bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Calculating Probability of Detection Using Excavation Data
Authors: Skow Jason , Nessim Maher A. 
Published: July 2013

The key to estimating the probability of detection (POD) of an inline inspection tool is to count existing defects that have not been detected by the tool. In an ideal experiment, the number of defects in the pipeline is known before running the tool and the rate of detection is calculated by comparing the number of defects detected by the inline tool with the total number of defects in the pipeline. In reality, the inline inspection is often the first method of identifying defects. Undetected defects are found during excavation only if they are near defects called by the inline tool.
This paper describes a new model for probability of detection based on a combination of excavation data and the vendor claim. It addresses the limitations of existing models by assuming undetected defects can occur anywhere in the tool run. This is accomplished by modeling the rate of undetected defects using a Poisson distribution.
Its main advantages are a more accurate representation of the probability of detection that considers all the available data, the flexibility to update the model with additional data sets as they become available and ability to quantify changes in the uncertainty of POD as additional data is uncovered through excavations.
Overall, a more accurate and defensible process for determining probability of detection is proposed which can be used for managing pipeline integrity and risk.
Design of Parallel Pipelines in Second West-East Natural Gas Pipeline Project
Authors: Shi Hang , Wu Wen , Zhang Wenwei , Yu Zhifeng , Huang Liuqun 
Published: July 2013

The Second West-East Gas Pipeline (2nd WEP) Project, consisting of one trunk line and eight branches, has a total length of 8,704 km and a designed annual transportation capacity of 30 billion cubic meters. The outside diameter of trunk line is 1,219 mm (48″). According to the plan, 2nd WEP will parallel with several existing or planning pipelines in long distance, some will even be located in rocky area. However, there are neither requirements of separation distance nor other related provisions of parallel pipelines in current domestic regulation and codes in China. It is an urgent critical problem to reasonably design, construct and operate multiple pipelines in same corridor.
In order to design 2nd WEP in parallel with other existing and planning pipelines, a series of technical studies were carried out. This paper describes the main work. First of all is the literature review, including regulation, standards, codes etc. and similar work on parallel pipelines and applicable practices in other countries. Second, for the primary concern-separation distance, the main factors are considered. Then, the computational results of some 2nd WEP paralleling with other pipelines based on the impact of the failure of natural gas pipeline to adjacent pipelines are introduced. Third, the experiments and some related researches in rocky areas where 2nd WEP parallels with existing pipelines are introduced. Forth, analysis of Direct Current (DC) stray current interference resulted from Cathodic Protection (CP) Systems located along each parallel pipeline is briefly introduced. Then is the mitigation and monitoring requirements for unbounded (separate) CP system.
According to the works above together with engineering practices as well as experiences, the design guideline of parallel pipelines is established. When 2nd WEP parallels with other pipelines not locating in rocky areas, the reasonable separation distance is based on integrated considerations of adjacent pipeline’s survival in the event of failure of gas transmission pipeline, easiness to construct, less CP interferences, adequate space requirements for maintenance and repair. For other paralleling cases, engineering requirements are established separately. This guideline has been applied in design of parallel pipelines and provides management requirements for future operation in 2nd WEP project.
Accurate Short Period Corrosion Growth Rates From Combined MFL-UT Inline Inspection: A Case Study
Authors: Palmer Johannes , Hennig Thomas 
Published: July 2013

Inline inspection (ILI) identifies most significant anomalies - at the time of inspection. To recognize those individual features, which have the highest potential to enter these ranks, perhaps soon, is a challenging question, which is not necessarily covered with established ILI approaches.
Whether the circumstances permit the identification and reliable description of individual corrosion hot spots depend on the ILI quality, the specific feature shape-dependent sizing, the comparability of the data and the time-dependent development of the anomaly.
This case study demonstrates the enormous benefits of the combination of two technologies. The robust, indirect Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) methodology and the direct Ultrasonic Testing (UT) ILI tool. The intelligent interpretative combination of the two ILI information sources exceeds significantly the straight forward statistical combination benefit. The presented approach demonstrates how to:
• identify features not suitable to UT stand alone sizing.
• compensate systematic errors from MFL sizing models and calibration assumptions.
• introduce UT shape information as major improvement to MFL sizing.
• apply MFL amplitude based depth sizing.
• reduce the subsequent sizing tolerance to values, which allow corrosion prediction based on even short term repeated ILI intervals.
Applied to the identified group of pinholes and embedded pinholes with an average maximum depth of more than 50% the method delivered a depth sizing accuracy of ±6.0% wall thickness at 80% certainty. The fact, that even smaller corrosion growth rate values become resolvable, allows for the equivalent shortening of the re-inspection intervals and for the prolongation of the validity of prediction, whatever may be advisable in specific cases. Also it is shown, that this approach does not require to rerun similar tools, because systematic errors can be compensated absolutely with this approach.
The optimization of inspection strategies and methods with regard to specific pipeline problems can have monetary benefit even at higher inspection costs. More sophisticated ILI systems requiring specialist data analysis become justified for equivalent pipeline use cases. The presented combination of the two independent ILI methodologies bears significant useful potential to approach aggressive corrosion mechanisms, e.g. microbial corrosion or CP shielding.
Pipeline Material Strain Monitoring System in Permafrost of MoHe-DaQing Pipeline
Authors: Chen Pengchao , Zhang Shibin , Yang Shimei , Li Zhengbin , Ren Yanguang 
Published: July 2013

