bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Generalization and Abstraction
Authors: Rogers Timothy T. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Human memory has sometimes been likened to a mental library where prior experience and factual information are stored and systematized for later retrieval. This metaphor is misleading: The sum of human knowledge allows people both to generalize prior learning to new items and situations and to imagine and innovate new forms that extend far beyond direct experience. This chapter reviews the current understanding of the cognitive, computational, and neural systems that support these remarkable abilities in the domain of human semantic/conceptual knowledge. It begins by reviewing why semantic generalization and abstraction have proven difficult to understand, outlining three broad phenomena an adequate theory should address. It then describes an explanatory framework, controlled semantic cognition, that draws on insights from neural network models to suggest how these phenomena arise in the mind and brain. The framework proposes that semantic knowledge arises within two interdependent systems: a system of representation that learns cross-modal conceptual structure and a system of control that shapes the flow of activation within the semantic system to support flexible, task-specific behaviors. These ideas connect a broad range of models in the literature, each focusing on a subdomain of behavior but adopting a shared set of underlying explanatory principles. They also shed light on key phenomena in development, mature cognition, and cognitive neuroscience. The chapter concludes by noting a series of open questions that are the subject of current work.
Queering South African History
Authors: Matebeni Zintombizethu , Kiguwa Peace 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter embarks on a journey to uncover a narrative often marginalized in the historical discourse of South Africa. Employing a “queering” lens as a methodological approach, the narrative challenges normative perspectives and advocates for a more nuanced understanding of South Africa’s history within the broader African context. The focal point is the recent developments in Uganda under President Yoweri Museveni, specifically the signing of the Anti-Homosexuality Act No. 6 of 2023. Julius Malema’s unexpected opposition to Museveni’s legislation challenges traditional alignments, marking a novel political approach to sexuality issues. The narrative navigates through South Africa’s LGBTQ + rights landscape, tracing the legacy of intersectional queer activism. The historical backdrop of apartheid’s discriminatory laws, including the Immorality Act and the Immigration Act, set the stage for understanding the complexities of the LGBTQ + rights movement. The rich tapestry of South Africa’s queer activism unfolds through the lens of intersectionality, weaving together the stories of individuals and organizations that have left an indelible mark on the country’s LGBTQ + rights movement.
The Automotive Industry in the Emerging Economies
Authors: Li Zejian 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter situates the development of automobile production and demand in emerging economies within the long-term dynamics of the global automotive industry. It stresses the dominance of carmakers from the Triad of the US, Western Europe, and Japan for much of the 20th century and how they relocated part of their production to emerging markets to fulfil growing local demand, thereby fulfilling the host country’s aims for import substitution though without sharing their know-how. China constitutes a recent exception in this respect. A shift in industrial policy from a focus on existing state-owned enterprises to new domestic companies, combined with efforts to foment technology transfer from the multinationals, allowed the former to not only catch-up but eventually leapfrog the latter, namely by targeting customers from lower social strata and producing battery-powered vehicles.
Dynamics of Industrial Innovation
Authors: Utterback James M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter details the author’s contribution to the development of innovation studies, moving them from largely ‘demographic’ (characteristics of products) and linear (design, production, diffusion) perspectives to a more dynamic model, through collaboration with Bill Abernathy. Their work drew attention to the process that led to an industry-wide solution—a ‘dominant design’. This process has major implications for understanding industry dynamics, since a period marked by the entry of many, often co-located firms will be followed, as the dominant design takes hold, by efficiency improvements and increasing consolidation. Industries differ in the speeds of entry and exit, as well as the height reached by their peak—with both movements largely dependent on the size of the market. This model highlights the importance of new entrants for innovation, while pinpointing to the reluctance of most incumbents to engage in product rather than process innovation.
Emerson and Carlyle
Authors: Sommer Tim 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Emerson’s lifelong engagement with Scottish essayist and historian Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) was of crucial importance for the development of his aesthetics, for his approach to cultural history, and not least for his critical and popular reception in Victorian Britain. Taking these aspects of their transatlantic relationship into account, this chapter focuses on race, slavery, and abolition—subjects that in the 1850s and 1860s created a rift between Emerson and Carlyle from which their friendship never fully recovered. Building on recent scholarship on Emerson’s antislavery convictions—and drawing on Emerson’s “Address on the Anniversary of the Emancipation of the Negroes in the British West Indies” (1844), his 1856 book English Traits, and Carlyle’s controversial “Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question” (1849)—the chapter analyses continuities and discontinuities between his Anglo-Saxonism and his abolitionism and reconstructs the impact Carlyle’s increasingly violent rhetoric had on Emerson’s conversion to the abolitionist cause.
