bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Agriculture Crime
Authors: Donnermyer Joseph 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPart of the false image that assumes rural areas are relatively crime free is the perception that agricultural crime is both infrequent and insignificant. However, recent research from various countries finds high levels of property crime victimization, with specific ecological correlates for different kinds of offenses. Further, food producers are part of local, national, and global economic and political systems, and embedded in social structures (including systems of inequality based on property ownership) that are important for understanding the wider context of agricultural crime in countries around the world. As well, agriculturalists themselves are often the offenders, ranging from the commission of petty theft, to violations of environmental regulations, to the exploitation of farm labor.
Police Training
Authors: Stevens Kelli D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Police agencies must adapt to changing societal needs and problems in order to effectively serve their communities. Thus, incorporating training and continuing education classes that cover these critical topics allows police to keep pace with changes and growth. Not only is it important to consider special topics for training police, but also the methods by which police are trained and in what contexts. Training and education of officers must continue throughout their careers, and personnel from all levels within the organization should continue to obtain the education and training needed to be effective in completing the tasks associated with the positions they hold.
Sheriffs and County Law Enforcement
Authors: Stroupe Walter , Swindell Sam 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe sheriff is the most well‐known figure in the criminal justice system. The position of sheriff is symbolic of law enforcement and political importance. The office of sheriff as we now know it developed over time. The development of the sheriff is believed to have begun over 1,000 years ago in England and occurred with the development of England's local government structure. In the United States, sheriffs were not the first form of law enforcement for the colonies. This distinction belonged to provost marshals and marshals, operating under central military authority from 1625 to 1727. In 1634, Virginia was also divided into eight shires or counties similar to England's model, complete with the administrative position of sheriff appointed by the colonial governor. The sheriff was considered the chief and most powerful official in most counties, with responsibilities that included collecting taxes, conducting elections, maintaining bridges and roads, and law enforcement. The colonial sheriff was also charged with carrying out court orders of corporal punishment against offenders and maintaining devices for such punishment, including stocks, pillories, whipping posts, and ducking stools.
Burglary
Authors: M. Kopp Phillip 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Burglary is a criminal offense committed against the property of another that occurs when an individual enters or remains in a structure with the intent to commit a separate crime. Burglary is a felony offense included by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as one of the eight index offenses reported in the annual Uniform Crime Report. Burglary has trended steadily downward from 1980, when 3.8 million incidents were reported to police, to 2007 (2.17 million). Burglars offend for profit, often selecting their targets with care, planning their crimes in advance, and taking into account multiple variables in deciding when and where to offend. Burglary can have a profound and lasting effect on victims in a variety of ways. Burglary, given its random and hidden nature, is extremely difficult to detect, and roughly 12% of all burglaries cases lead to the arrest of an offender.
Biosocial Explanations of Crime
Authors: Boisvert Danielle 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
While the field of criminology is rooted in sociological tradition, biosocial criminology has emerged as a promising perspective in studying antisocial behaviors. This perspective encompasses research from other scientific disciplines, namely molecular genetics, evolutionary psychology, neurology, psychiatry, and behavioral genetics. At its core, biosocial criminology views criminal/antisocial behavior as a function of both the social environment and biological/genetic factors. One of the most prominent ways to assess the influence of genetic and environmental factors on criminal behavior is to study twin pairs using behavioral genetic methodology. As such, a review of twin studies, particularly using ACE and ADE models, is provided. Next, the current empirical status of twin studies is provided along with a discussion of the assumptions and future directions for this type of research.
Stolen Goods Markets
Authors: Smith Brian T. , Schneider Jacqueline L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHistorically, the crime of handling stolen goods has been under‐researched. In the last decade, however, research has begun to highlight the important role that stolen goods markets have in keeping theft levels high. After the theft, the stolen goods enter a lengthy process of buying and selling until the illicit product reaches its final consumer. Stolen goods markets present criminologists and practitioners with an interesting opportunity to reduce thefts by turning attention to the actual goods that are in demand and to those who participate in the market activities.
State Prosecutors
Authors: Keller‐Charbonneau Elizabeth 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe role of the state prosecutor has evolved significantly over time. Once a privately hired attorney seeking justice for an individual, a prosecutor at the state level is now an elected state employee representing everyone in or jurisdiction. Prosecutors represent the government's interests at all points of the criminal adjudication process. They decide on the type and number of charges to file. Ultimately, they handle all aspects of criminal case‐processing on behalf of the citizens of the jurisdiction they serve. Whether acting independently or collaborating as part of the courtroom workgroup, the prosecutor is responsible for determining the processing of criminal cases and, to a large extent, outcomes for defendants.
