bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Solid‐Phase Extraction and Clean‐Up Procedures in Pharmaceutical AnalysisUpdate based on the original article by P. Campíns‐Falcó, A. Sevillano‐Cabeza, R. Herráez‐Hernández, and C. Molins‐Legua,
Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry
, © 2000, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Campíns‐Falcó P. , Sevillano‐Cabeza A. , Herráez‐Hernández R. , Molins‐Legua C. , Moliner‐Martínez Y. , Verdú‐Andrés J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Solid‐phase extraction (SPE) using small cartridges filled with sorbents of a small particle size has rapidly established itself as an important sample clean‐up technique. It has prospered at the expense of liquid‐liquid extraction (LLE), which is considered labor intensive and frequently plagued by problems, such as emulsion formation and use of large volumes of hazardous solvents. A remarkable characteristic of SPE is its easy adaptation to on‐line mode by column‐switching techniques; switching can be effected manually or by automated controllers.

The same analyte/sorbent interactions that are exploited in liquid chromatography (LC) are of use in SPE, but particle sizes employed are greater. Chemically bonded silica (SI), usually with C
18
and C
8
organic groups, is by far the most commonly used material. Cross‐linked polystyrene and other polymeric resins and mixed‐mode SPE sorbents are also widely used. Recently, different sorbents have been introduced to improve the selectivity, such as molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and immunoaffinity sorbents, or to improve the extraction capacity through the increment of the surface‐to‐volume ratio (i.e. hypercross‐linked resins). A guide to improve sample clean‐up procedure can be established.

Current trends in SPE are aimed toward the development of miniaturized systems that facilitate its automation and increase its precision, throughput, and cost‐effectiveness. Examples of such trends are the new formats of SPE such as tip‐based microextraction and solid‐phase microextraction with capillary columns (in‐tube solid‐phase microextraction, IT‐SPME).
There are different approaches to automation for both off‐line and on‐line SPE, which involve different levels of apparatus cost. SPE is generally easier and cheaper than LLE. The precision obtained is similar for both techniques, while the recoveries obtained by SPE are generally better than those obtained by LLE.
Enrichment and derivatization can also be carried out by use of sorbents as supports.
Neutron Scattering in the Analysis of PolymersUpdate based on the original article by D. G. Bucknall,Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, © 2000, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Roland C. Michael 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe focus of this article is the application of neutron scattering in polymer science, with various examples given to illustrate the types of problems addressed. Neutron scattering is a powerful analytical tool for investigating polymers. Unique aspects such as the capacity to measure thick samples with an absence heating or radiation‐induced damage, selective control of the scattering contrast by isotopic substitution, and the measurement of dynamic properties as a function of length scale are among the many attributes that make neutron methods not just complementary to other analytical techniques, but in many cases the only means to address material issues. The information that can be obtained from neutron scattering — the size, form, and orientation of molecular chains, the thermodynamics and phase structure of mixtures, interfaces and interfacial phenomena, the dynamics at both the local and global length scales, details of the structure of complex nanocomposites and biological materials, etc. — has only been surveyed herein. It is a testament to the utility of neutron scattering that even though the application of neutrons to polymers did not begin in earnest until the 1990s, through the past decade, about 325 peer‐reviewed publications per year have appeared on the topic. Whether this figure changes in the future will likely depend on the availability of the specialized, costly facilities required for neutron experiments. Certainly there is no expectation of abatement in the number of important problems in polymer science that can be addressed using neutron methods.
Raman Spectroscopy in Process AnalysisUpdate based on the original article by M. Anne Leugers and Elmer D. Lipp,Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, © 2000, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Lipp Elmer D. , Leugers M. Anne , Chen Xiaoyun , Rickard Mark A. , Wang Xianghuai 
Published: December 2012

AbstractProcess analysis involves the on‐line measurement of chemical or physical properties of a process, generally a manufacturing process, which provides timely data so that the process can be monitored and conditions adjusted if necessary. As a tool for process analysis, Raman spectroscopy has some desirable attributes. Foremost among these are the options for sampling. The use of visible and near‐infrared (NIR) light for the Raman measurement allows the use of commonly available fiber optics for both delivery of light to a sampling point, and then collection of the scattered light and return to a spectrometer. The probes can be insertable into a process or fully noncontact. The noncontact probes operate through windows on the process and provide one of the few means of collecting analytical information without disturbing the process. Raman spectra often provide a high level of chemical and structural information, and the seconds to minutes time frame of the measurement is well suited to process control. In this article, we discuss modern Raman instrumentation and provide a number of application examples, both conventional manufacturing processes and unconventional applications, where the principles and goals of process analysis still apply.
Efficiency Calculation of Gamma Detectors byMonteCarlo Methods
Authors: Sima Octavian 
Published: December 2012

