bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Radials, Rings, and Diagonals
Authors: Talen Emily 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter covers the radial-concentric street pattern of streets. It explains that the form became especially prominent when highway belts started to encircle cities in the mid-20th century. The radial-concentric pattern has prehistoric roots in line with the natural evolution of villages in Africa. In the United States, radial-concentric patterns usually put commercial and political power at the center. The chapter also considers how the radial-concentric pattern could not hold the forces of free market capitalism, and the green wedges transitioned into low-density sprawl. It then looks into diagonal roads that link focal points, which is an apt description of American railroads.
Buildings and Settings
Authors: Talen Emily 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter looks into understanding the context and linkages between culturally significant buildings. It explains that free-standing buildings and monuments would be reserved for places that deserved the highest respect. However, as buildings increased in scale because of technological advances, they could dominate without being on higher ground. The chapter explains how linking important sites could create a certain unity, which then refers to how the monument assumed a dominant role in the city’s context such as the historical-artistic basis of the Renaissance city. It cites that building placement can have meaning in the commonest of settings, such as civic pride.
Poured in from All Quarters
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Executive clerks toiled night and day to decode the dispatches, uncovering details of the insulting treatment of the envoys in Paris. Initially, Adams withheld the dispatches while he sent a swift vessel to France to ferry the envoys to safety. Republicans were suspicious of the silence, convinced the president was hiding information that would prove he had negotiated with France in bad faith. They introduced a resolution demanding that the president turn over the dispatches. Federalists supported the resolution, knowing the result would be embarrassing to the Republican Party. Adams and his allies had worked behind the scenes to covertly share the contents with their party members. The resulting publications of the dispatches produced an overwhelming rush of support for the Adams administration and militancy against France.
The Unqualified Conviction of His Unfitness for the Station
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Federalists focused their campaign on Thomas Jefferson’s radicalism and alleged atheism. But internal divisions in the party quickly fractured their efforts. Alexander Hamilton campaigned through New England under the guise of supporting Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and John Adams equally, but few were fooled. At the same time, Adams gave speeches warning against a “British faction,” meaning the Essex Junto. When Hamilton heard these claims, he demanded an explanation from the president. Adams ignored him, which Hamilton could not abide. In October 1800, he published a private letter, which quickly made its way into the newspapers. The letter listed all of Hamilton’s personal grievances against Adams as evidence of why he was unqualified to be president. Even Hamilton’s closest allies were horrified and recognized that the letter would only help Jefferson win the election.
Epilogue
Authors: Chervinsky Lindsay M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
After George Washington retired, many Americans genuinely wondered whether the presidency would work, and the nation would survive. John Adams stepped into the role, knowing the difficulties. He secured valuable peace in the face of opposition from his closest advisors and allies in the Federalist Party. He defended executive power against threats both foreign and domestic, and established critical precedents. He forged the first two peaceful transfers of power at a time when they were not the norm and far from guaranteed. Yet, he is rarely credited with these monumental achievements. His position between Washington and Thomas Jefferson is partly to blame for this historical amnesia. More important, most historians were convinced by the coordinated campaign by Jefferson and Hamilton to tarnish Adams’s reputation. Finally, most biographies of Adams were written before January 6, 2021. Many Americans and scholars took the peaceful transfer of power for granted. John Adams did not.
Identity and Community in the Work of Jack Spicer
Authors: Grundy David 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
In 1950, Jack Spicer effectively scuppered his chances of a stable academic career by refusing to sign the University of California’s newly imposed Loyalty Oath. In the years that followed, he became involved in the semi-clandestine political organizing of the Mattachine Society, the ‘Occult School’ of Boston, and, in San Francisco, the Spicer circle, which gathered in the queer bars of North Beach and the cruising grounds of Aquatic Park. Writing from these communities, Spicer also contested them, building a poetics on homosexuality while also questioning sexuality as a basis for identity. This chapter traces Spicer’s contradictory figuration of community, contending that Spicer’s work, while often problematic, paradoxical, and vexing, has much to tell us—even, or especially in its faults, negativity, and paradoxes—about broader questions of queer identity, both during the period of its writing and in the present day.
The Occult School of Boston (i)
Authors: Grundy David 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
A decade after the advent of the ‘Berkeley Renaissance’, a new scene of gay male writers emerged in Boston. Dubbed by poet Gerrit Lansing ‘an Occult School, unknown’, these poets were experimental yet anti-elitist, coterie but defiantly lower class. The first of two chapters on the Occult School addresses the work of Ed Marshall and Stephen Jones, whose 1953 meeting represented the School’s first flowering. It examines the complex interrelations between gay sexuality, sectarian Christianity, and poetry in Marshall’s work, before turning to Stephen Jonas, the contradictory and enormously creative crux of the Occult School, examining Jonas’ dialogue with Jack Spicer; his figurations of a gay Boston; his conception of the poem as mediating space between desire, loss, and social marginality; and his later turn to paranoiac, conspiratorial thinking, suggestive of both the strengths and pitfalls of this semi-clandestine, marginal group.
