bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
REMOVING THE EFFECTS OF RANDOM GUESSING FROM LATENT TRAIT ABILITY ESTIMATES
Authors: Waller Michael I. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn latent trait models the standard procedure for handling the problem caused by guessing on multiple choice tests is to estimate a parameter which is intended to measure the “guessingness” inherent in an item. Birnbaum's three parameter model, which handles guessing in this manner, ignores individual differences in guessing tendency. This paper presents a model or procedure which uses the information contained in the interaction between a person and an item to remove the effects of random guessing from estimates of ability, difficulty, and discrimination. Simulated and real data are presented which support the model in terms of fit and information.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF MEASURES OF APTITUDE (SAT) AND ACHIEVEMENT (CEEB ACHIEVEMENT AVERAGE), RESPECTIVELY, IN FORECASTING COLLEGE GRADES IN SEVERAL LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES
Authors: Wilson Kenneth M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe validity of the CEEB Scholastic Aptitude Test‐Verbal and SAT‐Mathematical scores, separately and in combination with the high school record (rank in class or high school average grade) for predicting college grade averages, has been widely studied and reported, but the value of CEEB Achievement Tests for such prediction has not been subjected to comparable scrutiny. Consequently it is not widely recognized that a composite (sum or average) of scores, based on whatever combination of Achievement Tests a candidate takes, can be useful for assessing the general academic‐performance potential of candidates.This paper presents evidence bearing on the predictive validity of the CEEB Achievement Average—defined as the arithmetic mean of all Achievement Test scores included on a candidate's CEEB Admissions Testing Program score‐report and now routinely reported to colleges—for women students in several liberal arts colleges.The findings reviewed are consistent with those reported earlier by Schrader that the CEEB Achievement Tests contributed modestly to improvement of predictive effectiveness over that provided by the SATs and the school record. In the studies reviewed, there was a tendency for the SAT scores (particularly the SAT‐M score) to operate, in effect, as suppressor variables when included in a battery with the CEEB Achievement Average. It would appear not only that the CEEB Achievement Average tends to be a more valid predictor of college grades than the SAT in the settings studied, but also that this composite contains all the SAT‐type information that is useful for such prediction—i.e., that the SAT scores become redundant after taking into account information provided by the CEEB Achievement Average, with its substantial SAT‐type components.Questions are raised regarding the extent to which candidate freedom of choice in test selection is a factor which contributes to the predictive effectiveness of the CEEB Achievement Average.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AS A FACTOR IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION1
Authors: Oltman Philip K. , Goodenough Donald R. , Witkin Herman A. , Freedman Norbert , Friedman Florence 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTPrevious studies have shown that persons matched in level of differentiation are likely to develop greater interpersonal attraction in the course of an interaction than mismatched persons. These studies were all conducted in situations where the interacting persons were working toward a common goal. To test the hypothesis that situational variables may moderate match‐mismatch effects, the present study investigated these effects when the interacting persons were in conflict. On the basis of their performance in tests of field‐dependence‐independence, Ss were selected as relatively high (Hi‐Diff Ss) or relatively low (Lo‐Diff Ss) in level of differentiation. Three kinds of dyads were composed–Hi‐Diff/Hi‐Diff, Lo‐Diff/Lo‐Diff, and Hi‐Diff/Lo‐Diff–and the task set for the dyad members was to reconcile conflict on an issue about which they were known to disagree. It was predicted that because of the more accommodating quality of Lo‐Diff persons, dyads consisting of one or two such Ss would more often reconcile their disagreements and show greater interpersonal attraction than dyads consisting of two Hi‐Diff Ss. Both predictions were confirmed, supporting the hypothesis that the outcome of match or mismatch is mediated by situational variables.