International and Supranational Courts
Authors: Dammer Harry R. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractOver the last 20 years there has been a rapid development of judicial mechanisms to address issues related to international or transnational crime, such as crimes against humanity and war crimes. These judicial mechanisms, called supranational courts, are the descendants of the ad hoc tribunals formed after World War II, such as the Nuremburg and Tokyo tribunals. To address more recent war crimes and atrocities, the United Nations (UN) formed the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. In 1998 the UN passed the Rome Statute calling for the formation of a permanent supranational court called the International Criminal Court. More recently, a new form of internationalized courts, also called hybrid or mixed courts, seek to prosecute persons responsible for violations of international and domestic law. The legitimacy of supranational courts comes from a variety of sources, including international law, the UN, and the legal principle ofjus cogens. Supranational courts will need to address a number of significant challenges if they hope to prosper and gain respect in the international community.
Sex in Prison
Authors: Osborne Michael , T. Osborne Kimberly 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPrison policies prohibit sexual relationships in prisons; however, sexual relationships occur between inmates and between inmates and staff. Most prisoners, males and females, meet sexual needs through masturbation and consensual sexual relationships. Even so, some inmates use force or coercion to engage in nonconsensual sexual relations with weaker inmates. Although rape in prison is not as widespread as the media portray, it is evident in all prisons.
Training in Law Enforcement
Authors: Hunt Donald 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Training is crucial to the efficiency of any law enforcement agency. This is true at the federal, state, and local levels of policing. Instruction of personnel within these organizations typically follows a twofold process. First, each recruit must successfully complete the prescribed basic training courses for their particular agency. Once the recruit graduates from basic training, advanced specialized training takes place throughout that officer's career, often honing expertise in a specialized area. Not only do both basic and advanced training continue to sharpen the skills of the officer, but they also help to keep the officer's respective agency from civil litigation due to misconduct and rights violations. Training is the best weapon an officer can carry.
Pennsylvania System
Authors: Day George J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Pennsylvania System of confinement was one of two competing prison philosophies in use in the United States during the 1800s. The system focused on rehabilitation through solitary confinement, labor, and personal reflection. Used initially at the Walnut Street Jail and Eastern State Penitentiary, the solitude of the system was believed by many to cause mental illness causing the system to be less popular in the United States than the Auburn System.
Prison Gangs
Authors: Mikutis Megan J. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Researching the development and growth of prison gangs in the United States is challenging due to their secretive nature. Further, access to prison gang members and institutional prison gang records is controlled by prison administrators. Prison officials often refer to prison gangs as security threat groups, describing them as self‐perpetuating crime organizations operating within correctional facilities that often continue criminal operations in free society. Membership in a prison gang is often based on racial or ethnic characteristics of an inmate. Prison officials employ several strategies to control prison gangs, both in prisons and in communities.
Assassination
Authors: Wilson Margaret A. , Scholes Angela 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAssassination research occupies a relatively small area of the literature, and progress has been hindered by anomalies in research findings thrown up by variations in the person being targeted, the geographic region, and whether or not the planned attack is actually completed. As such, it is related to, and draws on, studies in homicide, stalking, and terrorism research. Assassination research initially grew out of attempts to “profile” the personality and background characteristics of those who had attacked prominent persons, but over time, research has evolved to take a more risk‐focused approach.
Civil Rights and Criminal Justice
Authors: Henderson Howard 
Published: January 2014

AbstractReports indicate that within certain communities, those individuals who have historically fallen victim to civil rights abuses are also intertwined within the nexus of civil rights and criminal justice. This overrepresented criminal justice experience at every level, from interrogation to successful community reentry, has ushered in the largest number of citizens being processed through the justice system, with over 7 million adults or 1 out of every 33 citizens of the United States being under some form of criminal justice supervision (i.e., probation, parole, jail, or incarceration). Overrepresentations of this nature have created an outcry, by some, that the criminal justice system has been a respite of sociopolitical ills and a simultaneous agitator of civil rights abuses. Interestingly, despite the aforementioned relationship, rarely does the civil rights‐criminal justice dichotomy enter into critical academic thought.
