bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aging
Authors: Higgs Paul , Gilleard Chris 
Published: February 2014

AbstractConventionally, aging is considered the consequence of a long life; and a long life typically (a) exceeds the age of reproductive fitness and (b) approximates to the “natural” human lifespan. Since there have always been some people living such conventionally “long” lives, there have always been opportunities for people to witness the bodily changes of aging and form ideas about what it is and what might be its cause. In contrast to old age, which is a status or social category conferred on individuals at a particular chronological age and/or as the result of a particular combination of physical signs and social markers, aging is a more diffuse process, referring to almost everything that takes away or lessens “youth” and “fitness.” Older mechanistic models of aging that sought to explain aging as the result of some singular fundamental process of decay have largely been abandoned. Researchers now acknowledge that multiple complex interacting processes probably account for the changes that take place as and when we grow old. We outline how it is necessary, therefore, to separate the processes of aging from the state or status of old age and show that while aging has become more heterogeneous, old age, on the other hand, has become more narrowly focused.
Mental Health and Work
Authors: Tausig Mark 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The relationship between the work that people do to earn a living and their psychological well‐being has been the object of study by sociologists since the writings of Engels, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber (i.e., on alienation and anomie). These early sociologists viewed work conditions and the psychological reactions of workers to their work as outcomes of structured social and economic relations. Thus, to understand the relationship between work and mental health we require a systematic sociological study of the way that various social and economic structures affect work conditions that are known to affect the mental health of workers.
Health Care Delivery System: China
Authors: Jin Lei 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
China's health care delivery system mainly consists of village health stations, township health centers and country hospitals in rural areas, and hospitals and community health care centers in urban areas. Traditional Chinese medicine is an established component of the system. In the 1950s and 1960s, an extensive health care delivery system was set up to provide basic health care to the majority of China's vast population. After marketization reforms were initiated in 1978, the Chinese government withdrew from financing and managing health care provision. The pre‐reform system was greatly weakened, which exacerbated existing problems and created new challenges, such as lack of insurance coverage, soaring costs and spending, distorted provider incentives, patient–provider conflicts, lack of a functioning referral system, and inequality in access to available services. Since 2003 the Chinese government has led a campaign to address the problems. The most dramatic development has been the rapid expansion of public health care insurance programs, which now cover the majority of China's population, although the reimbursement rates are generally low. The government has recently professed its commitment to continue to improve health care provision; reform efforts to realign provider incentives and build a functioning referral system are unfolding. Rigorous examination is needed to assess their effects.
Chiropractors
Authors: Baer Hans A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Chiropractic, invented by Daniel David Palmer, blended together elements from various healing and metaphysical systems. At the therapeutic level, the development of US chiropractic was shaped by fierce battles between the “straight” and the “mixers.” Despite opposition from biomedicine, chiropractic has evolved into a semi‐legitimate manual medical system in not only the United States, but also numerous other countries around the world.
Osteopaths
Authors: Baer Hans A. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAndrew Taylor Still developed osteopathy in the US Midwest as a manual medical system in the late nineteenth century. In the United States, osteopathy evolved into osteopathic medicine and surgery, or a parallel medical system to biomedicine, with an emphasis on primary care. In various other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, osteopathy functions primarily as a manual medical system, in much the same manner as chiropractic.
Concordance
Authors: Britten Nicky 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Although the term “concordance” has a generic meaning, its use in the context of medicine taking was stimulated by the publication in 1997 of a report entitled “From Compliance to Concordance: achieving shared goals in medicine taking.” The report was written by a working party tasked with reviewing the causes and consequences of “non‐compliance” and making recommendations about how to improve the taking of medicines. Since 1997 the term “concordance” has gained currency in the medical literature, although not always as originally intended. For many writers, concordance appears to be a politically correct substitute for compliance. Others have criticized the term on a range of grounds, from the medico‐legal point of view to repudiation of the assertion of the centrality of the patient's role.
Mental Health and Neighborhoods
Authors: Hill Terrence D. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods suffer higher levels of depression, anxiety, and anger than do residents of more advantaged neighborhoods. In this entry, we define neighborhoods and discuss objective and subjective measures. Then we describe the processes by which neighborhoods might influence psychological well‐being and distress, and the conditions under which neighborhood disadvantage and disorder may be more or less stressful.
