bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Health Lifestyles
Authors: Cockerham William C. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractHealth lifestyles are collective patterns of health‐related behavior based on choices from options available to people according to their life chances. The behaviors that are generated from these choices can have either positive or negative consequences for a person's health status, but nevertheless form an overall pattern of health practices that constitute a health‐oriented lifestyle. Health lifestyles are becoming an increasingly common form of social behavior given the limits of medicine in treating chronic illnesses like heart disease, cancer, and diabetes and the association of such diseases with unhealthy lifestyles. This entry reviews the relevant lifestyle literature and provides a health lifestyle model.
Lay Expertise
Authors: Williams Gareth 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
There has been a growing interest in the knowledge and skills of lay people in relation to personal experiences of illness and wider concerns. This entry explores some of the different ways in which lay expertise and lay knowledge have evolved to make sense of social and health phenomena, and some of the social and cultural changes that have an impact on lay experiences and ways of knowing. The entry concludes by arguing that this constitutes a fertile field for continuing research and discussion.
Freidson, Eliot
Authors: Milner Adrienne N. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractEliot Freidson's main contribution to sociology is his professional dominance thesis. The professional dominance thesis discusses how physicians have acquired the most professional power of any profession because they are the ultimate authority in defining what constitutes illness, who does or does not have an illness, and how to best address illness. Friedson's professional dominance thesis, his focus on the medical profession as a self‐regulating body, his concept of the lay referral system, and his application of labeling theory to illness have had a significant important impact on the field of medical sociology and continue to have important implications for the sociological study of professions.
Race and the History of the Medical Profession
Authors: Baker Robert 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe modern concept of race was initially a classificatory concept introduced by the famous eighteenth‐century Swedish classifier of flora and fauna, the physician and botanist Carl Linnaeus. He distinguished types of humans according to geography and skin color, using the sort of external markers that he used to differentiate between types of flowers and trees. Unlike these classifications, however, racial classifications soon became infused with ethnic biases. This entry examines the role of racial bias on the health professions, focusing in particular on the discriminatory exclusion of Jews from the medical professions in twentieth‐century Germany and of African Americans in nineteenth‐ and twentieth‐century United States. Contrasting the public and publicly proclaimed German policy of the exclusion of Jews with institutionalized racial exclusion in America, the entry probes the ironic fact that even as American medical societies officially condemned German racial exclusion of Jews they failed to recognize their own exclusionary practices with respect to African Americans. The entry concludes by noting another sad irony, that even though modern genetic science has disconfirmed Linnaeus's notion that skin color is a biologically significant marker, policies designed to rectify past racial discrimination have an unfortunate propensity to sustain the now discredited concept of “race.”
Negotiated Orders
Authors: C. J. Stevens Fred 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Negotiated order involves the assumption that all social order depends on negotiation and that organizational structure and rules are no more than reflections of the constant reconstruction of this negotiated order. The view of organizations as socially constructed entities was in sharp contrast to the mainstream view of organizations as stable, self‐maintaining systems with functional demands, where those involved make efforts to achieve common goals in light of broader organizational and societal demands. Seen from this perspective, an organization is not a stable system, dominated by hierarchies, rules, and procedures, but a socially constructed order that tends toward an equilibrium. The negotiated order perspective has made a significant contribution to our understanding of organizations and occupations, by using the interactions of professions and occupations as a starting point. The perspective points to the fact that organizations are dynamic entities, constantly changing and, not least, infused by day‐to‐day interactions at the workplace.
Indians, Health of
Authors: Suminski Richard R. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancer are serious health problems in India. More Indians die from chronic diseases than from anything else. The chronic disease profile looks set to worsen unless effective interventions can be implemented. Such interventions should target lifestyle factors including diet, physical activity, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Current efforts have met with some success but a more substantial allocation of resources will be required.
Stress and Relationships
Authors: Redmond Deidre Lynn 
Published: February 2014

