bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Augustine of Hippo
Authors: Perrin Michel‐Yves 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAugustine's first biographer, Possidius, the bishop of Calama (today Guelma in Algeria), was able to write some time after the death of the Bishop of Hippo (today Annaba in the same country), to whom he had been a disciple and friend for fourteen years, “so many were the works he dictated, and published, so many expositions did he give in the church, which were also transcribed and corrected, either against the heretics, or commenting on the canonical books for the instruction of the holy sons of the church, that a scholar could hardly read and know them all” (Life of Augustine18.9).
Basil of Caesarea
Authors: Beagon Philip 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Basil of Caesarea, along with his brother, Gregory of Nyssa, and their friend, Gregory of Nazianzus, is one of the so‐called Cappadocian Fathers. The collective influence of this trio was extensive in the creation of Christian orthodoxy in the second half of the fourth century
CE
. Basil's career exemplifies the fusion, not uncommon in that century, of Roman aristocrat and Christian bishop. As well as helping to define doctrine in the wake of the Arian controversy, particularly with regard to the nature of the Holy Spirit, Basil played a seminal role in the introduction of communal monasticism in the Eastern Church, and he was later to be a source of inspiration for the ascetic endeavors of Benedict.
Cappadocia, Late Antiquity
Authors: Métivier Sophie 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCappadocia is known in an exceptional way during Late Antiquity, especially in the fourth century. While inscriptions and archaeological remains are scarce, historiographical, legal and, most of all, religious writings shed light on the regional history of Cappadocia. Among authors of Late Antiquity, several were Cappadocians. They occasionally disclose fragments of that history.
Languages of the Caucasus
Authors: Hewitt George 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Caucasian isthmus, lying between the Black and Caspian seas at the interface of Europe and Asia, is one of the Earth's richest ethno‐linguistic regions. Some of the currently spoken languages arrived when outsiders immigrated during recorded history. But the majority, the indigenous languages of the Caucasus, belong to descendants of peoples the date of whose arrival is simply unknown – hence the name. Depending on one's analysis, the autochthonous languages divide into two or three families: South Caucasian (Kartvelian) and either North Caucasian or Northwest Caucasian and Nakh‐Daghestanian, the northern languages being completely unrelated to Kartvelian.
Chalcedonian controversy
Authors: Menze Volker 
Published: December 2012

Abstract“Chalcedonian Controversy” is not (yet) a well‐established technical term to define the Christological quarrels around the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Here it will be used to discuss the beginning of the controversy already before 451 up to the controversy over Monoenergism and Monotheletism in the seventh century.
Constitution of Medina
Authors: Lecker Michael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The so‐called Constitution of Medina ‐ probably the first legal document of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam ‐ dates back to the first year after his
hijra
(622
CE
), or “emigration,” which brought him from his hometown Mecca to the cluster of towns known as Yathrib or Medina in the Hijāz (northern Arabia) and marked the beginning of the Islamic era.
Desert castles, Umayyad
Authors: Genequand Denis 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDesert castles is a generic name given to a series of aristocratic residences or palaces built during the Umayyad period (661–750CE) by the caliphs, their entourage, and the elites. The term does not accurately reflect the true nature of the different buildings; indeed, if a large part of them are effectively situated in steppe land areas, another part lies in areas that are less or not marginal.
Ecclesiastical history
Authors: Whitby Mary 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEcclesiastical (Church) history blossomed in Greek and Syriac between the late fourth and late sixth centuriesCE: its “Father”was the pro‐Arian Eusebius (early 260s–339CE), bishop of Caesarea, while the lawyer Evagrius Scholasticus was writing in 593CE.
Greek Anthology
Authors: Fournet Jean‐Luc 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheGreek Anthology (AG)is the conventional name given to the most important collection of Greek epigrams. It is composed of the fifteen books of thePalatine Anthology(whose name is due to the manuscript of the Palatine Library in Heidelberg, which transmitted it to us) plus a sixteenth one (also calledAppendix Planudea) containing 388 epigrams the modern editors excerpted from another anthology compiled in 1301 by Maximus Planudes (Planudean Anthology).
