bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Teti
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTeti was the first king of the 6th Egyptian Dynasty, ruling for around a dozen years. While his mother appears to have been a certain Sesheshat, his father is unknown, and he may have owed the throne to one of his wives, Iput I, being a king's Daughter – most probably of Teti's predecessor, UNAS, by whom he had his second successor, Pepi I (see) PEPI I AND II; another wife was Khuit A. Teti had at least three daughters, with two of his sons‐in‐law, Mereruka and Kagemeni, serving as vizier.
Deserts, Egypt
Authors: Darnell John Coleman 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe deserts, the Red Land (Desheret) as the Egyptian termed them, greatly exceeded in expanse the small areas of alluvial Black Land (Kemet). Rather than being ignored or feared wastelands, the deserts were the homes of oases, much of the stone and mineral wealth of Egypt, and networks of roads linking the Nile Valley with those resources and giving access to lands beyond the Nile Valley.
AnkhesenpepiII
Authors: Callender Vivienne 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe name Ankhenes‐Pepi II (also known as Ankhenes‐Meryre II) incorporates the king's name, Pepi I‐Meryre, third ruler of the 6th Dynasty. Gourdon (2006: 99) notes that the name takes the form of an oath used in the late Old Kingdom and is like a declaration of allegiance to the king: “That Pepi lives for her,” or even, “She has taken an oath on Pepi.” The queen lived during the reigns of Pepi I and Pepi II. The first king was her husband, the second was her son.
Tausret
Authors: H. Wilkinson Richard 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
One of the few women to have ruled ancient Egypt as pharaoh, Tausret (also spelled Tausert, Taousert, Tawosret, Twosret, etc.) was the wife of Sety II; regent during the reign of his son, Siptah and then ruled independently as a female king after Siptah's death.
Augusta Raurica (Augst)
Authors: Carroll Maureen 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Augusta Raurica, modern Augst in Switzerland, was officially established as a Roman colony in Gaul by the Roman senator and consul Lucius Munatius Plancus in 44
BCE
. There is no physical evidence for occupation in this early period, but the colony was probably refounded 15–10
BCE
by the emperor Augustus.
Bagrada
Authors: Stone David L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Bagrada, the sole perennial river in Carthaginian territory in central North Africa, winds 365 km from eastern Algeria through a zone of valleys and depressions to the gulf of Tunis. Its origin lies in the vicinity of Thubursicu Numidarum (modern Khamissa); its mouth in antiquity lay near Utica (Utique).
Barcino (Barcelona)
Authors: Panzram Sabine 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Barcino, modern Barcelona, is situated on Spain's east coast, about 90 km from Tarraco, and is the capital of the Hispanic province of Tarraconensis. A medium‐sized city, it had its peak in the second century
CE
. Its foundation goes back to the time of the Second Punic War and to an indigenous settlement, probably of the Laietani. There is very little literary or material evidence concerning the early period of the city. Local coinage bore the Iberian legend
ba.r.ke.no
. During the civil wars of the first century
BCE
the city took Caesar's side.
Carthage
Authors: Stevens Susan T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTraditionally founded by Phoenicians led by the Tyrian Elissa, Vergil's Dido, asQart‐Hadasht(New Town), the city was strategically placed on the North African coast to control Mediterranean maritime trade, a monopoly contested first by the Greeks, then by the Romans in the Punic wars (264–146BCE).
Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester)
Authors: Holbrook Neil 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Corinium Dobunnorum (modern Cirencester) was an important town in western Britain, its walls enclosing the second largest area (after Londinium (London) of any town in the province. It was the administrative center of the civitas of the Dobunni, and in the fourth century
CE
may have become the capital of the province of Britannia Prima.
Rhine
Authors: Ollive Vincent 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Rhine is the main river in western Europe, with a length of 1,325 km and a catchment area of 185,000 km
2
. It was marked “Rhenus” on the
Tabula Peutingeriana
. From the Vorderrhein and the Hinterrhein, its sources in the Swiss Alps, it flows northward downstream from Basel, through France, Germany, and the Netherlands, to its delta in the North Sea. Its main tributaries are the Aare, the Ill, the Neckar, the Main, the Mosel, the Lippe, and the Ruhr. From the Alps to its confluence with the Mosel at Koblenz, the Rhine presents a hydrological regime mainly influenced by glacier and snow melt. This contrasted regime corresponds to a low stage during winter and a typical annual flood during late spring/early summer. After Koblenz, the Rhine changes its regime with a high stage during winter, mainly influenced by precipitation in small adjacent mountainous catchments.
