bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Effect of Two Different Bits on Tensile Forces in Side Reins
Authors: Potz I , Pospisil K , Peham C 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe effect of bits on the mouth of the horse is a source of controversy in animal welfare discussions. The goal of this study was to determine the influence of two different bits on tensile forces in side reins applied to exercising horses.MethodsTen Warmblood horses (2 mares, 8 geldings; mean age: 12.4 ± 5.3 years) were assessed during walk and trot on a treadmill. Side reins were used to position the horse's head so that the nose was nearly vertical. Two different bits were utilised: a double jointed snaffle (bit 1) and a mullen mouth snaffle (bit 2). Rein forces were measured with an electronic sensor based on a force sensing resistor (27 g, sample rate 120 Hz, Interlink Electronics corp.), synchronized with a kinematic system (10 cameras, 120 Hz, Motion Analysis corp.). The force sensors were calibrated with masses of 1 Kg (=9.81 N) and 4 Kg (=39.24 N). Statistical analysis was performed using the software SPSS. Normality of data was checked with the Kolmogorov‐Smirnov‐test and data were analysed with repeated measures ANOVA (P<0.05).ResultsMaximum tensile forces differed significantly between the two bits. Maximum forces at walk were 16 ± 1.9 N using bit 1 and 15.7 ± 1.9 N using bit 2. At trot the forces (12.7 ± 2.0 N bit 1; 10.4 ± 1.8 N bit 2) were significantly reduced compared to walk. There was no significant difference between left and right rein forces.ConclusionsThe type of bit has an effect on the tensile forces in the side reins and hence on the forces exerted on the mouth of the horse.Ethical Animal ResearchThis study was approved by the local ethics commission. Sources of funding: University of Veterinary Medicine of Vienna. Competing interests: none.
The Effect of Perineural Anesthesia and Handler Position on Limb Loading and Hoof Balance of the Vertical Ground Reaction Force in Sound Horses
Authors: Van de Water E , Oosterlinck M , Willekens S , Pille F 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionTo facilitate interpretation of limb loading and hoof balance obtained by pressure plate analysis in lame horses, the effects of handler position and perineural anesthesia in sound horses need investigation.MethodsSix sound Warmblood horses were walked and trotted over a pressure plate, with the handler at the left and subsequently the right side, and before and after a bilateral palmar digital nerve block. One week later, this procedure was repeated before and after a bilateral abaxial sesamoid nerve block. Peak vertical force (PVF), vertical impulse (VI) and stance time (ST) of 5 hoof prints of both forelimbs were obtained (126 Hz). Asymmetry ratios were calculated.Toe‐heel and medio‐lateral hoof balance curves of the vertical force were calculated. Mixed model ANOVA was used for statistical analysis of asymmetry ratios (α = 0.05). Hoof balance curves were assessed qualitatively.ResultsThere were no significant effects of handler position and perineural anesthesia on PVF and VI; small but significant effects of perineural anesthesia on ST at walk were associated with variability in horses′ speed between sessions at walk (P = 0.046); no significant differences at trot. Hoof balance curves were not affected by handler position or perineural anesthesia, and were highly repeatable within each individual horse.ConclusionsThe lack of any effect of handler position or perineural anaesthesia on limb loading and toe‐heel and medial‐lateral hoof balance in sound horses makes it probable that significant aberrations found using pressure plate analysis are related to abnormalities and hence may be relevant in lameness diagnosis.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was approved by the ethical committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Ghent University (n° 2012/151). Sources of funding: Ghent University. Competing interests: none.
