bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Making Change Happen: How Do We Put It All Together?
Authors: Green Duncan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter offers a methodology for activists seeking to use this book to sharpen their change strategies and tactics. It gives suggestions for how to unpack complex problems; identify points of entry for activism; then use power analysis and stakeholder mapping to better understand the individuals and institutions you are seeking to influence. It cautions against being overly linear, arguing that, in order to flourish in complex systems, activists should cultivate curiosity, humility, self-awareness, and openness to a diversity of viewpoints. It explores the obstacles such an approach faces, in terms of conventional ways of working, thinking, and funding activism. It encourages us to nurture a genuine curiosity about the complex interwoven elements that characterize the systems we are trying to influence, without abandoning our desire to take action.
Introduction
Authors: Wentker Alexander 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Contemporary armed conflicts are increasingly characterised by cooperation. Identifying who among the cooperation partners becomes a party to the conflict is therefore a frequent and challenging question. That question has received little attention, even though the parties to the conflict are a key notion to the regulation of armed conflict. Asking how we can tell and why it matters who is a party to an armed conflict is warranted in light of wider developments relating to the structure of the international legal order and the ways in which contemporary armed conflicts are fought. This chapter introduces the theme of the book, its relevance, and its argument. It also sets out the structure of the book and delineates its scope.
Introduction
Authors: Loewer Barry 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The idea that the universe is governed by laws of nature has precursors from ancient times and in non-European cultures, but the view that one of the main aims of the sciences is to discover fundamental universal mathematical laws only became established during the sixteenth and seventeenth century in Europe, when it replaced the then prevalent Aristotelian conception of science. This chapter introduces the goals of the book and gives a brief history of the development of the concept of laws in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, emphasizing that laws were conceived of a system of mathematical principles that describe how God governs the motions of matter.
Non-Humean Accounts of the Metaphysics of Laws
Authors: Loewer Barry 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Non-Humean accounts involve some kind of fundamental natural necessity. This chapter discusses a variety of non-Humean accounts of laws including governing accounts due to David Armstrong, Tim Maudlin, Eddy Chen, and Shelly Goldstein and powers accounts associated with Alexander Bird, Brian Ellis, and Sidney Shoemaker. Governing accounts replace God with laws to governing the motions of bodies. The main problem with governing accounts is explaining what they are and how laws govern. Some versions also seem to require a problematic primitive direction of time. Powers accounts maintain the Aristotelian view that various kinds of entities have characteristic dispositions. The main problems with powers accounts are explaining how powers produce regularities and how they can account for fundamental laws of contemporary physics. They also seem to require a primitive direction of time.
Problems with Perfectly Natural Properties
Authors: Loewer Barry 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Lewis’s metaphysics makes essential use of perfectly natural properties in his accounts of laws, modality, similarity, and reference. The Humean mosaic is the distribution of instantiations of perfectly natural properties throughout all of space-time. The laws of a world are determined by the best systematization of its Humean mosaic. Lewis claims that the perfectly natural properties instantiated in the actual world are categorical, instantiated at points, intrinsic, and that the only perfectly natural relations are space-time relations. This chapter argues that physics posits fundamental properties that don’t satisfy these conditions and that metaphysics should not dictate to physics the nature of fundamental properties and relations. Because of this there may be a mismatch between the Lewisian best systematization of the Humean mosaic and the best systematization and laws according to physics. Conflicts between Lewis account and quantum mechanics, the standard model of elementary particles etc. are discussed.
Translating Europe in Ælfric's Lives of Saints
Authors: Ostacchini Luisa 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This book argues that Ælfric of Eynsham (955–1010) deliberately adapted information from European Latin sources in order to emphasize ideals of community, cooperation, and collective identity to English audiences in his Lives of Saints, the most stylistically and narratively accomplished collection of hagiography composed in early medieval England. Moreover, it examines, for the first time, the Lives as a unified collection whose individual items comprise one thematic and didactic whole. Although the Lives of Saints is composed in Old English and was intended to educate English audiences, its sanctorale consists primarily of Frankish, Italian, and Spanish saints rather than English ones, thus providing unique insight into the ways in which Europe was represented in late tenth-century English literature. Through close comparison between the items within the Lives and their Latin sources, this book demonstrates that Ælfric’s interest in community was both inward- and outward-looking: he sought, on the one hand, to situate England within the wider Christian world and on the other to promote the internal unity of the English kingdom and the reformed monastic establishment. As such, the book sheds new light on the ways in which Ælfric wrote about the Christian world and England’s place within it, and further illuminates the didactic praxis and ideology of one of the most influential and significant authors of the early medieval period.