Mohe-Daqing pipeline is the first pipeline to be buried, passing through the permafrost regions of North China where the temperature in winter is about minus thirty degrees Celsius. This pipeline has been transporting large quantities of crude oil per day to northern markets of China since January 1st, 2011. It’s a significant cooperation for both Russia and China.
This paper reviews the design, construction, and operational challenges of the first pipeline buried in the permafrost regions of North China. The pipeline is in so complicated geography environment that many kinds of geotechnical disaster could happen easily, including frost heave, thaw settlement, slope instabilities, and collapse and so on. Monitoring pipeline material strain in specific region is important and significant. Ground movement of the pipeline induces sufficiently large strains to the pipeline, which would cause wrinkling on the compression side of the pipe, or alternatively tensile fracture on the tensile side of the pipe. Brag fiber sensors have been located and composed on the surface of the pipe, which were used to monitor material strain real-time data at any time.
Finite element pipe soil interaction and ground movement models in specific sites have been developed according to the monitoring data. Whether the generated pipeline strain is exceeded the strain capacity or not could be estimated by comparing with the strain capacity of the pipeline, which can help us to make decision for pipeline safety management and prevent pipeline damage from geotechnical disaster.
The Formal Adoption of a Process Safety Management Methodology Within an International Oil and Gas Pipeline Company
Authors: Urra Susan 
Published: July 2013

Process Safety Management (PSM) is an integrated approach to managing loss prevention. At Enbridge, as with many organizations, several PSM elements of practice have been implemented with different levels of rigor, maturity and/or alignment with best practices.
This paper presents Enbridge Liquid Pipelines’ approach to assess a strategy to adopt a formal PSM system. A description of the current regulation framework for PSM and the drivers for adoption are presented to explain the considerations during the scoping and design of a PSM system for an international oil and gas pipeline system that operates across numerous state and provincial boundaries, and one international border.
The paper also discusses the requirements for organizational governance to ensure accountability for and ownership of individual elements of a PSM program throughout a large, geographically diverse organization such as Enbridge.
Finally, a strategy to develop and potentially implement and manage PSM in a large organization such as Enbridge is proposed.
Evolution of Process Hazard Analysis in an Oil and Gas Pipeline Company: From Ad-Hoc to an Enterprise Standard Practice
Authors: Urra Susan 
Published: July 2013

Enbridge’s decision to formalize a Process Hazard Analysis (PHA) program has taken the organization through a journey from an informal/ad hoc practice to a rigorous, standardized, best-practice-based process with selected methodologies and tools being applied to all capital and operation projects in the company.
This paper begins with a description of past hazard practices in the oil and gas pipeline industry in relation to the application of a hazard analysis. The oil and gas pipeline industry is governed by PHMSA, NEB, TSB, and provincial OHSA regulations, but is not regulated by OSHA or EPA RMP. Using this regulatory framework as a reference, a standard corporate PHA at Enbridge was developed and implemented. The paper describes the process, the methodologies, and the associated templates and tools. The implementation strategy is also discussed, including training deployment and communication plans. Finally, a road map for continuous improvement describes how to make the process sustainable by closing the current process gaps in relation to best practices and achieving a maturity stage of execution.
Rational Stress Limits and Load Factors for Finite Element Analyses in Pipeline Applications: Part II — Limit-State Load Factor Development
Authors: Lin Bisen , Biel Richard C. 
Published: July 2013

