bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Environmental Risk
Authors: Hollander Rachelle D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Environmental risk in business ethics encompasses those actions or inactions by which businesses give rise to, and are affected by the possibility of biophysical or social loss or injury to entities of all kinds. This entry focuses primarily on loss to biophysical systems. It concentrates on questions concerning probability and uncertainty, the notion of what counts as loss or injury and the relationship of this to other desired or desirable phenomena, and the normative nature and policy dimensions of the construct of risk. It points out that decisions as to what risks to attend to, and whether and how to determine their effects and potential effects always have value laden components, as must the different approaches to resolving stakeholders' perceptions of what is important. Risk policy therefore always incorporates one or more values. When risks are being debated, it is useful to ask the following questions: Have persons' legitimate expectations for feasible control and due care been met or violated? Are there ways to improve the situation? According to what standards? The use of the shorthand term “risk” here goes beyond counting what is harmed and how. It goes to questions about what kind of world we wish to see: what kinds of outcomes, institutions, procedures, and behaviors we value.
K
antian Capitalism
Authors: Bowie Norman E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Kant's moral philosophy, especially the three formulations of the categorical imperative, can provide a compelling vision of what a business corporation ought to look like if it were organized as a moral firm. First, “Act only on that maxim by which you can will at the same time that it become a universal law,” provides a moral minimum. Second, treat the humanity in a person as an end and never as a means merely. This is often called “the respect for persons principle.” Kant believed that persons had a dignity that was beyond all price. Third, you should act as if you were a member of an ideal kingdom of ends in which you were both subject and sovereign. This requires that business organizations be governed by rules that all can endorse. Kantian capitalism does not require unanimous consent regarding every decision. However, it could be argued that a Kantian firm would accept a set of principles – the principles of a moral firm. If adopting Kantian capitalism could provide a moral minimum for business, ensure that employees are treated with respect, structure firms as moral communities, and help establish a more cosmopolitan and peaceful world, Kant's moral philosophy would contribute greatly to business ethics.
Relativism, Cultural and Moral
Authors: Bowie Norman E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Cultural relativism is a descriptive claim that ethical practices differ among cultures; that is, as a matter of fact, what is considered right in one culture may be considered wrong in another. Thus, the truth or falsity of cultural relativism can be determined by examining the world. There is widespread consensus among social scientists that cultural relativism is true. Moral relativism, on the other hand, is the claim that what is really right or wrong is what the culture says is right or wrong. Moral relativists accept cultural relativism as true, but they claim much more. If a culture sincerely and reflectively adopts a basic moral principle, then it is morally obligatory for members of that culture to act in accordance with that principle. The plausibility of moral relativism is widely challenged.
Middle East, Business Ethics in the
Authors: Babai Don 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe Middle East can legitimately claim to be a source of the earliest thinking about ethical conduct in business activity. However, the current status of business ethics in the Middle East is checkered: efforts to advance standards have been uneven, and surveys reveal a gap between principles and practices. This article reviews the Islamic roots of norms and rules for the conduct of business, the current business landscape, and recent efforts to improve standards of corporate governance and business ethics in the region.
Bazaar Economies, Modern Networks and Entrepreneurship
Authors: Dana Leo P. , Wright Richard W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The success of entrepreneurs today depends largely on their ability to become globally competitive, even if they refrain from competing globally. One way in which small‐scale entrepreneurs – lacking economies of scale – can compete against large multinationals is by developing relationships with other firms, within multipolar networks. Entrepreneurs are shedding their traditional focus on independence, as they discover
interdependence
and
relationships
to be more profitable. While this may appear to be a radical new departure in the nature and conduct of business, the concept and practice of multipolar networks of interdependent players is, in fact, as old as economic activity itself. We show how understanding the structure and processes of the traditional Bazaar Economy can enhance our ability to manage the emerging relationships and multipolarity that underlie the new, Networked Economy.
Board Structure and Composition
Authors: Dalton Catherine M. , Dalton Dan R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Board structure refers to whether the chief executive officer (
CEO
) concurrently serves as chairperson of the board of directors. Board composition refers to the relative proportions of inside (management) and outside directors. While these two board configurations are most salient in the corporate context (i.e., firms whose stock is publicly traded), private firms, too, rely on boards of directors to enhance firm effectiveness.