Abstractγ‐Ray spectrometry is a powerful nondestructive multielemental analysis technique. Its quantitative application requires efficiency calibration. Among the methods available for the computation of the efficiency calibration curve, Monte Carlo simulation is ever increasing in popularity. The need for Monte Carlo simulation is the consequence of the inability of experimental calibration to cope with the broader scope and measuring configurations (shape, volume, and matrices of the samples), with the enhanced coincidence‐summing nuclide specific effects (favored by the current tendency to use high‐efficiency detectors) and with the desired performance parameters (detection limit and uncertainty) met in present‐day applications of γ‐ray spectrometry. The availability of a variety of Monte Carlo packages that can be applied to efficiency computation, several of them user friendly indeed, enlarged the class of potential users of this method. While experimental calibration remains the preferred method in the case of point sources and specific volume sources, such as solutions, it is the flexibility of Monte Carlo calculation that can provide a comprehensive calibration of γ‐ray detectors for a broad range of applications. In this article, the principles of Monte Carlo method are introduced, the applications to detector simulation are presented, and the solutions of typical problems in the calibration of γ‐spectrometry systems are reviewed.
Environmental Science
Authors: Cross Douglas 
Published: December 2012

AbstractReturns from environmental crime are comparable to those from the narcotics trade, while the risks of conviction and penalty are relatively low, providing attractive opportunities for organized criminal groups. The emerging field of environmental forensics has borrowed extensively from general forensic science to develop techniques that can be used to detect and counter the growing global problem of environmental crime. The demand for protected species places increasing pressures on endangered species of animals and plants, while the chemicals sector produces an astonishing range of novel substances that may enter and adversely affect the environment. The high costs of treating and disposing of hazardous wastes has led to a lucrative market in illicit waste disposal, much of which is also hazardous. Faced with such diverse threats to thousands of vulnerable species, conservationists have been forced to prioritize forensic capacity to protect the most severely threatened resources, and there is a clear trend toward integrated global collaboration to follow international routes of exploitation and disposal. This article provides a brief overview of the main fields of environmental forensic science, and summarizes urgent issues currently faced by practitioners.
Firearms: Gas Spring and Air Weapons
Authors: Heard Brian J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
This article deals with compressed air, gas, and spring air guns, their operation and potential power, together with the various missiles that can be fired from them; the wounding and penetrative capability of air gun missiles when fired at human tissue; the penetrative capability of the said missiles when fired at glass, together with indicators to assist in determining the type of missile causing the damage. The article also discusses whether low‐powered air guns can be classified as lethal barreled weapons and how they could fit within appropriate legislation.
Postmortem Toxicology: Artifacts
Authors: Skopp Gisela A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis article attempts to highlight important artifacts (misleading signs) being an inherent part of postmortem toxicology. A major issue with specimens collected for a postmortem toxicology investigation is an understanding of drug use in the antemortem setting as well as the medical history. Drug concentration is likely to change already during perimortem. The potential for postmortem redistribution largely depends on the drug's physicochemical/pharmacokinetic properties and environmental conditions, and can be dependent on the site and time. Body fluids and tissues as well as drugs are affected by autolysis (cell disruption) and putrefaction. Degradation as well as formation of new entities occurs as competing processes to postmortem redistribution. Analysis of formalin‐treated samples may create problems with regard to sample processing along with the loss, decomposition, or methylation of drugs. The main collection artifact is contamination. Poor sampling will severely affect a case investigation, as well as the use of inappropriate specimen containers and preservatives. Precaution taken to preserve drug stability during storage until analysis is guided by current knowledge. Problems may also occur during the isolation and identification of a drug. A thoroughly evaluated determination of the parent drug along with major metabolites/degradation products seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation.
Disaster Mental Health
Authors: Bulling Denise , Abdel‐Monem Tarik 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Disaster mental health is an evolving field of clinical practice that involves a combination of clinicians and indigenous workers. It is typically a set of interventions for use after a disaster or humanitarian emergency that normalize the responses people have to the event. Situations in which disaster mental health interventions may be offered include natural disasters (e.g., tornadoes, floods, etc.), human‐caused disasters (e.g., technological disasters, terrorism, etc.), school and workplace shootings or suicides, or any situation in which groups of people are believed to have been subjected to danger or exploitation (e.g., civil or human rights abridgments or cultural dislocations associated with community or “compound” legal interventions). The philosophy behind disaster mental health is that most people experience normal or common reactions to the event and only a few will develop pathological symptoms that require extensive treatment. The set of interventions employed by disaster mental health practitioners usually consists of outreach, public education, and screening for more problematic reactions to the event. People who may show symptoms of major psychological disorders (such as depression, anxiety, or posttraumatic stress disorder) are referred to clinicians offering longer term treatment services. There are legal protections in place for disaster mental health practitioners who are part of a larger disaster response.
Mass Grave Investigation
Authors: Connor Melissa A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Mass graves are graves of four or more individuals buried at or about the same time. When bodies are piled on top of each other, the mass decomposes differently than a single body in a grave, owing to accumulated water and body fluids. The variation in decomposition stages, as well as the sheer size of the graves, can make the exhumations logistically challenging. Criminal mass graves rarely result from simple homicide, but often are a result of genocide, war crimes, or crimes against humanity. Framing a charge relies on attention to the cause and manner of death of decedents, grave demographics, artifacts, and personal effects, as well as other factors. Attention to how the grave is dug and bodies arranged can help to corroborate witness testimony on the sequence of events and mechanics of execution and body disposal.
Alcohol: Behavioral and Medical Effects
Authors: Brick John 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis article reviews the behavioral and medical consequences of alcohol. Alcohol, more than any other drug, is a common factor in toxicology and forensic medicine, and proper understanding of its effects is critical to the interpretation of forensic evidence. Acute intoxication results in increased risk for, and is a contributing factor in, a variety of injuries during driving, fall‐downs, bicycling, thermal, water sport and aircraft operation, and suicide. Intoxication may also affect the outcome of certain types of injuries and shorten life. Chronic alcohol abuse also increases risk and injuries of the nature often encountered in forensic evaluations because of frequent intoxication to high blood‐alcohol concentrations. Physiological changes, such as in bone density and liver pathology, can affect the severity of injury, behavior, pharmacokinetics, and life span.
