bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Essential Welding Variable Approach and its Application to the Welding of X80 Line Pipe Steels
Authors: Chen Yaoshan , Gianetto Jim , Fazeli Fateh , Sui Yongli , Jin Haicheng 
Published: December 2014

A weld quality control approach developed for the welding of high-strength pipeline steels has demonstrated its effectiveness in achieving reliability and consistency in the mechanical performance of girth welds. Using a predictive tool that can relate cooling times of welding thermal cycles with welding parameters and with the knowledge of microstructure responses of both pipe materials and weld metals to welding thermal cycles, the approach can evaluate the effects of welding parameters on weld properties and identify the essential welding variables. As a result, the essential welding variable approach can be used to optimize and help shorten the process of welding procedure development.
The current paper presents the application of the essential welding variable approach to the girth welding of X80 pipeline steels.
The application started with the selection of pipe materials, welding consumables, and candidate welding procedures. The selection of actual weld procedures and a welding matrix were made after the candidate welding procedures were analyzed in terms of cooling times. Girth welds for two X80 pipes of different chemical compositions, outside diameters, and wall thicknesses were made with single and dual torch GMAW-P processes and a range of welding consumables. The welding parameters were monitored and recorded for all welds; and the thermal cycles of selected welds were measured by thermocouples.
Small-scale testing, including all-weld-metal tensile test, Charpy impact toughness and CTOD fracture toughness tests, were evaluated and correlated with microstructures formed in the HAZ of the girth welds. The material responses of heat-affected zone (HAZ) to thermal cycles of typical GMAW-P single and dual torch processes were experimentally simulated (Gleeble®).
Detailed welding thermal cycle analyses were conducted based on the measured welding parameters. Cooling times of welding thermal cycles for the girth welds were calculated and correlated with the material responses, of X80 pipe steels to welding thermal cycles. The correlation demonstrated very good consistency between the cooling times, the results of the Gleeble simulation, and the mechanical properties of the girth welds.
The dependency of the weld properties on welding parameters was analyzed in terms of cooling times, and the optimization strategy for development of welding procedures that offer more balanced welding properties between strength and toughness was evaluated by adjusting the essential welding variables.
In summary, the process of applying the essential welding variable approach and the results from the tests and the analyses showed that the approach is capable of evaluating the effects of welding parameters on weld properties, identifying the essential welding variables, and ultimately optimizing welding procedures.
A Novel Approach for Pipe Grade Determination Through In-Line Inspection (ILI)
Authors: Molenda Daniel , Thale Werner 
Published: December 2014

When establishing a pipelines’ maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP), many pipeline operators face uncertainties regarding the yield strength of the respective pipeline material. This specifically concerns “pre-regulatory” pipelines which, for example, constitute approximately 66% of all gas transmission pipelines in the U.S. as well as new pipelines to ensure laid steel pipes meet the contracted steel grade.
Conventional ILI technologies are capable of delivering relevant information for MAOP calculation, such as wall thickness and diameter. However, as missing element, in the past there have been no economic means for accurately measuring yield strength. Therefore ROSEN has developed and tested a novel ILI system for measuring yield strength of pipeline steel.
This paper introduces the fundamental principles of this new system and outlines first results.
Laboratory test results are obtained from samples covering the typical range of pipeline steels. The sensor readings are correlated with reference yield strengths of certified steels where the yield strength was determined by destructive tensile tests.
Initial pull tests with an ILI tool measurement are compared with the available yield strengths and tensile strengths according to the inspection certificates of the pull test pipes.
An Engineering Assessment to Evaluate Integrity Options for Out of Class Pipelines
Authors: Wang Hong , Kariyawasam Shahani , Kwong Pauline 
Published: December 2014

