bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aggregates
Authors: Mather Katharine , Mather Bryant 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The geologist concerned with aggregate should be aware that under the term aggregate there is a very broad range of geological materials. In the foreword to Dolar-Mantuani (1983) we wrote:
Every kind of rock and every mineral species that occurs on this planet as a solid particle, grain, or mass—except ice—is potentially subject to evaluation for use as concrete aggregate. Therefore there is no kind of rock and no mineral species that is not of potential interest to the petro-grapher working on concrete aggregates. However those substances that can significantly affect the performance of concrete for better or worse when they occur as aggregate constituents are more important and, among these, those that occur most frequently are of greater interest.
Any bit of solid material used as an inclusion in a matrix or binder in a composite construction material is considered to be aggregate if it remains solid at the temperature of use and does not dissolve in the environment of use, so long as it is used as particulate material. As noted in the quotation, ice is not evaluated as aggregate for concrete, but ice could be used as aggregate in an appropriately low-temperature environment. Rock salt— halite (NaCl)—which would dissolve in many environments, is for that reason, among others, rarely used as an aggregate, yet rock salt has been quite successfully used as fine and coarse aggregate with portland cement, and with a saturated NaCl solution used as mixing water, to make concrete to plug a tunnel in a salt mine (Polatty and others, 1961).
Regional/areal reconnaissance and investigation of candidate areas/sites
Authors: Kiersch George A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The importance of regional/areal geoscience investigations for data critical to selecting candidate areas/sites for engineering works and for related supplies of natural materials is frequently overlooked. Project sponsors have commonly restricted the efforts of the exploration team to only the area near an initially selected candidate site, and sometimes this attitude persists during the planning and design phases (discussed in Chapters 19 and 20, this volume). This limited approach disregards the potential importance of much relevant geological information, because sites rarely conform to a preconceived interpretation. In many cases, an understanding of neotectonic conditions, geomorphic history, and active regional geologic processes can prove more advantageous to an engineering objective than restricted, detailed knowledge of a single site (Fig. 1). A very early example of this occurred during a reconnaissance for the proposed Roundout Valley tunnel alignment for New York Board of Water Supply in 1906. C. P. Berkey recalled (Sanborn, 1950, p. 46), “consultant W. O. Crosby left the party and drove far beyond the line of tunnel; on his return Crosby understood the geology of the site better than anyone could from a mere inspection of the alignment, and it was a good practical lesson in reconnaissance technique.”
Several examples of how an inadequate understanding of areal geology subsequently affected project design are given in case histories cited herein and in Chapters 19, 20, and 23, this volume. Moreover, regional/areal geological investigations have been utilized with increasing effectiveness as one basis for the most economic and effective approach to selecting suitable locations for engineering works (Fig. 1).
Construction geology; As-built conditions
Authors: Keaton Jeffrey R. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Most of the historic milestones in engineering geology resulted from the construction of important, large-scale projects, as described in Kiersch (this volume, Chapter 1). The construction phase of a project follows final design and precedes operation and maintenance. Careful documentation of geologic conditions exposed in significant excavations and modification of designs to cope with “changed conditions” are routine elements of major construction projects such as dams, tunnels, power plants, and highways. Unless required by a local ordinance, as-built geological mapping on smaller projects, such as industrial developments and residential subdivisions, usually is not requested by a project owner. However, the increasing attention to economic considerations and the contemporary legal atmosphere are contributing to the expanded use of geological documentation during construction on smaller projects. Roberts (1973, p. 145) analyzed more than a thousand project reports and case histories and concluded that “the comparatively small investment required to obtain a foundation ‘as-built’ report provides a very substantial return.” He notes that preparation of foundation “as-built” reports assures: (1) the owner received what was paid for; (2) the design engineer that construction was in accordance with design assumptions, or any modifications necessary were made in a timely and economical manner; and (3) a record is provided to guide any subsequent structural modifications, remedial treatment of failures, or design of nearby new construction.
The initial involvement of geologists on construction projects most likely occurred in response to problems or failures caused by an inability of the engineer’s conservatism or “factor of safety” to compensate for the geologic conditions, which at most sites are unique and cannot necessarily be treated as a random variable with some average value.
Failures of engineering works
Authors: James Laurence B. , Kiersch George A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
During the twentieth century, remarkable changes have transpired in the attitudes of engineers and related specialists toward the importance and relevance of geological input into the success of most engineering works. During the early decades it was difficult to determine whether it was negligence or an inadequacy of geologists that resulted in failure to convey the pertinent data needed by engineers and associated professionals to quantify the geologic setting and features. All too often the geologist was prone to a lofty, scientific style of report or oral presentation that was foreign to the intended user. We (the authors) were introduced to this situation early in our careers. One prominent project engineer caustically informed one of us (LB J), “Engineers are not interested in a classification of rocks as ‘herbiverous or car-niverous,’ but rather with the physical evaluation of geological conditions and a prediction of the potential effects of areal-site conditions on the safety and performance of project.”