Solid Propulsion: Ignition Transients
Authors: Schlueter Sam S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIgnition transients are a critical and complex period of operation in solid rocket motors. During the ignition interval, many factors combine which must be taken into account in the design of the entire system. There are many methods in use to analyze different aspects of the ignition processes, and the level of analysis complexity varies with need and available resources. These methods vary from empirically based sizing rules to complex physics‐based analyses. There are still many aspects of ignition transient behavior that have not been fully characterized, and research is continuing to fully understand all processes that occur during ignition transients in solid rocket motors.
High‐Risk Flight Testing
Authors: Lowry Wilson R. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
“High risk” flight testing is a label typically applied to envelope expansion flights on an unproven aircraft or to flights of an aircraft that has undergone significant modification. It can also include flights containing test points that have proven hazardous in the past and where a risk assessment leads to a likely possibility of aircraft damage or loss associated with achieving the test points. This chapter covers risk identification and assessment tools, safety checklists, appropriate pilot proficiency, and currency considerations, flight test data cards, chase aircraft responsibilities, risk mitigation strategies, operational area assessments, and structured build‐up flight test techniques. All of these topics are referenced to high‐risk category types of flight testing though they all may be applied to any flight test effort in order to mitigate that program's risk as well.
High‐risk flight testing typically covers envelope expansion flights on an unproven aircraft or flight testing of an aircraft that has received significant modifications. This category of testing can also include flights containing test points that have proven hazardous in the past and where a detailed risk assessment leads to a likely possibility of aircraft damage or loss associated with achieving the test points. In any of these instances, key steps in undertaking high‐risk flight testing are to first identify the risks and then proactively inject suitable measures designed to mitigate those risks and enable successful and efficient test completion.
Geology, Geochemistry and Natural Abundances
Authors: McLennan Scott M. , Ross Taylor Stuart 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REE) are important trace elements for evaluating geological processes and are strategic metals with applications in high technology. REE are lithophile, electropositive, mostly trivalent, and refractory; their importance to geochemistry results from systematic variations in ionic radius and complexing, cerium (Ce
3+/4+
) and europium (Eu
2+/3+
) redox states, and slight variations in condensation temperatures. Influence from the tetrad effect remains controversial. In most common rock‐forming minerals, REE are incompatible and concentrated in magmas and late crystallizing minerals. They are essential constituents in about 200 minerals, most being rare in nature. Economical concentrations are found mostly in association with carbonatite magmatism, heavy mineral placers, and several types of regolith. Type CI chondritic meteorites have relative REE abundances identical to the solar photosphere and are taken to represent the REE content of the solar nebula. The silicate fraction of terrestrial planets and the Moon also have chondritic‐relative REE distributions, but absolute abundances differ depending on volatile content and amount of iron partitioned into metal cores. Refractory inclusions in some carbonaceous chondrites display erratic REE patterns resulting from fractionation of most from least refractory REE during localized evaporation/condensation. On Earth, REE partition into silicate mantle and crust and are excluded from the metal core. Oceanic crust is depleted in light REE (LREE), paralleling the pattern of “depleted” mantle, which in turn largely reflects long‐term growth of LREE‐enriched continental crust by partial melting of the upper mantle above subduction zones. Continental crust is further separated into lower and upper crust. Very uniform sedimentary REE patterns are representative of upper continental crust. The pattern is notable for europium depletion due to partitioning of Eu
II
into residual plagioclase during partial melting. Since plagioclase is stable only to 40 km depth on Earth, the anomaly points to shallow intracrustal partial melting processes. Such patterns are observed back to the late Archean, at which time, the upper crust does not display anomalous europium on average and thus formed by different processes. Natural waters are characterized by extremely low but variable REE concentrations due to low solubility and tendency to adsorb onto particle surfaces. Seawater is characterized by severe cerium depletion, resulting from oxidation to Ce
IV
and separation from other REE by preferential uptake onto Mn
IV
‐oxide particles. Enrichment of heavy REE in seawater relative to the crust results from greater stability of heavy rare earth element (HREE) complexes. REE residence times in seawater are short, ranging from 50 (Ce) to about 2500 (HREE) years.
Lanthanides: Organic Synthesis
Authors: Mori Yuichiro , Kobayashi Shũ 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRecently, rare earth elements have significantly contributed to the development of organic synthesis. The unique physical and chemical properties of rare earth metals afford fine‐tuned catalyst‐ligand complexes that can be utilized for various kinds of organic transformations including catalytic asymmetric reactions. One remarkable character of rare earth metal‐based Lewis acids is its compatibility with water. Organic reactions in aqueous media in the presence of rare earth metal catalysts are rapidly developing. Rare earth elements also constitute multifunctional catalysts for highly enantioselective reactions. Recent topics using rare earth metal catalysts are highlighted.
Lanthanides: Organometallic Chemistry
Authors: Liddle Stephen T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThis chapter describes the fundamental properties of organometallic rare earth chemistry. The history and importance of the field are described. The bonding in this area is outlined with reference to (i) zero‐valent compounds; (ii) the more common rare earth(II) and (III) complexes; (iii) the general dearth of π‐acid derivatives such as carbonyls and olefins; (iv) the general paucity of rare earth‐ligand multiple bond linkages. The basic physicochemical properties of the area are discussed in terms of (i) thermodynamic and kinetic considerations; (ii) solvation; (iii) salt occlusion; (iv) aggregation. The stability of organometallic rare earth complexes is detailed in terms of (i) handling; (ii) elimination reactions and design features of hydrocarbyl ligands; (iii) saturation of the coordination sphere; (iv) the use of dono‐functionalized ligands. Methods of preparation and reaction types are surveyed including (i) salt elimination; (ii) metathesis; (iii) oxidation and transmetallation; (iv) acid‐base chemistry; (v) metal vapor synthesis; (vi) donor cleavage and adduct formation; (vii) σ‐bond metathesis; (viii) classical reactivity patterns; (ix) one‐electron redox chemistry.
Progeroide Laminopathien zwischen Hutchinson-Gilford-Syndrom, restriktiver Dermopathie und mandibuloakraler Dysplasie
Authors: Wehnert M. , Meinke P. 
Published: December 2012

