bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
God's Goodness
Authors: Honnefelder Ludger 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAquinas dealt with the science whose subject is God in his Summa theologiae. He focused on the determining of the predicates such as existence/being, simplicity, perfection, and goodness, characterizing God. He mentioned that one couldn't see God in his essence, but rather one cognizes him through creatures under the aspect of a cause, abstracting from creatures the mode of excellence. Aquinas concluded that every being desires its perfection, the perfection or form is a similitude of the agent that causes perfection by actualizing a thing's form, and the agent cause, itself must be something desirable and therefore good as stated in the previous definition. Aristotle defined ‘good’ as the ‘desirable’ (appetibile) only as regards active human desiring agents, Aquinas extends it beyond active agents, claiming that all beings have a fundamental desire, namely to reach their perfection. Aquinas argued that even non-rational creatures desire God insofar as God has given them a natural inclination to their ends. He also introduces and defined the predicate of perfection in order to demonstrate that God is ‘perfect’ (perfectus). Aquinas distinguished a twofold way in which something can be perfected with regard to the two predicates ‘true’ (verum) and ‘good’ (bonum). The intellect is perfected by its object according to its kind (species), the will according to its being (esse).
Human Freedom and Agency
Authors: Williams Thomas 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAquinas argued that every human action is for the sake of some end. Aquinas distinguished between a human action (actus humanus) and an action of a human being (action hominis). Human actions are those that proceed from human beings in virtue of their distinguishing power, which is to be in control of their own actions (dominus suorum actuum) through reason and will. Anything else that a human being does can be called the action of a human being, but not a human action. Human actions are those that are willed on the basis of rational deliberation. Aquinas argued that at any given time, a human being can have only one ultimate end. This single ultimate end can be an aggregate of goods that the agent regards as collectively constituting his perfection. This ultimate end, whether unitary or aggregate, must be (Aquinas argued) the ultimate explanation for all of a given person's actions. All human beings have the same ultimate end, for all human beings desire their own perfection, though different people will have different ideas about what perfection consists in. Consilium is an investigation of the means by which the intended end may be attained or realized. Consilium terminates with an act of iudicium, the intellect's judgment that one of the means that have received the will's consent is the best, all things considered.
Conscience andSynderesis
Authors: Hoffmann Tobias 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAquinas played a significant role in clarifying the concept of conscience and the theoretical problems connected with it. Aquinas assigned to synderesis principally a cognitive role. He argued that human beings have a fundamental grasp of right and wrong, which is infallible. Aquinas connected synderesis to natural law, identifying the first practical principles, of which synderesis is the habit, with the general principles of natural law. He occasionally replaced the word synderesis by the term understanding (intellectus), the intellectual virtue of grasping the first principles of reason in his Summa theologiae. Aquinas understood the directives of synderesis as formal principles, not as concrete moral norms. Aquinas conceived of synderesis as habitual knowledge. According to Aquinas, conscience is the consideration of a specific case in light of one's moral knowledge. Moral knowledge comprises the first principles of synderesis, as well as more particular moral directives. For Aquinas, the distinction of generally good, evil, and indifferent acts does not have any bearing on when erring conscience binds and when it does not. Aquinas argued that the binding character of conscience, whether erring or not, means that acting against conscience is always evil.
Practical Reasoning
Authors: Osborne Thomas 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAquinas argued that practical reason is distinct but not entirely insulated from speculative reason. Practical reason is distinct from speculative reason because it is ordered to some work or end. The difference between the practical and speculative intellects is that the speculative is concerned only with the truth, whereas the practical apprehends the truth for the sake of some further end. The rectitude of the speculative intellect consists solely in conformity to things. The practical intellect too must conform to the world but its rectitude consists further in an end or operation. It is not only measured by the world but also itself measures the world. Aquinas distinguished differently between the degrees of practical knowledge throughout his career. The basic problem is that practical knowledge is about something that can be done (operabile), but not everyone knows such a work with the purpose of doing it. Aquinas used the work of building a house to illustrate his point that knowledge can be divided according to the thing known, the way it is known, and the end for which it is known. Aquinas argued that speculative knowledge can also be made practical through the manner of knowing or the end such as an architectural student might also have speculative knowledge of a house as something that can be built.
