bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A UNIQUE INLAND OIL SPILL—GLENROCK, WYOMING
Authors: Gehring George O. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The Platte Pipeline rupture in April 1980 at Glenrock, Wyoming, spilled approximately 8,500 barrels of crude oil into the North Platte River. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region VIII and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Pacific Strike Team responded to the initial report that 150 bbl had been spilled. Not until 2 days later were they informed of the actual amount by Marathon Pipeline, the operator of the pipeline. The rupture occurred at approximately 0100 in the morning into a drainage ditch leading to the North Platte River, which runs with current velocities of approximately 1 to 12 knots (kt) in the 68 miles (mi) of river that was contaminated. The lack of proper containment in the local area and the extreme currents in which booms needed to be set created many problems. This report also touches on the environmentally sensitive areas, boom deployment problems, and the lack of adequately trained personnel during this spill.
This particular incident had several qualities that were unique to past incidents involving the same type of product. The specific gravity of this crude was approximately 0.9129 at 60°F; however, the prevailing range of extreme temperatures for this time of year (20 to 90°F) caused the oil to react differently from day to day. The river current further complicated matters and posed another unique feature of the incident-containing oil in a high river flow rate. This paper addresses how these unique challenges were met, including techniques employed for containing the product and a description of several devices and methods used to recover and transport the product removed.
AERIAL APPLICATION OF DISPERSANTS AT THE IXTOC I SPILL
Authors: Lindblom Gordon P. , Emery Bruce D. , Lara Miguel A. Garcia 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Chemical dispersants were a valuable part of the response to the Ixtoc I blowout and spill. Use of these chemicals effectively prevented floating oil from entering near-shore environments, particularly those areas that represent the main migration routes for shrimp larvae. Selective aerial treatment of oil masses that threatened locations 20 to 25 miles (32 to 40 km) from shore was carried out along over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of coastline. Oil treated ranged in thickness from about 50 to 75 μm to 0.15 to 0.2 mm. This oil appeared from the air as vast silver sheets, orange-brown emulsions, and darker brown accumulations, and represented oil concentration of about 800 to over 3,000 bbl/mi2 (49 to 184 m3/km2). All were successfully treated even after being on the water for 4 to 6 months. The aircraft used were Douglas DC-6B and DC-4 spray planes which had previously been tested in dispersant spraying during overland projects. These airplanes, capable of carrying over 3,000 gal (11,356 l) per flight, operated from 5 different bases during the work, and flew more than 1,000 hours on 493 missions, with an average coverage of about 2 mi2 (5.1 km2) per spray flight. Dispersant dosage varied from 2 to 4 gal/acre (18 to 37 l/ha) over approximately 1,000 mi2 (2,590 km2) of sea surface. This paper presents details of the spraying operations, the logistical concerns of the project, and aircraft operating and navigational procedures. It also addresses the economic implications of this operation for future contingency planning and spill response.
OIL SPILL CLEANUP WITH DISPERSANTS: A BOOMED OIL SPILL EXPERIMENT
Authors: Buckley Joseph , Green David , Humphrey Blair 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Three experimental oil spills of 200, 400, and 200 litres (l) were conducted in October, 1978, in a semiprotected coastal area on Canada's west coast. The surface slicks were restrained with a Bennett inshore oil boom. The spilled oil was chemically dispersed using Corexit 9527, applied as a 10-percent solution in sea water and sprayed from a boat. The dispersed oil was monitored fluorometrically for some hours. Surface and dispersed oil were sampled for chemical analysis.
The highest recorded concentration of dispersed oil was 1 part per million (ppm). After a short time (30 minutes), concentrations around 0.05 ppm were normal, decreasing to background within 5 hours. The concentrations were low compared to those expected for complete dispersion which, as visual observation confirmed, was not achieved.
The dispersed oil did not mix deeper into the water column with the passage of time, in contrast to predicted behaviour and in spite of the lack of a significant vertical density gradient in the sea water. This was attributed to the buoyancy of the dispersed oil droplets and the limited vertical turbulence in the coastal locale of the experiment.