Translating Europe
Authors: Ostacchini Luisa 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the literary translation of descriptions of European geographies and establishes that Ælfric conceived of a unified ‘European’ Christian community, roughly occupying the old territories of the western Roman Empire and centred around Rome, which was distinct from the rest of the world. While Ælfric presents locations such as Rome, Milan, and Sicily as enjoying unique topographical or historical features and as such being distinct from one another, he nonetheless largely homogenizes the depictions of European locations found in his sources and in doing so suggests that disparate places might nonetheless share in a single sense of community with one another.
Translating People
Authors: Ostacchini Luisa 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter continues the idea of physical translation from Chapter 2 and turns to Ælfric’s missionary saints, who move between European places. In these missionary lives, Ælfric draws on the real-world importance of European mission and missionaries to early medieval English religious self-conception and ecclesiastical history. It is in these lives that Ælfric is most able to present Europe as enjoying a single intellectual community. This community is facilitated by knowledge exchange between various locales and between the monastic and lay spheres: in Ælfric’s Lives monks and laymen work collaboratively and travelling to a foreign land to teach or to be taught becomes a saintly quality. In presenting missionary activity, Ælfric also presents intellectual community as a panacea for the ecclesiastical and political turmoil faced by his contemporary English audiences. In doing so, he consistently highlights the importance of cooperation between geographically disparate communities and between the lay and monastic spheres, and thereby promotes ideological unity between geographically and culturally disparate Christian communities as an imperative for both secular and ecclesiastical success.
Literature, Gaps, and Ahistoricity
Authors: Khair Tabish 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter sets out to illustrate how a historical reading, so useful in the case of the text treated in the previous chapter, does not exhaust the possibilities of meaning and significance in literature. It does so by providing a thoroughly ‘ahistorical’ reading of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, a reading that neither Shakespeare nor any of his contemporaries would have given to the play. Hamlet is read against the backdrop of ‘collateral damage’ in recent global affairs. However, the chapter argues that such a reading is not a free play of words: from our space of observation, the text actually encourages such an ‘ahistorical’ reading, as against many other possible readings. This aspect is also presented as a dimension of what is called the ‘agnostic’ reading demanded by literature.
Fundamentalism, Literature, and God
Authors: Khair Tabish 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter returns to focus on a matter that has been addressed frequently in earlier chapters, but not discussed at length: the argument that literature is an antidote to all kinds of fundamentalism. Here, first, fundamentalism is defined as a textual matter: an insistence on singular or fixed readings of texts. The definition of fundamentalism as a textual matter—dependent on modes of reading—differs from extant definitions of fundamentalism related to rituals or thinking, and adds a new perspective to the matter. Then, the ongoing discussion of literature as denoting and demanding a distinctive relationship to language (and ‘reality’) is applied to this perception to show how the reading—agnostic—demanded by literature is the antidote to fundamentalism. This argument is illustrated with extensive references to ‘The Book of Job’, which is read as literature.
The Jonson Folios
Authors: Orgel Stephen 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
When Ben Jonson, in his mid-forties, produced his Workes in folio he was declaring himself a classic author while he was still alive. He placed his plays first in the volume and edited them on the model of sixteenth-century editions of classical drama. Even more audaciously, he included his masques and entertainments, duly revised to make the events sound grander than in fact they were, and to remove elements that were no longer to Jonson’s credit. Jonson took control of his theater pieces, removing the agency of the performers, so that the plays and masques were addressed by the author directly to the reader.
Classical Models
Authors: Orgel Stephen 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
From the late seventeenth century, Seneca has had a bad press in England. Rhetorical and declamatory, the plays were repeatedly declared unsuited to the stage. For the English Renaissance, however, Seneca was a model for drama. The plays were taught in school, and translations of all ten plays attributed to Seneca appeared between 1560 and 1581. Not only early Shakespeare, but plays like King Lear and Othello reflect Seneca’s influence. This is largely invisible to us because our way of performing Shakespeare renders soliloquies meditative rather than declamatory, and strives for naturalism rather than stylization.
