bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Value and Cost Effectiveness of Conducting a Root Cause Analysis
Authors: Ferrari André-Michel , Jones Brad 
Published: July 2013

The formal Root Cause Analysis (RCA) process consists of a structured approach to identifying the underlying factors that result in the unwanted outcomes of one or more typically negative past events (chronic or sporadic). The process helps to identify what systems or behaviors need to be modified to prevent recurrence of similar outcomes. The fundamental driver of the RCA is to eliminate the causes that lead to the unwanted event rather than addressing the symptoms of the event. This generally leads to multiple corrective actions rather than a single solution.
Based on various root causes analyses conducted by a department in Enbridge Pipelines since 2006, various benefits provided by RCA exercises are highlighted in this paper. The findings were mainly derived from completed RCAs as well as RCA team member surveys.
Firstly, the cost effectiveness of the RCA process was identified as a primary driver for this exercise. For example, one RCA involving a multidisciplinary team of 8 members, costing approximately $35,000, led to $1M in recommended solutions generating $16M in potential savings. In other words, each of the 350 hours spent on the RCA produced $8,571 in savings underlining the value creation to the company.
Secondly, the RCA process combined with the power of the team reflection led to the identification of new issues which were causing other revenue losses to the company. Because these issues were not part of the defined scope of the original RCA, their root causes were not be immediately assessed but nevertheless their impact could easily be quantified and forwarded to Management for review.
The third benefit highlighted by RCAs is more of an educational benefit to team members and subsequently the organization. Through cross functional examination of the issues and events, the team members became aware and educated on issues that would not have otherwise been apparent. Additionally, by working through the RCA methodology, the team members enhanced their problem solving abilities which benefit their everyday work.
In conclusion, other than identifying techniques to preclude unwanted outcomes and providing cost saving opportunities in a very cost effective manner, RCAs can be considered as an effective knowledge enhancement tool for an organization.
Protecting Mainline Valves From Ice Flows
Authors: Hansen John W. 
Published: July 2013

In the spring of 2009, the Red River of North Dakota flooded six feet deep and ten miles wide in Pembina County. The flood was followed by arctic temperatures that froze the floodwaters 8-inches thick and also froze around the stems of seven isolation valves. These isolation valves were for pipelines carrying crude oil and natural gas liquid (NGL). The pipeline sizes varied from 36-inch to 18-inch diameters. The ice around the valves was subjected to wind forces of 50 mph putting the valves at risk. Also, when the second spring runoff came, the river current pulled ice down through the valley. This ice flow took out trees, power poles, and damaged a couple of isolation valves. The damage was minimal, but could have been worse. No leaks occurred.
This paper will explore the unique problems associated with protecting the valves and delve into keys and principles that led to an innovative solution. Technical issues will be discussed that will help future projects solve problems on how to protect equipment from ice flows. The underlying soils were known for their excessive settlements and low shear strength. The soil was predicted to settle 6-inches after adding eleven feet of fill for protective berms. The preliminary pipe stress calculations based on the predicted settlement of 6-inches put the allowable pipe stress near the limits of acceptability. The valve site was also located miles from the nearest road. The forces from the ice loads in a river can be enormous and engineering judgment had to be used to obtain a practical solution.
Extreme Testing: Assessing CPM Leak Detection Systems on a Northern Oil Pipeline
Authors: Vinh Paul , Zhang Lichun , Barlow Rick 
Published: July 2013

Pipelines in remote and ecologically sensitive regions pose special challenges for pipeline integrity monitoring. These challenges include difficulties of access, reliability issues of communication and instrumentation that may impact the leak detection technology applied in these regions. The selection, application and continuous testing of an appropriate technology to detect possible leaks are important to pipeline integrity monitoring.
The paper reports theoretical assessment and extensive testing on an Enbridge subarctic liquid pipeline. It also reports the comprehensive cost-benefit analysis to guide the leak detection instrument design/configuration and the evaluation of the capabilities of alternative computational pipeline monitoring (CPM) technologies for leak detection.
The selected test pipeline is an 869 kilometer (540 mile), NPS 12 inch pipeline that transports sweet crude through environmentally sensitive areas. This pipeline currently uses a real-time transient model (RTTM) style CPM as the leak detection system (LDS). The pipeline LDS is tested annually by a number of industry-recognized methodologies. These include fluid withdrawal tests, simulated leak tests and an API-1130 instrument adjustment approach. This pipeline is also assessed by API-1149 for its theoretical CPM leak detection sensitivity.
A pilot project invited commercial CPM-style vendors to participate in an LDS test using data from fluid withdrawal and simulated leak tests. Five vendors responded and were included in the test suite. The paper describes the design and implementation of the test process. The results of the commercial systems are presented in aggregated form and the participating vendors remain anonymous. Performance assessment focuses on the LDS evaluation factors of sensitivity and accuracy. The paper concludes with a “lessons learned” review of issues associated with test design.
Material Development of X80 for Strain-Based Design Applications
Authors: Rivinius Christoph , Schwinn Volker , Liessem Andreas , Schröder Jens , Pant Martin 
Published: July 2013