As population growth and development occurs along the pipeline right of way, the class location of pipeline segments could change to a higher class designation. A higher location class designation has a more stringent location factor according to Canadian Standard Association (CSA) Z662-11 Clause 4.3.7. For this situation, Onshore Pipeline Regulations (OPR) s.42 requires pipeline operators to submit a proposed plan in conformance with CSA Z662 requirements in Clause 10.7. Typically for compliance, a change to higher class designation leads to pipe replacement or operating pressure reduction (compliance options). Alternatively, the pipeline segment could also be subjected to an engineering assessment (EA) to develop other measures which are as safe as or safer than the compliance options.
The CSA code requirements of pipeline replacement or pressure reduction for out-of-class pipe cater to generic cases, and essentially make the out-of-class pipe segment comply such that it is within class. In contrast, a site-specific EA considers the actual pipe conditions, the relevant hazards, and the case specific solutions. Therefore, the site-specific EA provides a more appropriate solution for the problem at hand and ensures a risk consistent approach for the class change site. This also provides a safety level that is equivalent or above the regulatory requirements.
A three-level engineering assessment methodology was developed for an out-of-class EA. In the first level assessment, the design, construction, testing procedures and the location class development are reviewed to understand the regulatory constraints and compliance aspects. In the second level assessment, all the potential hazards are identified and assessed to determine the pipeline condition. Finally, in the third level assessment, quantitative reliability assessment techniques were utilized to determine the optimized mitigation activities that can make the pipe segments as safe as or safer than the compliant options.
The class change EA used the above methodology to quantitatively compare mitigation activities with pipe replacement and reduced operating pressure scenarios. Some mitigation activities provided greater safety than pipe replacement and reduced operating pressure scenarios, thus providing safer options while avoiding pipeline service interruption; minimizing in-field disturbances and related risks of replacement; and providing cost-benefit optimization. The growth of urban areas and related encroachment on pipeline corridors is a common occurrence. Therefore this EA approach has industry wide applications in providing safer and more optimized solutions.
“I Know It When I See It”: Where to Look for Social License
Authors: Douglas Garrath 
Published: December 2014

It has become axiomatic that a social license is a critical success factor for Canadian pipelines. Regulators may permit a pipeline, but on-the-ground consent for a project is a function of communities. Social license is an intangible quality outside of formal regulation, occupying the gap between community expectations and existing laws.
Increasingly, gaining social license is seen as an important aspect of managing environmental and social risks, and the presence or absence of social license affects project budgets, timelines, corporate reputation and even project outcomes. There are regulatory risks to not demonstrating social license; and even with regulatory approval social license may be the difference between legal challenges and none.
Social license is not easy to find, is difficult to measure, and is capricious and dynamic in nature. It is an inherently vague and changeable standard that means different things to different people. Simply defining social license can be a futile enterprise: as with US Supreme Court Justice Stewart’s famous 1964 judgment, we can’t neatly define social license, but we know it when we see it.
The emergence of social media has meant that communities are better engaged, informed, and networked than ever before. Gaining social license happens when trust is built, earned and maintained with communities: it can take a long time to build that trust, and today’s digital citizen expects engagement across many platforms in order for that trust to be maintained.
Though there is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to gaining social license, the approach of this paper is to lay out a case-study roadmap for navigating towards it by building relationships, countering misinformation, and mobilizing existing support. The paper will also recognize potential wrong turns such as inattention to social media, lack of transparency or a clear message, and the mistaken belief that regulatory approval is the only approval necessary.
Quantifying the Impact of Assumptions on Predicted Burst Pressure Assessments
Authors: Polasik Steven J. , Keane Sean , Harper William V. , Bubenik Tom 
Published: December 2014

The ability for deterministic fracture mechanics assessments to correctly estimate the predicted burst pressure (PBP) is dependent upon the accuracy of the model as well as the assumptions made regarding mechanical properties and defect geometry. Within the assessment of defects identified through field investigation or through ILI programs, the use of extreme bounding values for all input variables can lead to unacceptably over-conservative predictions and impede the ability to achieve a target safety margin.
This paper examines the effect multiple assumptions have on the bias between predicted and actual burst pressures for various kinds of defects that have caused in-service and hydrostatic pressure test failures in ERW and flash weld line pipe materials. The predicted failure pressures of defects documented within a recent U.S. Department of Transportation compendium of ERW and flash weld seam failures were analyzed using a variety of scenarios based on knowledge of key nominal parameters such as grade, outside diameter, wall thickness, and the maximum defect length and depth. The ratio of the predicted to actual failure pressure was statistically examined across the scenarios for the different defect types. Observations are made regarding the use of the PBP model in order to statistically quantify the accuracy of the model, which can be used as input for an operator to develop a process that achieves a target safety margin.
A Novel Approach to Evaluating Leak Detection CPM System Sensitivity/Reliability Performance Trade-Offs
Authors: Chadha Shyam , Hung Daniel , Rashid Samir 
Published: December 2014

