bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cultural Awareness in Multilingual Education
Authors: Byram Michael 
Published: December 2012

Abstract“Cultural awareness,” as a quick Internet search will show, is a widely used phrase and consequently has no single precise meaning. It is used to refer to awareness of diversity within a society and among societies. It is often associated with “training,” involving specific activities which draw attention to diversity and encourage and deliberately develop positive attitudes and understanding. Such training is directed at adults in their professional and working lives. It is linked through this to “intercultural competence” which is based in part on heightened cultural awareness and which is itself fundamental to “intercultural communication.” This field of activity and study is well enough established to have spawned “handbooks” (e.g., Straub, Weidemann, & Weidemann, 2007; Deardorff, 2009) and many textbooks (e.g., Holliday, Hyde, & Kullman, 2004; Jandt, 2004; Chen & Starosta, 2005).
Culture and Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Connor Ulla , Rozycki William 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA classic defi nition of culture has been formulated as follows by the anthropologists Kroeber and Kluckhohn: Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments of artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of actions, on the other as conditioning elements of further action. (p. 357)
Davies, Alan
Authors: Maher John C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractProfessor Alan Davies, a founding father and major theorist of the field of applied linguistics, is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh. Davies grew up in South Wales of Welsh‐ and English‐speaking parents. His early linguistic experience provided an awareness of the reality and paradoxes of multilingualism, power, and the politics of language. After taking a degree in English at the University of Oxford and seven years as an English teacher in the UK and Kenya, he developed the English Proficiency Test Battery (EPTB) for the British Council at the University of Birmingham, where he was awarded a PhD on “Proficiency in English as a Second Language” (1965). He was appointed to a lectureship at Edinburgh University in 1965, has taught at universities in Nepal and Hong Kong, and in 1991 became founding Director of the Language Testing Research Centre at the University of Melbourne. He served as editor ofApplied LinguisticsandLanguage Testing. He was chair of the British Association of Applied Linguistics, Secretary‐General of AILA, and President of the International Language Testing Association (ILTA). He was in 2003 the first recipient of a Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and ILTA. In 2006 he was awarded a Leverhulme Emeritus Fellowship for a study entitledNative Speakers and Native Users.
Descriptive Linguistics
Authors: Granath Solveig 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWhen people who are not linguists consult a grammar book, it is usually because they want to find out the correct way of expressing something. This is the kind of information many grammars provide. Such grammars are referred to asnormativeorprescriptive, or sometimesteaching grammars, as this kind of grammar is often used in education. The underlying assumption which such grammars are based on is that rules can be established for the correct usage of a language. Descriptive linguistics rejects this notion of correctness: instead of prescribing how somethingought tobe said, it aims to systematically describe a language as fully and objectively as possible. Accordingly, descriptive grammars can be said to provide systematic descriptions of how the various components of language can be combined into sentences and other units of discourse. In sum, the ultimate object of descriptive linguistics is to describe in a non‐judgmental fashion how language is structured.
Discourse Analysis in Language Assessment
Authors: Lazaraton Anne 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

When second language (L2) learners take a language test, they are really only interested in one outcome: their scores. Likewise, language testers have been preoccupied with ensuring that these scores, which are the product of the assessment, are reliable and valid. In L2 performance assessment (where L2 learners produce speech or writing for assessment), the primary challenge is to ensure consistent ratings of language. Much work in oral language assessment (the focus of this entry) has been (and continues to be) devoted to ensuring both
inter‐rater reliability
(the degree to which two or more raters agree on scores) and
intra‐rater reliability
(or the degree to which one rater's scores are consistent across language samples and over time). In more recent years, issues of test
validity
(i.e., the process of making inferences from test results; see Messick, 1989; Moss, 1994) have emerged as a central concern for the language assessment community. This is particularly true for L2 speaking tests, where the interests of some scholars have shifted from a focus on rating consistency to the process of speaking assessment itself. That is, what typifies the language that interlocutors produce in speaking tests? And how can descriptions of that language feed into reliable and valid rating of test talk?
Discourse analysis
has proven to be a very promising method for discovering answers to these questions.
