bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
XIII.—On certain Salts and Products of Decomposition of Comenic Acid
Authors: How Henry 
Published: January 2013

The study of the organic acids appears scarcely to have advanced of late years pari passu with the other branches of organic chemistry. It seems, indeed, as if the development of each of the different departments of the science had been, to a certain extent, periodical; each engrossing the labours of investigators to the temporary exclusion of the others, themselves to be renewed when some new experiments should reawaken an interest in them.However this may be, the subject of the natural and artificial bases has proved so productive of interesting results as to have recently become the chosen and almost exclusive field of inquiry, notwithstanding several investigations which have thrown much light on one class of organic acids, namely, that represented by the general formula Cn Hn O4. With the exception of this section, the history of the organic acids remains very imperfect, and in many cases we have but a meagre account of a few of their salts.
II.—A Fundamental Theorem regarding the Equivalence of Systems of Ordinary Linear Differential Equations, and its Application to the Determination of the Order and the Systematic Solution of a Determinate System of such Equations
Authors: Chrystal George 
Published: January 2013

Systems of ordinary linear differential equations are of great importance, both from a practical and from a theoretical point of view. They figure largely in dynamical problems; and Jacobi has shown that the general problem of determining the order of any system of ordinary differential equations whatever can be reduced to the problem of determining the order of a linear system with constant coefficients. Nevertheless, the present state of the theory of such a system still leaves something to be desired. It is true that a logical and systematic process for the solution was given by Cauchy. This consists in first replacing the system by another in which only first differential coefficients occur, by introducing as auxiliary variables the successive differential coefficients of the various dependent variables up to the highest but one, and then reducing this system to the “normal form” by calculating the differential coefficients as linear functions of the dependent variables. It happens, however, when we attempt to do this, that we are led to a system consisting partly of differential equations of the formwhere fr, denotes a linear function of x1, …., xs, partly of a number of non-differential equations connecting the remainder of the variables with x1, …., xs. The order of the system—that is to say, the number of independent arbitrary constants required for its complete solution—is the number of differential equations in the normal form; but no rule is readily deducible from the method for determining beforehand how many of the equations in the normal system will be differential equations, so that we cannot predict the order of the system without actually going through the labour of reduction. Moreover, the normal form is in practice often not the most convenient for the purposes of solution.
VI.—Experiments on the Transverse Effect and on some Related Actions in Bismuth
Authors: Beattie J. C. 
Published: January 2013

Clerk Maxwell, in his Electricity and Magnetism, vol. i. § 304, makes the following remark about the rotatory coefficient:—“It should be found, if anywhere, in magnets which have a polarisation in one direction, probably due to a rotational phenomenon in the substance.”The current which should arise from such a coefficient was first observed by Hall. He passed a current through a strip of metal; he then found two points on opposite sides of the strip, which, while the current was flowing, were at the same potential, and which therefore indicated no current when joined to a galvanometer. The plate was next brought into a uniform magnetic field, and when everything was steady the two points previously at the same potential were no longer so, and a current flowed through the galvanometer. This effect is observable in all conductors.
XV.—The Temperature Variation of the Magnetic Permeability of Magnetite
Authors: Barton Edwin H. 
Published: January 2013

1. Relation to Magnetic Survey.—After being engaged for sometime, in conjunction with Professor Thorpe, upon the Magnetic Survey of the United Kingdom, Professor A. W. Rücker, F.R.S., put forward his theory of Terrestrial Magnetism.In connection with this theory, it was desirable to determine the permeabilities of various rocks, both at ordinary and at high temperatures.2. The investigation which forms the subject of the present paper is an instalment in this direction. Professor Rücker proposed this undertaking and indicated the plan to be followed. It was then carried out under his supervision at the Royal College of Science, London.
XXV.—On Meconic Acid, and some of its Derivatives
Authors: How Henry 
Published: January 2013

