bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Becoming A Geologist: Florence Bascom In Wisconsin, 1874-1887
Authors: Arnold Lois 
Published: April 2015

Florence Bascom (1862-1945) was a petrologist and field geologist at Bryn Mawr College who provided a basic description and interpretation of major areas of Pennsylvania and surrounding regions. This paper is the first of a two-part study that explores the question of how Bascom became a geologist. The initial phase of this process took place in Wisconsin, to which she moved at the age of twelve when her father became president of the University at Madison. Both of her parents supported women's education, rights, and suffrage.Bascom graduated from the coeducational university in 1882 and, in a series of fits and starts in which scientific study alternated with social pleasures and non-scientific pursuits, she began to take a serious interest in geology. In 1883-84 she studied under two well known geologists there, Roland D. Irving and his student Charles R. Van Hise, obtaining a B.S. degree. Although she did not participate in field work, she conducted laboratory research on the gabbros of Lake Superior using the petrographic microscope and thin sections. She obtained a Master's degree from the University in 1887 on the basis of this investigation.
William Hunter (1718-1783) As Natural Historian: His ‘Geological’ Interests
Authors: Durant Graham , Ian Rolfe W. 
Published: April 2015

Hunter was an influential figure who built up large natural history collections, amongst which minerals predominated. He was not a mere collector, however, and both his library and collections were sought out by contemporary workers.
Analytical mineralogy only emerged from its alchemical background towards the end of Hunter's lifetime, and his library contains most of this early mineralogical literature, to some of which at least he was a subscriber. He also possessed a number of lapidaries, one of them a unique manuscript, and several specimens indicate his interest in medical mineralogy. The contents of Hunter's mineral and rock collections reflect the interests of his day: there is a piece of the Siberian iron mass which was only accepted as a meteorite in 1794, after Hunter's death, and lavas from Vesuvius, together with his subscription copy of Hamilton's classic 1776 study of that volcano. Lavas from Iceland - perhaps from Sir Joseph Banks - reflect the Plutonist - Neptunist debate, and Hunter's museum was also visited by Raspe, the German Neptunist.
Hunter (1768) was the first to establish, on comparative morphological grounds, that the American mastodon differed from living elephants, and that it must therefore be extinct - an idea with which Buffon had toyed in 1761. A recently published manuscript of 1770-1773 shows that Hunter realised the Irish ‘elk’ was quite different from the living American moose, contrary to the then current opinion, and that it too must be extinct. It was to be another forty years before Cuvier demonstrated this difference in comparable detail. Hunter thus broke the Great Chain of Being twice, at the high level of quadrupeds, only one down the ladder of life from man and monkey. This was an important contribution to Enlightenment thought, since "one step broken, the great scale's destroyed" (Pope, 1733).
Hunter acquired the foremost collection of Recent corals in Europe, on Fothergill's death in 1781. Corals not only linked inert with living parts of the Chain of Being but, with newly discovered coral islands, formed part of Whitehurst's 1778 theory of the Earth for constructing land.
Between 1764 and 1778, Hunter commissioned many drawings of bodily concretions, which were primarily of medical concern. Hunter may also have had an interest in them as part of the ‘stoniness’ problem, for the light they might shed on the fossilisation question.
Sketching Rocks and Landscape: Drawing as a Female Accomplishment in the Service of Geology
Authors: Kölbl-Ebert Martina 
Published: April 2015

Women as amanuenses have played an important role in early British geology. Among their varied tasks often was the sketching and drawing of fossils, landscape and outcrops.
Such drawings served several purposes. They were used to give an idea of landscape and outcrops in publications or to figure new species in palaeontological papers, but they also served as proxies for individual fossils in dialogues conducted by means of letters. Mary Anning used them to advertise new finds to potential buyers, while Mary Buckland painted huge displays to be used in her husband's lectures. Drawing was part of the education of ‘accomplished’ British women in the early nineteenth century. Like music, embroidery and dancing, drawing was often taught in special schools or academies, sometimes by quite competent artists. Other women, however, such as Mrs Mantell, were self-taught or had to familiarise themselves with new techniques, learning to do line engravings and how to make lithographs in order to illustrate her husband's books more cheaply.
In Germany or France, by comparison, the ability to draw was less central to girls' education, who in Germany at least were expected instead to excel in cooking, knitting and other household duties. But even there, an amateur palaeontologist might fall back on the assistance of his daughter, when he needed someone to illustrate his letters with drawings of specimens.
Administering science: the paper form of scientific practice and geological fieldwork
Authors: Klemun Marianne 
Published: April 2015