Discourse in Action
Authors: Jones Rodney H. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOne of the most fundamental issues in discourse studies is understanding the relationship between what we say and write and what we do, that is, the relationship betweendiscourseandaction. Nearly all mainstream approaches to discourse analysis begin with the assumption that discourse itselfisa kind of social action. Conversation analysts, for example, see talk as a matter of “paired action,” genre analysts speak of genres as examples of “communicative actions,” interactional sociolinguists focus on how people strategize discursive actions within an ongoing negotiative process with other social actors, and critical discourse analysts remind us that discourse constitutes and is constitutive of what they call “social practice.”
Discourse Versus discourse
Authors: Gee James Paul 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDiscourse analysis is the study of language in use (Fairclough, 1992; Gee, 1999). When we use language to communicate we must signal to our listenerswhowe are (in the sense of what socially meaningful identity or role we are speaking out of) andwhatwe are doing (what action or activity we are attempting to carry out). People talk and act not just as individuals, but as members of various sorts of social and cultural groups associated with different identities. For example, if a policeman says “You should move your car” we need to know if he is speaking in his role as a policeman and ordering us to move the car, or speaking as a helpful fellow citizen giving us advice.
Discriminant Function Analysis
Authors: Ramos Sara Da Silva , Rickard Liow Susan J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Discriminant function analysis (DFA) is a data‐reduction technique used to make decisions about naturally occurring group membership. It can answer theoretical questions but has proved especially useful in applied research. In this entry we begin with an overview of DFA, describing the two types of DFA investigation and its three main procedures, followed by a summary of DFA's potential and its limitations. We then explain the steps needed for interpreting DFA results, and conclude with two recent examples of the use of DFA as a statistical tool in psycholinguistic research.
Dörnyei, Zoltán
Authors: Kormos Judit 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Zoltán Dörnyei (1960‐ ) has contributed greatly to our understanding of how individual differences affect the outcomes of second and foreign language learning. He is most well known for his work on language‐learning motivation, but his research on communication strategies has also advanced the field of psycholinguistics. He is also the author of two very popular books on research methodology:
Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing
(Dörnyei, 2010) and
Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methodologies
(Dörnyei, 2007).
Douglas, Dan
Authors: Cortes Viviana 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDan Douglas has made groundbreaking contributions to the study of language for specific purposes (LSP) and language assessment, including his work on the novel exploration of certain specific registers, like the language of aviation, but most importantly with his work on assessment in LSP. His work on assessment focused on analyzing the development of assessment criteria for LSP and on exploring ways to derive these assessment criteria from the sources used to establish LSP test content and methods, that is, the analyses of specific purpose language use situations.
Dudley‐Evans, Tony
Authors: John Maggie Jo St 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTony Dudley‐Evans (born Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, 1943) is one of the leading figures in the development of English for specific purposes (ESP). He was an influential researcher in genre analysis, coauthor of a number of successful and significant textbooks, an innovator in teaching and research approaches, and editor of an important journal.
Duranti, Alessandro
Authors: Keating Elizabeth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAmong contemporary linguistic anthropologists, Alessandro Duranti is unique in the breadth of his research and in his interdisciplinary engagement in theorizing relationships between language and culture. His work can be understood as a career‐long interest in human creativity as expressed in linguistic (and other semiotic) forms, and the mediating influence of these forms on culture and social life. His work is highly influenced not only by formal linguistics, but by European and American philosophical and anthropological traditions. His earliest academic work at the University of Rome was on Korean syntax and semantics, but after beginning PhD study in the United States he also became interested in the social life of linguistic forms. These interests were perfectly synthesized in his ethnographic work on the role of grammatical forms in accomplishing social action, for example, how ergative case marking in Samoan could be manipulated by village chiefs and orators to negotiate agency and responsibility, one of many observations about language and culture inFrom Grammar to Politics: Linguistic Anthropology in a Western Samoan Village(Duranti, 1994). Later ethnographic work on the campaign trail in California, a contest for a US Congress seat, is another example of Duranti's approach to language, the video recorded data proving to be a rich source for understanding genre, the collaborative construction of meaning, and the materialization of locally relevant, taken‐for‐granted concepts such as democracy (Duranti, 2003, 2006a). Throughout his work he has developed and expanded his notion of “ethnopragmatics” (Duranti, 1993a, 2007) beyond a focus on the contextual life of language, local communicative practices, and speakers' attitudes, and toward the meaning and impact of those practices to language as an expression and realization of human agency more generally. Duranti is perhaps best known for his work on intentionality, both as it is perceived locally in different world areas, and the role of discursive practices in defining it (Duranti, 1993b, 2006b, 2008a). Most recently he has been reinvestigating the writings of Husserl on phenomenology in order to contribute to perhaps the most challenging anthropological question, understanding intersubjectivity and the limits and nature of sharing the perspective of the “other” (Duranti, 2009, 2010).
