bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Scaling Compensatory Restoration Under the 1990 Oil Pollution Act
Authors: Tomasi Theodore , Kealy Mary Jo , Rockel Mark 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A major feature of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) is a requirement that compensation be resource-based. This paper discusses the implications of resource-based compensation and the OPA 90 preference for narrowly-defined in-kind compensation. A framework is developed for evaluating compensatory scaling methods on the basis of the applicability of the method to the restoration project and the cost-effectiveness of the solution. The framework places potential compensation projects along a continuum, which ranges from strict in-kind compensation applied to small injuries to full out-of-kind compensation applied to large injuries. This conceptual framework is used to augment the existing techniques for scaling compensatory restoration, which otherwise appear to us to be limited to addressing only projects at the two ends of the continuum. The advantages of this framework are that it (1) avoids the either/or nature of the scaling choices in the current situation by offering techniques to scale compensation projects that fall in between the two ends of the continuum, (2) protects both Responsible Parties (RPs) and trustees against charges that scaling has taken place in an arbitrary manner, and (3) provides some guidance and criteria to determine when a particular scaling technique and related studies may be appropriate and lead to the most cost-effective solution.
The Evaporation of Oil Spills: Development and Implementation of New Prediction Methodology
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Extensive experimentation was conducted on oil evaporation. The results of the regulation nature of oil evaporation experiments, show that oil is not strictly boundary-layer regulated specifically: (1) the evaporation rate of several oils with increasing wind speed shows that, unlike water, the evaporation rate does not change significantly except for the initial step over 0-level wind; (2) increasing area does not significantly change oil evaporation rate; (3) decreasing thickness does not increase oil evaporation rate; (4) the volume or mass of oil evaporating correlates with the evaporation rate; (5) evaporation of pure hydrocarbons with and without wind (turbulence) shows that compounds larger than nonane and decane are not boundary-layer regulated.
The fact that oil evaporation is not strictly boundary-layer regulated implies a simplistic evaporation equation will suffice to describe the process. A simple equation of the form, evaporation = constant × logarithm of time, is sufficient to describe evaporation. The following processes do not require consideration: wind velocity, turbulence level, area, thickness, and scale size. The factors found to be important to evaporation are time and temperature.
The equation parameters found experimentally for the evaporation of oils can be related to commonly-available distillation data for the oil. Specifically, it has been found that the distillation percentage at 180°C correlates well with the equation parameters. Relationships enabling calculation of evaporation equations directly from distillation data have been developed. These equations were combined with the equations generated to account for the temperature variations.
The results have application in oil spill prediction and modelling. The simple equations can be applied using readily-available data such as sea temperature and time. Old equations required oil vapour pressure, specialised distillation data, spill area, wind speed, and mass transfer coefficients, all of which are difficult to obtain.
Incident Command System-Based Area Contingency Plans
Authors: Plourde Kristy L. , Dix Mark 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Office San Francisco Bay (MSO SFB) embarked on a major revision of its three Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) and published them in a new consolidated Incident Command System (ICS) based plan. Restructuring the plans to an ICS format involved consolidating over 1800 pages, adding information and reformatting the sections into recognizable divisions that are understandable to any spill responder who understands ICS. Due to the large number of sensitive sites within the San Francisco Bay and Delta (SFBD) region, this section of the ACP was reorganized and divided into Geographics Response Plans (GRPs) or geographic zones for ease of use. The SFBD GRPs have color maps that show the sensitive sites in that zone for easy identification. The new ACP can be easily accessed via any computer platform using Adobe Acrobat PDF files. The online version allows the user to zoom into any desired area with linked tables of contents and GRP map links to the sensitive sites. MSO SFB has successfully marketed this plan by publishing it on its Web site. Essential elements of an ICS based ACP and computer enhancements are presented along with problems encountered.
Filling the Void: Local Control of Oil Spill Prevention Efforts
Authors: Felleman Fred , Lentz Sally Ann 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper examines the implementation of OPA 90 in the context of its mandates to determine if the roles undertaken by federal, state and local entities have been effective in furthering marine environmental protection on the local level and makes recommendations for increasing pollution prevention.