The integrated quantity of oil in the water column decreased more rapidly than either the mean oil concentration of the cloud or the maximum concentration indicating that some of the dispersed oil was rising back to the surface. The surfacing of dispersed oil was confirmed visually during the experiment. The mixing action of the spray boat and breaker boards apparently created large oil droplets that did not form a stable dispersion.
Horizontal diffusion of the dispersed oil was initially more rapid than expected, but the rate of spreading did not increase with time as predicted. The results imply that the scale of diffusion was larger than the scale of turbulence which again can be attributed to the locale of the experiment.
THE 1979 SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA DISPERSANT TREATED RESEARCH OIL SPILLS
Authors: McAuliffe Clayton D. , Steelman Brian L. , Leek William R. , Fitzgerald Daniel E. , Ray James P. , Barker Charles D. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Over a 2-day period in late September 1979, the American Petroleum Institute (API) discharged nine 10- or 20-barrel volumes of Alaskan Prudhoe Bay crude oil in a test area offshore of Long Beach, California. Two untreated slicks served as controls; three were sprayed with a self-mix dispersant from a DC–4 aircraft; three were sprayed with the same dispersant from a boat; and one was sprayed with a second dispersant from a boat. Movies and still photographs were taken from the air, and from under the aerially treated slicks. Over 900 water samples were collected from under the slicks. These samples were analyzed for total oil and for loss of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons.
Aerial and underwater photography showed marked color changes for the better dispersed slicks. Chemical analysis showed 45 to 80 percent of the oil was dispersed by aerial treatment. Treating the “lens” of thicker oil by boat dispersed 60 percent of the oil, while treating the entire slick uniformly dispersed from 5 to 10 percent. The two tested dispersants varied in their effectiveness, confirming prior laboratory tests. Under the best-dispersed slicks, the highest oil concentrations were 20 to 40 parts per million at 1 meter, observed 10 to 15 minutes after treatment. Other high oil concentrations were from 10 to 15 ppm at 1, 3, and 6 m; and 1 to 3 ppm at 9 meters, 1 hour after treatment; thereafter concentrations decreased. Dispersed oil very rapidly lost volatile hydrocarbons (C1 to C10). Less than 1 percent of the oil dispersed naturally under the untreated slicks.
COASTAL ECOSYSTEM STUDIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Parsons John W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Because of increased energy demands, the coastal areas of the United States have been subject to rather severe land-use and water-use conflicts. One of the results has been the alteration of coastal habitats that support valuable fish and wildlife resources. Because of threats of further alteration, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has conducted several studies about coastal environments and environmental problems. Since 1975, nine coastal ecological studies have been completed; others are being negotiated. Study areas have included the coast of Maine, and central and northern California. Each of these studies provides an information base, a data analysis, and habitat maps. An ecological inventory of the Atlantic Coast has been completed and other inventories are contemplated for the Gulf of Mexico, the West coast of the United States, Alaska, and Hawaii. The ecological inventories mainly are maps showing types of land use and coastal fish and wildlife resources and their habitats. Other more site-specific or species-specific studies also have been published. These various reports about coastal ecology should be useful to national, regional, and field spill response teams for understanding environmental concerns more fully, planning regional oil spill responses, making on-site decisions, and planning post-spill environmental damage studies.
OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF TIDAL INLETS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Paskewich James T. , Thompson Edmond P. , Kana Timothy W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The need for rapid, detailed oceanographic surveys of tidal inlets for contingency planning became apparent during the Ixtoc I and Burmah Agate oil spills in 1979. Tidal inlets, which exist along virtually all coastal plain shorelines, provide the major conduits for open-ocean spills to enter environmentally sensitive coastal habitats. During Ixtoc I and Burmah Agate, a significant effort was made to combine scientific expertise with the practical expertise of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Strike Teams to design more efficient and appropriate boom configurations for Texas passes. Information on tidal inlets, needed by the Strike Teams, included distribution of surface currents, duration and time of flood currents, updated bathymetry, and location of low-velocity zones or natural oil traps. Based on the Texas experience, techniques were developed to survey major tidal inlets rapidly, prepare detailed boom and skimmer deployment, and coordinate implementation of each plan with private cleanup contractors. The surveys were designed to improve the performance and efficiency of containment equipment. Site-specific plans for inlet protection were prepared for Brazos-Santiago Pass, Mansfield Pass, Aransas Pass, and Pass Cavallo during Ixtoc I. During the Burmah Agate incident, designs for protecting San Luis Pass and Galveston Entrance, two of the largest inlets in Texas, were prepared within 10 days after the spill, using aerial reconnaissance and hydrography studies. The schemes took advantage of natural circulation patterns and identified most likely oil trajectories and impact zones within each pass. Contingency plans for Texas inlets were site-specific and attempted to balance the need to protect sensitive lagoon environments with the need to maintain commercial navigation within the practical limitations of equipment and manpower available.
THE IMPACT OF OIL ON MARSH COMMUNITIES IN THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER
Authors: Alexander Maurice M. , Longabucco Patricia , Phillips David M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A 2-year investigation of fish and waterfowl populations was conducted on St. Lawrence River marshes that had been polluted with No. 6 industrial fuel on June 23, 1976. The heavy oil, which penetrated as much as 5 meters into the dense cattail stands, was removed along with the oiled vegetation. This was a zone of intense animal activity and mortality was great during the first few weeks.
Marshes having different levels of oiling were selected for study along with a control area because prior baseline data were not available.
The results suggested but could not prove that there was some long-range effects of the oil on these marsh communities. An example is the possible loss of eggs and larval fish for some species. However, the effects of the oil generally were masked by the effects of natural factors, and therefore difficult to identify or quantify. Variables such as water leve, time of year, water temperatures, type of oil, physical arrangement of the marshes, and the cleanup process each had an important role in the overall impact. The study demonstrated that the dynamic nature of marsh populations and communities make it imperative that the ecology of sensitive areas be studied in advance os that meaningful assessments can be made on a long-term basis. It also pointed out the danger of misinterpreting changes observed as being due to oil when in reality many interrelated natural factors are having their effects on populations and communities at the same time.
EFFECTS OF OIL SPILL CLEANUP TECHNIQUES ON A SALT MARSH*
Authors: McCauley Cynthia A. , Harrel Richard C. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
On January 28, 1979, an oil spill occurred in the lower Neches River near Port Neches, Texas. Southerly winds carried oil into Bessie Heights Marsh affecting some of the vegetation which is primarily Spartina patens. This study was designed to assess the effects of three methods of oil spill cleanup and to determine which method was least harmful to the marsh. All methods begin with absorption and low-water-pressure washing followed by either (1) burning, (2) cutting and removing, or (3) leaving the affected vegetation alone.
Grams per square meter of harvested vegetation, numbers of individuals, numbers of taxa, and diversity of macroinvertebrates were subjected to analysis of variance to test for differences within and between selected treatments. Chi square values utilizing numbers of individuals for all taxa occurring in at least 50 percent of the sample plots were also calculated.
Statistical analysis of data indicated that burning the impacted vegetation had the most harmful effect. Leaving the vegetation alone after the bulk of the oil had been removed appeared to be the best method of cleanup of an oiled Spartina patens marsh.
