bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Racial/Ethnic Differences in Infant Mortality Attributable to Birth Defects by Gestational Age
Authors: Broussard Cheryl S. , Gilboa Suzanne M. , Lee Kyung A. , Oster Matthew , Petrini Joann R. , Honein Margaret A. 
Published: August 2012

OBJECTIVE:
Birth defects are a leading cause of infant mortality in the United States. Previous reports have highlighted black-white differences in overall infant mortality and infant mortality attributable to birth defects (IMBD). We evaluated the impact of gestational age on US racial/ethnic differences in IMBD.

METHODS:
We estimated the rate of IMBD as the underlying cause of death using the period-linked birth/infant death data for US residents for January 2003 to December 2006. We excluded infants with missing gestational age, implausible values based on Alexander’s index of birth weight for gestational age norms, or gestational ages &lt;20 weeks or &gt;44 weeks; we categorized gestational age into 3 groups: 20 to 33, 34 to 36, and 37 to 44 weeks. Using Poisson regression, we compared neonatal and postneonatal IMBD for infants of non-Hispanic black and Hispanic mothers with that for infants of non-Hispanic white mothers stratified by gestational age.

RESULTS:
IMBD occurred in 12.2 per 10 000 live births. Among infants delivered at 37 to 44 weeks, blacks (and Hispanics, to a lesser degree) had significantly higher neonatal and postneonatal IMBD than whites; however, among infants delivered at 20 to 33 or 34 to 36 weeks, neonatal (but not postneonatal) IMBD was significantly lower among blacks compared with whites.

CONCLUSIONS:
Racial/ethnic differences in IMBD were not explained in these data by differences in gestational age. Further investigation should include an assessment of possible racial/ethnic differences in severity and/or access to timely diagnosis and management of birth defects.
Unprovoked Status Epilepticus: The Prognosis for Otherwise Normal Children With Focal Epilepsy
Authors: Camfield Peter , Camfield Carol 
Published: August 2012

OBJECTIVE:To document the effect of unprovoked status epilepticus (SE) on the prognosis for otherwise normal children with focal epilepsy.METHODS:From the Nova Scotia Childhood Epilepsy Study (population-based), we identified patients with focal epilepsy, normal intelligence, and neurologic examination and follow-up ≥10 years. We compared those with and without unprovoked SE.RESULTS:One hundred eighty-eight cases had a mean follow-up of 27 ± 5 years with no deaths from SE. Thirty-nine (20%) had SE, 19 of whom experienced their first seizure. The number of episodes of SE was 1 in 27 patients (69%) and 2 to 10 in 12 patients. At onset 9 of 39 (23%) SE patients and 35 of 149 (23%) no-SE patients had specific learning disorders. At follow-up, 11 (28%) SE and 49 (33%) no-SE patients had learning disorders (P = not statistically different [ns]). Grades repeated, high school graduation, and advanced education did not differ. The number of antiepileptic drug (AED) used throughout the clinical course was the same: 22/39 (56%). SE patients used ≤2 AEDs versus 99 of 149 (64%) no-SE patients (P = .2). The distribution of patients using 3 to 11 AEDs was similar. The remission rate (seizure-free without AEDs at the end of follow-up) for SE patients was 24 of 39 (61%) versus 99 of 149 (66%) in no-SE (P = .5). Intractable epilepsy occurred in 15% SE and 11% of no-SE cases.CONCLUSIONS:SE often recurs but apparently has little influence on long-term intellectual and seizure outcome in normally intelligent children with focal epilepsy.
Investissement narcissique, figure du double et fantasme d'enfant meurtrier
Authors: Guittonneau Mireille 
Published: August 2012

