bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Terrorism, Domestic
Authors: Rabe‐Hemp Cara 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWhile the United States has suffered less than the United Kingdom, Spain, Israel, and Italy from international terrorism, it has suffered a significant amount of terrorism in the past half‐century, most of which has been domestic. Terrorist attacks in the United States have involved limited violence by small ideological groups, political extremists, and foreign nationals. These groups range along the classical ideological continuum from extreme right‐wing groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, the Order, the Aryan Nations, and the Christian Identity Movement, to the left‐wing ones represented by the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), Weather Underground, and Black Panthers. From 1954 to 2000, domestic terrorism accounted for about 80% of all terrorist incidents and 88% of all fatalities. However, since September 11, 2001, most domestic terrorism has gone unnoticed. There are several potential reasons for the lack of notoriety in addressing domestic terrorism, including the debate in defining domestic terrorism, complicated official record‐keeping, and a new‐found focus on international terrorism by the Homeland Security Department. It is important to understand past threats to counter modern domestic terrorist attacks.
Policy Research
Authors: Lamphere Renee , Clevenger Shelly 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPolicy research is a process in which researchers explore social problems within a society. The ultimate goal of policy research is to provide suggestions and recommendations for policy makers on ways to lessen these social problems. While theoretical and policy research are different in many ways, they do overlap with each other in an important way: theoretical research may be used to uncover potential policy implications, and policy research may be informed by theoretical frameworks.
Corrections Officers
Authors: Osborne Kimberly T. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Correctional officers, often referred to as prison guards or jailers, work in correctional institutions such as jails and prisons. They are similar to law enforcement officers as they are responsible for enforcing rules and policies of correctional facilities. Correctional officers' main duties are to control, manage, and watch over the inmates incarcerated in correctional facilities. In recent years duties and responsibilities of correctional officers have greatly increased. Their responsibilities continue to include discipline and management of inmates; however, now it is necessary for correctional officers to actively aid in the rehabilitation of prisoners. Correctional officers find themselves in numerous roles throughout their careers, such as therapist, diplomat, caretaker, and disciplinarian.
Victim–Offender Relationship
Authors: M. McQuade Kate 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
A significant amount of crime consists of acquaintance or family crime and interpersonal crime. The relationship between offenders and their victims has been looked at in many contexts, including proximity to home, duration of stalking, method of homicide, and fear of rape or sexual assault. Research has found that the degree of intimacy that exists between victims and offenders has traditionally been seen as a major variable in the outcome in cases of violent crimes in the criminal justice system.
Disproportionate Minority Contact
Authors: Adams Benjamin 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Disproportionate minority contact (DMC) refers to the overrepresentation of minority youth in the juvenile justice system. Overrepresentation does not necessarily imply discrimination; however, it does denote situations where a larger proportion of one group is present than would be expected based on its proportion in the general population. Overrepresentation may result from disparities in the juvenile justice system where demographic groups experience different probabilities of receiving the same outcome. Several reviews of existing literature have found that minority youth are overrepresented at most stages of the juvenile justice system; however, individual studies are not entirely consistent in identifying causes or factors that contribute to DMC or the strategies to effectively reduce it. While the US Congress made DMC a national policy issue in the late 1980s by mandating that states address minority overrepresentation in the juvenile justice system, some argue that federal efforts have yielded few tangible results. It is without question that efforts to address racial and ethnic disparities have increased in recent years and with them the research and practice literature has grown considerably.
Group Homes/Foster Care
Authors: Schall Victoria L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBecause of a variety of issues, both current and historical, youths involved in the child welfare system (referred to as “dependent children”) and sent to out‐of‐home placement face a variety of problems. Due to maltreatment, foster care institutions, and developmental disruption, many of these youths become dually involved in the juvenile justice system, and face long‐term problems.
Indeterminate Sentencing
Authors: Paratore Jason M. , Bowman Jourdan E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAn indeterminate sentence is one in which judges specify both a minimum and maximum length of a sentence. This allows administrative agencies, usually probation or parole, to release rehabilitated offenders anytime between the minimum and maximum sentence dates. Indeterminate sentencing, integral to the medical model, allowed for individualized treatment and rehabilitation of offenders. It replaced many determinate sentences, also known as fixed or flat sentences. Sentencing disparity is one criticism of indeterminate sentences; however, proponents believe it motivates offenders to participate in rehabilitation and allows officials authority to release offenders when judged rehabilitated.
