bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Housing and immigrant communities, United States, 1965 to present
Authors: Painter Gary 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Immigrants to the United States and their descendants are predicted to reach 82 percent of US population growth in the next four decades (Passel & Cohn 2008). The exponential growth will not be limited to established gateway cities where immigration has typically concentrated; an increasing share will occur in mid‐size metropolitan areas (Frey & DeVol 2000; Massey 2008). Since 2000, for example, the number of new immigrants has jumped by 27 percent in mid‐size US communities, a remarkable contrast to the steady decline in established gateway cities such as New York and Los Angeles. Further evidence is given in Painter and Yu 2010.
Immigrants, voting, and electoral participation
Authors: Gidengil Elisabeth 
Published: January 2013

AbstractVoter turnout is a key indicator of immigrants's successful political incorporation. Political incorporation is “the process of becoming a part of mainstream political debates, practices and decision‐making … incorporation is generally achieved when patterns of immigrant participation are comparable to those among the native born” (Bloemraad 2006: 6). Voting is the most basic way that citizens have of giving political voice. As such, turning out to vote could almost be considered a necessary characteristic of political incorporation. Voter turnout has been likened to the canary that coal miners used to take down into the pit to warn the miners of impending danger (Putnam 2000: 35). If immigrants are voting at lower rates than their native‐born counterparts, the host societies need to understand why. This essay focuses primarily on Europe and North American immigrant voting and electoral participation.
Imprisonment and punishment
Authors: Ikuteyijo Lanre Olusegun 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Migration has been traditionally defined as the movement of people from one geographical location to another. However, there have been various modifications to this definition over the years, but the standard definition is the one given by The Hague Process which defines a migrant as someone who is undergoing a semi or permanent change in residence, which involves a change in his/her social, economic and/or cultural environment. Migration or mobility is an integral part of human nature. People have moved for various reasons over the years, and people will continue to move as long as man exists. Scholars have come up with various reasons for human movements which could be reduced to two broad concepts;
push
and
pull
factors. The pull factors include forces which attract the individual to certain places and these could include employment, economic prosperity, human security, and others too numerous to mention. On the other hand, push factors in migration include unfavorable forces that tend to repel people from a particular place and these could include inclement weather, conflict, insecurity, unemployment, among other factors. Another way of delineating migration is in terms of the willingness or otherwise of the individual in embarking on the voyage. In that case, we talk about
voluntary
and
involuntary
migration. While voluntary migration depicts a situation whereby the individual leaves the place of origin willingly, involuntary migration depicts a situation whereby the individual's movement involves one form of coercion or another.
India–Pakistan Partition 1947 and forced migration
Authors: Zamindar Vazira Fazila‐Yacoobali 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The end of British colonial rule in India on August 14/15, 1947 was accompanied by the political partition of the Indian subcontinent into two independent nation‐states – India and Pakistan. This process of partitioning and drawing new political boundaries was marked by catastrophic violence in large parts of north India, particularly the province of Punjab, and led to an unprecedented mass displacement of people that stretched into the ensuing decades. While numbers vary, it is estimated that up to one million people were killed during the violence in 1947, and around 50,000 women were abducted. Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole. Thus the India–Pakistan Partition resulted in one of the largest forced migrations of the 20th century.
India, medieval era migrations
Authors: Schmiedchen Annette 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe term “India” will be used to denote the geographical extent of premodern Indian culture, comprising mainly the territories of the present Indian Union, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, but also Nepal and Sri Lanka. The Middle Ages in India were particularly characterized by migrations of political‐military, economic, and religious motivations. There is plenty of evidence for migrations to and within India, as well as – although to a lesser degree – from India to other regions.
India, migration 1940s to present
Authors: Khadria Binod 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

According to a 1979 Indian Ministry of External Affairs estimate, the number of persons of Indian origin residing abroad was 10.7 million (Weiner 1982). This number was substantial but represented merely 1.6 percent of India's population at that time. By the close of the 20th century, an almost double 20 million‐strong
stock
of Indian migrants abroad was recorded, representing approximately 2 percent of the country's more than 1 billion population. This comprised roughly half “nonresident Indians” – NRIs, still holding Indian citizenship, and half “persons of Indian origin” – PIOs, who were naturalized citizens of their countries of abode. In modern era terminology, the two together are referred to as the “Indian diaspora,” as in the
Report of the High‐Level Committee on Indian Diaspora
(ICWA 2001). No qualitative group classification of the global distribution of “Indian diaspora” is available beyond broad country and regional quantitative distribution, the latter presented in Figure 1. These one‐off stock estimates are not complemented by flow data.
Indian emigration, 1947 to present
Authors: Bhalla Vibha 
Published: January 2013