In a similar thrust, dam-builder H. F. Bahmeier (personal communication, 1936) counselled the other (GAK) with, “Professor Berkey is my preferred consultant because he is the only geologist I can understand.”
Unfortunately, past misunderstandings frequently created schisms and polarized the two disciplines. In extreme instances, some project engineers minimized the importance of adequate geological investigations or scorned the data and recommendations of geologists as of little practical value. Sadly, some of the resulting engineering works ultimately experienced difficulties and/or failure due to the geologic conditions, such as the Baldwin Hills and Vaiont Reservoirs, and the Malpasset and Teton Dams. Fortunately, today a mutual interdisciplinary respect exists for the importance of mature, field-experienced geological input for engineering purposes.
Modern practice, training, and academic endeavors 1940s to 1980s
Authors: Kiersch George A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
World War II and the stress of war-time economics from 1940 to 1945 placed new demands on all phases of industry. These elements of change, combined with the effects of postwar economic expansion, were manifested in many geology-related problems. For example, (1) the need for increased supplies of industrial water in some coastal areas led to an excessive drawdown of the ground-water level and allowed sea-water encroachment; (2) construction of the Alaskan Highway in early 1940s for defense of territory led to an in-depth realization of the permafrost phenomenon and its impact on construction in arctic terrain; (3) the need for large underground storage and bombproof military facilities by the mid-1940s led to pioneering research in rock mechanics and the dynamic stress phenomenon of large-scale explosions (McCutchen, 1949; Kiersch, 1951); (4) the demands for terrain analysis to serve military actions resulted in several new aerial exploration and interpretive techniques that were later available for civil projects; and (5) more recently, geology was a major factor and was investigated extensively during the planning and construction of the Alaskan pipeline in the 1960s and 1970s (Pewe, Chapter 14, this volume).
The large reservoirs built in the 1920s and 1930s increased sediment-filling to the status of a serious geological problem; then, ironically, the cleansed reservoir water created leakage problems downstream in the very canals that were formerly self-sealed by the natural silt. Each difficulty ultimately provided an improved state of knowledge and progress in engineering geology.
By the 1950s, international interest was keen on a distinction between an artificial, underground nuclear explosion (test) signal and a natural seismic event; the “detectability of seismic signals” became the focus of major seismological research by the U.S. Air Force and experiments by the Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory (Haskell, 1957).
Errors of geologic judgment and the impact on engineering works
Authors: Kiersch George A. , James Laurence B. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Many of the more common causes of physical failures or serious remedial problems of engineering works are related to the construction or operation and maintenance phases of a project and involve either controversies or errors of geologic judgment. Mistakes and misunderstandings that impact on a project, including an incorrect design, may be due to any of several causes, such as a misinterpretation of available geological facts, inadequate factual background data, or misunderstanding, misjudgment, or poor forecasting of the geolpgic changes that occur with time and/or operation. Frequently the errors of judgment committed are related to the cost/benefit and/or calculated-risk evaluations of a project, as discussed later in this chapter.
Many faulty interpretations of areal and site-specific geologic conditions have been traced to a lack of input by mature, field-experienced geologists. Even more frequently the errors are a function of insufficient funds for adequate investigations. Management is often under pressure to expedite the investigative stage of the project; in a few instances, site assessment has been attempted by inexperienced individuals or non-geologists, as in the case of the St. Francis dam failure (Chapter 22, this volume). On rare occasions, accusations have claimed incompetence or intentional misinterpretation of the geologic environs for self-serving purposes. However, the authors are unaware of any such instance of fraudulent practice by a professional geologist.
Judgment plays a particularly important role in the planning stage of most major engineering works; for example, in comparing alternative sites for structures or determining routes for aqueducts or highways. Errors of judgment during planning may lead to design problems or result in a failure to achieve the maximum potential benefits from the project.
Geoarchaeological studies of the Beaver River Sandstone, northeastern Alberta
Authors: Fenton Mark M. , Ives John W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Geological techniques can aid in solving problems of the definition, recognition, source, and distribution patterns of lithic materials found in archaeological sites. We apply the principals of stratigraphy, historical geology, and petrology to our study of the Beaver River Sandstone. The approach is generally applicable to archaeological lithic material with sources situated in any sedimentary terrain.
