bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Middle-Period China
Authors: Chaffee John 
Published: June 2013

The Middle period (c. 100–1500 ce) occupies a special position in the history of China. Coming neither at the formative beginning of the imperial period nor at the end, when the imperial structures collapsed from stresses within and without the country, the Middle period was framed by the reunification of the empire in the 580s and the final chapter of the Mongol conquest in the 1270s and can lay claim both to one of the most expansive and brilliant of Chinese dynasties—the Tang—and the period of perhaps the greatest intellectual and socioeconomic dynamism and creativity—the Song. The modern study of the history of this period had its origins with Japanese scholars in the early 20th century—most notably Naito Kōnan (b. 1866–d. 1934)—who argued that the changes that occurred from the Tang to the Song dynasties were among the most fundamental in all of Chinese history and who pioneered in studies of the political, economic, and social structures of the period. Following World War II, many Euro-American and Taiwan scholars joined the Japanese in turning their attention to the period, attracted by the political successes and multicultural brilliance of the Tang and by the profound social, economic, and intellectual changes of the Song. To this mix has been added a host of historians in China, who, once they were liberated from a Marxist insistence on focusing on peasant uprisings, class struggles, and the like, proceeded with wide-ranging research and large-scale bibliographical and digitizing projects that have significantly increased the number and kinds of sources available to historians. The result of these activities has been to establish China’s Middle period as critically important in Chinese history, one that shaped many elements of the Late Imperial period intellectually, institutionally, and socially, and as a period of increasing interest to world historians.
Mao Zedong
Authors: Davin Delia 
Published: June 2013

Mao Zedong (b. 1893–d. 1976) was one of the most remarkable political leaders of the 20th century, an all-powerful leader in China, and a major world figure. His career as a Communist revolutionary lasted fifty-five years. Half this time was spent in revolutionary struggle, and half, after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, in the struggle to build a revolutionary state. Mao’s rise to leadership was gradual: starting as an obscure Communist Party functionary, he was in turn a labor organizer, a guerrilla commander, and a leader in the Communist base areas before finally becoming chairman of the party in 1943. As the unchallenged leader of the new People’s Republic of China in 1949, with his colleagues Mao began the revolutionary transformation of China through land reform, collectivization, industrialization, and the comprehensive politicization of daily life. Under Mao’s leadership the country was unified and began a process of modernization and industrialization that would allow it to become a major power after his death. However, within a few years of taking power, Mao began to suspect his colleagues of backsliding and refusing to recognize the danger to socialism that he believed a new elite would pose. His disputes with them convulsed China and dominated the last twenty years of his life. His efforts to achieve his vision of a China that was both egalitarian and prosperous failed and ultimately visited enormous suffering on his people. Moreover, his ruthlessness toward his opponents and his cynical exploitation of his cult of personality during the Cultural Revolution disillusioned many of his followers. His successors reversed Mao’s policies, seeking a new legitimacy for the party state in improved standards of living, achieved through a return to a marketized economy. Mao’s life and record still spark great interest inside and outside China. The large and growing literature on Mao covered in this article includes biographies, monographs on almost every aspect of his life and work, assessments of his legacy, and multivolume editions of his writing. Mao scholars struggle to come to terms with his legacy. He has been portrayed by some as China’s redeemer and by others, as a monster. Chinese appraisals are inevitably affected by the official line that he was a great revolutionary leader who made very serious errors. Late-20th- and early-21st-century Western scholarship tends to insist on Mao’s complexity and his many dimensions.
Macroregions
Authors: Henderson Mark 
Published: June 2013