Human Knowledge
Authors: Pickavé Martin 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe article provides an overview on Aquinas's cognitive psychology and his views about how the things can be cognized. Aquinas's account of cognition and the acquisition of knowledge are focused on two fundamental principles: sensory perception is the starting point of human cognition and there is a significant difference between sensory powers and intellect of human beings. Aquinas mentioned that human beings are equipped with a variety of sensory powers, which can be divided into two groups, the external senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch) and the internal senses (the common sense, imagination, the estimative power, memory). Aquinas concluded that human beings have a cognitive power, the intellect, which transcends the sensory powers. Aquinas described the intellect's reliance on sensation in general and the images provided by the imagination in particular with the talk of ‘connaturality’ (connaturalitas) between the intellect and the input provided by the sensory powers. Aquinas argued that cognitive acts require the reception of representational devices or ‘species’ (species). Aquinas argued that there is theological knowledge, which is a nonparadigmatic form of knowledge (scientia). The most important distinction between theological knowledge and naturally acquired knowledge is that the principles of naturally acquired knowledge are self-evident for the knowing subject, whereas the principles of theological knowledge, the articles of faith, are accepted on the basis of the light of faith, which is a gift of divine grace.
Incarnation
Authors: Gorman Michael 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe article explains Aquinas's view on incarnation. Aquinas mentioned that Christ is one individual rational substance. The incarnation is not a relationship between two rational substances such as a relationship by which the Word of God makes Jesus holy. Aquinas thought that Christ could have had every possible human perfection, but at the same time Aquinas was clear that Christ did have imperfections or defects both of body and of soul. Aquinas argued that Christ took on bodily defects for three reasons. Firstly, to be able to atone for sins of human beings by taking punishment upon himself, secondly, to make his human nature more believable, and lastly, to be able to provide us with an example of patience in the face of suffering. Aquinas would say that a good test of whether one has correct views in Christology is whether one accepts the ‘communication of idioms’, that is, the sharing of properties. Aquinas argued that everything that possesses a human nature must have absolute existence as a supposit, that is, every human being must be a supposit. There can be a human nature that is humanizing but not supposit-supporting is certainly to deviate from the usual way of thinking.
The Gifts and Fruits of the Holy Spirit
Authors: Pinsent Andrew 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAquinas and Aristotle have different views on the types of virtues. Aquinas claimed that proper or perfect virtues are not acquired, but infused in human beings by God. These infused virtues include counterparts of many of the acquired moral and intellectual virtues. Aquinas argued that only the infused virtues are perfect and deserve to be called ‘virtues’ simply. Aquinas argued that cardinal virtues are not acquired virtues. There are seven gifts, which Aquinas appended to various theological and cardinal virtues. The cognitive gifts are understanding (Intellectus) and knowledge (Scientia) that are appended to the virtue of faith, wisdom (Sapientia), appended to the virtue of caritas, and counsel (Consilium), appended to the virtue of prudence. Aquinas claimed that the gift of knowledge enables ‘participated likeness’ of God's knowledge, knowledge that is absolute and simple rather than discursive, as for the homonymous intellectual virtue. A similar notion of participation can be found in Aquinas's descriptions of the other gifts. Aquinas's descriptions of gift-based movement therefore express two main principles. First, he described a situation in which a person's stance toward some object involves a participation in God's stance toward the same object. Second, gift-based movement involves what Aquinas described as a union or oneness of the soul with God. Aquinas was clear that anyone can possess the infused virtues and gifts.
The Development of Aquinas's Thought
Authors: Pini Giorgio 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe article focuses on the evolution of Aquinas's thought during his career. A significant change can be documented with regard to Aquinas's views on the role sensory images (phantasmata) play in human intellectual cognition. In the first stage of his career, Aquinas held that there are two instances of human cognition that make exception to the general rule of the twofold function of sensory images. Later on, he rejected the view that cognitive acts occurring without abstraction from sensory images or without turning back toward sensory images can count as genuinely human acts. In his later years, Aquinas clearly adopted the view that sensory images are necessary not only to what typically counts as human cognition, but to any act of human intellectual cognition whatsoever, in any possible state. Aquinas's earlier position with regard to Christ's knowledge was that Christ had only infused, not acquired knowledge. Some years afterwards, however, Aquinas adopted the view that Christ did not have innate knowledge of all and every essence. Aquinas always held that separated souls couldn't acquire new information by abstracting intelligible species from sensory images, since separated souls are not united with their bodies and as a consequence have no access to sensory information. In his later years, he argued that human souls keep their own nature whether they are united to their bodies or are separated from them.