Early Bilingualism
Authors: Houwer Annick De 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEarly bilingualism arises when young children start to regularly hear two languages instead of just one. Children may hear these languages from birth, or they may start to hear a second language at a somewhat later age. In the first case, children are going through a process of bilingual first language acquisition or BFLA (Meisel, 1989; De Houwer, 1990, 2009). BFLA children have two first languages, namely Language A (LA) and Language Alpha (Lα), which typically are both spoken to them at home. This notation indicates that BFLA children have no chronologically first or second language. Children who are at first raised with just a single language (Language 1 or L1), and who start to regularly hear a second language (Language 2 or L2) at a later age are going through a process of early second language acquisition or ESLA (De Houwer, 1990, 2009). Typically, ESLA children hear only one language at home (L1), and meet the L2 in a group setting outside the home, such as a daycare center or a preschool. The L1 is usually a minority language.
English for Business
Authors: Nickerson Catherine 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEnglish for business is referred to in the academic literature in a number of different ways, including English for business, business English (BE), English for specific business purposes (ESBP), international business English (IBE), and business English as a lingua franca (BELF). English for business can be considered as English for academic purposes (EAP) when it is taught as part of academic training. Many of the research methods used in EAP are also standard in investigating English for business. When English for business is taught in professional business settings, it overlaps with English for occupational purposes. Other areas of research that are relevant to English for business are sociolinguistics, intercultural communication, discourse analysis, and business communication.
Ethics in Research
Authors: Kono Nariyo 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn earlier volumes of applied linguistics (Kaplan, 2002; Davies and Elder, 2004) ethics was included as part of the definition and history of research in applied linguistics. As the discipline of applied linguistics research flourishes and applied linguists make strides towards “the resolution of language‐based problems in the real world” (Grabe, 2002, p. 12), its growth has brought to light the natural consequence of research: how we can effectively and ethically conduct our research so that we can make contributions to others and society.
First Language Development of Grammar
Authors: Håkansson Gisela 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
How children acquire language, and in particular, grammar, is a question that has intrigued both scholars and parents for centuries. How is it possible that a young child is able to learn such a complex phenomenon as language? This entry will present research on developmental stages in early grammar and how children learn and overgeneralize inflections. Most examples will be taken from English, but some other languages will also be used as examples.
Fishman, Joshua A.
Authors: Aronin Larissa 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJoshua Aaron Fishman (July 18, 1926– ) is one of the most influential figures in American and world sociolinguistics of the second half of the 20th and of the 21st century. He is the founder of the sociology of language as a separate field of research. As one of the founding figures of sociolinguistics, he has made a substantial contribution as a thinker, editor, and theorist. He influenced several main fields of inquiry: language planning, language revitalization and maintenance, bilingualism and multilingualism, small languages and globalization. Among his 85 books, many monographs, and hundreds of articles and chapters are seminal works on language and ethnicity, language and religion, bilingual education, sociology of Jewish languages, Yiddish, medical anthropology, and test construction.
Gender and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Menard‐Warwick Julia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractResearch on gender and language learning has generally followed larger trends of gender theory in applied linguistics. Thus, over the past several decades, such research has often been situated within what Cameron (2005) terms thedifferenceparadigm of language and gender research, concerned with overarching linguistic differences between men in general and women in general (in contrast to a more explicitly feministdominanceparadigm, which has researched women's subordination through language).
Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Hyland Ken 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLanguage for specific purposes (LSP) refers to a distinctive approach to language education that focuses on the particular linguistic features, discourse practices, and communicative skills used by target groups. Its success depends on accurately identifying what these features and practices are so they can be taught to students, and this has been greatly assisted since the late 1980s by the emergence of genre analysis.
Halliday, M. A. K.
Authors: Webster Jonathan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
For over half a century, Professor Michael Alexander Kirkwood (M. A. K.) has been engaged in practicing “appliable” linguistics. Approaching language from the vantage point of meaning and purpose, Halliday provides a theoretical framework, known as systemic functional linguistics (SFL), for dealing with questions about how and why we come to use language as we do for being and becoming who we are.
