bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Defensor Civitatis
Authors: Frakes Robert M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThedefensor civitatis(or “defender of the municipality”) was an important judicial office in the later Roman Empire. The office went through several phases and provides an interesting example of administrative development in the fourth and early fifth centuriesCE. Diocletian may have founded an early phase of the office (in title if not in function) as part of his sweeping municipal and administrative reforms. At this stage thedefensorseems to have collected petitions and grievances at the local level and forwarded them to superiors. Constantine expanded the judicial focus of the office in the 320s, possibly as an attempt to provide cheaper access to justice. At this time,defensoreswere drawn from local elites and seemed to work in a parallel fashion to the offices of thecurator civitatisand theexactor civitatis(both part of Diocletian's municipal reforms). Later, under Valens and Valentinian in either 364 or 368, legislation (surviving asCT1.29.1) specified thatdefensoresshould have no connection with local elites (presumably to provide more impartial judicial decisions), and should focus on providing fair justice to poorer litigants.
Monasteries, in the East
Authors: Delattre Alain 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEremitism (or anchoritism) and cenobitism are the two main monastic lifestyles; both appeared in the fourth centuryCE. Eremitism is most associated with Antony the Great (ca. 251–356); it is an individual form of monasticism: the hermit lives alone or with a disciple in an isolated cell. The monks of such a monastery meet only once a week, during the weekend, for a common meal and the Mass. In cenobitic monasticism, whose central figure is Pachomius (ca. 292–346), the life of the monks is communal: they live together every day, under the strict direction and supervision of the superior of the community. These two kinds of monasticism are not, however, mutually exclusive: hermits could be members of cenobitic monasteries, and there was a spectrum of lifestyles between the fully solitary and the strictly communal. Nevertheless, differences can be seen betweenlaurae(semi‐anchoritic monasteries) andcoenobia(in cenobitic monasticism).
Pelusium
Authors: Lefebvre Ludovic 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPelusium was an ancient city of Lower Egypt. We know very little about its origin, in particular with regard to the pre‐Assyrian period, our knowledge drawing both on myth and historical facts. Its foundation seems to date back to the end of the Ethiopian period or the beginning of the Persian period. It is known by different names and is currently located in Tell el‐Farama.
Ammianus Marcellinus
Authors: Rohrbacher David 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAmmianus Marcellinus (ca. 330s‐after 391CE) is the author of a history, in Latin, of the Roman Empire from the Principate of Nerva Augustus to the death of Valens (96–378). His highly rhetorical and allusive work was written in particular to celebrate the emperor Julian. Ammianus was the last of the Latin historians to follow in the grand tradition of historiography exemplified by Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus.
Appian of Alexandria
Authors: Bucher Gregory S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAppian (ca. 85–95 to ca. 165CE) tells us, in thePrefaceto hisRoman History(RH), thatAlexandriawas his homeland and that he had risen to the first rank there. He goes on to say that he argued cases in Rome “under the Emperors,” until they deemed him worthy to be a procurator, a high‐ranking bureaucratic position for which Roman citizenship and equestrian rank were requisite. There is little doubt that he was quite wealthy. Appian concludes by mentioning an autobiography that has either been lost or was never written.
Commentarii
and
hypomnemata
Authors: Popov‐Reynolds Nadejda V. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In the original meaning,
commentarii
– in the Roman world – and
hypomnemata
, their Greek equivalent, refer to memoranda: official and unofficial records and notes of any kind kept by private individuals and groups, whether on a regular basis (e.g., diaries, military campaign notes of generals) or for specific purposes (e.g., speech notes of orators, lecture notes). As such, most
commentarii
/
hypomnemata
were mere lists of raw data and could not be considered literary or historical works. Some private individuals'
commentarii
and
hypomnemata
were, however, more polished, and form a veritable sub‐genre of ancient historiography.
