bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Health Professions and Organization
Authors: Scott W. Richard 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe relation between professional workers and organizations over the years has been fraught with conflict, contradiction, and change, but with some evidence of increasing accommodation. Organizations are constructed around a logic emphasizing a division of labor among workers and coordination and control by managers. Professions emphasize the construction of workers with a broader range of skills who are granted autonomy to control their own work. As professionals increasingly work within organizations, these two logics must be reconciled. During most of the second half of the twentieth century, dual control systems were created: an administrative structure for nursing and service workers and a system of collegial control for the medical staff. Today, much more varied health care organizations have appeared, and in many of these, physicians are increasingly subordinated to managerial and market controls.
Critical Realism
Authors: Scambler Graham 
Published: February 2014

AbstractCritical realism is a philosophical approach that has come to exercise a growing influence on medical sociology. It emanates from the philosophy of science and social science propounded by Roy Bhaskar in the United Kingdom. A cornerstone of this philosophy is the exposure of the “epistemic fallacy,” namely the reduction of what exists to what we can know of what exists. A concentration on epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, has eclipsed interest in ontology, or the theory of being. Critical realism seeks to recover interest in the ontological dimension of our natural and social worlds.
Critical Theory
Authors: Scambler Graham 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
“Critical theory” serves as an umbrella term to encompass a range of oppositional standpoints inside and outside of sociology. Marx, Marcuse, Foucault, Habermas, and Deleuze and Guattari have, for example, all been labeled critical theorists, notwithstanding their philosophical, theoretical, and political differences. In this entry the term will be taken to refer to members of the Institute for Social Research, or the “Frankfurt School.” Principal protagonists were Theodor Adorno, a philosopher with a specialist knowledge of music; Erich Fromm, a psychologist; Herbert Marcuse, a philosopher with wide‐ranging interests; Walter Benjamin, an astonishingly fertile and creative thinker who remained on the periphery of the Institute; and Jürgen Habermas, the leading representative of post‐1968 work and most prolific thinker. It was Max Horkheimer, however, who was the main catalyst, bringing together these unusually gifted colleagues to forge an interdisciplinary critical theory of society.
Illness Experience
Authors: Scambler Graham 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe ways in which people come to see themselves as unwell, sick, unable to function normally, and so on has varied enormously by time and place but has never been straightforwardly reducible to the concepts of local healers. Of course, there always exists an ongoing “dialogue” between communities and their healers, but community or “lay” perspectives invariably have lives of their own. It was in recognition of this that sociologists like Freidson, writing of modern Western medicine, attributed considerable importance to a distinction between “illness,” on the one hand, and “disease,” on the other. Illness, Freidson suggested, might be used to refer to everyday or lay understandings of abnormalities of body or mind perceived as salient by those affected or by kin and consociates around them. Disease might be reserved to denote professional (scientific, expert) perspectives on interruptions to health and well‐being. Illness was deemed to be subjective, disease objective: disease, after all, was defined in terms of textbook signs and symptoms.
Stigma
Authors: Scambler Graham 
Published: February 2014

AbstractStigma denotes the presence of an attribute that discredits its possessor. Since it is evident such attributes have varied by time and place, it is apparent that stigma and stigmatization necessarily involve a narrative of social relations: an attribute that shames bearers at one spatiotemporal juncture can pass them by at another. Goffman, who pioneered the study of stigma as a social relation, contributed a range of conceptual insights that have survived half a century. His distinction between people who are “discredited” and “discreditable” has been especially influential within medical sociology. The discredited possess a conspicuous or intrusive attribute that they cannot conceal, their principal challenge being to negotiate or manage the (stereotypical) impressions that others have of them and bring to their dealings with them. By contrast, the discreditable have an attribute or condition that is potentially shaming but which is inconspicuous or non‐intrusive: for them the challenge is to manage the information that others have about them (who to tell, when, and with what consequences?). The challenges and threats confronting people who are blind or stutter differ from those facing people with diabetes.
Mental Health and Ethnic Identity
Authors: Mossakowski Krysia N. , Wongkaren Turro 
Published: February 2014