One of the most striking aspects of the archaeological record for the study area, the Athabasca Oil Sands deposit north of Fort McMurray, Alberta, is the almost complete prehistoric reliance upon a single kind of raw lithic material, which we named the “Beaver River Sandstone.” Prior to our work, an extraordinarily broad range of geologic ages and origins were suggested for this rock type, with little or no supporting data. Also, knowledge of the sources and cultural dispersal of this raw material were vital to understanding the prehistoric socioeconomic variability in the region. Therefore, our primary objectives were, for the Beaver River Sandstone: (1) to develop a clear, geologically significant definition, (2) to establish criteria for recognition of this material, and (3) to map the distribution of potential sources of this sandstone available to early inhabitants. The secondary objective was to establish criteria needed to distinguish this sandtone from superficially similar rock types known to be present in the study area.
Environmental factors affecting prehistoric shellfish utilization; Grape Island, Boston Harbor, Massachusetts
Authors: Jones J. Richard , Fisher John J. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
In 1974, Braun suggested that environmental changes influenced prehistoric shellfish utilization along the southern New England coast. This was based principally on an evaluation of mollusk data from midden horizons around Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, and secondarily on literature derived from a variety of sources relevant to Northeast coastal environments.
From his analysis, Braun (1974) concludes that utilization of particular shellfish species in New England coastal waters changed with the climate and was not directly related to cultural preference, as implied by Ritchie (1969). As a result of the cooling climate, the warmer water mollusk assemblage (oysterquahog) became a less viable food resource by the middle Woodland period (ca. 1,800 to 1,600 yr BP). After this, there was a marked increase in the utilization of the cooler water mollusk species (soft shell clam-blue mussel).
Snow (1980, 1981) also supports the concept that cultural adaptation in a coastal environment occurs when physical factors change. He notes that the availability of shellfish species is determined by environmental conditions in a particular area, which in turn limit human exploitation of certain shellfish assemblages (Snow, 1980, 1981). Although controversy exists regarding the direct causal relationship between climate and cultural subsistence change (Dincause, 1981), Wendland and Bryson (1974) demonstrated a strong correlation between inferred climatic variation and worldwide cultural adaptation.
Lightfoot (1985) and Erlandson (1988) recently elaborated on the relationship between shellfish utilization and coastal site strategies. Both also suggest that adaptation and site selection appears to be, in part, related to changing environmental conditions rather
Prospecting for submerged archaeological sites on the continental shelf; Southern mid-Atlantic Bight of North America
Authors: Hoyt William H. , Kraft John C. , Chrzastowski Michael J. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Humans are fascinated with the proposition that there are artifacts of ancient civilizations below sea level. The question arises, “How feasible is it for twentieth and twenty-first century humans to find extensive remains of ancient civilizations that were submerged by the Holocene rise in sea level?“
The interest of society in marine archaeology and treasure hunting surged in recent years as a result of several spectacular discoveries. Among these were the 1972 discovery of the U.S.S. Montitor off Cape Hatteras (oldest iron-clad warship), the H.M.S. De Braak off Cape Henlopen (a British warship purported to be carrying as much as $500 million worth of booty), and the H.M.S. Titanic off the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Although these are not prehistoric finds, they raised public support for archaeological research in general.
In this chapter we synthesize the state-of-the-art of paleogeography of known prehistoric archaeological sites in the coastal zone, as well as those that presumably lie on the submerged portion of the continental shelf of North America's mid-Atlantic Bight (Fig. 1). In the Americas, according to Deetz (1988), "prehistoric"refers to any material remains prior to A.D. 1492. On the peninsula of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia (Delmarva), Thomas (1974) defined prehistoric periods approximately as cited in Table 1. Where necessary, this approximate period nomenclature for early humans in the area is used.
Coastal and shallow-marine archaeological sites are reported from around the world (Edwards and Emery, 1977; Fleming, 1983; Kraft and others, 1983b, 1985). An additional site is described here and related
Depositional history of an archaeologically dated flood plain, Haw River, North Carolina
Authors: Larsen Curtis E. , Schuldenrein Joseph 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Geological studies of flood plains are a major concern in archaeological research (Larsen, 1982; Anderson and Schuldenrein, 1985; Brakenridge, 1984; Ferring, 1986; Waters, 1988). An interest in the process of flood-plain development has been stimulated by the abundance of stratified sites in such settings and by the utility of cultural-geologic successions that link past human and environmental events.
The genesis of flood-plain deposits that preserve archaeological evidence is complicated by both human occupation and natural alluvial events and processes. Deposits with archaeological associations may obscure natural flood-plain stratification, while alluvial events can re-sort artifacts and alter spatial distributions of prehistoric activities. Soil formation and flood-plain erosion may change or destroy portions of the archaeological record even more. Still, a comprehensive appreciation of site-formation processes that includes familiarity with flood processes, soil formation processes, the nature of riverine occupations, and the range of disturbances affecting deposits can result in a reasonable reconstruction of the occupational landscapes.