Driving Under the Influence
Authors: Conley Timothy B. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Each year, millions of Americans are arrested and many of them convicted for the crime of driving under the influence (DUI), variously referred to by state and jurisdiction as operating under the influence (OUI); driving while intoxicated (DWI); operating while impaired (OWI); operating a motor vehicle intoxicated (OMVI); driving under the combined influence of alcohol and/or other drugs; driving under the influence per se, or drunk in charge of a vehicle. Less common acronyms include operating a vehicle (while) impaired (OVI), and Driving While Ability Impaired (DWAI). Laws regarding impaired driving originally targeted only alcohol as this was the most predominant problem, but more recent statutes have been enacted to address the growing concern with impairment due to other legal and/or illegal drugs including prescription medications. Currently, prescription drug abuse is on the rise and newer detection methods, laws, and penalties are developing to keep pace. Detection of the medication impaired driver is more difficult than for the alcohol impaired driver as medications do not register on breath scans, requiring more invasive and expensive blood tests.
Deviance
Authors: ROBERTSON Jessica L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Deviance can be a hard word to define because the concept is used in many different contexts. Many sociological theories define the theory of deviance, but these definitions differ. Deviance was first clearly defined by Lemert. Since then, the term has been defined in various ways and is still commonly used in fields such as criminology and sociology. With respect to criminology, deviance occurs when someone engages in conduct that is against norms, values, or laws. Because this definition of deviance is culture‐dependent, it is difficult to reach an objective consensus as to what conduct is actually deviant. Unfortunately, this lack of definitional consensus has led to various problems in the legal system, as well as in policy.
White‐collar Crimes
Authors: Brightman Hank J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe study of violent crime is rooted in several hundred years of theological, biological, sociological, and psychological theories. Explanations for such behaviors range from persons being possessed by evil spirits to an abnormality in the brain's prefrontal cortex. In contrast, research into white‐collar criminality is a relatively new endeavor—scarcely more than 70 years old. It is grounded in the work of Edwin Sutherland and those he directly influenced, including Donald Cressey and Marshall Clinard.
Psychological Theories of Crime
Authors: Lewis J. Scott 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe various theories that make up the psychological approach to explaining crime begin with the assumption that individual differences in personality, biology, or social interactions predispose certain people to criminal acts. These theories are usually expressed in developmental terms and rooted in motivational and learning processes. Many psychological theories of crime also attempt to explain the development of inhibiting factors—for instance the development of conscience, or the internalization of normative rules.
Prisons, Privatization of
Authors: Parsons‐Pollard Nicolle , Moriarty Laura J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry on the privatization of prisons provides a thorough overview of private prisons. It focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of moving from a public forum to a private enterprise, as well as on the impetus for moving from public to private; it evaluates the literature regarding the success (i.e., cost savings) of the movement; and gives some examples of private companies that have moved into the public domain.
Racial Profiling
Authors: Bratina Michele P. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Racial profiling of individuals in US society has occurred since the inception of modern policing, and has been institutionalized as a systemic aspect of police culture. Allegations of racial profiling by law enforcement personnel need to be scientifically investigated. This entry delineates some of the methodological issues and challenges involved in scientifically investigating claims of racial profiling, including (often) unreliable and inaccurate police data, determining the types of data most appropriate for analysis, the use of quantitative and qualitative analyses, the determination of appropriate benchmarks against which police behavior can be evaluated, and the possible causes of racial disparities in the data. Comprehensive studies of racial profiling should take these methodological issues and challenges into account, so as to produce a more complete representation of the racial dynamics that occur during police‐citizen interactions.
Legal Profession, History of
Authors: Nolasco Claire 
Published: January 2014

AbstractFrom the early colonial period to the end of the seventeenth century, the American legal profession was hampered by lack of a stable body of law and lack of adequate training facilities within the colonies. The end of the seventeenth century was marked by reforms in legal education and stricter requirements for admission to the bar. Dean Christopher Langdell's casebook method introduced in the Harvard Law School and adopted in most law schools nationwide led to the formalization of legal education. The development of state and national bar associations further led to the professionalization of the legal industry.
Smuggling of Cultural Artifacts
Authors: Balcells Marc 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe smuggling of cultural artifacts, as a form of criminality against art and cultural heritage, implies the looting of archeological sites with a disregard for the correct proceedings of the archaeological method, and subsequent illicit trafficking with the goal of obtaining a commercial gain. Although it is very difficult to assess the extent of these attacks on cultural artifacts, research indicates the vast number of archaeological items being trafficked and the estimated revenues from this form of traffic. A very important aspect of these smuggling operations is the markets where the cultural artifacts end up, which differ from other markets for trafficked goods. Examples of the smuggling of cultural artifacts illustrate the global magnitude of this criminal enterprise.