Due to the further increasing demand for natural gas, the construction of long-distance pipelines traversing through seismically active regions or arctic regions with ground movement caused by permafrost phenomena will become more and more necessary. To guarantee the safe operation of those pipelines, the pipe material has to fulfill strain-based design requirements in the coated condition. Hence in longitudinal direction low yield-to-tensile ratios, high uniform elongation values and a roundhouse shape of the stress-strain curve combined with sufficient strength values in transverse direction are essential.
The basis for appropriate pipe properties is an adequate design of the plate material. To achieve these objectives the microstructure has become a central element. Nevertheless, it has to be taken into account that the cold deformation during the pipe manufacturing process and the heat treatment of the pipe during the subsequent coating have a major influence on the final line pipe behavior.
The current paper describes recent development steps and approaches. The mechanical properties of the different concepts will be compared and the advantages and disadvantages will be highlighted.
Why Reliability-Based Approaches Need More Realistic Corrosion Growth Modeling
Authors: Huyse Luc , Brown Katherine A. 
Published: July 2013

Deterministic design and assessment methods are by definition conservative. Although no claim is made regarding the actual reliability level that is achieved using deterministic, i.e. safety-factor based approaches, the safety factors have been selected such that generally sufficient conservatism is maintained. Reliability-based methods aim to explicitly quantify the aggregated conservatism in terms of failure probabilities or risk. Accurate reliability estimates are not possible without accurate computational prediction models for the limit states and adequate quantification of the uncertainties in both the inputs and model assumptions. Although this statement may seem self-evident, it should not be made light-heartedly. In fact, just about every analysis step in the pipeline integrity assessment procedures contains an inherent, yet unquantified, level of conservatism. One such example is the application of a “maximum” corrosion growth rate that is constant in time.
A reliability-based framework holds the promise of a more consistent and explicitly quantified safety level. This ultimately leads to higher safety efficiency for an entire pipeline system than under safety factor based approaches. An accurate prediction of the true likelihood of an adverse event is impossible without significant research into determining and understanding the, usually conservative, bias in the engineering models that are currently employed in the pipeline integrity state-of-the-practice. This paper highlights some of the challenges that are associated when porting the “maximum corrosion rate” approach used in a deterministic approach to a reliability-based paradigm. Issues associated with both defect and segment matching approaches will be highlighted and a better corrosion growth model form will be proposed.
The Contribution of Aboriginal Traditional Ecological Knowledge to the Environmental Assessment Process for Canadian Pipelines
Authors: Lewis Wanda 
Published: July 2013

Northern British Columbia (BC) and Alberta are sparsely populated forested lands under provincial jurisdiction (also known as Crown land) which are under intensive oil & gas exploration and pipeline development. Local Aboriginal people continue to implement traditional practices that maintain viable land and productive ecosystems by annual rotation of trap lines, hunting and gathering areas and similar activities. Aboriginal people can exert tremendous influence on pipeline projects through various means. Regulators and enlightened pipeline companies recognize the value of assessing traditional knowledge that has been collected over generations and passed down from the Elders to contribute to final routing, siting and project design identifying effects on environmental resources and traditional land and resource use and developing mitigation opportunities. Traditional knowledge includes experiential and secondary knowledge as well as accepted scientific research in the context of environmental assessments. Robust applications consider sources from all land users while being mindful of the intricacies inherent with Aboriginal engagement in order to gather substantive input for projects on Crown land.
This paper explores the contribution of Aboriginal Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in the environmental assessment process on selected case studies involving recent natural gas pipeline projects in northern BC and Alberta from a balanced perspective. It also describes the evolution of a program developed by the author from its initial emphasis on Traditional Land Use (TLU) studies to the present day application of TLU studies, and TEK studies, focusing on lessons learned and regulatory and engagement challenges and successes.
PIRAM: Pipeline Ice Risk Assessment and Mitigation Program Overview
Authors: Phillips Ryan , King Tony , Bruce Jim 
Published: July 2013

