bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Why Projects Fail (and What We Can Do About It)
Authors: Schoenhardt Matthew B. , Pardais Vachel C. , Marino Mitch R. 
Published: December 2014

Over two-thirds of all mega projects result in failure, meaning they significantly exceed budget, miss schedule targets, or fail to achieve production close to design capacity. The reasons for project failure have been well documented over the past fifty years. Despite this large body of empirical evidence, many executive and project leadership teams continue to repeat the mistakes made on past projects. This can be partially attributed to project teams believing that their projects are somehow different from past projects and that others’ project mistakes are not relevant to their project. This paper is a literature review that considers the seven common root causes of project failure and how these root causes relate to the pipeline industry. No new primary data will be presented. The seven common root causes for project failure and their approximate impact on budget variance are:
1. Failure to complete front end loading = 60–85%
2. escalation = Up to 12%
3. Regulatory regimes = Up to 12%
4. Plant complexity = Up to 20%
5. New technology = Up to 20%
6. Solid feedstock = Up to 10%
7. Complex ownership = Up to 24%
This paper will also review and discuss seven common project traits closely associated with project failure, although not direct root causes. These traits are:
1. Concurrent detailed design and construction = up to four times greater risk profile
2. Non-integrated project team = up to three times greater risk
3. Contractual risk misallocation = up to two and a half times greater risk
4. Fast-tracking projects = up to two times greater risk
5. Lack of internal capacity = up to two times greater risk
6. Oil and Gas industry = up to two times greater risk
7. Brownfield vs. greenfield site = no direct impact
With these root causes and traits identified, several methods of risk and contingency analysis will be examined. An evaluation of each method’s ability to increase the success rate of capital projects will be discussed; ultimately, resulting in a recommendation on the optimal risk and contingency framework for improving project success rates. The paper will conclude with a summary of how Stantec’s risk and contingency framework is being implemented on pipeline projects.
Experimental Investigation on Combined “Dent and Gouge” Defects on Vintage Steel Transmission Pipelines
Authors: Zarea Mures , Hertz-Clemens Stephane , Batisse Remi , Cardin Philippe 
Published: December 2014

Mechanical Damage on pipelines is the most frequent in service failure cause, at least in Europe. The category of Mechanical Damage actually covers on one hand rock dents, on the other hand, combined “Dent and Gouge” defects resulting from an impact by a ground moving machinery. The latter are complex defects in terms of geometry and mechanical behavior. Improved understanding of toughness reduction in these defects and their vicinity, especially in the case of vintage pipelines, and its impact on burst pressure and remaining fatigue lifetime is crucial in order to ensure a high safety level at the best economic conditions for transmission pipelines. PRCI and DOT/PHMSA supported a large experimental program to investigate the burst and fatigue strength of such defects in modern pipes as well as in vintage pipes by producing very detailed reference experimental data in order to support improvement of current burst and fatigue strength models for these defects.
This paper focuses on experimental results data for two vintage pipes removed from service, one 26″ in diameter, X52 grade (from US) with high carbon content and sulfur content involving very low toughness and another 24″ in diameter, X63 grade (from Europe) characterized by alternated pearlite and ferrite bands. In each pipe, two different types of combined “Dent and Gouge” defects were created, “shallow dent with shallow gouge” and “severe dent with moderate gouge”. Each defect was reproduced three times:
• One for destructive metallurgical investigation;
• A second one for highly instrumented burst test;
• A third one for highly instrumented fatigue test.
The defect profile was monitored during pressure increase until burst, and a camera recorded pictures at each fatigue cycle to detect crack initiation at the gouge bottom and its further propagation. The different features of the experimental work and results described in this paper are:
• Material characterization;
• Metallurgical and residual stress investigation on combined dent and gouge defects;
• Burst tests conditions and results;
• Fatigue tests conditions and results.
• Comparison with results from modern pipes containing the same types of defects.
All this experimental data is made available for an in-depth understanding of the “Dent and Gouge” type defects leading to improved models, as well as reference data for validating these improved models for burst and fatigue strength of these defects.
Benchmarking Consequence Models With Actual Pipeline Events
Authors: Pettitt Glenn , Ramsden Martyn , Shackleton Janine 
Published: December 2014