AbstractWhen addressing the topic of stress and relationships, it is important to identify the key social roles and relationships that structure a person's identity. Family and work are life domains defined by the marital, parental, and worker roles. These social roles are beneficial to health, but they are also demanding on time and energy, which ultimately results in stress. Family relationships are particularly important to individual health, but the stress arising out of these relationships offsets the benefits of social connections. Marital stress, for example, undermines the health benefits of the intimacy and purpose typically derived from marriage. The important areas of concern for stress researchers examining marital relationships include interactions between married partners, disagreements, and the association between stress in marital relationships and marital instability.
Family and Stress
Authors: Hill Rowena 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe term “family” can include many forms and adaptions of the traditional “nuclear” family that is often represented within society: kin and non‐kin family, adults, children, immediate family, and extended family. Despite the many variations, some common features of families have been established. Family is the primary social group which is usually formed by a collection of people who share some common factors; these might be biological, social, or experiential. Families usually have a structure (who does what for whom) within which processes take place (the dynamics of what is happening). These contribute to the way the family functions; family functioning is a key tool in accessing the well‐being of the family as a whole and also of those who exist within it. Family functioning represents the systems that the family members have adapted in order to organize and undertake their shared tasks, communications, activities, and procedures.
Medical Education, Sociology of
Authors: Stevens Fred C. J. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSociologists’ interest in medical education goes a long way back. Between 1955 and 1970 there was a burst of empirical research into the processes by which medical students selectively acquire the attitudes and values of the medical profession. A range of studies demonstrated the importance of learning the rules of the game and becoming successfully socialized into the culture of medicine. These studies emphasized how the attitudes and skills students develop in medical school and during their training and internships are crucial sources for their subsequent performance as physicians. After this period the focus shifted toward the study of medical education within the broader context of health care developments. In the last two decades the waning interest of sociologists in medical education can be observed, with little pathbreaking research done. Notable exceptions are studies which draw from social theorists such as Pierre Bourdieu, and studies in the domain of professionalism, the hidden curriculum, and social network theory. Educationalists serving medical education have embraced some of the sociological theories and insights, in a blend of different disciplinary approaches.
Online Health Information Seeking and Stress
Authors: Cotten Shelia R. , Stern Michael 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
As the range and use of information and communication technologies increase, so does the potential to utilize these tools to acquire health information from the Internet. Unfortunately, little is known about whether online health information seeking causes stress or whether stress leads to more online health activities. This entry details estimates of Internet users, online health activities, the relationship between stress and online health information seeking, and areas of further inquiry.
Suffering among Older Adults
Authors: Rubinstein Robert L. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSuffering is a pervasive part of the human condition. From social, cultural, and medical perspectives, human suffering is often hidden under an assortment of other defined experiences, for example, colonization, marginalization, stigmatization, or illness symptomatology such as physical, mental, or chronic pain. As such, a focused examination of the condition of human suffering as a distinct entity has often been lacking. However, work in several disciplines within recent years has brought a specific focus to suffering as an object of study. As part of this effort, research has also centered on the experience of suffering in later life. Suffering can be defined as immersion in a profoundly difficult or troubling event or episode. Of critical significance to an understanding of suffering – and what makes it different from many negative experiences – is that suffering often provides a challenge to personal identity and threatens a stable sense of who one is in the world. Six negative factors relating to suffering may each form the basis of a more profound level of existential suffering. Some research on suffering in later life has focused on the relationship of suffering to both personal meaning and the experience of control.
Social Support
Authors: Cotten Shelia R. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
An expansive array of research by a multitude of researchers since the early 1970s has examined the concept of social support, both as an outcome and as a predictor of varying health outcomes. Social support continues to be a main factor examined in the relationship between stress and well‐being. Unfortunately, however, there is not a clear conceptualization of social support. Prior research has contributed to a plethora of measures which all attempt to assess social support. This entry defines social support, details its dimensions, proposes an integration model, and puts forward a view for expanding the concept of social support.
Contemporary Theory
Authors: Cockerham William C. , Szaflarski Magdalena 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSociological theory emerged in response to the oncoming modern industrial era in the nineteenth century, and evolved over the twentieth century to account for the growing complexity and changing nature of late modern society. There is no general agreement in sociology about when theory moved beyond its classical phase to become “contemporary,” but the approach taken here is to review major theories representative of the twenty‐first century and those of the late twentieth century whose influence has carried over into the present and still have utility for medical sociology. Unlike medical sociology in the past, modern‐day medical sociology is rich in theory. The focus here is on those contemporary theories that have general explanatory power which can be applied to multiple topics. These include symbolic interaction, social constructionism, structuration theory, critical realism, theories of the political economy of health and feminist issues, post‐Marxism, and the work of Foucault and Bourdieu.
Socioeconomic Status and Mental Illness
Authors: Ng Edwin , Muntaner Carles , Chung Haejoo , Eaton William W. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
Socioeconomic status (SES) is a complex construct that is commonly used to understand mental health inequalities. SES refers to the social relations that determine what structural locations individuals or groups hold within society, which in turn influence the exposures, resources, and susceptibilities that produce mental health inequalities. The association between SES and mental health is one of the most firmly established patterns in psychiatric epidemiology – the most privileged and deprived tend to experience the best and worst mental health outcomes, respectively. Three major sociological traditions are relevant to understanding the causal processes through which SES determines the likelihood of developing a mental health disorder. The first tradition conceptualizes SES in terms of social stratification, or the ranking of individuals into groups based on shared socioeconomic conditions. The second uses a neo‐Weberian perspective, and defines SES as being determined by social closure and opportunity hoarding, or the processes through which privileged groups restrict access to economic resources and opportunities while excluding others. The third reflects a neo‐Marxist approach, and identifies SES with domination and exploitation, or the ability of owners of productive resources to control and benefit from the labor of workers.
Deinstitutionalization
Authors: Cockerham William C. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
“Deinstitutionalization” is a term referring to the release of patients from mental hospitals in the late 1950s and 1960s for what was thought to be more humane care in community settings. In the 1950s, before the introduction of newly discovered drug therapies that made deinstitutionalization possible, many mental patients lived in overcrowded and poorly furnished hospital facilities; they were treated with much pessimism and little success, and few patients with severe mental illness were ever discharged. While deinstitutionalization has not been an overwhelmingly successful policy, it has nevertheless enjoyed some successes and allowed many people with mental disorders to receive care in community settings that allow them to maintain their personal freedom instead of living their lives under the limits inherent in hospitalization. Although this may be considered positive for some, for others this outcome has meant living lonely, isolated lives in slum housing or as homeless people in extremely disadvantaged circumstances made worse by mental illness.
Asians, Health of
Authors: Chen Meei‐shia 
Published: February 2014

