bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Jerusalem
Authors: Klein Konstantin M. , Weikert J. Christopher 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJerusalem was a major city of the ancient Levant, situated between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, close to the watershed of the Judaean mountains, approximately 800 m above sea level.seeJudaea. The city is built on various hills, flanked on the east and south by the Kidron and Hinnom valleys, respectively, and is intersected by the Tyropoeon Valley.
Life of Adam and Eve
Authors: Magliano‐Tromp Johannes 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheLife of Adam and Eveis an early Jewish or Christian writing about the expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise. It is also known under the titleApocalypse of Moses. Taking its lead from the story in Genesis 3, it recounts the well‐known events, enriched abundantly with apocryphal details. The writings is extant in numerous versions and manuscripts, showing that it has been one of the most widespread writings in the Christian world. Almost all of these offer a different form of the story, showing in addition that the transmitters' interest in it was not antiquarian, but lively, and continually nurtured by oral tradition.
Revolts, Jewish
Authors: Danzig David , Fine Steven 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
These revolts occurred five times between 167 and 351. These include four revolts in Judaea – the Hasmonean Revolt (167–164), the First Jewish Revolt (66–74), and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135), and perhaps another under Gallus (351–352). A fifth revolt took place in diasporan communities between 114 and 117. Compared to other colonized peoples of the Greco‐Roman world, the Jews were unique in their repeated military resistance to Greco‐Roman domination. This exceptional fact is due to the combination of swells of zealotry and Judaism's intolerance of other gods and cults. Other ethnic groups adapted by continuing a long tradition of syncretism between local and hegemonic cults.
Theodotus, poet
Authors: Hilton Naomi 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Theodotus (third to second century
BCE
) is named by Eusebius of Caesarea as the author of a single poem about the rape of Dinah at Shechem (Gen 34), that provides a fine early example of a Hellenized tradition of biblical interpretation. Eight fragments have been preserved by Eusebius,
Praeparatio Evangelica
(9.22.1–11), quoting as his source Alexander Polyhistor (ca. 105–35
BCE
).
Court (ecclesiastical)
Authors: Humfress Caroline 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe term “ecclesiastical court” covers a range of different institutional forums within the Late Antique Christian church. Defined narrowly, the term refers to the so‐calledepiscopalis audientia(the “bishop's hearing”); defined more generally, it can refer to any judicial forum presided over by clerics, including hearings before ecclesiastical synods and councils.
Cyril of Skythopolis
Authors: Klein Konstantin M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Cyril, a monk and author of hagiography was born around 525 (cf. Price/Binns 1991: xxxviii) in the town of Beth Shean which was re‐named Skythopolis in Hellenistic times and became the capital of the province of
Palaestina Secunda toward
s the end of the fourth century
CE
(Malalas 13.41).
John Lydusm
Authors: Pazdernik Charles F. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

John Lydus (ca. 490–554
CE
;
PLRE 2
s.v. Ioannes Lydus 75), born in Philadelphia, the chief city of the province of Lydia (hence his cognomen), son of Laurentius and a close contemporary of the historian Procopius of Caesarea, is known to us through three extant works and notices in Photius (
Bibl
. 180) and the
Suda
(I 465).
Kellia and Sketis, monasticism at
Authors: Davis Stephen J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Located on the western outskirts of the Egyptian Delta, Kellia (“the Cells;” Gr.
Kellia
; Copt.
n‐ri
) and Sketis (Gr.
Skêtis
; Copt.
Shiêt
; Ar.
Wâdî Habîb
or
Wâdî al‐Natrûn
) were internationally known centers for early Christian monasticism from the beginning of the fourth century of the common era.
Kellis
Authors: Hope Colin A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Kellis is a well‐preserved village in Dakhleh Oasis, within Egypt's Western Desert, which was occupied during the first four centuries
CE
. Its remains include temples and churches, residential sectors, storage facilities, and cemeteries, yielding a rich assemblage of artifacts and inscribed material, on papyrus, wooden boards, and potsherds, of value in the wider study of Roman Egypt, indicating the importance of studying desert communities.
