bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Brain Enhancement in Healthy Adults
Authors: Chatterjee Anjan 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Anabolic athletes, medicated musicians, and souped-up students seem to abound. To this list is added pill-popping professors (Chatterjee, 2008; Sahakian & Morein-Zamir, 2007). “Cosmetic neurology” is the term the chapter uses to describe the practice of using neurologic interventions to improve movement, mood, and mentation in healthy individuals (Chatterjee, 2004, 2006). The term has historic roots going back to the 1940s, when it started to be used for reconstructive and plastic surgery in healthy people (Himmel, 1948). Elsewhere, it has been argued that many of the factors driving the rise of cosmetic surgery also apply to cosmetic neurology (Chatterjee, 2007). The term is also related to Kramer’s earlier use of the term “cosmetic pharmacology” (Kramer, 1993), although neurology encompasses a wider range of possible interventions (Hamilton, Messing, & Chatterjee, 2011). This chapter focuses on pharmacological interventions in anticipation of the fact that physicians will face increasing pressure from their patients to dole out drugs for nontherapeutic uses. In what follows, the chapter describes what is available currently and in the near future and outline the ethical conundrums that ensue.
Brain Training
Authors: Chancellor Breehan , Chatterjee Anjan 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the science and business of brain training: programs intended to bolster brain performance in the face of oncoming Alzheimer’s or other cognitive impairment. On the one hand, brain training programs can be a positive force for both patients and neuroscientists, as the games and treatments increasingly employ new neuroscience research and have the potential to funnel money back into commercial neuroscience. On the other hand, there is reason for concern about this burgeoning business. Industry and commercial gain often compromise scientific and clinical standards, and brain training programs are certainly susceptible to these adverse effects, especially when marketers promise results that studies cannot yet deliver. There is little oversight governing non-pharmaceutical health-care products in the marketplace, and as a result, rigorous scrutiny is not always enforced. To complicate matters, most research reports on the effectiveness of brain training programs are sponsored by the companies involved. This chapter examines those studies, the biases behind them, and the marketing tools used to circumvent lack of scientific support, all in an effort to offer a fair review of the often exaggerated claims and promises behind these programs and to counsel caution to vulnerable patients lured by the hope of neuroscientific progress.
Disorders of Consciousness Following Severe Brain Injury
Authors: Fins Joseph J. , Schiff Nicholas D. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter reviews the diagnostic classification of disorders of consciousness, severe brain injuries that span a spectrum of brain states ranging from coma to the vegetative and minimally conscious states. The chapter makes the key point that brain states can – and do – evolve over time and that it is critical to be vigilant of changes that indicate that a patient who was unconscious is now conscious, albeit minimally so. The chapter describes how this traditional nosology is being challenged, and refined, by emergent technologies like neuroimaging and the ethical implications of this evolution for clinical practice and research. Specifically, the chapter addresses the challenge posed by discordant assessments when the clinical examination is brought into question by neuroimaging data that suggests that the patient is operating at a higher functional status than indicated by purely behavioral measures of assessment. Finally, drawing upon in-depth interviews of families touched by disorders of consciousness, the chapter explores family experiences and expectations, and suggests that these data indicates that the overriding goal of care, as understood by families, is the restitution of functional communication for this population silenced, at least in part, by disorders of consciousness.
Personhood, Consciousness, and Severe Brain Damage
Authors: Farah Martha J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The concept of personhood is closely intertwined with concepts of morality in most people’s minds, and bioethical arguments sometimes turn on the question of whether someone or something is a person. Although normal adult humans are prototypical persons, severe brain damage can bring an adult human’s personhood into question. This chapter reviews the concept of personhood, a familiar and intuitive concept that plays a central role in ethics and law, but is nevertheless difficult to define precisely. After surveying the literature on criteria for personhood, three general, inter-related aspects of personhood will be taken to be a working definition with which to address the second goal: Relating the concept of personhood to our clinical knowledge about severely brain-damaged humans. The limitations of traditional clinical methods will be reviewed, motivating a new approach using functional neuroimaging. The third goal of this chapter is to review the ways in which imaging has been used for assessing the mental life of severely brain-damaged patients, distinguishing among different forms of inference using functional imaging data and differing strengths and weaknesses of these approaches.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Future Prospects and Ethical Concerns in Treatment and Research
Authors: Horvath Jared , Perez Jennifer , Forrow Lachlan , Fregni Felipe , Pascual-Leone Alvaro 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique increasingly utilized in clinics and research laboratories around the world. Exploiting the properties of electromagnetic induction, TMS can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized, time-varying magnetic field pulses. Until recently, the ethical considerations guiding the practice and application of TMS were largely concerned with aspects of subject safety and patient population in controlled clinical trials or experimental protocols. While safety remains of paramount importance, the recent approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States of the Neuronetics NeuroStar. TMS device for the treatment of certain patients with medication-resistant depression has engendered a surfeit of unexamined ethical concerns. Some of these are nuanced elaborations of previously-addressed issues, but others-such as matters of training and certification, marketing, and possible off-label use-represent recent and complex concerns. These issues are likely to be relevant to a rapidly-growing number of patients, as the possible uses for TMS and other developing forms of brain stimulation (both invasive and non-invasive) expand to include the treatment of a wide range of neuropsychiatric conditions. This chapter provides an overview of these emerging issues and discusses ways in which some of them might best be addressed.