Huns
Authors: Lawrence Thomas Christopher 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Huns were a nomadic people who emerged from the Black Sea region in the 370sCE. They were mounted warriors whose weapons included the composite bow and the lasso. Their movements westward into Europe put pressure on several barbarian groups, including the Alans and the Goths, forcing the latter group to seek admittance into the Roman Empire in 376. Before the accession of Attila in ca. 435 the Huns operated as disparate groups under various kings. The Hunnic king Uldin had contact with both the eastern and the western empires in the first decade of the fifth century. A fragment of Olympiodorus of Thebes also records an embassy to the Huns under Donatus and Charaton in ca. 412.
Romulus Augustulus
Authors: McEvoy Meaghan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Romulus, so‐called Augustulus (“the little Augustus”), is commonly viewed as the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. He was the son of the general Orestes, who had previously served as the secretary (
notarius
) of Attila the Hun in the early 450s, a position which had involved him in two embassies to the eastern imperial court at Constantinople. In 475, the western emperor Julius Nepos (who had been in power for less than a year himself) appointed Orestes as
magister militum
(commander‐in‐chief) of Gaul. In response to the grievances of the multi‐ethnic barbarian army under his command, whose requests for land grants from Nepos had been refused, Orestes led the army against Nepos at Ravenna; the emperor fled by sea to Salona. Orestes established himself in command at Ravenna and on October 31 created his young son Romulus Augustus in Nepos’ stead.
Sasanians
Authors: Edwell Peter 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Sasanian Dynasty ruled ancient Iran together with parts of Central Asia and India from ca. 224 to 650CE. The Sasanians were more warlike than their Parthian predecessors, and their support for Zoroastrianism at times elevated the religion to an exclusive status. In their conflicts with the Romans the Sasanians were often victorious, but persistent difficulties with tribal groups from Central Asia and Arabia limited their capacity to extend the empire. Contemporary sources on the Sasanians are limited, with much of the information on them coming from Byzantine and Arabic annalistic sources.
Coercitio
Authors: Drogula Fred K. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCoercitiowas the authority vested in Roman magistrates to compel obedience from their fellow citizens. Magistrates invested withcoercitiowere able to enforce statutes, edicts, and official commands by imposing summary penalties for non‐compliance, and in this waycoercitioprovided the fundamental compulsory aspect in Rome's legal system.
Collatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum
Authors: Corcoran Simon 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Collatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum
(Comparison of Mosaic and Roman Laws) or
Lex Dei
(Law of God), whose author and original title are unknown, is a fourth‐century Latin work that is an early attempt at comparative law.
Formula
Authors: Rüfner Thomas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Formula
is used in Roman law to refer to the
formula actionis,
which is the characteristic element of the formulary procedure. The
formula
was issued by the magistrate who presided over the first stage of proceedings. It contained a set of instructions for the judge or judges appointed by the magistrate to decide the case (See Gai.
Inst
. 4. 30–137). The competent magistrates published model
formulae
in their
edictum
.
Fragmentum (fragmenta) de iure fisci
Authors: Corcoran Simon 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Fragmentum (fragmenta) de iure fisci
(fragment or fragments on the law of the
fiscus
: both denominations have been used) comprises two incomplete pages of a fifth‐century Roman law manuscript, identified and transcribed at Verona at the same time as the famous Gaius palimpsest (1816).
Gymnasiarchic law (Beroia)
Authors: Skaltsa Stella 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe gymnasiarchic law of Beroia, inscribed on both sides of a marble stele (1.755 m high x 0.407–0.468 m wide), contains a set of regulations that pertain to the office of the gymnasiarchy and the running of the gymnasium in this Macedonian city in the first third of the second centuryBCE. It systematizes information that prior to its discovery was deduced from honorific decrees and victors' lists scattered across the Hellenistic world.
Indicium populi
Authors: Banfi Antonio 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Literally “popular tribunal” or “popular judgment,” the Roman
indicium populi
was a criminal trial where the verdict was given by the assembly of the people, the
comitia centuriata
or the
comitia tribute
; in the Archaic age, the ancient
comitia centuriata
had jurisdiction over criminal affairs.
