bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Caste and international migration, India to the UK
Authors: Dhanda Meena 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The paths of those who leave home for foreign lands are rarely straight or simple. Very seldom is there a yellow brick road leading to an emerald city. Some people need to escape from hopelessness. Others are beckoned by the allure of promises. Sometimes the direction of the journey may unexpectedly change and at other times the decisions of others leave the travelers with no choice but to go with the flow. In different ways – destiny, irrationality, and the desire for the unknown – surge people forward in just the same way as compulsions of a more palpable kind, such as economic advancement and fleeing from persecution, play their part in making people leave home for foreign lands. The same vagaries of chance also apply to the “decisions” people make to stay put in a foreign land and not return “home.” How does the caste of a person – high or low – impact upon their experience of migration?
Central America: gender and migration
Authors: Menjívar Cecilia 
Published: January 2013

AbstractCentral American women and men have a long history of migration to the United States. Since the start of the 20th century, Guatemalans, Salvadorans, Nicaraguans, Costa Ricans, and Hondurans have migrated to various US cities. For instance, Salvadoran and Nicaraguan coffee growers traveled to San Francisco for business motives and pleasure in the early 1900s. Arriving on commercial ships that transported bananas from Honduras to the United States around the same time, Hondurans became acquainted with opportunities in the United States and began settling in New Orleans. But in spite of this enduring migration, Central Americans had remained relatively invisible, sometimes “passing,” or often being mistaken, for Mexicans. They constituted a relatively small group and early immigrants arrived at a time when immigration laws were far more relaxed. And although a significant proportion of the early migrants were men, over time Central American migration has shown variations in its gender composition that have contributed important knowledge to more general discussions about gender and migration.
Central and Eastern European migration, post‐World War II to present
Authors: Kaczmarczyk Pawel 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAlthough Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) has been recognized as a distinct socioeconomic space since at least the early 1990s, there is neither common understanding nor universal definition of this term. Considering migration patterns for the purpose of this entry we define CEE as the group of former Soviet bloc countries which joined the European Union (EU) in the 2000s (i.e. Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia).
Child labor and migration
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Throughout history developing societies have always been faced with the unavoidable problem of a transient labor force that must travel and relocate in search of economic survival. The migration of peasants and workers is a constant process that uproots families in pursuit of economic subsistence. Among the many tragic circumstances that befall migrant working families is the forced participation of children. Circumstances, such as high poverty and inequality of income distribution are the reasons that child labor is considered and/or practiced.
China and inner Central Asia, 7th–13th‐century migrations
Authors: Hoerder Dirk 
Published: January 2013

Abstract“China proper” – the region south of the Great Wall to the South China Sea – emerged as an imperial entity in 221BCE. In the north and west it bordered on Inner Asia's three ecologically different segments. The west, the Tibetan highlands and the deserts and steppes north of them, consisted of “population islands” – cities, towns, and oases – inhabited both by highly organized mobile groups and, in the steppes, by pastoral nomadic peoples; from Turkestan's Tarim and Dzungaria basins sedentary agriculture could provision caravans and cities and export cotton as far as China. The north, Mongolia, consisted of deserts which made habitation difficult and which were the arena of the Mongols. The northeast, Manchuria, accommodated sedentary agriculturists and was the realm of the Khitans, Jurchens, and many other nomadic, highly mobile, semi‐sedentary or sedentary groups. Inner Asia comprises the regions east of the Pamirs and south of the Altai Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and includes Tibet, Turkestan, Xinjiang, the Mongolias, Manchuria, and the north of “China proper.” Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea to regions north of the Pamirs and west of the Altai and includes Sogdiana, Bactria, Transoxania, Fergana, and other regions. Inner Asia, twice the size of China proper, held a total of perhaps five million people, compared to China's 80 million about 600CE. In China the largest ethnocultural group were the Han, a sedentary agricultural population originally concentrated in the north along the Huang He or Yellow River. The northern “Chinese” rulers had emerged from intermarriage and culturalmétissageand were no Han Chinese, though they were sometimes constructed as such by later official imperial historiography, which was often hagiography.
China: medieval era migrations
Authors: Schottenhammer Angela 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIt is not an easy task to examine migration in medieval China, not only because information is scattered and incomplete, but also because we are confronted with many different forms of migration within, into, and from Chinese territory. More and more specific case studies have only slowly begun to shed more light on the complex issue of migration in Chinese history. This essay can therefore claim to provide only an overview of migrations within the time period under investigation and to draw the reader's attention to certain tendencies. Much more research still has to be done before we have a more thorough insight into all the different forms of migrations in China from around 400 to 1600. We should also be aware that certain forms of migration were, at least to some degree, related to social mobility, clan and elite structures, and the bureaucratic system that appointed officials to places far away from their home prefectures. With this in view, I shall seek to provide a cross‐section of various forms of migration, drawing attention to general tendencies as well as providing several concrete examples for illustration.