Ottoman Armenian Visual Realism and Social Reform
Authors: Davidian Vazken Khatchig 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, realism became one of the most dominant intellectual philosophies adopted and adapted by a multicultural milieu of writers, thinkers, and artists in the Ottoman Empire. This chapter provides a complex and multifaceted reading of one of Ottoman realism’s overlooked visual manifestations. It exposes convergences between the politics of social reform in the empire and representation in works by artists associated with the urban social-reformist Constantinople Armenian Realist Generation (Bolsahay Irabashd Serount). Drawing on a wide range of archival material and visual sources, it considers how some artists sought to utilize the fashionable ethnographic aesthetics of the day (usually associated with so-called orientalism) in order to cloak content that would have been considered subversive by, and therefore circumvent the draconian censorship of, the autocratic regime of Sultan Abdülhamid II (r. 1876–1909). Artists discussed include Bedros Srabian (1833–1898), Garabed Nichanian (1861–1950), and Simon Hagopian (1857–1921).
French Careers in Eighteenth-Century India
Authors: Alavi Seema 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the enduring French presence in India after the Seven Years’ War to illuminate the many connections between Europe and India that the conflict enabled. These entanglements and dependencies were of a military as well as a non-military nature. During and after the war, military recruitment from India became the biggest conduit linking the two continents. But equally important was the exodus of many Europeans, especially the French, to India seeking employment and new opportunities as war dislocated people and livelihoods. The Company offered employment and footholds to Frenchmen unmindful of the metropolis policies and “national” projects. The diversification of the English Company to include them into its service at a time when the Anglo-French wars both in Europe and India had created visible polarization was a significant spill-out effect of the war in South Asia. It transformed the political culture of the subcontinent.
The Indian Ocean World
Authors: Eacott Jonathan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The conflicts and resources of Asia’s own empires, most notably the Durrani, Maratha, Mughal, and Qing, shaped the courses and outcomes of the Seven Years’ War. A reconsideration of the Indian Ocean World as a concept, commercial space, origin of Atlantic fashions, supplier of goods exchanged for enslaved labor, and theatre of conflict among Asian empires shows that Europeans benefited from, rather than simply drove changes in Asia. European merchants, companies, consumers, and political and military leaders entangled their empires into existing trading networks and imperial competition. Leaders in Asia, as well as those in Britain, France, and Russia, saw control of the Indian Ocean World’s resources, trading routes, and commerce as vital to growing their power. British victory in Bengal depended in part on these rivalries among Asian powers, and Asian resources were vital to further warfare. The war was not a radical break with Indian Ocean World trade, violence, and conflict.
Native America after 1763
Authors: Sleeper-Smith Susan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The Seven Years’ War changed the dynamics of Indigenous-Euro-American interaction. In sparsely settled regions, like the Great Lakes, Native people continued to play Great Britain against the Spanish and later, against the US. While French North America appeared to offer British leaders limitless possibilities for economic expansion the massive debt Britain acquired as a result of the war forced drastic reductions in imperial expenditures. Pontiac’s Rebellion vividly demonstrated that Indigenous people were not a conquered nation and in response, Britain issued the Proclamation Line of 1763. But by recognizing the sovereign status of Indigenous nations the British openly alienated English colonists. Excluding settler colonists from the Trans-Appalachian frontier inflamed resentment of British authority and inspired rebellion. The drastic reduction in military expenditures left Britain unable to enforce this boundary between White and Indigenous societies. Ongoing settler intrusions hindered later British attempts to secure Indigenous allies during the Revolutionary War.
The American Revolution
Authors: Gray Edward G. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses a scholarly consensus that Parliamentary efforts to address Britain’s ballooning national debt brought political calamity in the mainland North American colonies. That consensus has focused on the colonial response to the 1764 Currency Act and the 1765 Stamp Act. This chapter emphasizes the taxation challenges colonial governments faced in the mainland colonies. Because English colonial charters provided contradictory indications of colonies’ territorial boundaries, these governments faced chronic jurisdictional ambiguity. Ordinary colonists grew accustomed to exploiting that ambiguity to avoid taxes. Colonial governments attempted to address the problem through various boundary commissions. But the fundamental fact was that fiscal politics in the mainland colonies had long diverged from those of Great Britain itself. As much as more familiar constitutional questions over representation and Parliamentary authority, British fiscal reform following the Seven Years’ War thus faced fundamental structural challenges.