IMPACT OF THE ESSO BAYWAY OIL SPILL ON SALT MARSH MACRO FAUNA
Authors: Neff Jeffry M. , Sharp Mary Sue , McCulloch Wayne L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
On January 28, 1979, approximately 6,000 barrels of light Arabian crude oil was spilled into the lower Neches River near Port Neches, Texas. Much of the oil became stranded in the adjacent brackish-freshwater marsh, which is considered to be an important nursery area for postlarval penaeid shrimp. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the long-term impact of the spill on the macrofauna of the marsh. Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in marsh sediments were high (up to 7,000 mg/kg dry wt) at all but one unoiled reference station. Due to unusually high rainfall, salinity in the marsh was very low until September 1979, when it rose to 6 to 12 ‰ Macrocrustacean and fish populations were very similar at both oiled and reference stations in terms of species composition, number of species, and number of animals. Species diversity indices were similar at oiled and reference stations. Postlarval penaeid shrimp Penaeus setiferus did not enter the marsh until September when the salinity rose. They were equally abundant at oiled and reference stations. We conclude from this 9-month study that the spilled oil had little or no significant effect on the aquatic macrofauna, including penaeid shrimp, of the Neches River marshes. Environmental factors, salinity, and temperature, had a much greater effect on the marsh populations and obscured any effects that might be attributed to oil.
NATURALLY OCCURRING HYDROCARBONS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE CARIBBEAN
Authors: Geyer Richard A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Results are presented of 8 years of research on naturally occurring hydrocarbons in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. They are found beneath the bottom, on the bottom, in the water column, and floating on the surface. The geographic emphasis has been in the Gulf and the Caribbean, but data on hydrocarbons floating at or near the surface have also been collected along a profile from Dakar, Africa, to Trinidad. Tar samples were also collected seasonally along the entire Texas coast, as well as off the eastern Mexican coast and the western Florida coast.
Various types of geologic, geophysical, and oceanographic data were obtained from research vessels and a submersible. They corroborate historical evidence of tar on beaches from naturally occurring seeps, including its use in pottery by the Karankawa Indians in pre-Columbian times and for caulking ships by early Spanish explorers. Charts published in 1902 through 1909 indicate heavy oil slicks off the Louisiana and Texas coasts, and in 1903, oil ponds off the Sabine River. The present research has also documented scores of active gas seeps on seismic subbottom profiler records and by visual and photographic observation from a submersible.
The major conclusion of this study is that a low-intensity, persistent introduction of hydrocarbons over thousands of years has not been deleterious to the marine environment. An ecosystem influenced in this manner can continue to be biologically active and should not be considered to have been irreparably harmed.
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS FROM THE IXTOC I BLOWOUT—CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS AND A WEATHERING MODEL
Authors: Mackay Donald , Paterson Sally , Boehm Paul D. , Fiest David L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Detailed chemical measurements on the saturated and aromatic hydrocarbon composition of surface oil/mousse, surface microlayer, and water column samples were coupled to attempts to model the chemical weathering of oil from the Ixtoc I blowout. Such a modeling effort, rooted firmly in analytical measurements on samples from an actual major spill, has been attempted here for the first time. The glass capillary gas chromatographic and GC/MS/computer analytical results were used to formulate evaporation, dissolution, and biodegradation weathering indicator parameters consisting of component groupings. The partitioning of these groupings into dissolved and evaporated fractions was then mathematically modeled along with the time-dependent change in the surface oil's composition. Biodegradation was of minimal relative importance in weathering oil from this spill.
The model presented here is a product of fundamental physical-chemical principles, the parameters of which were refined through hindcast adjustments and a combination of field observations and laboratory analyses. It has powerful predictive capabilities with regard to the oil's changing composition and its partitioning into the water column as a spill approaches an area of impact.
EFFECTS OF THE IXTOC I OIL SPILL ON TEXAS SHOREBIRD POPULATIONS
Authors: Chapman Brian R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Oil from the Ixtoc I blowout on June 3, 1979, washed ashore in an area where few baseline studies, particularly on bird populations, had ever been conducted, but there was enough time before impact for limited population data to be collected. By the time the oil reached the Texas coast in August, it had been broken up into small mousse pancakes, isolated slicks, or masses of tar balls. As these oil patches washed ashore, the birds were able to adjust their distribution to avoid oiled areas. When the foreshore of the lower Texas coast became covered with oil, shore birds were forced to occupy poor feeding habitats on the backshore and around rain pools; less than 20 percent of the population remained on the foreshore. Because of the shift in habitat use, few birds were severely oiled. The percentage of total birds with moderately oiled plumage never exceed 10 percent, but some species were more prone to oiling than others. The behavior of oiled and oil-free birds was compared by time budget methods. Oiled sanderlings and willets spent less time feeding and more time resting and engaging in comfort movements.