Boards of Directors in New Ventures
Authors: Dalton Dan R. , Dalton Catherine M. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractBoard independence is an important element in the perception of the quality of a firm's governance. This issue, however, can be exacerbated for new ventures because the CEOs are often the founders. For the new venture, then, it is possible that (i) the founder is theCEO, (ii) the founder is also the board chairperson, and (iii) the board is not independent. Importantly, the perceived lack of independent governance in a new venture can adversely affect its relationship with external constituencies – constituencies that may be critical for the new venture's growth and success.
Emergent Strategy
Authors: Slevin Dennis P. , Covin Jeffrey G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Emergent strategy can be defined as internally consistent patterns of competitive actions and reactions that spontaneously arise over time as organizations navigate within their operating environments. This definition recognizes that emergent strategies may occupy one end of a deliberate–emergent continuum which represents different fundamental behaviors concerning the strategic process. Deliberate strategies involve a well‐articulated and formalized planning process. Emergent strategies, in contrast, are more sporadic, have short time‐frame, reactive, and show opportunistic responses to environmental conditions.
Expertise and Entrepreneurship
Authors: Sarasvathy Saras D. , Read Stuart 
Published: January 2015

AbstractRecently there is a move to study entrepreneurship as expertise: a set of skills, models, and processes that can be acquired with time and deliberate practice. Effectual reasoning, or expert entrepreneurial reasoning, however, does not begin with a specific goal. Instead, it begins with a given set of means and allows goals to emerge contingently over time from the varied imagination and diverse aspirations of the founders and the people they interact with.
Habitual Entrepreneurs
Authors: Ucbasaran Deniz , Westhead Paul , Wright Mike 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article examines the theory and evidence relating to entrepreneurs who start, purchase, and own more than one venture. The article begins by defining the various types of habitual entrepreneur and distiniguishing them from first time or novice entrepreneurs. We examine concepts relating to the human capital and learning that results from habitual entrepreneurship. The article also examines the evidence relating to the performance and innovative behavior resulting from habitual entrepreneurship activities. Finally, the implications for entrepreneurship policy are discussed.
Imitation and Innovation: A Strategic Heuristic
Authors: Anderson Brian S. , Semadeni Matthew 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Firms faced with the introduction of an innovation by a competitor face a difficult decision. Does the firm imitate the innovation in a bid to ward off any competitive advantage accruing to the competitor; or does the firm forgo imitation, believing that the competitor has misjudged the market receptiveness of the innovation? The risk of following – hoping that the competitor has judged the market correctly and warrants resource expenditure – must be weighed against the risk of not following – potentially missing out on a critical market opportunity. We offer a theoretical framework for firms contemplating imitation using signals embedded at the innovation‐level and at the organizational‐level of the competitor to better guide imitation decision making.
International Entry Modes by New Ventures
Authors: Li Dan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Entry mode refers to the mechanism through which firms enter a foreign market. The existing literature of international entrepreneurship has identified determinants of entry modes by new ventures at various levels. The main
country‐level
determinants of international entry mode include host country risk, host market potential, and government intervention and bargaining power.
Firm‐level
determinants include international experience on prior entry mode choices, asset specificity, innovation orientation and capability, market specific knowledge, appropriability of knowledge assets, product nature, and network relationships with suppliers and customers.
Individual‐level
determinants of entry modes are somewhat unique to the entrepreneurship literature; prior research has emphasized the role of entrepreneurs' and managers' personal biases, perceptions of risks, and prior experience in new ventures' choices of entry modes. While significant progress has been made over the last two decades, our understanding of international entry modes by new ventures is still limited; several future research avenues are suggested.
Opportunity Creation
Authors: Alvarez Sharon A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The distinction between opportunities that are created and those that are discovered is explored. The process of creation is stressed, with the role of heuristics in the process highlighted. The formation of creation opportunities is delineated as a path‐creation‐path‐dependent process that involves acting and reacting. Questions are raised about the role of alertness, and differences between entrepreneurs and non‐entrepreneurs in creating opportunity.
Spin‐Offs
Authors: Semadeni Matthew 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Spin‐offs are a unique manner to restructure a corporate, providing the spun‐off division its autonomy and the ability to approach the market as an independent firm. However, the post‐spin‐off performance of the newly independent firms has been quite mixed. Agency theory, transaction cost economics, and upper echelons theory all provide unique insights into when and under what conditions spin‐offs might be more successful. Most recently scholars have focused on the top management linkages between the parent and child firms, revealing important keys to success.