THE UTILITY OF A STANDARD COMPOSITE FOR FORECASTING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SEVERAL LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES
Authors: Wilson Kenneth M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study explores the predictive validity, versus generalized grade‐average criteria within each of several liberal arts colleges, of a standard composite of four admissions scores, weights for which were determined by an application of the method of multiple discriminant analysis (MDA) to data for several college/level of achievement groups. The following working hypothesis guided the analysis:If only one linear discriminant function of a common set of predictors is required to exhaust their predictive power for separating criterion groups defined in terms of college attended and within‐college level‐of‐achievement, as determined by a student's score‐level on a continuous criterion variable, then the coefficients of this discriminant function represent a set of weights for transforming scores on the several original predictors into a standard composite (discriminant score) which will have predictive validity versus the continuous criterion variable comparable to that of the uniquely‐weighted composites specified through application of the method of multiple regression analysis (MRA) to the predictor‐criterion data for each college.Findings of the study tended to sustain the working hypothesis. One linear discriminant function of the four admissions scores (SAT‐V, SAT‐M, Rank, and CEEB Achievement Average) exhausted more than 90 percent of their predictive power for separating 16 criterion groups (upper 27% FAG and lower 27% FAG at each of eight colleges). The corresponding discriminant score yielded validity coefficients versus freshman‐ and senior‐level grade average criteria comparable to those yielded by regression‐weighted predicted FAG composites.It is suggested that multiple discriminant analysis, applied along lines similar to those involved in this exploratory study, provides a rigorous and practical basis for adding an important, and largely unexplored, between groups dimension to studies in the prediction of performance, a research domain which traditionally has been explored almost exclusively through the method of multiple regression analysis. Further study is needed of the utility of MDA for personnel‐decision problems in which differences among the individuals within various discrete groups are judged to be important.
MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION BY MEANS OP NONLINEAR LEAST SQUARES
Authors: Jennrich R. I. , Moore R. H. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTMethods are given for using readily available nonlinear regression programs to produce maximum likelihood estimates in a rather natural way. Used as suggested the common Gauss‐Newton algorithm for nonlinear least squares becomes the Fisher scoring algorithm for maximum likelihood estimation. In some cases it is also the Newton‐Raphson algorithm. The standard errors produced are the information theory standard errors up to a possible common multiple. This means that much of the auxiliary output produced by a nonlinear least squares analysis is directly applicable to a maximum likelihood analysis. Illustrative applications to Poisson, quantal response, multinomial, and log‐linear models are given.
A SURVEY OF EQUATING METHODS BASED ON ITEM CHARACTERISTIC CURVE THEORY
Authors: Lord Frederic M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA variety of equating methods based on ice theory are surveyed and compared with nonlinear conventional methods. In many cases, the ice model replaces a nonlinear equating problem by a linear one. This helps the stability of the equating near the extremes of the data. Strictly speaking, ice methods are the only methods appropriate when the tests to be equated are given (with an anchor test) to groups differing in ability. It seems likely that ice methods can reduce drift in equating chains involving many links. Research into the practical value of preequating is recommended.
INFERENCE AND MISSING DATA
Authors: Rubin Donald B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwo results are presented concerning inference when data may be missing. First, ignoring the process that causes missing data when making sampling distribution inferences about the parameter of the data, θ, is generally appropriate if and only if the missing data are “missing at random” and the observed data are “observed at random,” and then such inferences are generally conditional on the observed pattern of missing data. Second, ignoring the process that causes missing data when making Bayesian inferences about θ is generally appropriate if and only if the missing data are missing at random and the parameter of the missing data is “independent” of θ. Examples and discussion indicating the implications of these results are included.
COMPARISON OF A BAYESIAN AND A LEAST SQUARES METHOD OF EDUCATIONAL PREDICTION1
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe prediction systems under discussion apply where the following conditions obtain: Predictor data are given on the same scale, criterion scores may be given on different scales, and it is necessary to pool data even though criterion scale differences exist. Such a system may be needed for minority group or graduate student prediction where the group sizes are small. Least squares and Bayes methods are used in a cross‐validation study conducted for comparison purposes. Data for the study were taken from the files of the Validity Study Service of the College Entrance Examination Board. A very limited amount of data were supplied by a few American graduate schools. The Bayes method was better, but it was found that both methods yield negative regression weights; when the absolute values of the weights were used, the methods were both improved and yielded results which were very similar in terms of evaluative statistics computed in the cross sample.
DEVELOPMENT OF MEASURES FOR THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY1
Authors: Frederiksen Norman , Ward William C. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTResearch on creative thinking has been handicapped by lack of adequate criteria. The purpose of this study was to develop a set of tests that could be used as dependent measures in evaluating training or in other research on “creativity.” Four tests were developed, called Formulating Hypotheses, Evaluating Proposals, Solving Methodological Problems, and Measuring Constructs. They are job‐sample tests that present realistic tasks such as a behavioral scientist might have to deal with. A scoring method was developed that requires the scorer to assign responses to categories of responses rather than to make subjective evaluations. The categories are assigned scale values based on independent evaluations by an expert panel. Scores can be assigned by computer. Six scores were studied: (1) average quality of the responses the examinee thinks are best, (2) average quality of all responses, (3) average quality of the best response by category scoring, (4) number of responses, (5) number of unusual responses, and (6) number of responses that are both unusual and of high quality. The tests were administered to about 4,000 applicants for admission to graduate school, using an item‐sampling procedure. The tests were found to be appropriate in difficulty for advanced students. Reliabilities of most scores were high enough to be useful. Factoring of score intercorrelations reveals a general number‐of‐responses factor and two quality factors that are defined by quality scores from different combinations of tests. The number scores are quite independent of conventional aptitude and achievement tests, and quality scores have a substantial amount of true variance not predicted by aptitude and achievement tests. The face validity of the tests seems to appeal to students and teachers, but evidence of construct validity is needed.
