bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Flow of Air and Gas through Porous Media
Authors: Chalmers Joseph , Taliaferro D.B. , Rawlins E.L. 
Published: June 2014

Problems dealing with the movement or migration of fluids through porousbeds have been the subject of much research. The subject is not peculiar to theproduction of oil and gas, as many investigators have studied the nature of this movement and its relationship to the problems of other industries. Darcyconducted a series of experiments relating to the percolation of water throughfilter beds. King carried on an extensive series of laboratory experiments withthe object? of formulating some conception of the rate of movement of water through soils and sand strata in the drainage of surface water into undergroundchannels and subsequent recovery of this water through wells drilled into thesource beds for irrigation purposes. Slichter undertook a study of the sameproblem from a mathematical standpoint, and more recently Furnas hasinvestigated the flow of gases through beds of broken solids with particularreference to blast-furnace operation. With specific reference to gasproduction, Muskat and Botset of the Gulf Research Laboratory undertook anexperimental study to establish quantitatively the characteristics of and lawsgoverning the flow of gases through consolidated and unconsolidated porousmaterials of fine texture with a view of predicting the performance of gas inan underground reservoir.
There seems to be a general agreement that many of the relationships betweenthe numerous factors influencing the flow of fluids through porous materialsare far too complicated to be attacked by analytical methods based upon aknowledge of hydrodynamics.
Flow of Drilling Mud
Authors: Herrick H.N. 
Published: June 2014

The flow characteristics of drilling muds, as described in this paper, andthe method given for solving problems relating to the flow of these mudsthrough pipe and accessory equipment, are based on a conception that drillingmuds are plastic solids like paints or greases; not liquids. The data presentedin this report have been obtained from studies of California muds, chieflythose used in the Kettleman Hills field, by the Producing Department of theStandard Oil Company of California.
Although' no claim of scientific exactness is made for the formulas anddiagrams, since the data upon which they are based are not complete even forCalifornia muds, the method has proved to be a convenient means for estimating, closely enough for practical purposes, the pressures required to force muds atvarious rates through pipe systems in which they are handled. Certainapproximations have been made to simplify the procedures so that they can beused easily in the field.

Viscosity and Shearing Strength of Mud
For the purpose of this discussion a plastic solid is defined as a material inwhich no deformation or flow takes place when the material is subjected toshearing forces, until the shearing force reaches a value called the "yieldpoint." 'With liquids, the smallest force will produce continuousdeformation; that is, the yield point of liquids is zero. The differencebetween true liquids and muds is illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows rates offlow through a small tube under different pressures. The flow rate of theliquids is directly proportional to the pressure and that of the muds is not. The behavior of drilling mud does not conform in every detail with thedefinition of a plastic solid as given, because mud actually flows slightly atpressures below its yield point. However, for practical purposes the definitiondescribes the condition adequately and has the advantage of simplicity.
Subsurface Pressures in Oil Wells and Their Field of Application
Authors: Hawthorn D.G. 
Published: June 2014

The widespread interest shown during the past year in the study ofsubsurface pressures warrants brief reference to its early development. Thoughit is impossible to set an exact date when constructive thinking on the subjectfirst began, nevertheless, evidence is available that thought was given to theproblem as far back as 16 or 17 years ago. There is record in one of theforeign journals of actual subsurface tests made by crude methods in one of theRumanian fields in 1918 and 1919. These tests were performed in conjunctionwith studies made on wells produced by bailing and, incidentally, the finaloutcome of the work led to the development of the so-called "duplexbailer" which is reputed to have trebled volumetric bailing efficiency.From this time on to 1927 a few scattered bottom-hole pressure determinationswere made with makeshift instruments of one form or another, but probably notuntil 1927 was any great amount of concerted effort directed to thesubject.
At this fall meeting of the Petroleum Division four years ago was presented oneof the first papers to appear in this country written for the express intent ofadvocating the value and importance of subsurface pressure determinations. Itis thought to have been the first to present direct data on subsurfacepressures obtained through the use of a specially designed recordinginstrument. As might be expected, the instrument had its limitations, butreasonably accurate results were obtained and, to say the least, it constituteda progressive step in the right direction. During the period from 1927 to 1931, many noteworthy improvements were made in the design and perfection ofsubsurface pressure instruments suitable to meet all conditions. Because of themagnitude of this task much credit is due the men who pioneered this work. Theyshould feel a keen sense of satisfaction in the thought that their efforts havepaved the way for the continuation of this most valuable study.
At the present time more than a dozen companies are operating sub- surfacepressure instruments in the Mid-Continent field.
The Mechanics of Porous Flow Applied to Water-flooding Problems
Authors: Wyckoff R.D. , Botset H.G. , Muskat M. 
Published: June 2014