Employment Relations
Authors: Fiorito Jack 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThis article describesemployment relations(also known as “industrial relations”). Employment relations is a field of study and practice focused on the interactions between workers and employers to establish terms and conditions of employment at the workplace and in the broader society. Government often plays an important role in these matters, as do organizations of workers and employers. Changing terminology and related subjects are discussed, as well as how employment relations is approached as an academic subject. Distinguishing values and assumptions are often said to help define the subject, and these are discussed. This article concludes with a discussion of conceptual models used for the study of employment relations.
Working Hours
Authors: Needle David 
Published: January 2015

AbstractWorking hours refers to the number of hours and employee is at the disposal of the employer. The concept is central to the employment contract and is enshrined in law in many countries. The number of hours worked and the pattern of those hours varies from country to country although the overall trend globally is towards a reduction in working hours. The initial driver to reduce working hours was concern for the health and safety of employees. In recent years key factors to emerge include the concern for improved work‐life balance and the organization's need for increased flexibility and reduced costs. Patterns of work have changed to reflect these drivers leading to an increase in part‐time work and various approaches to flexible working. While many of these are the product of economic and market changes, increased employer power and reduced trade union power some are the product of social change and employee preference.
Glass Ceiling
Authors: Kelan Elisabeth K. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe glass ceiling is a commonly used as an explanatory metaphor to account for the paucity of women in senior leadership positions. The glass ceiling describes the invisible barrier that hinders women to reach the highest echelons in organizations. Highly qualified women who theoretically could advance to senior leadership positions get “stuck” in middle management positions leading to a “leaky pipeline” phenomenon. Five reasons for the paucity of women in senior leadership positions are outlined and variations of the glass ceiling metaphor are discussed.
Age
Authors: Lawrence Barbara S. , Kim Najung 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAmple research shows that an employee's age and the distribution of ages in groups and organizations affect work. There are at least two mechanisms that explain these effects. The first is that age exerts a direct effect on work‐related variables. Here, the effect of any given age is fixed and independent of how others perceive it. For instance, 85 year olds are unlikely to have sufficient motor control to become brain surgeons. The second is that age affects work outcomes indirectly. Here, the effects emerge from individuals' perceptions of age‐related behavior, age norms, and the meanings age acquires through social interactions. A majority of age research explains work outcomes using the direct mechanism. However, the international implications of age effects rely more on indirect effects. Age effects are context‐dependent and thus emerge from group, organizational, and national phenomena. The significant role that age plays in cross‐cultural situations opens a new stream of international research concerning the interdependence between direct and emergent mechanisms.
Causality
Authors: Antonakis John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Making correct causal claims is important for research and practice. This article explains what causality is, and how it can be established via experimental design. Because experiments are infeasible in many applied settings, researchers often use “observational” methods to estimate causal models. In these situations, it is likely that model estimates are compromised by endogeneity. The article discusses the conditions that engender endogeneity and methods that can eliminate it.
Corporate Governance
Authors: Steger Thomas 
Published: January 2015

AbstractCorporate governance has become one of the key topics of discussions amongst management researchers, practitioners, and the wider public. Given the broad heterogeneity and complexity of the topic, this paperarticle aims to give a clear definition of the term “corporate governance,” to describe the main theoretical approaches in the field (namely agency theory and institutional theory), and to provide insight into three major models of corporate governance in three different countries (United States, Germany, Japan). Finally, a tentative answer will be given to the widely debated question regarding convergence or divergence of corporate governance around the globe.
Corruption
Authors: Cuervo‐Cazurra Alvaro 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article analyzes corruption in governnment. Corruption is the abuse of public power for private gain. There are not only negative but also positive views on corruption. However, most research tends to propose and find that corruption has a negative impact on economic transactions, even though its illegal nature makes it difficult to measure and analyze. Solutions to corruption can address the demand of bribes by government official or the supply of bribes by companies and individuals. To reduce the demand of bribes, the government can reduce the opportunity for corruption via controls and transparency, and increase the cost of engaging in corruption by government officials via laws. To reduce the supply of bribes, companies can limit the ability of employees to supply a bribe via codes of conduct and controls, and the government can increase the cost to employees and companies who supply a bribe via laws punishing the supply of bribes at home and abroad.
Cultural Intelligence
Authors: Thomas David C. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractCultural intelligence is the capability that individuals have to be effective in intercultural interactions. While the term has been used as an umbrella concept to include a wide variety of intercultural effectiveness ideas, it has its origins as an individual difference in a multifaceted type of intelligence. While different conceptualizations exist they share a focus on the higher order cognitive development of individuals in a cross‐cultural context.