A METHOD FOR FORMALIZING SUBJECTIVE NOTIONS ABOUT THE EFFECT OF NON‐RESPONDENTS IN SAMPLE SURVEYS
Authors: Rubin Donald B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA method is given for estimating, in a subjective sense, the effect of non‐respondents in a sample survey. The method is based on Bayesian techniques and yields a “confidence interval” for the value of the average response in the survey if all non‐respondents had responded. Background information which is recorded for both respondents and non‐respondents plays an important role although is not needed. The technique is illustrated with real survey data of 660 schools; 488 had 80 dependent variables recorded, 172 had no dependent variables recorded, and all 660 had 35 background variables recorded. On the basis of this example, it appears as if the method can be useful in practical problems. The general idea, of which the method presented here is only a specific example, can be applied to any problem with non‐respondents and/or missing data.
RESPONSE BIASES DO NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE EFFECT OF CLAUSE STRUCTURE ON THE PERCEPTION OF NONLINGUISTIC STIMULI
Authors: Bever T. G. , Hurtig R. R. , Handel A. B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTListeners made location responses to tones presented in two‐clause sentences as well as to sentences in which no tone was present. Listeners were always required to be ready to write out the sentence from memory after hearing it. However the critical responses were made on a prepared script of each sentence presented after each trial. Location guessing patterns do not account for either the relatively high correct location of tones objectively between clauses nor for the frequent mislocation of errors into that position. The analysis of correct location responses, location error patterns in relation to location guesses support a clause by clause model of speech processing.
CRITERION MEASURES FOR YOUTH‐WORK TRAINING PROGRAMS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELEVANT PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS
Authors: Freeberg Norman E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn attempt to develop relevant criterion measures for work‐training programs serving disadvantaged adolescents involved the longitudinal application of 32 trainee performance criteria at program completion and 40 longer‐term outcome measures approximately six months following training. Factor analyses of those variables yielded four program completion (proximal) criterion dimensions of work motivation and planning ability, personal‐social adjustments and training program competency. Post‐program (distal) variables resulted in five dimensions encompassing areas of social and community adjustments, skill in job planning, ability to perform on jobs and to seek or find employment. Loading magnitudes and factor patterns provided a basis for identifying those variables with the greatest concurrent relevance; whereas, correlations between proximal and distal criteria pinpointed those end‐of‐program outcomes of greatest predictive relevance (e.g., proficiency ratings by counselors, work supervisors and peers; family adjustments, favorable self and social perceptions). This empirical approach to criterion development was shown to provide better understanding of the multidimensional aspects of a criterion domain and information for setting priorities in the choice of criterion variables.
SPEED AND ACCURACY OF ABSOLUTE PITCH JUDGMENTS: SOME LATTER‐DAY RESULTS
Authors: Carroll John B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTNine subjects, 5 of whom claimed absolute pitch (AP) ability (4 from childhood, 1 by self‐training) were given a pitch judgment task in which they had to strike notes on the piano as rapidly as possible to match randomized tape‐recorded piano notes. Stimulus set sizes were 64, 16, or 4 consecutive semitones, or 7 diatonic notes of a designated octave. A control task involved motor movements to notes announced in advance, with the effect that set size was 1. Accuracy, measured on the basis of deviations of responses from targets, significantly differentiated AP from NAP (non‐AP) subjects at all set sizes except the control task. For both groups, accuracy increased as set size decreased. Decision times, measured as that part of total response time before a movement to the response note began, decreased as set size decreased, but did not differentiate AP and NAP subjects. The performance of the trained AP subject was not distinguishable from that of the remaining AP subjects either in accuracy or decision time. Results are discussed in terms of a two‐factor theory of AP ability whereby NAP subjects use only relative tone height as the basis of judgment but AP subjects also use standards of tone chroma stored in long‐term memory. The abnormally high channel capacities and rates of information gain for AP subjects are interpreted on the basis of transmission of information in two channels, whereas NAP subjects transmit information in only one channel.
