bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Patient Safety
Authors: Waring Justin 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Patient safety has become a global health policy priority. Over two decades of research suggest that between 10 and 20 percent of hospital patients encounter some form of adverse event, incident, or mishap in their care delivery. The human cost of these is difficult to estimate but it remains significant, whilst the financial burden of remedial care and compensation also represents a major concern for policymakers and funders. Given such evidence, there have been major advances in policy and research centered on the reconceptualization of safety, the promotion of organizational learning, and the implementation and evaluation of safety interventions. For the wider social science community, the developments in patient safety touch on often long‐standing debates related to the social organization of health care or offer new connections with research in related disciplines.
Optometrists
Authors: Grit Feike 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Optometry finds its origin in most countries in the practice of opticians. The optician was initially an artisan, a craftsman who ground lenses for spectacles and instruments such as microscopes and telescopes. With the advent of mass production of lenses during the second part of the nineteenth century, the lens grinder became an assembler of frames and lenses, dispenser of spectacles, and tester of sight. Since the invention of spectacles at the end of the thirteenth century in Italy, the optometrist has developed in many countries from an artisan, peddler, technician, and optician into a full‐fledged health care professional.
Stress, Coping, and Social Support Processes
Authors: Hatteberg Sarah J. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Despite being used to signify a number of negative occurrences or feelings in everyday life, the term “stress” has become a very specific and frequently examined concept in social scientific research. Similarly, coping and social support have been identified in this empirical literature as the ways in which individuals deal with stressful life experiences. This entry defines these terms as they are discussed in the academic literature, reviews the current state of research on this topic, and identifies promising new directions.
Health, Education, and Gender
Authors: Powell Mary Ann 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Higher levels of education are associated with better health outcomes throughout the world, but this occurs differently for men and women. In developed countries, men generally are better able to translate the benefit of education into better jobs with benefits that promote health. In developed countries, women often achieve as much or even more education than men, but without the employment benefits. However, women's health benefits more than men's from the intrinsic rewards of education, such as health promoting behaviors. In less developed countries, women's education still lags behind men's. When women are able to achieve more education, their health improves, sometimes at a faster rate than men's. This occurs, in part, because educational gains are more likely to decrease health damaging behaviors for women than for men. Also, higher levels of education are associated with decreased fertility, benefiting women's health.
Specialty Choice
Authors: Heiligers Phil J. M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Specialty choice is a major issue for medical students. The earliest studies on this topic presented an overview of specialties as an aid to students. The role of gender in particular is explored in studies of motivation. Balancing life and work is a second issue. Male and female students experience limitations in their choice because of the conflict between the demands of family and work. This is also one of the most obvious reasons why students change their choice of specialty. Factors related to organization also influence specialty choices. Some specialties are characterized by inflexible organization of care, while others allow work to be organized in relation to family duties. It is mostly women who face difficulties in the inflexible organization of care. Since doctors in the future are likely to be mostly female, it is important to improve working conditions and the attractiveness of specialties. Studies of specialty choice are rarely longitudinal or cohort studies. Cohort studies offer a more specific causal insight into the reasons for change during a medical career.
Aging and Health
Authors: Watkins Ivan , Xie Bo , Jervis Lori L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Aging refers to the psychological, cognitive, and physiological processes and changes that occur in people as they grow older, while health refers to the absence of disease, and may be extended to include broader notions of well‐being. Older adults face physical challenges not present in younger age groups, and differences exist between genders and ethnicities in threats to physical health in old age. An increase in global population aging places stressors on formal health care systems, informal caregivers, and retirement/pension systems, many of which are not prepared to meet upcoming challenges. Technological advances offer older adults new ways to cope with health challenges, maintain their independence, and access health information, but effective interventions are often necessary for older adults to make use of these resources. In recent years, the concept of successful aging has gained prominence, which can emphasize physical health and functioning, the preservation of social relations, and engagement in productive activities.
