bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Health Care Delivery System: Mexico
Authors: Castro Roberto 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Mexico's health care delivery system is described, beginning with a brief historical account of its foundation in 1943 and its evolution since then to date. Two major sectors compose this system: the public sector and the private sector. Institutions from the public sector are described, the main ones being the Mexican Social Security Institute, the Institute of Security and Social Services for State Workers, and the Popular Health Insurance. The private sector is composed of private entrepreneurs and private health insurance companies. A description is given of the funding, benefits, expenditure, population coverage, and infrastructure of the public sector. Some of the main achievements of Mexico's health care delivery system are described, as well as some of its main unsolved problems and contradictions. For instance, a large sector of the Mexican population remains completely unprotected by any kind of public cover, whereas other sectors enjoy more than one type. Moreover, according to some critics, the Popular Health Insurance is largely demagogic.
Voluntary Care
Authors: Power Andrew 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
This entry examines the various meanings given to voluntary care. It traces how these meanings have evolved, including assumptions of community altruism, women's duty of care, and durable charitable efforts to provide support. It critically appraises these assumptions and unpicks the complex relationships involved. It considers how the meaning of voluntary care is also shaped by the portrayal of the person for whom voluntary care is provided. Central to these debates is the issue of proximity – a key theme in understanding the multifaceted dynamics in the provision of voluntary care.
Family Caregivers: Dementia
Authors: Weng Suzie S. , Nguyen Peter V. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Family members play an important role in the lives of those who experience dementia. Culture is an important factor in the discussions of family dementia caregiving in Asian American families. Unfortunately, little attention has been placed on understating dementia among Asian Americans partly due to the fact that dementia is still hidden in many communities. The purpose of this paper is to explore the issues related to dementia care in the Asian American community.
Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and Health in the United States
Authors: Egede Leonard E. , Hernandez‐Tejada Melba A. , Strom Joni L. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Health outcomes in the United States are influenced by multifactorial components. The impact of factors such as race, racism, ethnicity, and culture has been debated throughout history as possible contributors to health outcomes within specific communities. In concordance with this ongoing discussion, these concepts remain urgent and frequently revisited topics among organizations created to serve the general population; however, evidence is still lacking in support of these factors as direct contributors to poor health. In some instances, race, aspects of culture, and ethnicity continue to drive and direct care, treatment, costs, and health care decision‐making. Perceptions of these concepts solely or collectively continue to create and foster health inequities and disparities within different population groups in the United States. Until America is able to acknowledge, understand, and correct the inequalities that persist racially, culturally, and socially, the divide between care provided to minorities and to whites will continue to persist.
Mental Illness and Labeling Theory
Authors: Markowitz Fred E. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The stigma associated with mental illness results in discrimination, loss of socioeconomic status, lowered sense of self‐worth, and increased symptoms. Labeling theory is an explanatory framework that accounts for these effects. In light of developments in the understanding of the causes and treatment of mental illness, the theory has undergone modification from its original version to show how internalized stigma affects well‐being. Recent research integrates modified labeling theory with the reflected appraisals process of identity formation to understand how attitudes toward mental illness affect recovery through their effects on the self‐concept.
Health, Women's
Authors: Shinberg Diane S. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Women's health comprises more than popular, everyday notions of beauty, sex appeal, fitness, fashion, and dieting as practiced by women. In a biomedical framework women's health is centered first on reproductive organ systems and secondarily on those diseases that affect disproportionately more women than men. Within a biopsychosocial perspective, women's health addresses physical, emotional, and social dimensions of health and well‐being. Sociological definitions of women's health address health topics that frame gender as a social institution, including gendered patterns within medicine, medical training, doctor–patient interactions, self‐care, prevention, illness behavior, health care utilization, and health‐related politics.
Health Promotion Programs: Design, Monitoring, and Evaluation
Authors: Lee Anthony B. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A quick survey of the definition and history of the development of health promotion programs and the rise of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) activities is provided to help orient the reader. Major theoretical approaches to health promotion are outlined. An overview of the basic components involved in program design in M&E follows. The entry then articulates the variety of M&E approaches that exist today, and concludes with key challenges confronting the design, monitoring, and evaluation of health programs.