In this paper, a load factor for use in a limit-load analysis of a pipeline and its components is established. The load factor is based on the ASME pipeline Code’s design margin for the service and location of the installation [1, 2]. These Codes are recognized by 49 CRF192 [3].
A load factor for internal pressure loads can be derived analytically based on the equations of determining design pressure and wall thickness in the ASME B31 piping Codes. Once the load factor is established, the limit-load methodology may be used in a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of pipelines and related components.
Two application examples are presented showing analyses done with Abaqus [4], a commercial, general purpose FEA software package. The first example calculates the design pressure of an X65 pipe given the pipe dimensions (outer diameter and wall thickness). Second example deals with the re-certification of a Y-connector.
This paper is not intended to revise or replace any provision of ASME B31.4 and/or B31.8 [1, 2]. Instead, it provides a limit-load approach for assessment with same design margin as the ASME B31 Codes for use in a detailed FEA of pipelines and the associated components.
Research and Development Into Low Temperature Toughness of Large Diameter Heavy Wall X80 Pipeline Steel at Shougang Steel
Authors: Ding Wenhua , Jiang Zhonghang , Li Jiading , Li Shaopo , Zha Chunhe , Bai Xuejun , Li Qun , Zhang Guodong , Stalheim Douglas 
Published: July 2013

In recent years the trend in oil and gas transmission pipelines has been toward higher operating pressures. This trend, while the desire to keep steel costs low, has resulted in an increased demand for large diameter heavy wall X80 with good low temperature toughness. It is well known that improving the low temperature toughness with increasing wall thickness of the pipeline is very difficult. To overcome the difficulty of producing consistent low temperature toughness in heavy wall pipe Shougang Steel Research in cooperation with the Shougang Steel Qinhuangdao China (Shouqin) 4.3 m heavy wide plate mill research was conducted.
This paper describes the background, composition design and process strategy to produce good low temperature toughness in heavy wall API plate. The importance of the slab reheating schedule and recrystallized rolling process/schedule that occurs during the roughing process will be discussed. The effect of per pass reductions and work roll speed rotation on the strain introduced was analyzed by means of the numerical simulation technology. Furthermore, the center thickness microstructure and low temperature toughness of plate under the different rolling schedules were researched. The results showed a low reheating temperature and slow rough rolling speed should be implemented. The per pass reductions during recrystallized rough rolling should be increased in a steady fashion, with special emphasis on the reduction of the final roughing pass prior to the intermediate hold (transfer thickness for finishing). When the final roughing pass had a per pass reduction of more than 15%, the main microstructure of plate consists of uniform (surface to center) fine ferrite/acicular ferrite with a small volume fraction of M-A constituent. This fine uniform microstructure results in good low temperature fracture toughness in heavier plate thicknesses. Results of this research and development work will be discussed.
Application of SEM-EBSD for Measurement of Plastic Strain Fields Associated With Weld Metal Hydrogen Assisted Cold Cracking
Authors: Brown I. H. , Costin W. L. , Barbaro F. , Ghomashchi R. 
Published: July 2013

The requirement for more efficient use of materials for pipelines has lead to the application of high strength low alloy steels such as X70 and X80 in pipelines. As the strength of these alloys has increased so has the risk of hydrogen assisted cold cracking (HACC). In Australia to minimize construction time, the root runs of girth welds are produced by shielded metal arc welding using cellulosic electrodes without either pre or post heating. Well defined welding criteria have been developed and are incorporated into the weld procedures for the elimination of HACC in the heat affected zone but the risk of cracking to the weld metal is still of concern.
It has been reported that plastic deformation occurs prior to the formation of hydrogen cracks in weld metal. Therefore the evaluation of plastic strains at the micro- and nano-scale and their relationship to the weld metal microstructure could be of great significance in assessing the susceptibility of welds to weld metal hydrogen assisted cold cracking (WMHACC).
A method for analysing plastic strains on the micro- and nano-scales using electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) has been developed. This technique is based on the degradation and rotation of diffraction patterns as a result of crystallographic lattice distortion resulting from plastic deformation. The analysis can be automated to produce an Image Quality (IQ) map in order to relate the spatial distribution of plastic deformation to microstructural features e.g. grains or cracks.
The development and assessment of techniques using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and EBSD for the determination of local plastic strain distribution in E8010 weld metal used for the root pass of X70 pipeline girth welds is discussed.
Evaluation of Girth Weld Defect Acceptance Criteria for Grade X100 Pipelines
Authors: Swankie Troy , Chauhan Vinod , Wood Ian , Espiner Richard , Kieba Max , Quong Spencer 
Published: July 2013

