bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Relation of the Air-gas Lift to Gas-oil Ratios and Effect on Ultimate Production
Authors: Lake F.W. 
Published: June 2014

The ultimate production from a natural reservoir of petroleum is inverselyproportional to the gas-oil ratios existing during the producing life of thereservoir whenever gas is the major expulsive force in the recovery. In otherwords, in the period during which gas is the major expulsive force the ultimateproduction will be increased if the gas-oil ratio is decreased, and vice versa.This condition prevails in the greater number of the present producingdistricts.
While this relation is difficult to prove from actual operation, on accountof the present paucity of detailed observations, it must be admitted after astudy of the forces and conditions governing the recovery of petroleum fromnatural reservoirs. Where gas and oil exist under pressure in sand intersticesand water movement is not freely possible, the force expended in moving the oilto the well is the expansion and movement of the gas through the pressuredifferential existing between the interior of the reservoir and the well. Ifpressure and solution conditions in the untapped reservoir are such that therelation between gas and oil volumes at atmospheric conditions is as 100: 1;and if during the producing period, until the gas is exhausted, the relationbetween the gas and oil volumes produced is 300: 1, it follows that onlyone-third of the oil has been produced and the remaining two-thirds cannot berecovered unless some extraneous force is introduced into the reservoir. Thisserves to illustrate the importance of gas-oil ratio control during normalproducing operations.

Gas-Oil Ratio Control
Eliminating natural conditions in a reservoir, which govern gas-oil ratios, such as the physical properties of the oil and gas, the physicalcharacteristics of the reservoir strata and the original pressure and solutionconditions in the reservoir, which cannot be controlled by operation practice;and also eliminating operating conditions that apply to the reservoir as awhole, such as well spacing, well locations, relative-completion dates, variouspenetrations and drilling practice; there remains but one condition in eachwell that influences the gas-oil ratio and that is subject to control byoperation practice.
Relative Advantages and Costs of Electric Power in Lease Operations
Authors: Murphy L.J. 
Published: June 2014

The production of crude oil in the United States is exceeding consumption byone-quarter million barrels per day and, with the possibilities of West Texas, this condition of overproduction, unless controlled, is likely to continue forsome time. The resulting low price of oil has caused the operator to observeclosely his lease operating costs. The installation of more efficient andreliable machinery has followed and it can well be said that the art ofproducing oil is on the threshold of a new era. In this advancement electricityhas played a leading part.
This paper covers only the problem of electricity as applied to leaseoperation and does not consider other phases of the industry, such as drillingand pipe-line pumping, in which electric power has been utilized economically.In considering electrification of pumping wells, the first question theoperator asks is whether or not his costs will be reduced and the secondquestion is whether or not the production will be increased. The thirdquestion, although in effect it is closely allied to the first, is the cost ofpower. The last question can be answered only after a thorough analysis ofoperating conditions and a study of the power rates prevailing in theparticular field under consideration. Within the past few years, the powercompanies have realized the desirability of a steady 24-hr. pumping load, havemade their rates for oil-field service particularly attractive, and in generalhave shown splendid cooperation in assisting the oil companies in thesatisfactory application of electric power to their leases.
When everything is taken into consideration, the first cost is practicallythe same for electric drive as for gas engines when pumping on the beam withindividual motors. This cost, at prevailing prices, should averageapproximately $2200 to $2400 per installation when using 15 to 35-hp., two-speed pumping equipment, including motor and control, countershaft, motorhouse, belt, installation charges, and a prorated portion of the cost oftransmission lines and transformers for serving a number of wells. Since thereis practically no difference in the cost of the two installations, it isevident that electricity, to justify its consideration, must have a loweroperating cost or produce more oil.
Handling Congealing Oil and Paraffin Problems in the Appalachian Fields
Authors: Brewster Frank M. 
Published: June 2014

The handling of congealing oils and paraffin is a serious problem in the Appalachian fields, particularly because the small amount of oil produced perwell makes the removing of paraffin a very costly operation per barrel. Fewoperators realize or have any means of knowing just how much production is loston account of paraffin depositing over the face of the sand and plugging thepores of the sand; but where paraffin has been removed the production increasesindicate that this loss has been considerable.
Many operators believe that paraffining is confined to the tubing andpumping equipment, but it is evident that the most serious damage occurs on theface of the sand and a short distance back in the pores. This paper is anattempt to disseminate information on methods and processes in use in theEastern fields for combatting losses of production and operating difficultiescaused by deposition of paraffin in the pores, on the walls, on the tubing andon other pumping equipment. Mills covers this subject so thoroughly thatexcerpts, abstracts and quotations from his work have been used freely in thispaper.