Dans certaines configurations familiales, la figure de double portée par l’enfant semble accomplir l’équivalent d’un meurtre psychique. Livrée à l’écoute de l’analyste, cette figure dévoile l’investissement narcissique qui la sous-tend. Elle fait également apparaître l’enjeu vital qui se joue pour ces parents. En effet, si cette figure du double leur permet d’évincer toute confrontation à une individuation ressentie comme menace, le meurtre psychique qu’elle semble réaliser a, lui, pour but de les préserver du fantasme d’un enfant meurtrier. En fait, ce fantasme déplace dans le futur le meurtre psychique qu’ils ont eux-mêmes subi dans leur enfance. Afin de se soustraire à la menace toujours à venir d’un tel meurtre, il faudrait donc le perpétrer au présent, sur la personne de l’enfant : la figure du double en serait le moyen.
CD28–B7 Interaction Modulates Short- and Long-Lived Plasma Cell Function
Authors: Njau Modesta N. , Kim Jin Hyang , Chappell Craig P. , Ravindran Rajesh , Thomas Leela , Pulendran Bali , Jacob Joshy 
Published: August 2012

Abstract
The interaction of CD28, which is constitutively expressed on T cells, with B7.1/B7.2 expressed on APCs is critical for T cell activation. CD28 is also expressed on murine and human plasma cells but its function on these cells remains unclear. There are two types of plasma cells: short-lived ones that appear in the secondary lymphoid tissue shortly after Ag exposure, and long-lived plasma cells that mainly reside in the bone marrow. We demonstrate that CD28-deficient murine short- and long-lived plasma cells produce significantly higher levels of Abs than do their wild-type counterparts. This was owing to both increased frequencies of plasma cells as well as increased Ab production per plasma cell. Plasma cells also express the ligand for CD28, B7.1, and B7.2. Surprisingly, deficiency of B7.1 and B7.2 in B cells also led to higher Ab levels, analogous to Cd28−/− plasma cells. Collectively, our results suggest that the CD28–B7 interaction operates as a key modulator of plasma cell function.
Trends in Industrial Toxicology
Authors: Bingham Eula , Cohrssen Barbara 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe information in industrial toxicology that is produced by industry, government, or academia has changed greatly in emphasis and direction in the past 10 years. Carcinogenesis still remains of greatest importance in industrial toxicology and is based on human studies, environmental studies and epidemiology data. However, in the past, research was generated from the data and information obtained from industrial health departments. Now, most of the research is being done in university laboratories and these laboratories are looking at the mechanisms of action of specific chemicals. The revolution in genetics and specifically in mapping the human genome has greatly affected toxicologic research.These trends and developments are presented, as well how the government agencies have become the sources of much of the new toxicologic information that is available. The toxicologic information provided by these volumes will be useful providing the global workplace with the necessary data for keeping workers healthy.
Regulations and Guidelines for Toxic Exposures in the Workplace
Authors: Monforton Celeste 
Published: August 2012

