bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The risk based alternative to the prescriptive EDRC approach to oil spill preparedness and response.
Authors: Foley Paul 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
Every spill is different. This is the one globally accepted truth of oil spill response, and never more so than when responding on a global scale. The number of potential variables that combine to shape the event and the ensuing response are almost incalculable. Each incident produces a chain of events that must be analysed, assessed and acted on to build the most appropriate response with the effective application of the resources available. The amount, type and availability of such resources depend largely on the rigor and level of preparedness that the responsible party has put in place or that is required by the local regulator based on prescriptive criteria.
This paper explores the risk based approach to the development of oil spill preparedness, allowing mitigating measures to be tailored to the specific risks faced and offering an alternative approach to that offered by the more prescriptive and generic volume based approaches. Advantages and disadvantages of the risk based method are discussed and then anchored to the tiered approach to preparedness. The author draws on first-hand experience of how both approaches translate from the ‘page of preparedness’ to the ‘field of response’. Using international case histories as a reference the author draws conclusions as to whether the inherent variation experienced in spill response should translate to a more flexible, bespoke and risk based approach to the development of a robust and resilient level of preparedness.
Review of Emissions from Oil Fires
Authors: Fingas Merv 
Published: August 2014

The concern over emissions often dominates concerns regarding in-situ burning of oil spills. This paper reviews the results of emission measurement from both test fires and full-scale fires. More than 50 meso-scale burns of crude and diesel were conducted to study various aspects of diesel and crude oil burning in-situ. Extensive sampling and monitoring of these burns were conducted at downwind stations, and in the smoke plume. Later, the burning characteristics of heavy oils and emulsified heavy oils were studied. More than 15 meso-scale burns of these heavy oils were conducted. Measurements of the volatile components and particulates were made. Finally, some measurements were made on the in-situ burns carried out during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill.
In summary, these measurements found that PAHs were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting oil, although somewhat higher concentrations of the larger molecular PAHs were found in the soot and residue. Particulates in the air were measured by several methods and were only found to be greater than recommended exposure levels at ground level if an inversion was present . Combustion gases including carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide did not reach exposure level maximums. Volatile organic compound (VOCs) emissions were found to be extensive from fires, but the levels were lower than an evaporating crude oil spill. Carbonyls, including aldehydes and ketones, were found to be higher from diesel burns than from crude oil burns.
Measurement of the highly toxic compounds, dioxins and dibenzofurans, were made during the test fires. None were found. Similar results were found for the 2010 Deepwater Horizon burns.
Water under the burns was analysed in the case of some of the test fires; no compounds of concern could be found at the detection levels of the methods. The burn residue was analysed for the same compounds as the air particulate samples. The concentrations of PAHs were lower in the residue than in the original oil, although the concentrations of some higher molecular weight species increased slightly. Furthermore, in all burns it was found that emissions of any type, did not exceed that of health concerns at distances greater than about 1 km, if the smoke plume did not impact the ground.
A Novel Low-Pressure Atomization Method for Burning Emulsified Crude Oil
Authors: Tuttle Steven G. , Farley John P. , Fleming James W. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
A novel, air-assisted atomizer designed for low-pressures and high viscosity fluids was used to produce and burn a spray of emulsified crude oil with different fractions of seawater. For a set of spray nozzles, the operational stability limits based on the crude oil flow rate, atomizing air ratio, seawater fraction, and co-flowing air characteristics were established. The droplet diameter and velocity distributions in the non-reacting spray plume were measured using phase Doppler interferometry. The low air and oil pressure requirements permit low power compressors and pumps with a minimal infrastructure footprint. This technology can be a scalable, effective, and fieldable remediation method for benthic spills or crude oil too emulsified for traditional in situ burning.
Initiating In Situ Burning of Difficult-to-Ignite Oil Spills via an Aircraft-Deployable Igniter System
Authors: Goodman Benjamin T. , Davidson Ross A. , Sievert Eric S. , Wood Leslie , Homer Vincent H. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
Igniting a crude-oil spill in situ is a two-step process. First, the oil must be heated above the fire point such that sufficient flammable vapors are present to allow sustained burning. Second, the flammable vapors must be ignited. Different crude oils have different fire points due to different chemical compositions and the fire point can change over time due to volatilization of the lighter components. Factors such as wind, current, water entrainment, oil spill thickness, and temperature can affect the heat transfer to the oil spill, preventing it from reaching its fire point. As such, a large amount of heat may not ignite an oil spill if it is not of sufficient duration because it does not first heat the oil to its fire point.