Introduction
Authors: Brinkmann Tobias 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Jewish migration is still widely associated with violent persecution and stereotypes, such as the image of the Wandering Jew. Yet surprisingly little has been written about the journeys of Jewish migrants and refugees. Much of the scholarship focuses on immigration to specific countries, especially to the United States and Palestine/Israel as a redemptive success story. This study takes a closer look at the transit journeys of Jews from Eastern Europe between the 1860s and the aftermath of the Holocaust. Following Jews and others across borders around the globe links histories that are often told in separate national contexts. Little is known about Jews who were displaced by military conflicts, who failed to reach their intended destination, and who were forcibly moved, especially during the two world wars. The history of Jewish migrations and flight is closely linked with the emergence of academic migration and refugee studies.
Migrants Become Immigrants
Authors: Brinkmann Tobias 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
In the aftermath of World War II the United States continued to pursue a restrictive immigration policy toward Jews from Eastern Europe. The 1948 DP bill passed by Congress specifically permitted the admission of refugees but it was tweaked to exclude Jews from Eastern Europe. Obstacles faced by Jewish migrants and refugees gradually fell away in the early 1950s. Soon after the founding of the state of Israel thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors and DPs from Eastern Europe left the new state for Canada and the United States. Many sought assistance from American Jewish aid associations during the transit journey through Europe. Their experiences illustrates the challenges of distinguishing between migrants seeking better opportunities and refugees fleeing persecution.
Slavery, Natural Equality, and Natural Law in Seventeenth-Century Europe
Authors: Jorati Julia 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the ways in which the natural law tradition understands slavery. It focuses on four seventeenth-century natural law theorists from continental Europe who stress natural equality and the natural right to liberty in their discussions of slavery: Francisco Suárez, Hugo Grotius, Samuel Pufendorf, and Gabrielle Suchon. The chapter concentrates mainly on these authors’ attitudes toward natural slavery, which is the theory that some human beings are naturally destined for slavery on the basis of their natural mental or physical characteristics. All four authors criticize this theory, though some are hesitant to reject it wholesale. While they see the tension between natural slavery and the natural right to liberty and equality, they are evidently attracted to certain aspects of natural slavery.
Geographic Information Systems in Children’s Environmental Health
Authors: Georgopoulos Panos G. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer-based “toolboxes” that facilitate the input, storage, retrieval, exploration, visualization, systematic analysis, and mapping of a wide range of spatial and spatiotemporal data. GIS applications are highly useful in children’s environmental health. They enable computerized mapping of a variety of measurements and estimates, including demographic, socioeconomic, housing, consumer behavior, land use, climatological, hydrogeological, ecological, and environmental quality data. This chapter summarizes the historical development of GIS. It provides a brief introduction to basic GIS concepts, terminology, visualization, and analysis options. This chapter also presents examples that use GIS “outputs” to consider health outcomes and environmental exposures relevant to children’s health. The chapter concludes by considering prospects for future integration of GIS with mobile information technologies.
Epigenetics and Children’s Environmental Health
Authors: Fry Rebecca C. , Pinder Margaret 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Gene–environment interactions—interactions between harmful chemical, physical, and social exposures in the environment and children’s individual, genetically determined susceptibilities—are central to the causation of most diseases. Toxicogenetics and toxicogenomics are new fields of science that study gene–environment interactions and genetic susceptibility. Many gene–environment interactions that are critically important to children’s environmental health occur only in early development. Early development is a time of exquisite sensitivity to environmental exposures, and windows of vulnerability to toxic chemicals have been identified in early life that have no counterpart in adult life. Environmental exposures in these critical periods have the potential to shape development and program health effects across the life span. These windows likely correspond to stages in early development when specific genes and gene pathways that interact with toxic chemicals are being expressed. Epigenetics, the process by which chemicals interact with the genome to modify gene expression without changing the DNA sequence, likely underlies many gene–environment interactions. Multiple chemicals, such as endocrine disruptors and metals, appear to mediate their effects at least in part via epigenetic mechanisms.