MOTHERS AND TWO‐YEAR‐OLDS: A STUDY OF SEX‐DIFFERENTIATED ASPECTS OF VERBAL INTERACTION
Authors: Cherry Louise , Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study was conducted to provide information on how verbal aspects of mother‐child interaction are differentiated by sex of child. Twelve white, upper middle‐class, English‐speaking mothers and their 2‐year‐old children were studied in a spontaneous play situation. The mean differences for mother‐male compared with mother‐female dyads on 12 measures of quantitative and qualitative aspects of speech showed mothers of female children talked more, asked more questions, repeated their children's utterances more often, and used longer utterances compared with mothers of male children. Mothers of male children used more directives compared with mothers of female children. These results suggest a continuity of a similar pattern of greater verbal quantity and responsivity for mother‐female compared with mother‐male dyads.
ANALYTIC PROCESSING ELICITS RIGHT EAR SUPERIORITY IN MONAURALLY PRESENTED SPEECH1
Authors: Bever Thomas G. , Hurtig Richard R. , Handel Ann B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe latency to respond with the right hand to the initial phone of a monaurally presented CVC syllable is shorter when the stimulus is heard in the right ear than when it is heard in the left ear. This shows that superiority of the left hemisphere can be elicited in simple speech tasks with monaural stimulation. However, the latency to recognize the entire syllable is equally short regardless of ear and responding hand. This is consistent with the view that the left hemisphere is dominant only for tasks that require analysis of the internal structure of a stimulus.
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND THE PREDICTION OF READING ACHIEVEMENT
Authors: Cocking Rodney R. , Potts Marion 
Published: August 2014

SUMMARYKnowing lots of words does not mean that the 3‐ to 5‐year‐old child knows much about “language” (defined as a system of relations). Since many linguistic constructions are in the repertoires of children of ages 5 to 6, it seemed fruitful to investigate the cognitive economy of the transfer of this rule system to learning to read. Thus, where former studies had looked at the prediction of reading scores on basis of word knowledge, the present research focused upon the predictive ability of a test of syntactic knowledge. Stanford Reading Achievement and Syntactic Production Test data were collected for 65 first graders. Metropolitan Reading Readiness Test data from the previous year and Language Comprehension data were available for most of the subjects. The reading test/production test correlation (r = .54) was significant beyond the .001 level. The low relationship (r = .34, p < .05 > .01) between the Metropolitan Reading Readiness Test and the production test supported the premise that the two instruments tested different areas of development. The results were interpreted as confirmation of the hypothesis that command of syntax (structural knowledge) is a useful predictor of success in learning to read.
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION FOR WHITES AND BLACKS: THE TOLEDO STUDY
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe aims of this study were (a) to determine the major dimensions of social stratification for whites as well as blacks and (b) to explore the existence of distinct social classes. A survey was conducted with 225 white and 206 black household heads in Toledo, Ohio, using a highly structured interview that included variables reflecting major theoretical dimensions of stratification, important indexes, and well established correlates. Eighteen first‐order factors were found for whites and 19 for blacks. Five factors matched in the two samples: social status, residence, organization activity, political activity and efficacy, and main support's social status. Other important factors, unique to each sample, were: for whites, self‐employed and majority group membership, and for blacks, class consciousness and method variance. The indexes, except for Own Education, did not consistently load the factors that they presumably tap. Second‐ and third‐order factors were also obtained, but they were difficult to interpret. Two separate cluster analyses of individuals, based on their score profiles on social status variables, identified 37 and 47 clusters of white respondents, the largest cluster containing 13 people. (The cluster analyses were not done for blacks.) All in all, the present findings indicate that stratification is more complex than anticipated by current conceptualizations, previous research, and existing indexes. These results also point up the need for revising the theoretical formulations and using more appropriate measures of the salient dimensions.
A TEST‐FREE APPROACH TO PREDICTION FOR GUIDANCE
Authors: Norris Lila , Chapman Warren 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTValidities derived from test‐free variables were obtained for final grades in ten community college courses. The variables included self‐reports of high school performance, self‐ratings on four factors presumably related to good grades, and informed self‐estimates of future performance in a course. Validities for the same students were also obtained using the Comparative Guidance and Placement test battery and the results compared. For five of the courses the non‐test validities were as high as or higher than the test validities, and in the other five the differences were modest. These findings suggest that non‐test approaches to prediction are satisfactory alternatives to tests, at least for purposes of guidance. They also suggest that courses hard to predict through tests may be predictable with non‐test methods. Benefits of a test‐free program to the college, students, and faculty are discussed.