Race and Public Health
Authors: Dressler William W. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The description and explanation of racial and ethnic health disparities is a major initiative in public health research. Two major explanations have dominated discussions of health disparities. The first is that genes contributing to the risk of disease aggregate by race. The second is that racial minorities are subject to prejudice and discriminatory acts on the basis of their minority status, the stresses of which contribute to disease risk. Both of these explanations require an explicit reconceptualization of race. Genetic researchers have used the tools of molecular biology to identify “ancestry informative markers,” or sets of genetic polymorphisms shared by individuals descended from a single population. The logic of defining racial groups in terms of these markers is, however, problematic in much the same way that older definitions based on skin color were. A more fruitful approach is to focus on how racial and ethnic groups are culturally constructed in a given setting, and how individuals both self‐identify and are identified by others as belonging to a particular group. Evidence suggests that the combination of the cultural construction of race and structural barriers confronting minority groups contribute substantially to the explanation of health disparities.
Mental Illness, Medicalization of
Authors: Bakhtiari Elyas , Olafsdottir Sigrun 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Medicalization refers to a process whereby previously non‐medical aspects of life become medical. As social behaviors or conditions are redefined as medical conditions, they come under the domain of the medical profession to define, diagnose, and treat. More specifically, the process of medicalization has been conceptualized as “defining a problem in medical terms, using a medical language to describe a problem, adopting a medical framework to understand a problem, or using a medical intervention to ‘treat’ it.”
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Authors: Sointu Eeva 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is not a coherent or unified whole. CAM is, rather, an umbrella term that encompasses a diverse array of healing techniques. There is also diversity among complementary and alternative medicines in terms of the relationships CAM practices have with biomedical institutions. Generally, what unifies forms of CAM is a lack of state‐supported legitimacy. This marginality is entwined with the rise of biomedical dominance. However, many CAM practices, while institutionally marginal, are culturally resonant. Although the philosophical underpinnings of forms of CAM vary, many CAM practices emphasize a holistic conceptualization of health and illness. An active role allocated to the client also characterizes much contemporary CAM. While the turn to complementary and alternative medicines is often seen to relate to a sense of dissatisfaction with biomedicine, cultural rather than solely medical factors are also important in the rise of complementary and alternative medicines.
Translational Research
Authors: Perry Cheryl A. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Translational research encompasses the movement of research from basic science discoveries through the development of clinical applications and, ultimately, to the dissemination and implementation of drugs, devices, and diagnostics that result in evidence‐based improvements in care. Though it has been broken down into phases ranging from T0 to T4, the process of translational research is bidirectional and its success is dependent on the input of stakeholders and researchers with a variety of expertise. One of the most significant challenges related to translational research is determining how to best increase efficiency and effectiveness, so that the movement from basic (T0) research to improvements in health outcomes (T4) is as expeditious as possible.
Medical Sociology and Genetics
Authors: Dingwall Robert 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The rapid progress in genetic science has attracted considerable interest among medical sociologists. The expression of genes is significantly influenced by the social environment. The interest of medical sociology in genetics lies in the social attempts to manage the consequences of this indeterminacy and the fact that biological environments are socially shaped. When genetic issues first re‐emerged into popular and scientific discourse, they were associated with claims that they represented revolutionary challenges to established institutions, practices, professional interests, and so on. As further empirical work has been conducted, many of the supposedly unique features of genetic medicine have proved to be reincarnations of well‐established topics within medical sociology like professional–patient communication, the nature of disease and its relation to other forms of deviance, the structuring of health services and the choice between public and private systems of funding, and so on.
Health and Globalization
Authors: Cockerham William C. , Cockerham Geoffrey B. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Health and disease are connected globally in that diseases now spread rapidly from continent to continent and efforts to contain them operate on a global level; markets for drugs and other health care commodities and the corporations that produce them span the globe; and global processes like pollution, modernization, and technological change impact on local environments. Consequently, globalization is a process of international networking that affects the health of populations either positively or negatively. This entry describes the globalization process, the spread of Western medicine, medical tourism, global pandemics, and the global governance of health and disease.
Suffering
Authors: Honkasalo Marja‐Liisa 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Suffering as a phenomenon and as a notion is closely intertwined with illness and pain. The task of medicine is understood as alleviating pain and suffering. The question of suffering and its counterpart, evil, is ancient and has occupied human intellectual history in myths, theology, and philosophy. All the cosmologies include some kinds of theodicies – mythical or rational ways of legitimating suffering. For the research of health and illness, suffering is important first for the understanding of the illness experience in cultural and existential contexts; and second for the study of “social suffering” which connects different kinds of human problems, those that create pain or distress, with political violence or with other forms of human misery. The latter view of suffering defines affliction broadly as a social and political question extending from the realm of medicine and medicalization.