As defined in American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice 1130 (API RP 1130), CPM system leak detection performance is evaluated on the basis of four distinct but interrelated metrics: sensitivity, reliability, accuracy and robustness. These performance metrics are captured to evaluate performance, manage risk and prioritize mitigation efforts.
Evaluating and quantifying sensitivity performance of a CPM system is paramount to ensure the performance of the CPM system is acceptable based on a company’s risk profile for detecting leaks. Employing API RP 1130 recommended testing methodologies including parameter manipulation techniques, software simulated leak tests and/or removal of test quantities of commodity from the pipeline are excellent approaches to understanding the leak sensitivity metric.
Good reliability (false alarm) performance is critical to ensure that control center operator desensitization does not occur through long term exposure to false alarms. Continuous tracking and analyzing of root causes of leak alarms ensures that the effects of seasonal variations or changes to operation on CPM system performance are managed appropriately. The complexity of quantifying this metric includes qualitatively evaluating the relevance of false alarms.
The interrelated nature of the above performance metrics imposes conflicting requirements and results in inherent trade-offs. Optimizing the trade-off between reliability and sensitivity involves identifying the point that thresholds must be set to obtain a balance of a desired sensitivity and false alarm rate.
This paper presents an approach to illustrate the combined sensitivity/reliability performance for an example pipeline. The paper discusses considerations addressed while determining the methodology such as stakeholder input, ongoing CPM system enhancements, sensitivity/reliability trade-off, risk based capital investment and graphing techniques. The paper also elaborates on a number of identified benefits of the selected overall methodology.
Multi-Satellite InSAR Deformation Analysis for Pipeline Monitoring: Operational Application, Results and Validation in the Belridge Oil Field, 2001–2012
Authors: Henschel Michael D. , Deschamps Benjamin , Robert Gillian , Gailing Rick 
Published: December 2014

This paper presents a time history of 12 years of surface deformation in the Belridge Oil Field, California, USA from an InSAR analysis using multiple satellites.
The time series reveals deformation rates as high as 80 cm/yr at times with a maximum overall deformation of 3.92 m. The use of multiple satellites and multiple observation modes provided deformation measurements at a frequency as high as every two days from the RADARSAT-1 and RADARSAT-2 satellites.
The InSAR derived estimates of motion are shown with respect to a pipeline segment that transects the Belridge Oil Field. The use of wide area ground movement monitoring provides both high resolution (3 m on the ground) and high precision (deformation measurements to ± 1 mm).
The observed ground motion is validated with collocated measurements from a set of Global Navigation Satellite System units installed for a period in 2012.
The long term, validated time series of observations provide a unique data set with which to compare pipeline incidents. The correlation between incidents and ground movement can help estimate the pipeline state as related to stress and strain from ground displacement.
Effective Improvements to Overcome “Blind Spots” in a Corrosion Management Program and Practical Measures to Verify Effectiveness
Authors: Huang Terry , Kariyawasam Shahani , Yeung Patrick , Shariq Mohammad 
Published: December 2014

The recent industry wide post-ILI pipeline ruptures due to external corrosion happened in a relatively short period of time after the ILI using high-resolution Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) technology. Failure investigations show that the critical defects that caused these pipeline ruptures are generally long and complex corrosion, which typically consist of a number of deep corrosion pits (i.e. localized metal-loss) within an overall shallower, but relatively large corrosion area (i.e. generalized metal-loss). This has led us to investigate the gaps and “blind spots” of the ILI-based corrosion management program particularly to find out why existing methods fail to effectively identify and remediate such critical defects before they fail. Learning from these post-ILI failures, TransCanada has developed many assessment methods and criteria for identifying challenging areas. The many types of criteria account for blind spots from different perspectives in a multi-faceted manner.
The traditional ILI based corrosion management programs calculate a deterministic failure pressure ratio (FPR) and maximum anomaly depth and ensure these do not reach a limiting value. However, this strictly deterministic assessment does not acknowledge the uncertainties, particularly the significant uncertainties in the ILI measurements, assessment models, and material properties. When all uncertainties are accounted for and a probabilistic excavation criterion is used, the excavations reveal that certain anomalies are found to be near-critical in the field even though the deterministic FPR based criteria did not identify these. The probabilistic criteria identifies longer shallower anomalies, with non-critical ILI based FPR values, as anomalies that have a higher probability of exceeding the FPR criteria in-the-ditch (where the uncertainties are minimized). This is because the probabilistic criterion acknowledges that longer anomalies are more sensitive to the depth measurement error and have a higher probability of becoming critical in-the-ditch. This “blind spot” in the deterministic method was overcome by incorporating a probabilistic criterion into the corrosion management program.
The effectiveness of these new measures is discussed by examining excavation results of this program and subsequent ILI results. This paper discusses the approach to corrosion management where new learning and knowledge as well as new-found uncertainties are readily accommodated. The approach is also transparent and documented; so that new information can be incorporated into the assessment and post-ILI failures can be prevented more effectively.
Best Practices for Yield Stress Determination Using the Flattened Strap Tensile Test
Authors: Collins L. E. , Rashid M. 
Published: December 2014