Epidemiologic (Observational) Studies
Authors: Greenland Sander 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Epidemiologic studies focus on measurement or estimation of health‐related properties of populations, such as distributions of diseases and their causes. This focus is shared with social sciences, but there is a limited overlap in study methods. Differences arise from focus in classical epidemiology on downstream (proximal or immediate) causes of disease such as microbes, toxins, and vectors or mechanisms of transmission or exposure, rather than upstream (distal) causes such as social determinants like poverty and lack of social services. With these differences in view, this entry gives a brief overview of the most common types of epidemiologic studies and their limitations, including surveillance and case series studies, ecologic studies, case control studies, and cohort studies, and contrasts observational epidemiologic studies to randomized trials.
Patient/User Associations
Authors: Chamak Brigitte 
Published: February 2014

AbstractIn the 1920s, the history of patient associations began with the creation of associations of victims of war, of tuberculosis patients, and of persons disabled after accidents in the workplace. In the 1940s and 1950s the first organizations for people with chronic diseases and associations of parents with disabled children were founded. Currently, claims from parent associations and user associations show striking differences. User associations often reproach parent associations for speaking on their behalf. In the 1960s and the 1970s, different forms of action were introduced by disability associations, and, in the 1980s, by AIDS associations. Many studies demonstrated the construction of lay expertise and changes in the relationship between doctors and patients. The Internet plays a crucial role in the development of activism and new communities. Patient/user associations are included in the broader category of “social movements” and are an important political force for health care access and quality of care, as well as for broader social change. The study of health social movements enables us to understand how collective action develops around a health issue and what strategies were used to impact public policy.
Fat Studies
Authors: Evans Bethan 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Fat studies is an interdisciplinary field which has its roots in feminist, fat activist, and size acceptance movements. The broad field of fat studies overlaps with those who would refer to their work as “critical obesity studies” and “critical weight studies.” In contrast to dominant discourse on obesity, those working within this field problematize the term “obesity” either by directly critiquing it or by using alternative terms. In particular, there is a move within this literature, especially for those steeped in or overlapping with activism, to reclaim the word “fat” so that it can be used as a marker of pride rather than as a means to stigmatize fat bodies. Drawing on feminist, poststructural, corporeal/critical realist, queer, and disability theories, several important texts and edited collections have been published in recent years which consolidate the critical scholarship in this area.
Gender Attitudes: Infertility
Authors: Greil Arthur L. , Johnson Katherine M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Because parenthood is typically more central to women's identity than to men's, the effects of infertility on identity are more severe for women. Nonetheless, men suffer from infertility also. It is important to move beyond the question of whose infertility is “worse” and begin to discuss how women's and men's experiences differ. Women experience infertility as a direct blow to self‐identity, whereas men experience infertility indirectly through the effect it has on their partners. Because fertility is so central to women's identities in developing countries, the gendered nature of the experience of infertility may be more striking in such societies.
Brain Drain
Authors: Marchal Bruno 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The brain drain of health personnel surged to the top of the global health agenda at the beginning of the new millennium. New studies have attempted to quantify the flows and assess the effects of the brain drain, but comprehensive, reliable studies remain scarce. Although the movement of health professionals seems to be increasing, it is striking that the terms generally used to describe this are “professional migration,” “professional mobility,” and “brain circulation,” rather than “human capital flight” and “brain drain,” despite the general acknowledgment that it is the countries in the global south, which are facing the highest burden of infectious and chronic illness, that are suffering the most significant losses.
Illness
Authors: Bury Mike 
Published: February 2014

AbstractIllness may be distinguished from disease by its subjective character: we “feel ill.” Although doctors may be preoccupied with disease, everyday medical practice involves managing illness. For lay people the questions “Why me?” “Why now?” often arise in episodes of illness. Lay accounts of illness seek to complete knowledge gained from medicine in order to fashion a more rounded understanding of its meaning. Accounts of the causation and course of illness may take the form of expressions of normative values. The socially disruptive character of illness, especially chronic illness, has been widely debated. The sociological study of illness requires an analytic and interpretative approach to illness.