In a paper on Comenic Acid, read before this Society in April of last year, and since honoured with a place in its Transactions, I mentioned my being engaged in an investigation on Meconic Acid; the details of the experiments referred to form the matter of the present communication.My object in undertaking this subject was to ascertain if products corresponding to those described as derived from comenic acid were formed under similar circumstances in the case of meconic acid. I also thought it probable, that as the former is itself a derivative of the latter, the changes undergone by meconic acid in some reactions, would be found to result in substances apparently the immediate derivatives of comenic acid. This remark refers to the action of heat on meconate of ammonia; and it will be seen that the expectation was realised. A similar result was found in other instances, where it had not been anticipated.
XXVIII.—On the Computation of the Specific Heat of Liquid Water at various Temperatures, from the Experiments of M. Regnault
Authors: Rankine William John Macquorn 
Published: January 2013

Correction of M. Regnault's Experiments for the Effect of Agitation.The discovery by Mr Joule of the fact, that mechanical power expended in the agitation of liquids is converted into heat as the visible agitation subsides, renders a certain correction necessary in calculating the results of experiments on specific heat in which such agitation has occurred.Of this kind are the experiments of M. Regnault on the apparent specific heat of liquid water at different temperatures. Water at a high temperature, T3, was emitted from a boiler into a calorimeter containing water at a low temperature, Tl, and the resulting intermediate temperature of the whole mass, T2, was used as the means of calculating the ratio of the mean specific heat of water between T3 and T2, to its mean specific heat between T2 and T1. Now, the upper part of the boiler contained steam at a high pressure, so that the hot water was expelled with great force.
XXXVII.—On the Optical Phenomena and Crystallisation of Tourmaline, Titanium, and Quartz, within Mica, Amethyst, and Topaz
Authors: Brewster David 
Published: January 2013

The existence of certain minerals imbedded in others,—the optical phenomena which they exhibit,—their form and mode of distribution, and the mechanical influence which has been exerted during their formation on the mineral that contains them, are among the most curious and instructive facts in physical science.The dissemination of perfectly-formed crystals of titanium, both in the form of titanite and anatase, in Brazilian crystals of quartz, is a fact so well known that I shall take no farther notice of it, but shall proceed to give an account of a series of facts of a much more general and interesting character, which I have had occasion to observe, during an extensive examination of minerals, undertaken with a different object.
XXXVIII.—On the Production of Crystalline Structure in Crystallised Powders, by Compression and Traction
Authors: Brewster David 
Published: January 2013

The influence of compression and dilatation in producing the doubly refracting structure in solids of all kinds, whether crystallised or uncrystallised, which do not possess it, and in modifying that structure in all crystals which do possess it, has been long known; but with this class of phenomena, those which I am about to describe have no connection whatever.In the course of experiments on the double reflexion and polarisation of light which I discovered in the chrysammates of potash and magnesia, murexide, and other crystals, I was surprised to find that these substances could be spread out upon glass by hard pressure, like grease or soft wax, and that in the case of chrysammate of potash and other bodies, when the powder could scarcely be distinguished from snuff, I obtained a transparent film, exhibiting the phenomena of double reflexion and polarisation from its surface, as perfectly as if I had been using a large crystal.
XIII.—The General Form of the Involutive 1-1 Quadric Transformation in a Plane
Authors: Tweedie Charles 
Published: January 2013

§ 1. In a communication read before the Society, 3rd December 1900, Dr Muir discusses the generalisation, for more than two pairs of variables, of the proposition that: IfthenIf we interpret (x, y) and (ξ, η) iis points in a plane, it is manifest that the transformation thereby obtained is a Cremona transformation. It has the special property of being reciprocal or involutive in character; i.e., if the point P is transformed into Q, then the repetition of the same transformation on Q transforms Q into P. Symbolically, if the transformation is denoted by T. T(P) = Q, and T(Q) = T2(P) = P; so that T2 = 1, and T = T−1. Moreover, if the locus of P (x, y) is a straight line, the locus of Q (ξ, η) is in general a conic.
XI.—The Histology of the Blood of the Larva of Lepidosiren paradoxa. Part I. Structure of the Resting and Dividing Corpuscles
Authors: Bryce Thomas H. 
Published: January 2013

