O-135 The consequences of paternal pre-conceptional health for offspring health and pregnancy outcomes: involvement of the germ-cell epigenome and non-germ cell factors
Authors: Teperino R 
Published: July 2024

Abstract

Study question
Paternal health at conception is important for offspring health. The susceptibility windows within the male reproductive tract and the molecular mechanisms are not completely understood.

Summary answer
Using mouse genetics, (epi)genomics and in-depth phenotyping, we show that the germ-cell epigenome and components of the seminal fluid are critical for paternal intergenerational effects.

What is known already
Paternal intergenerational effects are highly conserved across mammals and lower organisms including flies and nematodes. In mammals, the sperm epigenome, as well as the composition of the seminal fluid are sensitive to environmental challenges and influence offspring development and adult phenotypic trajectories. The best known of these mechanisms are DNA methylation and small non-coding RNAs in spermatozoa and the balance between inflammatory and tolerogenic cytokines in the seminal fluid. Small non-coding RNAs are mostly acquired by maturing spermatozoa during the epididymal transit from extracellular vesicle of epididymal epithelial origin, and have the potential to influence embryonic development and offspring health.

Study design, size, duration
We use two paternal paradigms of pre-conceptional challenge in wild-type C57BL6 mice: high-fat diet feeding for 2 weeks and circadian disruption for 4 weeks before conception. The duration of the environmental challenges has been chosen to meet timing of sperm maturation in the mouse (high-fat diet) or to be the minimum sufficient to induce circadian disruption without overt side effects. Exposed males and their offspring have undergone deep metabolic and molecular phenotyping.

Participants/materials, setting, methods
We used both bulk and single cell (epi)genomics on exposed males as well as male and female offspring. The molecular phenotyping has been instructed by the results of the metabolic phenotyping performed in collaboration with the German Mouse Clinic, the biggest mouse clinic in Europe, using highly standardized and robust procedures. Importantly, we have used a family-based approach for the data analysis, according to which the experimental n is the exposed father.

Main results and the role of chance
Paternal circadian disruption achieved by four weeks of day-restricted feeding (food only during the light phase), leads to hyperphagia, hyperglycemia, hypercorticosteronemia and partial circadian disruption in unexposed male offspring. The phenotypes are gender-specific and the females feature partial protection from the paternal effects. Mechanistically, mouse seminal fluid contains corticosterone, whose appearance dynamic follows the organismal circadian rhythm and is blunted upon circadian disruption. Offspring phenotypes are sensitive to the levels of corticosterone in the seminal fluid and consequential to impaired placentation, reduced placental efficiency and fetal growth restriction.
Paternal exposure to an acute high-fat diet challenge, instead, leads to a 30% penetrant glucose intolerance phenotype exclusively in male offspring. Mechanistically, this is linked to diet-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in somatic and germ cells and a compensatory burst of mitochondrial DNA transcription in spermatozoa. Mitochondrial DNA encoded small non-coding RNAs accumulate in spermatozoa, are inherited at fertilization, and reprogram early embryo transcription towards premature activation of oxidative metabolism, a predisposing factor to adult-onset glucose intolerance. Importantly, phenotypes and mechanisms are conserved across highly characterized human cohorts.
These studies strengthen the importance of paternal health at conception for pregnancy and offspring health and identify germ-cell and non-germ cell factors as potential mechanistic mediators.

Limitations, reasons for caution
Although we have shown for the first time that stress hormones are present in the seminal fluid and relay paternal stress to the offspring and provided the first example of epigenetic inheritance of sperm small non-coding RNAs, mechanisms are still to be completely uncovered. Complementary mechanisms cannot be excluded.

Wider implications of the findings
Our findings strengthen the importance of paternal health at conception for pregnancy and offspring health. They also provide potential male tract biomarkers and novel strategies to monitor paternal health at conception and preconception lifestyle interventions aimed at improving pregnancy outcomes and preventing the spread of metabolic disorders through epigenetic inheritance.

Trial registration number
not applicable