The Influence of Aquinas
Authors: Upham Christopher 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe article aims to understand the influence of Aquinas's doctrines. The most salient effects of Aquinas's doctrines are to be found in the medieval university setting. Aquinas earned a significant authority among some Orthodox theologians, an authority that is evident not long after his passing in 1274. By the fifteenth century, Aquinas was familiar enough in Eastern Christianity that exceptional Byzantine theologians, such as George Courtesis, would study Aquinas closely and manifest open respect for his thinking. Certain Jewish rabbis such as Hillel of Verona and Judah Romano also appreciated his works. These Italian Jews sought to interpret Moses Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed without adopting the radical Averroistic Aristotelianism of some of their contemporaries. Aquinas also acquired the title Doctor in addition to his renown as the Doctor Communis. Francisco de Vitoria made some significant contributions with his own applications of Aquinas's moral and legal doctrines to the political questions of his day. Vitoria published few works during his own lifetime, but his lectures were immensely popular. Thomas de Vio Cajetan took up the Summa theologiae, and the resulting volumes remain to this day as the standard commentary on Aquinas's masterpiece, published along with the Summa theologiae in the leonine edition.
Puritanism
Authors: Shuffelton Frank 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article narrates how Transcendentalism and Puritanism, despite basic differences, are literally related. Transcendentalism was a New England phenomenon and Puritanism had deeply laid foundations there. The article explains the arguments of the Transcendentalists and Puritans and how they differed in their opinions on the similarity of both the “isms.” There were differences among Transcendentalists itself on the matter. Subjects such as the concept of God, the meaning of life and the morality of man were thoroughly defined and redefined. Though the Puritan doctrines did not hold appeal for long, the spirit of the Puritan ancestors was everywhere in New England. For the Puritans, who in other respects held very conventional notions of gender roles, saving grace was a great equalizer. The most deeply felt link between the Puritans and Transcendentalists might be less in the beliefs themselves than in the ways in which they lived out their beliefs as saints and prophets.
Unitarianism
Authors: Grodzins Dean 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article explains the connection of the New England Unitarianism to the emergence and development of Transcendentalism and the circumstances in which the emergence took place. The article states that all of the members of the Transcendentalist movement were affiliated at some point with New England Unitarian churches. Some were even Unitarians throughout their lives; some started in another faith and became Unitarians. Most of the leading male Transcendentalists spent part or all of their careers as Unitarian ministers. Transcendentalists looked upon Unitarian leaders as mentors. The religious descendants of the Unitarians, the Unitarian Universalists, take pride in Transcendentalism as part of their particular denominational heritage. The article also talks about the many dimensions of the relationship between Transcendentalists and “mainstream Unitarians”. One significant theological difference between mainstream Unitarians and Transcendentalists was their divergent views of the significance and historicity of biblical miracles, particularly the miracles of Jesus.
World Revolutions
Authors: Ziser Michael 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The nineteenth century was a period of revolutions in Europe and America. This article explains how Transcendentalism responded to the revolutions. The article discusses Transcendentalism as movement in the wake of three major revolutions in the period—The American, Haiti, and French Revolutions. Most of the Transcendentalists were well acquainted with the revolutions at the initial stage itself, and this was seen in their thoughts and writings. For the Transcendentalists Haiti was a touchstone for lingering questions about the justice of the French Revolution and the proper tactics of the U.S. abolitionist movement. The article states that the French Revolution played a relatively small role in the imaginations of the Transcendentalists despite its enormous significance to European and world history. The reasons for this were various, including the historical and cultural distance of antebellum New England from eighteenth-century France.
Politics and Economics
Authors: Gougeon Len 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
It was during the period 1830 to 1860, which was called “the era of reform”, that the Transcendentalist movement flourished. This article talks about the political and economic changes that took place in America during that time and how they helped the Transcendentalists to prosper with their ideology. This was the time in which America experienced change on all the levels, including migration from Europe. Though the Transcendentalists had taken part in the capitalist market economy, they strongly argued to alter it in favor of the working class. They demanded political and economic reforms and spent their time projecting poverty, women's rights, and labor reform. Recognition for the honor and dignity of labor in the new market economy was widely demanded for the future felicity of American democracy. The Transcendentalists also criticized the growing materialism and capitalistic emphasis on property, which seemed to dominate America's social consciousness
Woman's Rights and Feminism
Authors: Cole Phyllis 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article outlines a tradition of women and their male supporters who addressed the status of women in a Transcendentalist vein. Transcendentalist women found influence in writers and therefore headed in that direction. Women had no Harvard regimen to boycott or nay pulpit or citizenship from which to stand aside as they were denied access to higher studies. They claimed the power of private thought and by so doing made a case for authority in church and republic. Margaret Fuller's career was one of the best examples of it and her contributions are projected throughout the article. Well-read women became writers, first in letters and diaries, but then by submitting their work to periodicals. Even book publication, though unconventional, was not barred by the formal gender prescriptions of church and state. The article states that private letters and journals were the sources that expressed the most unfiltered thoughts of Transcendentalist women.