The tensile properties of line pipe are usually determined using a flattened strap tensile sample which is obtained by cutting a long transverse sample from the pipe and then flattening it prior to machining the final tensile coupon. Although, several documents have been published to standardize this test, variability in the reported yield stress for the same material tested by different labs continues to be an issue particularly in high strength line pipe (X70 and X80).
Pipe properties are influenced by the pipe forming operations which introduce plastic strain into the steel. As well, the flattening of the tensile blank reverses the deformation and leads to Bauchinger effects which further alter the tensile properties of the material. There is no standard available for the flattening process and pipe manufacturers and operators continue to seek a best practice for the process. In addition, other factors such as placement of extensometer on a flattenend tensile specimen during the tensile testing have been considered a source of variation in the results.
Several projects were conducted to identify the source of variability and to standardize the flattening and testing process among the Evraz QA Labs. These initiatives included: a round robin tensile testing program in which tensile tests were performed on flat plates and subsequently on flattened strap specimens produced from a sister plate; examination of a 2-step flattening procedure against a 1-step method, and investigation of the extensometer placement (ID, OD or side mounted) on the recorded stress-strain behaviour.
The flattening process was found to be the main source of variability of yield stress. No real trend was observed resulting from extensometer position. Other testing practices such as specimen gripping, zeroing the load and positioning at the start of the test, and the dimensional variability within the reduced section of a specimen were also found to contribute to yield stress variability. Best practices for determination of yield stress using flattened strap tensile samples are discussed.
Failure Analysis of 12 Inch Pipeline Riser
Authors: Gareau Frank , Tatarov Alex 
Published: December 2014

A rupture and an explosion occurred on a 12.75 inch OD high pressure gas pipeline after 40 years in service. The force of the explosion broke the riser off and sent two large pieces of the riser flying into the surrounding forest.
The failure occurred as a result of the simultaneous action of several contributing factors:
• The weld had a non-specified profile (a step) and contained a large slag inclusion at the location of fracture initiation.
• Corrosion pits were growing from the internal surface close to the weld root.
• Dewpoint corrosion took place on the internal surface of the riser close to massive flanges.
• The dehydrator at the compressor station was not removing the target amount of moisture.
• Low temperatures contributed to the failure by decreasing material fracture toughness.
• Ground movement could have created additional stress required for the failure to occur.
Several of the above listed factors (pitting corrosion, ground movement, malfunctioning of the dehydrator) developed with time, which explains the delayed mode of failure.
The conclusions were supported by Finite Element Analysis and Fracture Mechanics calculations.
Neurogenic claudication
Authors: Jeanneret B. , Mehrkens A. 
Published: December 2014

SummaryNeurogenic claudication is a cardinal symptom of lumbar spinal stenosis and an important and frequent differential diagnosis in reported “leg pain”. Whereas findings are often relatively normal on clinical examination, a detailed anamnesis can frequently lead to the correct (suspected) diagnosis, which is subsequently confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging or CT myelography. In the absence of any relevant neurological deficits, conservative treatment with anal-gesia, peridural cortisone injections and physiotherapy can initially be attempted. If conservative treatment fails or neurological deficits occur, most patients benefit from surgical decompression of the spinal canal, with additional stabilisation if appropriate.
Problematika „environmentálních hazardů“ v geografickém vzdělávání
Authors: Pluháčková Markéta 
Published: December 2014

This article deals with the topic of environmental hazards within geographical education. It describes how issues of environmental hazards at the local level can be communicated in education. The suggested method is project teaching divided into three levels. The first level aims at imparting general knowledge about a hazard and its appropriate terminology. The second level is based on protection against the hazard, and the last part deals with appropriate protection against the hazard in future. As an example, floods were chosen as a hazard that is very significant in the Czech Republic. The project presented here was partly performed using the Google Earth application that presents theoretical information applied in practice and includes some field work focused on the impact of previous floods. This project has been undertaken twice. An evaluation of the results can be found in the final part of this article.
Analysis of the Cost of Emergency Managers’ Meeting Load: A Hampton Road Case-study
Authors: Collins Andrew J. , Flanagan David W. , Ezell Barry 
Published: December 2014

AbstractPreparation for a disaster is not something that can be done by a single organization thus there is a need for coordination between them. Meetings and joint exercises are one means of coordination used by the emergency management community. Meetings and exercises take time, including transportation of personnel and arrangements, and time is money. With limited budgets, emergency managers need to make hard decisions about how their time is allocated. This paper describes a cost model for meeting analysis and discusses a case study that looks at the holistic time spent on meetings and exercises, by personnel, for the Hampton Roads Region of Virginia. A novel way is used to display this expenditure, e.g., it is shown in terms of monetary cost instead of temporal cost. This analysis highlighted some unexpected results, i.e., the small number of personnel involved in multiple working group meetings and high level of travel costs between the HR and the state capital, Richmond. This cost model approach may provide emergency managers with better mechanisms to show their meetings costs to senior leadership.