bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Equites, republic and empire
Authors: Owens E. J. , Hirt Alfred M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe wordEques(pl.Equites) is related to the Latin for horse (equus)and means horseman. Hence the termEquitesis often misleadingly translated as “knights.” Traditionally, the origins of theEquiteslay in the military organization of early Rome. During the republican period, they evolved into a wealthy, socially eminent class, which exploited the business interests of the expanding Roman Empire, and a political pressure group. Augustus reformed theEquites(Ordo Equester) and began to use them as a second tier of administration in the running of Rome and the empire. Progressively their imperial responsibilities grew at the expense of the Senate, until by the reign of Diocletian they were appointed to all senior administrative and military positions in the empire. Subsequently, social and administrative developments degraded the order, and they disappeared as a distinct social class by the end of the fourth centuryCE.
Gallic War (
Bellum Gallicum
)
Authors: Nice Alex 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Caesar's
Gallic War (Bellum Gallicum)
is an autobiographical, third person, narrative of Julius Caesar's campaigns in Gaul and Germany, written between 58 and 50
BCE
. Seven books recount his actions from 58 to 52. An additional book by Caesar's legate, Aulus Hirtius (cos. 43), relates events from 51 and 50.
The Gallic War
offers an unparalleled opportunity to explore the linguistic, rhetorical, and historical processes of one of Rome's most dynamic politicians and outstanding intellectuals.
Brutus, Marcus Iunius
Authors: Mahy Trevor Bryan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Marcus Iunius Brutus (ca. 85–42
BCE
) is most famous for his role, along with C. Cassius Longinus, as one of the leaders of the conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar, an act that was accomplished during a Senate meeting in the
Curia Pompeia
on the Ides of March 44.
Aedui
Authors: Thorne James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Aedui were arguably the most powerful people of Gaul at the end of its independence, and most prominent until the end of the empire. This was chiefly due to their situation at a premier communication node in western Europe (the watershed of the Seine, Loire, and Rhône/Saône/Doubs basins), and their early alliance with Rome (no later than the First Transalpine War, 125–121
BCE
).
Ammisaduqa, Venus Tablet of
Authors: Loisel Anne‐Caroline Rendu 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe so‐calledVenus Tablet of Ammisaduqais the sixty‐third Tablet of the Astronomical omen series Enuma Anu Enlil. The tablet records the heliacal risings and settings of the planet Venus (Ninsianna) for a period of twenty‐one years.
Botany
Authors: Hardy F.G. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

It is generally accepted that the title “Father of Botany” be accorded to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresos (370–287
BCE
): this is not, however, to say that there was no interest in or knowledge of plants before this, nor is it to deny that, at the same time, the discipline of botany was developing in parallel in china.
Contagion
Authors: Craik E. M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

It is difficult to dissociate the medical concept of contagion from religious and popular notions: the Greek term
miasma
“pollution” has a wide semantic range. The Homeric
Iliad
begins with the tale of a plague affecting the Greek army at Troy; this is a matter for the gods. Sophocles'
Oedipus Tyrannus
begins with a description of a devastating plague at Thebes; here too divine displeasure operates. According to Thucydides, religious and medical expedients alike were invoked against the great Plague at Athens (430/429
BCE
). There are traces of religious scruples and popular superstition in the medical works also. It is remarkable that temple and secular medicine coexisted at Kos, Epidauros, and (later) Pergamon.
Crito, Statilius
Authors: Petit Caroline 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTitus Statilius Crito was the chief physician (archiatros) to the emperor Trajan. He is frequently mentioned and quoted by Galen, who holds him in high esteem, especially in his worksOn compound drugs according to places, andOn compound drugs according to kinds; Crito authored four books on cosmetic remedies (kosmetika), of which Galen provides a quasi‐full table of contents (K. XII, 446–9). According to Galen, Crito compiled virtually all known cosmetic recipes to his time (446). Galen explains, however, that for shame he will simply not report all of the cosmetic remedies that do not fit with medicine, especially the means to preserve the youthful appearance of young virgins and boys, and that have nothing to do with natural beauty (by contrast with artificial beauty). For those matters, Galen refers the readers to Crito's treatise, which is now lost.