Law, civil
Authors: du Plessis Paul J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCivil law (and the associated concept “civilian tradition”), derived from the Latinius civile, is the term used in contemporary legal scholarship to refer to the reception of Roman law into the legal systems of western Europe (Van Caenegem 2002: 38). This use of the term is different from its original meaning as that body of Roman law only available to Roman citizens, which was used in Roman legal sources as an antithesis to theIus Gentium, that body of law which was common to all men.
Lex Acilia
Authors: Alexander Michael C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOne side of the fragmentarytabula Bembinacontains the text of a Roman statute (CILI2583) often called thelex repetundarum, and usually identified with a law proposed by the tribune M’. Acilius Glabrio (tribunus plebisca. 122BCE; Cic.Verr. 51, 2; Cic.Verr. 1.26; 121–2).
Lex coloniae Genetivae Iuliae seu Ursonensis
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Lex coloniae Genetivae Iuliae seu Ursonensis (CIL
II Suppl. 5439 =
ILS
6007;
CIL
II
2
594; C. G. Bruns,
Fontes
7
, n. 28 = S. Riccobono,
Leges
[FIRA I
2
], n. 21 = D'Ors 1953 n. 7;
Eph
.
Ep
. II 105–151.0221–232;
Eph
.
Ep
. III 87–112 cf.
Eph
.
Ep
. VIII 527;
Eph
.
Ep
. IX 83–91) is a Flavian copy of the Caesarian founding law of the colony at Urso, today Osuna (Seville), on display at the Archaeological Museum in Madrid.
Lex Irnitana
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The six tablets of the
lex Irnitana
(91
CE
), a municipal statute, were discovered in a village called El Saucejo (Seville) in 1981. Six of ten tablets are preserved: III, V, VII, VIII, IX, and X (this one is fragmentary); these are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Seville.
Lex Iulia and lex Papia
Authors: Severy‐Hoven Beth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn 18BCE, Augustus, the first Roman emperor, passed thelex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus, the “law about the social orders marrying.” Later jurists conflated this with alaw that subsequently refined and completed it, thelex Papia Poppaea, sponsored by consuls of 9CE. The two came to be known as thelex Iuliaandlex Papia. Together they created asystem of rewards for married persons and parents and penalties for the unwed and childless that remained in effect for over two centuries.
Lex Rubria de Gallia Cisalpina
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheLex (Rubria) de Gallia Cisalpina (CILXI 1146;CILI2592=Bruns,Fontes7, no. 16 =FIRAI2no. 19; Crawford 1996: I.461–77 no. 28), inscribed on a bronze tablet (54–72 cm) –the fourth of an original set of five – was discovered in Veleia, near Piacenza, in 1760, and is today displayed in the National Archaeological Museum in Parma. The text – first edited in 1787 by C. R. Carli – is highly fragmentary and even its name remains uncertain. In two places (XX 29 and 38, in the formula of therepromissio damni infecti) alex Rubriais quoted, and for some scholars this is the original name of this statute. The Rubrian law constitutes a clear attestation of the extent to which Roman law was exported beyond Italy.
Lex, leges
Authors: Drogula Fred K. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlexis a law or statute passed by one of Rome's citizen assemblies (thecomitia curiata, thecomitia centuriata, or thecomitia tributa), although – after thelex Hortensiaof 287BCE– actions by theconcilium plebisalso had the force of law (lex Plebiscitum) (Gai.Inst. 1.1–3).
Phasis
Authors: Scafuro Adele C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Phasis
refers to an act of denunciation before a magistrate or to the document that was lodged with a magistrate when the denunciation was made (Dem. 58. 7–8); the denunciation was used to initiate different kinds of public prosecutions in Athens by any Athenian who was competent before the law. Most instances of
phasis
concern offenses against property, but oddball offenses so initiated caution against suggesting a rationale for its use or exclusive realm of concern. The evidence suggests there was no general law regulating
phasis
; instead, individual statutes stipulated that something or some person “be denounced” to a magistrate; prosecution would follow.