The Counterprotests
Authors: Das Acevedo Deepa 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter begins the day after the Supreme Court issued its opinion regarding Sabarimala’s admissions policy. The chapter documents the extreme excitement—both positive and negative—that greeted the IYLA decision, and it explores three developments that unfolded in the aftermath of the opinion’s release. First, female activists and journalists who had been newly enabled by the Court’s opinion attempted to visit Sabarimala, but their efforts were almost entirely thwarted. Second, civic life in Kerala and electoral politics at both the state and all-India levels were impacted by IYLA. Finally, this chapter considers developments within and affecting the Indian Supreme Court over the last decade and explains how these developments have impacted both the Court’s internal functioning and its external reputation.
The Case
Authors: Das Acevedo Deepa 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter conducts an in-depth tour of the decision in Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala. The chapter explores each of the four opinions and compares their different approaches to key issues of constitutional interpretation. It also highlights some of the particularly remarkable features of each opinion, including Chief Justice Misra’s description of Ayyappan devotees as ‘just Hindus’, Justice Nariman’s exploration of key religious texts’ attitudes towards menstruation and impurity, Justice Chandrachud’s discussion of untouchability, and Justice Malhotra’s analysis of denominational diversity. The chapter also conducts a deeper exploration of key jurisprudential concepts introduced in the first chapter of this book and pays close attention to the Court’s engagement with relevant statutory law regarding temple governance.
Conditioning and Associative Learning
Authors: Mason Alice , Ludvig Elliot A. , Madan Christopher R. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Associative learning is the process whereby humans and other animals learn the predictive relationship between cues in their environment. This process underlies simple forms of learning from rewards, such as classical and operant conditioning. This chapter introduces the basics of associative learning and discusses the role that memory processes play in the establishment and maintenance of this learning. It then discusses the role that associative learning plays in human memory, including through paired associate learning, the enhancement of memory by reward, and the formation of episodic memories. Next, the chapter illustrates how the memory process influences choice in decision-making, where associative learning allows people to learn the values of different options. The chapter concludes with some suggestions about how models of associative learning, memory, and choice can be integrated into a single theoretical framework.
Working Memory as Persistent Neural Activity
Authors: Foster Joshua J. , Vogel Edward K. , Awh Edward 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Working memory (WM) is an online memory system that allows people to hold information “in mind” in service of ongoing cognitive processing. Short-term retention of information typically involves an interplay between WM and long-term memory (LTM), especially when task demands or interruptions divert focus from remembered items. This chapter suggests that active neural representation may distinguish between “online” representations in WM and “offline” representations in LTM. This perspective is at odds with “activity-silent” models of WM, which hold that WM representations can be sustained without persistent neural activity. The chapter suggests that activity-silent representations might be more productively conceptualized as offline representations in LTM because accessing these representations shows multiple signatures of retrieval from LTM. Moreover, active neural traces track WM load, predict individual differences in performance, and respect sharp item limits in WM storage. Thus, it is argued in this chapter that using neural activity as an operational definition of WM may provide strong traction for studying the dynamic collaboration between WM and LTM that is critical for intelligent behavior.
Attribute Theories of Memory
Authors: Polyn Sean M. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Attribute theories propose that a cognitive system constructs representations with constituent elements that reflect the attributes, features, properties, or characteristics of the world and the things in it. These theories are flexible; attributes may be used to describe tangible physical things in one’s environment but also intangible things such as plans and concepts. In the domain of memory, attribute theories describe how representations of one’s experience are stored, retrieved, and manipulated by the cognitive system. The mathematical language of linear algebra is central to these theories. Vector operations are used to define various measures of representational distance and similarity. Matrices are used to define associative structures such as synaptic weights in neural network models and sets of memories in instance theory models. This chapter examines some foundational attribute-based approaches to memory theory, including early attempts to define psychological similarity, and the influential stimulus-sampling theory. It reviews important empirical phenomena involving memory attributes, including proactive interference, encoding specificity, and source memory. Finally, the chapter considers how attribute-based approaches have influenced modern cognitive neuroscientific investigations and theory.
Events and Boundaries
Authors: DuBrow Sarah 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Human experience unfolds continuously, yet memories tend to be organized into discrete episodes. Event segmentation theory provides a framework for understanding this discretization by suggesting that ongoing experience is characterized by extended periods of high predictability (events) punctuated by transitions between stable states (event boundaries). This chapter begins with a brief introduction to theories of event segmentation in perception and language. Then, the majority of the chapter reviews interactions between event processing and episodic memory, drawing from theoretical, behavioral, and neuroscience literatures. The first section of this review focuses on boundary-related memory processes, including transient memory enhancements, boundary-triggered reinstatement or replay, and the discretization of neighboring events in memory. The second section focuses on processing that unfolds within events, including working memory maintenance, retrieval of schematic information, and ongoing prediction. Together, these data highlight a fundamental relationship between online event segmentation and episodic memory. Finally, some key challenges and open questions for future research are discussed.