Drawing on the fieldwork undertaken on behalf of the Austrian Geological Survey in the 19th century, I should like to analyse those practices that may be understood as ‘administration procedures’. Using a variety of selected handwritten materials that were produced during fieldwork in the context of the geological mapping project (1848-1867) of the Habsburg Monarchy, commissioned by the Royal Imperial Geological Survey in Vienna, I should like to examine the route from subjective observation to written documentation, the conceptualization of experience and the strategies of writing, and also the procedures for standardization. Through this perspective, fieldwork becomes a procedure that is materialized on paper.
Every piece of fieldwork involves, in principle, countless administrative acts and procedures. These are preceded by the instructions which, in functional terms, occur at two different levels. One level provides a methodology for the acquisition of knowledge; the other level concerns the bureaucracy, or the organizational framework, within which the fieldwork takes place. On the one hand the investigator is seeking to optimize the acquisition of knowledge, whilst on the other hand the checking of both the subject and the object of the investigation is a concomitant feature of both levels.
James Merrill Safford
Authors: Stearns Richard 
Published: April 2015

James Merrill Safford (1822-1907), famous for geological investigations of Tennessee, taught chemistry and biology, as well as geology, for 52 years. He held administrative posts in medicine, and his teaching, even of geology, was mostly to would-be physicians, engineers and pharmacists. His education in Silliman's laboratory at Yale, during 1847, probably was the key to his success.
From 1848 to 1873 he taught full-time at Cumberland University in Lebanon, Tennessee, except for leave in 1854-56 to work for the geological survey of Tennessee. During the Civil War hiatus, 1862-1866, he taught preparatory languages on a private basis, operated his farm, and investigated oil and gas properties.
After 1875, Safford held part-time teaching posts. He was a half-time Professor of Geology and Biology at Vanderbilt University and taught chemistry as a proprietor in a Medical Department jointly operated by Vanderbilt and the University of Nashville. He was also secretary of the Medical Faculty and Dean of the Pharmacy Department at Vanderbilt.
Safford was a pleasant, friendly man, who quoted classical poetry and lead early morning prayers. Through 1869, his professional contributions mainly consisted of survey work in geology. Later he mainly applied geology to health, agriculture, and resource development.
The Geological Sciences at Harvard University from 1788 to 1850
Authors: Frondel Clifford 
Published: April 2015

Formal course instruction in mineralogy and geology began in Harvard College in 1788 with Benjamin Waterhouse. He also assembled in the 1780's a reference and teaching collection of minerals, rocks, and ores—the first natural history collection at Harvard—that, following a gift by an English friend, J. C. Lettsom, became a cynosure of the College. Following Waterhouse's dismissal in 1812, the instruction was carried on by John Gorham until 1824. Waterhouse, his colleague Aaron Dexter, and Gorham all were professors in the Harvard Medical School, established 1782. The latter two men successively held an endowed chair therein, the Erving Professorship of Chemistry and Materia Medica. They produced some notable graduates: Parker Cleaveland in 1799, Lyman Spalding in 1797, Joseph Green Cogswell in 1806, John White Webster in 1811, John Fothergill Waterhouse in 1813, and Samuel Luther Dana and James Freeman Dana in 1813.
Following years of futile effort by the Administration to establish a professorship of mineralogy and geology, with Cogswell as the selected candidate, the instruction in mineralogy and geology fell to John White Webster in 1824 in the Chemistry Department. The Erving Professorship also passed to him, with a change in title to Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy. Webster's death in 1850, following his conviction for murder in a famous trial, terminated the first period of development of the geological sciences at Harvard. In this period, in spite of the early start by Waterhouse, Harvard lagged much behind the developments at Yale and other colleges in New England and beyond. The main period of development of the geological sciences at Harvard come in the latter 1800's. It was a consequence primarily of the founding of the the Lawrence Scientific School in 1848, with its emphasis on the applied aspects of the sciences, the appointments of Josiah Dwight Whitney and Raphael Pumpelly in 1865 and 1866, respectively to a School of Mines and Practical Geology endowed as a sub-unit therein, and the appointment of Josiah Parsons Cooke in 1850 as successor to Webster in the Chemistry Department.
Exploitation and Uses of Metals in Ancient Israel According to Biblical Sources and Commentaries
Authors: Ginzburg Dov 
Published: April 2015

Many verses of the Old Testament contain references to metals, their places of origin, their manufacture, their trading and their uses, both in cult and in everyday life. These verses appear to represent what was common knowledge at those times about gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and various alloys, and the roles they played in the economy and in some rituals.
A review is presented of these references and their translations, as well as of the comments by various classical and widely-studied Bible commentators.
George G. Simpson (1902-1984): Getting Started in the Summer of 1924
Authors: Laporte Léo 
Published: April 2015