AbstractAsia is the largest, most populous, and most culturally diverse of the seven continents of the world. It comprises 48 nation‐states with very different natural environments, political‐economic systems, historical developments, and cultures. Furthermore, the health status of the people of different Asian states varies greatly. This entry analyzes the health of Asian peoples from the historical perspective of various Asian political‐economic trajectories.
Race and Gender: Intersectionality Theory
Authors: Hankivsky Olena 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
There is a growing sense that current approaches to understanding health inequities are insufficient for increasing the understanding of multifactoral and multilevel complexities of health disparities and for identifying the most effective strategies to reduce them. Traditional frameworks often fragment vulnerabilities into distinct categories such as socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, gender, sexuality, geography, or disease status; prioritize one category over others; look at variables in non‐relational manners; or fail to fully consider and analyze the context and influence of social power inequities. Fully understanding health inequities requires alternative research and policy frameworks, such as those emerging from an intersectional perspective, which can investigate the interaction of numerous characteristics of vulnerable populations, not only at the individual level but also at structural levels which capture the multiple contexts that shape individual lives and health statuses.
Alcohol Use/Dependence
Authors: Roman Paul M. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe first organized use of alcohol (ethanol) within human societies predates recorded history. Essentially, all known societies have used alcohol in some form. This is because alcohol is the natural product of organic fermentation, which is produced by stored and spoiling food. The natural strength of alcohol rarely exceeds 12–14 percent by volume. This amount is typically found in wine, usually made from grapes but the potential product of fermentation of any fruit juice. Beer, produced by fermenting cooked cereal grain, rarely exceeds 4–5 percent. To produce alcohol concentrations (liquor) beyond these levels requires distillation, a technology that was not widely practiced until 400 years ago. Distillation can produce pure 100 percent alcohol, although most liquors are consumed at a 40 to 50 percent concentration. Importantly, the forms of alcohol that were easily available in nearly all societies throughout most of history were “light,” non‐distilled beverages that did not lead to rapid intoxication, or potentially to death through overdose.
Racial Disparities in Health Care Access in the United States
Authors: Mayberry Robert 
Published: February 2014

AbstractRacial and ethnic disparities in health care quality are indicative of relatively poorer quality of care for racial/ethnic minority groups. They represent critical injustices when provisions of health care are unexplained by the patient's clinical needs and other determinants of health care delivery, and the benefits of health care services are not equitably realized. While health care remains suboptimal in the United States, improvement in health care quality is observed for all population subgroups. Yet, racial and ethnic disparities in health care access and quality have not shown any significant improvement. Health care disparities have discernible patterns and different putative explanatory pathways. Extricating these patterns and pathways will help to better understand why race/ethnic disparities are observed for some measures of health care quality (e.g., invasive cardiac care), but not others (e.g., cancer screening); and why health care access and quality are suboptimal for all Americans. Evidence‐based health care quality improvement, which integrates the elimination of defined racial/ethnic disparities, is the paradigm for achieving equitable best care.
Stress: Intergenerational Meaning
Authors: Yost Elizabeth A. 
Published: February 2014