Lateranus
Authors: Goodson Caroline J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe name “Lateran” given to the fourth century basilica and later papal palace in the east of Rome refers to the consul whose property there, theaedes Lateranorum, was seized by the emperor Nero in the first century, and theaedes Laterani, a residence given by Septimius Severus to his general T. Sextus Lateranus.
Notitia Dignitatum
Authors: Palme Bernhard 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Notitia dignitatum tam civilium quam militarium in partibus orientis/occidentis
(ND) presents itself as a schematic manual, which itemizes the civil and military hierarchy of the later Roman Empire. Divided into an eastern section (Or.) and a western section (
Occ
.), its approximately three thousand six hundred lines of text provide an overview of the high civil and military officials in order of seniority. The
ND
comprises ninety chapters, each describing an official or military commander by his rank and title, the area of competence, the subaltern personnel of the bureaus or the units, and the garrisons under his command. The
ND
offers a unique insight into the organization of the later Roman Empire from the top positions at the courts –beginning with the
praefecti praetorio
in the civil branch and the
magistri militum
in the armed forces – down to the dioceses and provinces, as well as the military commands and the distribution of the troops. Colorful illustrations, depicting up to twenty objects, show the
insignia
of each position, vignettes of the major towns in the area of responsibility, the shield emblems of the military units, and allegorical representations of the provinces (
simulacra provinciarum
) (Berger 1981; Grigg 1983; Di Dario 2005). In its extant form, the
ND
is the greatest surviving source for the bureaucracy of the Late Empire. Though highly problematic, it is of outstanding importance for the administrative and military history of the fourth and fifth centuries CE.
Aestimatio litis
Authors: Pölönen Janne 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAestimatio litisis the pecuniary assessment of award that completed, when needed, the trial phase of the Roman legal process. In the oldest civil action, that by oath, the sentence of the Iudex–actually the magistrate–deciding the matter of right was followed by the appointment of private arbitrator(s) to assess the amount of compensation or damages, a procedure calledarbitrium liti aestimandae(Magdelain 1995: 130–43).
Axones
Authors: Harris Edward M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Several ancient authors report that the laws of
draco
about homicide and the laws of
solon
were inscribed on objects called
axones
, which were numbered. The laws of Draco about homicide were written on at least two different
axones
, and the laws of Solon on twenty‐one or more. There has been some debate among modern scholars about whether the
axones
were the same as objects called
kyrbeis
, on which the laws of Draco and Solon were also written. Aristophanes of Byzantium thought that the
axones
contained laws and the
kyrbeis
sacrifices, but the two appear to have preserved similar material and were probably identical. The scholar
eratosthenes
writing in the third century
BCE
says that the word
kyrbeis
was another word for
axones
and that they were three‐sided. The scholar Polemon attacks this view and states that they were wooden and four‐sided and placed in the
prytaneion
. The name
axon
implies that they were like axles and rotated so that one could see their different sides. The
axones
appear to have survived at least as late as the third century
BCE
and possibly later.
Cheirographon
Authors: Yiftach‐Firanko Uri 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Originally,
cheirographon
(from Greek
cheir
, hand) denotes an autograph confirmation, especially in connection with a legal act. This is the case, for example, in Delphic manumission inscriptions from the late Hellenistic and early Roman period (cf.
FD
III 6:12 ll. 10–12), and in the Latin legal documentation of later republican and early imperial Italy (Kaser 1971: 234 n. 33).
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, speeches of
Authors: Alexander Michael C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Tullius Cicero (106–43BCE) became Rome's leading orator after he successfully prosecuted Gaius Verres in 70, unseating Hortensius, the defense speaker in that case, who had previously enjoyed that distinction. In terms of datable speeches, his oratorical career began with his representation of P. Quinctius, the plaintiff in a private suit in the spring of 81, and ended with his invective in the Senate against P. Servilius Isauricus on April 9, 43. Fifty‐eight speeches have survived in whole or in substantial part, and Crawford (1984) lists eighty‐eight lost and unpublished orations, and sixteen fragmentary speeches. These speeches fall into all three of the standard oratorical categories: deliberative, judicial, and epideictic.
