bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the framework of international economic law concerned with environmental protection and sustainable development. In the modern world, environmental protection has become of paramount importance as the regulatory framework for environmental protection reflects sensitivity to environmental concerns and the degree of risk aversion prevailing in a country. Additionally, according to the precautionary principles, States are not always mandated to ascertain a scientifically proven risk before taking measures of protection and prevention. The chapter notes the treaties on pollution control, liability for environmental contaminations, atmosphere and climate protection, biodiversity, and biosafety. It also examines the dynamic development of biotechnology and its utilization in line with international law.
History and Development of World Trade Law
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the history and development of World Trade Law. It starts with the Uruguay Round that brought comprehensive reform of the world trading system, which involves a new institutional framework based on the World Trade Organization (WTO), dispute settlement mechanism, and new agreements extending the scope of world trade law. As of present times, the number of WTO members has increased from 125 in 1994 to 164 members. Thus, the WTO fronts a considerable degree of economic and political diversity regardless of whether the great industrial market economies led by the United States continue to hold preponderant influence. The chapter also considers the perspectives on the aftermath of the Uruguay Round and the future challenges it poses for the WTO system.
The World Trade Organization
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter tackles the key concepts of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It explains that the WTO is the centre of the new world trade system, which then acts as the institutional basis for the relations among its members. The members of WTO include States and other separate customs territories possessing full autonomy in trade relations covered by the WTO law. Moreover, the supreme organ of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference with representatives of all the members, which shall meet at least once every two years. The chapter also mentions a salient institutional feature of the WTO system: the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), established under the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU).
The Multilateral and the Plurilateral Agreements on Trade
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter explains how the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement distinguishes between multilateral and plurilateral agreements on trade. Multilateral agreements are binding on all WTO and members and must be ratified. In contrast, plurilateral agreements are primarily optional in character and only obligate the members that ratify them. The interplay of the various trade agreements adds to the complex texture of WTO law, but the varying definitions of certain terms and exceptions often result in difficulty in understanding trade agreements. The chapter then tackles the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1994, amendments and new agreements in line with the WTO Agreements.
The GATT
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the significance of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1994. GATT aims for international trade liberalization by progressively eliminating or restricting barriers to trade and other protectionist interferences with competition on the world market as well as the national markets. The fundamental principles of GATT revolve around non-discrimination, liberalization, and reciprocity, while one of the elementary instruments of the GATT regime is the most-favoured-nation treatment. The chapter then provides an overview of the conditions and exceptions within GATT. It further elaborates on several GATT provisions in correlation with its principles, such as the reduction of tariffs and non-tariff barriers to trade.
International Competition Law
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter details the international competition law. It explains competition law is a framework of rules to promote and maintain undistorted competition. In accordance with the application of national competition laws, the effects doctrine sets up the jurisdiction of any State over behaviour that has anticompetitive effects in its territory. The chapter notes that the United States and the European Union entered numerous bilateral agreements and memoranda of understanding on cooperation with other States. It covers the convergence and divergence between EU competition law and US antitrust law, which are recognized as the most developed and influential systems of competition law.
Customary International Law
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines customary international law. It starts with the interplay between customary standards and foreign standards. Under customary international law, States are free to decide whether or not or not they admit foreign investments within their territory. The international minimum standard, which ensures the treatment of foreign persons, overlaps with the standards of fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security contained in modern investment treaties. The chapter then discusses the key concepts of expropriation and compensation before considering the extraterritorial effects of expropriations, which references the minor role customary law plays in the conditions for lawful expropriation.
Concessions and Investment
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the notion of concessions and investment in line with agreements between States and foreign companies. Regulations of the host State in favour of foreign investors are always subject to potential alterations in case of political change. The chapter then explains the importance and controversy of stabilization and internationalization clauses under customary international law. Additionally, agreements between a State and a foreign investor are subject to the rules on a fundamental and unforeseeable change of circumstances, which may affect the validity of contractual commitments. The chapter explains that concession agreements refer to the extraction of raw materials, the provision of water and energy, or the operation of infrastructures.
Treaties on Investment Protection
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter looks into the treaties focused on investment protection. It examines the bilateral and multilateral agreements on the protection of investments, such as the Traditional Treaties of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (FCN treaties). Modern investment treaties provide for the settlement of disputes between a party and a private investor through arbitration. The chapter enumerates the modern standards of investment protection, which include the admissions and establishment of investments, national treatment, and ‘most-favoured-nation’ (MFN) treatment. It cites that, in recent years, strong criticism emerged in developing and industrialized countries that translates as a call for enhanced regulatory freedom of States.