AbstractOccupational diseases can serve as the sentinel warnings about the hazards of toxic substances. Regulations and guidelines to control workers' exposure to toxic substances have been influenced by larger social forces, which may have enhanced or impeded the degree of protection provided. Toxicological and epidemiological research and technological developments provide the rationale and the methodologies used to develop legislation, regulations, and guidelines to reduce occupational exposure to toxins. Most regulations and standards for worker protection have training requirements to increase employees' understanding of workplace hazards. These complement the engineering and administrative controls implemented by the affected employers. In the U.S., many industries fall under the authority of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, but some are also required to comply with worker‐safety regulations issued by other agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, Nuclear Regulatory Commission or Department of Transportation. A brief description of workplace standards and occupational exposure limits for selected countries are presented.
Alicyclic Hydrocarbons
Authors: Baxter C. Stuart 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe alicyclic hydrocarbons include the cycloalkanes, also calledcycloparaffins,cyclanes, andnaphthenes, and the cycloalkenes, also known ascycloolefinsandcyclenes, and their alkyl and alkenyl derivatives. Some of these derivatives occur naturally in plants and are commonly known asterpenes. Other compounds can be isolated from crude petroleum refinery distillates or catalytically cracked petroleum products. Cycloalkanes are extensively used to produce reformed aromatics and as solvents or synthesis intermediates. Some physical properties of the cycloalkanes are given.Cyclopropane and cyclobutane are gases and have been used as anesthetics. Cyclopentane and higher members are liquids with low acute and chronic toxicity overall, but still able to induce many toxic responses characteristic of lipophilic compounds, including central nervous system (CNS) depression, dizziness, and headache. For cyclohexane and higher analogs, the margin of safety between CNS depression and death is very narrow and symptomatically barely recognizable. Following ingestion or inhalation, cycloalkanes are exhaled in unchanged form or rapidly metabolized into water‐soluble metabolites, usually glucuronides. Exposure of humans and laboratory animals to high concentrations may cause excitement, loss of equilibrium, stupor, and coma, but rarely death. Oral administration of high doses to animals has additionally resulted in severe diarrhea, vascular collapse, and heart, lung, liver, and brain degeneration. Cycloparaffins and cycloalkenes are also ocular and dermal irritants since, as lipophilic agents, they defat the skin. In many cases, they are also skin sensitizers; their sensitizing activity increases with the number of double bonds. The liquid members up to cyclooctane, and to a lesser extent cyclododecane, are aspiration hazards.The cyclic olefins are more highly reactive than their paraffin counterparts. They contribute to photochemical smog by reacting with ozone and other small molecular or ionic species. Selected physical properties are given. In C4–C7cycloalkenes, toxicity increases with molecular weight. Cycladienes and polyenes appear to possess increasingly irritant, toxic, and sensitizing properties, peaking somewhat higher for cycladienes than for monocyclic alkenes. The aspiration hazard also appears higher for the cycloalkenes than the cycloalkanes.
Cyanides and Nitriles
Authors: Kopras Elizabeth J. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractCyanides are among the most acutely toxic of all industrial chemicals and are produced in large quantities and used in many different applications. However, they cause few serious accidents or deaths. This is partly because the wordcyanideis synonymous with a highly poisonous substance and a certain amount of care in handling is thereby ensured. The cyanides and nitriles are a disparate group of substances characterized by the presence of a cyanide (CN) group in their molecular structure. The cyanide group consists of a carbon bonded to a nitrogen. In those cases where the cyanide group is readily available, toxicity is likely to have similarity to hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The chemical and physical characteristics of the compound will affect the potential availability of the cyanide group and therefore, the hazards associated with different chemical species.For purposes of the toxicologist, cyanides and nitriles can be classified into groups based on their common properties. Group 1, inorganic cyanides, includes hydrogen cyanide, cyanogen, and simple salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonium cyanide of hydrogen cyanide that dissociate readily to release CN−1ions. Group 2 includes halogenated compounds such as cyanogen chloride or bromide. Group 3 comprises simple and complex salts such as cobalt cyanide trihydrate, cupric and cuprous cyanide, silver cyanide, and ferricyanide and ferrocyanide salts of hydrogen cyanide that do not dissociate readily to release CN−1ions. Group 4, organic cyanides, includes cyanide glycosides produced by plants such as amygdalin and linamarin. Group 5, nitriles, have a general structure R‐CNO, and include compounds such as acetonitrile (methyl cyanide), acrylonitrile, and isobutyronitrile.
Saturated Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Two to Four Carbons
Authors: Reid Jon B. , Muianga Custodio V. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThis chapter relies extensively on information provided in earlier editions. Several online databases were utilized in searching for recent information in preparing the chapter. These included NTP (National Toxicology Program), IRIS (Integrated Risk Information Service), and the ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) websites. Most recent information was sought through MEDLINE and when possible the original articles were reviewed. Debatably, IRIS was considered to be the last word with regard to cancer. Many of the compounds have been recently reviewed by the ATSDR and are reported in their toxicological profiles. Recent reviews were utilized in preparing this chapter. In addition, theNIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazardsand the ACGIH'sTLV's® for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents: 2011(CD) were utilized.
Unsaturated Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Authors: Belpoggi Fiorella , Chiozzotto D. , Lauriola M. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThis chapter contains details on 12 unsaturated halogenated hydrocarbons. The considered chemicals are 1,3‐dichloropropene,cis‐ andtrans‐1,2‐dichloroethylene, dichloroacetylene, allyl chloride, hexachlorobutadiene, β‐chloropropene, vinylidene chloride, vinyl chloride, vinyl bromide, vinyl fluoride, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene. These compounds are used as fumigants, pesticides, solvents, and chemical intermediates. This chapter follows the outline determined for compounds and includes physical and chemical properties, production and use, exposure assessment, toxic effects (experimental animal and epidemiology studies), standards, regulations, and guidelines, and studies on environmental impact.
Aliphatic Carboxylic Acids: Saturated
Authors: Szilagyi Maria 
Published: August 2012