The analysis reveals that the federal government—through the work of the Coast Guard—has not been successful in implementing the pollution prevention provisions of OPA. This has resulted in some states exercising their authority under OPA to address issues of local concern as regards shipping and potential oil spills. Where States have stepped in to fill the void; they are often faced with industry and federal government opposition or recalcitrance. OPA's PWS RCAC provides a model for cooperative relationships between government, industry and the public to address local concerns. We conclude that the RCAC model should be extended to other regions of high volume shipping activity and that the GAO should undertake an investigation of the Coast Guard's Marine Environmental Protection and Compliance Programs for the purpose of identifying the obstacles to timely and effective implementation of OPA, and for developing a strategy for overcoming those obstacles.
Action Plan Effectiveness
Authors: Leonard Joseph J. , Gibeault Carl L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Incident Action Plans (IAPs) are one of the most effective ways for an Incident Commander (IC) or Unified Command (UC) to convey to the established response organization the goals and objectives that must be accomplished to mitigate an event. These plans come in many forms, from simple ones written on a blank sheet of paper to book size plans produced by a computer. Regardless of the form used, they must all successfully convey the IC's or UC's intentions, while being flexible enough to handle changes brought on by unseen events. If the plan is not “user-friendly,” then field personnel in the Operations Section will develop their own strategies for mitigating the incident. This free-lancing may lead to poor resource utilization, duplication of effort, creation of safety hazards, and the general failure to accomplish the overall goals of the IC or UC. This lack of effectiveness will quickly be translated into a lack of efficiency, thereby raising response costs—something no responsible party wants or needs. IAPs must avoid being too complex, too detailed, or too lengthy, as this will limit their usefulness to response managers and supervisors. Dedicated efforts must be made by the Planning Section to assure that IAPs can be easily read and understood by response managers and supervisors. These plans must also have measurable objectives that can be accomplished by the available resources. An effective IAP is composed of four key elements—response objectives, the structure of the response management organization, assignments for response resources, and supporting plans and materials. Comprehensive development of these four essential elements is the cornerstone of an effective IAP. To translate planning into execution, IAPs must contain the four essential elements, be easily understood by response managers and supervisors, and have response objectives achievable by available resources.
Naturalistic Decision Making and Training the Incident Commander
Authors: Kuhaneck Thomas S. , Heggers Arn M. , O'Malley Mark P. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
For years, the U.S. Coast Guard and other pollution response organizations have relied on traditional (analytical) decision making models as a basis for training their On-Scene Coordinators. With the Coast Guard's adoption of the Incident Command System (ICS), a more appropriate basis for a training program may be found using naturalistic decision making (NDM) models. This paper will describe both the traditional and naturalistic decision making models, compare them, explain why naturalistic decision making is more appropriate for training Incident Commanders, and propose a program for such training for use by the Coast Guard or other response organizations.
Using Human Performance Technology to Improve Performance in Ten ICS Positions1
Authors: Folsom Al , Heggers Arn M. , Coleman Peyton , Merrick Gary 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Most performance improvement efforts focus on training which provides skill and knowledge interventions. This focus neglects many of the other factors that impact performance such as environmental support, tools, resources, consequences, incentives, rewards, motives, expectations, individual capacity, data, information, and feedback. The U.S. Coast Guard, in its efforts to implement the Incident Command System (ICS), chose to take that broader systematic and systemic approach found in Human Performance Technology (HPT). Using the Harless Accomplishment Based Curriculum Design (ABCD), Front-End Analysis (FEA) process, the Coast Guard Performance Technology Center, in partnership with the Coast Guard Marine Safety Schools, conducted New Performance Planning FEA's for ten of the major ICS positions. By interviewing experienced performers in each of the positions, the FEA's were able to identify the major accomplishments and outcomes produced, as well as what actions make a spill response exemplary. Probably the most enlightening aspect of the FEA's was the identification of both the contributing and inhibiting factors to good performance. This paper will explain the principles of HPT applied to this project, the ABCD-FEA process, and discuss the results of the FEA's, outlining the major accomplishments for each position and the various interventions identified for improving performance.
Comparative Costs of Low-Technology Shoreline Cleaning Methods1
Authors: Purnell Karen J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper examines the trends in costs associated with the various low technology shoreline cleanup methods that were used in the response to the Sea Empress incident, by drawing on information gathered during the response and the subsequent claims for compensation from the local government councils involved. Analysis of the costs allowed the level of effort invested in shoreline cleaning to be quantified and re-enforced the view that the return on effort invested decreases progressively as the level of oiling reduces. The trends also reflect occasions where additional effort had to be expended at a later stage in the cleanup as a consequence of problems generated by some techniques used earlier in the response.