Rome, city of: 9. Fourth century
Authors: Mayer Emanuel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn the fourth centuryCE, Rome experienced profound political and religious change. Most importantly, it ceased to be the functional capital of the Roman Empire. The city of Rome was no longer directly run by the emperors but by an imperially appointed official, the urban prefect. At the same time, the bishops of Rome were gaining political influence. As a result, Rome's cityscape underwent significant transformations. The city gradually changed from a major political center with grand public buildings into a place of pilgrimage with important churches. Rome's pre‐Christian cityscape was preserved throughout the fourth centuryCE, but neither the emperors nor the urban prefects added any secular buildings of note. Rome effectively turned into a museum of the old empire that coexisted with an emerging Christian topography which heralded the age of the Roman papacy (for map see the previous entry).
Romuliana (Gamzigrad, Serbia)
Authors: Mladenović Dragana 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gamzigrad is a large fourth century
CE
fortified villa complex attributed to the Roman emperor Galerius, located in the valley of Black Timok, in eastern Serbia. Two rows of ramparts (300 m × 200 m), with 20 round towers, protect a complex consisting of a palace, two temples, a
horreum
,
thermae
, and other associated buildings. An earlier third century corridor‐style villa predates this monumental phase.
Sabratha
Authors: Leone Anna 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The settlement of Sabratha, along the shore of Tripolitana (Libya), developed out of an
emporium
(trading post,
see
EMPORION
) founded by Phoenician merchants. The exact date of foundation is uncertain, although the natural harbor probably determined the occupation of the coastal area from the seventh century
BCE
; literary sources mention the settlement starting from the late fourth century
BCE
. Probably the original market square of the area became the forum of the Roman city. Some Punic mausolea in the area have been reconstructed by the Italian team (led by A. Di Vita), relocating blocks reused in later buildings. The original layout of the Punic city is still visible in the area between the sea and the Temple of Liber Pater.
Ahriman
Authors: De Jong Albert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAhriman is the name of the Evil Spirit in Zoroastrianism (Avestanangra mainyu, “the evil spirit”). In most versions of Zoroastrian theology, the supreme god Ahura Mazda has an eternal uncreated opponent, who is his exact counter‐image. The origins of this notion go back to the Gathas of Zarathushtra, although the name of Ahura Mazda's opponent became fixed only in later Avestan times and the systematic juxtaposition of the two spirits ‐ and the cosmic history of their struggle ‐ was achieved only in the Achaemenid period.
Bouphonia
Authors: Naiden F. S. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Athenian sacrifice of the Bouphonia occurred annually at the altar of Zeus Polieus (Paus. 1.28.10–11). As part of the ritual, the axe used to kill the sacrificial ox was put on trial. The trial was a tradition supposedly dating from the first killing of an ox at this spot. The butcher of the ox had fled as though guilty of homicide, and the axe was tried instead. Pausanias says this trial was the origin of the homicide court at the Prytaneion.
Divination, Greece and Rome
Authors: Bonnechere Pierre 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDivination (Greekmantike, Latindivinatio) encompasses all forms of interrogating the gods. Contrary to general belief, its purpose is not merely to “know the future.” Confronted with any immediate choice entailing unknown repercussions, the consultant depends on divination in order to act effectively and be released from excessive anxiety, when too many hidden things remain inaccessible to his reason.
Human sacrifice, Greece and Rome
Authors: Bonnechere Pierre 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHuman sacrifice is a bone of contention for historians. The concept is elusive: should we distinguish between the victim that is offered to specific gods (human sacrifice) and the one that is not (ritual murder)? This issue very often superimposes modern categories on ancient texts, in which such a distinction is never obvious. Would this distinction remain valid if human sacrifice belonged to representation rather than reality? Comparisons with other cultures remain particularly hazardous if the phenomenon has not been thoroughly studied for each of them.