Form
Authors: Zeyl Donald J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The concept of
form
is central to the philosophies of Plato (427–347
BCE
) and Aristotle (384–322) and their followers. Both philosophers utilized this concept in explaining what it is for spatio–temporal particulars to possess the properties they do, i.e., what is the ontological backing for the predications we make. It is widely known that Plato proposes a “theory of forms” and that Aristotle is sharply critical of that theory. However, Aristotle's criticisms should not be understood as a repudiation of any theory of forms but as an insistence on a radical revision of the Platonic theory.
Illustration, scientific
Authors: Touwaide Alain 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIllustrations appear in the manuscripts containing texts of astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics (including pneumatics), medicine (including orthopedics, bandages, and toxicology),materia medica(mainly plants and animals), veterinary medicine (hippiatrica) botany, zoology (including cynegetic), ichthyology, and possibly also physiognomy.
Meton of Athens
Authors: Bowen Alan C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Meton was a Greek intellectual satirized in 414
BCE
by Aristophanes as a surveyor armed with compass and rulers (bent and straight), and aiming to measure the air out into lots by squaring a circle, at the center of which he proposes to put an
agora
from which the streets would radiate like light from a star.
Nikomedes, mathematician
Authors: Jones Alexander 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Nikomedes, a geometer who appears to have been active about 200
BCE
(and certainly not earlier than Eratosthenes), was the discoverer of a family of four curved lines useful for solving certain problems such as the trisection of a given angle that could not be effected using the postulates of Euclid's
Elements
, which limited the resources of plane geometry to straight lines and circles.
Papyri, mathematical
Authors: Imhausen Annette 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Mathematical papyri are our main source of knowledge for ancient Egyptian mathematics. Only a few chance finds are extant, probably because the ancient Egyptian writing material, papyrus, only survived in conditions without humidity (i.e., locations in the desert, e.g., temples and tombs), and because mathematics, as a practical everyday matter, was rarely relevant in a temple or tomb setting.
Paulus of Alexandria
Authors: Greenbaum Dorian Gieseler 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe fourth centuryCEastrologer Paulus of Alexandria wrote anIntroduction to Astrology(Eisagogika) in 378 (Boer 1958: ch. 20). We know little about Paulus' life apart from his provenance (Gundel 1949: 2376–7) and the dedication of his book to his son Kronamon.
Physiognomy
Authors: Favreau Anne‐Marie 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPhysiognomy is the study of the bodily features of an individual in order to find out his inner character. It became popular in modern Europe with the Swiss Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741–1801), but the interest in the relations between physical appearance and moral character dates back to Antiquity. The Mesopotamians had already codified their observations for the use of predictions. Physiognomy further enjoyed a great development in the Greek and Roman worlds where technical handbooks were written on the subject.
Regimen
Authors: Hulskamp M. A. A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract(Gr.diaita; Lat.victus“lifestyle.”) According to Celsus, dietetics – the adjustment of a patient'sregimen, or lifestyle, to preserve or restore health – was one of the three branches into which medicine became divided after the time of Hippocrates (Cels.De Med. Prooem.9), and it permeated every aspect of life: diet, exercise, sexual activity, mental activity, and even what to wear (Hip.Epid.6.8.23).
Surgery, Greek and Roman
Authors: Bliquez Lawrence J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDescriptions of surgical procedures first occur in the Hippocratic works of the later fifth and the fourth centuriesBCE. Many of these operations were practiced for a long time before they were actually recorded. Depiction of bleeding cups on a grave monument of the early fifth centuryBCEand the recovery of contemporary cups matching the depiction are material evidence for at least this intervention, well before its attestation in Hippocratic literature. Herodotus' account of the renowned Demokedes of Kroton (3.131), said to have practiced without any tools at all, shows indirectly that physicians were expected to be equipped with an instrumentarium by the last quarter of the sixth century.