A light hydrocarbon such as diesel or gasoline is often used as an accelerant to ignite oil spills due to flexibility, low cost, and availability. The ignited accelerant creates a small pool fire in the middle of the larger oil spill that provides a sufficient heating rate over a sufficient duration. The heating rate of the initiating fire is proportional to the surface area of the burning accelerant. The duration of the initiating fire is proportional to the thickness of the burning accelerant. Surface area versus thickness can be controlled by use of a gelling agent. The largest challenge to deploying a liquid-accelerant igniter from an aircraft is safely lighting it in a manner that does not endanger the aircraft and will not extinguish when the igniter impacts the oil spill, especially when the oil spill is over water. A delayed-reaction, chemical ignition system paired with gelled accelerant in a manner that is suitable for deployment from aircraft is described. Test results of this ignition system against a weathered crude-oil surrogate are presented.
CAN OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLANS BE FUNCTIONAL AND REGULATORY COMPLIANT?
Authors: Cramer Martin , O’Farrell-Villareal Bridget , Miller Guy , Irvin Niell , Smith Phil , Johnson Dennis , Bush Earnest , Clark Patricia , Ambrosi Leo , Johnson Jennifer , McCarson William 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
In the event of an oil spill, rapid and effective response actions are the key to minimizing impacts to the environment and local communities. Consequently, oil spill response plans (OSRPs) should be prepared in a user friendly format that maximizes access to crucial information and focuses on the critical first few hours or days of a response. While existing OSRPs are generally adequate, they typically are not organized logically and contain fairly general information that focuses on the overall response rather than the initial stages. For many plan holders the primary, or in some cases the only, objective when preparing OSRPs is obtaining regulatory approval and believe there is little latitude in deviating from the format or content of previously approved plans to make them more functional.
Following the 2010 Macondo incident in the Gulf of Mexico, the American Petroleum Institute (API) sponsored Joint Industry Task Force (JITF) identified the need to enhance the usefulness of OSRPs. A workgroup was convened consisting of representatives from integrated and independent oil companies and spill response planning consultants to develop a guidance document for preparing OSRPs that are highly functional and regulatory compliant.
The JITF guidance document includes a detailed OSRP outline that provides the intended purpose and recommended content and format for each section. The primary features include:Information presented in the general order required when responding to an oil spillFocus is on the first 24 hours when guidance is needed the mostKey information is provided in tabular or graphical formats at the front of each sectionInitial responder health and safety issues are addressed that are often missing in OSRPsSimilar information is located in the same section to avoid searching multiple sectionsMore expansive and detailed information, response guidance and specific cleanup strategies are referenced, as appropriate, in other documents
The guidelines were designed to be Gulf of Mexico centric with the concepts being applicable to all industry sectors and regions of the world. Similar to the Integrated Contingency Plan concept developed in 1996, they can be adapted to comply with multiple oil spill planning regulations. They were, however, designed specifically to comply with the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) 30 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 254 and Notice to Lessees NTL 2012-N06. The draft guidelines were reviewed and well received by BSEE and the few regulatory compliance issues they identified were addressed in the final document. Therefore, it is possible to prepare OSRPs that are both functional and regulatory compliant.
Oil Spill Preparedness Response Capability and Capacity: Do we know what we want and how do we get what we need?