The material for the observations recorded in this paper has been kindly lent to me by Mr Graham Kerr, Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. It consisted of some of his beautiful series of cut embryos, and of some freshly-sectioned material which I stained specially for the purposes of the research.The blood corpuscles of the embryo Lepidosiren are exceptionally favourable objects for the study not only of the morphology of the blood, but also of cell structure. The karyokinesis in the red corpuscles presents features of considerable interest—and the phenomena are presented to the observer on such a scale as to render them almost diagrammatic.In the present paper I shall deal with the structure of the corpuscles and the mitotic phases in the erythrocytes, reserving for a future communication the results of studies on the origin and histogenesis of the elements.
XVI.—The Eliminant of a Set of General Ternary Quadrics.—(Part III.)
Authors: Muir Thomas 
Published: January 2013

(41) The invariance of the equationswith regard to the group of cyclical substitutions,and the consequent invariance of the eliminant with regard to the reduced group consisting of the last two substitutions, has been already referred to. When the eliminant is expressed in terms of the three-line determinants formable from the array of coefficients, the invariance in question is self-evident, as each of the twenty-eight parts composing the expression is invariant by itself. For convenience this form may be repeated from § 31 with a slightly improved notation.
XXII.—Vanishing Aggregates of Secondary Minors of a Persymmetric Determinant
Authors: Muir Thomas 
Published: January 2013

(1) The persymmetric determinant of the nth orderbeing such that in every case the element in the place r, s is the same as the element in the place r − 1, s + 1, and therefore having only 2n − 1 independent elements, viz., the elements a1, a2, …., a2n−1 forming the first row and last column, is conveniently denoted byAs it is a special form of axisymmetric determinant, any known relation between minors of the latter must of course hold in regard to the corresponding minors of the former.
XXIII.—The Development of the Müllerian Ducts of Reptiles
Authors: Wilson Gregg 
Published: January 2013

We have already accounts of the development of the Müllerian ducts of reptiles from Braun (1), Mihalkovics (2), Hoffmann (3), and Wiedersheim (4). All of these writers agree in saying that the Müllerian ducts arise quite independently of the segmental ducts; but in view of recent attempts to show that in the other groups of vertebrates there are forms in which the Müllerian ducts are derived from the segmental ducts, it seemed expedient to reconsider this conclusion, and I have accordingly examined the development of the ducts in Crocodilus biporcatus, Chelone viridis, and Lacerta agilis.As regards the derivation of the Müllerian ducts from cœlomic epithelium, I can only confirm the above-mentioned authorities; but I am able to supplement what they say as to the first foundation and the formation of the anterior end. I find that the anterior end is formed in reptiles, very much as in amphibians, by a modification of the cœlomic epithelium in the region of the pronephros. Backward growth proceeds independently alike of the segmental duct and of the epithelium of the body-cavity posterior to the ostium abdominale.
XXX.—Non-Alternate ± Knots
Authors: Little C. N. 
Published: January 2013

1. The following paper is a contribution to the theory of non-alternate ± knots, together with a census of these knots for Order Ten; that is, all the knots are given which have in reduced form just ten crossings, and in which the thread does not proceed alternately over and under.The census was begun in the fall of '93, and carried so far that the forms were drawn. The matter was then laid aside and taken up anew in the spring of '99.2. Having postulated an endless one-dimensional continuum which may change its length and form in any way, subject only to the condition that it can never have a double point, and consequently no one portion can be made to break through another, I understand by a knot a continuum which can not be brought to a circular form.
XI.—On the Practical Application of Reciprocal Figures to the Calculation of Strains on Framework
Authors: Jenkin Fleeming 
Published: January 2013