Zosimus, alchemist
Authors: Mertens Michèle 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Born in Panopolis (present‐day Akhmim) in Upper Egypt, Zosimus (
fl
. ca. 300 Suda) appears to be the foremost figure of Greco‐Egyptian alchemy, to which he added a deep mystical dimension. Towards the end of the third century and the beginning of the fourth, he wrote a substantial work in Greek, of which only tiny portions have survived.
Augusti liberti
Authors: Liu Jinyu 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheAugusti liberti, or the freedmen of the emperor(s), belonged to the imperial household and constituted an elite group among the population of servile origins in Roman society. The imperialpraenomen, nomen gentilicium, andAug.lib. in the nomenclature of the imperial freedmen marked their status. Along with the literary evidence, thousands of inscriptions attest to the wide range of occupations and offices filled by theAugusti liberti, as well as their upward social mobility and influence both at Rome and in the provinces.
Baths, bathing
Authors: Fagan Garrett G. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractEvidence for organized bathing in the ancient Mediterranean–as opposed to bathing in natural bodies of water–comes from the Bronze Age. Homer's heroes bathe in tubs of hot water (e.g.,Od. 4.128–89, 8.449–51, 10.358–63) and terracotta bathing tubs are known from Pylos, Knossos, and Akrotiri (among others).
Birthday
Authors: Salzman Michele Renee 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In the Greek world, the birthdays (
genethlioshemera
) of important Olympian gods were celebrated on certain days of the month; so, for example, the seventh day of the new lunar cycle, when the moon was half full, was sacred to Apollo, whose festivals ordinarily were celebrated then, and whose birthday was supposed to be, in the Attic and Ionian calendars, on day 7 of the month Thargelion.
Councils, city
Authors: Meier Mischa 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe administration of theImperium Romanumwas, on the one hand, based on the provincial system with its provincial governors, but, on the other hand, on a wide network of self‐administered cities (civitates,poleis; the Roman equivalents:municipium,colonia), whose elites were important intermediaries between empire and the population of the provinces. The organization of the cities followed Hellenistic administration practices in many cases (leitourgiai,euergesiai), but was unified by following the example of Rome and Roman legislation. The finer points of this administrative pattern were mostly regulated byleges municipales. Essentially, the principle of far‐reaching autonomy was valid, insofar as the cities were able to maintain it by themselves and their policies did not come into conflict with the interests of the empire.
Decurions
Authors: Fernández Damián 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDecurions (decurionesorcuriales) were the members of local assemblies (ordo decurionumorcuria) who ruled the cities of the Roman Empire with municipal status. Membership into theordowas regularly decided by local magistrates, taking into account various, albeit vaguely defined, criteria, such as wealth, reputation, service, and ancestry. In practice, it was an almost hereditary position within the most prominent local families, although access to the order was never completely closed to new families. Whereas freedmen were forbidden from joining the ranks of the decurions, their descendents could eventually be admitted to theordo.
Depopulation
Authors: Hin Saskia 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Ancient authors regularly refer to the phenomenon of depopulation, or population decline, in the ancient world. These authors place particular emphasis on changes in fertility behavior as a causal factor. Avoidance of marriage and childbearing for selfish reasons explained depopulation in Greece, according to Polybius (36.17.5f.). Depopulation in the Roman Empire motivated Augustus to introduce a number of legal reforms relating to marriage (
see
Marriage Legislation of Augustus). Although a strand of scholarship has taken these references as accurate, and ancient concerns may, to some extent, have reflected reality (especially among elites), one should take into account that these remarks were as much a reflection of the authors' moral attitudes as they were of reality, associating moral or sociopolitical decay with demographic decline (cf. early modern Mercantilism).
Fathers‐in‐law
Authors: Wilgaux Jérôme 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The various terms used to denote a father‐in‐law in Indo‐European languages are often linked to the Proto‐Indo‐European root
*swekuros
(Latin:
socer
, Greek:
hekuros
); these words may be construed, in relation to the Greek
kurios
(“master”), as meaning “his own master” (in relation to the bride) or “the master of the joint family” (Benveniste 1969: 249–51; Szemerényi 1977: 63–7).