Emerging and Re‐Emerging Infectious Diseases
Authors: Heymann David L. , Dixon Matthew A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Infectious diseases emerge and re‐emerge in humans, facilitated by a variety of factors and their ability to breach the species barrier between animals and humans. They emerge and re‐emerge in a world of rapid advances and ease in international travel and trade, and are carried around the globe in humans, animals, food and food products, and insects. The bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause them are dynamic and ever changing, able to mutate into forms that at times make them more or less virulent, transmissible, and/or resilient. It is inevitable that emergence and re‐emergence will continue to occur. To reduce the impact, robust public health infrastructure must be maintained or developed to enable rapid detection and response.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Falzon D. , Getahun H. , Raviglione M. C. , Migliori G. B. , Centis R. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Few conditions lend themselves as easily as tuberculosis (TB) to illustrate the intimate relationship between human behavior and the course of an infection. TB has afflicted mankind for millennia. But it was the social upheaval which started with the modern age and its repercussions on global demography, urbanization, and industrialization that propelled TB to the top of the public health agenda. The germ theory shifted a paradigm in our understanding of disease etiology and removed the mystery which had for long shrouded TB. However, despite neat scientific explanations for what causes and promotes TB, and what works against it, the prospect of eliminating its threat to global public health remains elusive. Improved knowledge has not alleviated the stigma that many TB patients and their families worldwide continue to endure. This entry focuses on the central role which human behavior plays in the epidemiology of TB as the world population continues to swell and mingle to an unprecedented degree.
Trust
Authors: Stevenson Fiona A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Trust is a complex idea. It is a relational notion and secures cooperation between people, people, and organizations, and people and events. There is a key ambivalence at the core of all trust relations, as trust is only demanded where there is ignorance, yet ignorance always provides grounds for skepticism or, at least, caution. Therefore, for trust to operate successfully there has to be an acceptance of the risks associated with the interdependence required. There is an interrelationship between trust at the macro‐ and microlevels and changes at one level inevitably affect the operation of trust at the other. Thus, facework commitments – that is, the trust relations built through interpersonal interactions – are critical in sustaining system‐level trust. Medicine has long been among the most trusted of social institutions. Yet it has been argued that following changes in wider society there has been a diminution of trust at both the organizational and the personal level and that in many instances trust can no longer be assumed, but rather is conditional and has to be earned. Moreover, once trust is lost it may be difficult to re‐establish.
Interprofessional Boundaries
Authors: Martin Graham P. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The boundaries between professional groups and their jurisdictions of work are a product of a system of professions in which each group claims exclusive authority over its area of practice. This entry considers the formation, maintenance and defense of interprofessional boundaries, the negotiation of boundaries between professional groups, and the changing pressures on these boundaries from within and outwith the professions.
Risk
Authors: Lupton Deborah 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThis entry discusses risk as a sociocultural construction and gives examples of how sociological and anthropological theorists have analyzed risk in relation to health. Three dominant theoretical perspectives are outlined: the risk society approach, based on Ulrich Beck's writings; the governmentality perspective, drawing on the work of Michel Foucault; and the cultural/symbolic approach, instigated by Mary Douglas's work. The entry shows how each of these perspectives may be used to understand the ways in which the health risks related to overweight and obesity are framed, represented, and understood.
Cancer Prevention Services, Utilization of
Authors: Carter Stacy M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Cancer is a dread disease, and cancer prevention a high priority for governments and non‐governmental organizations. The most common cancer prevention activities aim to modify “behavioral risk factors” in populations and to screen for early‐stage cancer or pre‐cancer to enable early treatment. Cancer incidence, service utilization, and outcomes are associated with social, cultural, and economic disadvantage, leading to a desire to increase cancer screening service utilization in disadvantaged communities. However the epidemiology of cancer screening increasingly suggests that some forms of screening do more harm than good, contradicting public enthusiasm for this service. Paradoxically, this means that disadvantaged people may be better off, on average, if they do not participate in some forms of cancer screening. The large and convincing literature on the social determinants of health suggests the importance of improving living conditions and access to resources for disadvantaged people as a strategy for cancer prevention.
Holistic Therapies
Authors: Hoyez Anne‐Cécile 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Holistic therapies cover a wide range of different health practices that are often defined or designated as being at the margins of biomedical norms, as indicated by the terminologies used to classify them (e.g., complementary and alternative medicines; unconventional medicine). Studying holistic therapies leads to many questions concerning the dichotomy between established and dissident forms of medicines. Despite its relative marginal position, the field of holistic therapies has been gaining popularity among the general public since the 1970s, and is therefore more and more regarded, in social sciences, as being a key domain for questioning the complex and varying factors intervening in health.