Authors: Salt David , Cox Rob , Cramer Marty , Davidson Dave 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
The oil industry has relied on the tiered response structure for over forty years to meet its oil spill response and preparedness needs. Over this time there have been significant changes in the oil spill threat potential and the expectations of stakeholders and regulators in respect of what represents acceptable levels of response preparedness and planning. Many of the existing Tier 2 and Tier 3 response equipment bases were developed based on the perceived threat from oil tanker spills, however the following decade saw rapid expansion of offshore exploration and production and the advent of using FPSOs and FSOs to enable rapid development of oil production facilities with limited shore support & infrastructure. The recent offshore incidents in Australia, UK and United States have altered perspectives on spill response and preparedness requirements, in particular in response to offshore operations. Many OSROs have changed little since their inception and the response arrangements have remained fixed to the original design criteria, in spite of changes in their operating and risk environment. Through the OGP-IPIECA Joint Industry Project on Oil Spill Response, an OSRO capability assessment tool has been developed based on the assessment protocols commonly used in military and defence operations, known as “Capability Management” frameworks. In a Capability Management framework, the interlinking functions and activities of an enterprise may be defined under several best-practice paradigms or frameworks, such as the Balanced Scorecard (BSC), the US Department of Defence Architecture Framework (DoDAF), the Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework (MODAF), and many other similar systems. The UK Ministry of Defence uses a similar breakdown of Defence Lines of Development (DLoDs) encompassing Training, Equipment, Personnel, Information, Concepts and Doctrine, Organisation, Infrastructure, and Logistics, known by the acronym “Tepidoil”. The assessment protocol described in this paper uses the “Tepidoil” methodology, modified for use in an oil spill response context with the addition of a safety component to enable assessment of Tier 2 (and possibly Tier 3) facilities. The purpose of this work was to develop a comprehensive and objective tool that can be used by industry members to ensure that OSRO facilities have the resources and infrastructure to address their current risk profile. In addition, it can potentially be modified for use as an OSRO “self-assessment” tool. The assessment criteria include:TrainingEquipmentPersonnelInfrastructureDoctrine – translates into Response PhilosophyOrganizationInformationLogisticsSafety
Evaluation of Triploid Oysters as a Tool to assess Short- and Long-term Seafood Contamination of Oil Spill-impacted Areas
Authors: Miles M. Scott , Malone Ronald F. , Supan John E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
The objective of this field and laboratory study was to evaluate the use of triploid Eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, as a bioindicator of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in oil spill-impacted areas. Bivalve mollusks have shown to be valuable tools for assessing the short-term (weeks to months) bioavailability and impact of hydrophobic contaminants following oil and chemical spills. Approximately 1-year after the initial Deepwater Horizon spill, PAH concentrations were measured in sediment and caged oysters at sites within the Northern Barataria Bay. Two (2) seven-week large-scale mesocosm studies were conducted with diploid and triploid oysters to assess the effects of multiple whole South Louisiana crude (SLC) oil concentrations and seasonal water temperature variation on the PAH bioaccumulation and depuration rates within the test populations. Tissue analyses from the mesocosm study showed that PAH concentrations were generally higher and less variable in triploids than diploids. The studies showed that triploid Crassostrea virginica can be an appropriate organism to serve as a bioindicator of PAH contamination as they are abundant, stationary filter-feeders that provide ample tissue for analysis, and accumulate PAHs in response to contamination. Although diploid oysters are more representative of ecological impacts, triploid oysters are the only ploidy to have the capability to accurately assess oil and chemical spill impacts during oyster breeding season.
Potential for environmental impact from leaking World War II shipwrecks due to the relative bioavailability and toxicity of their fuel oils
Authors: Faksness Liv-Guri , Daling Per , Altin Dag , Dolva Hilde , Fosbæk Bjørn , Bergstrøm Rune 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
The Norwegian Authorities have classified 30 World War II (WWII) shipwrecks to have a considerable potential for pollution to the local environment, based on the location and condition of the wreck and the types and amount of fuel on board. Oil thus far has been removed from eight of these WWII shipwrecks. The water accommodated fractions (WAFs) of oils from the British sloop HMS “Bittern”, the British carrier tanker RFA “Boardale”, the German destroyer “Erich Giese”, and the German cargo ship MS “Nordvard” have been studied with special emphasis on chemistry and biological effects (algae growth (Skeletonema costatum) and copepod mortality (Calanus finmarchicus)). WAF is of special interest because components dissolved from an oil slick or from rising oil droplets in the water column are known to be bioavailable to marine organisms and therefore have a potential for causing toxic effects.
The total WAF concentration in the oils from the shipwrecks varied, and the highest concentrations are quantified in the WAFs from “Erich Giese”. These WAFs were also the most toxic for both algae and copepods, and it is suggested that the high content of phenols and other polar compounds have impact on the toxicity. WAFs from “Nordvard” were also more toxic than the WAFs from “Bittern” and “Boardale”. The results from these studies show that the more “synthetic” oils from German WWII shipwrecks seem to have higher toxicity to marine organisms than the “mineral” oils from the British shipwrecks studied. This observation has resulted in an altering of the priority list for oil recovery from WWII wrecks by the Norwegian Authorities.