In the temperate Holocene environments of the southeastern U.S. Piedmont, the primary rivers served as settlement pathways for prehistoric peoples up through the period of European contact. Based on evidence from throughout the region, adaptive strategies changed through time, even though the affinity for riverine settlement persisted (Coe, 1964; Claggett and Cable, 1982; Ward 1983). Many of the key drainages preserve discontinuous records of occupation for much of the Holocene. As a result, the cultural sequences preserved in the alluvium of the main drainageways provide excellent opportunities for integrating the Holocene landscape and occupational histories
Geoarchaeology of the Cummins site on the beach of proglacial Lake Minong, Lake Superior Basin, Canada
Authors: Julig P. J. , McAndrews J. H. , Mahaney William C. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Paleoindian sites (approximately 7,500 to 11,500 B.P.) on “raised beach terraces” and “strandlines” in the Great Lakes region are a well-documented aspect of early settlement patterns. In the lower Great Lakes region of Ontario, research on the early (fluted-point) cultures (approximately 9,500 to 11,500 B.P.) has been particularly productive over the past two decades, with survey and excavations concentrated on proglacial Lake Algonquin strandlines (Deller, 1976; Storck, 1982, 1984). Radiometrically dated materials from these beaches were used to establish maximum geological dates for Lake Algonquin strandlines; for sites along the north shore of Lake Ontario there are bracketing geological dates (Roberts, 1984).
In the northwestern Lake Superior Basin there is a similar pattern of numerous late Paleoindian (Piano) sites of the Lakehead Paleoindian complex (Fox, 1975, 1980; Dawson, 1983; Julig, 1984,1988) found on or near beaches of an earlier, deeper stage of Lake Superior: Lake Minong (Fig. 1). Prehistoric groups often favored shorelines for settlement sites due to their high biological productivity (and subsistence resources), as well as a ready supply of fresh water. Along the north shore of the upper Great Lakes there are regional loci of Paleoindian sites at coastal locations where there was also abundant lithic material for stonetool manufacture. Several such loci of large coastal quarry/workshop sites, surrounded by numerous smaller sites, include the Cummins site and the Lakehead Paleoindian Complex in the northwestern Lake Superior Basin (Fox, 1975; Julig, 1988), and the Sheguiandah and George Lake Complex of sites in northern Lake Huron (Lee, 1954,1955
The mineralogy of Wyandotte Cave aragonite, Indiana, and its archaeological significance
Authors: Tankersley Kenneth B. , Munson Cheryl Ann , Munson Patrick J. , Shaffer Nelson R. , Leininger R. K. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Wyandotte Cave (Figs. 1,2) is a large limestone cave system in southern Indiana. From archaeological investigations in the cave, we know that several of the aragonite formations were quarried by prehistoric people. We also know, based on examination of curated collections, that some artifacts recovered from prehistoric archaeological sites in eastern North America are made from materials similar to the Wyandotte Cave aragonite. In this chapter the mineralogical and chemical characteristics of speleothem aragonite from Wyandotte Cave and other locales are described. Some of the characteristics of Wyandotte aragonite are distinctive, and therefore can serve as "fingerprints." When these are found in artifacts they are evidence that the source of the raw material was Wyandotte Cave, Indiana.
Geoarchaeology of the Kansas River basin, central Great Plains
Authors: Johnson William C. , Logan Brad 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
the Kansas River basin, largely related to water-resource projects, the quantity of archaeologic and geomorphic data available has tripled. Through an integration of both types of information, we are now able to achieve a basinwide perspective of basin archaeology and geomorphology. Moreover, given the geographic range of the basin, from its headwaters in the semiarid High Plains to the more mesic lower portion of the basin in the deciduous forest-tallgrass prairie mosaic, the Kansas River drainage is an ideal laboratory for tracking the influence of a broad range of environmental variables on prehistoric human adaptations. Our purpose is to articulate (1) the relations among prehistoric groups of this large drainage basin based on the distribution of archaeological evidence; and (2) the relation between the archaeological evidence and ongoing geomorphic processes, particularly erosion and deposition, that affect their preservation, distribution, and detection.
In recent years archaeologists have recognized that the preserved record of past cultural activities is evidence of—with variable degrees of accuracy—both the articulation of human groups and their environment and the effects of post-occupational processes on the material remains of those activities (SchifFer, 1976; Binford, 1977, 1981; Binford and Bertram, 1977; Wood and Johnson, 1978). The data base is not inherited in pristine condition, however; the archaeological record is an imperfect mirror of past cultural activities that formed vulnerable, “fossil” configurations, which in turn are frequently flawed by a variety of postdepositional processes, cultural and natural in origin. These must be recognized, and the extent of their influence on