Stress and Health
Authors: Rivera Fernando I. , Burgos Giovani 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The overview on stress and health is framed by the three central components of the social stress paradigm: stressors, coping/social support, and health outcomes. The entry begins by defining stressors and differentiating stressors from stress. This is followed by an identification of the different types of stressors (i.e., sudden traumas, life events, daily hassles and non‐events, and chronic stressors) and an examination of some of the key health outcomes that result from exposure to stressors. Next, attention is focused on the different types of resources that ameliorate the negative consequences that stressors are expected to have on health. The entry concludes with a brief summary of key findings in the study of stress and health.
Fundamental Cause
Authors: Hinote Brian P. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Researchers in fields like epidemiology and medicine have enjoyed great success identifying risk factors associated with the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, most of this vast body of research focuses upon proximal, individual‐level behavioral factors, with much less attention devoted to investigating potential distal causal factors that are predominantly social in nature. This entry introduces one of the most important explanations of disease pathogenesis in social epidemiology and medical sociology – the fundamental cause explanation. The idea of social causation is very important in studies of health and disease as a way to emphasize the limitations of traditional risk factor epidemiology. The entry explains what a fundamental cause actually is, and how it helps us move beyond individual‐level conceptualizations of disease causation and health trends, before discussing how socioeconomic status (SES) functions as just such a fundamental cause. Finally, the value of this approach is underscored by opening up new ways to think about how and why individual health situations and aggregate epidemiological trends come about – not as a result of the actions of disconnected agents, but as a consequence of broader underlying structures of advantage and disadvantage.
Professions and Institutions
Authors: Leicht Kevin T. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The relationship between institutions and professions has been defined by neo‐institutional theory since the 1990s. However, the abandonment of Keynesian economics and the rise of neoliberal ideology have changed the relationship between the normative and technical environments in the professions. The emphasis by old institutional theory on how best to organize different spheres of activity presents a way forward for social scientists and policymakers who are uncomfortable with unbridled free markets as the sole normative force in professional life.
Marrying kin in small‐scale societies
Authors: Walker Robert S. , Bailey Drew H. 
Published: February 2014

ABSTRACTObjectivesMarriages among kin have the dual effect of both increasing average group relatedness as well as reducing the total number of kin by eliminating more genealogically and geographically distant individuals from kinship networks. Marriage decisions therefore face a tradeoff between density of kin, or formation of intensive kinship systems, and the diversity of kin, or extensive kinship systems. This article tests the hypothesis that extensive kinship systems best characterize hunter‐gatherer societies, whereas more intensive forms of subsistence, like horticultural, agricultural, and pastoral economies, are more likely to have intensive kinship systems.MethodsHere, we investigate the wide range of variation in prevalence of kin marriages across a sample of 46 small‐scale societies, split evenly between hunter‐gatherers and agropastoralists (including horticulturalists), using genealogies that range in depth from 4 to 16 generations. Regression methods examine how subsistence and polygyny relate to spousal relatedness and inbreeding across societies.ResultsOn average, hunter‐gatherers show limited numbers of kin marriages and low levels of inbreeding, whereas some agropastoralists are characterized by much higher levels of both, especially in societies where polygynous marriages are more common.ConclusionIntensive kinship systems emerge in some intensive economies. This pattern may have favored a kin‐selected increase in more large‐scale cooperation and inequality occurring relatively recently in human history after the advent of domesticated plants and animals. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 26:384–388, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Histopathological and clinical analysis of chronic rhinosinusitis by subtype
Authors: Czerny Mary S. , Namin Arya , Gratton Michael Anne , Antisdel Jastin L. 
Published: February 2014

BackgroundChronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) encompasses diverse phenotypic expression. Clinical and histological differences suggest 4 CRS subtypes: eosinophilic CRS with and without nasal polyps (eCRSwNP, eCRSsNP, respectively) and non‐eosinophilic CRS with and without nasal polyps (neCRSwNP, neCRSsNP, respectively). The mucosal basement membrane (BM) and cilia are believed to play roles in CRS pathogenesis by impacting mucociliary clearance and immune barriers. This study aimed to identify clinical, surgical, and histopathological subtype differences to further elucidate disease mechanisms.MethodsEthmoid tissue from 33 adult CRS patients and 7 controls was obtained during endoscopic sinus or other sinonasal surgery (controls) and analyzed by light and transmission electron microscopy for BM thickness and presence of cilia. CRS patients were categorized into the 4 subtypes, and 22‐item Sinonasal Outcome Test (SNOT‐22) score, endoscopy, computed tomography (CT), and surgical data were compared and analyzed for association with histopathology measures.ResultsCRS subtypes could be distinguished by CT score and surgical data, with eCRSwNP patients exhibiting greatest disease severity. Whereas eosinophilia was associated with absence of cilia, nasal polyposis showed no association with surgical or histopathological measures. No significant difference in BM thickness was found between controls and CRS subtypes, but distinctions were found regarding cilia, which were less common in eosinophilic subgroups compared to controls and neCRSsNP patients.ConclusionCRS subtypes exhibit some differentiating histopathological and surgical features. The absence of cilia appears to have an important role in the eosinophilic subgroups. Further histologic evaluation is warranted to evaluate for possible subtype‐specific treatment targets or prognostic markers.
