose task it is to value damages, find it difficult to place dollar values on the affected resources. This paper analyzes the problem of providing an economic measure of oil pollution damages from three perspectives: the accuracy of the measure, the cost of the assessment, and the acceptability of the measure in judicial and policy-making arenas.
Although no measure of damages reviewed in this paper is without flaws, it is suggested that comprehensive damage assessments be performed for major spills while relatively crude indices of damage be developed for the more minor, chronic forms of oil pollution. As a case example of a major spill damage assessment, recent efforts supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to quantify damages from the Amoco Cadiz oil spill are reviewed.
DISTRIBUTION OF TAR AND RELATIONSHIP TO CHANGES IN INTERTIDAL ORGANISMS ON SANDY BEACHES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Authors: Straughan Dale 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Surveys on sandy beaches for 10 years following the Santa Barbara oil spill (1969–1978) revealed that large amounts (2 g per square foot) of tar are frequently found at sites adjacent to natural oil seep areas. Tar is intermittently found on most other open coast southern California beaches. This is in contrast to few records of tar on over 40 surveys at sites in the area just north of Point Conception.
The sources of tar is both difficult and costly to determine. However, available information suggests that with the exception of major oil spills, most tar on the beaches in the Southern California Bight originates from natural oil seeps. On the open coast beaches, the residence time of this tar appears to be short (generally days and perhaps weeks) but after exceptional storms such as those in the winters of 1969 and 1978, tar could be buried for longer periods. In most instances deeply buried tar would be removed by the approximately annual cut and fill cycle. At the sheltered site at Cat Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, tar appears to remain at the site and become gradually buried in the sediments. Wave action is apparently not sufficient to remove the tar and the site is gradually silting up.
At all sites, natural environmental variables such as sediment grain size, had a greater impact on the distribution and abundance of species than tar. Within this framework, changes in populations at Cat Harbor following contamination by wet sticky tar in early spring 1976, appear to be a response to this tar. Conservative estimates currently suggest a two-year recovery period. This may be revised after further research.
MODELING THE ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND SUB-ARCTIC SEDIMENTS
Authors: Malinky Greggory , Shaw David G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The extent of association between labeled hydrocarbons representing the major chemical classes of petroleum, and marine suspended sediments from south-central Alaska has been investigated in a series of laboratory experiments using hydrocarbon concentrations near or below saturated solution. For a saturated solution of either an aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon, the concentration of hydrocarbon in parts per million (ppm) associated with sediment is roughly 30 percent of the original aqueous concentration in ppm. Extrapolation of these results to permitted discharge concentrations and dilution rates encountered in south-central Alaska indicates that concentrations of hydrocarbons sorbed to sediments are in the parts per trillion (ppt) to parts per billion (ppb) range. It appears that this process cannot be a major transport pathway for the dispersal of oil under the conditions investigated.
OIL SPILL FORECASTING—WHERE IS IT GOING?1
Authors: Lissauer Ivan M. , Murphy Donald L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The methods used to forecast the movement of spilled oil have not changed significantly since the Argo Merchant spill. Little has been done to improve the deficiencies brought to light during this incident. Some of the deficiencies in the state-of-the-art are examined here, particularly those related to our incomplete knowledge of the physical mechanisms involved in oil spill movement. A basic framework for the development of an improved forecasting system is presented. It is based on the integration of a horizontal transport model, an evaporation model, and a vertical dispersion model.
EFFECTS OF AN OIL SLICK ON WIND WAVES1
Authors: Liu Hsien-Ta , Lin Jung-Tai 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Laboratory experiments were performed to investigate the effects of an oil slick on ocean waves. This is part of an integrated program aimed at understanding the vertical dispersion of oil in the upper ocean. The experiments were conducted in a wind-wave tank which measured 9.1 m long, 1.2 m wide, and 1.8 m deep. Both wind waves and mechanically-generated waves with wind were considered. No. 2 Diesel oil was fed at a rate of 0.35 liters/sec onto the water surface from the upstream end of the wave tank. To measure the wave profiles, an optical sensor-photodiode wave gauge was developed and is described herein. The effects of an oil slick on wind waves were examined in terms of wave profiles and rms wave amplitudes. For wind waves, the presence of the oil slick damps the waves significantly. The amount of damping increases with the wind speed in the range from U∞ = 4 m/sec to 10 m/sec. At U∞ = 10 m/sec, the oil slick breaks into small lenses. The rms amplitudes of the wind-generated waves increase with the fetch without the oil slick, but they do not change appreciably in the presence of the oil slick. For mechanically-generated waves with wind, wave damping by the oil slick becomes insignificant when the waves are sufficiently steep and wave breaking occurs. Prior to wave breaking, however, steepening of the wave crests due to the presence of the oil slick has been observed occasionally as a result of the reduction in the surface tension by the oil film.
THE SURVIVAL OF OIL SLICKS ON THE OCEAN AS A FUNCTION OF SEA STATE LIMIT1
Authors: Raj Phani P. K. , Griffiths Richard A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A research program is underway to obtain a better understanding of the interaction between spilled oil and sea state in order to predict the dispersion and ultimate physical fate of oil spilled in rough water. In pursuit of this goal, a theoretical study and two laboratory experimental studies are now complete. As a consequence, the lower limit of sea state at which globular dispersion of oil can be effected by ocean turbulence is calculable. The formation of oil globules by breaking waves, the penetration of globules into the water column, and the distribution of oil under breaking wave generated turbulence can also be modeled. A possible mechanism by which a coherent oil slick breaks up into small patches of oil (“slicklets”), caused by breaking waves, is described, and a simplified one-dimensional model of this effect is proposed.
Results indicate that a 3 meter (significant wave height) sea will tend to initiate globular vertical dispersion of oil, although this process would take place over only about 13 percent of the oil slick's area. To effect a horizontal surface dispersion, breaking waves with a very long crest length are necessary, a type not ordinarily found in deep water.