The Pipeline Ice Risk Assessment & Mitigation JIP (PIRAM) developed a set of engineering models and design procedures for implementation into industry best practices for risk mitigation and protection of pipeline infrastructure from ice keel loading. The models established the pipeline mechanical behaviour in response to ice keel load events, and assessed engineering concepts for protection and risk mitigation strategies. Improved methodologies for contact frequency and ice keel loads determination formed part of the integrated model.
This paper presents an overview of this multiyear program and examples of the application of the models in pipeline burial depth assessment in pressure ridge ice gouged seabeds.
Development and Production of Helical-Two-Step (HTS) Pipes: Grades Up to API X70 for Sour Service Application
Authors: Mirković Djordje , Flaxa Volker , Knoop Franz Martin 
Published: July 2013

Within the corresponding commercial and R&D projects five microalloyed pipeline steel grades have recently been developed and processed to spiral-welded pipes. For steel grades X52, X65, and X70 the aimed tensile properties, improved sour service resistivity, and low temperature toughness up to −40°C were reliably achieved.
Influence of steel cleanliness, the non-metallic inclusions in particular, on sour gas resistibility has been investigated by means of ultrasonic testing of hydrogen charged HIC (Hydrogen Induced Cracking) samples and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) analyses of HIC fracture surfaces. The results have been used to optimize the applied process parameter in steel production and coil processing. The ladle metallurgical treatment and soft reduction were consistently applied within narrow process tolerances enabling high steel cleanness and slab centerline quality, which are both indispensable for sour service application. Subsequent TMCP (Thermo Mechanical Processing) wide strip hot rolling and cooling parameters were selected to prevent a two-phase finish rolling and to obtain a predominating acicular ferritic microstructure. For pipe production, attention was paid to minimize the residual stresses, due to both pipe-forming and welding.
The alloying approach is based on the classical sour lean NbTi steel composition, modified by varying Cu, Ni, Cr, and Mo contents to achieve the targeted specification.
The processed spiral-welded pipes were formed to diameters between 762 and 1372 mm with a wall thickness of 13.7 to 16.0 mm. CVN (Charpy V-Notch) values were higher than 360 J/cm2 and DWTT (Drop Weight Tear Test) higher than 60% SA (Shear Area) at −40°C. The samples also showed outstanding HIC resistivity. Being proved with standard test conditions according to NACE TM0284 solution A, the CAR (Crack Area Ratio) average value of pipe samples was less than 1% for grades up to X65 and less than 5% for X70 grades. The 4-point-bending SSC (Sulphide Stress Cracking) tests at 80% of SMYS according to NACE TM0177 and ASTM G39 showed no SSC cracks for all projects.
Finally, the results of one specific R&D project are presented to demonstrate that even for API X70 grade spiral-welded pipes (OD 1016×16 mm) mechanical properties, e.g. high-strength, ductility, and low temperature toughness has been successfully combined with sour service resistivity.
Limit States Design and Assessment of Onshore Pipelines
Authors: Nessim Maher 
Published: July 2013

In 2005, guidelines for the application of reliability-based design and assessment (RBDA) to natural gas pipelines were developed under PRCI sponsorship. The methodology underlying these guidelines has since been adopted as a non-mandatory Annex in the CSA Z662 standard (Annex O). The benefits of reliability-based methods include consistent safety levels, optimized solutions that make best use of available resources and flexibility in addressing non-standard problems. The key limitations of the methodology are that it requires specialized expertise, good data and a significant analysis effort.
One approach that has been successfully used to simplify the application of reliability-based methods is to develop simple design and assessment rules that are designed to meet specified safety levels. In this approach, which is referred to here as limit states design and assessment, the checking rules incorporate safety factors that are “calibrated” to meet pre-selected reliability targets, within a specified tolerance, over a wide range of possible design and assessment cases. Probabilistic analyses are performed as part of the development stage, but the resulting checks are deterministic.
The basic elements required to calibrate limit states design and assessment checks have been developed as part of the RBDA methodology, making the development of a limit states approach feasible. This paper provides an overview of an ongoing Joint Industry Project to develop a limit states design and assessment standard that addresses the key threats to the safety of onshore pipelines. The benefits and limitations of this approach are discussed in comparison to the full RBDA approach, and the expected outcomes of the project are described.
Safety Levels Associated With the Ultimate Limit State Reliability Targets in Annex O of CSA Z662
Authors: Nessim Maher , Stephens Mark , Adianto Riski 
Published: July 2013