The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter introduces the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The ICSID provides a reliable and effective mechanism for the investment dispute settlement between a contracting State to the Convention and a national of another contracting State through conciliation and arbitration. By consenting to arbitrate under the ICSID Convention, the parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the ICSID, which primarily extends to any legal dispute from an investment dispute. Moreover, the ICSID Convention defers to the application of the rules of law chosen by the parties. In investment disputes in which only one of the States is involved, the dispute is settled under the Additional Facility of the ICSID.
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the extent of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) Convention of 1985. MIGA was established to encourage foreign investment in developing member countries by providing insurance for foreign investments against non-commercial risks. Moreover, MIGA aims to encourage the flow of investments for productive purposes among member countries, and developing member countries. The chapter provides an overview of the MIGA Convention’s Article 11, which offers insurance against the risk of breach of contract by the host government, and Article 13, which highlights the provision for eligible investors. However, investments shall only be guaranteed if they are to be realized in a developing country as per Article 14 of the MIGA Convention.
The World Bank and Other International Financial Institutions
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter covers the interplay between the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), commonly called the World Bank, and other international financial institutions. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) formed the institutional backbone of the international monetary system and the international finance architecture designed at Bretton Woods. The IBRD was established to promote economic reconstruction after the Second World War, and to help less developed or war-afflicted countries while promoting international trade. The chapter explains how the World Bank operates on capital markets as a kind of investment bank. It also considers the work of regional development banks and other financial institutions.
Speech Related to National Security: Espionage and Official Secrets Laws
Authors: Clooney Amal , Gardoll Alice 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Espionage and official secrets laws which regulate the disclosure of ‘secret’ material on the basis of national security exist across the globe. But legal responses to the disclosure of ‘secret’ material vary widely, and leading democracies that are generally considered protective of speech are among the governments with particularly harsh practices. This chapter analyses emblematic domestic cases and international standards governing espionage and official secrets laws. It explores the way that these laws can punish and deter state officials, citizens and journalists from reporting on legitimate stories of public interest at odds with the government’s perspective. This chapter also analyses international law obligations pertaining to officials secrets laws, including that the ‘public interest’ in speech must be a relevant factor in the determination of whether it is necessary to penalize its publication. It makes recommendations as to how such laws should be drafted, interpreted and applied to comply with international law and best practices.
Compensating Image Distortions in a Commercial Reflectron-Type Atom Probe
Authors: Heller Martina , Ott Benedict , Felfer Peter 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
In atom probe tomography, the spatial resolution and accuracy of the data critically depend on the 3D reconstruction of the 2D detector data. Atom probes with a reflectron have an improved mass resolving power and must include a model of the imaging properties of the reflectron. However, for modern wide-angle reflectron instruments, these imaging properties are not trivial and need to be determined for the reflectron used. This is typically done by the instrument manufacturer, and due to the proprietary nature of the instrument design, the imaging properties are opaque to the user. In this paper, we provide a method to determine the imaging properties of a reflectron that can easily be carried out on commercial instrumentation. This method is used to provide the user with a transformation function from the provided detector data, which can already contain some corrections applied, to a virtual detector placed before the reflectron. From there on, 3D reconstructions can be carried out analogous to straight flight path instruments. Correction algorithms and reference data for Imago/CAMECA LEAP 3000, 4000, 5000, and 6000 series instruments are also provided.
Foreword: U.S. Marine Gender Integration in Recruit Training
Authors: Friedl Karl E 
Published: June 2024

ABSTRACT
The 2020 National Defense Authorization Act mandated that the Marine Corps not segregate recruit training by gender. This Military Medicine supplement details an independent academic study contracted by the Marine Corps Training and Education Command to inform the Marine Corps’ future approaches to gender integration at recruit training. The authors conclude that with proper science-based training and an intentional approach to gender integration, the Marine Corps can bolster gender integration without losing its traditions, high standards, or warrior ethos in recruit training. A feasible path lies ahead to enhance the Corps’ legacy of success. This special issue supports the Marine Corps Training and Education Command 2030 posture statement for leveraging science and technology for policy and doctrine to prepare and modernize the Marine Corps for the future operating environment.