As a vast sociopolitical entity, China defies easy generalizations. Many regional subdivisions have been invoked to make China’s varied landscapes and populations more tractable. Traditionally, distinctions have been drawn between “north” and “south” China, and since 1949 a dichotomous “coastal” versus “interior” regionalization has been popular. Most scholars, “for reasons of both habit and convenience, find it hard to resist dividing China up into provinces” (Cohen 1984, p. 166; cited under Introductory Works). Provincial boundaries, however, rarely correspond to the limits of either natural or socioeconomic systems. The watersheds of major rivers provide an alternative regionalization: natural resource flows (through river systems) and social and economic exchanges (across the transport network, which is invariably more dense and efficient in riverine lowlands than across mountain passes) have mutually reinforced the historical importance of these kinds of regions. Starting with watershed boundaries, G. William Skinner introduced the concept of “physiographic macroregions” in an essay in The City in Late Imperial China: “In late imperial times, [Chinese cities] formed not a single integrated urban system but several regional systems, each only tenuously connected with its neighbors. In tracing out the overlapping hinterlands of the cities in each one of these regional systems, I came to the realization that they . . . coincided with minor exceptions to a physiographic unit” (Skinner 1977, p. 211; cited under Introductory Works). Skinner postulated that the macroregions were the natural marketing areas of the major metropolises of China, representing a culmination of the hierarchical market systems starting with local market towns that he had previously described (Skinner 1964, cited under Introductory Works). Skinner’s analysis identified nine physiographic macroregions covering agrarian China, identifying the core zones of each and delineating boundaries between them. In subsequent work, Skinner developed the Hierarchical Regional Space (HRS) framework, further identifying regional systems below the macroregional level and offering social scientists a means to control the systematic spatial variation observed in many socioeconomic phenomena. The macroregional framework for China has been widely adopted among historians and anthropologists for contextualizing local studies, but it has also found detractors, especially among economists and geographers, who viewed it as overly deterministic. Skinner addressed some criticisms in elaborating the HRS framework, incorporating concepts from quantitative geography, and identifying “socioeconomic macroregions” that deviate from physiographic boundaries as social patterns and transportation networks develop. Even so, the nine physiographic macroregions of agrarian China remain useful for introducing students to the major geographical variations in China’s landscape and society.
Impact of Heat Treatment on Wheat Flour Solvent Retention Capacity (SRC) Profiles
Authors: Van Steertegem Bénédicte , Pareyt Bram , Slade Louise , Levine Harry , Brijs Kristof , Delcour Jan A. 
Published: June 2013

ABSTRACTThe impact of heat treating wheat flour (for 2 or 5 h at 80 or 100°C) on its functional properties was studied with solvent retention capacity (SRC) tests and related to changes in individual groups of flour constituents. Heat treatments increased the overall water retention capacity (from 55.6% for control flour to 62.4% for flour heated 5 h at 100°C) as well as sucrose SRC (from 85.0 to 113.5%), although no changes were observed in sodium carbonate SRC. The decrease in lactic acid SRC values (from 113.1 to 97.4%) indicated that heat treatment restricted swelling of the protein network. As deduced from a decrease in both the level of proteins extractable in sodium dodecyl sulfate–containing medium and the level of free sulfhydryl groups, the restricted swelling was related to protein cross‐linking within the flour particles. Such upfront polymerization prevented proper hydration and gluten network formation during mixing. Starch (swelling) properties were also affected by heat treatment. Finally, the impact of heat treatment on flour SRC profiles was comparable to that noted when chlorinating wheat flour.
Effect of Moisture Content on the Viscoelastic Properties of Individual Wheat Kernels Evaluated by the Uniaxial Compression Test Under Small Strain
Authors: Ponce‐García Néstor , Ramírez‐Wong Benjamín , Torres‐Chávez Patricia Isabel , de Dios Figueroa‐Cárdenas Juan , Serna‐Saldívar Sergio Othón , Cortez‐Rocha Mario Onofre 
Published: June 2013

ABSTRACTWheat product quality is related to its physicochemical properties and to the viscoelastic properties of the kernel. The aim of this work was to evaluate the viscoelastic properties of individual wheat kernels using the uniaxial compression test under small strain (3%) to create experimental conditions that allow the use of the elasticity theory to explain the wheat kernel viscoelasticity and its relationships to physicochemical characteristics, such as weight tests, size, and ash and protein contents. The following viscoelastic properties of the kernels of hard and soft wheat cultivars at two different moisture contents (original and tempered at 15%) were evaluated: total work (Wt), elastic work (We), plastic work (Wp), and modulus of elasticity (E). There was a significant decrease in Wt as the moisture content increased. In the soft wheat Saturno, Wt decreased 80% (from 0.217 to 0.044 N·mm) as the moisture content increased. Individual wheat kernels at their original moisture content showed higher We than under the tempered condition. Wp increased as the moisture content increased. E decreased as the moisture content increased. The soft wheat Saturno showed the highest decline (54.9%) in E (from 14.18 to 6.39 MPa) as the moisture content increased. There were significant negative relationships between the viscoelastic properties and the 1,000‐kernel weight and kernel thickness. The uniaxial compression test under small strain can be applied to evaluate the viscoelastic properties of individual wheat kernels from different classes and cultivars.
First Report of Wood Canker Caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum on Grapevine in California
Authors: Rolshausen P. E. , Akgül D. S. , Perez R. , Eskalen A. , Gispert C. 
Published: June 2013

