bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Revision to the UK Pipeline Quantitative Risk Assessment Guidelines IGEM/TD/2 and PD 8010-3
Authors: Goodfellow Graham D. , Haswell Jane V. , Jackson Neil W. , Ellis Roger 
Published: December 2014

The United Kingdom Onshore Pipeline Operators Association (UKOPA) was formed by UK pipeline operators to provide a common forum for representing pipeline operators interests in the safe management of pipelines. This includes ensuring that UK pipeline codes include best practice, and that there is a common view in terms of compliance with these codes.
Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) is used by operators in the UK to determine if individual and societal risk levels at new developments adjacent to existing pipelines are as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). In 2008 the UKOPA Risk Assessment Working Group developed codified advice on the use of QRA applied to land use planning assessments, which was published by the Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers (IGEM) and the British Standards Institute (BSI). This advice was designed to ensure a standard and consistent approach, and reduce the potential for disagreement between stakeholders on the acceptability of proposed developments.
Since publication of IGEM/TD/2 and PD8010-3 in 2008, feedback from users of the guidance together with new research work and additional discussions with the UK safety regulator, the Health & Safety Executive (HSE), have been undertaken and the codified advice has been revised and reissued in June 2013.
This paper describes the revisions to the guidance given in these codes in relation to:
• Clarification on application
• Update of physical risk mitigation measures (slabbing and depth of cover)
• Update of HSE approach to Land Use Planning
• Update of failure frequency data:
○ Weibull damage distributions for external interference
○ Generic failure frequency curve for external interference
○ Prediction of failure frequency due to landsliding
The revised codes, and their content, are considered to represent the current UK best practice in pipeline QRA.
Buried Steel Pipeline Design: External Load Methodologies and Strain Limits
Authors: Chou Z. L. , Wittenberg L. J. , Adeeb S. , Cheng J. J. R. 
Published: December 2014

Buried steel pipelines are one of the most efficient means of transporting oil and gas from their resource deposits to their markets. The pipeline industry is experiencing an increased demand for larger diameter pipelines along with the implementation of thinner walls and higher operating pressures.
In these cases, the external pipeline loads have significant effect on the pipeline stresses and deformations, thus influencing wall thickness and associated cost effectiveness. The external loads are made up of the weight of the backfill material combined with live and impact loads due to traffic.
For the designs of buried pipelines, API RP1102, CSA Z662, American Lifelines Alliance (ALA) “Guidelines for the Design of Buried Pipelines”, ASCE “Design and Installation of Buried Pipes” and AWWA Manual M11 are commonly used to calculate external loads on buried pipelines. For the calculation of backfill loads, these methods are based mainly on the same theory, i.e., Marston load theory, while the calculation of live load, due to traffic loads, is based on different approaches. Depending on the design methodology selected, there is a large variation in the calculated external loads due to both backfill and live loads. In this paper, the experimental results of a field monitoring program will be compared with the calculated results from the various methods. An alternative approach for calculating external loads is presented and verified to field studies.
In addition, for the design of onshore pipelines the industry uses design criteria which are based on allowable stress and ovalization deformation limits. Pipe stresses and deformations resulting from the external loads are commonly based on the Spangler stress and the Iowa equations. The parameters in the formulas include pipe and soil properties, pipe-soil stiffness and the geometric relation of a pipe section during deformation. As pipe materials, pipe sizes, operating means and pipe coating techniques change over time, the allowable design criteria shall be re-examined, especially for the ovalization deformation limits. In this paper the allowable strain and the corresponding ovalization deformation limits are re-examined by reviewing experimental results and industrial requirements.
Pipeline Aerial Crossings
Authors: Johnson Murray M. 
Published: December 2014