Nature of Paraffin
Mills states: "The so-called paraffin that collects in oil wells, and inthe pores of the producing sands immediately around the wells, is generallymade up of amorphous wax or uncracked paraffin, asphalt, or other gummyhydrocarbons mixed with more or less water, oil and inorganic silt. Some of thesamples of this ‘paraffin’ collected from oil wells in different fields andexamined by the Bureau of Mines contains as much as 20 per cent. by weight of water and inorganic silt, whereas other samples are composed entirely of waxyhydrocarbons and oil. The inorganic silt accompanying this ‘paraffin’ is mostly fine sand, clayey materials, common salt and finely disseminated precipitatesof calcium and magnesium carbonates. Sulfates of calcium, barium and strontiumare less common constituents of paraffin."
Effect of Repressuring Producing Sands during the Flush Stage of Production
Authors: Foran E.V. 
Published: June 2014

The repressuring of oil-producing formations during the flush stage ofproduction, although requiring primarily the same procedure as operations onformations where the gas pressure has been depleted, offers several advantagesof major importance, the value of which has not heretofore been demonstrated.It is the purpose of this paper to present an account of some recent operationsof this character and the economic effects on the properties where they wereapplied.
The principal objective in all repressuring operations is to secure aneffective diffusion of the input energy to all parts of the producing sand. Ifthis can be accomplished, success is assured during the remainder of the lifeof the property; if not, it will be temporary only and will be followed bydifficulties, and the maximum possible recovery will not be obtained.
During the past year in Texas, the Cook pool in Shackelford County, and theTurbeville pool in Archer County, while still in their flush stage ofproduction, have been subjected to repressuring operations to observe theirreaction to this process during the early stage of their productive periods.The repressuring operations carried on in each of these pools will be discussedseparately in this paper in order to show peculiarities which were present inone pool but were not observed in the other.

Turbeville Pool
The Turbeville pool is in Archer County, about 30 miles south of WichitaFalls. The productive sand varies in thickness from 10 to 30 ft., the averagebeing about 16 ft. The depth of the sand varies from 1450 to 1530 ft. Thedeveloped productive area to date is approximately 200 acres, but the limits ofthe pool have not yet been proved. The sand varies considerably in differentparts of the pool with respect to both porosity and permeability. The gravityof the oil varies from 39 to 41? A. P. I. There were some wells which flowedfor a few days after completion but during 1927 all production was secured bypumping.
Sucker-rod Strains and Stresses
Authors: Lake F.W. , Brett H.A. 
Published: June 2014

With each year bringing the exploration of deeper and deeper producinghorizons in the effort to maintain production, the problem of lifting the oilto the surface is continually becoming more difficult. Flowing and gas-liftwells eventually decline to such a point that pumping is necessary. Theincreasing loads on sucker rods resulting from deeper pumping operations areapproaching the ultimate strength of the rods with consequent reduction in thefactor of safety. With this diminishing factor of safety, the vibratorystresses causing fatigue, crystallization, and ultimate fracture become moreimportant. These vibratory stresses are the result of varied pumping conditionswhich, if properly understood and investigated, may be eliminated to a greatextent. To accomplish this purpose, a recording dynamometer has been developedwhich gives an indicator card showing the actual load on the polished rod ateach point of the pumping cycle.

Recording Dynamometer
The instrument consists of a dynamometer head of the piston and cylindertype filled with castor oil, and a recording device, the movable card holderbeing connected with the dynamometer through a system of levers and the hollowspring gage connected with the fluid chamber of the dynamometer by ahigh-pressure flexible tube. The dynamometer head is hung from the beam with anordinary hanger and lugs on the cylinder, while the piston is attached to thepolished rod. The movable card holder actuated through levers moves in avertical direction proportionate to the movement of the polished rod. Therecording arm of the hollow spring gage inscribes on the card the pressure atall times. Thus by proper scales, the indicator card gives the load on thepolished rod at all points in the pumping cycle. Fig. 1 shows the hookup of therecording dynamometer at a pumping well.
Repressuring During Early Stages of Development
Authors: Beecher C.E. 
Published: June 2014