The flow of liquids through porous media is known to follow Darcy's lawwhich states that the velocity of flow is proportional to the pressuregradient. This law is but a statement of the facts obtained from experimentalstudies and is, therefore, un controversial. It should be mentioned, however, that it applies only when the flow is viscous in nature and that at excessivevelocities which tend to produce turbulence, the velocity is proportional tosome power of the pressure gradient, the exponent ranging from 1 to 0.5 as thedegree of turbulence increases. However, experiments with media havingpermeabilities corresponding to those of actual producing horizons showconclusively that the actual flow of liquids in a producing horizon must beviscous except perhaps in the immediate vicinity of a well producing at a highrate. Therefore, one is justified in assuming Darcy's law to hold for cases ofpractical inrest, as will be implicitly assumed in this discussion.
Given this basic law of flow it is possible, theoretically to obtain solutionsto any problem of viscous flow of dead liquids 1 by the usual methods ofpotential theory. However, problems of practical interest often present suchcomplex geometrical configurations of sources and sinks (driving sources andoutput wells) as to make the analytical solutions extremely difficult or evenimpossible. It is useful, therefore, to note that Darcy's law is preciselyequivalent to the law of electrical conduction, so that the pressuredistribution in steady state porous flow of liquids is exactly the same as thepotential distribution in an electrical conducting medium. This analogy permitsthe use of electrical models wherein the potential distributions may bemeasured with far greater facility and accuracy than is possible in actualfluid-sand models. Such electrical models were used in determining the pressuredistribution about complex arrays of wells, an example of which will be shownlater in the discussion of the 5-spot flood.
One phase of the porous flow problems which is of considerable practicalinterest involves the tracing of an advancing fluid front.
Theory and Practice of Directed Drilling
Authors: Allen R.E. 
Published: June 2014

One of the most unusual oil-field engineering accomplishments of the pasttwo years is the development and rapid advance in the directed drilling ofwells. Directed drilling as referred to herein is the controlled steering ofthe drill stem in the required direction to a given location in the oilsand.
The deliberate drifting of holes is an act so far removed from what has beenconsidered good drilling practice that all of the old questions of correlation, drillability and production difficulties are revived. Only a few years ago, during the boom days of Seminole and Santa Fe Springs, the crooked-holeproblem, as it was then called, occupied a primary position among the topics ofthe day in the fields of California and the Mid-Continent. The net result ofall the discussion and study at that time was the conclusion that oil wellsshould be drilled with as little deviation from the vertical as possible andthat crooked holes with elbows and dog legs were to be avoided because of thedrilling and producing difficulties encountered therein, but that manynonvertical holes were slanting or angling rather than crooked and were not aserious problem.
A Theoretical Analysis of Water-flooding Networks
Authors: Muskat M. , Wyckoff R.D. 
Published: June 2014

