bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
THE SALIENCE OF ORIENTATION IN YOUNG CHILDREN'S PERCEPTION OF FORM1
Authors: McGurk Harry 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTForty‐two nursery school children were exposed to two procedures designed to assess their discrimination of orientation. Under one procedure subjects had no difficulty in discriminating between stimuli which differed only in orientation. Under a second procedure, where color and size of stimuli were also varied, orientation proved to be a discriminative cue of relatively low salience. These findings obtained for perception both of realistic and of abstract forms.
BIRTH ORDER: A PHENOMENON IN SEARCH OF AN EXPLANATION1
Authors: McGurk Harry , Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFifty‐two 44‐month‐old children were observed in a nursery school over a period of two weeks. Peer and adult oriented behaviours were recorded, and data were analysed in terms of subjects' sex and birth order. Sex effects were as expected, but birth‐order effects highlighted the second‐born child as representing a distinct category. In particular, second‐born children manifested greater dependency behaviour than either first‐ or later‐borns. Results are discussed in terms of the relationship between maternal responsiveness to attention seeking behaviour in infancy and later dependency behaviour.
SELF, OTHER, AND FEAR: THE REACTION OF INFANTS TO PEOPLE1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Brooks‐Gunn Jeanne 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe investigation of infants' responses to strange has not been very well examined. Particularly, almost no work has been done on infants' responses to social events: different categories of people. Infants between 8 and 18 months of age were introduced to five different social events: strange adult male and female, strange 4‐year‐old female, mother, and self. The infants' responses indicated that approach affects stimulus differentiation (in terms of fear), while age effects level of response intensity. Strangeness of the social event was not sufficient to explain the results, and ethological and cognitive theories were discussed. It was suggested that the cognitive construct of self be introduced to explain the results. It appears reasonable to assume that by 8 months the self as differentiated from other is well established. Moreover, we propose that some specific categories of self, such as size, sex, or efficacy, may be established as well.
NATAL INFLUENCES AND TWIN DIFFERENCES1
Authors: Van den Daele Leland D. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA classification of natal influences is proposed with a model of their operation. Natal influences affect maternal capacity, maternal load, and maternal efficiency. Since maternal load is increased in twin pregnancy, results of twin studies must be generalized with caution. The method of co‐twin control is exemplified by examination of a small sample. The results of the intrapair analysis imply that current formulations of hereditary and environmental contributions to phenotypic variation are inadequate to account for observed intrapair differences. Two alternative, though nonexclusive, interpretations of intrapair variation are suggested. The first interpretation stresses the role of complex maternal‐fetal‐environmental interactions, and the second, a “genetic indetermination” which derives, in part, from the information characteristics of the genome.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ESSAY SECTION IN THE AMERICAN HISTORY AND SOCIAL STUDIES TEST1
Authors: Modu Christopher C. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe contribution of a 20‐minute essay question, given as part of the one‐hour achievement test in American History and Social Studies, to the pool of information available on a candidate from an all‐objective examination of the College Board Admissions Testing Program, is presented in this report. The study limits itself to a consideration of the psychometric issues only. It does not deal with other important issues related to the educational impact of the essay or to the implications of the cost of introducing and maintaining a reliable essay section in the American History and Social Studies test. The results of the study led to the conclusion that the additional information gained by the introduction of an essay section is minimal. Moreover, the correlation of the essay with various subtests of the American History and Social Studies objective test suggests that the obtained essay scores may have reflected more of the factual content of the answers than the other skills.
DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN CHILDREN'S INCIDENTAL LEARNING: SOME CRITICAL STIMULUS DIFFERENCES
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Piper Richard A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTHale, G. A., & Piper, R. A. Developmental trends in children's incidental learning: Some critical stimulus differences. Princeton, N. J.: ETS Research Bulletin 72‐24, May 1972, 23 pp.Incidental learning in 8‐ and 12‐year‐old children was assessed with a variety of stimulus materials. Experiment 1 compared two types of material–(a) geometric figures, whose central and incidental components were shape and color, respectively and (b) stimuli whose components were separate pictures, as in the typical developmental study of this topic. Incidental learning was found to increase significantly across ages when measured with the colored shapes but not with the pictorial materials. To identify the factors responsible for this difference, Experiment 2 employed these same two types of stimulus along with three others, including shape outlines on colored backgrounds. Again, the task with colored shapes proved to be unique, in that the incidental learning scores for this measure tended to increase across ages and were significantly higher overall than those for the other tasks. Also, correlational analyses based on data from both experiments indicated a positive relation between central and incidental learning with the colored shapes but not with the pictorial materials. These results were interpreted to suggest that stimulus materials whose components are integrated into a single unit, such as color and shape, are functionally different from stimuli with spatially or conceptually independent components.