In May 2012 in the Coachella valley, Riverside County, California, the decline of vines in table grape (Vitis vinifera) vineyards was observed. Foliar symptoms consisted of shoot blight with wilting and necrosis of leaves and drying and shriveling of berries. In some cases, the entire vine collapsed in the middle of the growing season (apoplexia). Wood cankers in the spurs, cordons, and trunks of affected vines were also present. The nine isolates recovered from the cankers were identified as Neoscytalidium dimidiatum (Penz.) Crous & Slippers based on morphological characteristics and DNA sequence comparisons. Two isolates were grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and a total of 50 conidia were measured per isolate. Conidia were ellipsoid to ovoid, with a truncate base and an acutely rounded apex, initially aseptate, becoming brown and two-celled at maturity, 7.2 ± 1.2 μm × 3.8 ± 0.4 μm. The rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and β-tubulin (BT) loci were amplified using primer pairs and methods previously described (4). A total of five isolates were sequenced. The DNA sequences of one N. dimidiatum grapevine isolate (UCR-Neo1) were deposited in the GenBank database (ITS, KC937066; BT, KC937067). Pathogenicity tests were performed by inoculating 12 grape cuttings cv. Thompson Seedless with isolate UCR-Neo1 and 12 control cuttings with sterile medium using a technique previously described (1). The experiment was repeated twice. After 20 weeks of incubation period in the greenhouse, the lesions length produced by N. dimidiatum averaged 13.5 mm and was significantly longer (P < 0.05) from the control (average 3 mm). N. dimidiatum was reisolated from all the inoculated plants and identified by colony morphology. The incidence of N. dimidiatum in table grape vineyards of the Coachella valley has been estimated at 15%, with nine vines infected out of 60 vines total. This pathogen has been identified in California in walnut nursery causing the death of trees due to the development of canker at the graft union (2). N. dimidiatum has also been identified as the causal agent of shoot blight, canker, and gummosis on citrus in Italy (3). The crop is also being grown in the Coachella valley and these findings warrant further investigation in order to determine the host range, distribution, and incidence of this pathogen in the area. References: (1) K. Baumgartner et al. Plant Dis. 97:912, 2013. (2) S. F. Chen et al. Plant Dis. 97:993, 2013. (3) G. Polizzi et al. Plant Dis 93:1215, 2009. (4) J. R. Urbez-Torres et al. Plant Dis. 92:519, 2008.
A dynamic discrete dislocation plasticity method for the simulation of plastic relaxation under shock loading
Authors: Gurrutxaga-Lerma Beñat , Balint Daniel S. , Dini Daniele , Eakins Daniel E. , Sutton Adrian P. 
Published: June 2013

In this article, it is demonstrated that current methods of modelling plasticity as the collective motion of discrete dislocations, such as two-dimensional discrete dislocation plasticity (DDP), are unsuitable for the simulation of very high strain rate processes (10
6
s
−1
or more) such as plastic relaxation during shock loading. Current DDP models treat dislocations quasi-statically, ignoring the time-dependent nature of the elastic fields of dislocations. It is shown that this assumption introduces unphysical artefacts into the system when simulating plasticity resulting from shock loading. This deficiency can be overcome only by formulating a fully time-dependent elastodynamic description of the elastic fields of discrete dislocations. Building on the work of Markenscoff & Clifton, the fundamental time-dependent solutions for the injection and non-uniform motion of straight edge dislocations are presented. The numerical implementation of these solutions for a single moving dislocation and for two annihilating dislocations in an infinite plane are presented. The application of these solutions in a two-dimensional model of time-dependent plasticity during shock loading is outlined here and will be presented in detail elsewhere.
Nitrogen Stress Affects the Turnover and Size of Nitrogen Pools Supplying Leaf Growth in a Grass
Authors: Lehmeier Christoph Andreas , Wild Melanie , Schnyder Hans 
Published: June 2013

Abstract
The effect of nitrogen (N) stress on the pool system supplying currently assimilated and (re)mobilized N for leaf growth of a grass was explored by dynamic 15N labeling, assessment of total and labeled N import into leaf growth zones, and compartmental analysis of the label import data. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) plants, grown with low or high levels of N fertilization, were labeled with 15NO3 −/14NO3 − from 2 h to more than 20 d. In both treatments, the tracer time course in N imported into the growth zones fitted a two-pool model (r 2 &gt; 0.99). This consisted of a “substrate pool,” which received N from current uptake and supplied the growth zone, and a recycling/mobilizing “store,” which exchanged with the substrate pool. N deficiency halved the leaf elongation rate, decreased N import into the growth zone, lengthened the delay between tracer uptake and its arrival in the growth zone (2.2 h versus 0.9 h), slowed the turnover of the substrate pool (half-life of 3.2 h versus 0.6 h), and increased its size (12.4 μg versus 5.9 μg). The store contained the equivalent of approximately 10 times (low N) and approximately five times (high N) the total daily N import into the growth zone. Its turnover agreed with that of protein turnover. Remarkably, the relative contribution of mobilization to leaf growth was large and similar (approximately 45%) in both treatments. We conclude that turnover and size of the substrate pool are related to the sink strength of the growth zone, whereas the contribution of the store is influenced by partitioning between sinks.
Unravelling complex associations between physiological state and movement of African elephants
Authors: Jachowski David S. , Montgomery Robert A. , Slotow Rob , Millspaugh Joshua J. 
Published: June 2013

Summary

Despite the identification of internal state as a fundamental component of animal movement, the effect of an individual's internal physiological state on movement remains poorly understood. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) alter their behaviour in response to their physiological state, and elevated stress hormone concentrations have been associated with reclusive behaviour and aggression towards humans. Thus, a better understanding of the link between internal physiological state and movement is important in advancing the field of movement ecology, and the ecology and management of elephants.