Detection of Oil within the Water Column
Authors: Balsley Alexander , Hansen Kurt , Fitzpatrick Michele 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
Current technology makes it difficult to detect and locate oil in the water column and make timely decisions to prevent significant ecological and economic damages. There is a very short timeframe between the start of an oil spill and for the responders to make decisions to protect the environment, numerous water-intakes and commercial facilities located along the shorelines or rivers. Therefore, data needs to be gathered from subsurface detection systems in an accurate and timely manner. However, challenges in detecting oil within the water column include poor visibility in deeper waters, difficulty in tracking oil movements in fast-moving currents and current technological limitations to finding trace amount of oil or dispersed oil at any depth.
This paper captures the planning process, technological descriptions and prototype tests performed at Ohmsett. In November 2011, the Coast Guard Research and Development Center started a multi-year effort to come up with a detection and mitigation system for oil in the water column. The first phase was the design concept for a detection system with 18 goals to be met, including acquiring data in real time (less than one hour), calibrating easily for different types of oil and dispersed oil and working in currents or tow speeds up to 5 knots. Technologies include a multi-beam sonar, a flow-through multichannel fluorometer and a wide-angle scattering that measures the refractive indexes of particles. The second phase is currently underway and focuses on the development and testing of prototype systems. The multi-beam sonar and wide-angle scattering prototypes were tested at Ohmsett in December 2013 but quantitative test results are not yet included as they are still being analyzed at the Research and Development Center. Future plans include design concepts and prototype developments of mitigation systems.
Recovery of mangrove deforested areas from M/T Solar oil spill in Guimaras, Philippines
Authors: Barnuevo Abner P. , Sadaba Resurreccion B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
On August 11, 2006 more than 2 million liters of Bunker C oil spilled in southern Guimaras Island, central Philippines. Over 200 kilometers of coastline have been affected including the traditional livelihood in the island. The immediate effects involved death of marine fauna and massive mortality of mangroves which accounted to almost one hectare and two years after the incident some albino propagules of Rhizophora stylosa were observed. Additionally, some species of mangroves found in heavily impacted sites exhibited significant reduction of leaf sizes. Monitoring of the deforested mangrove areas three years after the incident showed a varying recruitment-to-mortality ratio. Recruitment and settlement of seedlings was impaired in areas where dead trees are extracted mainly for firewood purposes. The harvesting of dead trees created a forest gap, exposed the area to surging waves and thus increased the hydrodynamics. On the other hand, faster recovery dynamics was observed in area where the dead trees are not harvested. The presence of logs trapped the available propagules and facilitated the colonization of new cohorts. Quantification of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in mangrove sediments showed higher rate of decomposition. Three years after the oil spill, the level of PAHs in sampled sites were within the safe level based on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) standards. However, sub-lethal, long term monitoring should be carried out further to focus on the species-specific long term responses.
Washington State Case Study and Guidance Developed on the Closing and Re-Opening of a Shellfishery Due to Oil Contamination
Authors: Drury Alice , Shigenaka Gary , Toy Mark 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACT
The 128 foot F/V Deep Sea was illegally anchored on Washington state-owned aquatic lands in Whidbey Island's Penn Cove from December 24th 2011 until it sank on May 14th, 2012, following a fire aboard the vessel. Penn Cove is the home of Penn Cove Shellfish, LLC, the United States’ largest and oldest mussel farm. The Deep Sea sank within approximately 200 meters of Penn Cove LLC's mussel raft growing system with an unknown amount of oil aboard. After the vessel sank Penn Cove Shellfish, LLC, voluntarily ceased harvesting their shellfish. Not long after the Washington State Department of Health closed commercial and recreational harvest of shellfish in Penn Cove. Although efforts were made to plug the vessel's vents and seal the vessel's fuel tanks a cracked vent allowed fuel to leak from the sunken vessel, later identified as marine diesel by the Washington State Department of Ecology. Sheen was documented over the mussel rafts.
Based on sensory testing the Washington State Department of Health re-opened Penn Cove's shellfish harvest in stages, with sampling plan and testing assistance from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Following response to the F/V Deep Sea all agencies involved in the shellfish closure that was as result of this incident convened to establish guidelines on the best way to run the closure and subsequent re-opening process for inclusion in the Northwest Area Contingency Plan, based off of lessons learned from the response. This was especially important since shellfishery closures due to oil spill contamination are not common in Washington State. This paper outlines those lessons learned during the F/V Deep Sea response in regards to closing and then re-opening a shellfishery in Washington State, and includes the guidelines that were established and incorporated into the Northwest Area Contingency Plan as a result.