GENERALIZED LEAST SQUARES ESTIMATORS IN THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE STRUCTURES
Authors: Browne Michael W. 
Published: August 2014

SUMMARYLet S represent the usual unbiased estimator of a covariance matrix, Σ0, whose elements are functions of a parameter vector . A generalized least squares (G.L.S) estimate, of may be obtained by minimizing where V is some positive definite matrix. Asymptotic properties of the G.L.S. estimators are investigated assuming only that satisfies certain regularity conditions and that the limiting distribution of S is multivariate normal with specified parameters. The estimator of which is obtained by maximizing the Wishart likelihood function (M.W.L. estimator) is shown to be a member of the class of G.L.S. estimators with minimum asymptotic variances. When is linear in a G.L.S. estimator which converges stochastically to the M.W.L. estimator involves far less computation. Methods for calculating estimates of , estimates of the dispersion matrix of , and test statistics, are given for certain linear models.
MISSING AT RANDOM ‐ WHAT DOES IT MEAN?
Authors: Rubin Donald B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTMost articles on missing values assume the missing data are “missing at random” and ignore the process that “caused” the missing values. The condition under which this procedure is justified is explored here: the concept of missing at random is precisely defined, several examples are discussed, and two simple conditions are given which are sufficient to assure that the missing data are missing at random.
DIALECTIC OPERATIONS: THE FINAL PERIOD OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT1
Authors: Riegel Klaus F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTArguments for an extension of Piaget's theory of cognitive development have been derived from philosophical and historical consideration of modern natural sciences. Implicit contradictions, which characterize these sciences as well as common thought, can be systematically apprehended only through a dialectic reinterpretation. The dialectic basis of Piaget's theory is expressed in his assimilation‐accommodation paradigm. But development is interpreted as a continuing alienation from this basis culminating in the noncontradictory thinking of formal operations. Although Piaget's interpretations capture a rich variety of performances during childhood they fail to represent adequately the thought and emotions of mature and creative persons. For an interpretation of adulthood and aging, a return to the dialectic basis is necessary. Such a reorganization can proceed from any of the four major levels of development. It introduces intra‐ and interindividual variations into Piaget's theory. Individuals may operate simultaneously or in short succession at different cognitive levels. The ceaseless striving toward formal operations becomes inappropriate and ineffective for the level of dialectic maturity.
A LATENCY ANALYSIS OF STRATEGIES UNDERLYING CHILDREN'S RECALL OF SENTENCES1
Authors: Freedle Roy , Hall William S. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIt has been found that an information‐processing analysis of latencies collected in an immediate sentence recall task using children with median age 4 yr 4 mo favors a serial processing mechanism which consists of three major parts: the detection of a clausal boundary, the assessment of whether or not the observed noun‐verb‐noun structure satisfies a unique semantic constraint (in terms of the meaningfulness of interchanging its two clausal nouns), and the assessment of whether the observed surface sequence satisfies a canonical order of subject‐verb‐object.
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE STYLE IN ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND IN TEACHER‐STUDENT RELATIONS12
Authors: Witkin Herman A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe cognitive characteristics involved in a relatively field‐dependent or field‐independent cognitive style and the personal characteristics associated with these contrasting styles have been shown to play a role in students' selection of electives and majors, in vocational preferences they experience early in their academic careers, and in the vocational choices they make later on. They have been related as well to performance in different subject‐matter areas in school and in vocation chosen afterwards; they have also been implicated in shifts in major during the college years. Finally, they have been found to influence teachers' ways of teaching and students' ways of learning; in addition, teachers and students matched in cognitive style show positive mutual evaluation, whereas teachers and students who are mismatched tend to evaluate each other negatively.
THE ENCODING OF PICTORIAL INFORMATION IN CHILDREN AND ADULTS
Authors: Ward William C. , Naus Mary J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAge and instructional differences in the representation of pictorial information were investigated in a recognition memory task. Nursery school and college‐age subjects observed pictures under name labeling, color labeling, imaging, and no label instructions. Subjects were then tested for retention of object identity and color information.In general, no label instructions led to poorer performance than any other condition; the three remaining groups, given an instruction requiring a discriminative response to each picture as it was shown, performed equally well. Significant age differences were found in memory for both object identity and color information; however, nursery school and college‐age subjects showed similar relative performance when tested for these two kinds of information, and most subjects at each age level showed superior retention of object identity over color information. These results suggest some limitation on the generality of claims that young children are more oriented to color information than are adults and, more importantly, that children represent their experience ikonically while adults tend to use a symbolic mode of representation.