We compared the movement paths of African elephants in two physiological states (basal and elevated stress hormone levels) to understand the variation in the use of space in relation to the proximity of environmental features and refugia.

We documented differences in the elephants' use of space along movement paths by physiological state. Elephant family groups in a basal physiological state tended to venture away from refugia and commercial tree plantations, and use areas in closer proximity to fresh water. In contrast, elephant family groups in an elevated physiological state tended to use areas near refugia and commercial tree plantations. The use of commercial tree plantations during elevated states highlights an important concern for human safety in the context of human–elephant conflict.

Synthesis and applications. Our findings suggest that fine‐scale movement patterns and the use of specific environmental features by elephants are associated with differences in elephant physiological state. Therefore, future attempts to describe or predict typically complex animal movement could be enhanced by incorporating measures of their physiological state. Given that elephants are more prone to habitat disturbance and aggression when in an elevated physiological state, information about elephant movement behaviour could be used in combination with real‐time tracking data to predict when and where elephants are potentially in elevated physiological states and limit human access to these areas, which might mitigate human–elephant conflict.
Mapping ecosystem service and biodiversity changes over 70 years in a rural English county
Authors: Jiang Mingkai , Bullock James M. , Hooftman Danny A. P. 
Published: June 2013

Summary

Biodiversity and ecosystem services continue to be compromised by land‐use change, which is often focussed on enhancing agricultural production. Assessment of losses would be aided by analyses of temporal changes in the extent and spatial pattern of services and biodiversity. To date, no studies have mapped long‐term changes in ecosystem services using historical maps.

We mapped changes between the 1930s – before the considerable intensification of land use in the UK starting in the 1940s – and 2000 in climate change amelioration services (carbon storage), provisioning services (agriculture and forestry) and plant species richness (biodiversity) for Dorset, a rural English county.

We combined land‐use maps (1‐ha resolution) with multiple proxies of service delivery for the 10 different Broad Habitats in the region. Biodiversity was mapped using plant survey data from the two time periods. We used bootstrapping to include uncertainty due to the different proxies and Gini coefficients to quantify statistical changes in spatial pattern.

Overall, we found significant increases in agricultural provisioning and large losses in biodiversity over the period, which reflect widespread conversion and intensification of land use. We found no change in Dorset's carbon store, because carbon lost through land‐use intensification was balanced by increases in woodland over the 20th century.

The carbon storage and the delivery of provisioning services both became more unequally distributed, indicating a change from relatively homogeneous delivery of services to concentration into hotspots. The maps from the year 2000 showed spatial dissociation of hotspots for carbon, provisioning and biodiversity, which suggests that, compared to the 1930s, modern, intensive land use creates conflicts in delivery of multiple services and biodiversity.

Synthesis and applications. Detailed maps of historical changes in location‐specific service delivery and biodiversity provide valuable information for land‐use planning, highlight trade‐offs and help to identify drivers. Furthermore, historical maps provide an important baseline to indicate the suitability and potential success of suggested actions, such as habitat restoration, and their relevance to traditional land use. Various frameworks could be informed by our approach, including the ecosystem service aims of the EU biodiversity strategy and the newly created UK Nature Improvement Areas.
An examination of teacher–student interactions in inclusive classrooms: teacher interviews and classroom observations
Authors: Cameron David Lansing 
Published: June 2013

Teacher–student interactions in 17 inclusive classrooms were examined using a mixed‐methods approach that involved quantitative analysis of interactions recorded during classroom observations and follow‐up interviews with seven general educators.Observational findings suggest that classrooms were organised along traditional lines with the vast majority of interactions provided by general educators to the whole class, followed by brief intervals of 1 : 1 interactions directed towards individual students, most frequently children with disabilities. Interview findings suggest that teachers were aware of the greater individual attention devoted to students with disabilities and described a number of ways that they adapt their instruction that are consistent with the research on effective teaching. In addition, participants struggled with the dilemma of balancing their attention between students whom they perceived as needing it most and ensuring that the class as a whole made adequate progress. The analysis of both observational and interview data indicates that paraprofessionals were responsible for a large portion of instruction and curricular decision making for children with severe disabilities in these classrooms.