Marriage legislation of Augustus
Authors: Severy‐Hoven Beth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn 18–17BCE, Augustus, the first Roman emperor, passed several laws regulating social behavior, including two aimed at marriage. Thelex Iulia de maritandis ordinibusprohibited intermarriage between senatorial families and ex‐slaves, and between all citizens and disreputable persons, such as prostitutes (seeInfamia). Otherwise the law rewarded male and female citizens who married and raised children, and penalized those who did not (Treggiari 1991: 60–80;seeLEX IULIAANDLEX PAPIA). Thelex Iulia de adulteriis coercendismade sex with a respectable woman to whom one was not married illegal (seeADULTERY); previously, the monitoring of female sexual behavior was left to private families.
Perfumes and unguents, Greece
Authors: Touwaide Alain 
Published: December 2012

AbstractComing after a long tradition of classical studies on perfume(s) in literature (e.g., Faure 1987), including a cultural and, more recently, anthropological approach (e.g., Detienne 1972), the study of perfumes in Greco‐Roman Antiquity was transformed in the 1970s thanks to the research activity of Giuseppe Donato in Italy.
Virginity
Authors: Vuolanto Ville 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThroughout antiquity, virginity had “great metaphorical and mythical power … generating and representing a whole complex of cultural beliefs” (Kelly 2000: ix–x).Associating integrity, perfection, and purity with virginity was a commonplace, and virginity (of the chosen individuals) was seen as the best guarantee for (the communal) fertility.
Akitu
Authors: Pongratz‐Leisten Beate 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The festival termed akitu is attested since the Sumerian period for every city god. In
UR
, for instance, the rites included a boat ride of the moon god to the rural sanctuary outside the city, offerings, a circumambulation of the fields combined with offerings to the standard of the moon god, an anointing of Nanna's temple gate as of a purification rite, sports activities performed by athletes, and a tithe paid by the merchants for the temple treasury.
Assinnum
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Persons termed
assinnu(m)
(Sum. UR. SAL, “man‐woman”) appear in both Sumerian and Akkadian texts, from the mid‐third to the mid‐first millennium
BCE
, as devotees of the goddess Ishtar (Sum. Inanna;
see
Inanna (Ishtar)). They engaged in various functions, including cross‐dressing, ritual dance, healing, and prophecy. For instance, in the
Hymn of Iddin‐Dagan to Inanna
, they walk in front of the goddess, dressed in both men's and women's clothing. At Mari, two
assinnu
s are attested as prophets of the goddess.
Balih
Authors: Emberling Geoff 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Balih River, called Balihu in Cuneiform texts of the second and first millennia
BCE
, rises in the plain of Harran, is fed by several springs along its course, and runs south to join the Euphrates River at a confluence that has been the location of important settlements throughout history: Tell Zeidan in prehistoric times, later the town of Tuttul (Tell Bi'a), and the early Islamic and modern city of Raqqa.
Elamite kings, Sukkalmah period
Authors: Graef Katrien De 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Sukkalmah period, spanning roughly the first half of the second millenniumBCE, was the longest uninterrupted period in Elamite history. It is named after a dynasty of Elamite rulers that initially reigned under the authority of the kings of Šimaški, who contributed to the downfall of the Sumerian Ur III Dynasty . Under Šimaškean hegemony, sukkalmahs ruled in Susa, Anšan (Anshan), Šimaški, and Elam.
Hattusili III
Authors: Beckman Gary 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThanks to a text scholars refer to as his “Apology,” the career of Hattusili III (mid‐thirteenth centuryBCE) is better known than that of any other Hittite monarch. The youngest son of Mursili II, Hattusili survived a sickly childhood to rise through the military and governmental ranks during the reigns of his father, his brother Muwattalli II, and his nephew Urhi‐Teššub, (Mursili III).