AbstractStress can be defined as a physiological response to situations where individuals feel anxious or fearful from demands placed upon them. Intergenerational stress can be evaluated two ways (1) stress between generations from roles, and (2) stress passed through generations in relation to past stressful or traumatic events. Reactions from stressors can be short or long term and can have deleterious effects on both mental and physical health. This entry will discuss both approaches to intergenerational stress, with emphasis on past research.
Stress and the Military
Authors: Rohall David E. 
Published: February 2014

Abstract
The military organization represents a microcosm of its host society with its own set of stressors and resources with which to manage those stresses. Military stressors include an array of life demands such as risk of injury or death, geographic mobility, separations, residence in foreign countries, among other things. Outcomes of these demands can include PTSD (post‐traumatic stress disorder) and other disorders. Families help service members cope with the stresses of military life but they too may exhibit mental health problems associated with the stress of military life. In addition, military families may also be a source of worry among service members, exacerbating life problems. Many military organizations provide access to services like counseling or recreational facilities for service members and their families to help them cope with military life.
Palladium‐Catalyzed CS Activation/Aryne Insertion/Coupling Sequence: Synthesis of Functionalized 2‐Quinolinones
Authors: Dong Ying , Liu Bangyu , Chen Peng , Liu Qun , Wang Mang 
Published: February 2014

AbstractThe insertion of an aryne into a CS bond can suppress the addition of an S nucleophile to the aryne in the presence of palladium. Catalyzed by Pd(OAc)2, a wide range of α‐carbamoyl ketene dithioacetals readily react with arynes to selectively afford functionalized 2‐quinolinones in high yields under neutral reaction conditions by a CS activation/aryne insertion/intramolecular coupling sequence. The attractive feature of the new strategy also lies in the versatile transformations of the alkythio‐substituted quinolinone products.
Copper‐Catalyzed Coupling of Oxime Acetates with Sodium Sulfinates: An Efficient Synthesis of Sulfone Derivatives
Authors: Tang Xiaodong , Huang Liangbin , Xu Yanli , Yang Jidan , Wu Wanqing , Jiang Huanfeng 
Published: February 2014

AbstractSulfone derivatives are important synthetic intermediates. However, the general method for their preparation is through traditional coupling reaction: the alkylation of sodium sulfinates with phenacyl halides. Based on our previous work on sodium sulfinates and oxime acetates, we herein report a novel method for sulfone derivatives by oxidative coupling with sodium sulfinates and oxime acetates using copper as catalyst. The sulfonylvinylamine products could be formed in excellent yields. Upon hydrolysis by silica gel in CH2Cl2, β‐ketosulfones could also be efficiently constructed. Various sulfonylvinylamines and β‐ketosulfones were obtained in good to excellent yields under the optimized reaction conditions. Mechanistic studies indicated that this transformation involved copper‐catalyzed NO bond cleavage, activation of a vinyl sp2 CH bond, and CS bond formation. The oxime acetates act as both a substrate and an oxidant, thus the reaction needs no additional oxidants or additives.
All Organic Sodium‐Ion Batteries with Na4C8H2O6
Authors: Wang Shiwen , Wang Lijiang , Zhu Zhiqiang , Hu Zhe , Zhao Qing , Chen Jun 
Published: February 2014

AbstractDeveloping organic compounds with multifunctional groups to be used as electrode materials for rechargeable sodium‐ion batteries is very important. The organic tetrasodium salt of 2,5‐dihydroxyterephthalic acid (Na4DHTPA; Na4C8H2O6), which was prepared through a green one‐pot method, was investigated at potential windows of 1.6–2.8 V as the positive electrode or 0.1–1.8 V as the negative electrode (vs. Na+/Na), each delivering compatible and stable capacities of ca. 180 mAh g−1 with excellent cycling. A combination of electrochemical, spectroscopic and computational studies revealed that reversible uptake/removal of two Na+ ions is associated with the enolate groups at 1.6–2.8 V (Na2C8H2O6/Na4C8H2O6) and the carboxylate groups at 0.1–1.8 V (Na4C8H2O6/Na6C8H2O6). The use of Na4C8H2O6 as the initial active materials for both electrodes provided the first example of all‐organic rocking‐chair SIBs with an average operation voltage of 1.8 V and a practical energy density of about 65 Wh kg−1.