Katabasis
Authors: Harrisson Juliette 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFrom the Greek for “descent,”katabasiscan mean a descent from high ground, a journey from inland to the coast, or a return. In the context of myth, it usually refers to a descent to the land of the dead by a living person who later returns (rather than the natural descent of a deceased soul or an ascent by a ghost to visit the living).
Magi, Persian
Authors: de Jong Albert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Old Persian wordmagu‐ means “priest.” It is well attested in documentary texts from the Achaemenid period, but its use in Old Persian royal inscriptions is limited to one specific case: that of the “usurper” Gaumata, who claimed to be Bardiya, king of the Persians, and who was unmasked and defeated by Darius.
Manes, di manes
Authors: King Charles W. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
manes
or
di manes
were the deified dead, whom Romans worshipped at festivals like the
Parentalia
, at shrines within their own homes, and in other contexts (King 1998; 2009). The word
manes
lacks singular forms, but it would be misleading to conclude from the plural form that the Romans did not worship (or could not conceive of) individual dead. When it was required, Romans could shift to any of several other terms with singular forms in order to convey the idea of individual dead, as Ovid (
Fast
. 2.535–41) shifted from
manes
to the singular
umbra
while describing the
Parentalia
. They could also simply use
manes
as a singular word, if the context made that usage clear (e.g., Ovid
Met
. 6.566–70). Although there were contexts when Romans invoked collective groups of
manes
in rituals, as in the opening of the
Mundus
or the military
devotio
, much of Roman funerary cult focused on dead individuals who would be worshipped as
manes
at their specific tombs (during the
Parentalia
) or at home altars. Pontifical rules established connections between dead persons and their heirs, so that the obligation of heirs to worship specific
manes
accompanied the inheritance (Cicero
Leg
. 2.48–9; Evans 1985; King 1998: 268–78). The Romans attributed various powers to
manes
including the ability to extend worshippers' lives beyond what fate had decreed, to send messages in dreams, to enforce sworn oaths, and, in certain contexts like the military
devotio
, to kill enemies (King 2009; 1998: 336–80).
Priests and priestesses, Roman
Authors: Várhelyi Zsuzsanna 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

There is no single term in Latin to designate priests, suggesting the varied origins of Roman priesthoods. In some instances we can trace Indo‐European origins behind individual words; for example, the *
dhe‐
stem in
sacerdos
, the generic Latin term for “priest,” also shows up in different form in the Latin verb
facere
, “to do,” and thus implies the “doing” of sacred actions.
Religion, Italic
Authors: Scopacasa Rafael 
Published: December 2012

AbstractItalic religion comprises the religious beliefs and practices of Italic communities, which in ancient literature are referred to as “Sabines,” “Samnites,” “Latins,” “Picenes,” “Umbrians,” “Campanians,” “Lucanians,” “Veneti,” and “Messapians.” Despite its distinctive features, Italic religion shares important traits with other religions of the ancient Mediterranean, such as Greek and Etruscan.
Religion, North African
Authors: Bessi Benedetta 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe geographic and climatic conditions of the vast area referred to as Africa by the ancient geographers, stretching from present‐day Libya in the East to Morocco in the West, “combine to produce a peculiar mix of connectivity and isolation that has affected ideas as much as economies” (Shaw 2007: 2); religion was no exception. The indigenous Libyan people always maintained a tribal organization and therefore their religious practices did not become a homogeneous phenomenon.
Rhomaia
Authors: Kantirea Maria 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRhomaiawere competitive festivals organized and celebrated by Greek cities in honor of the goddess Roma, during the late Hellenistic and early imperial periods. They were an integral part of the cult of the personified city of Rome after its emergence as the leading power in the eastern Mediterranean and constituted the religious confirmation of the relations of confidence, friendship, and alliance between the Roman state and the Greek world.
Sabazios
Authors: Roller Lynn E. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSabazios was an Anatolian god often identified as Zeus. The Sabazios cult was widely disseminated in western Anatolia, including Lydia, Lycia, Phrygia, and the west coast of Asia Minor. In a fourth centuryBCEinscription from Sardis, Sabazios is linked with the Anatolian deities Angdistis (an alternate name for the Phrygian Mother) and Ma.