The application of gas or air under pressure to obtain more oil from a sandwhich has been practically exhausted by ordinary production methods has beenpracticed to a limited extent for many years. Until recently such methods wereconfined to the Eastern fields, principally those of Ohio and West Virginia, where in many cases the production obtained after applying pressure for a fewyears was nearly equal to the total production prior to that time which hadbeen obtained by the usual production methods. As early as 1917, J.O. Lewiscalled attention to this method of increasing the recovery of oil and cited thephenomenal results obtained by H. E. Smith, I. L. Dunn and O. C. Dunn, whopioneered the application of air or gas pressure recovery methods. With thisinformation available it would appear that other oil-producing sections of thecountry have been extremely slow to realize the advantages of repressuring.However, after a few successful projects in the Mid-Continent area, the oilproducers appreciated the value of this method for obtaining further andprofitable production from their practically exhausted leases and are nowmaking extensive use of it.
In general, it has been the practice to apply pressure to the sands whenproduction has declined to a small yield per well. The purpose of this paper isto discuss some of the advantages which may be expected from returning gasunder pressure to the oil sands during the early stages of development, beforethe rock pressure has been dissipated and the gas exhausted, and to stimulatediscussion of this subject on which comparatively little actual field data areavailable.

The Function of Gas
Gas associated with or dissolved in the oil is the source of energy causingmovement of the oil to the well. When this energy is dissipated productionceases.
Effect on Producing Wells of Shutting in the Offset Wells
Authors: Nickerson C.M. 
Published: June 2014

In times of overproduction such as the operators have been strugglingagainst for the past several years it is the practice of the oil industry toshut in certain wells in order to reduce the flood of oil. The purpose of thispaper is to present certain variations in production of oil wells when theoffset wells are shut in. The scope of the study has been confined toCalifornia fields, and more especially to those of the San Joaquin Valley.
The accepted definition of a shut-in well is a well where production hasbeen suspended by closing in the casinghead and tubing or by cessation of pumping. The immediate effect of such a procedure, of course, is to reduce theoil production from the lease, which is the result desired. However, it appearsthat certain types of wells vary widely in production of oil, gas and gasolineafter adjacent wells have been shut in, which variation has a very materialeffect on the ultimate recovery of oil from the property. The increase ordecrease in the oil production itself may not be of sufficient volume to occasion comment, but wide fluctuations in the gas and gasoline recovery underthe changed conditions are of the utmost importance in the future recovery of oil.
The scope of this paper includes:the effect on producing oil wells ofshutting in offset wells, the wells being studied in three groups arrangedaccording to their relative stages of depletion;probable source of excessgas and the effect on the ultimate recovery of oil;suggested procedurewhen wells are shut in;methods that could be employed to prevent unduemigration of gas from the shut-in area; andthe need for future studies ofthe situation.

Three Classes of Producing Oil Wells
For the purposes of this paper producing wells in California have beenarranged in three groups according to the age of the well, or to the relativestage of depletion of the producing zones. The first group consists of thosewells with a high fluid level, or in other words those wells whose fluid levelsare a considerable distance above the top of the perforations.
Unit Operations in Eastern United States and in Foreign Countries
Authors: Hill H.H. , Estabrook E.L. 
Published: June 2014

This report summarizes the information that was obtained by the Committee onUnit Operation in Eastern United States and in the foreign countries.
Letters and questionnaires were sent to all of the Eastern members of thePetroleum Division of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers and to those who are living outside of the United States, asking themto advise the Committee of any unit operations that are in effect in thevarious countries of the world and to furnish the names of men to whominquiries should be directed for detailed information on the differentprojects. The response to the Committee's request is worthy of note.Practically all of the members who had knowledge of foreign operations repliedto the questionnaire and not only furnished information that was of value tothe Committee, but they evidenced a real interest in the subject of unitoperations and assured the Committee of their willingness to assist in every---way possible in order to make the study a success. The Committee wishes, atthis time, to express its appreciation of the excellent cooperation that wasreceived from the members of the A. I. M. E. to whom questionnaires weresent.
Unfortunately, the limited time that has been given to this survey did notpermit the collection of detailed data on the different unit operations thatare now in effect. It required several weeks to get back replies from the members located in some of the foreign countries and as a result the men who were asked to furnish information on the various projectshave not had sufficient time to submit the detailed data that were requested.The Committee has been assured, however, that information relating to a numberof unit operations will be furnished in the near future.
Part of the delay has been due to the fact that the purpose of the study wasnot understood and because the terms "unit" and "near-unit"operations were not clearly defined.
Unitized Operations in Oklahoma and Kansas
Authors: Ambrose A.W. , Beecher C.E. 
Published: June 2014