Non‐Communicable Diseases
Authors: Singer Merrill 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Non‐communicable diseases constitute an important class of health conditions that are not directly transmitted from one person to another and commonly involve hereditary predispositions, environmental exposures, lifestyle factors, gender, aging, birth defects, and malnutrition (including deficiencies and overeating). Also of importance are socioeconomic status and the social conditions that impact the behavior aspects of many diseases. “Non‐communicable disease” and “chronic disease” are not synonymous terms because some infectious disease can become chronic (e.g., HIV infection). Among the most impactful non‐communicable diseases are cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, asthma, chronic kidney disease, arthritis, allergies, cataracts, osteoporosis, and mental illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease. Four of these – cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes – are the primary causes of death from non‐communicable disease globally.
Needs Assessment
Authors: Wang May C. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Needs assessment is a part of the program planning process. It is a systematic process used to identify health, educational, resource, and other needs for health promotion so as to close the gap between the current and desired health status of a population. Several frameworks are available to guide the needs assessment process. This entry briefly discusses the reasons, and describes the steps needed, for conducting a needs assessment within the context of health promotion.
Anthropology of Child Health
Authors: Robinson Gary 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Ethnographies of child health have illuminated the wide variation in patterns of childhood life, and their relationship to child health. In conjunction with demographic and epidemiological research, anthropology has helped create understanding of the social and cultural determinants of fertility and child mortality and patterns of care. Above and beyond the effects of nutrition, psychological stimulus is critical to social‐emotional and cognitive development. While policy at the population level focuses on extension of health care and early education systems, it is crucially important that at the local level intervention take into account the diversity patterns of parental care and childrearing in specific sociocultural settings. There is great diversity in systems of early childhood caregiving and diverse family strategies for survival. These cultural systems shape early attachment and social‐emotional learning in ways that need to be understood if intervention is to be effective.
Medical Education, Assessment in
Authors: Govaerts Marjan J. B. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Assessment in medical education is any (systematic) method of obtaining information from tests and other sources, used to draw inferences about trainees’ or professionals’ performance and competence development. The main goals of assessment are to protect the public, to guide future learning, and to serve as a basis for selection and promotion. Validity, reliability, and utility are key concepts in the design and evaluation of assessment. Assessment design always involves careful balancing of utility factors and compromises depending on assessment purposes. A broad range of assessment methods has been developed and implemented, covering all four levels of Miller's assessment pyramid. Until the end of the twentieth century, developments have focused on the standardization and objectification of assessment. Current developments show the growing importance of more authentic, work‐based assessments to evaluate physicians’ habitual performance. Future challenges in competence assessment include programmatic approaches to assessment design, the use of assessment for learning, and the development of new conceptual frameworks for assessment evaluation.
Medicine, Sociology of
Authors: Usher Carey L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
“Sociology of medicine” describes the work of the medical sociologist who employs a sociological perspective to study medicine, health, and illness. Typically working within an academic setting, the sociologist of medicine examines the medical system as a social institution, focusing on organizational and professional structures, roles, and values; on the functions of medicine; and on the social psychology of health and illness. The term was first used by Robert Straus in 1957.
Modernity
Authors: Wasserman Jason Adam , Cockerham William C. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry discusses the characteristics of modernity as a social epoch in the context of health and medicine. In sociological terms, modernity is a period characterized by particular social values and dominant ways of thinking that underpin social institutions, including medicine. The Enlightenment gave birth to new forms of thinking that made societies more advanced and modern medicine possible. The application of improved empirical techniques of observation and rational forms of thinking enabled the countless miracles of modern medicine that have undeniably benefitted humanity. Modern medicine has cured diseases, improved health, and extended life beyond what any pre‐modern physician could ever have imagined. However, it is precisely because of these successes that we now face new challenges, for which another revolution in medicine may be required.
Food Deserts
Authors: Cummins Steven 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The term “food desert” was reputedly first used by a resident of a public sector housing scheme in the west of Scotland in the early 1990s to capture the experience of living in a deprived neighborhood where food was expensive and relatively unobtainable. The phrase first appeared in an “official” publication in 1995, as part of a report from a policy working group investigating grocery distribution and food retailing on behalf of the Low Income Project Team of the UK government's Nutrition Task Force. Since then the term has been increasingly used by academics, policymakers, and community groups as shorthand to describe populated urban areas where residents do not have access to an affordable and healthy diet. Government reports in the United Kingdom and elsewhere have since suggested that food deserts may damage public health by restricting the availability and affordability of foods that form the components of a healthy diet. These reports have resulted in several health and social policy initiatives designed to promote adequate retail provision of food for those on low incomes, or who live in the poorest neighborhoods.