Eumenes of Kardia
Authors: Anson Edward M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEumenes (361–315BCE) was a Greek from the city of Kardia in the Thracian Chersonese (Gallipoli peninsula), who became royal secretary and head of the state chancellery first to Philip II of Macedon and subsequently to Alexander III, the Great. To the latter he also served as a close personal advisor, and after the Conqueror's death in 323 he was a major contender for power in the early years of the warfare that ushered in the Hellenistic Age. In his position of royal secretary, Eumenes joined Alexander in his invasion of the Persian Empire in 334. By the later stages of the Asian campaign, Eumenes had been advanced to the position of cavalry commander of one division of the elite Macedonian companion cavalry. After Alexander's death Eumenes became a satrap (governor) and the confidant of Perdikkas, the regent acting for Alexander's heirs. In the struggle for power that began in late 321, Eumenes commanded a sizable force and defeated two distinguished Macedonian commanders; but the regent's death during a campaign against Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt, precipitaded Eumenes' betrayal by one of his own commanders and his subsequent defeat at the hands of the leading general of the victorious coalition, Antigonos I Monophthalmos (“the One‐Eyed”). Later Eumenes came to terms with Antigonos by becoming officially his subordinate. But in 318 he broke with him and, with the support of a new coalition of satraps and generals, he renewed his war against his former master. Both armies withdrew to the east. After two indecisive battles at Paraitakene and Gabiene in late‐316, Eumenes was betrayed by his own troops – to Antigonos, who had him executed early in 315.
Momigliano, Arnaldo 1908–1987
Authors: Briggs Ward 
Published: December 2012

AbstractArnaldo Momigliano devoted his career to revealing the entwined cultural heritage of Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Jews throughout the ancient world and to understanding not only the intellectual forces at work on the ancient figures he studied, like Philip II of Macedon and the emperor Claudius, but also on great scholars in the field of ancient history.
Ethnography and ancient history
Authors: Vivero Manuel Albaladejo 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRomanticism is the starting point of modern scientific historiography in the field of Greek ethnography. Müller, steeped in the intellectual climate of his time, wrote of the “spiritual nature of a people,” in reference to the Dorians, and attempted an approach to the literary sources that in certain respects foreshadowed the positivist school.
Antiochos II Theos
Authors: Iossif Panagiotis P. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Antiochos II (ca. 286–246), second son of Antiochos I Soter and Stratonike, became co‐regent of the Upper Satrapies in 266 (
OGIS
222), after the execution of his elder brother (Trogus
Prologus
26, as recorded by Justin) and occupied this position until his father's death in 261.
Antiochos IV Epiphanes
Authors: Mittag Peter 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAntiochos IV (ca. 210–164), born Mithridates, marks a turning point in Seleucid history by adopting theepithetaTheos Epiphanes Nikephoros. At one end of the spectrum, he was the first and last Seleucid king who was able to defeat the Ptolemies and conquer all Egypt; at the other end, the Maccabean revolt (seeMaccabees, Books of which led to the end of Seleucid rule in southern Syria, started during his reign.
Cleopatra III
Authors: Capponi Livia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAfter the dynastic war which broke out on the death of Ptolemy VI Philometor, around 141/0BCEPtolemy VIII Euergetes II married his sister and Philometor's widow Cleopatra II and, around 135–130, also his niece, Cleopatra III, only a teenager.
Hermogenes
Authors: Mylonopoulos Ioannis 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

It is a scholarly
topos
that Roman authors did not appreciate Hellenistic sculptors or architects. Hermogenes, an architect from Asia Minor, was, however, a striking exception. Vitruvius refers to the Hellenistic architect five times in the course of
De architectural
, always in the most eulogistic ways (3.2.6; 3.3.8–9; 4.3.1–2; 4.3.8; 7.praef.2). After long debates, architectural historians now date the apogee of Hermogenes' activity to around 220–190
BCE
. Hermogenes, like Pytheos, the celebrated fourth‐century architect, advocated the superiority of the Ionic over the Doric order, especially on account of the corner conflict in the latter, which undermined the idea of perfect symmetry, a principle that apparently dominated his practical and theoretical work.
Hieron II of Syracuse
Authors: Zambon Efrem 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Hieron II (306–215
BCE
) was tyrant and king of Syracuse from 270 to his death. He began his career as an officer of Pyrrhos' army during his expedition to Sicily, and when the king departed from the island in 276, he was appointed by the Syracusan people with the title of
archon
. To strengthen his position and gain the support of the upper classes he married Philistis, the daughter of Leptines, one of the leaders of the aristocracy. He encouraged the prosecution of the war against the carthaginians, more for propaganda reasons than with conviction; he was thus appointed as
strategos autokrator
and commander in chief of the army.
Illyria and Illyrians
Authors: Kos Marjeta Šašel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe history of the Illyrians and Illyria, variously understood in modern scholarship, is divided into different phases, of which the first, lasting until the collapse of the Illyrian kingdom, may be explained in terms of (varying) alliances of tribes and peoples of common or similar ethnic background, speaking similar languages.