In the middle of his first year of graduate work in vertebrate paleontology at Yale, George Gaylord Simpson began looking about for employment for the coming summer. He needed a job that would not only further his paleontological education, but also, with a wife and infant daughter to support, one that would pay him a salary, however modest. He eventually obtained a position prospecting for Tertiary mammals in Texas and New Mexico as a field assistant to William Diller Matthew of the American Museum of Natural History.
By the end of the summer, Simpson established himself as an energetic and highly successful field man, having made two major fossil discoveries, thereby impressing both Richard Swan Lull, his major advisor at Yale, and Matthew, whom he would eventually succeed at the American Museum as curator of fossil mammals. When Simpson returned to Yale in the fall, Lull, despite his earlier refusal, permitted him to study the Marsh Collection of Mesozoic mammals for his dissertation. Matthew, too, was enthusiastic about Simpson's demonstrated abilities for he became Simpson's mentor, acting as informal off-campus advisor for his dissertation and eventually an advocate for Simpson's appointment at the American Museum.
Simpson also learned, the hard way, about scientific protocol and professional territoriality when a short paper he wrote describing the geologic results of his work in New Mexico was suppressed by Childs Frick, honorary curator of the Department of Vertebrate Paleontology who had supported the New Mexico (and Texas) excursion with his own funds. Frick's financial support of the Museum apparently gave him greater influence than Matthew who, as chairman of Vertebrate Paleontology, had initially approved Simpson's paper for publication in the Museum Bulletin.
Alfred Selwyn - 19th Century Trans-Atlantic Connections Via Australia
Authors: Branagan D. 
Published: April 2015

The contributions of A.R.C. Selwyn to geological science were considerable, and possibly unique in the 19th century, as they spanned three continents in a career lasting more than 50 years. In particular Selwyn is rightly regarded as establishing geology as a profession in Australia, both by his own high quality mapping, and by the training of a number of talented young men in his Geological Survey of Victoria (1852-1868).In Canada he pursued the same high standards when appointed as Director of the Geological Survey at a time when the Dominion had just become greatly enlarged. A strong supporter of his staff, Selwyn engaged in a controversy with U.S. geologists about Precambrian and Lower Palaeozoic stratigraphy, maintaining that Canadian field evidence provided the key which negated the U.S. stand.Selwyn maintained links with the colleagues of his early years in the British Geological Survey (1845-1852) during his long career, keeping in touch with new ideas in Europe and informing his friends about the results of Australian and Canadian geological research.
Clean Construction Protocol for the National Ignition Facility Beampath and Utilities
Authors: Sommer Stanley , Stowers Irving , Van Doren David 
Published: April 2015

When the stadium-size National Ignition Facility (NIF) is fully operational at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), its 192 laser beams will deliver 1.8 megajoules (500 terawatts) of energy onto a target to create extremely high temperatures and pressures for inertial confinement fusion research as part of the Stockpile Stewardship Program. Due to the performance threshold and requirements of the NIF optical components, the optics and their surrounding beampath as well as the supporting utility systems must be fabricated, cleaned, assembled, and commissioned for precision cleanliness. This paper will provide an overview of the NIF cleanliness requirements, the Clean Construction Protocol (CCP) specifications for the beampath and clean utilities, and techniques for verifying the CCP specifications.The NIF cleanliness requirements define limits for molecular and particulate contamination. The goal of these limits is to prevent contamination of optical components. To prevent laser-induced damage and poor laser quality in the optical components, requirements for cleaning, assembly, installation, and commissioning in terms of particle and nonvolatile residue (NVR) levels are defined. The airborne cleanliness requirements in the interior of the beampath are Class 1 (ISO Class 3) particulate levels and a few parts-per-billion (ppb) airborne molecular contamination (AMC) (SEMI F21-95 MC-1,000).To achieve the cleanliness requirements for the beampath interior, a graded CCP approach is used as the NIF beampath and utilities are being constructed by a partnership between LLNL and the construction contractor, Jacobs Facilities Inc. (JFI) in a stadium-size Class 100,000 (ISO Class 8) building. Installation of the beampath components utilizes localized mini-environments of Class 100 (ISO Class 5) or better, with budgets of cleanliness exposure or "class-hours" for each clean connection. Garment, equipment, and operational considerations are evaluated with process verification.Verification of the beampath and utility cleanliness is performed with cleanliness exposure monitoring, evaluating particulates with "swipes" and the LLNL-developed Precision Cleanliness Verification System (PCVS), and measuring nonvolatile residues (NVRs) and AMCs with analytical chemistry techniques. Cleanliness verification results demonstrate that the CCP specifications are achieving the NIF cleanliness requirements for the beampath and clean utilities.
Statistically Significant Efficiency Testing of HEPA Filters
Authors: Wang Wenli , Winters Philip 
Published: April 2015