Who Will Pay? Am I Liable? If I Am, When Do I Stop?
Authors: Weiss Steven P. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This discussion will focus on how liability for a particular spill is determined, from both a spiller's perspective and from the findings of various investigative bodies. Proactive handling of spill response to minimize and control cleanup costs, and the handling of third-party and damage assessment claims will also be discussed, including how to negotiate with the various parties involved in both public and private sectors.
Estimating Baseline Human-Use Services for Natural Resource Damage Assessments
Authors: Dunford Richard W. , Friesen Jonathan A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Baseline for human-use services (e.g., recreation activities) is the estimated level of human-use services that would have occurred in the absence of an oil spill. The baseline should reflect the non-spill factors that can affect human-use services, such as weather conditions. One approach for estimating baseline human-use services is the prediction approach, which uses attendance data over several years at the injured site to estimate attendance levels in the absence of the spill. The main weakness of this approach is that it often does not take into account the non-spill factors that can affect baseline. The other main approach for estimating baseline human-use services is the reference-site approach, which estimates baseline using attendance data from a nearby site that is sufficiently similar to the injured site with respect to physical characteristics, activities, and users. This approach effectively incorporates the effects of weather conditions and other non-spill influences into baseline, but finding an appropriate reference site can be difficult. Pre-spill actions that could improve the accuracy of baseline estimates of human-use services include identifying recreation sites in areas at high risk for oil spills, determining which recreation activities are popular at these sites, and evaluating possible sources of attendance data for these sites.
Evaluation of Shoreline Cleaning Versus Natural Recovery: The Metula Spill and the Komi Operations
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Sienkiewicz A. Mark , Sergy Gary A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
An appropriate oil spill response involves evaluation of the likely consequences of treatment or cleanup on ecological and human resources. Two cases are examined: the first is the Metula spill in the Straits of Magellan, Chile, where surveys over a 24-year period provide data on long-term changes on oiled shorelines that were not cleaned or treated. The consequences of the decision not to clean or treat are minimal as the only remaining oil today is restricted to an asphalt pavement and two marshes. In the second case, the 1995–1996 cleanup that followed the Komi pipeline spills in Russia, the operational objective was to prevent oil from affecting downstream resources and populations. This objective was achieved by containment of the oil near the source but the success of the project must be weighed against the consequential additional oiling and construction damage that resulted from the operations to more than 20 hectares of pristine terrain. These two spills in remote locations provide valuable lessons on some aspects of decision trade-offs and on the consequences of the cleanup decision in the context of the concept of net environmental benefit.
Studies of Emissions from Oil Fires
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Lambert Patrick , Li Ken , Wang Zhendi , Ackerman Francine , Nelson Robert , Goldthorp Mike , Mullin Joseph V. , Turpin Rod , Nadeau Royal , Campagna Phil , Hiltabrand Robert 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Over 35 meso-scale burns were conducted to study various aspects of diesel and crude oil burning in situ. Extensive sampling and monitoring of these burns were conducted at downwind stations, upwind stations, and in the smoke plume.
Particulate samples were taken in air and analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting oil, although higher concentrations of the larger molecular PAHs were found in the soot and residue, especially for diesel burns. Particulates in the air were measured by several means, and were found to be greater than recommended exposure levels up to 500 meters downwind at ground level, depending on the size and type of fire. Diesel fires emit much more particulate matter and have longer exposure zones. Combustion gases, including carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, were below exposure level maximums. Volatile organic compound (VOCs) emissions were measured, but the levels were less than from an evaporating crude oil spill. Over 140 compounds were identified and quantified. Carbonyls, including aldehydes and ketones, were found to be below human health concern levels.
Emission data from over 30 experimental burns were used to develop prediction equations for over 150 specific compounds or emission categories. These were used to calculate safe distances and levels of concern for a standard burn size of 500 square meters, an amount that would typically be contained in a boom. The safe distance for a crude oil burn of this size is about 500 m and for a diesel burn, much farther.
