bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Complexity Theory
Authors: Ganco Martin 
Published: January 2015

AbstractComplexity theory is a loosely related body of research explaining emergent patterns in behavior or structures that cannot be explained by studying the individual building blocks in isolation but, rather, emerge from their interactions. Complexity theory focuses on the study of the system as a whole. This is particularly important when the interactions are nonlinear and nonadditive. Such interactions make extrapolation from the behavior of individual parts to the system's behavior problematic and require a holistic approach. The main tool of complexity theory is an agent‐based simulation. Within the context of organizations, complexity theory is predominantly based on the agent‐based model called the NK model. The key construct of the model is interdependence. Interdependence between two decisions exists when one decision influences not only its own performance contribution but also the performance contribution of another decision. The key relationship predicted by the NK model is that the decision‐makers face a more complicated search as the density of interdependencies increases.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Authors: Hennessey Beth , Moran Seana , Altringer Beth , Amabile Teresa M. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractIntrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something for its own sake, for the sheer enjoyment of a task. Extrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something in order to attain some external goal or meet some externally imposed constraint. Feelings of self‐determination, control, and satisfaction have long been linked to an intrinsically motivated state. Environmental constraints such as the imposition of time limits, an expected reward, or an impending evaluation can undermine feelings of self‐determination engendering an extrinsic orientation. However, under some circumstances, certain forms of reward may enhance intrinsic motivation through a process of motivational synergy. Intrinsic motivation has been linked to creativity of performance, longer‐lasting learning, and perseverance. The fostering of intrinsic motivation in adults is especially important given the emergence of the knowledge economy. Managing knowledge workers means building a community of employees who have positive emotions, a favorable view of their company, their job, and their colleagues, and strong intrinsic motivation. More work needs to be done to understand the determinants of motivation in the workplace, including studies focused on the link between affect and motivation, interpersonal intrinsic motivation among collaborators, and commonalities and differences across cultures.
Creativity
Authors: Amabile Teresa M. , Pillemer Julianna 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Creativity is the generation of novel and appropriate ideas or products. Innovation is the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. Individual creativity, which can vary from modest to “genius” levels, depends on three components within the individual and one external component. The intra‐individual components are domain expertise, creativity skill, and intrinsic motivation (the drive to do the work out of interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, or personal challenge). The external component is the work environment which, to a large extent, arises from managerial behavior. Work environments most conducive to creativity include clear goals, autonomy in achieving the goals, sufficient resources and time, support from coworkers and managers at all levels, open idea flow across the organization, and mechanisms for learning from problems and developing ideas. Recent research suggests intriguing neurological processes and cross‐cultural differences in creativity.
Bias
Authors: Koput Kenneth W. , Podsakoff Nathan P. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Bias, or the systematic deviation of a statistical estimator from its true value, is a critical topic in all fields of science, as it inhibits our ability to draw appropriate inferences from empirical research. This entry discusses three potential sources of bias common in management research: (1) omitted variables (such as unaccounted for predictors or sample selection bias); (2) model misspecification (often occurring when data is aggregated across observations or time periods); and (3) common method variance (as a function of source, item characteristic, item context, and/or measurement context effects). The authors provide examples of when and where these biases may be prevalent within specific research domains.
Continuous Improvement
Authors: Ledford Gerald E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Continuous improvement is an approach to organizational change that is closely linked to the quality and lean systems movement, as well as Japanese management practices. It challenges common theories of organizational change that treat change as a threat to the system, which attempts to return to a state of dynamic equilibrium; continuous improvement suggest that the organization can be chronically unfrozen. Proponents of continuous improvement have developed a rich toolkit for implementing this approach. Employee reactions to continuous improvement can be positive or negative, depending on such factors as whether continuous improvement threatens job security and whether employees receive rewards for continuous improvement. Continuous improvement challenges theories of organizational change that imply that radical change must be sudden, dramatic, and discontinuous.