It is the purpose of this paper to summarize data on unitization projects inOklahoma and Kansas as obtained from replies to questionnaires sent out by theA. I. M. E. committee for these states. The information received indicates thatunitization is growing rapidly in this area, but has not been in operation fora sufficient length of time to develop production history. It was impossible toobtain a record of all unitization projects in the time available. Themagnitude of such projects is indicated by the fact that reports were receivedcovering a total of 171,420 acres in Kansas and 49,350 acres in Oklahoma. Mostof these units have been formed during the past 2 years, the greater numberhaving been completed in 1929. It is anticipated that even more will be formedduring the present year.
The following important facts have been emphasized by answers to thequestionnaire and discussion with various operators:Unitization is growing rapidly, as evidenced by the number of units and thelarge total acreage now included in units as compared with practically noacreage 2 years ago.Operators are convinced that unitization is reducing development andoperating cost and they anticipate greater reductions as experience is gainedin unit operation.Producing units have not been in operation for a sufficient length of timeto give significant production history from which to estimate the ultimaterecovery of oil, but the general opinion seems to be that more oil will berecovered.In view of the benefits to be derived from unitization, many operators arerefusing to carry on wildcat operations unless a unit has been formed. If thisattitude continues to grow there will be no large pools developed in Oklahomaand Kansas in the future except under unit control.

Summary
The following tabulation gives a condensed summary of the information receivedon unit operations in Oklahoma and Kansas, but does not include all units, because many were not reported.
Unit Operation and Unitization in Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and New Mexico
Authors: Lahee F.H. 
Published: June 2014

Questionnaires and special letters soliciting information were sent to agreat many geologists, petroleum engineers, independent operators, andrepresentatives of large companies in Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and NewMexico. Replies to more than 50 percent of these letters were received. Asurvey of the facts and opinions presented in this correspondence will be madea little later, but first some of the general aspects of the problem will bereviewed.
By "unit operation," we mean the development and operation of a singleentire pool, or reservoir, of petroleum by one management, on a systematic andscientific plan which is best calculated ultimately to extract from the paysand and bring to the surface of the ground the largest possible amount of oilwith the greatest possible total profit.
No one, as far as the author has been able to ascertain, denies the advantages, both scientific and practical, of unit operation. All are agreed that it issound in theory. It permits the proper distribution of wells, which shouldalways be spaced on the ground according to a regular geometric plan with theintention of maintaining the same spacing all the way down and into the paysand, or pay sands. This spacing will be different for different fields, depending on such variable factors as the lithologic character of the payformation, the nature of the controlling structure, the depth of drilling, theviscosity of the oil, and so on. From the viewpoint of engineering practice, asapplied to economical extraction of oil,! there is no more importantconsideration than well spacing-well spacing in the pay formation, and notmerely on the surface 'of the ground -for the method of well spacing has adirect bearing upon all such engineering practices as pressure control, repressuring by gas, the water drive, and so on.
Equilateral Triangular System of Well Spacing
Authors: Corbett C.S. 
Published: June 2014

Early in the development of every oil field, the operators of relativelylarge tracts of land must decide upon a spacing plan for the wells to bedrilled upon their respective tracts. Usually it is desirable to have a systemof regular spacing laid out over the entire tract, making such adjustments asmay be necessary near land boundaries.
Unless the dip of the producing formation is very steep, the equilateraltriangular arrangement is the one most generally preferred, for the very goodreason that it gives the maximum amount of drainage area for the wells up tothe limit at which mutual drainage interference begins.
Assuming that the equilateral triangular pattern is to be used, there stillremains to be decided the matter of distance between wells. Many variablefactors enter into the problem of proper spacing, some of which are physicaland some economic. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss thesefactors, as that has been done in several comprehensive articles during thepast few years. In the end the decision must be based upon an estimate of therelative importance of various factors which apply to the field in question andto economic conditions in the oil industry at the time the development isgetting under way. Even if the best possible spacing distance should be chosenwhen the problem arises, changing economic conditions and variation in physicalconditions in different parts of the field may cause the original choice tobecome more or less unsatisfactory.
Obviously, it is advantageous, once a spacing plan has been adopted, to avoidalteration of it as the field becomes better known or as conditions in theindustry change, and yet be able to vary somewhat the acreage per well inextending the area of development. Or, it may be desired to provide for anultimate spacing considerably closer than conditions seem to warrant early inthe development of the field. With these contingencies in mind, it is ofinterest to examine the possibilities which the equilateral triangular systemaffords.
Orientation Of Coordinate System
In this system the well locations may be considered as the inersectionst ofthree sets of coordinate lines, the lines of each set intersecting those of theother two sets at 60?.