Boot Camps
Authors: Barfield‐Cottledge Tiffiney 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBoot camps emerged in response to correctional failures, high rates of recidivism, and prison overcrowding. Popular with politicians and the public, these programs promised punishment, rehabilitation, and decreases in recidivism rates for nonviolent offenders. Initially developed for adult offenders, boot camps were later redesigned for juvenile offenders. These programs offer an intermediate sanction, punishment that is less severe than long‐term incarceration and more severe than punishments associated with community correction. Viewed as both rehabilitative and punitive, these diverse programs based on the military boot‐camp model emphasize educational and vocational enhancement and development of self‐discipline, self‐esteem, and prosocial behavior. Although some question their long‐term rehabilitative ability, many practitioners believe offenders benefit from their emphasis on rehabilitation and discipline, which purportedly lessens recidivism, thus enhancing chances of living in society.
Validity
Authors: Hagan Frank E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractValidity addresses the question, “Is the study a true assessment of reality?” It applies both to whether a particular study has measured its concepts well and to whether the findings pertaining to causal relationships reflect reality. Common sense tells us that validity is a crucial feature of any study. Concepts that are not measured accurately will lead researchers to draw conclusions that are meaningless. In addition, a poorly designed study may draw conclusions about the existence of causal relationships that are incorrect. Again, the results would have no meaning and therefore be useless to criminal justice policy makers.
Search and Seizure
Authors: Jones David M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The concept of “search and seizure” is addressed in the Fourth Amendment, which prohibits “unreasonable” searches and seizures. While the amendment clearly seeks to serve as a limit on government's discretionary power in the criminal justice process, what the concepts mean in practice can be complicated. This entry will seek to analyze some of these complications and describe trends in the United States Supreme Court's interpretation of the relevant phrases.
Self‐Defense
Authors: Lee Cynthia 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The right of self‐defense is recognized in every state. Generally speaking, the defendant who acts in self‐defense must honestly and reasonably believe that it is necessary to use force to counter an imminent, unlawful attack, and the force he uses must be proportionate to the force threatened. If the defendant is the initial aggressor or provokes the encounter, he loses the right to act in self‐defense unless he withdraws from the affray and successfully communicates his withdrawal to the victim. The defense of self‐defense requires necessity, imminence, an unlawful attack, proportionality, and no initial aggressors.
Accreditation of Criminal Justice Agencies
Authors: Hunt Donald 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The accreditation of any criminal justice agency is a lengthy and rigorous undertaking, opening up the organization to both public and private scrutiny of its practices. While many argue that the accreditation process is a step in the right direction for the advancement of public safety professionalism, there are others who argue that the process undermines the abilities of the officers and command staff to perform their actual tasks. This work explores the accreditation process as well as the pros and cons of the practice.
Indigent Defendants
Authors: Choe Gretchen H. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractProviding legal representation to criminal defendants who are too poor to afford a lawyer can be accomplished in many ways. The right to counsel is guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States and costs associated with this must be carefully weighed against this protection. However, neither the Constitution, nor any cases that address this issue, defines precisely what makes a person indigent to the extent that they are entitled to receive a government‐appointed attorney. Different mechanisms are in place to attempt to make this balance.
Consent Defense
Authors: Bergelson Vera 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis essay discusses the defense of consent in criminal law. This defense is available to a perpetrator who is charged with criminal conduct with respect to a victim if such conduct has been authorized by the victim. To be valid, the defense has to satisfy minimal requirements of voluntariness and rationality of consent and must not violate public policy. The law of the United States, as well as other common law jurisdictions, does not recognize consent of the victim as a defense to bodily harm, except in a few historically defined circumstances. That rule has been criticized for its arbitrary scope, outdated rationales, and potential for moralistic manipulation. Many civil law countries allow complete or partial defense in many cases of physical harm. Consent of the victim may exculpate the perpetrator who is charged with an offense that involves intrusive, harmful, or offensive conduct with respect to a victim if such conduct has been authorized by the victim.
Strict Liability
Authors: Mandiberg Susan F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe most common use of the term “strict liability” is to denote crimes that do not require the prosecution to prove that the defendant was aware of engaging in wrongdoing. The meaning of strict liability has changed over time. While few traditional crimes impose strict liability, many modern regulatory crimes do not require awareness of wrongdoing in the traditional sense. This entry traces the use of the term “strict liability” in Anglo‐American criminal law.