Comparative efficacies of the three echinocandins for Candida auris candidemia: real world evidence from a tertiary centre in India
Authors: Prayag Parikshit S , Patwardhan Sampada A , Joshi Rasika S , Dhupad Surabhi , Rane Tejashree , Prayag Amrita P 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Though echinocandins are the first line of therapy for C. auris candidemia, there is little clinical data to guide the choice of therapy within this class. This was the first study to compare the three echinocandins in terms of efficacy and outcomes for C. auris candidemia. This was a retrospective analysis of 82 episodes of candidemia caused by C. auris comparing outcomes across the three echinocandins. Majority patients in our study were treated with micafungin. Susceptibility rates were the lowest for caspofungin (35.36% resistance), with no resistance reported for the other two echinocandins. When a susceptible echinocandin was chosen, caspofungin resistance was not a factor significantly associated with mortality. Also, when a susceptible echinocandin was used for therapy, the choice within the class did not affect clinical cure, microbiological cure, or mortality (P &gt; 0.05 for all). Failure to achieve microbiological cure (P = 0.018) and receipt of immune-modulatory therapy (P = 0.01) were significantly associated with increased mortality. Significant cost variation was noted among the echinocandins. Considering the significant cost variation, comparable efficacies can be reassuring for the prescribing physician.
Deep JWST/NIRCam imaging of Supernova 1987A
Authors: Matsuura Mikako , Boyer M , Arendt Richard G , Larsson J , Fransson C , Rest A , Ravi A P , Park S , Cigan P , Temim T , Dwek E , Barlow M J , Bouchet P , Clayton G , Chevalier R , Danziger J , De Buizer J , De Looze I , De Marchi G , Fox O , Gall C , Gehrz R D , Gomez H L , Indebetouw R , Kangas T , Kirchschlager F , Kirshner R , Lundqvist P , Marcaide J M , Martí-Vidal I , Meixner M , Milisavljevic D , Orlando S , Otsuka M , Priestley F , Richards A M S , Schmidt F , Staveley-Smith L , Smith Nathan , Spyromilio J , Vink J , Wang Lifan , Watson D , Wesson R , Wheeler J C , Woodward C E , Zanardo G , Alp D , Burrows D 
Published: June 2024

ABSTRACT
JWST/NIRCam obtained high angular resolution (0.05–0.1 arcsec), deep near-infrared 1–5 $\mu$m imaging of Supernova (SN) 1987A taken 35 yr after the explosion. In the NIRCam images, we identify: (1) faint H2 crescents, which are emissions located between the ejecta and the equatorial ring, (2) a bar, which is a substructure of the ejecta, and (3) the bright 3–5 $\mu$m continuum emission exterior to the equatorial ring. The emission of the remnant in the NIRCam 1–2.3 $\mu$m images is mostly due to line emission, which is mostly emitted in the ejecta and in the hotspots within the equatorial ring. In contrast, the NIRCam 3–5 $\mu$m images are dominated by continuum emission. In the ejecta, the continuum is due to dust, obscuring the centre of the ejecta. In contrast, in the ring and exterior to the ring, synchrotron emission contributes a substantial fraction to the continuum. Dust emission contributes to the continuum at outer spots and diffuse emission exterior to the ring, but little within the ring. This shows that dust cooling and destruction time-scales are shorter than the synchrotron cooling time-scale, and the time-scale of hydrogen recombination in the ring is even longer than the synchrotron cooling time-scale. With the advent of high sensitivity and high angular resolution images provided by JWST/NIRCam, our observations of SN 1987A demonstrate that NIRCam opens up a window to study particle-acceleration and shock physics in unprecedented details, probed by near-infrared synchrotron emission, building a precise picture of how an SN evolves.
Repeating nuclear transients as candidate electromagnetic counterparts of LISA extreme mass ratio inspirals
Authors: Kejriwal Shubham , Witzany Vojtěch , Zajaček Michal , Pasham Dheeraj R , Chua Alvin J K 
Published: June 2024

ABSTRACT
Extreme mass ratio inspirals (EMRIs) are one of the primary targets for the recently adopted millihertz gravitational-wave observatory LISA. Some previous studies have argued that a fraction of all EMRIs form in matter-rich environments, and can potentially explain the dozens of soft X-ray band ($\sim 10^{-1}\,\rm keV$), low-frequency ($\sim 0.1$ mHz) periodic phenomena known as quasi-periodic eruptions (QPEs) and quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs). Here, using a representative EMRI population retrofitted with cutoffs on LISA-band SNRs and luminosity distances to account for the sensitivity of current instruments, we estimate the mean frequency band in which QPEs and QPOs originating from detectable LISA EMRIs may be emitting an X-ray signal ‘today’ (i.e. in 2024) to be $0.46 \pm 0.22$ mHz. We also model the well-known QPO source, RE J1034+396, which falls in this frequency band, as an EMRI assuming its primary black hole mass to be $10^6{-}10^7 \,{\rm M}_\odot$. Through a prior-predictive analysis, we estimate the orbiting compact object’s mass to be $46^{+ 10}_{-40} \,{\rm M}_\odot$ and the source’s LISA-band SNR as $\approx 14$, highlighting it as a candidate multimessenger EMRI target. We also highlight the role of current and near-future X-ray and UV observatories in enabling multimessenger observations of EMRIs in conjunction with LISA, and conclude with a discussion of caveats of the current analysis, such as the exclusion of eccentricity and inclination from the model, and the measurability of subsolar mass compact object EMRIs.