AbstractLarge‐scale migration from India began in 1947 after India's independence from the United Kingdom. A substantial proportion of Indian migrants are highly educated, skilled professionals in science‐based fields, especially physicians, engineers, and computer scientists, who have migrated to economically developed nations, predominantly the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Since the 1970s, semiskilled and unskilled workers have also been migrating to the oil‐producing countries in the Middle East. The two migrant flows vary immensely: migrants to the developed nations have the right to citizenship and family reunification and consequently have settled permanently in these nations. In sharp contrast, migration to the Middle East nations is predominantly temporary, and composed primarily of men who rarely have the right to migrate with their families. The largest number of Indian migrants can be found in the United States (1,678,765), the United Kingdom (1,200,000), Canada, (851,000), and Australia (190,000). Indian migrants to the Middle East are predominantly in Saudi Arabia (1,500,000), followed by the United Arab Emirates (950,000), Oman (312,000), Kuwait (295,000), Qatar (131,000), and Bahrain (312,000).
Indians in Myanmar/Burma, assimilation and integration
Authors: Hellmann‐Rajanayagam Dagmar 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIndians have migrated to Burma for centuries, as they have to the rest of Southeast Asia. (The country was known as Burma until 1990, when the ruling regime changed its name to Myanmar.) Buddhism is supposed to have been brought from South India and Sri Lanka, and there exists a theory (albeit unproven) that the language of the Pyu, who are considered the harbingers of Buddhism in Burma, and that of the Mon, arrived from South India. Trade between both areas was conducted over land and sea, between Bengal/Assam and the Rakhine. Besides, the northern areas were for centuries contested between the rulers of Assam and of Burma and later between the British and the Burmese kings. Control over Manipur, especially, changed hands frequently.
Indochina, migration mid‐20th century to present
Authors: Hein Jeremy 
Published: January 2013

AbstractModern migration from former French Indochina will forever be associated with two words: “boat people.” The media coined the phrase in the late 1970s (Grant 1979). It evokes the plight of the Vietnamese men, women, and children who paid huge fees for a spot on overcrowded fishing boats crossing stormy seas to reach Malaysia and adjacent countries in Southeast Asia. Tens of thousands drowned or endured robbery and assault by Thai pirates. Refugees from Laos and Cambodia joined this exodus (Wain 1981). The Lao and highland ethnic groups such as the Hmong, Mien, and Khmu evaded Laotian military patrols and then crossed the Mekong River to reach the comparative safety of Thailand. Cambodians experienced an even more traumatic escape. After four years of slave labor, they traversed minefields and combat zones, and then bribed bandits along both sides of the Thai–Cambodian border.
Indonesia, migration 1969 to present
Authors: Firdausy Carunia Mulya 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

International human migration is not a new phenomenon in Indonesia. Although there is no detailed historical evidence in terms of documents or other materials, archeological studies have suggested that movements or intermigration of people in Malayo‐Polynesian regions (including present‐day Malaysia and Indonesia) had taken place as early as 500
BCE
(Tirtosudarmo 1996). It was not until the 1970s that a detailed record of international human migration, particularly that of migrant workers, has been officially available, when the government deployed 5,600 workers overseas in the first Five‐Year Development Plan, Repelita I (1969–74).
Internal migration: an overview
Authors: Finney Nissa 
Published: January 2013

AbstractInternal migration is the movement of people that involves a change of usual residence within a specified bounded area, usually a country. Internal migration is also referred to as residential mobility. Traditionally, a distinction has been drawn between internal and international migration. However, King and Skeldon 2010: 1521 argue that “the ‘boundary’ between internal and international migration can easily become blurred” because, despite the political importance of the state, the forces of internal and international migration are similar.
International migration and social theory
Authors: O'Reilly Karen 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