The general problem of the simultaneous movement of water and oil in aconnected sand is of considerable practical interest from two points of view.First, there is the situation usually described as "edgewaterencroachment." Here the water in the sands contiguous to and flanking theoil sand begins to enter the latter as the oil is removed and the reservoirpressure declines. The physical questions involved concern an understanding ofthe mechanism of the advance of the water and its control, so as to aid the oilrecovery rather than to hinder it. In so far as the entry of the water into theoil sand means at least the partial replacement of the oil from the region ofthe encroachment by the advancing water, it is quite appropriate to considerthis type of situation as one of natural water-flooding.
For the present discussion, however, we are primarily interested in the problemof artificial flooding. Here the water is deliberately injected into the oilsand with the intention of displacing the oil and removing it throughprearranged output wells. For the practical development of such a procedurerather large areas are included in the flooding program and the injection andoutput wells are arranged in regular patterns or networks, which are felt to bemost favorable for a high oil recovery. Although remarkable success has alreadybeen obtained in such flooding programs, especially in the Bradford field ofPennsylvania, essentially by the application of the lessons of practicalengineering experience, a more thorough physical analysis of the problemappeared to offer promise of leading to results of some interest andvalue.
Another phase of the problem, which stimulated both the experimental andmathematical analysis, is that it is susceptible in large measure to empiricalfield tests. It is in itself but an example and illustration of the generaltheory of the flow of dead (gas-free) liquids through porous media, in whichthe authors have been interested for the last several years.
Basic Data for Oil and Gas Wells
Authors: Pepperberg Leon J. , Stephenson Eugene A. 
Published: June 2014

The natural gas industry is essentially a byproduct of the oilindustry.
When first discovered the gas was usually regarded as a nuisance, and even whenfound immediately associated with oil, or suspected to be so, it was customaryto blow it freely into the air, in the hope that gas would shortly be replacedby a flow of oil. The early methods of production, transportation, andutilization were neither economical nor efficient; the chief value of gas wasbased on its use as a fuel, with no regard to (1)its effect upon the oil withwhich it was associated, (2) its importance as a lifting agent, or (3) to itspossibilities for the manufacture of byproducts.
The spread of scientific research among major gas and oil companies, manufacturers, and academic groups, has gradually brought recognition of thefact that many of the technical problems bearing on production, transportationand utilization are common to both the gas and the oil industry. A few of theproblems that have received serious study, and from which highly gratifyingresults have been obtained, are:gas measurement,oil well and gas wellcapacity tests,elimination of field waste,design of pipe lines andcompressor stations,extraction of constituents which might interfere withthe normal flow of gas through the line,control of reservoir pressure,estimation of reserves of both oil and gas,control of water encroachment,measurement of factors which influence fluid movement through sands,solubility of gases in oils,effect of dissolved gases upon the propertiesof the solution.
These investigations have demonstrated that almost everyproblem relating to oil production also involves some phase of natural gasengineering.
During the past 15 years the use of experimental methods for the discovery andmeasurement of obscure, influencing factors, which cannot be determined purelyby hydrodynamic or thermodynamic analyses, have contributed much towards theprogress made in solving the problems of the oil and gas industries.
Comparative Resistance of Certain Commercial Ferrous Materials to Corrosion by Gaseous Hydrogen Sulfide
Authors: Devine John M. , Wilhelm C.J. , Schmidt Ludwig 
Published: June 2014

A corrosion-testing apparatus which operates in the field and which willdetermine the comparative resistance of various ferrous materials to corrosionby gaseous hydrogen sulfide at ordinary temperatures is described. Theprinciple of the uniform method of testing is to allow natural gas containinghydrogen sulfide, direct from its source in the field, to flow over the groupof specimens for a given period of time, and subsequently to estimate thecorrosion sustained by each specimen by determining its loss in weight. Thecomparative results obtained when specimens of 47 representative ferrousmaterials of described typical composition were tested at ordinary temperatureswith natural gas containing hydrogen sulfide are given in tables showingaverage penetration of metal, inches per year.
The primary purpose of the work was to determine the possible utility to thepetroleum and natural gas industries of ferrous materials that are commerciallyavailable, and no attempt is made to discuss the results of the tests from themetallurgical standpoint. The following is a summary of the resultsobtained:Steels containing 12 to 27 per cent of chromium showed the highestresistance to corrosion. The presence of nickel in these high-chromium steelsdid not affect their resistance.Steels containing approximately 5 per cent of chromium showed comparativelyhigh resistance, but somewhat less than that of the highchromium steels.
Efficient Utilization of Reservoir Energy
Authors: Umpleby Joseph B. 
Published: June 2014