Diversity Management
Authors: Jackson Susan E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
After briefly describing the meaning, importance and nature of workplace diversity, this article explains the different types and structure of diversity present in modern organizations, summarizes the known consequences of workplace diversity, and discusses the managerial consequences of diversity. Diversity management requires implementing organizational changes that are grounded in a careful diagnosis of the types of diversity present, a clear statement of objectives, and a means for holding managers accountable for results.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Authors: Murmann Johann Peter 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Evolutionary perspectives contend that complex structures in the social and the biological world have developed over time through causal processes that require little or no foresight but considerable trial and error. Evolutionary thought in organizational analysis comprises two distinct intellectual lines. The first, concerned with organizational change, relies to a considerable extent on a selection logic in which change comes about through the birth and death of individual entities that make up a population of similar things. This account of change contrasts sharply with theories in which omniscient actors perfectly transform individual entities to meet new environmental conditions. The second line of evolutionary thought draws on evolutionary psychology to explain the behavior of human beings in organizational settings in terms of the evolved nature of the human mind and body
Impression Management
Authors: Rosenfeld Paul , Edwards Jack E. , Thomas Marie D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Impression management has gained increased popularity in the organizational behavior literature. It refers to the display of behavior with the aim of modifying one's image to others in order to gain their social, moral, or financial support. Such actions are visible in a wide range of organizational situations such as selection interviews, letters of recommendation, performance appraisal, and career strategies. Impression management is rife with negative connotations as it is viewed to represent the self‐conscious deception of others. However, deviating from this negative view, impression management is also viewed as a product of overlearned habits and a sincere portrayal of behavior. With the rise of racial/ethnic minority groups associated with international business, it is believed that impression management will gain even further prominence and applicability as a vehicle for overcoming communication problems and ensuring smoother interactions in organizations.
Job Rotation
Authors: Oldham Greg R. , Jimeno‐Ingrum Diana 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article discusses the effects of job rotation (i.e., an employee moving at regular intervals from one job assignment to another) on employee reactions. Early research suggests that job rotation often enhances employee skill acquisition and reduces fatigue. However, it has been shown to have little impact on employee job performance or boredom. More research is needed to examine other consequences of job rotation.
Loose Coupling
Authors: Jelinek Mariann 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Relationships that are not well‐specified or frequently monitored, but nevertheless persist, simultaneously characterized by responsiveness and autonomy, are “loosely coupled.” Loose coupling is a metaphoric description of association (and can be applied to links between or among individuals, units, hierarchical levels, organization and environment, intention and action, IT systems, plans and action, and cause and effect among others) rather than a precisely measured, unidimensional variable.
Role Transitions
Authors: Ashforth Blake E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Role transitions refer to psychological and (if relevant) physical movements between positions in a social system(s), including disengagement from one role and subsequent engagement in another role. Macro‐role transitions encompass sequentially held roles (e.g., a promotion to a new job), whereas micro role transitions encompass simultaneously held roles (e.g., commuting from one's family role to one's work role). Most research has focused on macro role transitions, under such topics as socialization and turnover, but recent research on micro transitions shows much promise.
Systems Theory
Authors: Cummings Thomas G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Systems theory explains the structure and behavior of complex wholes called systems. It provides a basic framework for studying organizational systems at different levels, such as individual, group, organization, population of organizations, and nation. It draws attention to the constituent parts of organizational systems and examines how well they coordinate with each and regulate their behavior to achieve system effectiveness. Systems theory views organizational systems as open systems that exchange information and materials with their environments. It examines how well organizational systems interact with their environments and adapt to changing conditions. Systems theory defines the role of management in organizational systems as sustaining a dynamic balance between stable efficient performance and flexible innovative responses to change.
Values
Authors: Ravlin Elizabeth C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Values are individually held core beliefs that indicate how, in general, one should or ought to behave from an ideal standpoint. Individuals learn values as children in an absolute fashion which makes these beliefs difficult to change in adults. Values may adapt as they stop being functional for the actor, or when the individual is immersed in a different values‐based system through new organizational or cultural socialization. Values are socially desirable, and therefore are often studied as intra‐individual belief systems. A limited number of values has been identified cross‐culturally. They influence perceptions, other cognitions, attitudes, and behavior, although they must be seen as relevant to the situation to have a strong influence. Shared values within a team or organization reduce conflict and increase positive attitudes. However, such value congruence may also limit the deep‐level diversity available within an aggregate for creative problem solving.