Kleomenes III of Sparta
Authors: Kralli Ioanna 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAsde factosole ruler of Sparta between ca. 235 and 222BCE, the Agiad Kleomenes III (ca. 265/260?–219) carried out a program of radical social and political changes that shook profoundly the political establishment and temporarily succeeded in the political and military resurrection of Sparta (Plut.Cleomenes; Phylarchos inFGrH81 F 44, 51–2, 55–6, 58–60; Polyb. 2.46–70).
Patroklos, Ptolemaic commander
Authors: Primo Andrea 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Macedonian Patroklos, son of Patron, was active at the Ptolemaic court after 280
BCE
(
SEG
40.730); the latest evidence concerning him dates to ca. 257
BCE
(
IG
XI.2 226). Sources usually describe him as a
strategos
(“general”: Phylarchos in
FGrH
81 F 1; Hegesander in
FHG
IV p. 415 fr. 12;
IG
XII.5 1061;
IC
IV iv.3), while Pausanias refers to him as the
nauarchos
(“admiral”) of the fleet of Ptolemy II Philadelphos at the time of the Chremonidean War (Paus. 1.1.1; 3.6.4).
PhilipVof Macedon
Authors: Čašule Nikola 
Published: December 2012

AbstractKing of Macedon during a turbulent period which included Macedon's first military conflicts with the Romans, Philip V (238–179BCE) was a skillful statesman, adept at handling the complexities of Hellenistic interstate relations. Despite a number of military defeats, Macedon remained a major Mediterranean power at the time of his death.
Sellasia, Battle of
Authors: Kralli Ioanna 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Sellasia, near the northern frontier of Sparta, was the site of a major battle in 222
BCE
– a battle between the Spartan king Kleomenes III and the Macedonian king Antigonos Doson. The latter was at the head of a
HELLENIC ALLIANCE
consisting of Macedon, the Achaian League, and other federations (Polyb. 2.65–70, 20.5; Plut.
Cleom
. 27–30;
Phil
. 6).
Achilles Tatius
Authors: May Regine 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAchilles Tatius of Alexandria (late second centuryCE) wrote the extant novelLeukippe and Kleitophon(eight books) and perhaps treatises on the sphere of heaven (fragments survive in a commentary on Aratos'Phaenomena), etymology, and a miscellaneous history of illustrious men (both no longer extant).
Translation
Authors: MacIntosh Fiona 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn Dryden's Preface to his translation of Ovid'sEpistles(1680), he proffers a tripartite typology of translation: “metaphrase” – the “literal”; “paraphrase” – a translation where overall sense predominates over a word‐for‐word rendering; and “imitation” – where liberty is taken with the text in order to adapt it to the present context.
Agrippina the Elder
Authors: Hopwood Bronwyn 
Published: December 2012

AbstractVipsania Agrippina (Maior) (ca. 14BCE–33CE), daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa (RE2) and Julia (RE550), granddaughter of Augustus (RE132), married Germanicus (RE138) in 5CEand produced nine children (Suet.Cal. 7), six of whom survived infancy: Nero Caesar (RE146), Drusus Caesar (RE137), Gaius “Caligula” (RE133), Agrippina the younger (Minor) (RE556), Julia Drusilla (RE567), and Julia Livilla (RE575).
Baruch, Books of (1, 2, 3 Baruch)
Authors: Henze Matthias 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWell after the canon of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament was closed, Jewish scribes continued to compose stories about events set during the biblical period. It was common practice to write under a pseudonym, typically a biblical figure of renown (e.g., Adam, Baruch, or Enoch). Pseudepigraphy is thus “a reverse form of plagiarism”; it denotes that a text is falsely attributed to an ancient authority, even though it was composed long after the life of its alleged author.
Caesarea Maritima
Authors: Levine Lee I. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCaesarea Maritima, named in honor of the Roman emperor Augustus, was built by Herod the Great over a twelve‐year period (22–10/9bce) and featured impressive harbor facilities, a theater, and an amphitheaterhippodrome. Caesarea achieved prominence in 6ce, when it became the capital of the newly formed province of Judaea. This multicultural city boasted pagan, Jewish, Samaritan, and Christian communities.