This paper describes how past pipeline incidents can be used to test whether the consequences of major hazard events as predicted by computer model are realistic.
Most materials transported by cross-country pipeline are flammable in nature, e.g. crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas. The hazardous consequences of a loss of containment may be modelled by a variety of computer models. One of the key inputs is how the failure may be modelled, in terms of the initial source terms and how the released material behaves subsequently. Modelling appropriate behaviour of the release is incumbent on the modeller / engineer, as well as accurately interpreting the output from the computer model.
There have been a number of high profile pipeline incidents in recent years that have had a devastating effect on the local community. Although one recognises the distressing effects of such incidents, these also provide an opportunity to test the consequences predicted by computer models. One of the key questions is whether it is likely that the adverse effects of an incident are overpredicted by the modelling inputs / technique and therefore whether the outputs from the model present a conservative thermal radiation dose.
This paper presents such a benchmarking exercise, which has been carried out to assess the degree of realism provided by computer modelling and the way in which the modelling is carried out. This exercise was conducted following a number of pipeline risk assessments where it was predicted that in some cases, hundreds of fatalities may occur following rupture of a pipeline transporting natural gas. It was felt that there may be a level of over-conservatism in the modelling, particularly as many incidents that have occurred have not resulted in the predicted level of fatal injuries.
Large Scale Test Apparatus to Test External Leak Detection Technologies
Authors: Apps Chris , Ozkan Istemi , Rizwan Tania , Derakhshesh Marzie , Medynski Scott 
Published: December 2014

When it comes to evaluating traditional computational leak detection technologies pipeline operators have a suite of simulated testing methods available. In the last several years however External Leak Detection Technologies have become more mature and potentially could provide operators with another layer of leak detection with more sensitivity than seen in traditional methods. The challenge with these technologies is in the evaluation of their sensitivity, reliability, and robustness. ENBRIDGE INC (Enbridge) and C-FER Technologies 1999 Inc. (C-FER) begun a comprehensive study to assess the state-of-the-art external, continuously distributed sensors for leak detection in early 2012.
Initially, a technology review was undertaken to identify commercial, off-the-shelf technologies with the potential to detect small leaks of oil from buried pipelines. From this literature review, four technologies were identified; Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS), Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), Vapor Sensing Tubes (VST), and Hydrocarbon Sensing Cables (HSC). All four methods require proprietary materials and technology, which have had limited independent testing efforts to date. To evaluate these four leak detection methods and their vendors in an objective way, Enbridge and C-FER initiated the design and construction of a large-scale External Leak Detection Experimental Research apparatus (ELDER) that can accommodate a full-size segment of pipeline within a trench, at the same scale used in pipeline construction in North America. An instrumented pipe segment is buried in the trench with sensing cables laid alongside. The apparatus generates leaks with controlled variables including rate, pressure and temperature, and at various locations to accurately represent pipeline leaks. This paper summarizes the literature review on the four selected leak detection technologies that were identified as candidates for large-scale evaluation. The discussion will also include features of the ELDER apparatus, and re-engineered pipeline construction techniques that were required to accurately represent a full-scale pipeline trench within a laboratory environment.
The Pipe Inspection Lifecycle
Authors: Nemeth David , Walda Troy I. 
Published: December 2014

Energy Transfer has implemented a new, comprehensive field-inspection system for the pipe inspection lifecycle that encompasses aerial observations, pipe exposures, foreign line crossings, in-line inspections, anomaly remediation, pipe inspection, and integrity sheet generation. In order to ensure the integrity of the pipe inspection program, the field inspection solution required full audit-trail capabilities, front-side data validation, and full integration with the corporate-wide GIS and Engineering Data Management System. Additionally, to ensure the success of the new inspection program, the inspection solution required a highly intuitive and field user-friendly interface, the ability to work equally well in both connected and disconnected environments, interactive mapping functionality, very high reliability, and a process-driven architecture.
Energy Transfer owns and operates approximately 43,000 miles of natural gas, natural gas liquids, refined products, and crude oil pipelines. Due to the size and diversity of Energy Transfer’s assets, the corporate GIS system must be distributed across seven independent instances consisting of server pools and large-scale relational database management systems (RDBMS). Although each system must be functionally independent, the field inspection system and the inspection process must interact with each server and RDBMS instance with equal functionality and be able to report on all pipe inspection activities across the enterprise.
The inspection system is used by over 1,200 Energy Transfer employees and contractors, and approximately 15,000 inspections are performed annually. The system supports a variety of devices, such as: laptops, tablet computers, iOS devices (i.e., iPads, iPhones), and Android devices. Whether on foot, in vehicles or aircraft, users can enter information from the platform that best meets the needs of their individual environment. Information collected on any device is available for continuance of the pipe inspection lifecycle on any other device and is available in real time at the corporate offices via a Web portal. The Web portal provides visualization tools for both business and engineering analysis such as progress tracking and remediation planning. These functions are supported through the portal’s integrated mapping, dash boarding, and a reporting functionality that includes advanced search capabilities for both comparative and predictive analysis. In addition to utilization for the pipe inspection lifecycle, the inspection system is being used for a variety of other inspection and regulatory compliance-related activities, including: cathodic protection, incident reporting, corrosion assessment, DOT structure location, MAOP-MOP establishment, shallow cover, unmetered gas loss, and many more right-of-way related activities.
Development of Pipeline Leak Detection Technologies
Authors: Zhang Jun , Hoffman Andy , Kane Adrian , Lewis John 
Published: December 2014