Racism, Environmental Injustice, and Child Health
Authors: Laraque-Arena Danielle 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
In the immediate past decade, sociopolitical context, alongside nationally publicized events of police brutality against Black men and women in the United States, have sharpened the focus of the impact of structural racism on health outcomes. In this context, the idea of achieving health equity and environmental justice leads to the broadening of the matrix of sociopolitical determinants of health that frame the influence of the environment on children’s health. Presented in this chapter, beyond the social determinants of poverty and extreme poverty on health, is the layered, indolent influence of biases related to the social constructs of race and gender as well as the intersecting categorization of peoples by class, ethnicity, religion, culture, sexual orientation.
The Intrauterine Environment and Early Infancy
Authors: Fan Winnie , Zlatnik Marya G. , Charlesworth Annemarie , Woodruff Tracey 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Human biomonitoring data indicate that today every pregnant and lactating woman is exposed to a large and complex array of synthetic chemicals. Because many of the chemicals that comprise this body burden can cross the placenta from mother to child or pass from mother to child via breast milk, chemicals in the mother can cause exposure to the fetus and the young infant during sensitive periods of early development. This chapter reviews recent data on maternal body burden of environmental chemicals, discusses the varying ability of different chemicals to cross the placental barrier and accumulate in maternal breast milk, and addresses the importance of timing of exposure during early development. The need exists for continuing research that increases current understanding of environmental exposures during pregnancy and early infancy and closes the great gaps in knowledge that still exist. At the same time, there is urgent need for prudent policies that will reduce or prevent harmful exposures in early development.
Chemicals in Food
Authors: Landrigan Philip J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Food can be a source of exposure to multiple hazardous chemicals, including pesticides; toxic chemicals that enter the food supply; colorings, flavorings and preservatives; and chemicals that migrate into foods through contact with packaging materials. Food is the main source of children’s exposure to pesticides. These include insecticides such as organophosphates, carbamates, and neonicotinoids applied to many fruits and vegetables as well as herbicides applied in large quantities to genetically engineered (GMO) food crops, notably corn and soybeans. Residual quantities (“residues”) of pesticides are detected in most “conventionally grown” foods. Herbicide residues are commonly detected in processed foods made from corn and soybeans. Several widely used herbicides are possible and probable human carcinogens, and exposure to these toxic chemicals is the principal threat to children’s health associated with GMO food. The Food Quality Protection Act, the US federal law on pesticides, sets standards—“tolerances”—that limit the levels of residual pesticides allowed on food crops. All foods certified organic by the US Department of Agriculture must be grown and processed using no pesticides, and they also must be GMO-free. The main benefit of organic food is that it reduces children’s pesticide exposure by as much as 90%. Many toxic chemicals can enter the food supply as well as mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, fish, and shellfish toxins such as ciguatera, and perchlorate.
The Shape of the Built Environment Shapes Children’s Health
Authors: Jackson Richard J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Children must grow in environments that are safe, healthful, and diverse. The built environment includes buildings, roads, parks, vehicles, and recreational spaces that are created or modified by people. All of these spaces affect health. A community’s built environment shapes opportunities for physical activity. The built environment can support or impede recreational and social interaction. It can enable physical fitness, or it can impel the rising rates of childhood and adult obesity and diabetes. Innovative changes in the built environment, such as LEED-certified buildings, should offer sustainable and healthful solutions. Traditional urban and suburban plans are often targeted more at meeting the needs of vehicles and rarely focus on children’s needs, including for incidental and purposeful physical activity, healthful play, and access to schools.
Tobacco Smoke
Authors: Buran Meghan , Phinney Kelsey , Samet Jonathan M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Tobacco smoking has long been the world’s leading cause of avoidable morbidity and mortality. Globally there are over 1 billion smokers. While tobacco use is declining in many high-income countries, it is rising in low- and middle-income countries as the multinational tobacco companies seek new markets and new smokers. Childhood is a critical period for experimenting with tobacco use and becoming addicted to nicotine. The tobacco industry has long targeted youths with aggressive marketing strategies to assure that its customer base is maintained. While smoking has declined among adolescents in many countries, the rate of decline has slowed. Tobacco smoking has adverse effects that extend across the entire life span, beginning before conception and ending with old age and death. Exposures in early life to tobacco smoke may have long-term implications for health across the life span.