Comparing Phylogeographies to Reveal Incompatible Geographical Histories within Genomes
Authors: Singer Benjamin , Di Nardo Antonello , Hein Jotun , Ferretti Luca 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Modern phylogeography aims at reconstructing the geographic movement of organisms based on their genomic sequences and spatial information. Phylogeographic approaches are often applied to pathogen sequences and therefore tend to neglect the possibility of recombination, which decouples the evolutionary and geographic histories of different parts of the genome. Genomic regions of recombining or reassorting pathogens often originate and evolve at different times and locations, which characterize their unique spatial histories. Measuring the extent of these differences requires new methods to compare geographic information on phylogenetic trees reconstructed from different parts of the genome. Here we develop for the first time a set of measures of phylogeographic incompatibility, aimed at detecting differences between geographical histories in terms of distances between phylogeographies. We study the effect of varying demography and recombination on phylogeographic incompatibilities using coalescent simulations. We further apply these measures to the evolutionary history of human and livestock pathogens, either reassorting or recombining, such as the Victoria and Yamagata lineages of influenza B and the O/Ind-2001 foot-and-mouth disease virus strain. Our results reveal diverse geographical paths of migration that characterize the origins and evolutionary histories of different viral genes and genomic segments. These incompatibility measures can be applied to any phylogeography, and more generally to any phylogeny where each tip has been assigned either a continuous or discrete “trait” independent of the sequence. We illustrate this flexibility with an analysis of the interplay between the phylogeography and phylolinguistics of Uralic-speaking human populations, hinting at patrilinear language transmission.
DNA binding and bridging by human CtIP in the healthy and diseased states
Authors: Lokanathan Balaji Shreya , De Bragança Sara , Balaguer-Pérez Francisco , Northall Sarah , Wilkinson Oliver John , Aicart-Ramos Clara , Seetaloo Neeleema , Sobott Frank , Moreno-Herrero Fernando , Dillingham Mark Simon 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The human DNA repair factor CtIP helps to initiate the resection of double-stranded DNA breaks for repair by homologous recombination, in part through its ability to bind and bridge DNA molecules. However, CtIP is a natively disordered protein that bears no apparent similarity to other DNA-binding proteins and so the structural basis for these activities remains unclear. In this work, we have used bulk DNA binding, single molecule tracking, and DNA bridging assays to study wild-type and variant CtIP proteins to better define the DNA binding domains and the effects of mutations associated with inherited human disease. Our work identifies a monomeric DNA-binding domain in the C-terminal region of CtIP. CtIP binds non-specifically to DNA and can diffuse over thousands of nucleotides. CtIP-mediated bridging of distant DNA segments is observed in single-molecule magnetic tweezers experiments. However, we show that binding alone is insufficient for DNA bridging, which also requires tetramerization via the N-terminal domain. Variant CtIP proteins associated with Seckel and Jawad syndromes display impaired DNA binding and bridging activities. The significance of these findings in the context of facilitating DNA break repair is discussed.
Complete remission following pembrolizumab in a man with mCRPC with both microsatellite instability and BRCA2 mutation
Authors: Moore Casey , Naraine Isabel , Zhang Tian 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Prostate cancer is one of the most prevalent malignancies in men. In the United States, 1 in 8 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer in their lifetime. Specifically, studies have delved into male subgroups that present a heightened risk for prostate cancer. Despite such high prevalence, prostate cancer can be heterogeneous and carry complexities that manifest differently between individuals. Metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC) often has an abbreviated, aggressive disease course, and can have varying presentations with different molecular profiles that determine response/resistance to the approved treatments targeting the androgen-receptor pathway (eg, enzalutamide, apalutamide, darolutamide, and abiraterone acetate). We present a case of mHSPC quickly progressing to mCRPC, found to have microsatellite instability in mCRPC and excellent response to pembrolizumab, which raises the critical issues of early molecular testing and treatments personalized for the individual patient.