New development continues in pipeline leak detection technologies in order to meet the increasing demand of the oil, gas, chemical and water industry. After a review of the available technologies, this paper discusses the advances made in two key technologies: statistical volume balance and negative pressure wave.
Some application examples in brine, multi-product and crude oil pipelines are presented to demonstrate the improvement in leak detection sensitivity and location accuracy.
Alternative Geohazard Risk Assessment and Monitoring for Pipelines With Limited Access: Amazon Jungle Example
Authors: Moya John Malpartida , De la Sota Giancarlo Massucco 
Published: December 2014

The Pipeline Integrity Management System (PIMS) of Transportadora de Gas del Peru (TgP) has identified the Weather and Outside Forces such as main threat which increases the risk of the integrity of its pipelines in jungle and mountains areas. In pipelines with particular characteristics such as pipeline which crosses the Andes and the Amazonian jungle, this threat can cause even a greater number of failures than other threats such as Corrosion or Third Party Damage (TPD).
Given this situation, the TgP’s PIMS has made a significant development in the use and management of the information provided by different techniques of inspections and monitoring of the pipeline and ROW. Due to the particular conditions of our pipeline system, where the weather and security issues are important restrictions in some locations, makes it impossible to access the right of way in order to get accurate and precise information. Some monitoring depends on people going to the field to collect data (geotechnical surveys, rain monitoring, strain gage measures, inclinometers, etc.). This information is essential to perform the risk analysis in the scope of the PIMS.
This paper shows different alternative techniques of monitoring which allow us to estimate the exposure of the pipelines to Geohazards. Among these techniques we have: topographic surveys with laser-detection LIDAR, monitoring of stress and displacement of the soil by fiber optics, UAV’s (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) surveys, acoustic leak detection, Inertial Navigation Tools (in line inspection), etc. It is also important to mention the alternative assessment methodologies in order to determine the pipeline exposure, resistance and mitigation to this threat using geological information and exhaustive desk analysis. It is important to get the more accurate information of the actual state of the pipeline system in order to eliminate most of the “default” values during the risk assessment. By integrating these inspections, monitoring and particular assessments as part of PIMS, we have been able get accurate risk assessments in order to mitigate and/or minimize the occurrence of failures. In this way we are able to optimize efforts to preserve the integrity of our system and in addition minimize personal, environmental and business impact.
Quantitative System Specific Likelihood Algorithms for System Wide Risk Assessment
Authors: Kariyawasam Shahani , Wang Hong , Ong Boon , Al-Amin Mohammad , Zhang Ning 
Published: December 2014

The System Wide Risk Assessment (SWRA) is an essential first step in the pipeline integrity management program. It is required by both Canadian and US regulators and is expected to estimate risk due to all threats, interaction of threats, and consequences. The main objective of the SWRA is to identify high risk segments so that segments with excessive risk can be mitigated.
The SWRA models developed in this study employs quantified likelihood models and consequence models. A companion paper explains the consequence models. This paper presents the framework and rationale used to produce quantifiable measures of likelihood for each threat. The quantification enables sensible comparisons between threat likelihood values and also enables realistic combining of likelihood values to produce total likelihood of failure due to all threats. It also facilitates identification of key parameters that contribute to each threat.
It is important to have a consistent risk framework that systematically applies to all the threats and accommodates all the different aspects and mitigative actions in each threat management process. For effective continuous improvement it is essential that the models are transparent and updatable. A consistent framework that is systematic, rigorous, transparent and updatable is utilized with explicit consideration to threat interactions.
The main advantages of the likelihood models developed in this study are:
• It is based on all evidence that is available for each threat (failure histories, observations from assessments, i.e., digs, HTs, and ILIs, and mechanistic understanding)
• It considers all nine threat categories and relevant subcategories where causal factors are different (such as SCC and Circumferential SCC within the crack threat category)
• It clearly considers all three types of threat interactions (Interacting coincident defects, Interacting-activating threats, and Interacting common-mode conditions) among all threat categories.
• It is based on subsystem specific historical failure rates for each threat, where subsystem is defined as a subset of pipelines that have different performance characteristics with respect to at least one threat. This basis enables the failure frequencies predicted to be more in line with reality and consequently improves accuracy of predictions and appropriate quantification.
• The subsystem specific historical failure rates are then calibrated to correlate to different mechanistic characteristics so that within-pipeline-subsystem variation due to changes in parameters is represented.
• Finally assessments or observations are used to appropriately update threat likelihood with latest knowledge from measured local observations.
All of the improvements mentioned above have helped the SWRA 2013 to produce more representative results. The comprehensive set of validation exercises verify that the results are realistic.
Fitness for Service of Dents Associated With Metal Loss due to Corrosion
Authors: Heggen Hans Olav , Bratton Joe , Kemp David , Liu Jun , Austin Jason 
Published: December 2014