AbstractA growing social scientific literature suggests that ethnic identity has implications for mental health. Ethnic identity refers to a sense of ethnic pride, involvement in ethnic practices, and cultural commitment to one's ethnic group. Thus far, studies on the relationship between ethnic identity and mental health have provided contradictory findings. Some studies find that having a strong ethnic identity is associated with better mental health, while other studies indicate that ethnic identity does not influence mental health. Moreover, these findings have varied by racial/ethnic group as well as by the measurement of ethnic identity and mental health. We discuss the conceptualization of ethnicity, the two opposing hypotheses that have framed the literature, evidence of the mental health consequences of ethnic identity, and its role in coping with discrimination. Finally, gaps in the literature and suggestions for future research are also highlighted.
Depression
Authors: Mossakowski Krysia N. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAn extensive social scientific literature has examined one of the most prevalent mental disorders in the world – depression. Social scientists are particularly interested in the extent to which symptoms of depression can inhibit social functioning, such as participating in daily activities. The symptoms used for clinical diagnosis of a major depressive disorder are highlighted, together with the measurement of depression in surveys of the general population. Furthermore, the controversy in the sociological literature is discussed, pertaining to the use of symptom scales versus diagnostic cut‐off measures of depression, and how to draw the line, so to speak, between diagnosed depression and normal sadness. Also, the groundbreaking findings of medical sociologists and social epidemiologists on the social risk factors of depression and the social stigma are examined. In sum, social scientists will continue to study symptoms of depression because they capture important differences in psychological distress and quality of life within our society.
Abortion
Authors: Bretin Hélène 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAbortion is one of many types of birth control, consisting in the termination of a pregnancy before full term is reached. According to historical and sociohistorical works, since ancient times and in various types of society, there have always been ways of attempting to achieve this objective. The impetus of feminist studies and gender studies has been decisive in research and in the development of anthropological, sociological, and historical analyses of this issue.
Contraception
Authors: Bretin Hélène 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe study of contraception as a social and cultural norm is at the intersection of various approaches – historical, sociological, and anthropological, demographic and feminist. Historical works bear witness to the fact that techniques designed to counter the fertilization potential of sexual practices have existed for a long time. These forms of birth control have evolved as knowledge (scientific and medical in particular) and technology have improved and as social requirements and demographic policies have changed.
Health, the Internet, and Media
Authors: Kivits Joëlle 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A new field of study has emerged over the last decade, often referred to as eHealth studies, a generic term for research examining health and the Internet. This entry presents sociological perspectives on the Internet, media, and health, and the main four study areas: uses and practices of the Internet for health reasons, the impact on the doctor–patient relationship, new forms of knowledge and expertise, and online communities.
Refugees, Health, and Gender
Authors: McMichael Celia 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
From a public health perspective, refugee populations constitute a concentration of “at‐risk” people, and women and girls face particular health risks. There are gender dimensions to the distribution of malnutrition and infectious disease in camp settings, post‐traumatic stress disorder, sexual and reproductive health, and gender‐based violence. Given that women and their dependent children constitute between 70 and 80 percent of all internally displaced people, their health deficits of are also identified as a critical gender issue. A broad understanding of refugee health must also consider the three “durable solutions” – namely, local integration, voluntary repatriation, and third country settlement – and there are gender‐specific health impacts in sites of displacement and resettlement particularly in relation to gender‐based violence and reproductive health. It is critical to better understand the gendered dimensions of refugee health, and to make gender‐specific commitments to the areas of health, nutrition, sexuality, freedom from violence, and education.
Mental Health Disorders, Prevention of
Authors: Shankland Rebecca 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Mental disorders refer to psychological and social symptoms which lead to individual and relational dysfunction. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one person in every four will be affected by a mental disorder at some stage of his or her life. Among the most important mental illnesses reported are anxiety, depression, and substance misuse. These have become a major public health concern and have led to greater efforts in the field of prevention. Prevention of mental health disorders aims at inducing behavior change in order to reduce the incidence (the number of new individuals suffering from the disorder each year) and prevalence (the total number of individuals suffering from the disorder) of a given disorder. Research data supports the efficacy of prevention programs, in particular those aiming at developing parental competences. However, more recent research studies have developed interventions based on protection factors rather than solely on risk factors. This field of study is considered as health promotion. Mental health promotion strategies aim at improving well‐being and potential for health rather than avoiding a specific disease. Recent research in the field of mental health promotion has led to promising pathways and to general recommendations that can be made to policymakers and health promotion actors.