Internal Foot Kinematics Using High‐Speed Fluoroscopy
Authors: Weller R , Bryars J , Roach J , Pfau T 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe navicular bone (NB) and the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) are common sites of lameness. Greater knowledge of foot mechanics will aid in understanding of the aetiopathogenesis and may provide new opportunities for treatment and prevention. It was hypothesised that changes in the distal interphalangeal joint (DIPj) and movement of the NB and DDFT during the stance phase will lead to changes in the moment arm of the DDFT around the DIPj.MethodsInternal hoof kinematics were determined using a high‐speed fluoroscopy system. Six horses were walked and trotted over a raised platform consisting of four force plates, through the field of view of the fluoroscopy system. The angles of the DIPj and the DDFT around the navicular bone and the moment arm of the DDFT were measured. Changes in these parameters during stance and differences between strides, gaits and horses were assessed using an ANOVA or paired T‐test as appropriate (P<0.05).ResultsThe range of motion (ROM, mean ± SD) during stance of the DIPJ was 28.6 ± 4.6° (walk) and 26.5 ± 6.3 (trot) with significant differences between gaits, strides and horses (P<0.001). The angle change of the DDFT around the NB was 21.9 ± 6.0° in walk and 26.6 ± 6.5 in trot. The change in moment arm of the DDFT around the DIPj was 3.7 ± 1.3 mm in walk and 4.1 ± 2.2 mm in trot. There were no significant differences between the different time points during stance or between gaits.ConclusionsHigh‐speed fluoroscopy is a novel method that allows assessment of internal foot kinematics. The observed changes between gaits during stance may result in altered stress distribution in the DDFT. Further studies will evaluate the effect of farriery intervention on internal foot kinematics.Ethical Animal Researchthis study was approved by the authors′ institution's ethics and welfare committee. Sources of funding: Royal Veterinary College. Competing interests: none.
Comparison of Cumulative Effects of Four Days of Alternate or Continuous Training on Expression of Selected Mitochondrial Genes in Rat Skeletal Muscle
Authors: Davie A , Yao M , Wang Y , Huang L , Zhou S 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionAdaptations to training include the accumulation of specific proteins. The ideal stimulus that alters gene transcriptive response that initiates changes in protein concentration is important for adaptations.MethodsFifty‐four male Sprague‐Dawley rats were randomly divided into 9 experimental groups, with six rats in each group. The groups consisted of: control (group 1); one day of training (2); continuous training groups who trained for a further two to four days followed by three days recovery (3,4,5,6); alternate‐day training consisting of a further two to four sessions (7,8,9) finishing on the 7th day. On each training day, the animals ran on a motor driven treadmill at a slope of 10° and a speed of 19.3 m/min (∼76%VO2max) for 90 minutes. Gastrocnemius muscle specimens were obtained from the respective groups 1 hour after training ceased. Real‐time PCR was performed to determine the changes (in fold) in mRNA of PGC1α, COXIV, CaMKIV, NRF1, AMPKα1 and α2, and mtTFA. One‐way ANOVA was used in comparisons of the mean values between groups.ResultsThe results showed that mRNA expression was significantly different between the training groups for AMPkα1 after the 3rd training session, PGC1α after the 4th training session, with CaMKIV significantly different following three days of recovery. COXIV and mtTFA were not significantly different at any point.ConclusionsTraining design has differing effects on expression of the selected genes. This data has provided insight into the importance of training design and recovery intervals which warrants a need for further research.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was approved by the Southern Cross University Animal Care and Ethics Committee. Sources of funding: None declared. Competing interests: none.