AbstractAliphatic carboxylic acids include a very wide range of chemicals that perform a diverse range of industrial functions. Many occur naturally and serve an important function in nutrition, and others are intermediates in normal biochemical processes. This chapter is limited to a discussion of the saturated aliphatic mono‐ and polycarboxylic acids. Because of the wide range of uses, the differing circumstances of isolation and often the complexity of structure, many organic acids are described by a variety of names. In this chapter, the names used in the text are usually the trivial or most common names; alternative names are given for reference. A current systematic or Chemical Abstracts acid name is given in the tables that describe physicochemical properties. The commercial and industrial importance of this class of compounds is indicated by recent production figures: formic acid has a production volume in excess of 1 billion lb/year, acetic acid has a production volume in the region of 3.3 billion lb/year, acrylic acid in excess of 1 billion lb/year, and propionic acid on the order of 100 million lb/year. Esters and salts of organic acids are also produced in large volumes.In general, serious physiological concerns for humans do not arise from the acids discussed in this chapter. Occasionally, concerns have been reported for individual acids, but usually with very high experimental or accidental exposures. The low level of concern associated with most of these acids is attested to by many members of this class that are used as food additives, flavoring agents, and stabilizers, or as food materials. The primary adverse effect of exposure to aliphatic carboxylic acids is usually acute arising from their primary irritant effects on skin, eyes, and mucous membranes, particularly of the short‐chain acids. As the molecular weight increases and the water solubility decreases, the irritating capacity of a carboxylic acid generally decreases. In addition, skin sensitization is quite rare with the aliphatic carboxylic acids.
Esters of Carbonic and Orthocarbonic Acid, Organic Phosphorous, Monocarboxylic Halogenated Acids, Haloalcohols, and Organic Silicon
Authors: Toscano William A. , Coleman Kelly P. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThis chapter covers (1) esters of carbonic and orthocarbonic acid, (2) esters of organic phosphorous compounds, (3) esters of monocarboxylic halogenated acids, alkanols, or haloalcohols, and (4) organic silicon esters. Other classes of esters are summarized in Chapters 57 and 58. Refer to the Introduction in Chapter 57 for a more detailed overview of general properties of esters.Unfortunately, as shown in the two prior chapters, mainly fragmented toxicological evaluations are available for esters. Most of these esters are characterized by low toxicity. Indeed, as expressed in Chapter 57, lethal dose (e.g., LD50) values are frequently difficult or impractical to measure. Localized dermal irritation is one common effect characteristic of exposures to most organic solvents. Few esters are readily absorbed, but there are exceptions, such as tri‐o‐cresyl phosphate (TOCP). Several of the halogenated derivatives, such as ethylchloro‐ and ethylbromo‐, are potent lacrimators. Ethyl fluoroacetate and fluoroacetic acid exhibit about the same mode of action, which may indicate that the acetate is rapidly hydrolyzed and metabolized in the mammalian system. The unsaturated carbonates are also associated with high lacrimatory activity.TOCP is an example of an ester that can cause neuropathy in a variety of animal species. The initial weakness and paralysis are normally reversible in early stages, but repeated or massive assaults result in demyelination of the nerve fibers. The mechanism of action is not yet certain, but it appears to involve phosphorylation of proteins. Only selected phosphates exhibit neuropathic effects, including diisopropyl fluorophosphorate andN,N′‐diisopropyl phosphorodiamidic fluoride.As was expressed in Chapter 57, industrial hygiene evaluation of esters involves collecting and analyzing air samples to determine their airborne concentrations. Published industrial hygiene air sampling and analytical methods, however, are unavailable for most esters. In relation, there are few occupational exposure and biological limits. A list of ester compounds covered in this chapter that have industrial hygiene sampling and analytical methods are presented here along with their respective occupational exposure limits, established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). As stated in Chapter 57, since sampling and analytical methods and occupational exposure limits are subject to periodic revision, the reader is encouraged to refer to current publications of ACGIH, OSHA, and NIOSH.
Glycols
Authors: Cavender Finis L. 
Published: August 2012