Privacy and Health
Authors: Abrahamson Kathleen , Anderson James G. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe concept of privacy is loosely defined as the ability to maintain control over one's own information, time, territory, body, or other domain culturally defined as belonging to an individual. The concept of privacy is, by nature, culturally defined, so discussion of privacy as an individual value or legal right will depend upon the norms of the culture in which the interaction takes place. Privacy norms are impacted by population density, family size, religious beliefs, gender identity, and technological developments, and thus will change within a given culture over time.
Geographies of Health and Well‐Being
Authors: Fleuret Sebastien 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Redefining health as a state of well‐being carries implications and challenges with respect to how well‐being should be conceptualized as well as how it should be measured or assessed. Given the difficulty of defining the term, it is particularly open to interpretation, and the meanings given to it – as well as the uses made of it – can vary greatly in different social and spatial locations. The challenge of health geography is to study the spatial configurations which may be able to improve (or not) well‐being and, by extension, health.
Mental Illness and Suicide
Authors: Stack Steven John 
Published: February 2014

AbstractMost suicides are marked by two or more mental disorders; 87 percent of suicides involve at least one. The most common of these disorders is depression; major depression increases the odds of suicide by fully 20 times that of comparison groups. However, few works rigorously analyze both mental disorders and social strains simultaneously; instead, they tend to focus on one or the other. As a result, the relative importance of mental disorders compared to social strains is not fully clear. Social strains can also foster mental illness, a pathway that needs further exploration. Available evidence suggests that social factors such as intimate partner problems and economic strain have strong associations with suicide, independent of mental illness. The relative effectiveness of pharmacological and psychological treatment of mental illness for suicide prevention is understudied. However, it is known that some treatment strategies (e.g., lithium for mood disorders such as manic depression) significantly reduce the risk of suicide.
Health Psychology and Health Promotion
Authors: Kok Gerjo 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Health psychology is the scientific study of the psychological processes involved in health, illness, and health care. Health psychology is one of the major disciplines applied in health promotion. Health promotion is any planned combination of educational, political, regulatory, and organizational supports for actions and conditions of living conducive to the health of individuals, groups, or communities. Health promotion as an intervention for patient care and support is usually called patient education instead of health promotion. Health promotion is a planned activity. The best known and most often used planning model in health promotion is Green's “Precede–Proceed” model. The effectiveness of a health promotion intervention is determined by the quality of the planning process. Intervention Mapping is a protocol that describes a process for developing theory‐based and evidence‐based health promotion programs. Intervention Mapping applies theories in all phases, but especially in understanding of behavior and changing behavior. Some agreement is emerging regarding important theoretical constructs across theories that explain behavior. Other theories focus on change. Recently, the group of self‐management theories has become widely applied in health psychology and health promotion.
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
Authors: Figert Anne E. , Counts Amanda J. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractPremenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is related to, but distinct from, premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Whereas PMS is an umbrella term for emotional, behavioral, and physical symptoms that result in general “discomfort” before a woman's period, PMDD is a diagnosis listed in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual(DSM‐IV) of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) as a severe, debilitating form of premenstrual distress. Since the 1980s, there has been extensive debate and public controversy over whether or not a PMS‐related condition should be considered a psychiatric disorder. The controversies over the creation and inclusion of a premenstrually related diagnosis involve multiple groups, including psychiatrists, clinicians, feminists, gynecologists, and the media. PMDD is an important site of sociological study because of three primary issues: the politics of gender, medicalization, and the construction of diagnoses and contested illness.
Gender Beliefs: Susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Authors: Jones Tara L. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractVulnerability to sexuality transmitted diseases (STDs) is different for men than for women because of the varying ideologies and beliefs about what counts as socially acceptable behavior among them. Biological, cultural, and social explanations help to explain these differences in susceptibility. While sociological discourse on gender beliefs and susceptibility to STDs most often includes interest in social and cultural explanations – such as relationship dynamics, relationship power, and racially and culturally based ideologies that influence sexual behavior within relationships – biological explanations – such as greater male–female transmission as a result of vaginal bleeding, vaginal tears, and the amount of virus transmitted from males to females during intercourse – cannot be overlooked. Because of their gender (i.e., sex), females and males are subject to socially accepted practices, ideologies, and beliefs that often define their roles and drive their behaviors within sexual relationships, thus influencing their susceptibility to STDs.