The subject of reservoir energy and its efficient utilization has been wellexplored in many papers. The present effort, therefore, is limited to a summaryof existing information combined with an emphasis of the probability that therelative importance of controlling factors will change with advancingknowledge. Consequently the necessity for flexibility in laws and regulations, inherent in the problem, is emphasized.

Definitions
Many terms have been widely used in the literature without having beenspecifically defined. For example, confusion exists in the use of"reservoir energy" and "gas energy." The latter is much morelimited in meaning than the former. Other terms have been variously used.Consequently, I shall preface my remarks with definitions of a few of the morepertinent terms.
Reservoir energy is that force or forces, active or potential, that is nativeto the reservoir and has the power to move oil through the reservoir rock. Theenergy may result from expanding gas, from hydrostatic head, from the weight ofoverburden, or from any other source. Gas energy is the expansive power of gaswhen pressure is reduced. It is one type of reservoir energy.
An oil reservoir is that part of a geologic formation or-formations in whichoil occurs in commercial quantities wholly surrounded by nonproductive rock.The essence of this definition is effective separation rather than remotenessand under it oil reservoirs may be superimposed in the same oil pool.Conservation of reservoir energy means primarily its maximum use in theproduction of oil.
Unit operation is a plan of development and production, which embraces anentire oil reservoir under a unity of engineering control. It is distinct fromunitization, which has to do with arrangements of organization and equities tomake unit operation possible in areas of divided ownership.
An Approximate Theory of Water-coning in Oil Production
Authors: Muskat M. , Wycokoff R.D. 
Published: June 2014

The phenomenon called water-coning is that, observed in many oilwells, in which bottom water gradually and frequently suddenly displaces a partor all of the oil production when a certain rather critical production ratefrom the well is exceeded. To follow in detail the process of the formation of a water cone asit breaks through the oil zone and enters the well bore is a problem so complexas to make a theoretical analysis practically impossible. However, ananalytical treatment of the flow system before the water has broken through and during the time thatit lies statically beneath the oil zone with an elevated or "coned"surface can be carried through under certain approximations. To present ananalysis which shows the essential characteristics of the coning mechanism is the purpose of the presentdiscussion.

Physical Basis of Theory and Meaning of Approximations
As will always be true for flow systems where true water-coning is at allpossible, the water will be supposed to lie beneath the oil zone because of itsdensity contrast with respect to the oil. In fact, under the usual fieldconditions, when the pay horizon is reasonably homogeneous, the water mostfrequently enters the well through the lower zones, but even when it entersfrom intermediate zones it may, in the later life of the well, displace thebottom layers of oil, thus resulting in a system wherein the oil is effectivelyfloating on the water.
Some Constitutional Aspects of the Oil Problem
Authors: Bates Henry M. 
Published: June 2014

On Feb. 22, 1934, the A.I.M.E. Petroleum Division StabilizationCommittee conducted a symposium in New York City on stabilization of the oil industry.Among those taking active part in the discussion were Messrs. Sidney Swensrud, JosephE. Pogue, W. S. Farish, J. B. Umpleby, H. D. Wilde, W.E. Wrather, Northcutt Ely, E. L. DeGolyer, E. A. Stephenson, Earl Oliver, Amos L. Beaty, Nathan R. Margold, Henry M. Bates and Roscoe Pound. Because of the volume of this discussion it waswithheld from publication in the 1934 annual petroleum volume with the expectation thata special volume on Petroleum Stabilization would be issued during the year inwhich the entire discussion could be published. That was not done. The addresses ofDean Bates and Dean Pound, dealing as they do with broad principles ofConstitutional law, are as timely now as they were when delivered one year ago and arereproduced herein for their bearing on current legislative proposals.