Seers,
G
reece
Authors: Gagné Renaud 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Mantis
(plural,
manteis
) is the standard Greek term for “seer” or “diviner,” one of the reasons why there is some overlap in our sources between
mantis
and other, more marked terms such as
chresmologos
,
prophetes
,
chresmoidos
, or
theopropos
.
Terminus
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

AbstractStubborn god of boundaries and their markers, Terminus would not yield his place through exauguration even for Jupiter when Tarquin was building Jupiter's Capitoline temple, which, for this reason, enclosed Terminus' stone, but provided an opening to the sky through its roof (Festus p. 505L; Dion. Hal.Ant. Rom. 3.69; ServiusAen. 9.446; Ov.Fast. 2.667–72).
Vow, Greece and Rome
Authors: Hahn Frances Hickson 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA vow is conventionally defined as a prayer promising an offering to a deity, conditional upon fulfillment of some request, a form often identified asda ut dem(“give so that I may give”). Thousands of inscriptions referring to the fulfillment of vows bear witness to this practice throughout Greek and Roman antiquity. Also numerous are votive offerings in a multitude of forms, including tripods, armor, toys, altars, temples, representations of body parts, and statuettes of humans and deities.
Monstrum, Greek and Roman
Authors: Engels David 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMonstrawere an important category of prodigies. The wordmonstrumis etymologically related tomonstrare, “to show”, andmonere, “to admonish” (FestusGloss. Lat. 122 L.; Serv. adAen. 2.681) and corresponds to the Greekteras. Monstracan globally be understood as synonymous with mostly biological abnormalities, although there are often terminological exceptions.
Dacia
Authors: Schmitz Michael 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe land of the Dacians (known to the Greeks as the Getae), located north of the Danube River in the region roughly analogous with modern‐day Romania, was a thorn in the side of nearby Roman provinces from the time of Caesar until its annexation by the emperor Trajan. Dacia was conquered by Trajan in 106 after two hard‐fought wars against the Dacian king Decebalus in 101 and 105. These wars and the conquest are depicted and celebrated on Trajan's Column situated in Rome.
Diplomacy, Roman and Byzantine
Authors: Lee A. D. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRoman dealings with other states and peoples were strongly shaped by war, but diplomacy also played an important part, whether in averting conflict or in its preliminaries and aftermath. Over time, changes in the character of the political organization of the Roman state and in its external circumstances had an impact on diplomatic practice and procedures, but formal institutions for the conduct of diplomacy never really developed, at least until the final stages of Late Antiquity, and even then only in limited ways.
Petra
Authors: Graf David F. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Petra (Aramaic
reqem
or
ragmū
, referring to the “multi‐colored” Nubian sandstone rock of the mountains surrounding the city) was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom, and center for the international trade in aromatics from south Arabia to the Mediterranean (from ca. 312/11
BCE
to 106
CE
).
Tacfarinas
Authors: MacDonald Eve 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Tacfarinas (d. 24
CE
), a Roman auxiliary soldier, led the Musulmanii, a tribe that inhabited the southern regions of Africa Proconsularis and were joined by the Gaetuli and Cinithians, in a military rebellion against Rome in North Africa, which lasted from 17 to 24
CE
(Tac.
Ann
. 2.52; 3.20–1, 73–4; 4.23).
Aemilian (Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus)
Authors: Harl Kenneth W. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAemilian (Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus), Roman emperor for three months in 253, was born at Girba, Africa (modern Gerba, Tunisia) between 207 and 213CE(Aur. Vict.Epit. 31. 3).
Balbinus and Pupienus
Authors: Bonur Christopher 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus (alternatively called Pupienus or Maximus, and sometimes Puplianus) (ca. 164 –238CE) and Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus (sometimes called Albinus) (ca. 178–238) were jointly ruling emperors during the period in Roman history known as the Crisis of the Third Century.