Muscle Fibre Type Distribution of the Thoracolumbar and Hindlimb Regions of Horses: Relating Fibre Type and Functional Role
Authors: Hyytiäinen H , Mykkänen A , Hielm‐Björkman A , Stubbs N , McGowan C 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe muscle fibre type (MFT) of the deep epaxial musculature has not been determined in horses. The objective was to determine the MFT distribution in selected muscles of thoracolumbar and hindlimb region of horses. This included deep epaxial and hypaxial muscles that were hypothesised to have a postural stabilising role. A second objective was to examine differences in MFT distribution between Arabians and Quarter horses.MethodsMuscle biopsy samples (114) were obtained from 5 Quarter horses, 4 Arabians, and 2 Thoroughbreds. The myosin heavy chain distribution was determined by gel electrophoresis. Mann‐Whitney rank test was used to compare the proportional MFT content and differences between breeds.ResultsMm. sacrocaudalis dorsalis medialis and diaphragm had the highest proportion of MFT‐I, 84.1% (±18.4) and 72.4% (±12.5), respectively. The remaining deep epaxial muscles and the hypaxial m. psoas minor had approximately equal MFT‐I and II proportions. Mm. psoas major, iliocostalis, longissimus dorsi and the hind limb muscles contained mostly MFT‐IIX: from 50.5% (±12.8) to 67.9% (±7.3). Quarter horses had significantly more MFT‐IIX in m. psoas major 60.8% (±9.1) than Arabians 41.9% (±3.2). Arabians had significantly more MFT‐I fibres in m. longissimus dorsi 16.9% (±4.6) than Quarter horses 9.9% (±1.4) (P<0.05).ConclusionsThe MFT distribution of the deep epaxial muscles, mm. psoas minor and diaphragm, suggest a postural stabilizing role in contrast to the fibre type proportions of the hindlimb muscles. The findings can direct diagnosis, prevention and treatment of muscular or neuromotor dysfunction in the thoracolumbar and hind limb area.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was approved by the University of Queensland Animal Ethics Committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.
Intra‐Operator and Inter‐Operator Reliability and Repeatability of Muscle Measurement Via Ultrasonography in the Equine Cervical Spine
Authors: Rombach N , Stubbs N 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionUltrasonography is used for functional assessment of deep peri‐vertebral muscles in people with neck pain. This study evaluated intra‐operator and inter‐operator reliability and repeatability of ultrasound image acquisition (US) and muscle cross‐sectional area measurement (CSA) of m. multifidus and m. longus colli in the equine cervical spine.MethodsTwo US operators independently acquired 60 unilateral US images per horse from 5 standing horses (mean ± SD: age: 12.1 ± 10.5 years) at spinal levels C3‐C6 (m. multifidus) and C2‐C5 (m. longus colli). Each operator traced each image blindly three times (n = 360 per operator) to calculate CSA. ANOVA analysis compared CSA across all subjects within and between operators for effects of vertebral level, reliability of image acquisition and repeatability of CSA calculation.ResultsIntra‐operator results for m. multifidus were 72% (ICC) and 5% (CV), and 90% (ICC) and 4% (CV) between operators. Image acquisition was unreliable at C6. Intra‐operator results for m. longus colli were 100% (ICC) and 0% (CV), and 77% (ICC) and 0% (CV) between operators. Image acquisition was unreliable at C2. CSA for both muscles was largest at C4 and C5.ConclusionsUltrasonography could be used reliably and repeatably for CSA measurement of m. multifidus and m. longus colli in the mid‐cervical spine of the horse. Further studies will determine reliability across time and CSA side‐side symmetry in horses with neck pain.Ethical Animal ResearchApproval for this study was obtained under Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee number 02‐11/020‐00. Sources of funding: Michigan State University CVM Endowed Research Funds. Competing interests: none.
Training of Horses Used for Show Jumping and its Effect on VLa4
Authors: Munk R , Hedegaard L , Möller S , Lindner A 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThere are few data on training horses used for show jumping (SJ) in practice. This study presents such data and relates it to changes of VLa4 during an outdoors season (VLa4 = speed at which a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/l is achieved).MethodsThe training of 19 SJ (11 managed by professional trainer, PSJ, and 8 by amateur riders, ASJ) was documented and related to changes of VLa4. All horses were submitted to 3 standardized exercise tests (SET) to calculate VLa4: April/May, June/July, September: SET1, SET2, SET3. Noted daily were: Minutes of turn‐out on pasture, of walking in horse‐walker, of lungeing and of specific exercise (gymnastics, jumping and others). Data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA (Fisher's test as applicable) or linear regression.ResultsThe duration of the specific exercises ranged between 30–60 minutes. PSJ were exercised less often and duration of each specific exercise was lower than for ASJ (P = 0.01). Considering all horses, the VLa4 increased between SET1 and SET2 when the duration of exercise and gymnastics was longer and the number of days on pasture higher (P<0.05 both). These relationships became not significant when groups were analysed separately. The VLa4 of ASJ increased between SET2 and SET3 when horses were kept on pasture for more time (P<0.05, r2 = 0.64). The VLa4 of PSJ tended to increase with a higher percentage of jumping days between SET1 and SET2 (P = 0.08, r2 = 0.30), and with longer duration of jumping exercise sessions between SET2 and SET3 (P = 0.06; r2 = 0.33).ConclusionsThe information may help to improve the training of show jumpers.Ethical Animal ResearchHorse owners gave consent for these procedures within a veterinary monitoring system. Sources of funding: none declared. Competing interests: none.