Current federal regulations in the U.S. require excavation of all dents associated with metal loss due to corrosion identified through in line inspection surveys. Once a dent has been found to be associated with metal loss through excavation, there is little guidance to determine the serviceability of the anomaly.
Past research has provided methodologies to assess the fatigue life of plain dents, considering the shape of the dent, but there are no widely accepted assessment methodologies to predict the effect of associated metal loss due to corrosion on the fatigue life of dents.
This paper focuses on the fitness for service of dents associated with metal loss, particularly corrosion in dents. Currently, fitness for service assessments of plain dents provide an estimated remaining life of a dent based on the geometry of the dent and current pressure cycling of the pipeline. Dynamic pressure cycling at each dent location is estimated using the upstream and downstream pressure cycle data, elevation, and distance along the pipe. The dynamic pressure cycle data at each dent is then converted into equivalent stress cycles based on the results of rainflow cycle counting.
Finite element analysis (FEA) of a dent without metal loss and with metal loss is performed to compare the maximum stress concentration areas. The FEA program Abaqus is used with solid elements to model the dents. The differences between maximum stress concentration areas is compared for a matrix of extent of metal loss, and orientation of metal loss to analyze the general effect of metal loss and the interaction of metal loss in a dent. The stress concentration areas of dents without metal loss and with metal loss are then applied to current fatigue assessment methodologies provided in API 579 to analyze the effect of metal loss on the fatigue life of dents.
Application of Compressive Strain Capacity Models to Multiple Grades of Pipelines
Authors: Zhang Zhenyong , Yu Zhifeng , Liu Ming , Kotian Kunal , Zhang Fan 
Published: December 2014

Local buckling due to excessive compressive strain generated by bending and/or longitudinal compression is one of the main threats to pipeline integrity. Strain-based design and assessment (SBDA) methods have been developed for designing and maintaining pipelines under high longitudinal strain. In SBDA, the resistance to local buckling is often measured by compressive strain capacity.
Extensive work has been performed on the compressive strain capacity of pipes through both experimental and numerical modeling. Models for calculating the compressive strain capacity have been developed over many decades. Some earlier models were developed using experimental test data of low strength linepipes. High strength linepipes are being increasingly used for the construction of new pipelines. The applicability of the existing models to modern high strength pipelines needs to be evaluated.
In this paper, selected compressive strain capacity models were reviewed and evaluated. An experimental database of 61 experimental tests from public-domain publications was created. Approximately 34% of the testing data are from high strength pipes (primarily X80). The calculated compressive strain capacity from the selected models was compared with the test results. The performance of the selected models was evaluated and the applicability of the models to the linepipes of different strengths was discussed.
A Review of Fracture Toughness Testing and Evaluation Using SENT Specimens
Authors: Zhu Xian-Kui , McGaughy Tom 
Published: December 2014

Fracture toughness is an important material property in describing material resistance against fracture with a point value or in the format of a resistance curve. For ductile materials, the commonly used fracture parameters are the J-integral and the crack-tip opening displacement (CTOD, or δ). ASTM E1820 provides standard procedures for determining the JIc, δIc, J-R curve and δ-R curve using bending specimens with deep cracks. This usually leads to high crack-tip constraint conditions and conservative fracture resistance curves.
Actual cracks found in pipelines and welds are often shallow and dominated by tensile forces, resulting in low constraint conditions and elevated resistance curves. Thus the standard resistance curves can be overly conservative for a shallow crack. To obtain realistic fracture toughness values to meet the practical needs for pipelines, different test methods have been developed using a single edge-notched tension (SENT) specimen. This includes the multiple specimen method, the single specimen method, the J-R curve test procedure, and the δ-R curve test procedure. This paper presents a critical technical review of existing fracture toughness test methods and procedures using SENT specimens, with discussions on the toughness estimation equation, key parameter calibration, rotation correction, and test procedure limitation. Historical efforts related to the SENT testing and applications of ASTM fracture test standards to the SENT specimens are also reviewed briefly.