A NOTE ON MINORITY GROUP TEST BIAS STUDIES
Authors: Reilly Richard R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTComparisons of majority and minority group regression lines for purposes of assessing test bias may, under certain conditions, be viewed as comparisons of conditional bivariate distributions. Where these conditions hold, findings should reveal parallel regression lines except for a special case. Given the conditions described, one implication is that even when the test is a parallel form of the criterion, lines with equal slopes but unequal intercepts should be found.
STANDARD ERRORS FOR ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS*
Authors: Archer Claud O. , Jennrich Robert I. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTBeginning with the results of Girshick on the asymptotic distribution of principal component loadings and those of Lawley on the distribution of unrotated maximum likelihood factor loadings, the asymptotic distributions of the corresponding analytically rotated loadings is obtained. The principal difficulty is the fact that the transformation matrix which produces the rotation is usually itself a function of the data. The approach is to use implicit differentiation to find the partial derivatives of an arbitrary orthogonal rotation algorithm. Specific details are given for the orthomax algorithms and an example involving maximum likelihood estimation and varimax rotation is presented.
TOWARDS THE IDENTIFICATION OF COGNITIVE OPERATIONS IN STANDARD AND NONSTANDARD ENGLISH USAGE1,2
Authors: Hall William S. , Freedle Roy O. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwo experiments are reported which involve language imitation, comprehension, and free production at diglossic levels of English usage.Sentences in an imitation task were of two forms: standard English and so‐called nonstandard English. There were 360 subjects equally represented by race (black and white), socioeconomic level (low SES and middle SES), three age groups (5, 8, and 10) and sex. The results indicated that black children do better than white in responding to sentences given in nonstandard English while whites do better than blacks in responding to standard English sentences. This corroborates earlier research in the area. In addition significant SES and age effects were found for both races; sex contributed little to the significant effects. Rates of improvement over two age periods indicated that blacks are equal to whites in their rate of improvement in responding to standard English. In addition, correlational results indicated that the two dialect systems function behaviorally as separate cognitive systems.A second experiment focused primarily upon language production in a communication task. In this task the black and white children's free productions were similar inasmuch as neither was influenced by the social class or race of their listeners; on the listener side, the number of items correctly comprehended also did not vary across the race or SES variables. Thus this communication task represents one situation in which the races appear to perform equally well.Interrelationships across sentence imitation, comprehension, and production at diglossic levels of English are also examined.
EFFECTS OF VERBAL AND SPATIAL QUESTIONS ON INITIAL GAZE SHIFTS1
Authors: Ehrlichman Howard , Weiner Susan L. , Baker A. Harvey 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe direction of subjects' first gaze shift following questions designed to elicit verbal‐linguistic or visuo‐spatial processing was examined in three experiments under video camera and face‐to‐face interview conditions. In all three experiments, verbal questions elicited significantly more downward gaze shifts than spatial questions. However, previous findings that verbal questions elicited more rightward gaze shifts than spatial questions were not replicated. These results appear to be incompatible with theories linking direction of gaze shifts with the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres. It was also observed that trials on which no gaze shifts were elicited occurred more often for spatial than for verbal questions.
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN THIRTEEN‐MONTH‐OLD, OPPOSITE SEX TWINS
Authors: Brooks Jeanne , Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSeventeen sets of opposite sex twins, 13 to 14 months old, were observed in a playroom situation with their mothers. Attachment behaviors, toy preference, style of play, and activity level were recorded. Analysis of four attachment behaviors indicated that girls looked at, vocalized to, and maintained proximity with their mothers significantly more often than did their brothers. Girls also touched their mothers more often, although this difference was not significant. The style of play and activity level measures revealed no sex differences. In terms of specific toy preferences, girls tended to play with the cat and dog more, while boys tended to play more with the pull toy. No other differences in toy preference were found.The effects of social class, activity level, and separation from the mother on infant attachment behavior are discussed. The importance of the mother as a socializing and sex‐typing agent is stressed.
VARIANCE AND INVARIANCE IN THE MOTHER‐INFANT INTERACTION: A CROSS‐CULTURAL STUDY1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Ban Peggy 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe present paper is concerned with the issue of the variance and invariance in the mother‐infant interaction. In order to study this, a sample of Yugoslavian and American mother‐infant dyads was observed in detail. Moreover, using the data available on Dutch, Zambian and Senegalese mothers and infants, five different cultures were compared. In general there was considerable agreement in terms of the caregiving the infants received. This fact was first discussed in terms of its relationship to the invariances that exist across human cultures. Also considered was the issue that the study of behavior, not studied in context, can often result in serious misinterpretation. In order to avoid this it is necessary, at least, to be totally familiar with the culture under question.