The theory of reciprocal figures used as diagrams of forces was first completely stated by Professor T. Clerk Maxwell, in a paper published in the “Philosophical Magazine,” April 1864. The following definition of reciprocal plane figures, and their application to statics, are there given as follows:—“Two plane figures are reciprocal when they consist of an equal number of lines, so that corresponding lines in the two figures are parallel, and corresponding lines which converge to a point in one figure form a closed polygon in the other.”“If forces represented in magnitude by two lines of a figure be made to act between the extremities of the corresponding lines of the reciprocal figure, then the points of the reciprocal figure will all be in equilibrium under the action of these forces.”The demonstration of this statement is given. The conditions under which stresses are determinate, and some examples of reciprocal figures, are also given in the paper, which leaves nothing to be desired by the mathematician.
XVI.—On the Fossil Osmundaceæ
Authors: Kidston R. , Gwynne-Vaughan D. T. 
Published: January 2013

The present part of this memoir contains descriptions of four additional specimens of Osmundites which have been obtained from various sources.We are indebted to Dr G. Nathorst for the material of Osmundites spetsbergensis, Nathorst MS., which was first collected by Dr G. Nordenskiöld on the Spitzbergen Expedition of 1890 at Nordenskiöldsberg, and subsequently by Dr B. Högbom in 1910 at Van-Mijensberg, Spitzbergen.Our thanks are also due to Dr A. Rothpletz, Director of the Geologisch-palaeontologische Staatssammlung, München, for kindly placing in our hands the type specimen of Osmundites Carnieri, Schuster, for investigation and redescription.
II.—On the Transformation of Laplace's Coefficients
Authors: Plarr Gustave 
Published: January 2013

The development of the inverse square rootinto a seriesgives rise to the coefficients Zn, which have been called “Laplace's Coefficients” If in Zn we substitute for z the expressionwherethen the function of ψ, which Zn will represent, can most appropriately be expressed byThe object of this paper is to show, by actual calculation, that the coefficients Ns, (functions of x, x′, y, y′) can be worked out by elementary algebraical processes, the only auxiliary taken from higher analysis being the expression of the powers of cos ψ in function of the cosines of the multiples of ψ.As to our notations, we shall observe throughout the following restrictions:—1. The function Π(x) shall not be employed otherwise than for integer positive values of x, so that2. The factorialwill be made use of for integer values only of r (as, for example, r = + 1, or r = − 1, or r = + 2, &c., the exponent t being integer positive.
IV.—Adamantios Koraes, and his Reformation of the Greek Language
Authors: Blackie  
Published: January 2013

The appearance of a learned and exhaustive work on the life and labours of Koraes, by a native Greek of great ability, naturally invites the scholars of Western Europe to a grateful acknowledgment of the obligation of the Greek language to this most distinguished of its modern exponents. The fact, indeed, that Greek in this country is popularly talked of as a dead language, and as such taught from books through the eye and the understanding, rather than by living converse with those who speak it, may serve as an apology for the general ignorance that prevails, even in professional circles, with regard to the scholarly achievements of this remarkable man; but the appearance of works of such mark in the living literature of Greece as those of Thereianos, Paspates, Bikellas, Polylas, and others, warns us that it is high time to take note of living Greece as living Greece again, and give to the learned Grecians of the present day their proper share in that homage which we pay so liberally to the great masters of Greek wisdom in the past.Adamantios Koraes was born at Smyrna in 1748, the son of a Chiote merchant who had removed from the island to the great centre of commerce on the Continent. As a boy young Koraes was remarkable for his love of learning and his hatred of the Turks as the enslavers and debasers of his people; and having inherited a valuable library from one of his maternal relatives, he found it necessary to acquire the Latin language, in which all the famous commentaries on the great Greek classics had been composed.
VI.—The Solar Spectrum at Medium and Low Altitudes. Observations of the Region between Wave-Lengths 6024 and 4861 Å.U., made at Lord Crawford's Observatory, Dun Echt, during the Years 1887 to 1889
Authors: Becker Ludwig 
Published: January 2013