High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filter manufacturers must ensure the accuracy of efficiency testing for these filters and, at the same time, keep productivity at a reasonable level. This study describes tests conducted to determine the minimum time required to provide statistically significant efficiencies of HEPA filters using a test system currently in use of HEPA filter production.
The test results of over 300 HEPA filters were analyzed in this study. The approaches in IEST RP-CC-007.1: Testing ULPA Filters for statistical analysis of particle counts were followed. A Poisson distribution was used to describe the variations and to calculate the lower and upper limits of measured counts at 95% confidence level. This study shows that 90 seconds is sufficient for this test system to determine whether a HEPA filter has an efficiency of 99.990% or higher at 95% confidence. Longer tests will cause the mean measured efficiency to approach the filter's true efficiency and also narrow the confidence interval. However, challenging HEPA filters made of glass fiber media with oil aerosols for up to one hour does not significantly change the filter's true efficiency performance.
The preferred approach for a new test system is to use software that calculates the confidence limits of filter efficiency after each sampling cycle and determines whether to continue testing. For an existing system without this type of program (such as the one evaluated in this study), analysis is necessary to make sure the HEPA filters are challenged with enough aerosol particles.
Fatigue Margins Established by Unit and Spacecraft Protoqualification Tests
Authors: Pierre-Louis Enold 
Published: April 2015

Protoqualification (PQ) testing, typically performed on the first assembled electronic units and spacecraft, establish random vibration and thermal cycling fatigue margins for subsequent builds that are only subjected to the acceptance test program (ATP). Considering the fatigue damage induced by both unit- and spacecraft-level testing, fatigue margins are calculated for equipment exposed to ATP-level testing. Probabilistic analyses are also performed to determine the relationship between the fatigue margin and the demonstrated reliability for the unit to survive the mission. Parameters such as the number of retests and the material dependent fatigue acceleration exponent are considered.
Using MIL-STD-1540E,1 PQ random vibration test guidelines of three decibels (+3 dB) above the acceptance input level for 2-minute-per-axis duration, the assessment shows that the test establishes ample fatigue margin for units subjected to the less stringent ATP. The probabilistic analysis shows that the established reliability to survive the launch environment without a fatigue induced failure is adequate. It is further shown that the desired high-cycle fatigue life factor of greater than four is maintained even after one unit retest is performed. However, since this conclusion is general in nature, it is important that for future spacecraft, assessments be performed for both PQ and ATP hardware, taking into account each specific design and application to verify that adequate fatigue margin exists to survive launch.
Because mission thermal cyclic environments vary greatly with regard to the number of cycles and the extent of the thermal range for each cycle, MIL-STD-1540E PQ guidelines for unit-level testing were designed to verify the design and workmanship and not intended to demonstrate fatigue margin for specific missions. Rather, MIL-STD-1540E specifies that thermal cyclic fatigue margin for the combination of pre-launch and orbital environments should be demonstrated with life testing. Accordingly, the analysis shows that PQ testing only demonstrates the desired low-cycle fatigue life factor of 2 for subsequent units which are subjected to a single ATP. The fatigue life factor falls below 2 when retests and/or mission thermal cyclic environments are considered. Because acceptable fatigue margin is not established with the standard PQ thermal cycle test procedure, it is essential that other means be taken to ensure that adequate fatigue margin exists. This paper provides guidelines for using analyses and offline life testing to assess the fatigue life of critical units and their internal components for pre-launch and orbital thermal cyclic environments.
Sampling Plan for Cleanroom Classification with Respect to Airborne Particles
Authors: Hartvig Niels , Farquharson Gordon , Mielke Robert , Varney Mark , Foster Mike 
Published: April 2015

The concentration of airborne particles is a critical parameter for cleanrooms, clean zones, and controlled areas. Particle concentration must be measured at representative locations for classification and monitored routinely or continuously at critical locations during operation. Both ISO 14644-1:19991 and the new Draft International Standard (DIS) edition provide nine classes of cleanliness and specify both the number of sample locations for classification and the acceptance criterion for the data.
In the 1999 version of the Standard, the minimal number of sample locations is not based on statistical principles. The acceptance criterion is based on a statistical test, but only if the number of sample locations is less than 10. Thus, classification is based on statistical methods only for a small number of locations.
The revised ISO/DIS 14644-12 replaces this method with a statistical principle for selection of the sample locations. The acceptance criterion in the revised version eliminates the need for applying a statistical test to the data, and thereby simplifies the classification process.
The purpose of this paper is to present and discuss the new sampling plan for cleanroom classification and compare it with the previous approach in ISO 14644-1:1999. Section 2 of this paper presents and discusses the previous method, section 3 describes the new method in the ISO/DIS 14644-1 revision, and section 4 provides a discussion and conclusion. All of the authors are members of ISO Technical Committee (TC) 209, Working Group 1, the group of experts who developed the new ISO/DIS 14644-1. This paper was written on behalf of the entire Working Group.