Lex curiata
Authors: Tuori Kaius 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlex curiatawas alaw or decision ratified by the Roman popular assembly called thecomitia curiata. The origins of thelex curiataunder the kings and in the Early Republic are controversial, but it survived into the Early Principate in aritualized form for the performance of certain important functions, such as granting Imperium to magistrates.
Draco
Authors: Scafuro Adele C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDraco, thought to be the first Athenian to write down laws ([Arist.]Ath. Pol. 4.1, 41.2), was renowned in later tradition for severity (Plut.Sol. 17: “For one penalty was assigned to almost all transgressions, namely death, so that even those convicted of idleness were put to death, and those who stole vegetables or fruit got the same punishment as temple robbers and killers”).
Homicide, Rome
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe crime of homicide in Roman law cannot be defined as modern criminal law defines it, since the very concept of “murder” was not always easily distinguished from lawful killing, an element of paternal power and of theImperiumof some magistrates, for a very long time; and because in the most archaic stages of its development, criminal law was more focused on concepts such as blood vengeance or thePax Deorumthan on repression of murder in itself.
Institutiones
, of Gaius
Authors: Miglietta Massimo 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Although scholars are still uncertain about the true biographical data of the Roman jurist Gaius — we only know that he lived in the second century
CE
, worked during the principates of Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), and declared himself a scholar of the famous Sabinian law school — there is no doubt that his
Institutiones
(“Institutes”) represent one of the most important and well‐known works in the whole body of Roman juridical writing.
Legis actio
Authors: Schermaier Martin J , Dedek Helge 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLegis actio– “action according to the law” – is the most ancient form of Roman procedure known to us. What the phrase describes is even today amatter of contention:lexmight refer to ancient laws (in the sense of statutes) – such as theleges XII tabularumorleges regiae– as well as to the procedural Formula itself that marks the beginning of the lawsuit.
Loan, Greek and Roman
Authors: Rovira‐Guardiola Charo 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe practice of lending was widespread in the Classical world. It varied from private personal loans of small amounts of money or objects to large amounts, such as the loan that paid for the Second Punic War. Lending was satirized in plays and criticized in ancient literature, but this did not make the practice less popular or less essential for the development of the economic system.
Mancipium
Authors: Banfi Antonio 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The meaning of
mancipium
is not univocal. The etymology points to a derivation from
manu capere
(“take with the hand;” Varr. 6.85).
Mancipium
is therefore related to other words with the same origin, such as
mancipatio, res mancipi
(
see
Mancipatio), and so on.
Obligation, Greek and Roman
Authors: Dedek Helge , Schermaier Martin J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJustinian'sInstitutesdefined the concept of obligation as follows:Obligatio est iuris vinculum quo necessitate adstringimur alicuius solvendae rei secundum nostrae civitatis iura(Just.Inst. 3.13.pr) (theobligatiois a “legal tie” (iuris vinculum) that binds us to render a performance to another person according to our laws).
Graphe paranomon
Authors: Rhodes P. J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A
graphe paranomon
was an Athenian lawsuit (“public suit for illegality”), available for one year (or perhaps within the official year when the proposal was made) against the proposer of a decree of the assembly and indefinitely against the decree (Dem. 23.
Aristocrates
104, not specifying the time; but cf. Dem. 20.
Lept
. 144, a comparable suit against a law, Dem. 20.
Leptines, hyp
. 2.3, mentioning decrees and laws).
Peculium
Authors: Lohsse Sebastian 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In a Roman family, the oldest living male ancestor (Paterfamilias) was the only person said to be in his own power (
sui iuris
). Accordingly, proprietary capacity lay solely with him. Any acquisitions by his children, whatever their age, and by his slaves automatically vested in him. Yet sons in the power of their father as well as slaves could be provided with a
peculium
, i.e., funds to manage for themselves. Although such funds technically still belonged to the
paterfamilias
, they were, in practice, regarded as the son's or slave's own property.
Recuperatores
Authors: Rüfner Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Recuperatores
(literally “recoverers”) is the Roman law term for judges who sat in civil proceedings in groups of three or five instead of the single judge (

IUDEX

) usually competent to decide civil actions. In the eastern provinces, the term
xenokritai
was sometimes used for Roman
recuperatores
(
P.Yadin
28.11).