Perceived Organizational Support
Authors: Conway Edel 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Perceived organizational support (POS) represents the degree to which employees believe that their organization values their contributions and cares for their wellbeing (Eisenberger
et al
., 1986). It stems from organizational support theory (Blau, 1964), which posits that both parties in the employment relationship engage in various mutual exchanges that give rise to felt obligations. Such exchanges may take the form of rewards or other forms of recognition offered by the organization in return for high levels of employee commitment or performance. These exchanges give rise to performance‐reward expectations, which when fulfilled in future exchanges improve the quality of the employment relationship. Various forms of support have been identified including participation in decision making, training and promotion opportunities, and job security. Supervisors are regarded as key agents in delivering the organization's side of the exchange, and offer various forms of discretionary support including mentoring and growth opportunities. POS has been positively associated with outcomes including organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and performance, and negatively associated with outcomes such as absenteeism and turnover intentions. Future research directions include longitudinal assessments of POS, broader exchange relationships (e.g., between coworkers and teams), and potentially negative influences on POS (e.g. work intensification).
Leader–Member Exchange
Authors: Conway Edel 
Published: January 2015

AbstractLeader‐member exchange (LMX) represents the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers. It posits that leaders form differential relationships with their followers based on the exchange of resources and support between both parties (Graen and Uhl‐Bien, 1995). Those employees with high quality relationships experience more challenging work, better training and promotion opportunities, and better access to resources. Those who experience low quality relationships fulfil the basic requirements of their role, but are less likely to experience such opportunities and resources. This quality of the exchange relationship has been linked to outcomes such as commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. Much less research attention has been devoted to exploring the antecedents of LMX compared to its outcomes. However, some evidence suggests that antecedents include relationship tenure, leaders' time, span of leadership, follower competence and dependability, and perceived similarity. Other research suggests that the link between LMX and outcomes is mediated by factors such as perceptions of justice, personality differences, and both individual and group performance. Future research should focus on exploring a wider range of possible intervening variables that influence the outcomes of LMX. In addition, a better understanding of the concept of team‐member exchange (TMX) is needed.
McKinsey 7S model
Authors: Channon Derek F. , Caldart Adrián A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The McKinsey 7S model was developed during the late 70s by the McKinsey & Co. as a conceptual framework “useful in diagnosing the causes of organizational malaise and in formulating programs for improvement”. The model constituted an attempt to provide a response to the widespread frustration experienced by executives at the time of dealing effectively with general management problems related to strategic and organizational factors. The framework surpasses the classic simplistic notion that “structure follows strategy” as it links strategy not only with structure but also with other five elements. In addition to Strategy and Structure, the other elements or variables of the framework that we discuss below are the following: shared values, skills, staff, systems and style.
Capabilities and Capability Analysis
Authors: Caldart Adrián A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The capabilities of the firm are the set of resources and competences that it relies on in order to survive and prosper.
Resources are often classified in tangible (such as plants, money and employees) and intangible ones (reputation, brand image, and customer relationships).
Competences refer to the skills and abilities that enable the firm to deploy its resources effectively through the organization's activities and processes.
The portfolio of capabilities of the firm may be divided between those capabilities that are necessary in order to operate in a market (threshold capabilities) and those that enable the firm to obtain a competitive advantage leading to superior performance (unique resources and core competences).
Green Strategies
Authors: Verbeke Alain 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
This article studies green strategies, and assesses the content thereof. Investments in five distinct resource domains are critical to develop higher order capabilities in greening. However, not all firms should engage in these investments. In some cases, buying green technologies may be better than developing these internally. The opportunity cost of investments in green capabilities must also be considered: in some cases, not investing in greening may be superior to the greening option. Hence, a contingency approach is always required before embarking on a green strategy.