Probole
Authors: Harris Edward M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Probole
was a special procedure to pass a vote of censure in the Athenian Assembly during the Classical period. A
probole
could be brought by any citizen against sycophants (those who abused the legal system) and those who deceived the people by making promises and not keeping them. This kind of
probole
could be brought only at the first (or
kyria
) meeting of the sixth prytany. Charges could be brought against three citizens and three metics ([Arist.]
Ath
.
Pol
. 43.5). At a special meeting in the theater convened shortly after the Greater Dionysia in Elaphebolion (roughly March), a citizen could bring a
probole
against someone who committed an offense against the Greater Dionysia (Dem. 21.9). The procedure was later extended to cover offenses against the Eleusinian Mysteries (Dem. 21.175).
Prostates
Authors: Zelnick‐Abramovitz Rachel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheprostatesis a person who “stands before” or “in front,” but the word's semantic array is wider: it can mean protector, guardian (e.g., of the city gates in Aesch.Sept. 408; of the peace in Dem. 15.30). In this senseprostatesis also an epithet of gods (e.g., of Apollo in Soph.Trach. 209).
Tabula Bantina
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheTabula Bantina(CILIX 416;FIRAI 6;FIRAI 16), drawn up in Bantia (today Banzi, a small town in Lucania) and discovered in 1790 in Monte Montrone, in the area of Oppido Lucano (Apulia), is a bronze tablet (25/38 cm) preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum, and contains two legal texts, one in Latin (FIRAI 6) and the other in Oscan (FIRAI 6).
Tabula Hebana
and
Tabula Siarensis
Authors: Salvo Davide 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Tabula Hebana
and the
Tabula Siarensis
are two inscriptions on bronze dated to the emperorship of Tiberius containing the funerary honors decreed by the Senate to Germanicus and an amendment by
rogatio
(proposed law) to the
Lex Valeria Cornelia
of 5
CE
, a
lex
that regulated the procedure for elections of Consuls and Praetor.
Testatio
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe termtestatio(literally “attestation”) implies the oral or written testimony of a witness and especially the document containing this declaration. In the Digesta the termtestatiois used in both senses, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish when this term alludes to a written or an oral act (Dig. 14.6.16.4: Paul), but in others it is clear that we are dealing with writtentestationes(Dig. 26.7.5.10: Ulp.;Dig. 48.19.9.5: Ulp.). Imperial court procedure, the Cognitioextraordinem, fostered an extensive development of written evidence and consequently many declarations of witnesses were replaced by writtentestationes, a development also seen in the formulary system.
Xenodokoi
Authors: Zelnick‐Abramovitz Rachel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe primary meaning ofxenodokoi(sg.xenodokos) is persons “receivingxenoi,” that is, foreigners (Hom.Od. 8.210) or guest‐friends (Hom.Il. 3.354; Hes.Op. 183), hence “hosts.” Likewise, the corresponding verbxenodokeinmeans “to receive axenos” in one's house (Hdt. 6.127.3; Eur.Alc. 552; Pl.Resp. 4.419a).
Aigai
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Aigai, or Aigeai, the first capital and royal residence of the Macedonian kingdom under the Temenid Dynasty, was situated east of Beroia, on the right bank of the Haliakmon River, on the northern slopes of the Pierian mountains. According to the legend, it was originally a city of the Bryges named Edessa, renamed Aigai by its Macedonian conquerors, or a foundation of the Temenid Perdikkas or Karanos or Archelaos in the eighth or seventh century
BCE
, heading an army of Argive colonists.
Alexandria Arachosia
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Alexandria Arachosia, presumably founded by Alexander the Great in 329
BCE
, perhaps corresponds to the Old City of Kandahar. Although excavations were never completed, the site contained an Achaemenid fortress and later a Hellenistic settlement (Fraser 1996: 132–40). Seleukos I ceded the city to the Indian king Chandragupta Maurya by ca. 303. Four Greek inscriptions have been found at the site, two issued by Asoka in Greek and another in Greek and Aramaic, and a Greek inscription on the base of a statue (Canali de Rossi 2004: nos. 290–3), as well as a Greek votive epigram (Bernard
et al
. 2004: 227–332).
Alexandria Paropamisadai
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria Paropamisadai (also called Alexandria in Caucaso and Opiane) during his Bactrian campaign in the Hindu Kush region of modern Begram, north of Kabul. In 323 and 321BCEthe father of Roxane, Oxyartes, served as satrap (Tarn 1951: 95–102; Fraser 1996: 140–51).