Treatment of Oiled Sediment Shorelines by Sediment Relocation
Authors: Sergy Gary A. , Guénette Chantal , Prince Roger C. , Owens Edward H. , Lee Kenneth 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
An experimental oil spill in Svalbard, Norway, quantified the effectiveness of selected in situ shoreline treatment options to accelerate natural oil removal processes on mixed-sediment shorelines. A total of 5500 L of IF-30 oil was applied on the upper beach at three experimental sites. Treatment and control plots were established within the continuous stretch of each oiled shoreline. Two of the experimental sites were used to assess the treatment technique of sediment relocation. Monitoring was conducted over a 60-day period to quantify oil removal and to document changes in beach physical character, oil penetration, movement of oil to the subtidal environment, toxicity and oil biodegradation.
Findings demonstrate and quantify that mechanical relocation of oiled sediments significantly accelerated the rate of oil removal. Oil released by sediment relocation treatments did not elevate toxicity in the nearshore environment to unacceptable levels, nor did it result in consequential along shore or nearshore sediment oiling. Microscopic observations and image analyses confirmed that the Oil-Fine Interactions (OFI) process was active and was increased by sediment relocation.
Rehabilitation of Oiled Wildlife: Why Do It?
Authors: Jessup David A. , Mazet Jonna A. K. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Although the public's interest in oil spills and similar environmental disasters often focus on the plight of injured animals, animal issues are only a very small part of an oil spill response. The dichotomy between the public's and the media's perception of what is important and what many wildlife biologists feel is important for long-term species conservation has led to conflicts and heated exchanges between proponents and opponents of oiled wildlife care. Additionally, some critics believe that there is a competition for funds between wildlife care and wildlife restoration, and that oiled wildlife care is offered up as a solution to pollution's damage to wildlife populations, or as an alternative to prevention. In California the collection, medical care, and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife is part of a comprehensive program for pollution response and provides data needed for planning, prevention and restoration. It is conducted for specific legal, social, political, and biological reasons. Under these circumstances, oiled wildlife care supports species conservation programs, as well as helping to document injury.
Aligning Expectation and Reality: A Summary of Dispersant Risk Communication Issues
Authors: Scholz Debra K. , Walker Ann Hayward , Kucklick Janet H. , Pond Robert G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The potential and perceived environmental risks associated with dispersant use have been addressed by many scientific studies costing millions of dollars and tens of thousands of research hours. Nevertheless, decision makers still have many diverse and contradictory viewpoints, which can impede their ability to evaluate and reach consensus on the actual risks associated with this countermeasure. In an attempt to resolve the problem in a different way, a new approach was formulated, based on the following hypothesis: The inability to create a solid foundation for dispersant decision support is based not only on limitations to scientific information, but also on the wide differences in the way people understand and interpret this information. In other words, a critical aspect of improved decision making for dispersants is related to good risk communication, not more natural science studies.
In 1994, industry initiated a research project to test this hypothesis and define the critical risk communication factors for dispersant decision making. This paper presents a summary of the identified dispersant risk communication issues. Building upon previous papers which described the project methodology and analytical results, this paper presents the risk communication messages which need to be shared with decision makers and the public. This information promotes a technically sound, clear, and common framework for evaluating the ecological risks associated with dispersant use in marine waters.
Development of PAJ Oil Spill Simulation Model
Authors: Koshikawa Atsushi , Fujii Takashi , Takahata Tetsuo 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This oil spill simulation model (latest version is 4) is the model which was developed as the part of “Major Oil Spill Response Programme” which the Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ) has been conducting. This model covers the whole area of Japanese Waters. This model has three major features. First, this model can use the 3km grid wind forecast data that are most sensitive for accuracy of trajectory of an oil slick, provided by the Japan Weather Association (JWA). This data is updated every 12 hours. Secondly, the oil slick trajectory and some physical characteristics of oil can be calculated within about 5 min. Thirdly, this model has been designed for simple operations so that it can be used popularly by people other than computer or simulation experts.
This paper outlines the main function of the model with the application for the study on the Diamond Grace incident that occurred in July 1997. The authors also show the validity of the model prediction result through comparison with the drift experiment. The basic model of PAJ oil spill simulation model is not intended only for Japanese waters. However, if the additional data are prepared, the model can be applied to any coastal area.