Modern pipeline construction includes many techniques for safely burying the pipe beneath watercourses or other obstacles with minimal environmental impact. Situations often occur, however, where bringing the pipe above-ground to cross an obstacle on a purpose-built bridge may be necessary or preferred. Such aerial crossings are often used for steep-sided deep canyons, streams with sensitive aquatic habitat, rivers with shifting or unstable beds or deep scour potential, and where sub-surface conditions are unsuitable for horizontal directional drilling.
This paper explores situations where an aerial crossing may be called for and outlines various structure types that may be used, including girder bridges, space trusses, and cable-supported bridges. Factors affecting selection of structure type are discussed, along with design criteria, pipe support methods, expansion provisions, durability, and inspection access. General construction issues are also covered, including access requirements, foundation considerations, fabrication, methods of erecting superstructures, and pipe installation.
Examples are provided of aerial crossings for gas, oil, and water pipelines that have been constructed in the past several decades, as well as crossings now under construction or being designed.
Implementing an Algorithm and Training the Console Operators of the TRANSPETRO Integrated Gas Pipeline Networks for Decision-Making in Scenarios of High Psychological Pressure
Authors: Merçon Eduardo G. , Peres Paulo Bruno V. , da Fonseca Maurício G. , dos Santos Arnaldo M. , Penavilla Anderson 
Published: December 2014

The National Control and Operation Center (CNCO) of Petrobras Transporte S.A. — TRANSPETRO — is responsible for the remote and uninterrupted operation (24 hours a day and 7 days a week) of approximately 7,100 km of gas pipelines, including 11 compression stations and around 135 city-gates. Its Control Room, located in the Head Office of the company in Rio de Janeiro, is composed of a structure of five consoles, monitored by a team formed by four operators and one supervisor.
The purpose of this work is to present and discuss the implantation of a systemic tool that enables the decision-making of the CNCO operators in scenarios of high psychological pressure, so as to incorporate the values of the organization relative to the environment, safety, the assets of the company and society in general.
The first step was the development of the tool, a process achieved based on an algorithm that quantifies the degree of severity of a gas leak from a set of scores and weightings attributed to ten items in a standard questionnaire. This involves factors relative to: the source of information; the time of arrival of the local emergency group or third parties; location, intensity and categorization of the leak; impacts on the community, the environment and the gas transport customer, and the internal classification of critical facilities, among others.
The application of the algorithm questionnaire results in the Evaluation Index of Occurrence (EIO), whose maximum value, which reflects the worst scenario, is 1000. For values of EIO below 600, the emergency is considered to be under control. During the event, the algorithm should be calculated every 15 minutes, so that the rate of variation in the EIO is also monitored and utilized in a decision-making flowchart. Ultimately, based on a questionnaire and flowchart structure, the algorithm aims at rendering information in numbers and actions.
The second stage of the work is the training of the operators, where the program is composed of a theoretical part and a practical part. The theoretical part is based on services contracted from a consultancy with recognized expertise in the Brazilian market. The practical part is carried out in a simulation environment involving our own simulator software and emergency scenarios developed by CNCO together with the consultancy. The software reproduces in different degrees of difficulty, all the conditions of a real leak and the psychological pressure involved. This process will be evaluated by a qualified instructor who will assess the progress of the operator.
Finally, the work also shows how the tool is being incorporated into the operational processes of CNCO, aiming at taking action that is standardized, safe, fast and effective in the mitigation of leakage events.
Application of Multi-Nodal Network Simulation Models in Debottlenecking Complex Pipeline Network
Authors: Cernelev Dumitru , Chegus Allan , Lin Frank 
Published: December 2014

The problem of identifying and removing bottlenecks in a multi-terminal oil & gas pipeline network while achieving quality and delivery targets is a very real and complex problem. The most effective way to meet the above business objective is to develop a terminal network simulation model.
This paper is a case study describing the approach in designing a complex multi-nodal pipeline network simulation model with objective to resolve a critical inter-company storage problem for a major refiner.
Various complex system modeling techniques and approaches are elaborated with a focus on practical application. A case study is also presented to demonstrate the practical application of the modeling techniques for terminal network simulation model development.
Short Term Hydrotechnical Risk Control Measures Used During the Implementation of Watercourse Pipe Replacement Projects
Authors: Dewar Doug , Costerton Bob , McClarty Edward , Bracic Jan 
Published: December 2014

Pipeline watercourse crossings are designed according to the best available industry/technical standards at the time of construction. Older pipeline systems were typically installed without the benefit of modern hydrotechnical engineering practices with little or no allowance for ongoing fluvial processes. The level of protection at specific crossings can deteriorate such that a relatively small flood (i.e. 1:10 year) can pose a significant integrity threat.
The hazards associated with maintaining an existing crossing may not be acceptable for the continued safe operation of a pipeline; therefore, a pipe replacement may be required. The designing, planning, permitting, funding, contracting and construction of any pipe replacement option can require considerable time to implement. In most watercourses in Canada and the United States this means that the pipeline at risk, but not in an emergency situation, will likely go through at least one spring freshet and/or other seasonal peak flow event(s) prior to implementation of the pipe replacement project.
Four examples of short term risk control measures are discussed for river crossings in and around central and northern British Columbia, Canada.
The Development and Application of Virtual Flow Metering System in Offshore Gas Field
Authors: Wang Zhi , Gong Jing , Wu Haihao , Li Qingpin 
Published: December 2014