A series of tropical storms in mid-September cleaned the beaches and reversed the longshore currents. Shorebirds returned to foreshore areas, but not at preimpact densities. Birds continued to avoid areas near tar mats (aggregations of asphaltic oil and shell).
CLEAN HARBORS COOPERATIVE
Authors: Wirkowski Edward 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Clean Harbors Cooperative is a nonprofit organization initiated by eight major oil companies whose purpose is to contain and clean up major oil spills effectively and efficiently throughout the Greater New York Harbor area.
Initial efforts included defining the area of interest; determining the maximum size spill that is likely to occur; deciding the time to clean up the free oil on the water; determining the type and quantity of equipment required to contain and clean up the spill, where major spills are likely to occur, where the equipment should be located, and the means to finance the purchase of the equipment and the operation of the cooperative; and deciding who will store, operate, test, and maintain the equipment, and who will direct and handle the actual cleanup activities.
These decisions were reached by discussions with company marine experts, by analyses of past major spills, by consultations with the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) regarding its experiences and recommendations, by visits with other major cooperatives throughout the country, and by studies that simulated oil spills at various locations throughout New York Harbor (by means of Shell Oil Company's spill computer program and the USCG vector analysis program).
Secondary efforts consisted of establishing a response organization team that will be available to direct and supervise the entire containment and cleanup effort, and developing a major contingency plan manual that includes cleanup plans and techniques, and data on sensitive areas, training, disposal, communications, wildlife, etc., in addition to call-out procedures and emergency phone numbers.
Parameters covering both technical and practical aspects were developed and used in preparing equipment specifications. Purchase decisions were based primarily on visual observations, recommendations of knowledgeable users, and impartial test results. Cost was a secondary consideration.
The capital equipment purchase program was divided into three 1-year periods and totalled 3.9 million dollars.
In conclusion, Clean Harbors Cooperative believes that by using the best technical and practical knowledge and experiences available, the time and money will have been spent wisely, and they will be prepared to contain and clean up major oil spills efficiently and effectively anywhere in the Greater New York Harbor area.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTINGENCY MEASURES IN DETERMINING OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Emerson Raymond R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Oil spills are one of the major concerns associated with oil and gas development along the outer continental shelf. The U.S. Department of the Interior is presently planning lease sales at the rate of seven per year. Many of these leases are being proposed in areas where the risks associated with oil spills are difficult to assess. The major objective of the decisionmakers in this process is to select a leasing plan from the list of proposed blocks that will offer the maximum production potential within an acceptable level of environmental risk. This objective can be obtained with proper contingency planning which should include site-specific designs.
A proposed leasing plan could be limited in its production potential by the habitats more vunerable to a potential oil spill. These areas are identified using a model system developed by the U.S. Geological Survey. In this model, the local meteorology and physical oceanography are coupled to produce trajectories of hypothetical oil spills. These trajectories, along with oil resource estimates, are used to establish overall probabilities of an oil spill contacting specific coastal areas and habitats.
Using linear programming techniques, the blocks that can yield the maximum resource recovery within specified limits of environmental risk are identified. Site-specific contingency measures (such as stockpiles of cleanup equipment) concentrated at the more vulnerable habitats will allow the decisionmaker to accept a higher level of environmental risk and significantly increase the number of blocks that are suitable for leasing. A proposed lease sale area for the northeast Gulf of Alaska is used to demonstrate the importance of contingency planning in determining various levels of offshore oil and gas resource development.