Cemeteries, Jewish
Authors: Grey Matthew J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAs in surrounding Mediterranean cultures, burial had an important place in the life cycle of ancient Judaism. Although the Hebrew Bible does not give a systematic description of burial practices in early Israel, archaeological discoveries provide evidence for funerary customs at various levels of ancient Jewish society. The most recognizable Jewish cemeteries, however, contain the tombs of upper‐class families and indicate the degree to which foreign culture influenced this stratum of Jewish society.
Havdala de‐Rabbi Akiba
Authors: Harari Yuval 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Havdala
according to Rabbi Aqiva (
Havdala de‐Rabbi Aqiva
) is a short treatise that sketches a magical version of the Jewish ceremony of
Havdala
(separation between the holy and the profane) that is performed every Saturday evening, marking the end of Shabbat.
John HyrcanusI
Authors: Gera Dov 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJohn Hyrcanus I, a son of Simon the Hasmonean, was a general in his father's army (1 Macc 13.53; 16.1–10; Jos.BJ1.51–3;AJ13.225–7). Simon was assassinated by his son‐in‐law, Ptolemy (135/134BCE), while two of his sons were either killed or taken hostage (our sources disagree). Hyrcanus, hearing of the conspiracy, seized Jerusalem and assumed the high priesthood. He then besieged Ptolemy in Jericho, but the latter's hold on Hyrcanus' brothers and mother (Josephus' version) prolonged the blockade, until Ptolemy killed them and fled (1 Macc 16.11–22;BJ1.54–60;AJ13.228–35).
John HyrcanusII
Authors: Atkinson Kenneth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJohn Hyrcanus II was the youngest son of the Judaean monarch Alexander Jannaeus and queen Alexandra Salome. He served as high priest during his mother's nine‐year reign (76–67BCE), and was likely appointed king just before her death. The two were members of the Jewish religious movement known as the Pharisees. Hyrcanus II's brother, Aristobulus II, staged a coup to remove him from power. Hyrcanus II abdicated the throne and the high priesthood after a reign of three months (Jos.BJ1.120–2;AJ14.4–7).
Maccabees, Books of
Authors: Vanhenten Janwillem 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFour extracanonical Jewish books in Greek are connected with “the Maccabees,” referring either to Jewish freedom fighters from the second centuryBCE(seeJudas Maccabaeus; Jonathan Maccabaeus; Simon Maccabaeus) and their period or to martyrs from the same period (the martyrdoms are described in 2 Macc 6:18–7:42 and 4 Macc).
Philo the Epic Poet
Authors: Hilton Naomi 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Philo (third to second century
BCE
), an unidentified Jewish poet, is said to be the author of six fragments in Eusebius of Caesarea,
Praeparatio Evangelica
(9.20.1–2; 24.1; 37.1–3), who depends on Alexander Polyhistor (ca. 105–35
BCE
).
Piyyut (Jewish liturgical and secular poetry)
Authors: Lieber Laura S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractApiyyut(pl.piyyutim) is a poem created to substitute for, adorn, or preface a passage from the Jewish liturgy or a liturgical rite. The Hebrew term derives from the Greekpoiēsis(something made, created), also the root of the English word “poetry.” A composer of piyyutim is apayyetan.
Talmud, Palestinian and Babylonian
Authors: Danzig David , Fine Steven 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Palestinian Talmud (also known as the Jerusalem Talmud, ca. 400CE) and the Babylonian Talmud (ca. 600CE) are ostensibly legal corpora, structured as commentaries on the earliest rabbinic legal corpus, the Mishnah (ca. 225CE).
Women, Jewish
Authors: Ilan Tal 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn postbiblical antiquity Jewish women were viewed as lesser than men. In this Jews were like their various non‐Jewish neighbors. Yet their inspiration was found in the Hebrew Bible. Women's subordinate position was derived from their secondary creation and their culpability for original sin. Contemporary concerns and Hellenistic influence interfered with the biblical justification for women's subordination. One midrash compares the biblical creation of Eve with the Greek Pandora myth, in which woman is created secondary and is the source of all evil (Genesis Rabbah19.10).
Abu Mina
Authors: Brooks Hedstrom Darlene L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAbu Mina was the largest Christian pilgrimage site in Egypt during the Late Antique period (480–700CE) and is located about 45 km south‐west of Alexandria. The extensive pilgrimage city, identified in sources only as the Church of St. Menas in Maryût, is associated with the relics of St. Menas (d. 296CE), a Roman soldier who was martyred under Diocletian.