Happiness, Flourishing, and Life Satisfaction
Authors: Keyes Corey L. M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Happiness, subjective well‐being, and a sense of flourishing reflect positive levels of mental health. They are evaluations that people make about the quality of their lives and have been used as measures in several studies to assess how people feel, either positively or negatively, about their state of psychological well‐being and overall life satisfaction.
Community‐Based and Family Support Mental Health Services
Authors: Ritter Christian , Bonfine Natalie , Neubrander Mary , Munetz Mark R. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Community‐based and family support mental health services make up a system of care in which social and clinical resources in the community are the primary sources of care for people with mental illness. These services provide care for people with mental illness in the community instead of in psychiatric hospitals. Community‐based and family support mental health services encompass a broad range of therapeutic and psychosocial services, treatments, and practices. Such services promote illness management, encourage independent living, and enhance life skills, with the ultimate goal of helping people recover from mental illness and engage in community life in a meaningful and productive way.
Health Maintenance Organization (HMO)
Authors: Tajeu Gabriel 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A health maintenance organization (HMO) is a type of managed care health insurance plan. HMOs operate similarly to other types of health insurance plans in several ways. In exchange for a monthly health insurance premium payment, the HMO provides customers with health insurance that pays for approved health care services. Similar to traditional health insurance, the price customers pay for their monthly premium is adjusted based on the health risk of the particular patient. An HMO is also different from traditional health insurance in several ways. Unlike traditional plans that generally allow customers to seek care from any licensed provider of their choice, an HMO uses a predetermined network of approved physicians and health care providers. Customers have the option of using physicians and health care providers outside of this network; however the HMO is not responsible for the cost of these services. All customers of an HMO are required to designate a primary care physician (PCP) that acts as their “gatekeeper.” In the HMO model, all visits to specialists and access to medical services must be approved by this PCP, otherwise the HMO is not responsible for paying for the health care services.
Cardiovascular Diseases
Authors: Pan An , Odegaard Andrew O. , Koh Woon‐Puay 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The global disease burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is substantial. In the United States and other highly developed countries and populations, although the rates of CVD mortality have fallen since the initial epidemic, CVD remains the number one cause of morbidity and mortality. Current and future concerns mostly relate to developing populations as they are experiencing a sharp increase in CVD burden. Evidence from research has shown that CVD is largely preventable through adoption of healthy lifestyle factors, as well as through adequate control and treatment of clinical risk factors in the population. The success of this combined approach will require extensive and fundamental changes and developments related to policies that promote optimal CVD health, government–industry cooperation, and overall improvement in health care systems.
Childhood
Authors: Robinson Gary 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Childhood is more than a period of scientifically observable growth and maturation or of legally defined immaturity; from some perspectives, it is understood in terms of what people ought to be like as future adults, and from others, as a time to be valued in and for itself, involving distinctive freedoms, forms of expression, and ways of being. The social and cultural elaboration of childhood and the institutional forces shaping it vary widely from society to society and between communities and groups, and through the lifespan, from early childhood through adolescence. Childhood today is subject to continuing rationalization, as states apply national and international norms to the definition of childhood, recognize children as beings with rights and agency, and seek to protect children from harm and vulnerability to exploitation.
General Practitioners
Authors: Puustinen Raimo 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The title “general practitioner” originated in the early nineteenth century in Britain to denote physicians crossing the traditional professional boundaries and widening their therapeutic repertoire to surgical procedures. For the next 100 years the title stood for non‐specialist physicians working outside hospital premises. The creation of the British National Health Service in the 1950s forced general practitioners to evaluate their professional competence within the new health care system and to raise general practitioner to the status of a distinct medical specialty. Similar developments took place in other industrialized countries under different titles, such as “family physician” in the United States. In 1972 general practitioners representing 18 countries founded the World Organization of National Colleges, Academies and Academic Associations of General Practitioners/Family Physicians, shortened to WONCA, which now includes 126 member organizations in 102 countries with a membership of 300,000 general practitioners and family physicians.
Health and Religion
Authors: Idler Ellen L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
With its origins rooted in the earliest thinkers of the discipline, the sociological study of religion and health is a theoretically and empirically significant area of contemporary research. One body of work shows physical health and mortality to be partly determined by the religious practices of individuals and groups. The other shows the role of religious beliefs and institutions in helping individuals face the experiences of serious illness and death.