Transcendentalist Communities
Authors: Delano Sterling F. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article is about the major similarities and differences between Brook Farm and Fruitlands, America's two celebrated utopian communities with roots in Transcendentalism. Accounts of them invariably stress their differences rather than their similarities because the differences were so obvious. While Fruitlands had a brief existence and did not attract many people, Brook Farm attracted hundreds of people. An important and substantive difference between Brook Farm and Fruitlands was the Transcendental impulse that inspired each community. At Fruitlands, Alcott and Lane followed extreme forms of Transcendentalist beliefs. Despite the differences, the entire Alcott family visited Brook Farm several occasions. Their idea of education shows the similarities which existed between them. The article, as a whole, helps to provide a better understanding of the complex nature of Transcendentalism.
Sermons
Authors: Roberson Susan L. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article explains how Transcendentalists used sermons in the early days when oratory was highly regarded and it also looks at how preachers participated in this influential form of communication. This period is one when Christianity was thoroughly criticized and different opinions were expressed on each and every concept of it. As the Higher Critics questioned the authenticity of certain biblical stories, the understanding of what constitutes a miracle and its role in verifying religious truths also came under scrutiny. While emphasizing the humanity of Jesus, the Higher Critics also questioned the authority of the person of Jesus. Ministers such as Emerson and Ripley left the Unitarian church. The article states, along with the figures from biblical history, Transcendentalist ministers also took examples from history and current events while giving sermons. Emerson frequently referred to Julius Caesar, George Washington, Socrates, and Christopher Columbus and told his congregation to read the biographies of great and good men.
The Visual Arts
Authors: von Frank Albert J. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article looks at the influence of the visual arts among Transcendentalists and how they used the art of painting in favor of the movement. When the Transcendentalist movement began, the United States simply had no art or art had not yet generated any language for asserting its place in the country. The article states that this situation provided both advantages and disadvantages for the Transcendentalists. It promised freedom to extemporize ways of talking about art and beauty and they used that freedom very productively, though for a very brief period. The Transcendentalists' most consequential contact with the painter's art came in the spring of 1839. They also had their own view on the art of painting and the painter. They believed that the measure of the painter's ability was the depth to which he penetrated the world of matter, not the number or the accuracy of his facts.
Photography
Authors: Meehan Sean Ross 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Transcendentalism's interest in early photography. The article states that that interest has been much neglected and that this speaks to contradictions that characterize both technologies, photography and writing, as processes for mediating vision and communication. The article states that both photography and Transcendentalism were connected in time, as the visual medium of image reproduction was discovered in a series of experiments in Europe throughout the early nineteenth century and officially introduced in both Europe and the United States in 1839. Photography and Transcendentalism are also connected in thought; indeed. We might imaginatively think of Transcendentalism as a sort of communication medium, much as we consider the photographic invention, given the mutual interest that we find in each for the other. The article also explains that Transcendentalists used stunning photographs of nature and other things in their books
Transcendental Virtue
Authors: Cafaro Philip 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article assesses the virtues of Transcendentalism as a movement and the effects that brought it about in American society. It says that Transcendentalists sought to transcend old, tired forms of worship and rules for living not simply because they were constraints, but also because they impeded rather than served the impulse to worship and know the divine, including the divinity of moral law. The Transcendentalists claimed that the prayers and even the dogmas of the church were wholly insulated from the life and business of the people. The article states that transcendentalists argued for complete individual freedom in worshipping. And, many people embraced this approach simply because it meant greater freedom, just as others instinctively recoiled from it out of constitutional timidity. The article notes that the Transcendentalists saw dead forms and unthinking in ethics too. They questioned the lethargic practices and an unquestioning acceptance of conventional moral judgments too.