There is little doubt that international migration has been increasing especially since the 1980s, perhaps doubling since then in terms of absolute numbers (Castles & Miller 2009). Migration also continually changes shape, form, direction, and content to such an extent that it is no longer possible to provide encompassing typologies of migrants, flows, destinations, or outcomes. Migration has become a
normal
feature of contemporary societies: a global phenomenon of flows and counterflows; geographical fluidity as opposed to population shifts; ongoing daily processes as opposed to unique events. Coincidentally, academic research on migration has drawn the attention of a host of disciplines, including sociology and anthropology, human geography and demography, politics and international relations, and even cultural studies and the arts. It has also become something of a sub‐discipline in its own right, albeit with somewhat differential treatment depending on the (inter‐)disciplinary perspective being employed. This has led to a “tremendous amount of empirical knowledge” (Bommes & Morawska 2005: 2), and an eclectic approach when it comes to theory (Brettell & Hollifield 2008).
International Standards and Processes for the Protection of Migrant Rights
Authors: Cholewinski Ryszard 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe movement of people in the world today is closely regulated by nation‐states even in the current wave of globalization where goods, capital, and services circulate increasingly freely. Determining which non‐nationals may enter and reside on their territory is an aspect of sovereignty jealously guarded by states. It is not surprising, therefore, that there is no international treaty or global system of rules regulating the movement of people, although exceptions are found in regional contexts such as the European Union (EU) where all persons within the 27 EU member states (with the exception of the United Kingdom and Ireland) can freely cross borders, and nationals of EU member states can take up employment and reside in other member states with very few restrictions.
Internment camps and migration
Authors: Neumann Klaus 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Internment is the imprisonment of individuals or groups of people without charge or trial. Historically, there have been seven types of internment. All are associated with wars or war‐like situations. They include: (1) the imprisonment of belligerent forces in neutral countries (as happened, for example, during the Franco‐Prussian war of 1870–71 when a French army crossed into neutral Switzerland and was interned there); (2) the detention of former combatants unwilling or unable to return to their home country (as happened, for example, between 1939 and 1940, when France interned about 270,000 former members of the Spanish Republican army); (3) the imprisonment of enemy civilians in their own country, either during a war (as happened, for instance, in 1896 when the Spanish military interned Cuban peasants during the War of Independence) or after it (as happened, for example, when in the aftermath of World War II the Soviet Union and the Western Allies set up internment camps in occupied Germany to imprison German Nazis); (4) the imprisonment of deportees from occupied territories (for example, during World War I, Belgian civilians were forcibly removed to Germany and ethnic German civilians were deported from Russian Poland to Siberia); (5) the detention of refugees (for example, the internment of Polish refugees in Austria during the 1863 revolt in Russian Poland); (6) the imprisonment of citizens during wartime on account of their political views; and (7) the imprisonment of immigrants and temporary residents because their, or their parents', country of residence is at war with their country of origin and/or nationality. This entry is largely concerned with the last type of internment.
Iranian Zoroastrian diaspora
Authors: Foltz Richard 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Iran prior to the Arab Muslim conquests in the mid‐7th century. From that time onwards ever‐increasing numbers of Iranians converted to Islam, for a wide range of reasons including, but not limited to, positive inducements such as economic or social benefits and negative ones such as persecution. Within a few centuries Zoroastrians were reduced to a tiny minority in the land where their faith originated.
Islam and migration
Authors: Naqvi Tahir H. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe obligation to migrate (classical Arabichijra, lit. to abandon) is an important doctrine within the Islamic tradition. Debate exists within classical and modernist strains of Islamic scholarship about its ethical meaning, its relation to definitions of individual and community, and its relevance to Muslims in the contemporary global age. Within the Islamic tradition, migration is a form of religious and political action that seeks to achieve moral and/or physical distance from evil, ignorance, and the absence of true belief.
Italy: migration 1815 to present
Authors: Maccari‐Clayton Federica Bertagna and Marina 
Published: January 2013