Schools on the Move
Authors: Zimmer Oliver 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter investigates the conflicts that accompanied the reform of elementary schools. Similar to the local economy, the municipal elementary schools emerged as a key preoccupation of both reformers and their opponents. Whereas liberal nationalists demanded that interdenominational schools become the educational norm, conservative Catholics (as well as many Protestants) insisted that the primary schools remain divided according to children's confessional affiliation. Even though the centrality of Christianity was never questioned, reformers sought to refit the local schools for the journey of improvement and progress to which they had committed themselves. Just like the local economy, schools became focal points of competing place-making activities.
Apostles of Progress
Authors: Zimmer Oliver 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines urban liberals’ devotion to a particular vision of progress, and the consequences this had for the political and cultural dynamics underpinning each town. Many liberals demanded that backwardness be extinguished in the name of a new synthesis of the national and the local. Indeed, liberals were more likely than others to claim that the separation of local and national affairs was deeply immoral. Their preoccupation with progress was thus inspired, at least in part, by the nationalist idea, which provided them with a powerful moral code. For the task they had set themselves was a large one: urban spaces were to be transformed; new places were to be created. The pulse of local life was to be quickened in the name of progress.
Sedan Day
Authors: Zimmer Oliver 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines local Sedan Day celebrations through the prism of competing rhythms of life. On 2 September 1870, French troops were defeated in a decisive battle by German troops. For the champions of the new nation-state, 2 September was predestined to become Germany's national holiday. Yet Sedan Day would remain controversial. For its critics 2 September was not merely a new date in the nation's calendar. Rather, they saw it as connected to a series of seemingly mundane schedules that defined the liberal-nationalist vision of progress It was this sense of the festival's hegemonic aspirations that prompted a number of creative interventions and disruptions. In this way, the totalising conception of nationalist time gave way to a more pluralist pattern
Beyond echolocation: Emotional acoustic communication in bats
Authors: Schmidt Sabine 
Published: May 2013

AbstractSome features of the acoustic communication of emotions in humans may be rooted in mechanisms common to mammals. This chapter addresses sound emission, and perception, during social interactions in bats, a highly vocal group evolutionarily remote from primates, and thus of particular interest for a comparative approach to emotional acoustic communication. Adopting an ‘influencing others’ scenario of communication, the central section aims at a comprehensive discussion of social interactions involving sound production in a model species, Megaderma lyra, characterising behaviours as attractive, cohesive or aversive. In sum, distinct call types, typically consisting of several syllables of similar, or different, frequency-time contour, are linked to the specific behavioural situation, as well as to the part a given bat takes in the respective interaction. The following section discusses consequences of the use of multi-syllabic calls, explores to which extent calls may reflect the emotional relevance of the situation by comparing call types of similar syllable structure emitted in different situations, and relates variability in call structure to affect intensity. Finally, experimental evidence is provided that M. lyra is able to evaluate affect-related cues in social calls.
The role of dopamine in perception and expression of emotional communication in Parkinson’s disease
Authors: Schröder Christine , Dengler Reinhard 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Dopamine is known to play an important role in affect control and reward related behaviour. Parkinson’s disease is characterised by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons mainly resulting in dopaminergic depletion in the nigrostriatal pathway but also in mesocorticolimbic projections. Besides motor signs, non- motor symptoms implicating changes of cognition and affect add to the clinical course of the disease. The ability to perceive and express emotions via speech plays an essential role in every day social life. In this chapter, studies investigating perception and production of emotional prosody in Parkinson’s disease will be reviewed and own results will be presented. Evidence will be provided that patients with Parkinson’s disease do have changes of emotional prosody processing and that they also show alterations of emotional speech production. Moreover, the role of dopamine depletion for the observed changes in emotional communication will be discussed.