At the end of 1886 a method occurred to me of rapidly recording the positions of the lines of the solar spectrum, which I thought might be used with advantage for determining the faint “Telluric dry-gas lines” near D, mentioned in Professor Piazzi Smyth's maps of The Visual Solar Spectrum in 1884. The fundamental idea of the recording apparatus is that of magnifying by some mechanical means the motion of the grating, or prism, to such an extent that it can be recorded on a continuous fillet of paper. The viewing telescope being then firmly clamped, the exact positions of the grating can be pricked off on the strip of paper as the lines are successively brought to the fixed cross in the field of view.For the satisfactory use of the method two conditions suggest themselves as desirable. First, the punctures should not be less than a good-sized pin hole, and the interval between the closest lines, which the spectroscope is able to separate, should be represented on the paper strip by a space of several tenths of an inch.
XII.—Professor Kelland's Problem on Superposition
Authors: Brodie Robert 
Published: January 2013

From a given square one quarter is cut off; to divide the remaining gnomon into four such parts that they shall be capable of forming a square.[See Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxi. 271.]Preliminary problem, viz.: To cut a rectangle into three parts capable of forming a square (Figs. 1, 2).Lay off AX and CY = side of square, join BX, draw YZ ∥ AB, and 1, 2 and 3 will be the required pieces, as is evident.The problem will be impossible when the length of the rectangle is greater than four times its breadth; four or more pieces may then be required. The problem can be solved in four different ways by drawing the sloping line BX from each of the four angles.The above is a particular case of the more general problem, viz., to cut a rectangle or a parallelogram into three pieces so as to form another with a given side, as AB (Figs. 3, 4).In the gnomon (Figs. 5,6), suppose the square EC placed below in the position BK, then the rectangle AK is formed, and can be divided into three pieces by FX and YZ, so as to form a square as before.
XVI.—Strophanthus hispidus: its Natural History, Chemistry, and Pharmacology
Authors: Fraser Thomas R. 
Published: January 2013

In former papers on the pharmacological action of Strophanthus, dating from 1869, I selected for description, from the considerable number of experiments that had been made, merely those experiments which sufficed to illustrate the general features of the action, and especially such effects as seemed likely to form a basis for the application of Strophanthus to the treatment of disease.I had intended to have followed, at no distant date, these preliminary and somewhat fragmentary notices by a more complete description of the pharmacological action, for which, indeed, nearly all the required experimental data had several years ago been obtained; but unavoidable circumstances prevented this intention from being fulfilled. In this part of the present paper the fuller description will be given; and if any excuse were required for doing so, it may perhaps be found in the circumstance that the anticipation of the therapeutic value of Strophanthus has been amply confirmed by the important position now occupied by it as a therapeutic agent.
Section I.—Introduction.
Authors: Buchanan J. Y. 
Published: January 2013

The Principles of Archimedes*—It is well known that the mechanics of floating bodies, and the laws which govern their equilibrium, were established and enunciated by Archimedes, the Sicilian, in the third century before our era. The following propositions, demonstrated in the first book of his treatise on this subject, embody the fundamental principles of the hydrometer :—(a) The surface of any fluid at rest is the surface of a sphere whose centre is the same as that of the earth.(b) Of solids, those which, size for size, are of equal weight with a fluid will, if let down into the fluid, be immersed so that they do not project above the surface, but do not sink lower.
Section III.—Determination of the Specific Gravity of a Saline Solution
Authors: Buchanan J. Y. 
Published: January 2013

When determining the specific gravity of a saline solution by the hydrometric method, it is necessary first to find the weight which must be added to the hydrometer to immerse it to the 50-mm. mark when floating in the saline solution at the chosen standard temperature. This added weight is found by a series of observations in exactly the same manner as with the hydrometer in distilled water (see § 14 et seq.).The details of three series of observations with hydrometer No. 17 in a solution of ⅛ gram-molecule of cæsium chloride in 1000 grams of water at 19·50° are given as an example in Table C. This table is arranged in the same manner as Table A1.