Managing International Firms
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The environment of international firms calls for a sophisticated set of competencies to navigate different markets, resources, and economic environments. Managers need a global mindset to understand the complexities of strategic planning, implementation, politics, the economy, regulation, technology, corporate social responsibility (CSR), culture, and human resources. International firms exhibit four types of predispositions to strategic management: ethnocentric, regiocentric, geocentric, or polycentric. Strategy formulation starts with the review of political, economic, social, and technological factors, followed by the definition of strategic objectives. Implementation of strategic activity at an international level calls for strong leadership and corporate governance across the different countries where the firm operates. The control and evaluation of strategic activity in international operations takes place through the monitoring of revenues, market shares, profits, costs, return on investment, new product development, and overall management performance. Risk management plays an important role. Strategic planners have to be conscious of environmental risks and shifts in stability that can negatively affect the performance of the firm. CSR in an international context requires sensitivity to the local socioeconomic effects of commercial activity. The management of international human resources includes recruitment, retention of high performers, management of real and virtual teams, compliance with local legislation, and labor relations. Effective cross‐cultural communication must take into account whether the receiver is from a country with a monochronic or a polychronic time system.
Case Study
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Case studies involve the documented history and comprehensive analysis of a situation concerning subjects such as industries, organizations, and markets. The distinguishing factor of the case‐study methodology is that it aims to bring out unique characteristics and interesting differences in the situation under observation. The case‐study approach is typically used for idiographic research, which means it focuses on atypical circumstances and distinctive outcomes as a subjective phenomenon. Another application of case studies is for nomothetic research aimed at building new theory, typically through the analysis of multiple cases and large sets of data within each case. The main types of case studies are unique, revelatory, critical instance, longitudinal, and comparative. Rich case studies employ both qualitative and quantitative data. The strong point of case studies is the depth of analysis that they offer. The narratives in case studies offer detailed, rich descriptions of situation and their context. More experienced researchers have shown that multiple‐case methodologies can be used to build theory via replications logic. Each case serves as a separate experiment that stands on its own as a discrete unit of analysis. Multiple cases can be viewed as distinct experiments, very much like a series of laboratory experiments, which meet the criteria of reliability and generalizability of emerging theory.
Corporate Styles
Authors: Campbell Andrew , Smith Chris 
Published: January 2015

AbstractGoold and Campbell (1987) researched large corporations and discovered that different parent companies behaved in very different ways. They examined the extent to which management styles varied along the dimensions of planning influence (i.e., the extent to which the corporate level became involved in the strategic and operating planning of the business) and control influence. Three styles seemed to stand out. In financial control companies (e.g., BTR and GE), the center allowed a high degree of strategic and operational autonomy to the businesses (low planning influence). The budget, however, was sacrosanct and any slippage from planned performance needed swift correction, if it were not to mean the curtailment of the career of the responsible GM (tight financial controls). At the other end of the continuum, strategic planning companies (e.g., BP and BOC) involved themselves on an ongoing basis in the strategic planning and management of the businesses (high planning influence). But they were more flexible if performance did not meet targets. As one chief executive explained, “when a business is in trouble, controls should become more friendly not more fierce” (flexible control influence). In between these two extremes were the strategic control companies, such as ICI and Imperial Group.
Corporate Transformation
Authors: Masih Anwar 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Corporate transformation is a term spawned from the relentless technological, competitive, and legal changes that have taken place over the last thirty years or so. It refers to the complete and often dramatic change for one state to another of radically different form in a short time period. Transformations programs have for the most part been unsuccessful with much of the blame being attributed to a lack of strategic and people focus. Guidelines for successful transformation programs are included.
Industrial Organization
Authors: Meilak Chris , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The industrial organization (I/O) view of strategy assumes that the external environment determines the actions a firm can deploy. The implication of the I/O model for strategic management is that firms identify and seek to operate in environments that provide the best opportunities for competitiveness and profitability. The main concerns of the I/O model are the four industry structures of perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. The strategic conduct of the firm revolves around policies (such as maximization or optimization of profit levels, growth, sales, and marginal utility), pricing objectives (e.g., cost‐plus, marginal cost, entry‐deterring price, collusive pricing, price leadership, and price discrimination), marketing strategies and advertising, and the extent of innovation and technical change. When measuring performance, strategists and economists focus on profitability, efficiency, product quality, and technical progress. The limitations of the I/O model arise from the occurrence of the four underlying assumptions of the theory regarding the effects of the environment of strategy, the homogeneity of resources, capabilities, and strategic intent. The assumptions of I/O theory have been challenged by the opposing view of strategy, the resource‐based view of the firm.