Well flow rate surveillance is essential for reservoir characterization and selecting potential activities and optimization production. Ideally, surveillance would be achieved using multiphase meters on each well, but generally it is not economically feasible especially for subsea production system. Therefore, the technology of virtual flow metering comes up.
In this paper, the development and application of virtual flow metering system, used for determining production rates including gas oil and water flowrates in well, is discussed. Without any metering devices, the system, developed by China University of Petroleum, can automatically estimate single well and whole production rates every five minutes, only taking advantages of the instrumentations typically installed on wells. In hardware, the system is mainly made up of two servers, one of which in charge of communication, the other calculation. In software, the core algorithms are based on validated models of well hydraulics and flow through choke in oil industry. Also, the components and heat transfer influence is also taken into considered by their corresponding models. Based on these models, three independent algorithms are established for well flow rates prediction. Each algorithm is replicable for others in order to prevent measurement distortion and end caused by individual instruments faults. The value of estimated flow rate uncertainties in addition to real-time continuous well flowrate estimates is described. The flowrate basis on a daily or weekly reconciled by real-time calibration program basing on calculated uncertainties.
The system practically applied in one subsea production system producing gas-condensate. In field commissioning, the system showed a great accuracy. The total mass flow rate and volumetric flowrates for each phase at standard conditions calculated with VMS showed a great agreement with the field data. The maximum error is below 10% and the averaged error is nearly 5%.
Risk Assessment Procedures and Prioritization of Mitigation Actions in Pipeline Crossings
Authors: da Costa Victor Carlos Teixeira , de Paula Eduardo Lopes , de Souza Lima Deise , Gonçalves Bruno Martins 
Published: December 2014

Pipeline operators usually are very concerned to reduce the possibility of damage to their facilities by third-party action. The third-party action is an important failure mode in buried pipelines. Pipeline crossings are a point of special consideration in assessing the risks due to damage possibility by others. In general, means of protecting the line from mechanical damage are used in these situations. These means include concrete coatings of different thickness, pipe casing, concrete slabs, warning tapes, warning mesh and signs.
When a new pipeline is under construction mechanical protection is in general considered in the design phase. However due to urbanization and construction of new roads many new pipelines crossings can exist without any additional mechanical protection. Due to the large amount of such points, there is no feasible plan to act on every single point at the same time. This happens due to problems controlled by financial, time and technical resources. Such a cumbersome task demands a procedure to assess the risks due to third-party action, to rank the points and to receive proper treatment.
Limit States Design for Onshore Pipelines: Designing for Hydrostatic Test Pressure and Restrained Thermal Expansion
Authors: Adianto Riski H. , Nessim Maher A. 
Published: December 2014

Reliability-based design rules have been developed for the key serviceability limit states applicable to onshore pipeline including local buckling due to thermal expansion and excessive plastic deformation under hydrostatic test pressure. The design rules are characterized by three elements: the formulas used to calculate the characteristic demand and capacity; the criteria used to define the characteristic values of the key input parameters to these formulas (such as diameter and material strength); and the safety factors defining the required excess capacity over the demand.
The overall methodology used in developing the design rules and the practical implications of applying them are described in a companion paper. This paper describes the process used to calibrate safety factors and characteristic input parameter values that meet the desired reliability levels. The results show that local buckling under restrained thermal expansion is only potentially relevant for a small sub-set of cases and based on this, an explicit design rule was not developed. For excessive deformation under hydrostatic test pressure, two alternate design rules are provided; one stress based and the other strain based. The final design rules are described and an assessment of their accuracy and consistency in meeting the reliability targets is included. Guidance is also provided on the conditions in which each check is used.
Effects of High-Low Misalignment on Girth Weld Integrity
Authors: Wang Yong-Yi , Kotian Kunal , Rapp Steve 
Published: December 2014