Pandemic Preparedness and Response
Authors: Quah Stella R. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
A crucial part of epidemic control is prevention or preparedness. This article examines what we have in terms of preparedness and proposes that preparedness must begin with primary surveillance whereby health authorities obtain the cooperation of individual members of the community as well‐informed and collaborative primary sources of data. Three stages of surveillance are examined. It is essential for a country that the elements of those stages are in place so that its preventive efforts can be effective and the country can collaborate internationally in epidemic prevention. Experience from previous epidemics show that countries differ from each other substantially in the efficacy of the three stages of surveillance and thus in their readiness for international collaboration in epidemic prevention.
Patents and Health
Authors: Cassier Maurice 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe history of patents in the health field has been characterized by conflicts and exceptions since the early nineteenth century. Many states, both in Europe and in the global south, excluded medicines and medical methods from patenting for a long time, while the codes of ethics of medical organizations and faculties proscribed patenting by doctors and scientists. Today the pharmaceutical industry patents more innovations than any other, and is also the industry whose patenting practices are challenged the most by states and civil society. Contrary to the postulates of jurists who believed that the industrialization of pharmaceuticals and the growth of investments in research unquestionably justified the patenting of medicines under common patent laws, the normalization of medicine patents was rapidly called into question by the AIDS epidemic. The globalization of 20‐year medicine patents which occurred with the creation of the World Trade Organization in 1994 triggered opposition and challenges to the innovation patent model. Economists and NGOs now vie with each other in proposing ways of reconciling innovation and access to treatment.
Family Caregivers: Stroke
Authors: Hafsteinsdóttir Thóra B. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Patients with stroke are faced with serious long‐term health care problems resulting from the stroke. Providing patients and caregivers with good education concerning stroke recovery is an important aspect in the care of these patients. Education supports people in the understanding of their illness and in decision‐making, and reduces anxiety and uncertainty. Lack of education in patients and caregivers can lead to misconceptions, anxiety and fear, poor health status, and emotional problems like depression. Patient education begins with the provision of factual information but also includes the interpretation and integration of information in such a manner as to bring about attitude or behavior changes that benefit the person's health status. Although information improved patients’ and caregivers’ knowledge concerning the stroke, increased their satisfaction, and led to less depression in patients, no evidence was found for the reduction of patient's anxiety or mortality, or caregiver's stress. This may be due to the fact that health care professionals often give information based on what they think patients and caregivers want to know and not on what patients and caregivers themselves need to know. Therefore it is important to provide a clear overview of the education needs of patients with stroke and their caregivers.
Stress and Crime
Authors: Artello Kristine , Williams Shanna 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Criminal actors and victims experience various forms of stress related to criminal activity. Stress and crime are interrelated in a linear fashion (e.g., stress causes crime) and in a reciprocal cycle (e.g., victimization inducing stress). Strain theories posit the causal relationship of stress to crime, and psychological conditions, such as post‐traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder, explain the experience of stress caused by criminal action. Using general strain theory to explain the causal relationship, recent research explores the circumstances that cause stress and result in crime. Gender differences will be explored in relation to criminal activity resulting from stress. Lastly, victimization in the prison system and community will be explored as crime inducing stress. Future areas to explore the stress–crime relationship in research will be suggested.
Stress and Mental Illness
Authors: Mossakowski Krysia N. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Social scientific research has highlighted that stressful experiences, social statuses, and environments contribute to the development of mental illness. Sociologists have contributed to our knowledge with social stress theory, which acknowledges levels of exposure to stress and access to coping resources. Numerous studies have used the social stress process model to explain the link between social inequality and mental health disparities. This model is the basis for social stress theory. According to social stress theory, people with disadvantaged social status are more likely to be exposed to stressors and to be more vulnerable to stress because they have limited psychosocial coping resources; these in turn lead to a higher risk of mental illness. Sociological studies have further revealed that chronic stressors have a more harmful influence on mental health than acute stressors, such as life events. Therefore, chronic stressors should be taken into account, as well as the number of stressful life events, in assessing exposure and mental health risk. This entry will discuss key advances in the social scientific literature on stress and mental illness.
Health and Smoking
Authors: Jacques‐Tiura Angela J. , Chen Xinguang 
Published: February 2014