History of Language Teaching Methods
Authors: Hilgendorf Suzanne K. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLanguage teaching methods refers to the set of teaching practices, approaches, and materials used by instructors to facilitate foreign‐language (FL) learning. Throughout history, methods have responded to the changing goals of language learning, for example, communicating with foreign trade partners, supporting missionary efforts to spread religion, reading academic scholarship and sacred texts, or, most recently, facilitating interaction on transnational and global levels. Language teaching methods therefore have prioritized different skills, for example, listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing, given the needs of learners and the values of societies. Various theoretical understandings of second language acquisition (SLA) and FL pedagogy have further informed teaching methods. In particular, new research developments, emphases, and trends in the related disciplines of linguistics, literature studies, education, and psychology have shaped thinking on the most effective ways to teach FLs.
Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms
Authors: Dagenais Diane 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWhat is the relationship between learners' identities and their language‐learning experiences? How are identities constructed in language classrooms and what does this imply for students and teachers? Over the last decade, applied linguists have paid increasing attention to questions such as these, as have scholars in such related fields as second language acquisition (SLA), language education, and sociolinguistics. Studies examining the links between learner identities and language‐learning contexts have revealed that the ways learners define themselves, are defined by others, and are positioned in social interaction have an observable impact on their learning experiences. This body of scholarship has contributed to advancing new theoretical insights on identity construction in language‐learning situations.
Identity and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Norton Bonny 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTo understand the vibrant and increasing interest in identity and second language acquisition (SLA), it is important to understand changing conceptions of the individual, language, and learning in the field. Each of these areas is associated with broader trends in the social sciences, which represent a shift in the field from a predominantly psycholinguistic approach to SLA to include a greater focus on sociological and anthropological dimensions of language learning, particularly with reference to sociocultural, poststructural, and critical theory (Norton & Toohey, 2001; Block, 2007b; Morgan, 2007). SLA researchers who are interested in identity are interested not only in linguistic input and output in SLA, but in the relationship between the language learner and the larger social world. They question the view that learners can be defined in binary terms as motivated or unmotivated, introverted or extroverted, without considering that such affective factors are frequently socially constructed, changing across time and space, and possibly coexisting in contradictory ways within a single individual. These researchers have examined the diverse social, historical, and cultural contexts in which language learning takes place, and how learners negotiate and sometimes resist the diverse positions those contexts offer them.
Input‐Based Instructional Approaches
Authors: Zyzik Eve 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAn observable fact of the language acquisition process is that no language, be it the first (L1) or the second (L2), can be learned successfully without extensive and meaningful exposure to that language. Accordingly, all theories of second language acquisition (SLA) attribute a significant role toinput, which can be succinctly defined as the language in the learner's environment. Input is often referred to as “raw data,” “primary linguistic data,” the “stimulus array,” or the “positive evidence” available to learners. Input can be both aural and written. One of the fundamental questions in SLA is whether input is a sufficient condition for acquisition to occur, or whether other elements (e.g., attention, noticing, feedback, and output) are equally essential. Thus, many instructional approaches combine exposure to the target language with opportunities for output and interaction. Nevertheless, there are some approaches to L2 instruction that prioritize input, many of them proposing innovative ways of manipulating the input in order to maximize learning outcomes.
Instructional Computer‐Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Chapelle Carol A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn second language teaching and learning, computer technology extends the types of interactive activities that learners can work on in and outside of the classroom, and therefore it has affected the way that many teachers teach and learners learn. Teachers might, for example, ask students to seek specific information on the Internet in preparation for an information gap activity in class; teachers might indicate awkward expressions in a student's essay and show the student how to find examples of target language collocations in a corpus; and teachers might organize a virtual collaboration between their students and proficient speakers of the target language in another country. These activities and many more add significantly to the repertoire of activities that learners can engage in because of three affordances offered by technology: human‐computer interaction, distance written and oral communication, and access to a community with data and creative opportunities on the Internet.
Interlanguage Pragmatics
Authors: Félix‐Brasdefer J. César 
Published: December 2012

AbstractInterlanguage pragmatics (ILP), or second language (L2) pragmatics, is the study of how learners, whether adults or children, acquire the ability to produce and understand communicative action in an L2, such as refusing an offer for food, asking a professor to write a letter of recommendation, complaining about an unfair grade on the final exam, or knowing when it is appropriate to remain silent in conversation.