Economic Development
Authors: Davison Sue Canney 
Published: January 2015

AbstractEconomic development means change with expectation of improved economic conditions across a wide sector of the population. The concept of economic development depends on monetary measures of economic growth (measured by gross domestic product, GDP, and purchasing power parity, PPP) and integrates social measures of the quality of life (human development index, HDI). Economic development now includes concern for sustainable economic development. It does not ensure equitable distribution of the benefits.
Institution‐Based View
Authors: Sun Sunny L. , Ding Zhujun 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Institution‐based view emerges as a major theoretical lens and paradigm in international management research. The institution‐based view matters not only to probe the new practices in emerging economies, but also explains the management phenomenon, even in developed economies, for example, the rule‐based and relationship‐based institutions. Under the new guide of institution‐based view, management scholars in different interest groups and countries are exploring many interesting questions.
Internationalization
Authors: Vissak Tiia 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The term “internationalization” has been used frequently, but consensus on what it actually means has not been reached yet, although several authors have stressed the importance of this topic. This article identifies three main characteristics of internationalization: increasing international involvement, crossing borders, and engaging in foreign – inward, outward, and/or linked/cooperative – operation modes. It also gives a short overview of other aspects that some authors have stressed in their definitions of internationalization.
Organizational Structure
Authors: Hoşgör Evren A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Organizational structure defines how tasks are allocated, who reports to whom, and the formal coordinating mechanisms and interaction patterns among members. Some organizations are highly specialized, formalized, and centralized, have a tall hierarchy of authority, and are highly bureaucratic, whereas some others rely less on formal codes of behavior, create cross‐hierarchical and cross‐functional teams, and develop boundaryless forms. Organizations then differ the ways in which various subunits are coordinated, interrelated, and supervised. Other contextual variables such as size, technology, and environment influence organizational structure. Most common structural configurations are simple structure, bureaucracy, divisionalized form, matrix structure, adhocracy, and network organization.
Resource‐Based View (
RBV
)
Authors: Ciszewska‐Mlinarič Mariola , Wasowska Aleksandra 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The resource‐based view (
RBV
) sees the firm as a bundle of resources and capabilities, explaining the relationship between firm's internal characteristics (resources and capabilities) and its performance. It is built around two underlying assumptions on heterogeneity and immobility of resources across firms. The central point of the theory states that a firm competitive advantage results from the application of the resources holding specific characteristics that are at the firm's disposal. Resources that constitute the basis of a firm competitive advantage must be valuable, rare, inimitable and organized. If these conditions are fulfilled, the bundle of firm resources and capabilities can enhance a firm ability to achieve a sustained competitive advantage and in consequence above average returns. The RBV has given the rise to prominent, related perspectives: the knowledge‐based view, the natural‐resources‐based‐view, and dynamic capabilities view. Within international business field, its contribution is particularly visible in four areas: multinational management, strategic alliances, market entries (incl. emerging markets strategies) and international entrepreneurship.
Review of Information Technology Value Research: A Triple‐Outcomes Perspective
Authors: Gholami Roya , Kohli Rajiv 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAn extensive body of literature shows that we have long moved past the early debate on Solow's “productivity paradox.” IT contribution to value is now widely accepted. Recent research establishes that IT's value creation occurs under certain conditions and that value manifests itself in many ways. The extant research highlights the need for broadening the scope of the IT value research beyond the established financial and economic frameworks and proposes investigating the cocreation of value and expanding different perceptions of value. This article provides a brief review of the literature on productivity paradox and lays out the issues and challenges of measuring IT value, followed by a discussion on evaluation of IT contribution. Since IT has economic, environmental, and societal impacts, this article also proposes a triple‐outcomes perspective for future research that should go beyond the economic‐value‐based frameworks and investigate environmental and social value of IT.
Digital Payments
Authors: Chircu Alina M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Digital payments, also called
electronic payments
, refer to payments made using an electronic network, rather than physical cash or checks. Digital payments have evolved over the years from simple automated payments and credit and debit card processing to providing support for e‐commerce transactions through new methods such as smart cards, digital wallet, and person‐to‐person payments, becoming an increasingly preferred way of paying both online and offline around the world. This article discusses different types of digital payments, as well as issues related to digital payments adoption, security, reliability, and privacy.