Abstract
Glycols or diols are hydrocarbons that have two hydroxyl groups attached to separate carbons in an aliphatic chain or alicyclic ring. They are used as antifreeze agents, heat transfer agents, deicing agents, cryoprotectants, humectants, solvent carriers, chemical intermediates, components of polymers and resins, and vehicles in a number of chemical formulations including cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations. They vary from slightly viscous liquids to waxy solids, are soluble in water, alcohols, and ketones, and are insoluble in hydrocarbons.
They have low vapor pressures; therefore inhalation of vapors and aerosols is of little concern unless they are heated, agitated, or sprayed. They have little or no odor; thus only their irritancy at high concentrations is a warning property.
Because of the irritant properties and the potential for central nervous system (CNS) depression at high concentrations, the occupational exposure limit (OEL) for glycols is generally set as a ceiling limit. The chemical and physical properties of several of the more common glycols are given.
Synthetic Polymers—Olefin, Diene Elastomers, and Vinyl Halides
Authors: Walker Bailus , Stokes Lynette D. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe present chapter discusses polymers of olefin, elastomers, and vinyl halides. Olefin fibers (polypropylene and polyethylene) are products of the polymerization of propylene and ethylene gases and show resistance to moisture and chemicals. Elastomer is a polymer with properties of elasticity. It has been reported that ethylene‐propylene elastomers generally have low toxicity. Some of these polymers have received FDA approval for pharmaceutical applications. It has been found that synthetic rubber–any type of artificially made polymer material that exhibits elastomeric behavior–is of primary concern in terms of use or application. Vinyl halides are any alkenes with at least one halide substituent bonded directly to one of the unsaturated carbons. They are easily polymerized and copolymerized with various materials such as acrylonitrile, vinyl acetate, and styrene, to form pliable, lightweight plastics or thermoplastic resins that have characteristics such as increased resistance to water, oils, and solvents, plus other distinctive properties Several reports address worker health problems associated with these polymers and recommend the standards for their workplace practice.
Polyurethanes, Miscellaneous Organic Polymers, and Silicones
Authors: Cragg Steven T. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter may be attributed generally to the residual monomers, catalysts, and other additives present rather than the polymerper se. The cured polymer itself may be of high molecular weight and, consequently, more or less toxicologically inert. Carefully manufactured, highly refined polymers contain few residual toxic chemicals. However, some of the polymers discussed in this chapter, at least in some applications, go through an intermediate stage consisting of “prepolymers” (sometimes referred to as oligomers or resins) that react further to achieve their final, cured form. These may have high levels of monomers or additives that could present an exposure hazard to workers.
Organic Sulfur Compounds
Authors: Shertzer Howard G. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractSulfur‐containing materials are widespread in the environment and are essential for survival of mammals and other species. Methyl and ethyl mercaptans are extremely important in fundamental biological processes such as a source of sulfur or carbon fragments in mammalian biosynthetic pathways. Sulfur‐containing chemicals have toxic properties which may be attributed generally to their chemical, physical and biochemical properties, including their ability to react with heavy metals. The chemicals have been grouped according to chemical classes, with a major focus on mercaptans (also called thiols or sulfhydryls), sulfides, chemicals with both sulfur and oxygen atoms (sulfoxides, sulfones, sulfonates, and sulfonyl chlorides), miscellaneous groups (thiophenes and benzothiazoles), and sulfur mustards. The physical and chemical properties, exposure assessment, regulations and standards have been reviewed extensively.