China: rural migration
Authors: Wang Fei‐Ling 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFor many centuries, China has had the world's largest population, of which the majority has always lived in the countryside. Traditionally, the Chinese rural population has been largely immobile except for massive involuntary migrations caused by war, invasion, and natural disaster. Sizable voluntary migrations took place from time to time to settle in remote or sparsely populated areas, mostly after civil wars. After the mid‐19th century, Chinese rural migration grew significantly as people moved in search for economic opportunities in an industrializing urban sector. With the exception of the first 30 years following the establishment in 1949 of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Chinese rural migration over the past century has demonstrated a general pattern of moving from villages to cities and towns, from inland provinces to coastal regions, and from economically depressed locales to relatively prosperous areas. As of 2010 the majority of the Chinese population of about 1.4 billion still lives in rural areas, but increasingly many of them are moving to or have already settled in the cities and towns, with or without government authorization and recognition. As China's urbanization continues, it is estimated that the Chinese rural population may, for the first time ever, fall below 50 percent in the next decade.
Chinatowns
Authors: Zhang Kang Qing 
Published: January 2013

AbstractA Chinatown is a neighborhood outside mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan that has historically been a place of residence for overseas Chinese and a center of distinctly Chinese business, social, and cultural activities. Chinatowns are known literally as “Tang people's street” (Tong Yun Gai) in Cantonese. Chinatowns also have different names for Minnan, Teochew, or Fujianese groups, but the Cantonese “Tong Yun Gai” (Pinyintáng rén jiē) is the most widely accepted term to refer to Chinatowns. The Cantonese people are a dominant subgroup of Chinese pioneer emigrants and refer to themselves as “Tang people” in homage to the Tang dynasty (618–907), the height of Chinese civilization.
Chinese migration since 1368
Authors: McKeown Adam 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTwo of the largest human movements in world history took place in China. The first was the resettlement of over 10 million people in war‐devastated central and northern China during in the first three decades of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The second is the over 110 million inter‐provincial migrants who have traveled to work mostly in the cities and factories of coastal China over the last two decades. The first amounted to 14 percent of the total Chinese population, and the second to nearly 10 percent. But beneath this superficial similarity of massive numbers, these flows were different in both form and context. The recent migrations – a culmination of trends gaining momentum since the late 19th century – have reversed the patterns of frontier migration that dominated Chinese migration for seven centuries. At the same time, they have continued the halting yet consistent trend toward liberalization and reduced government intervention that also characterized the past seven centuries.
Chinese migration, 1949 to present
Authors: Pál Nyíri 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThis entry discusses the main migratory movements within, from, and into the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949. It does not extend to movements that occurred within ethnic Chinese populations outside the PRC, including Taiwan, Southeast Asia, as well as Hong Kong and Macau before their incorporation into the PRC in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
Circular migration
Authors: Vertovec Steven 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Around the world, policy‐makers within national and international institutions are currently advocating measures to facilitate the to‐and‐fro movement of migrants between their homelands and foreign places of work. The main idea of these circular migration systems is that such back‐and‐forth migrant could be managed in ways that bring proverbial “win‐win‐win” results: benefits for receiving countries through meeting labor market shortages, for sending countries through guaranteeing remittances for development, and for migrants themselves through offering employment and control over the use of their wages. Circular migration is also being advocated as a potential, or at least partial, solution to a number of problems in relation to contemporary migration.
Co‐ethnic employees
Authors: Hou Feng 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Co‐ethnic concentration at the workplace is a specific dimension of ethnic economy. Much of the literature on ethnic economies is based on studies of minority groups in large immigrant‐gateway metropolises. Previous studies on ethnic economies have been plagued by “conceptual anarchy” and arbitrariness in their empirical operationalization (Logan et al. 1994; Nee et al. 1994). Specific aspects and forms of ethnic economies are important for developing conceptual clarity and gaining further understanding of the implications of ethnic economies (Waters & Eschbach 1995; Logan et al. 2003). Among such specific aspects, co‐ethnic concentration at the workplace can be precisely measured. The concept provides unique analytical angles to examine the causes and consequences of participating in ethnic economies at the individual level.