Nabopolassar and the Chaldaean Dynasty
Authors: Joannès Francis 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe dynasty that founded the Neo‐Babylonian Empire began with Nabopolassar (Nabu‐apla‐uṣur, r. 626–605BCE). Though he presents himself as the “son of an unknown,” Nabopolassar may actually have been a general in the service of Sin‐sar‐iskun, king of Assyria, and very likely he was born into the ruling elite of Uruk, in southern Mesopotamia. Nabopolassar exploited the civil war tearing apart the Assyrian Empire to proclaim the independence of Babylon, where he had himself officially recognized as king on 23 November 626.
Puduheba
Authors: Miller Jared L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Puduheba was the influential queen of Hattusili III, king of Hatti ca. 1260s–1230s. In his
Apology
, Hattusili relates how he married Puduheba, daughter of Benti‐Šarri, priest of Šawuška of Lawazantiya in Kizzuwatna (van den Hout 1997). While returning from the Battle of Qadesh in 1274 (
see
Qadesh, Battle of), Hattusili dreamt that Shawushka (the Hurrian Ištar;
see
Inanna (Ishtar)) instructed him to marry Puduheba. During Hattusili's subsequent reign as king, Puduheba becomes visible in practically every sphere of Hittite documentation.
Übergangsmetallvermittelte Hydrothiolierung ungesättigter Kohlenstoff‐Kohlenstoff‐Bindungen: ein mechanistischer Ausblick
Authors: Castarlenas Ricardo , Di Giuseppe Andrea , Pérez‐Torrente Jesús J. , Oro Luis A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDie Hydrothiolierung ungesättigter Kohlenstoff‐Kohlenstoff‐Bindungen ist eine praktische und atomökonomische Methode zum Einbau von Schwefel in organische Grundgerüste. In den letzten Jahren haben wir die Entwicklung einiger Übergangsmetallkatalysatoren zur Kontrolle von Regio‐ und Stereoselektivität beobachtet. In diesem Kurzaufsatz beleuchten wir den mechanistischen Hintergrund dieser Transformation, um die Planung spezifischerer und aktiverer metallorganischer Hydrothiolierungskatalysatoren zu erleichtern.
Dual rheological responses in Ag pastes
Authors: Zhou Hu , Hong Junui , Piao Longhai , Kim Sang‐Ho 
Published: December 2012

AbstractHighly concentrated suspensions have complex structures that complicate their characterization and study. Highly concentrated suspensions of Ag particles in ethyl cellulose solutions (Ag pastes) were thus studied and dual rheological responses were observed. Under rotational shear, the unpredicted enhancement of shear moduli occurred in the low frequency regime, showing that rheological responses of Ag pastes were strongly influenced by fillers. Under large‐amplitude oscillation, the hydrodynamic‐induced enhancement effect was observed over the whole frequency range, showing that rheological responses of Ag pastes were dominated by the binder solutions. Further studies showed that this dual behavior arose from the dual nature of structures in Ag pastes. The different shear types promoted the development of different structures in rheological experiments. Rotational shear promoted cluster formation, resulting in the unpredicted enhancement; while large‐amplitude oscillation broke the clustering, leading to the hydrodynamic enhancement. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
UV‐curing and mechanical properties of polyester–acrylate nanocomposites films with silane‐modified antimony doped tin oxide nanoparticles
Authors: Sung Sihyun , Kim Dae Su 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAntimony doped tin oxide (ATO) nanoparticles were used as nanofillers to improve mechanical properties of UV‐cured polyester–acrylate films. To improve the dispersion of ATO nanoparticles in the polyester–acrylate resin matrix and to strengthen interfacial interactions between ATO nanoparticles and the resin matrix ATO nanoparticles were first organically modified with 3‐methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS). The modification of ATO nanoparticles with MPS was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). UV‐curing behaviors of the nanocomposites films were investigated by FTIR spectroscopy. Compared with the film with neat ATO nanoparticles, the film with the same amount of MPS‐modified ATO nanoparticles showed slightly higher UV‐curing rate and final conversion. The mechanical properties of the nanocomposites films were measured by universal testing machine. The MPS‐modified ATO nanoparticles could improve considerably the mechanical properties of the UV‐cured polyester–acrylate nanocomposites films. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013