Alzheimer's disease and parkinson's disease: Distinct entities or extremes of a spectrum of neurodegeneration?
Authors: Perl Daniel P. , Warren C. Olanow , Calne Donald 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAlzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are generally considered to be separate and distinct disease entities. However, a considerable amount of evidence demonstrates that these disorders share common clinical and neuropathologic features and that overlap between the two conditions is extensive. For example, a significant percentage of AD patients exhibit extrapyramidal features, and many PD patients develop dementia. Similarly, at autopsy many AD patients not only exhibit the neuropathologic features of that disorder but also exhibit nigral pathology, including Lewy bodies. The vast majority of demented PD patients show widespread neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques as well as Lewy body formation and nigral degeneration. The extent of such overlap is far greater than one would anticipate by chance alone. We argue that such overlap reflects a common pathogenic mechanism for the neurodegeneration encountered within specific vulnerable neuronal populations. Furthermore, we suggest that the current nosologic approach, which attempts to separate AD from PD, fails to properly deal with the issue of overlap and that a new classification of the neurodegenerative disorders should be considered.
Determinants of neuronal vulnerability in neurodegenerative diseases
Authors: Morrison Brett M. , Hof Patrick R. , Morrison John H. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSelective neuronal vulnerability can be defined anatomically by the differential vulnerability of circuits and neurochemically by the vulnerability of neurons that differentially express particular proteins. The anatomic perspective is exemplified by the vulnerability of the nigrostriatal projection in Parkinson's disease (PD), the degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and the preferential loss of long corticocortical projections in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The neurochemical perspective is reflected in the heightened vulnerability of neurons that normally express high somatodendritic levels of neurofilament (eg, entorhinal and association cortices in AD, the spinal cord in a mouse model of ALS, and the retina in a primate model of glaucoma), as well as the reduced vulnerability of neurons that express calcium‐binding proteins (eg, neocortex of AD patients, the spinal cord and brainstem of ALS patients, and the spinal cord of a mouse model of ALS). By combining neurochemical and anatomic correlates of vulnerability, an integrated view of vulnerable neurons is emerging in which characteristics of vulnerable neurons appear to transcend both brain region and disease state, suggesting that neurodegenerative disorders share common mechanisms of degeneration.
Epidemiology versus genetics in parkinson's disease: Progress in resolving an age‐old debate
Authors: Langston J. William 
Published: February 2014

AbstractDetermining the relative contributions of environment and heredity to the cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) is more than an academic issue because its resolution dictates future research directions to an enormous degree. This article reviews new advances on both sides of this equation. The recent identification of the genetic mutation responsible for parkinsonism in a large Italian kindred is likely to provide exciting new research opportunities but the mutation does not appear to be responsible for the vast majority of PD. A large twin study also points away from genetic influences as important, at least in patients with disease beginning after the age of 50 years. On the other hand, genetic influences loom large in younger‐onset disease. With regard to the environment, epidemiologic studies have provided only broad, thought‐tantalizing clues to the cause of the disease. Although rural living, well‐water consumption, and exposure to pesticides have emerged as potential risk factors, identification of specific agents is lacking, and aging remains as the only unequivocal risk factor for the disease. The surprisingly strong inverse relationship between cigarette smoking and PD provides an intriguing lead, but novel experimental avenues to pursue this observation are not readily obvious. The amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/dementia/parkinsonism complex in the western Pacific suggests the possibility of long‐latency toxins, but pinning down a specific causative agent for this syndrome has eluded investigators to date. Despite the many obstacles ahead, however, research on PD appears to be more robust than ever, and our quest to find its cause appears to be under a full head of steam as we approach the 21st century.