Absolute Deprivation
Authors: Ladin Keren 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Absolute deprivation is generally defined as encompassing a minimal level of need rendering a person able to subsist and to participate actively in society. In practice, absolute deprivation is often synonymous with absolute poverty, defined as the absence of the minimal resources to afford the basic necessities for life. These basic needs usually refer to a minimal standard of a set of goods, which often include food, clean water, clothing, sanitation facilities, shelter, education, information, and health care. This broader definition of absolute deprivation or absolute poverty reflects an expanded notion of minimal living standards. This conception of poverty grew out of a more traditional definition of poverty, meaning income insufficient to obtain the minimum necessities for the maintenance of physical survival. These absolute measures of poverty are important in estimating the effect of disadvantage, often measured by prevalence or average intensity of poverty, on an array of population‐level outcomes, including health, well‐being, productivity, and social cohesion, as well as individual‐level measures of health, productivity, and well‐being.
Western Europeans, Health of
Authors: Mayfield Carlene A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The health of Western Europeans is associated with a complex network of factors. Rates of mortality, morbidity, and disability are highest among the lowest socioeconomic groups. Also chronic disease is on the rise in Western Europe, due in part to poor health behaviors. Contributing risk factors include tobacco smoking, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, poor diet, sedentary lifestyles, and unsafe sexual behavior. Efforts have been made to improve motor vehicle driver education to reduce mortality rate in young individuals, and to reduce maternal smoking.
Nurse Practitioners
Authors: Vrijhoef Hubertus J. M. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A nurse practitioner is a registered nurse who has acquired the expert knowledge base, complex decision‐making skills, and clinical competencies for expanded practice, the characteristics of which are shaped by the context and/or country in which he or she is credentialed to practice. Advanced practice in nursing is characterized not by job description, job title, or setting, but by knowledge and expertise, clinical judgment, skilled and self‐initiated care, and scholarly inquiry. It has been estimated that approximately 70 countries now have established nurse practitioner roles or are exploring the possibility of introducing them. The future for nurse practitioners looks promising. Much will depend on the success of patients, nurses, physicians, payers, policymakers, and other stakeholders in health care in collaboratively shaping its future, and on nurse practitioners being able to practice to the full extent of their training and education
Stress across the Life Course
Authors: Berkowsky Ronald W. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Discussions of social stress cannot be easily distinguished from discussions of the life course. Stressors that can contribute to negative health outcomes, whether in the form of major life events and transitions, chronic strains, or daily hassles, are different depending on where an individual currently resides along the life course and on the historical context of his or her experiences. The effect of stress on health can also be mediated or moderated by resources that change over time, such as coping ability, mastery, and social support. The stress process and the life course perspective are thus intertwined in that they inform one another, and understanding how stress affects human development and how aging affects the experience of stress can contribute to social scientists’ understanding of the relationship between stress and physical/mental health.
Pharmacists
Authors: Dingwall Robert 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Pharmacy has struggled to find an identity as a health profession. This reflects the diversity of its work sites and the impact of technological and organizational change. Contemporary pharmacists rarely assemble medicines from raw, or even pre‐packaged, ingredients. As a result, the focus of their work has changed considerably into the provision of advice to both patients and prescribers, seeking to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of prescribing and to ensure that recipients use the medicines as directed. These new areas, collectively described as pharmacy practice, draw extensively on a knowledge base from the social and behavioral sciences – and have generated considerable tensions within a profession that has traditionally derived its authority from chemistry and the life sciences.
Mental Illness, Social Construction of
Authors: Olafsdottir Sigrun , Bakhtiari Elyas 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Sociologists have long been interested in understanding how our world is socially constructed. This perspective views the world as created (and recreated) through human interaction over time, and stands in contrast to essentialism. While it can be argued that our understanding and responses to health in general are, at least in part, socially constructed, mental illness provides an especially interesting window to understand the social construction of reality. Given the contested nature of what constitutes a “mental” illness, specifically whether it constitutes a real biological problem or a socially constructed cultural problem, much of the early writings on social construction in medical sociology, and even psychiatry, focused on the social construction of mental illness.