The Relationship Between Blood Lactate, Serum Muscle Enzymes, Jumping Performance and Muscle Soreness in Show‐Jumping Horses
Authors: Roberts C , Harris P , Murray R , Cnockaert R , Roberts C 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThere is relatively little information concerning physiological factors affecting show‐jumping performance. This study examined the relationship between show‐jumping exercise, muscle soreness, serum muscle enzyme activity and blood lactate concentration.MethodsTen mixed breed horses (9.1 ± 1.9 yrs) were assessed at a British Equestrian Federation (BEF) World Class Performance three‐day training session. Riders received coaching during warm‐up and after jumping a 15 fence course (1.35–1.45 m) once on day one and twice on day two; on day three the second round was an 8 fence jump‐off. Veterinary and physiotherapy assessments of muscle soreness were performed daily before and after exercise. An international coach graded jumping technique. Blood was obtained before and on two occasions after jumping (1 minute, two hours) for measurement of serum CK and AST, and blood lactate concentration. Data were analysed using regression procedures or Spearman correlation, and Wilcoxon signed‐rank test (P<0.05).ResultsBlood lactate significantly increased one minute after jumping on all three days (P = 0.003 for all). When two rounds were jumped, lactate was significantly lower after the second round compared to the first (P = 0.006, P = 0.014). There was a positive correlation between blood lactate one minute after jumping and number of faults scored daily and overall (R2 = 0.61; P<0.01), decreased jumping technique grade (R2 = 0.69; P<0.01) and increased gluteal muscle soreness on day two (r = 0.75; P = 0.012). Plasma CK activity one minute, and 2 hours after jumping was significantly higher than before jumping on all days (P<0.01).ConclusionsHorses with higher blood lactate concentrations after jumping demonstrated decreased jumping performance and were more likely to display muscle soreness.Ethical Animal ResearchExplicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: The World Class Development Programme is funded by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, through Exchequer and National Lottery funds, via UK Sport. Competing interests: none.
Effects of Age and Exercise Training on Oxidation of Skeletal Muscle and Blood in Mature and Yearling Horses
Authors: Smarsh D , Williams C 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe objective of this study was to determine if yearlings would have higher oxidative stress and lower antioxidant status than mature mares after a single bout of intense exercise before and after training.MethodsSeven Standardbred yearling fillies (18 ± 2.4 mo) and seven mares (13 ± 2.1 yr) ran a repeated sprints exercise test before (RSET1) and after (RSET2) an 8‐wk training protocol. Blood samples and middle gluteal muscle samples were taken before and after exercise, and throughout recovery. Data is presented as mean ± SE and all analyses were done in the context of a linear mixed model with random intercepts for horse.ResultsIn RSET1, mares had higher plasma malondialdehyde than the yearlings (P<0.05), but the yearlings had higher muscle malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, glutathione and glutathione peroxidase, erythrocyte total glutathione and glutathione peroxidase (P<0.05). In RSET2, yearlings had higher plasma nitric oxide than the mares (P<0.05). In RSET2, the mares had lower plasma malondialdehyde, and higher muscle malondialdehyde, total glutathione and nitric oxide as compared to RSET1 (P<0.05). The yearlings in RSET2 had higher muscle nitric oxide and lower erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase than in RSET1 (P<0.05). Plasma cortisol, creatine kinase and muscle glutathione peroxidase had little difference with age or training.ConclusionsPrior to training, the yearlings had lower lipid peroxidation and higher antioxidants than the mares. Training reduced oxidative stress and improved antioxidant status in the mares, while few effects of training were seen in the yearlings. This suggests that age is an important defense against exercise‐induced oxidative stress.Ethical Animal ResearchRutgers University Institutional Animal Care and Use Review Board approved the study. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.