The Constitutional Status of EU Agreements: Revisiting the Foundational Questions
Authors: Mendez Mario 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter revisits three foundational questions pertaining to the constitutional status and legal effects of EU Agreements. The first question is whether EU Agreements upon their implementation become, in principle, part of the EU legal order; that is, does the EU adhere to a model of automatic treaty incorporation. The second critical question is whether it is possible to review constitutionally the EU's actual treaty commitments. The third question concerns the test to which EU Agreements are subject in order to have their most potent legal effects, namely, forming a criterion for judicial review. The chapter shows how key aspects of the EU's external relations constitution was put in place by a small number of rulings between the early 1970s and the early 1980s that either expressly answered the core question of principle or left little doubt as to the appropriate answer.
The Non-Trade Agreements Before the EU Courts: The Emergence of Judicial Avoidance Techniques in Challenges to EU Action
Authors: Mendez Mario 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines EU case law dealing with challenges to domestic action and challenges to EU action. It shows that despite the growth of EU treaty-making activity outside the trade sphere and its well-established jurisprudence on the legal effects of EU Agreements, challenges invoking non-trade Agreements have been surprisingly scarce.
Concluding Assessment
Authors: Mendez Mario 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This concluding chapter summarizes the preceding discussions. It reviews case law on ex post challenges to EU Agreements, challenges to domestic action, challenges to EU measures, and judicial avoidance techniques for the EU's normative commitment to international law. It concludes that while the EU in principle automatically incorporates treaties into its legal order, ultimately it is the EU legal order that determines the internal legal effects of such Agreements and, indeed, can potentially deprive them, through ex post review, of internal legal effects where they clash with EU primary law.
Choice-of-Law Rules
Authors: Kjos Hege Elisabeth 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter discusses the implications of the territorialized or internationalized nature of investment tribunals for their choice-of-law methodology. It examines choice-of-law rules as reflected in national arbitration laws, arbitration rules, the ICSID Convention, the Iran–United States Claims Settlement Declaration, together with jurisprudence and legal scholarship on the applicable law. It shows that the high degree of freedom enjoyed by parties to the dispute and the arbitrators when ascertaining the substantive applicable law, and thereby the prima facie applicability of national and international law in arbitration proceedings between investors and host states.
The Scope of the Arbitration Agreement: Claims and Counterclaims of a National and/or International Nature
Authors: Kjos Hege Elisabeth 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter examines the impact of the arbitration agreement on the decision of tribunals to apply national or international law to the merits of the dispute. It demonstrates that arbitration agreements differ in scope as to the extent to which they allow the disputing parties to bring claims and counterclaims of a national and/or an international nature. It discusses the choice-of-law technique of characterization, which assist a tribunals in determining the nature and possible exclusion of the various claims and counterclaims brought before it, and thereby also the relevance of national and/or international law to the dispute at hand.
‘I was on the Island Called Patmos’: Re-reading Rev. 1:9
Authors: Boxall Ian 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter offers a close reading of Rev. 1:9 (the verse which contains Revelation’s only reference to Patmos), revealing the extent to which even its literal sense is highly ambiguous, and offering space which subsequent readers will exploit. Ambiguities include the precise meaning of the phrase ‘on account of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus’, and the significance of the name ‘Patmos’ for a text which elsewhere invites a non-literal interpretation of place names (e.g. Babylon, new Jerusalem, the Euphrates, Armageddon, Gog, and Magog). Other issues explored in this chapter include the fruitfulness of comparisons with similar visionary narratives in canonical and non-canonical texts, the theological and cultural associations of islands in both the biblical and classical worlds, and the Temple associations of John’s inaugural vision of ‘one like a Son of Man’, potentially as a heavenly high priest (Rev. 1:10-20).
Patmos in Early Medieval Latin Tradition (6th–10th Centuries)
Authors: Boxall Ian 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter explores how Western interpretations from c. 500 to c. 1000 build on and develop the patristic foundation. A major focus is on Latin Apocalypse commentaries, of which there were several important examples in both the 6th (e.g. Primasius) and 8th centuries (e.g. Bede and Ambrose Autpert). Commentators continue to show interest in Patmos as place of John’s exile, although no longer sharing the urgency of patristic authors who faced persecution themselves. However, increasing prominence is given in early medieval exegesis to Patmos as a place set apart, the necessary context for privileged access to the heavenly world (and therefore a place where actual and mythic geography merge). One particularly interesting non-literal interpretation explores the potential of the name Patmos (linking it with the Latin fretum, ‘strait’ or ‘whirlpool’, apparently through gematria or numerical symbolism).