Oscillatory Brain Mechanisms for Memory Formation
Authors: Hanslmayr Simon , Staresina Bernhard P. , Jensen Ole 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Brain oscillations refer to rhythmic activity of neural populations, which can be observed in the human brain. The temporal structure of these oscillations can influence neural firing and, in turn, affect information processing and synaptic plasticity. In this manner, oscillatory activity could shape the neural mechanisms of memory formation. This chapter reviews how oscillations relate to human memory processes. It discusses the potential functions of oscillatory activity in different brain regions, such as the neocortex and the hippocampus. Furthermore, it discusses the potential role of neural oscillations during the different stages of memory formation, from encoding processes during wakefulness to offline processes during sleep. Studies that observe oscillations during memory experiments are discussed alongside studies that manipulate oscillations attempting to behaviorally impact on memory. The reviewed literature suggests that oscillations may hold important answers as to how the human brain manages to encode, maintain, and consolidate memories.
Serial Recall
Authors: Hurlstone Mark J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Serial memory refers to the ability to recall a novel sequence of items or events in the correct order. In the laboratory, the dominant tool used to assess this mental faculty is the immediate serial recall task, in which participants are given a sequence of typically verbal, visual, or spatial items that they must subsequently recall in their original presentation order. Serial recall is a deceptively simple task—the apparent ease with which people accomplish it masks the wealth and complexity of findings this task has generated and the computational theories that have been developed to account for them. This chapter reviews benchmark findings of serial recall that have been observed across the verbal, visual, and spatial short-term memory domains, and these are interpreted with reference to the core mechanisms embodied in contemporary computational theories of serial recall. This analysis identifies four mechanisms that are common to the three content domains—namely position marking, a primacy gradient, competitive queuing, and response suppression. In addition, evidence suggests that in verbal serial recall, both the encoding and retrieval of items are sensitive to item similarity—similarity-sensitive encoding and retrieval—and that item retrieval is accompanied by output interference. By contrast, in visual and spatial serial recall, there is evidence for similarity-sensitive retrieval, but the relevant empirical observations that evince similarity-sensitive encoding and output interference are yet to be studied in the visual and spatial domains. The chapter concludes by outlining some challenges for future research.
Discrimination, Recognition, and Classification
Authors: Mack Michael L. , Palmeri Thomas J. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Retrieval processes provide ways of using memory. This chapter describes three important ways of using memory, with a focus on using memory to make decisions about visual objects. Discrimination is deciding if an object is distinct from another object experienced at the same time or moments ago, recognition is deciding if an object is the same as an object experienced some time in the past, and classification is deciding what kind of object something is. All three require comparing the representation of a currently perceived object with representations retrieved from memory to drive a decision process. The chapter discusses the component mechanisms for discrimination, recognition, and classification as formally instantiated in computational models and also discusses relationships between model mechanisms and brain mechanisms as revealed by neuropsychology and brain imaging.
Recognition Memory
Authors: Yonelinas Andrew P. , Ramey Michelle M. , Riddell Cameron 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Recognition memory is perhaps the simplest and most widely studied measure of episodic memory. Behavioral and neural studies have examined a variety of different types of recognition tasks and shown that recognition judgments can be based on two functionally and neurally separable processes (i.e., the recollection of qualitative or relational information about the study event and assessments of item familiarity). This chapter considers the different types of recognition memory tests that are commonly used, and it demonstrates why it is important to collect multiple-point measures of performance, such as recognition confidence judgments, in assessing recognition memory. The chapter then briefly reviews evidence that recognition reflects the contributions of recollection and familiarity, and it highlights relevant results from studies examining recognition confidence receiver operating characteristics. Next, it considers the progress that has been made in behavioral studies characterizing the functional nature of those processes, as well as in lesion and neuroimaging studies examining the role of the different medial temporal lobe regions that support recognition judgments. The results of these studies have been important in assessing a number of competing theoretical claims about the processes underlying recognition, in characterizing memory changes in various conditions such as aging and amnesia, and in developing neurocomputational models of recognition and the medial temporal lobes. Moreover, these findings have been useful in revealing how different recognition processes are related to other cognitive functions, such as those underlying emotion, implicit memory, working memory, and perception.