Syro‐Roman law book
Authors: Thür Gerhard 
Published: December 2012

AbstractUntil the edition by Selb and Kaufhold (2002), this source was seen as containing an “enigmatic” mixture of Roman law and non‐Roman law, i.e., local customs from the east of the Late Roman Empire (Buckland 1963: 48; Maas 2000: 247–9, with some passages translated into English).
Tabula Banasitana
Authors: Salway Benet 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
This inscribed bronze plaque, now in the Museum of Antiquities at Rabat, takes its name from its find‐spot in the ancient city of Banasa in Roman Mauretania (Sidi Ali bou Jenoun, Morocco), where it was unearthed in 1957 in the East Baths complex.
Tabulae Herculanenses
Authors: Camodeca Giuseppe 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The cities around Mount Vesuvius, destroyed by the eruption in 79
CE
, have preserved for us wax tablet archives (
Caecilius Iucundus, Sulpicii
, and
Tabulae Herculanenses
) of extraordinary importance for the study of Roman social and economic history, onomastics, juridical praxis, and even the consular
fasti
.
Usucapio
Authors: Lohsse Sebastian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe mere lapse of time can affect legal positions in different ways. While it may extinguish rights, its effects in property law may also be acquisitive. In Roman property law,usucapioprovided for such acquisitive effects.Usucapiowas the means of acquiring both movable and immovable property by continuous possession. It thereby served an important practical purpose:usucapioallowed for the acquisition of ownership where a previous conveyance had been defective either because the transferor did not have title to the property or because the prescribed mode of conveyance had not been adhered to.
Arabian Gulf
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheArabicus Sinus, now known as the Persian Gulf, was known in antiquity as theErythraeum Mare. According to Herodotus (1.2), the original homeland of the Phoenicians lay in its area, from which they migrated to the eastern Mediterranean. It is bounded by the Arabian Peninsula on the west and Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran on the north and east. ThePeriplus maris Erythraei(first centuryCE) lists sites along its shores. Ancient ships could sail around the Arabian Peninsula and gain access to the Red Sea and thence to the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, which in turn enabled links to Egypt, the Sinai, and any of the caravan routes from the east. We are dependent for knowledge of routes in the desert on ancient itineraries, supported and enlarged by recent surveys, especially marking sites by the Global Positioning System.
Corinthian Gulf
Authors: Freitag Klaus 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Corinthian Gulf (first mentioned in Xen.
Hell
. 6.2.9) is a long and narrow bay separating the Peloponnese from central Greece. The gulf reaches a maximum depth of slightly more than 850 m. All
poleis
on the coast were connected in a close way. The north coast exhibits a subsiding coastline with a few alluvial plains and with many bays.
Euromos/Philippoi
Authors: Bresson Alain 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe town of Euromos overlooks a plain to the northwest of Mylasa, in Western Caria. It was originally a Carian town and a Carian inscription has been found on the site. Its name is mentioned in the lists of the Athenian tribute asHyromosorKyromos(Adiego 2007: 132–3, 338). As early as the fifth centuryBCE, there existed a Greek form,Europos(Hdt. 8.133). For a brief period, after it was occupied by Philip V of Macedon in 201/0, the town bore the namePhilippoi. The most common form wasEuromos, in an apparent allusion torhome(“strength”).
Imbros
Authors: Dimitrova Nora 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Imbros is one of the Thracian islands in the northern Aegean, strategically located close to the Dardanelles. The “rocky” island (Hom.
II
. 24.78), which had abundant water, but was otherwise lacking in resources, occupies a territory of 225 sq km, with an elevation of up to 597 m. The ancient history of Imbros is marked by its close relationship with Athens.
Kaukasa
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Kaukasa was a town located on the western coast of Chios (Hdt. 5.33). Herodotus says that Megabates, during the Ionian Revolt, brought the Persian fleet into its harbor, intending to use the north wind to sail to Naxos. Naxos lies more than four hundred miles to the southwest. The site of Kaukasa is not known exactly, but is supposed to lie on the western coast of Chios at a point beneath the Arios mountain in the north where the island thrusts out toward the central Aegean. Its possible location is marked somewhat inland from the ancient coastline. The name is thought to have an origin in Asia Minor.