Amphipolis
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAn Athenian colony in the Edonis, Amphipolis was founded in 437/36 on the eastern bank of the lower Strymon with the participation of other Greeks, thus with mixed population, under the general Hagnon, on the site of Ennea Hodoi, some 5 km upstream from the maritime Emporion of Eion.
Asklepieion sanctuary
Authors: Melfi Milena 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Asklepieion of Kos was one of the most famous cult places of Antiquity and a renowned healing center. Worshippers and physicians flocked to the island of Kos from all parts of the Greek and Roman world. By the early Roman period the story had become widespread that Hippocrates of Kos had learned medicine from theiamata– the tablets recording the god's cures – on display at the Asklepeion.
Bisitun
Authors: Rendu Loisel Anne‐Caroline 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBisitun (Behistun/Bisutun) is the modern name of the Old Persian Bagastana (“the abode of the gods”; 124), a mountain in the Kermanshah Province in western Iran. The site is known for a monumental multilingual inscription engraved in the rock face. The inscription consists of three versions of the same text, using three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian (Babylonian). This monumental inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: it was the first step toward decipherment of cuneiform.
Boiotia
Authors: Kühr Angela 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBoiotia is a region in southeastern Central Greece, covering some 2,500 km2, bounded by the Corinthian Gulf to the south and the Euboean Gulf to the northeast. Since it was centrally located, and was the only land bridge between northern and southern Greece, Boiotia became the scene of countless battles. Called a “dance‐floor of Ares” (Plut.Mor. 193E;Marc. 21 (310)), it was, for example, the site of the battles of Plataia in 479 and Chaeronea in 338BCE. Boiotia's natural borders meant that it also was an inward‐looking area.
Constantinople, history and monuments
Authors: Bassett Sarah E. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLocated on a hilly peninsula at the confluence of the waters of the Golden Horn, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus, Constantinople covered an area of approximately 14 sq km at its largest extent and was, by dint of its lavish urban infrastructure, among the most impressive cities of the later Roman world. This entry outlines the city's historical fortunes and urban development from the period of its initial settlement as a Greek colonial outpost in the seventh centuryBCEthrough its Late Antique heyday in the sixth and early seventh centuriesCE. Three major phases, each independently named, define this development: Byzantion (seventh centuryBCEto second centuryCE), Colonia Antonina (second to fourth centuryCE) and, finally, New Rome or Constantinople (fourth to seventh centuryCE).
Daskyleion
Authors: Iren Kaan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Daskyleion was a settlement serving as the capital of a Persian satrapy that controlled Hellespontine Phrygia, and probably also Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia, in ancient Anatolia. The settlement was additionally important due to its multi‐cultural (Phrygian, Lydian Persian and Greek society and materials.
Eurotas
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Eurotas River rises between Mount Parnon, in northwestern Arcadia, and the northern reaches of Mount Taygetos, near its highest elevation, in Lakonia. It flows south into the Gulf of Lakonia at a location west of ancient Elos, east of Gytheion, forming a flood plain which encouraged malaria (Strabo 8.5.2). The ancients believed that in its origin it joined the Alpheios River at a place called Asea near Megalopolis and flowed underground (Strabo 6.2.9, 8.3.12; Paus. 8.44.3, 54.2). Following a depression of the tectonic plates, it enters the Lakonian basin north of Sparta and runs through the valley in central Lakonia, bounded on the west by Taygetos. The principal settlement along the river was Sparta, formed from the uniting of disparate settlements in the ninth century
BCE
. The Eurotas was spanned by a bridge in Sparta, the remains of which are probably Roman. Habitation in the area goes back to the Bronze Age.
Ikos
Authors: West William C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIkos is a small island, whose modern name is Alonnisos, lying east of Peparethos in the northeastern Aegean. Strabo cites it as an island off the coast of Magnesia (9.5.16). The two islands are south of the Gulf of Thessaloniki, sufficiently close to the coast that they would provide good lookout stations for the grain ships coming out of the Dardanelles.