Commuting
Authors: Walker Kyle E. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Commuting is the act of travel from one's home to one's place of employment. This type of movement is one of the most common forms of human mobility, and is a significant driver of economic activity as it connects workers to their places of employment, linking together and helping define local and regional economies. The nature of commuting in a population, however, is closely linked with the population's social, geographic, and economic contexts.
Concentration camps
Authors: Cohen Marc Buggeln, translated by Paul 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The term “concentration camp” has a wide range of definitions, and it is at times extremely difficult for historians to draw the line between these and other types of camps and places of internment. In contrast to prisons, inmates in concentration camps are not usually sentenced following regular legal proceedings. Furthermore, camps tend to focus on groups, while inmates in prisons are primarily offenders serving individual sentences. In contrast to prisoner‐of‐war (POW) camps, concentration camps are normally not used to detain regular military personnel, but rather insurgents and civilians classified as enemies of the state. The main purposes of concentration camps are to isolate groups from the rest of society, punish and re‐educate, terrorize, exploit, and sometimes even exterminate prisoners.
Congo (DRC), migration, 1960 to present
Authors: Tshibambe, Germain Ngoie 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Located in the heart of Africa with an area of 2,345,000 sq km, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) gained independence on June 30, 1960. Between 1958 and 1984 the population of the DRC increased from 13.5 to 30.7 million inhabitants. According to 2008 projections of the United Nations Population Division (UNPD), the population more than doubled to 67,827,000 in 2010, with an annual population growth rate estimated at 3.3 percent from 1990 and 1995 and 2.8 percent between 2005 and 2010 (UNDP 2009). This population is unevenly distributed among different regions of the country, with about 70 percent of Congolese living in rural areas.
Convict labor and migration
Authors: Morgan Gwenda 
Published: January 2013

AbstractCoerced migration and forced labor of convicted felons has been incorporated belatedly into the history of migration and labor history alongside that of free migrants, slaves, and indentured laborers. Too often in the past historians studied criminal banishment in the context of national histories as an aspect of penology divorced from broader currents of history. Changes in perspective extending backwards in time and across national boundaries have led to the reconceptualization of the subject as imperial in character and global in scope.
Cosmopolitanism and migrant rights
Authors: Morris Lydia 
Published: January 2013

AbstractA useful preliminary to thinking about immigration law, immigration control, and migrants' rights is to be found in a broader sociological argument about an emergent cosmopolitanism, which characterizes changes in the nature of society and advocates corresponding changes in the discipline of sociology that also have implications for how we think about the law. Ulrich Beck 2006 has been a key figure in related debate, arguing that cosmopolitan forces are transforming the experiential space of the nation‐state and that the “methodological nationalism” which has characterized sociological thinking must give way to an approach that recognizes the “mythic” status of the national state, and the transnational realities that are reshaping our social world. In other words, we must no longer conceive of society as a bounded entity which has its existence within the borders of the nation‐state, but (presumably) rather as a network of social forces and transnational movements which has no clearly delimited geographical home. However, Beck argues against a dichotomizing view that sets the national and the global perspectives in opposition. He favors instead an approach which recognizes the global forces written into national dynamics such that the national and transnational are interlocking and mutually constituting phenomena. The transnational migrant is a key figure in the picture that he paints, provoking “explosive questions” about the rights of noncitizens, and the capacity of the nation‐state to exert control over its borders.
Cross‐cultural bonds
Authors: Couton Philippe 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
International migration necessarily involves cultural encounters: migrants leave their sociocultural environment and settle in a host country endowed with its own complex culture, to which they must adapt. These cross‐cultural encounters can take different forms, resulting in a range of social, cultural, economic, and political formations strongly influenced by historical settings, ideological forces, and local to global trends and events. Though this is not a linear phenomenon, it helps to conceptualize it as a potential continuum, along the lines of the approaches developed to study immigrant incorporation. At one end is the complete disappearance of the culture borne by immigrants, the result of their seamless assimilation into the host society over the course of one or two generations. At the other end is the emergence and persistence of a completely separate and distinct ethno‐immigrant social formation able to sustain the imported culture in all its dimensions (language, religion, food, etc.). Neither of these outcomes is very common, with the vast majority of immigrants to most host countries falling somewhere in between (and usually close to the middle), but cases that fit these extremes do exist, historically and contemporarily.