Europol
Authors: Schumann Stefan 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Europol−the European Police Office−is a core player of law enforcement cooperation in the European Union. Located in The Hague, Netherlands, it is a European Union agency established to strengthen and support the cooperation among police and other law enforcement agencies in the EU. Europol is not a European police unit and thus does not have executive powers itself. Europol's primary tasks are sharing information and intelligence, and supporting information sharing between stakeholders from different countries via its Europol Information System (EIS) and its Secure Information Exchange Network Application (SIENA). It provides operational and strategic analysis and operational support mainly by establishing Analysis Work Files (AWF). Europol cooperates with other EU law enforcement agencies and institutions, and third countries and organizations. It participates in Joint Investigation Teams (JIT) established by law enforcement agencies of two or more EU member states in investigations requiring cross‐border coordination and cooperation.
Trafficking in Body Parts (Organs)
Authors: BruckmÜller Karin 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
There is a gap between demand for and supply of transplantable body parts, especially organs. This shortage leads to patients' willingness to pay high sums of money for body parts. Hence traffickers, usually criminal organizations, make a lucrative business from body parts. There are two kinds of trafficking: trafficking of body parts (organs, tissues, and cells) and trafficking of persons for organ removal. Although these forms of trafficking are punished in most countries, it is estimated that a large number of body parts come from trafficking.
Stalking and Cyberstalking
Authors: Tjaden Patricia G. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHistorically, stalking has been used to describe big‐game hunting or predatory behavior in the animal kingdom, such as a hunter stalking a deer or a cat stalking a bird. Stalking took on a new meaning in the United States in the 1980s when the tabloid press began using the term in their coverage of a series of high‐profile cases involving celebrity figures pursued by obsessed fans. Soon the term stalking was used to describe a pattern of domestic violence and abuse that involved unwanted harassing and threatening contacts perpetrated by former spouses and intimate partners. Eventually, human‐to‐human stalking was criminalized in all states and on all tribal and federal lands. In the process, the definition of stalking was broadened to include harassing and threatening behavior perpetrated by all types of persons. Although current stalking laws vary widely with respect to specific elements of the crime, stalking generally is defined as a course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person fear. The term cyberstalking refers to the use of the internet and other forms of electronic communication to stalk another person.
Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Ahmad Janice , Emeka Traqina Q. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Rational choice theory purports that a person will commit crime after determining if the pain or punishment is worth the pleasure or reward of the act. This theory comes from the Classical and Neoclassical Schools. The policies that are based on this theory involve increasing the punishment for crimes in the hope that the pain outweighs the gain and therefore preventing future crime. These increased punishments are intended to enhance the impact of both specific deterrence and general deterrence. The concepts of rational choice theory have been used in the development of both lifestyle theory and routine activities theory.
Organized Crime
Authors: Arsovska Jana 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis article provides a critical analysis of the definitional and normative dimensions of organized crime, focusing on the main academic debates surrounding the topic. It elaborates on the global character of organized crime (“transnational crime”) and the UN efforts to develop a universal definition of organized crime that would serve as a basis for policy makers and law enforcement officials world‐wide. A chronological overview of the main organized crime paradigms, such as organizational, patron–client, enterprise, and network theories, is provided in order to better understand the nature of organized crime. Current trends, operational methods, and criminal activities of traditional and contemporary organized crime groups are discussed as well.
Jury Selection and Behavior
Authors: Russell Brenda , McCarty James C. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Understanding the jury selection process and jury behavior is helpful to those who seek to identify legal and extralegal factors that may influence juror verdicts. This entry discusses the jury selection process, research related to the selection of jurors, the behavior of jurors and the processes they use to evaluate evidence and understand legal instructions, and how extralegal factors may affect legal decisions.
Careers in Forensic Science
Authors: Guido Jeri M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThere are many careers in forensic science available to fit almost any interest one may have. With proper schooling and training, one can become a medical examiner, forensic pathologist, forensic odontologist, or forensic nurse, to name a few. Many forensic scientists will testify in court during their careers. Forensic scientists are oftentimes the voice of the victim, when the victim may no longer be able to communicate with the world.
Search Warrants
Authors: Kanaboshi Naoki , R. Crawley William 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA search warrant is a written order from a court directing law enforcement officers to conduct a search for evidence of a crime and to seize the evidence found. Under the Fourth Amendment of the US Constitution, searches and seizures by the government generally require a search warrant based on probable cause, particularly describing the locations to be searched and the objects to be seized, and issued by a neutral judicial officer. The Fourth Amendment also sets conditions regarding execution of a search warrant.