STANDARD ERRORS FOR OBLIQUELY ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS
Authors: Jennrich Robert I. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn a manner similar to that used in the orthogonal case, formulas for the asymptotic standard errors of analytically rotated oblique factor loading estimates are obtained. This is done by finding expressions for the partial derivatives of an oblique rotation algorithm and using previously derived results for unrotated loadings. These include the results of Lawley for maximum likelihood factor analysis and those of Girshick for principal components analysis. Details are given in cases including direct oblimin and direct Crawford‐Ferguson rotation. Numerical results for an example involving maximum likelihood estimation with direct quartimin rotation are presented. They include simultaneous tests for significant loading estimates.
CONVERSION OF HIGH SCHOOL GRADE AVERAGES REPORTED IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS1
Authors: Breland Hunter M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTUsing data from a national random sample of 16,685 high school seniors collected in 1972, 10 different grade average reporting systems were analyzed by means of a nonlinear least squares procedure. A grade conversion table was created by relating reported grade averages in all of the systems to common percentile ranks in class. It was suggested that the 10 systems are probably reducible to only 4 fundamentally different systems.
COMPARING REGRESSIONS WHEN MEASUREMENT ERROR VARIANCES ARE KNOWN
Authors: Stroud T. W. F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn a multiple (or multivariate) regression model where the predictors are subject to errors of measurement with a known variance‐covariance structure, two‐sample hypotheses are formulated for (i) equality of regressions on true scores and (ii) equality of residual variances (or covariance matrices) after regression on true scores. The hypotheses are tested using a large‐sample procedure based on maximum likelihood estimators. Formulas for the test statistic are presented; these may be avoided in practice by using a general purpose computer program. The procedure has been applied to a comparison of learning in high schools using achievement test data.
MULTIVARIATE MODELS OF COGNITION AND PERSONALITY: THE NEED FOR BOTH PROCESS AND STRUCTURE IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND MEASUREMENT1
Authors: Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper calls for the development of sequential models of cognition and personality as a way of adding process to the primarily structural concerns of current multivariate models. At the same time, it points to the results of factor analysis, particularly as summarized in a hierarchical extension of Guilford's structure‐of‐intellect system, as a source of component variables for such sequential formulations. The need to take into account personality, developmental, and environmental variables in these sequential models is also emphasized.
FITTING A MODEL OF SCHOOL LEARNING TO APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT DATA OVER GRADE LEVELS1
Authors: Carroll John B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA model of school learning proposed by the writer in 1962, concerned with relations among aptitude, achievement, and time to learn, is extended to the analysis of regressions of achievement on aptitude over multiple grade levels. This mathematical model provides good fits to empirical data from a series of vertically‐equated scales of aptitude and achievement obtained by G. R. Burket for Grades 1 through 12, and appears to be able to indicate which of a given pair of tests is more like an aptitude test. An aptitude component connected with learning rate is found for a Memory test as a predictor of Arithmetic achievement, and for a Vocabulary test as a predictor of Reading achievement.
A CRITIQUE OF THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE OEO EXPERIMENT IN PERFORMANCE CONTRACTING
Authors: O'Connor Edward F. , Klein Stephen P. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe experimental students in the OEO experiment were generally lower scoring and less affluent than control students. OEO's statistical analysis used a variety of statistical procedures to adjust for the initial differences in the experimental groups. A reanalysis of the data using a chi‐square technique demonstrated that the adjusted posttest differences between the experimental groups were biased against the performance contractors because the differences were not independent of the pretest means. These biases are discussed in terms of differential growth rates, specification error, and errors of measurement. The random assignment of schools to the experimental and control conditions would have avoided many of these problems.
JUDGMENTS OF CHRONOLOGICAL AGE: ADULT AGE AND SEX DIFFERENCES1
Authors: Kogan Nathan 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSamples of college‐age and elderly males and females made chronological age estimates from head‐and‐shoulder photographs of stimulus persons of both sexes and of widely varying ages. These estimates were found to vary as a function of the age and sex of the judge and the stimulus person. For both male and female photo sets, older Ss and male Ss manifested less variance than younger Ss and female Ss in judging age. These differences were partially attributable to a strong tendency for older Ss and male Ss to offer higher age estimates for the younger stimulus persons. No consistent age and sex differences were observed for chronological age estimates of the older stimulus persons. However, an inflection area was obtained (for photos approximately 25 to 35 years of age) beyond which the higher age estimates of older and male Ss ceased to hold. Gaps in the distribution of age judgments provided by older and younger Ss offered clues to the possible cognitive mechanisms at work. Relevance of the research to principles of social judgment is discussed.