Patmos in Later Medieval Latin Tradition (1000–1516)
Authors: Boxall Ian 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter continues the story of the reception of Patmos in the Latin West from the beginning of the second millennium to the eve of the Reformation. As well as Latin commentaries on the Apocalypse, liturgical and homiletic traditions are also examined. Here we see an increasingly complex combination of literal, allegorical and moral (what the Middle Ages called tropological) levels of meaning typical of medieval exegesis. Interesting examples during this period include ecclesial interpretations which draw parallels between John’s solitary exile and that of the contemporary church, interest in Patmos as a type of the monastic life, and at least one reading of the life of St Francis of Assisi as an actualization of John’s Patmos experience in his own life of prayer.
Hermeneutical Reflections
Authors: Boxall Ian 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This final chapter reflects more explicitly on what has been achieved in the preceding chapters, and on the wider implications for New Testament scholarship. It argues that modern commentators are dependent for their questions and conclusions on very specific strands in the reception history, to the regretful neglect of others. It also urges a greater openness on the part of biblical scholars to the multivalency and ambiguity of biblical texts. It proposes that reception history challenges historical critics to reconsider the role of the imagination (a necessity for historical-critical scholars no less than earlier interpreters), reader participation, and a broader concept of meaning than focus on historical prolegomena (questions of identity, origins, and geographical location which dominate recent discussions of Patmos). It also suggests that Patmos as narrative location may have a more fundamental hermeneutical role in Revelation than previously acknowledged.
Development of the International Minimum Standard (1940s–)
Authors: Paparinskis Martins 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter addresses the post-Second World War development of the international minimum standard that took place in a markedly different substantive and procedural context from the earlier law-making efforts. Three legal avenues in particular were pursued. The first approach almost exclusively focused on compensation for expropriation, leaving the traditional international standard at the level of an insignificant criterion of lawfulness. The second approach proposed a synthesis of the international standard and human rights, and, while being clearly rejected, suggested some potential for a subtler engagement with human rights reasoning. Finally, the third approach bound the international standard into the investment protection treaties and constitutes the focus of this book.
Introduction
Authors: Paparinskis Martins 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
This chapter explains the importance of the issues addressed in the book and outlines the structure of the argument. The relationship between international minimum standard and fair and equitable treatment is of considerable theoretical and practical importance for contemporary international law in general and investment protection law in particular. The book will address the issue in three steps, exploring the historical law-making process in Part I, setting out the sources framework in Part II, and identifying the content of the modern international standard in Part III.
International Regulatory Regimes
Authors: PORTER TONY 
Published: May 2013

AbstractAs finance has become more globalized and global financial crises have become more frequent and severe, a set of international regulatory regimes has been established. These have generally taken the form of relatively informal networks of regulators focusing on particular aspects of the financial system. Over time these regulatory regimes have become more complex. States, operating first through the G7 and then the G20, began to oversee and direct these regimes more actively and politically. The regimes' engagement with internationally active business actors has increased, leading some to see them as having been captured by the industry. Initially they tended to be exclusive, but over time, and especially after the crisis of 2008, the number of countries involved has expanded. The degree and sources of their effectiveness continue to be debated.
The Home Bias Puzzle in Equity Portfolios
Authors: SERCU PIET , VANPEE ROSANNE 
Published: May 2013

AbstractThis chapter reviews the recent literature on equity home bias and shows that people overinvest in domestic stocks relative to the theoretically optimal investment portfolio. The chapter examines different home bias measures and illustrates the extent and the evolution of equity home bias both with recent portfolio holdings data and longer time-series. Institutional-based and behavior-based explanations for the puzzle are considered and discussed. The chapter concludes that none of the proposed theories can explain the full extent of the bias by itself. International portfolio choice might very well be caused by a mixture of rational and irrational factors.
Investing in Emerging and Developing Markets
Authors: BERRILL JENNY , KEARNEY COLM 
Published: May 2013

AbstractThis chapter outlines the characteristics of investing in emerging and developing markets. It first clarifies the different definitions and interpretations of emerging markets and then provides a mean-variance analysis of emerging market investment and offers evidence on the recent performance of emerging markets. Next, the chapter details the main risks and problems associated with investing in emerging markets under the headings of liquidity, information asymmetry, corporate governance, and market efficiency. It further reviews the literature on the factors that influence country and stock selection. Having reviewed the benefits and risks from direct investment in emerging markets, the chapter closes by detailing the benefits and risks from indirect investment in emerging markets using domestic assets that represent claims on foreign assets.