Cultural and social memory
Authors: Kitzmann Andreas 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe act of telling stories of the past is central to the experience of immigration and migration. Tales and recollections of the “homeland,” of what was lost and gained, of the trials and success of ancestors and relatives, of individual and collective hopes, dreams and accomplishments are, in part, inseparable from what it means to be an immigrant. Such stories are also articulated in ways beyond words through photographs, keepsakes, artifacts, diaries, home movies, web pages and a myriad of other forms of articulating the past, present and future. Indeed, as Anthony Giddens has noted, among others, life stories are integral to the formation of identity (Giddens 1991: 76). Yet despite the seemingly obvious nature of such observations, the interplay between storytelling conventions, migration, immigration, social and collective memory is increasingly complex. Central to such complexity are the dynamics of globalization, especially as fueled by the swiftly moving currents of media technology, with the Internet and other digital technologies acting as the prime movers of cultural and social memory.
Culture and migration, a critical assessment
Authors: Bâ Saër Maty 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAcross the globe, from the dawn of civilization, migration has defined humanity, definitively and enduringly. Indeed, all human beings have recent or distant forebears who trekked, wandered, or journeyed to novel locations. Additionally, migration as a defining feature of human cultures has remained as compelling in recent times as it was at the beginning of civilization. This point informs and sustains a critical analysis of culture and migration.
Day laborers in the United States
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
While no formal definition of day labor exists, it is commonly used to convey a type of temporary employment in labor markets that employ manual workers (frequently and often incorrectly called low‐skill or unskilled labor). Most day laborers in the United States are migrant workers who are forced by economic factors to work in hazardous and undesirable conditions. In the three decades from 1980 to 2010, due to a complex interaction between forces of labor supply and demand, particularly in the United States, the use of day laborers has increased significantly because of companies trying to cut costs and, as a result, swelling migration flows to highly industrialized countries. US labor markets have been under greater and greater pressure to demonstrate more flexibility when it comes to bottom‐line costs. In particular, the construction industry has been a leader in adopting alternative hiring practices, making a shift to using contingent workers hired on an as‐needed basis.
Dependency theory
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn response to modernization theory, which proffered a two‐dimensional explanation for world development within the modern–traditional continuum – with Western countries depicted as modern (rational) and the bulk of the developing countries as traditional and thus underdeveloped – Latin American social scientists, including Ander Gunder Frank, Paul Baran, and Theot&onio Dos Santos 2005 developed dependency theory between 1963 and 1964. According to dependency theory, developing nations are underdeveloped not because of their so‐called primitive or traditional culture but because of their entanglement in unequal and exploitative economic relations in the world capitalist system, which is dominated by the Western world. Describing the world imperialist structure, Ander Gunder Frank explored the “sociology of development” 1971, the “Lumpenbourgeoisie” and “Lumpendevelopment” 1972 in developing countries, and the “centrality of Central Asia” 1992 in early development, especially along the ancient Silk Road (Pieterse 2005).
Deportation of migrants, Netherlands 19th–20th century
Authors: van Eijl Corrie 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThis essay concentrates on deportation – the forced removal of immigrants from state territory – by examining deportation history in the Netherlands. States can regulate migration by restricting the entry and stay of immigrants or by deporting those who do not (or no longer) fulfill the conditions to stay. This case study will demonstrate that deportation was not an easy solution to unwanted or illegal immigration. Deportation was not only costly; it could also be frustrated by understaffed police forces, public resistance, or by unwilling deportees and their countries of origin.
Diasporas and colonization in Classical Antiquity
Authors: Woolf Greg 
Published: January 2013

AbstractDuring the early Holocene humans had followed the retreating glaciers and repopulated Europe. The subsequent spread of agriculture westwards and northwards raised population densities across the continent and provided the conditions for complex societies to emerge. Long‐distance exchange can be documented for the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in many commodities, among them spondylus shells, stone axes, amber, and metal ores. Transfers of technology took place too, as is easily documented by the spread of metallurgy and domesticates. Iron working, wagons, coinage, and the potter's wheel all arrived during the first millenniumBCE.
Diasporas: diversity and entrepreneurship
Authors: Montes Krishnan Sharma and Manuel F. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Diaspora entrepreneurship has witnessed dramatic and exciting developments in recent years, with successful entrepreneurs in the North expanding their business reach to their home developing countries, bringing along with them capital, technology, and market knowledge. While illustrating the various success stories in this area, this essay emphasizes the diversity among diaspora groups and examines the underlying factors influencing the degree and nature of an expatriate community's contribution to business development in the homeland. It concludes with a discussion of the policy lessons. A broad definition is taken of diaspora entrepreneurs as expatriates who are engaged in entrepreneurial activities in their home countries. While some of them return to set up business in their home country, others undertake or facilitate investment and entrepreneurial ventures while working and residing overseas.