Innate Variability in Voluntary Drinking in Arabian Horses during Endurance Exercise
Authors: Butudom P , Spooner H , Duesterdiek‐Zellmer K , Harris P , Schott II H 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionHuman athletes have been characterized as either ‘good drinkers’ or ‘poor drinkers’ on the basis of voluntary water intake during and after endurance exercise. Similarly, riders of endurance horses have described some horses to be better drinkers than others; however, there are no data in horses to substantiate these claims.MethodsVoluntary fluid intake (FI) by twenty four 2‐year‐old Arabian horses that performed 45–60 km of treadmill exercise in four experiments was recorded. All horses were raised similarly and had no training except a 12 week conditioning period before each experiment. Mean FI intake (each horse performed three or four exercise tests in each experiment) was subjected to cluster analysis to separate horses into poor, average, and excellent drinking groups. FI was also correlated to body weight (BW) loss at the end of the exercise test.ResultsCluster analysis separated horses into poor drinkers (n = 10, FI 8.7 ± 0.7 liters and BW loss of 2.2 ± 0.4%); average drinkers (n = 11, FI 14.1 ± 0.6 liters and BW loss of 1.8 ± 0.2%); and excellent drinkers (n = 3, FI 24.9 ± 0.2 liters and BW loss of 0.7 ± 0.3%). FI was inversely correlated with BW loss (R values between −0.53 and −0.87 for all four experiments, P<0.01).ConclusionsThese data, in groups of young, similarly trained horses, are the first to support that there are innate differences in voluntary drinking during and after endurance exercise in this species.Ethical Animal ResearchAll procedures were approved by the Animal Use Committee of Michigan State University Sources of funding: Equine Health Research Fund of the American Horse Shows Association, WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, and the Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University. Competing interests: none.
Influence of Exercise in the Occurrence of Gastric Ulcers in Horses
Authors: Ribeiro G , Silva LCLC , Belli CB , Mirian M , Fernandes WR 
Published: June 2014

IntroductionThe most frequently reported causes of gastric ulcers in horses are fasting, type of feed and management, and the administration of some drugs. More recently, physical exercise has also been pointed out as an important factor in the development of gastric lesions in athletic horses. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether treadmill exercise predisposes to the occurrence of gastric ulcers in horses.MethodsFive Arabian horses were exercised on a high‐speed treadmill during twelve weeks. The animals were submitted to gastroscopy before the beginning and the end of the training period. The lesions were classified according to the method proposed by Macallister [1] that assigns scores for number and severity of injuries, with modifications to give a total score for the stomach, considering not only the presence and severity of ulcers, but also other findings as gastritis, hyperkeratosis, desquamation of the mucosa. The results obtained in the two periods were compared using the Wilcoxon test, with significance at P<0.05.ResultsIn the first gastroscopy two animals had very low scores for lesion number and severity and three horses had no injury. In contrast, in the second evaluation, all animals had higher scores. A significant difference was observed between the two periods (before and after training) considering both methods of gastric lesion classification.ConclusionsWe concluded that Arabian horses exercised on a treadmill may develop gastric lesions. The possible influence of these lesions on athletic performance and other parameters should be considered by researchers who study equine exercise physiology.Ethical Animal ResearchThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee on Animal Use (protocol number 1741). Sources of funding: FAPESP 2012/10886‐3. Competing interests: none.