In 2005, guidelines for the application of reliability-based design and assessment (RBDA) to natural gas pipelines were developed under PRCI sponsorship. The methodology underlying these guidelines has since been adopted as a non-mandatory Annex in the CSA Z662 standard (Annex O). Because the methodology is based on the concept of consistent risk, it is more restrictive than current design standards for some pipelines and less restrictive for other pipelines. Specifically, the RBDA reliability targets for ultimate limit states (ULS) are lower than the reliability levels achieved by current design standards for large diameter, high pressure pipelines in Classes 2 to 4 (referred to in this paper as high consequence pipelines) and for all pipelines in Class 1. This has naturally led to questions among users and reviewers of RBDA regarding the adequacy of the ULS reliability targets for these pipelines.
For high consequence pipelines, the safety levels associated with the ULS reliability targets are compared to risk tolerance criteria from three published European standards. The comparison demonstrates that the targets are generally more conservative than all three standards. For Class 1 pipelines, the average failure probability for pipelines designed to the RBDA methodology is compared to the average failure probabilities for pipelines designed to ASME B31.8 and Clause 4 of CSA Z662. This shows that there is no significant difference in overall failure probability because the wall thickness for most Class 1 pipelines with low ULS targets are governed by other criteria, such as minimum permitted wall thickness and maximum diameter-to-thickness ratio for standard line pipe. Recognizing the potential difficulties with reliability targets that do not govern any designs, a possible modification to align the targets with the actual reliability levels is proposed.
The Decompression Behaviour of Carbon Dioxide in the Dense Phase
Authors: Cosham Andrew , Jones David G. , Armstrong Keith , Allason Daniel , Barnett Julian 
Published: July 2013

Pipelines can be expected to play a significant role in the transportation infrastructure required for the successful implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS). National Grid is undertaking a research and development programme to support the development of a safety justification for the transportation of carbon dioxide (CO2) by pipeline in the United Kingdom.
The ‘typical’ CO2 pipeline is designed to operate at high pressure in the ‘dense’ phase. Shock tube tests were conducted in the early 1980s to investigate the decompression behaviour of pure CO2, but, until recently, there have been no tests with CO2-rich mixtures.
National Grid have undertaken a programme of shock tube tests on CO2 and CO2-rich mixtures in order to understand the decompression behaviour in the gaseous phase and the liquid (or dense) phase. An understanding of the decompression behaviour is required in order to predict the toughness required to arrest a running ductile fracture.
The test programme consisted of three (3) commissioning tests, three (3) test with natural gas, fourteen (14) tests with CO2 and CO2-rich mixtures in the gaseous phase, and fourteen (14) tests with CO2 and CO2-rich mixtures in the liquid (or dense) phase. The shock tube tests in the liquid (dense) phase are the subject under consideration here.
Firstly, the design of the shock tube test rig is summarised. Then the test programme is described. Finally, the results of the dense phase tests are presented, and the observed decompression behaviour is compared with that predicted using a simple (isentropic) decompression model. Reference is also made to the more complicated (non-isentropic) decompression models. The differences between decompression through the gaseous and liquid phases are highlighted.
It is shown that there is reasonable agreement between the observed and predicted decompression curves.
The decompression behaviour of CO2 and CO2-rich mixtures in the liquid (dense) phase is very different to that of lean or rich natural gas, or CO2 in the gaseous phase. The plateau in the decompression curve is long. The following trends (which are the opposite of those observed in the gaseous phase) can be identified in experiment and theory:
• Increasing the initial temperature will increase the arrest toughness.
• Decreasing the initial pressure will increase the arrest toughness.
• The addition of other components such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen or methane will increase the arrest toughness.
Neutron Diffraction Studies of Residual Stresses Around Gouges and Gouged Dents
Authors: Clapham Lynann , Babbar Vijay , Gnaeupel-Herold Thomas , Batisse Remi , Zarea Mures 
Published: July 2013

The residual stress pattern surrounding gouges is complex and, to date, has not been accurately modeled using stress modeling software. Thus measurement of these stress distributions is necessary. Neutron diffraction is the only experimental method with the capability of directly evaluating residual strain throughout the entire thickness of a pipe wall, in and around dent or gouged regions.
Neutron diffraction measurements were conducted at the NIST reactor on three gouged dents in X52 pipeline sections. These were part of a larger sample set examined as part of the comprehensive MD4-1 PRCI/DOT PHMSA project. Gouges contained in pipeline sections were termed BEA161 (primarily a gouge with little denting), and BEA178 (mild gouging, very large dent). Measurements were also conducted on a coupon sample – P22, that was created as part of an earlier study.
For the moderate gouges with little or no associated denting (BEA161 and P22) the residual stress field was highly localized around the immediate gouge vicinity (except where there was some denting present). The through wall stress distributions were similar at most locations — characterized by neutral or moderate hoop and axial stresses (50–100MPa) at the outer wall surface (i.e. at the gouge itself) gradually becoming highly compressive (up to −600MPa) at the inner wall surface. The other sample (BEA178) exhibited a very mild gouge with significant denting, and the results were very different. The denting process associated with this kind of gouge+dent dominated the residual stresses, making the residual stress distribution very complex. In addition, rather than having a residual stress field that is localized in the immediate gouge vicinity, the varying stress distribution extends to the edge of the dented region..