AbstractNo country captures the global nature of international population movements better than Italy. Italian emigrants accounted for about 10 percent of all international population movements between 1814 and the outbreak of World War I (Gabaccia 2000). Italian emigration endured two world wars, the Great Depression, and 20 years of fascist dictatorship; it resumed at the end of World War II and remained sustained until the early 1970s. Since the last quarter of the 20th century, Italy has become a major receiver for immigrants from all over the world, and in 2008 it ranked fourth among the European Union member states for number of immigrants, surpassed only by Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom (EUROSTAT 2011).
Japan: collapse of empire and repatriation
Authors: Araragi Shinzo 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFrom the second half of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century, Japan was an migrant‐sending country. The emigration consisted of three different movements, which took place almost concurrently: (1) emigration to the Americas, (2) settlement in colonies of the Japanese empire and within its sphere of influence, and (3) emigration to Asian countries outside its sphere of influence. At the same time, Japan was an immigrant‐receiving country, attracting a large number of people from its colonies in the 1920s.
Japan: Korean Zainichi migration
Authors: Tonomura Masaru 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Zainichi
, according to its original denotation in Japan, refers to “being in Japan.” However, in post‐World War II Japan, the word “Zainichi” almost always signifies people of Korean descent residing in Japan. Most significantly, “Zainichi” has become a universal term to designate Koreans who reside in Japan as they constitute the vast majority of foreign residents “being in Japan.” As a consequence, most Japanese have taken for granted that the term “Zainichi” indicates that a person is Korean. As use of the word has become more widespread, the designation is used by Koreans themselves, followed by “Kankokujin” if from South Korea or “Chosenjin” if from North Korea.
Japan: medieval era migrations
Authors: Vollmer Klaus 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn accounts of Japanese history and of contemporary Japanese culture and society the fact that Japan is an island country is often very much emphasized. Discourses on “Japanese uniqueness” which form the bulk of highly popular and very prolific so‐callednihonron(discourses on Japan) highlight the consequences of this alleged geographical isolation: Japanese society and culture are portrayed as being ethnically and socially homogeneous due to a long history of isolation which resulted in a peculiar cultural development allegedly “undisturbed” by much external influence. In contrast to the history of mainland northeast Asia or continental Eurasia, with their extensive record of invasions and large‐scale migration, this narrative points to the period of “closed country” (sakokuin Japanese) from the mid‐17th through the mid‐19th century as Japan's somewhat archetypical experience. In these 200 or so years which correspond to Japan's early modern period foreign relations were strictly regulated and severely limited: foreigners were not allowed to enter the country and no Japanese was allowed to travel abroad.
Jewish migration, medieval era
Authors: Toch Michael 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn the Middle Ages (500–1500CE) as in Antiquity and in the modern age, the history of the Jewish people was to a large degree shaped by migration (see DellaPergola 1997, for an overview). Each period knew different patterns of migration and each related to this existential condition in contrasting ways, be it asdiaspora, the Greek word usually used for voluntary dispersion, or as Galut (“exile” in Hebrew) for forced scattering. The period covered here saw the foundation by migration of the three major divisions that make up the Jewish people today: Ashkenazim of Central and Eastern European extraction; Sephardim of Spanish/Portuguese origin and later residents of the Ottoman empire from the Balkans to North Africa; and an Oriental Jewry encompassing both Middle Eastern and North African communities. There are also groupings whose arrival predates the Middle Ages: parts of Italian Jewry, the Yemenites, the Jews of the Caucasus area; and numerically and culturally dominant into the Middle Ages, the Jewish populations throughout the Middle East, most notably in Israel/Palestine, Babylonia (Iraq), and Egypt.
Labor force participation
Authors: Couton Philippe 
Published: January 2013

AbstractOne of the salient features of international migration during the period from the end of World War II to the present is its very close relationship with labor markets, in both receiving and sending countries. Entirely new work‐related categories of immigrants have emerged during that period, such as theGastarbeitersin Germany, theouvriers immigrésin France, and the various flows of temporary farm laborers in the United States and Canada. Migration has always been strongly influenced by labor demand and supply, of course, but never to the extent of the recent past. The great migration flows that preceded this era were more often the product of political, religious, or demographic forces rather than primarily motivated by labor‐market considerations. These include the large flows of religious dissenters foundational to the United States in its early history, and the sporadic but often massive movements of political refugees throughout the world (including postrevolutionaryémigrésfrom France, Loyalists into Canada, colonists throughout the New World who often fled or were relocated there for political reasons, and so on). One of the largest population transfers the world has ever known – the forced migration of African slaves to the Americas and Europe – was a vast trade of forced labor, but even this particular process stands far apart from the current labor‐centric context: it was perceived and treated more as an exchange of “goods” than a migration flow involving social and cultural dimensions. Only later did the descendants of the African slave trade slowly become part of the social fabric of the societies they were forcibly relocated to, often after bitter conflicts that profoundly marked the societies confronted with the humanity of their former chattels.
Labor migration: an overview
Authors: Ness Immanuel 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFor over a century, assessments of labor migration have been rooted in classical political economy, which diagnose the individual relative advantages and motivations for moving to a new location for personal gain. These calculations by migrants are often referred to as push–pull factors, emphasizing superior survival conditions in destination regions. The recurring perspective is that those individuals who are most skilled will migrate to improve their standard of living. While the incentive to migrate ostensibly contributes to new working opportunities, training, and development, little consideration is given to those factors producing poverty in the regions of departure or the genuine potential for poverty in the destination regions (Todaro 1977). It is rooted in scientific abstraction rather than a historical and comparative examination of the factors that have propelled migration in different eras (Borjas 1989). By some means, in the ideal capitalist society, labor migration will almost always transpire on the basis of ensuring the creation of labor‐market equilibrium.
Labor migration and worker organization, global North and global South
Authors: Munck Ronaldo 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThis essay takes up both the challenges and the opportunities that labor migration poses for the organized labor movement. Labor has been dramatically restructured over the last quarter of a century but there are no signs of labor recomposition as trade unions seek different paths toward revitalization. Increasingly, the movement of workers across national boundaries might create divisions and can be deployed to undermine existing labor standards. However, we pose the possibility that it might also be a source of trade union revitalization, bringing in new members with new ideas but also creating a dynamic for raising labor standards rather than lowering them. In brief, internationalism begins at home.