Zusammenfassung
Es gibt eine Gruppe primärer und sekundärer Laminopathien mit progeroidem Phänotyp. Sie sind mit pleiotropen Mutationen im LMNA- bzw. ZMPSTE24-Gen assoziiert und äußern sind klinisch als Hutchinson-Gilford-Syndrom, restriktive Dermopathie oder mandibuloakrale Dysplasie. Neben diesen klinisch klar abzugrenzenden progeroiden Laminopathien gibt es eine zunehmende Anzahl atypischer progeroider Laminopathien – auch als atypisches Werner-Syndrom bekannt –, die sich klinisch nicht zuordnen lassen, da sie Merkmale mehrerer Laminopathien aufweisen. Exemplarisch werden zwei solcher atypischer primärer und sekundärer progeroider Laminopathien vorgestellt, die klinisch sich überschneidende Merkmale des Hutchinson-Gilford-Syndroms, der restriktiven Dermopathien, der mandibuloakralen Dysplasie und darüber hinaus muskulärer Laminopathien aufweisen.
Progeroide autosomal-rezessive Cutis-laxa-Syndrome
Authors: Kornak U. 
Published: December 2012

Zusammenfassung
Alle autosomal-rezessiven Cutis-laxa-Syndrome haben mehr oder weniger ausgeprägte progeroide Züge. Sie zeigen als Gemeinsamkeit Veränderungen des Bindegewebes, die u. a. zu faltiger, schlaffer Haut führen, und eine unterschiedlich starke Reduktion der Knochenmineraldichte. Daneben können je nach Typ zusätzlich Haarveränderungen, kardiovaskuläre, neurologische, gastrotintestinale und urologische Symptome bestehen. Dieser Artikel gibt eine Übersicht über die klinischen Charakteristika, die Gendefekte und den momentanen Wissensstand bezüglich der Mechanismen.