AbstractTobacco use is the most preventable cause of morbidity and mortality. Prevention of smoking among adolescents is vitally important because 90 percent of adult smokers started the habit before the age of 18. The unique characteristics of smoking behavior progression during adolescence require sustained prevention intervention efforts to reduce tobacco initiation and use. Approximately one in five adolescents and adults in the United States currently smoke cigarettes. Exposure to prevention programs is shown to be associated with lower rates of smoking and relapse, and with higher rates of quitting; the reduction in funding to support tobacco prevention since 2003 has been associated with increased rates of relapse and decreased rates of quitting. Tobacco use, with HIV/AIDS and overweight and obesity, are the three most significant public health challenges facing us. To win the war against the tobacco use epidemic, a balanced and sustained effort to prevent tobacco use among adolescents is essential.
Multiple Roles and Women's Health
Authors: Willigen Marieke Van 
Published: February 2014

AbstractIn modern societies today the most common role set for women is that of wife, mother, and employee. Two hypotheses have been advanced regarding the impact of multiple roles on women's health. The first – the multiple burden or role strain hypothesis – suggests that additional roles bring more responsibilities, leading to negative impacts on health. The second – role enhancement – suggests that multiple roles represent greater social attachment, leading to improved health. Research has generally refuted the role strain hypothesis. Whether or to what extent multiple roles have positive influences on women's health depends on the social context and the meaning of the roles to the individual.
Traditional Health Services Utilization among Cancer Patients in Developing Countries
Authors: Broom Alex , Kirby Emma 
Published: February 2014

AbstractWhile Western (bio)medicine dominates health service delivery in Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) countries, traditional health services continue to provide for up to 80 percent of health care needs in developing countries. Traditional medicine (TM), in this context, refers to well‐known systems such as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Indian Ayurveda, and Arabic Unani medicine, and to various forms of indigenous medicines. TM includes diverse health practices and beliefs incorporating plant‐, animal‐, and mineral‐based medicines, spiritual therapies, and manual techniques to maintain well‐being and to treat, diagnose, or prevent illness. Traditional health services remain particularly important in rural and remote areas of many developing countries where a paucity of biomedicine exists.
Genital Mutilation/Cutting, Female
Authors: JohansenNorwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress S R. Elise B. , Bagnol Brigitte 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAn estimated 140 million women have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) worldwide, and, in Africa alone, more than 3 million girls are at risk annually. The World Health Organization defines FGM/C as procedures involving the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs, for non‐medical reasons.
Stigma, Stress, and Health
Authors: Stringer Kristi Lynn 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Health‐related stigma has recently gained a great deal of attention among medical sociologists, public health professionals, and the psychiatric and medical communities. Social stigma has been identified as particularly detrimental to individual health through its impact on self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and increased levels of stress and distress. Furthermore, studies indicate that social stigma plays a significant role in health care utilization and treatment adherence. Social science researchers, public health professionals, patient advocates, and medical practitioners have recently called for a specific plan to reduce health‐related stigma and its consequences.
Stress Outcomes, Measuring
Authors: Young Wendy B. , Foy Steven L. , George Linda K. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe terms “stress” or “stressor” usually refer to situations, demands, or burdens that require individuals to adapt their behavior, while stress response is the heightened bodily reaction to perceived stress. As stress accumulates, individuals’ abilities to cope can become overtaxed, depleting mind–body resources and increasing the probability of poor health. Stress outcomes of concern to health researchers span the realms of mental health, physical health and functioning, mortality, and biomarkers. Research shows that the impact of stress is large, affecting body chemistry, the functioning of organ systems, mental and physical health, and ultimately risk for mortality.
Durkheim, Émile
Authors: Cockerham William C. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract

Although Émile Durkheim, one of sociology's most important founding figures, was not a medical sociologist and did not focus on health issues, he nevertheless has a lasting influence on health‐related studies of the effects of social structures on health, disease, and mortality. As seen in his book
Suicide
, Durkheim finds that social conditions and structures beyond an individual's control can influence people to respond in unhealthy ways.
Race, Religion, and Health, Intersection of
Authors: Reimer‐Kirkham Sheryl 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The intersection of religion and race in the context of health, health inequities, and health care services is a complex and understudied field, yet it carries profound ramifications for the health of individuals and societies. In this entry, the contributions and imperatives of intersectional theorizing about religion and race in the context of health, health inequities, and health services are discussed, beginning with an overview of intersectionality, followed by a brief synopsis of scholarship in the areas, respectively, of race and health and religion and health. The argument is made that any study of religion and health needs to be complicated by intersectional analyses of race, gender, and class, and, equally, that any study of race and health requires accounting for the imbrication of religion (along with other intersecting social structures) if we are to address today's health inequities.