There are a number of methods that are commonly used for the assessment of a girth weld containing a ‘fabrication’ defect. These range from the more generic workmanship limits through to more complex pipeline specific Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) methodologies.
The workmanship limits stipulated in pipeline design codes can be very conservative, resulting in un-necessary and costly repairs. The ECA approach is being increasingly used to derive girth weld defect acceptance limits specific to a pipeline. These limits have been derived using either semi-analytical methods or from the results of large-scale tests conducted on pipeline girth welds. However, at present there is no one standardized method.
The guidance produced by the European Pipeline Research Group (EPRG) is an example of an established methodology based on the results of large-scale tests, while commonly used pipeline specific semi-analytical assessment methods include API 1104 and CSA Z662. Other commonly used analytical methods, which are more generic in application, include BS 7910 and API 579-1/ASME FFS-1. Application of these methods to girth welds in grade X100 pipelines has not yet been validated.
The US Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) commissioned Electricore, Inc and GL Noble Denton to investigate the applicability of these ‘commonly used’ girth weld assessment procedures to grade X100 pipelines.
To facilitate this project, BP provided 10 girth welds from a full-scale operational trial of two grade X100 48in diameter pipeline test sections, following completion of the trial at GL Noble Denton’s Spadeadam test facility, Cumbria, UK. The girth welds were selected to enable the effects of material variability between abutting pipes, different heats and different manufacturers (pipe was sourced from two world class pipe mills, with the plate supply for one mill coming from two sources) to be investigated.
A substantial test program has been undertaken to fully characterize the mechanical properties of each girth weld, comprising curved wide plate (CWP), tensile, Charpy impact and fracture mechanics tests.
The results from the CWP tests have been analyzed using the procedures given in API 1104 (Option 2), EPRG, CSA Z662, BS 7910 and API 579-1/ASME FFS-1.
This paper presents an overview of the tests undertaken and a comparison of the actual test results with the predictions from the assessment methods.
Full Scale Cyclic Fatigue Testing of Dented Pipelines and Development of a Validated Dented Pipe Finite Element Model
Authors: Tiku Sanjay , Semiga Vlado , Dinovitzer Aaron , Vignal Geoff 
Published: July 2013

Dents in buried pipelines can occur due to a number of potential causes; the pipe resting on rock, third party machinery strike, rock strikes during backfilling, amongst others. The long-term integrity of a dented pipeline segment is a complex function of a variety of parameters, including pipe geometry, indenter shape, dent depth, indenter support, pressure history at and following indentation. In order to estimate the safe remaining operational life of a dented pipeline, all of these factors must be accounted for in the analysis.
The paper discusses the full-scale dent testing being completed to support the development of pipeline integrity management criteria and is a continuation of the work discussed in previous IPC papers [1,2]. The material and structural response of the pipe test segments during dent formation and pressure loading has been recorded to support numerical model development. The full scale experimental testing is being completed for pipe test specimens in the unrestrained and restrained condition using different indentation depths and indenter sizes. The dents are pressure cycled until fatigue failure in the dent. This paper presents typical data recorded during trial including indentation load/displacement curves, applied pressures, strain gauges along the axial and circumferential centerlines, as well as dent profiles.
The use of the full-scale mechanical damage test data described in this paper in calibrating and validating a finite element model based integrity assessment model is outlined. The details of the integrity assessment model are described along with the level of agreement of the finite element model with the full scale trial results. Current and future applications of the integrity assessment model are described along with recommendations for further development and testing to support pipeline integrity management.
Pipeline Mechanical Damage Integrity Management Framework
Authors: Semiga Vlado , Tiku Sanjay , Dinovitzer Aaron 
Published: July 2013

With the resolution and capabilities of the latest generation multi-sensor in-line inspection tools, detection and sizing of mechanical damage (i.e. dents, metal loss, etc) and their interaction is becoming more prevalent. As a result, the number of features requiring consideration in terms of integrity assessment is ever increasing.
The following paper presents a mechanical damage integrity management framework, intended to allow the assessment of a large number of features to support maintenance planning decisions. The framework is centred around organizing and collecting features into groups that share similar integrity driving parameters. An example demonstration of the framework is also presented using the results of a single ILI run on a small diameter pipeline. The example assessment focuses on shallow dents interacting with metal loss features where the metal loss features are treated as localized, gouge-like features.