Some Constitutional Aspects of the Oil Problem
Henry M. Bates, Dean of Michigan Law School
Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen: I accepted your Chairman's invitation to speak toa group of experts in this field with the greatest hesitation, because I knowlittle or nothing about it. Certainly I can make no detailed suggestions, orsuggest planning along very definite lines. You cannot do that sort of thing in avacuum, and as I have suggested, my knowledge of the whole oil problem is next tonothing… It is possible that as a student of our public law, constitutional lawparticularly, for a number of years, I have acquired a perspective that may enable me tooffer, for what they are worth, some general thoughts on these problems.
I think that nothing in the whole field of law requires more definitelyand clearly the functional approach than does the problem of a sound legal solutionof the difficulties of the oil and gas industry. The industry is dealingwith substances that are peculiar, and one must know how those substances act andwhat has been the history of the industry, to undertake to make anything likespecific suggestions. I certainly am not qualified.
Modifying the Capture Law
Authors: Oliver Earl 
Published: June 2014

DEAN Roscoe Pound, of Harvard Law School, in addressing the A.I.M.E. Petroleum Division on Feb. 22, 1934, said, "When you are able to work out a program that is mechanically feasible, that is economically advisable, and which seems in your judgment, which is just as good as that of anyone, to be politically wise, you will not have very much trouble in the end in inducing the courts of today to find that it is legally sound."
The purpose of this paper is to show: first, legal conditions necessary to promote conservation and stabilization; and second, to suggest operating procedure when those legal conditions are established. The proposal is mechanically feasible and economically advisable. A growing public understanding should make it politically wise.
The disappointing progress in the development of conservation and stabilization can be attributed to the lack of two legal concepts as integral parts of oil and gas law; i.e.,a practical substitute for the capture rule,collective ownership control for the individual oil and gas pool.
When these two concepts are established on an equitable basis, conservation and stabilization procedure will become a comparatively simple process, more or less automatic in its adaptation and operation. Establishing these concepts is the function of the law-making agencies and might well be left to them for discussion except that the mechanical processes that give them form and substance must first be developed by the engineer.
Acre-foot Yields of Texas Gulf Coast Oil Fields
Authors: Deussen Alexander 
Published: June 2014

The figures listed in a table for Gulf Coast fields given by L. P. Teas in1934 are so greatly at variance with results that I have obtained from aserious study of this subject over a number of years, that I am disposed tochallenge the correctness of Mr. Teas figures as an accurate representation ofacre-foot yields of Gulf Coast fields, and as regards at least two of thefields listed by Mr. Teas I desire to "put into the record" somefigures that, according to my study, are more nearly in accord with what Iconceive to be the actual facts.
Upon investigation I find that Mr. Teas figures, inadvertently no doubt, arenot what they purport to be. Apparently the figures were arrived at byconsidering as thickness of the producing formation the net thickness ofproducing rock corresponding" to the total of the net portions of theproducing zones which actually yield oil into the drill hole"-and infollowing this method I am under the impression that Mr. Teas was acting underinstructions of the Institute in the preparation of this paper, in order to getcomparable figures from the several fields of the United States. Apparently theauthor interpreted these instructions to mean that in the absence of coredthicknesses of producing horizons the actual number of feet of screen set inthe various producing zones was to be taken as the basis for arriving at thethickness of these zones and the" acre-foot" yields.
It is obvious that in many instances only 20 ft. of screen, or even 10 ft. ofscreen, might be set in a well, when there might be actually 100 ft. of oilsand present. In the early operations in the Gulf Coast it was usual to setmuch less screen than the amount of sand. It follows that the" acre-footyields" so arrived at would be much greater than those found by using thefull amount of sand.
In Mr. Teas table, it was indicated that up to the end of 1933"acre-foot" yields had been obtained in the several fields as listed inTable 1.