Water Pollution and Children’s Health
Authors: Arnold Katherine 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Water pollution is a major threat to children worldwide. Diarrhea is the principal health consequence of water contamination, and the global burden of morbidity and mortality from waterborne diarrhea is vast. Children are disproportionately affected. Many other diseases are also related to water. These include certain vector-borne diseases such as malaria, whose mosquito vectors breed in standing water, and malnutrition. Water-related malnutrition is the consequence of repeated episodes of diarrhea and lack of water for food production. Toxic chemical contamination of water is an additional threat to children’s health. Prenatal exposure to chemical contaminants in drinking water can result in acute health outcomes such as birth defects or death. Most of the global burden of waterborne and water-related disease could be prevented through basic sanitation, hygiene, and the provision of clean water. Water scarcity is a problem in many areas of the world today and is anticipated to increase in the years ahead with increasing global population and changes in climate that will likely decrease the availability of water. Water scarcity will exacerbate the burden of waterborne disease. It will also threaten food security and result in increased conflict in the world’s major river basins.
Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
Authors: Grandjean Philippe 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been dubbed “forever-chemicals” because they tend to be highly stable due to the strong chemical bond between carbon and fluorine. Thus, the major PFAS do not break down, potentially causing continued dissemination to surface water bodies or groundwater (e.g., from former production sites, fire-training areas, or waste dumps). Once released to the environment, PFAS accumulate in marine and aquatic food chains, and in wildlife. Industry claims inspired the belief that the PFAS were almost innocuous. However, as early toxicology studies were finally released in 2000, information emerged on transmission from mother to progeny and a variety of adverse health effects, thereby inspiring independent academic research. New evidence showed that PFAS exposure at lower and lower levels could represent a health hazard. At the same time, PFAS pollution was found to occur globally. The persistence of these compounds, both in the environment and in the human body, added to the concern that these compounds might represent a new environmental hazard.
Volatile Organic Chemicals
Authors: Boyd Barr Dana , Panuwet Parinya , Ryan P. Barry 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) include benzene, dichlorobenzene, ethylbenzene, formaldehyde, perchloroethylene, toluene, and xylene. Because of their volatility and widespread use in both domestic and industrial applications, VOCs are pervasive contaminants in both indoor and outdoor air. Exposure is widespread. The most common indoor sources of VOCs include tobacco smoke, use of solvents and paints, non-sealed gasoline and paint containers, off-gassing from carpets and upholstery, and use of aerosolized products. Outdoor VOC exposures can result from industrial emissions, automobile exhaust, and other combustion processes. Health effects include both acute and chronic effects: inflammation of respiratory pathways, hepatoxicity, wheeze, exacerbation of asthma, neurotoxicity, and hematolymphopoietic cancers such as leukemia. Prevention of VOC toxicity is best achieved by reducing exposures. Indoor exposures can be reduced by eliminating smoking, limiting use of VOC-containing products, and proper ventilation. Outdoor exposures can be reduced by strict regulation of emission sources
Asthma, Allergy, and the Environment
Authors: Vilcins Dwan , Sly Peter D. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Asthma is disease in which the normal development of the respiratory and immune systems is altered by interactions between harmful environmental exposures and underlying genetic predispositions. The major risk factors for asthma in early life are a family history of asthma and allergies, reflecting a genetic predisposition; sensitization to perennial aeroallergens; and recurrent severe lower respiratory infections, especially those associated with fever and/or wheeze. Reduced lung function appears to be an independent risk factor for asthma. Environmental exposures—either prenatal exposures or exposures in early postnatal life—that limit lung growth or delay maturation of the immune system further increase the risk of asthma. Although environmental controls may not truly prevent asthma, strategies such as eliminating exposure of pregnant women, infants, and young children to tobacco smoke, air pollution, and ambient pollutants are likely to decrease asthma.
The Environment and Cardiovascular Disease in Children
Authors: Landrigan Philip J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Toxic environmental exposures can cause cardiovascular disease (CVD) in infants and children, and environmental exposures in early life can initiate pathophysiologic processes that increase CVD risk across the life span and result in disease and premature death. Early intervention strategies are therefore of great importance. Air pollution is a major CVD risk factor. PM2.5 air pollution increases risk for atrial fibrillation, ventricular arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, stroke, and CVD death, and it also increases risk for hypertension, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. Lead causes hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, coronary heart disease, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease. Methyl mercury is associated with hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and CVD mortality. Chronic cadmium exposure results in increased blood pressure, increased risk of coronary artery disease, peripheral arterial disease, stroke, and CVD death. Chronic arsenic exposure increases risk for atherosclerosis, hypertension, peripheral arterial disease, and ischemic heart disease. Chronic exposure to cobalt increases risk for cardiomyopathy. Acute thallium exposure causes hypotension, bradycardia, and death. Dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls increase CVD risk by acting as endocrine disruptors, and per- and polyfluorinated substances have similar effects. Prenatal exposures to halogenated solvents appear to increase risk of congenital heart disease. Finally, chronic exposure to noise can increase risk for ischemic heart disease by increasing risk for hypertension.