Europe and Global Dynamics, 1713–1755
Authors: Externbrink Sven 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of developments in the international state system of the eighteenth century. Three tendencies influenced the interactions of the system: the willingness to resolve conflicts through negotiation or to forgo territorial gains; the continuity of the idea of the “Roi de Guerre” embodied by the “philosopher king” Frederick II; and the growing influence of non-European actors and interactions on Europe. Thanks to Franco-English cooperation, Western, Central, and Southern Europe were largely spared major conflicts. This “system” was brought crashing down from two sides: from England, where Walpole’s policy was criticized because France was seen as a competitor in colonial trade; and by Frederick II of Prussia, who launched a war with the aim of territorial expansion for Prussia. The experience of this war and inadequately resolved issues of Anglo-French competition in North America ultimately led to the famous “diplomatic revolution” of 1756 in Europe.
Visual Arts and Culture
Authors: Fordham Douglas 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The impact of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) on the visual arts was both subtle and profound. This chapter identifies four developments in European visual culture that were shaped, to a significant degree, by this conflict. They include innovations in the representation of military heroes, an institutional shift in the relationship of art to the state, an increased investment in the replication of printed images of war, and a more systematic collecting of Indigenous American arts. Catalyzed by the global conflict that is now known as the Seven Years’ War, each of these developments would reverberate throughout the nineteenth century.
The Third Silesian War
Authors: Storring Adam L. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The Seven Years’ War in Central Europe was the last of three “Silesian Wars,” fought principally between Austria and Prussia over the province of Silesia, whose seizure had enabled Prussia to challenge Austrian Habsburg hegemony in Germany. The Russians called it the “Prussian War,” and it was indeed fought primarily to determine whether Prussia would retain its new position of power. One of the few theatres of the Seven Years’ War where neither the British nor the French played a leading role, its key link with the global war was the fighting in western Germany. Prussia’s survival against a huge coalition has been called a miracle, but in fact Prussia was much better at mobilizing resources and was in a much more favorable geographical position than has sometimes been recognized. Further research on non-Prussian participants in the war, and on Prussian figures beyond King Frederick II, would be particularly welcome.
Demography and the Seven Years’ War
Authors: Peterson Mark 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Demography is an essential factor in understanding the causes and course of the Seven Years’ War. The war occurred in the midst of an era of rapid demographic change, especially in the emerging Atlantic world. Accelerating population growth and urbanization in Europe, the transportation of millions of enslaved West Africans to the Americas, and the explosive growth of North American populations all played major parts in shaping the aims of the war’s imperial combatants and their capacities to field the enormous armies and navies that fought the war. Additionally, the growth of the new science of “political arithmetic” shaped imperial schemes for the manipulation of populations for economic or political advantage. The war marked a tipping point of North America’s emergence as a major population and economic center.
Women and Gender
Authors: Damiano Sara T. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter advances a gendered narrative of the Seven Years’ War, one that foregrounds women as historical actors and tracks power relations between men and women. Examining the conflict’s effects in six places—Britain, New England, West Africa, Jamaica, the North American interior, and Louisiana—underscores the durability and flexibility of early modern patriarchy. Women leveraged the wartime context and kinship practices to benefit themselves and their offspring. However, the projects of state-building and imperial growth hinged on regulating women’s bodies, labor, and resources. As civil and military officials implemented reforms, they elevated men’s economic and political power at the expense of women. White women reaped few benefits from their economic support of the war effort, and African, African-descended, and Native American women lost pathways to freedom and economic prosperity.
Religion and Politics in the Seven Years’ War
Authors: Young Brian , Whatmore Richard 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Never did a more successful war lead to so much crisis and national malaise as was felt in Britain during and after the Seven Years’ War. Britain’s status as a free state was challenged by developments in commerce, with concerns that luxury was spreading selfishness and effeminacy to the point of military impotence. Corruption in politics and especially at Court was expected to overturn liberty, as Montesquieu had prophesied. But all the ills of Britain were seen through a theological lens, and this chapter underlines the extent to which English and Scottish divines, Episcopalians and Presbyterians, saw contemporary crisis as rooted in fanaticism and enthusiasm, the product of Jacobitism and Popery. Even David Hume, arch-skeptic that he was, employed religious language to understand the decline of Britain and its imminent demise, despite short-lived victory at war.
Aftermaths of War in South Asia
Authors: Cross Elizabeth 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Among both contemporary observers and later historians, the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War in 1763 has long been seen as the decisive moment in the making of British rule in India. In examining the aftermaths of the conflict in South Asia and in the British and French empires, this chapter re-evaluates whether 1763 marked a critical endpoint to imperial challenges to British control. After the war, the British East India Company’s fraught attempts to consolidate its power led to humanitarian crises on the Indian subcontinent and numerous political scandals at home. The apparent precarity of British rule led key South Asian powers—principally the Maratha Confederacy and the kingdom of Mysore—and French imperial officials to continue to directly challenge the makings of British supremacy through diplomatic, military, or commercial means, giving rise to new armed conflicts amid the global age of revolutions.