Kephisos
Authors: Camp John McK. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Kephissos river runs through the central part of the Attic plain, north of Athens, and seems to have played little part in the daily life of the city. It rises in the foothills of Mount Parnes and Mount Pentele and flows for 27 km, reaching the sea at Phaleron. The abundant springs at Kephalari, near the deme of Kephissia, are presumably one of several sources. The river is mentioned by Sophocles (
OC
585). The Sacred Way to Eleusis crossed over the river, and Pausanias refers to several monuments, shrines, and tombs near its banks (1. 37.3–4). There was also a Kephissos river in the Eleusinian Plain, which has given rise to some confusion as to which river was crossed by means of a bridge and when (
IG
II
2
1191 and
Anth. Pal
. 9. 147).
Kimmerian Bosphorus
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Kimmerian Bosphorus is the strait (Hdt. 4.12,28) at the eastern extension of the Crimean Peninsula, leading into the Maeotis Lake (Sea of Azov) at Kerch (Pantikapaion, Bophorus). Its extent is described by Strabo (11.2.1–16). The termBosphorusmeans “ox‐crossing” and thus designates a strait. The termKimmeriandistinguishes this strait from the Bosphorus in the southwest which permits entrance into the Black Sea at Byzantium/Constantinople. The ethnic origin of theKimmeriiis obscure. They have been thought to be a Thracian or Celtic people, but this is highly uncertain. They invaded upper Asia in the seventh centuryBCE, causing much destruction (Hdt. 1.6.15–16). They were pursued into Asia by the Scythians.
Kleonai
Authors: Grieb Volker 
Published: December 2012

AbstractKleonai is situated on a large‐scale hill in the southwestern area of a fertile basin south of the territory of Corinth. In ancient times the two main roads from the Corinthian isthmus to the central Peloponnese passed along the city, one southward via Argos, the other via Nemea and Phleious toward Arcadia. In the Archaic and Classical periods the city controlled the neighboring sanctuary of Zeus in Nemea and also organized the Nemean Games (Pind.Nem. 10.79), but lost that privilege to Argos later on – most probably in the late fourth centuryBCE. The two cities had had a very close relationship since the fifth century, and in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic times Kleonai was even akomeof Argos.
Ktesiphon
Authors: Hauser Stefan R. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

For nearly a thousand years, Ktesiphon (name in Latin/Greek; Parthian/Pahlavi:
tyspwn
; Aramaic Talmud:
(') qṭyspwn
; Syriac:
qṭyspwn
; Arabic: Ṭaysafūn) was one of the most important cities in the Near East and beyond. From the later second century
BCE
until 637
CE
, Ktesiphon served as the capital of the Arsacid and Sasanian empires (
see
Sasanians). It was thus the equivalent of Rome, or later Constantinople in the east.
Leukas
Authors: Bonelou Elena 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Leukas is situated opposite northwestern Akarnania. Its name derives from the hero Leukadios, son of Ikaros, and the cape Leukata, at the southern part of the island. Archaeological evidence from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age is, so far, limited. Homer referred to Leukas by the name
Nirikos
(
Od
. 24.376–78). During the reign of the tyrant Kypselos (657–625
BCE
; Strabo 10.2.8), the Corinthians established a new colony on the northeastern part of the island. The city was fortified by a circuit wall. The Corinthians opened the narrow channel between Leukas and Akarnania (
dioryktos
) to be navigable in order to protect their ships along the sea routes to western colonies. Leukas benefited from the Corinthian trade and soon became an important retail station by exporting its own wine, oil, and famous perfumed oil (Plin.
HN
21–42). Leukas issued numerous silver and bronze coins from the fifth to the first century
BCE
.
Mantinea
Authors: Pretzler Maria 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMantinea was a city in northeastern Arcadia. As one of the larger Peloponnesianpoleis, it became a member of major regional alliances while also pursuing its own regional ambitions. This resulted in repeated conflicts with its southern neighbor Tegea and hegemonic powers, and Mantinea was destroyed and rebuilt on the same site twice (385/70 and 223BCE).