Boethius
Authors: Moreschini Claudio 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (the manuscripts often add, erroneously,TorquatustoManliusto connect him to the hero who defeated the Gauls; thegens Manliawas extinguished at the end of the republic, but Manlius was a common name of some noble families in the imperial age) was born about 480, son of Manlius Boethius,consulof 487; his mother was a member of the Anicii, a prominent senatorial Christian family.
Ephrem
Authors: Law T. M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Arguably the most important figure in the history of Syriac Christianity, Ephrem the Syrian (ca. 306–73
CE
) was a deacon, theologian, exegete, poet, and hymnographer who wrote before the schismatic controversies that would entangle the church in the following century. Ephrem's writing is of great historical and theological importance, not least because it exhibits a Christianity almost entirely free of western influence.
Iberia (Kartli)
Authors: Rapp Stephen H. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn its narrowest sense, Iberia is the Classical and Byzantine designation for the inland, eastern Georgian region of Kartli, which straddled the Mtkvari (Kura) River. Ancient Greeks identified two Iberias on the edges of the known world: one encompassing modern‐day Spain and Portugal and the other eastwards past the Black Sea, just below the main line of the Caucasus Mountains. The meaning of Caucasian “Iberia” in Mediterranean sources is highly variable: the term denotes Kartli proper, the whole of eastern Georgia (esp. Kartli and Kakheti), and even Caucasian Chalcedonian Christians, including the Armenians. “Iberia” is not used in Old Georgian, although Armenian “Virk” is likely based upon it.
Nestorian Church
Authors: Walker Joel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Nestorian Church is the name commonly given to the Church of the East, which formed in the Sasanian Empire (224–642CE). At its height between the sixth and ninth centuriesCE, this Church, also known as the East‐Syrian Church, constituted the largest Christian community in Asia, and possibly in the world. Its patriarch, based at the Sasanian capital of Seleukeia‐Ktesiphon, and later at Baghdad, oversaw more than eighty bishoprics spread across fourteen modern countries. Although the Church fell into sharp decline in the post–Mongol period, its modern branches, including the Assyrian and Chaldean Churches, remain active in india, Europe, North America, Australia, and some parts of the Middle East.
Raqqa
Authors: Genequand Denis 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAl‐Raqqa is a town of modern Syria situated on the left bank of the Euphrates River. It belongs to the western part of the Jazīra or northern Mesopotamia. Since the Hellenistic period, it was the site of a city called Kallinikos or, alternatively, Nikephorion, but it became much more important in the early Islamic period. In 639, the city was conquered by a Muslim army led by ‘Iyāḍ b. Ġanm after a short siege and the conclusion of a treaty.
Syriac literature
Authors: Tannous Jack 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

“Syriac” is the name given to the Aramaic dialect of the city of Edessa (modern Urfa in Turkey) in Northern Mesopotamia (
see
Aramaic and Syriac); in Late Antiquity, Syriac became the literary lingua franca of much of the Christian population of the Middle East and remained so until it was eventually superseded by Arabic in the Medieval period.
Actor(accusator, petitor)
Authors: Perry Matthew J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractActor,accusator, andpetitorwere titles used in Roman law to describe the plaintiff or prosecutor in a court case. In both civil and criminal law, theactordrove the proceedings; he was responsible for initiating charges, obtaining and analyzing evidence, and even ensuring the defendant's attendance. To strengthen their cases,actoresregularly enlisted the services of trained advocates to present and explain material in court.
Adrogatio
Authors: Drogula Fred K. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAdrogatiowas the process of Adoption by which a manSui Iuris(that is, aPaterfamiliaswho was not under another man'spotestas) could give up his independence and come under thepotestasof an adoptive father (a different process calledadoptiowas used to adopt individualsin potestate parentum).
Atimia
Authors: Scafuro Adele C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAtimiain Archaic Athens is a penalty characterized as“outlawry” and means the deprivation of all rights: theatimos(person sufferingatimia) could be killed without legal redress; the killer was not liable to prosecution or penalty and was apparently free of pollution. Suchatimiawas tantamount to expulsion from Athens. Demosthenes cites an early fifth century decree that made Arthmios and his family (from Zeleia in Asia)atimosand an enemy of the Athenians“because he brought theMedes' gold into the Peloponnese” to bribe the inhabitants to support the Persians (D. 9.41–5).