Ducenarii
Authors: Whately Conor 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Strictly speaking,
ducenarius
(plural
ducenarii
) simply means “containing two hundred,” and the term initially referred to the possession of at least 200,000 sesterces by members of the Roman elite (Cass. Dio 55.13). In the Late Empire,
ducenarius
referred to a rank held by an equestrian official, as well as one of the non‐commissioned officers in the army.
Fabius Valens
Authors: Thornton Daniel James 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFabius Valens was a Roman commander who achieved notoriety during a period of civil war known as the “Year of the Four Emperors,” that is, 69CE. Originally from Anagnia and from an equestrian family, Valens' activities are known entirely in the context of that episode and almost exclusively from theHistoriesof Tacitus (books 1–3), and to a lesser degree, Plutarch's biographies of Galba and Otho and Josephus'Jewish War.
Otho (Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus)
Authors: Broadhead Will 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOtho (32–69CE), emperor from January 15 to April 16, 69, was from a family that had over the previous two generations risen from equestrian status to senatorial prominence under the patronage of the Julio‐Claudian court: his grandfather was a favorite of Livia; his father a favorite of Tiberius and a much decorated officer and magistrate under Claudius.
Aemilius Lepidus, Marcus
Authors: Ramsey John T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Lepidus (ca. 90–13/12BCE) was the younger son of the consul of 78, who died in Sardinia in 77 after fomenting an unsuccessful rebellion against the reforms of Sulla. His wife Iunia Tertia was the half‐sister of the tyrannicide Marcus Iunius Brutus. He was a man who always played a supporting, rather than a leading, role. He lacked decisiveness and a driving ambition to grasp power for himself. Yet the important assignments entrusted to him by Julius Caesar in the Civil War (49–45) demonstrate that he was not without talent.
Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony)
Authors: Ramsey John T. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Marcus Antonius, “Mark Antony” (ca. January 14, 83–August 1, 30
bce
), was the eldest of three brothers born to M. Antonius Creticus (pr. 74), son of the famous oratorM. Antonius (cos. 99). His mother Julia was the sister of the consul of 64 and a distant relative of the Dictator Julius Caesar. His spendthrift father died in disgrace ca. 71, and his mother remarried. Antony's stepfather was P. Lentulus (cos. 71), who was executed by Cicero in 63 for his involvement in Catiline's conspiracy.
Campus Martius, republican
Authors: Bernard Seth G. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Campus Martius, the field consecrated to Mars, was the area of Rome just outside the city walls and within the curve of the Tiber River. This location, extramural but still close to the city's center, gave the Campus a privileged political and religious position throughout Roman history. Its size alone was such that, when it was finally monumentalized in the Late Republic and Early Empire, the rest of the city seemed almost an appendage to it (Strabo 5.3.8).
Consuls
Authors: Polo Francisco Pina 
Published: December 2012

AbstractActing in close collaboration with the Senate, the two consuls were the chief magistrates of the Roman state throughout the republican period. The republic's highest office, like the Roman “constitution” itself, should be regarded as a “work in progress,” and analyzed by taking into account the changing historical circumstances of Roman history. According to Roman tradition, two consuls replaced the king as highest magistrates in 509BCE, as shown by the list of consuls in theFasti. However, it is unlikely that the republic was governed from the beginning by two magistrates acting as equal partners in power. Only after the enactment of the Licinio‐Sextian laws (367–366) do we have definite knowledge of a double magistracy. From that moment onwards, the consulship certainly existed. Until then it is uncertain whether consuls orpraetor maximusand otherpraetores, ormagister populi‐magister equitum, or under certain circumstancestribuni militum consulari potestate, were the highest magistrates of the Roman Republic. According to the tradition, Plebeians reached the right to stand for the consulship only in 367, the office being until then an exclusive office for Patricians.
Curia
Authors: Hopkins John North 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn addition to being the name of the Roman Senate house, a curia was also any inaugurated site (templum) where senators met, and outside Rome it suggests a civic assembly hall. Located on the north rim of theComitium, probably under the modern church of SS. Luca e Martina, the Curia Hostilia was the first Senate house in Rome; Caesar replaced it with the Curia Iulia on the site now occupied by a Diocletianic reconstruction. The wordcuriaseems to derive fromco‐viria, a meeting of men, whence the building where they convened.