European Geopolitics, 1756–1783
Authors: Dziembowski Edmond 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The Seven Years’ War caused a considerable upheaval in the balance of power in Europe. While the Treaty of Paris (10 February 1763) marked the triumph of Great Britain and the humiliation of France, the Treaty of Hubertusburg (15 February 1763), which settled the German side of the conflict, sanctioned the rise of Central and Eastern Europe in international relations. Previously subject to the preeminence of France, Europe would live to the rhythm of a pentarchy comprising France, Great Britain, the House of Austria, Prussia, and Russia until World War I. While France’s influence declined and Great Britain lacked control over European relations, Prussia, Russia, and Austria were free to assert their ambitions. The dynamism of these three predatory powers led to the first partition of Poland in 1772. Faced with the danger of an uncontrollable Central and Eastern Europe, France and Great Britain came to reconsider their old rivalry.
Sociology and Machine Learning
Authors: Borch Christian , Pardo-Guerra Juan Pablo 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter serves as an introduction to the Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Machine Learning. It outlines the volume’s principal objective: To provide a comprehensive, state-of-the-art overview and forward-looking discussion of three pivotal themes that connect machine learning (ML) and sociology. These themes are (a) ML as a methodological tool for sociological research, (b) the adaptation of ML in society, examined as an empirical phenomenon, and (c) the repercussions of ML on social theory. Furthermore, this chapter delineates the volume’s four parts and the respective chapters they encompass. These parts are “The Past, Present, and Future of Machine Learning in Sociology,” “Machine Learning as a Methodological Toolbox,” “Societal Machine Learning Applications,” and “Machine Learning and Sociological Theory.”
Fitting Paradox
Authors: Shin Eun Kyong 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The growing quantity and diversity of available data for sociologists necessitates adopting a novel analytic technique that is more appropriate to this new horizon of empirical reality. As a result, a rapprochement between machine learning (ML) and sociology is taking place. The ML modeling approach differs from traditional statistical methods. In ML modeling, four types of fitting outcomes are derived by juxtaposing training results with validation results: ideal fitting, unknown fitting, underfitting, and overfitting. Sociologists experience challenges with using ML approaches to elucidate the differences between ML-based data analysis and conventional statistical techniques. Fitting results do not guarantee the intrinsic validity of the model. Model refinement and validation, which involve fine-tuning hyperparameters, algorithm cross-checking, and subsectioning, are also crucial parts of ML-based analysis. Although well-fitted algorithms do not provide sociologists with immediate explanations for social mechanisms, the anatomy of the well-fitted algorithms can help debunk hidden social mechanisms.
Simone Weil’s Practical Philosophy
Authors: Goodchild Philip 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The distinctive religious metaphysics of Simone Weil may be explained as a practical philosophy—a philosophy of work. By exploring the development of her key ideas chronologically, her philosophy may be placed back within a particular French post-Kantian approach to moral philosophy. By paying close attention to her reformulation of ideas from Descartes, Rousseau, Lagneau, and her own teacher, Alain, her focus on necessity, philosophy of work, her consent to whatever happens, and her appeal to supernatural grace may be understood.
Philosophical Historiography in Modern French Philosophy
Authors: Krogh Marie Louise 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses major tendencies in the history of academic French historiographies of philosophy, from the establishment of history of philosophy as a university discipline in the early nineteenth century to feminist critiques of the philosophical canon in the twentieth century. Focusing on the ways in which the philosophical character of the history of philosophy has been conceptualized, it argues that the history of the historiography of philosophy in France is marked in two ways by the intellectual legacy of Victor Cousin. At the level of canon-formation, this history has involved continuity and reproduction of those authors and texts which Cousin regarded as central to the history of philosophy. With feminist historiographies of philosophy, the theory-constitutive function of the canon itself comes into question, thus opening a new field of inquiry as to what should be counted as properly ‘philosophical’.
Spiritualism as a Philosophy of Culture
Authors: Viola Tullio 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter deals with the work of Félix Ravaisson (1813–1900) and Emile Boutroux (1845–1921). Together with Jules Lachelier, these philosophers are to be taken as the paramount representatives of a mid-nineteenth-century revival of spiritualist philosophy in France. To the extent that they broke with the eclectic philosophy of Victor Cousin, they veered towards what Ravaisson called a ‘spiritualistic realism or positivism’ based on a close dialogue with the sciences and on a new emphasis on the concept of contingency. The chapter considers, in particular, the implications of this wave of spiritualism for the philosophy of culture and the philosophy of history.