Dark Figure of Crime (Problems of Estimation)
Authors: Penney Terry L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Although an organized reporting system exists that includes the UCR, NIBRS, NVCS and self‐reports, an even greater number of unreported crimes form the dark figure of crime. The term “dark figure of crime” was first used by the Belgian mathematician and sociologist Adolphe Quetelet in 1832. The dark figure of crime is crime that is neither reported nor recorded by law enforcement agencies. The dark figure includes criminal incidents/occurrences that meet the definition of recordable crime that are not recorded in official statistics.
Loansharking
Authors: Mayer Robert 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Loansharking is the popular term for extortionate credit transactions in which an unlicensed lender uses criminal means to collect an expensive or usurious debt. It is a form of blackmarket credit often associated with organized crime. When the debtors fall behind in their payments, the Mob lenders may threaten to beat or kill them as a way to compel repayment. This entry explains how loansharking first emerged in the United States, how it was transformed into a criminal enterprise, and how these transactions have been typically conducted. It also explains why this type of illegal credit has diminished in scope in recent decades.
Subcultural Theories of Crime
Authors: Black Pamela 
Published: January 2014

AbstractSubcultural theories of criminality view criminal behavior asnormallearned behavior. Cultural or subcultural theories of crime focus on the content of learned behavior rather than the process of learning that behavior. For example, Miller used lower‐class culture to explain delinquent behavior amongst lower‐class youths, stating that deviance is normative in lower‐class cultures. Akers' social learning theory focuses on the process by which individuals internalize deviant norms (e.g., when and why do people elect to adopt norms favorable to deviance?). Subcultural theories tend to focus on class and ethnic cultures, including lower social class, inner‐city communities, and even rural southern subcultures.
Transnational Gangs
Authors: M. Boyd Lorenzo , Joseph Janice 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Traditionally, gang activities have been a localized phenomenon. However, in recent years some gangs have transformed themselves into international gangs. With the massive and rapid expansion of technology, the free movement of people across national and international borders, and increased use of the media, gangs have become globalized. This entry examines the nature and extent of transnational gangs, and their activities. It also examines some of the counter‐gang strategies that have been employed by governments to control the spread of these gangs.
Careers in Corrections
Authors: Blevins Kristie R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The field of corrections offers a wide range of employment opportunities for individuals looking to work in the criminal justice system. Some of the positions, such as correctional officer, warden, probation officer, and parole officer, are unique to the discipline of corrections. Other options, however, are positions that are found in the free community but catered to fit the needs of offenders in the correctional system. For example, there are prison physicians (sometimes called medical officers), nurses, dentists (often referred to as dental officers), dental hygienists, chaplains, counselors, psychologists, and psychiatrists.
Private Police Services
Authors: Dennis Lee Heeuk 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe number of people working in private security is greater than the number of individual officers engaging in public law enforcement; however, private police and security have generally escaped the notice of policing literature. Private security is clearly the nation's primary protective resource, and private security officers focus more on crime prevention than on crime fighting to protect people, records, merchandise, money, and equipment. However, there has been a lack of personnel standards and training for private security employees. Private police personnel will be required to prove that the members' knowledge and skill in the development of security policies and procedures have improved. Many researchers suggest upgrading employee quality, requiring mandatory training, increasing police knowledge of private security, and expanding the interaction between police and private security providers in order to improve the quality of private police services.
Ethics and Criminal Justice Professions
Authors: Hodge Susan S. , Walker Taurean 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This article examines the different conceptualizations of ethical versus unethical behavior, how history has defined ethics over time, and why social scientists and practitioners alike should continue to understand the pros and cons of ethical and unethical behaviors. It takes a first‐hand look at the different types of ethical and unethical behaviors practiced by adjudicators and enforcers of the law. Lastly, it takes an in‐depth approach that analyzes the future implications of how the three main components of the criminal justice system dictate the definition of ethics for policy makers of the future.
Cressey, Donald
Authors: J. Greife Matthew 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Donald Cressey's work established his position as one of the most prolific criminologists in the United States. His long partnership with Edwin Sutherland ingrained a certain adherence to supporting Differential Association theory throughout most of his career. Cressey is recognized as a leading scholar in the areas of corporate, white‐collar, and organized crime. His work on prison and treatment is a benchmark for innovative avenues to inmate reform.