High levels of high-low misalignment in pipeline girth welds have been identified as one of the possible contributing factors to some of the recent pre-service hydrostatic test failures or subsequent service failures. However, pipeline service experience indicates that nominally defect-free girth welds with high levels of misalignment and proper weld profiles can provide satisfactory long-term service. In this paper, recent analytical and experimental work aimed at understanding the impact of high-low misalignment in girth welds is described. In nominally defect-free welds, the performance of the welds is found to be predominantly determined by the misalignment ratio, weld strength mismatch ratio, and the weld profile. Iso-load-capacity relations are developed through finite element analysis (FEA) to capture the interdependence of those key parameters. The analysis procedure is validated by cross-weld tensile testing of girth welds with various levels of misalignment and weld strength mismatch. The effects of the circumferential extent of misalignment, alternatively termed local misalignment, are also analyzed. The effects of misalignment in girth weld with planar flaws are examined in the context of the tensile strain capacity.
The analytical and experimental evidence indicate that the absolute level of misalignment is not a sole indicator of girth weld performance. Weld transition profile, pipe wall thickness, and weld strength mismatch all play an important role. With proper weld profiles, minimal or small reduction of load capacity is observed even at very high levels of misalignment. Work is continuing to further examine the effects of high-low misalignment with a goal of making practical recommendations to be included in codes and standards.
SCC In-Field Inspection Technology Evaluation and its Application to EMAT Based Pipeline Integrity Management Programs
Authors: Tandon Samarth , Gao Ming , Krishnamurthy Ravi , Kania Richard , Piazza Mark 
Published: December 2014

Most recently, as a complement to the ongoing efforts to monitor and document improvements in EMAT ILI technology, PRCI conducted an extensive study of NDE inspection technologies for characterizing SCC in pipelines using various in-ditch technologies and methods. The test pipes used for the study were cut outs from an operating pipeline where SCC features were identified and sized using EMAT ILI technologies. These are now sized with the NDE study and correlated with EMAT data to support an improvement of EMAT technology in characterizing SCC features. More importantly, the test pipes were burst tested to failure, with post failure analysis completed to fully characterize the crack features, including detailed length and depth measurements. This complete data set provides a comprehensive view of the current capabilities of NDE inspection technologies and EMAT ILI technologies to detect and characterize SCC and crack-like features.
In this paper, the approach used for the evaluation of in-ditch NDE and EMAT ILI technologies is presented first. The in-ditch NDE technologies used for evaluation which were commonly used for SCC characterization are then described. SCC characterization results from in-ditch NDE and EMAT ILI are summarized and compared to those directly measured from fracture surfaces exposed by burst tests. The findings and its application to pipeline integrity management programs are discussed.
Pipeline Stress Relief and Evaluation of Strain Measurement Technology at a Moving Slope
Authors: Dinovitzer Aaron , Fredj Abdelfettah , Sen Millan 
Published: December 2014

A major slope in southern Manitoba has been experiencing deep seated movements of approximately 60mm per year. This 24m high × 85m long slope contains a pipeline right of way with five large diameter crude oil lines that were constructed from 1950–1998. It is estimated that the slope has moved up to 3 meters since the pipeline installations. Management of the effects of this slope movement on the pipelines has involved cross-functional strategies that include geotechnical, integrity, and stress evaluations.
A finite element analysis (FEA), which considers the interaction between the soil movement and pipeline, was generated to evaluate the pipeline stresses caused by the slope movements to date. The results indicated that the strain capacity on one of the pipelines may be near its limit. Correspondingly and in order to be conservative, a stress relief was conducted on three of the pipelines within the right-of-way. This mitigation involved excavating the pipelines 360 degrees which allowed for their decoupling from the surrounding soil, and the associated pipeline spring back was surveyed. Prior to backfilling, a low friction geotextile was installed around the excavated pipelines to help mitigate future movements. Drainage improvements and a toe berm were also installed to improve the slope stability.
Several strain measurement technologies that have been the subject of previous Pipeline Research Council projects were also installed at the site. Stress probe measurements were taken before and after the stress relief; a fiber optic cable was installed; inline inspection bending strain measurements were analyzed; and the FEA analysis was used to model the strains before and after the stress relief. All of these technologies are compared to the measurements from strain gauges that were read both before and after the stress reliefs were conducted.