Eyewitness Identification
Authors: Hiestand Todd C. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEyewitness identifications often provide valuable evidence in criminal cases. This evidence, however, may not always be accurate. Estimator variables, such as the amount of time an eyewitness has to view the subject, and system variables, such as the type of lineup used by investigators, may impact the accuracy of the identification and the confidence of the eyewitness that a correct identification was made. This entry explores these issues and provides pertinent examples of research in this area, including several case examples.
Double Jeopardy
Authors: Hiestand Todd C. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Double Jeopardy Clause in the Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution prevents the government from retrying a criminal defendant for the same criminal offense after jeopardy has attached. The history of this relatively simple proposition is explored along with its practical complexities in modern American jurisprudence. Additionally, case examples of the application of the Double Jeopardy Clause are provided.
International Criminal Justice Standards
Authors: Redo Sławomir M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAmong international criminal justice standards, the United Nations (UN) crime prevention and criminal justice standards and norms are the most important. They range from law enforcement through the judiciary to alternatives to custodial measures and restorative justice. They involve the access to justice by crime victims, offenders, and children in conflict with the law; the treatment of women prisoners; noncustodial measures for women offenders; and the prevention of youth urban crime. The UN standards have far greater potential than currently realized.
Teen Courts
Authors: Ventura Miller Holly , Miller J. Mitchell 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Teen court, commonly referred to as youth court, is a diversionary program for youthful offenders designed to prevent further involvement in the formal juvenile justice system. Teen court programs involve proceedings wherein young people are sentenced by their peers, typically in either a school or courthouse setting, with the cooperation of state agencies such as departments of education and juvenile justice. Teen courts are viewed as both a viable diversionary program for first‐time and minor offenders, and a less expensive alternative to the traditional family court process.
Prison Violence
Authors: Kuo Shih‐Ya 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Prison settings are breeding grounds for violence. Prison violence may take different forms, such as homicides, assaults, rapes, and riots. This entry provides an overview of prison violence and its extent in the United States. Although there are different data sources on prison violence, this entry primarily focuses on data collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). Social scientists have offered numerous explanations for prison violence, with several developing theoretical models to explain prison violence. Discussed are three generally recognized theoretical models of prison violence, namely the importation, deprivation, and exploratory models. Implications of prison violence and suggestions for future studies are included.
Corporal Punishment
Authors: Scheidegger Amie R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Corporal punishment is the purposeful infliction of physical pain upon a person. Three forms of corporal punishment are addressed in this entry: judicial corporal punishment, educational corporal punishment, and domestic corporal punishment. Judicial corporal punishment is a sanction given by the state in response to a violation of law. Educational corporal punishment is administered within a school setting in response to a violation of school policy or misbehavior. A parent or guardian administers domestic corporal punishment in response to a child misbehaving or committing any number of infractions.
Certification of Criminal Justice Academic Programs
Authors: McMurray Harvey L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIn order to ensure that colleges and universities, public and private, meet minimum standards in educating their students, a number of commissions or accrediting bodies have been established. In addition to the six regional accrediting bodies (e.g., Southern Association of Colleges and Schools/SACS), there are national accrediting bodies (e.g., Distance Education and Training Council/DETC), and specialized accrediting bodies (e.g., American Medical Association/AMA). Whatever the type or level of accreditation or certification, the core issue is one of “accountability.”
Victim Impact Statements
Authors: Hill Jennifer 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Historically, victims had an important role in common law, as they were responsible for the apprehension, charge, and prosecution of offenders. Over the past several decades, the victims' rights movement has advocated for a more wide‐ranging criminal justice system, one that would allow victims to have a more prominent role in the justice process. In 1974, the idea of a victim impact statement (VIS) was first introduced in Fresno, California; however, VISs were not passed into law until Congress passed the Victim and Witness Protection Act that specifically called for introducing victim impact evidence at sentencing. The use of VISs in sentencing has been controversial since the idea was first introduced because dissenters question their complexity and effectiveness in the judicial system. VISs raise the idea that punishment is based on consequences arising from characteristics of the victim, rather than on the actions and intention of the offender. Supporters of VISs argue that indirect effects of a crime on victims' lives are equally important to consider as direct effects. Dissenters argue that specific consequences following an unlawful act that were not intended or foreseen by the offender should not be a factor when determining an appropriate sentence for the offender.