bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Overfitting and Heuristics in Philosophy
Authors: Williamson Timothy 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The main aim of this book is to encourage philosophers to take a more sophisticated and scientific attitude to their handling of evidence, both in theory and in practice, by introducing two categories neglected in current metaphilosophy. The first category is heuristics. These are typically efficient ways of solving problems of some kind, quick and easy to use, and mostly but not always reliable. Those most probably central to philosophical methodology are more or less humanly universal general cognitive heuristics which we employ without conscious reflection. In many plausible cases, they can be shown to be implicitly inconsistent, and so cannot be perfectly valid, though for evolutionary reasons they are likely to be fairly reliable in normal cases. Such heuristics may well generate false but convincing data as applied to some actual or hypothetical. Arguably, the heuristics also generate philosophical paradoxes, just as heuristics embedded in our perceptual systems generate perceptual illusions. The second category is that of overfitting. This is a recognized pathology in science, when models are allowed to become very complicated to achieve a close fit with data, and further complications typically keep having to be made as new data comes in. When the data contains errors, such theorizing provides little insight. Scientists guard against overfitting by strongly preferring comparatively simple models. Philosophers should learn to do the same. This approach is applied to debates between coarse-grained (intensionalist) and fine-grained (hyperintensionalist) theories of metaphysics, ascriptions of propositional attitudes, and other topics, in favour of intensionalism.
Frege Puzzles
Authors: Williamson Timothy 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
In Frege puzzles, substituting co-referential expressions in the scope of verbs for intentional attitudes such as ‘believe’ appears to alter the truth-values of attitude ascriptions. In the Fregean tradition, this is supposed to motivate a semantic distinction between sense and reference. The Fregean approach is shown to misconceive radically the workings of attitude ascriptions in natural language. It is argued that subsequent non-Fregean attempts to save the appearances in Frege puzzles are futile because the same phenomena occur when substituting synonymous expressions, when only gerrymandering will save the appearances. That is, standard approaches to Frege puzzles involve overfitting. Instead, standard verdicts in Frege puzzles can be explained as outputs of a disquotational heuristic for ascribing belief which gives manifestly incorrect results in some other cases. Heuristics for ascribing other attitudes, including knowledge, are also discussed. Arguably, hyperintensional treatments of attitude ascriptions are ill-motivated.
After the Floods
Authors: Conca Ken 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Ellicott City, a historic mill town in central Maryland, suffered two fatal flash floods in 2016 and 2018. Each was the result of a supposedly “once in a thousand years” rainfall event. This book recounts the town’s struggle to find a pathway to watershed resilience in the wake of the floods. Despite advantages of wealth, expertise, and a strong community identity, the community and local government struggled with conflict, as controversial proposals to tear down historic buildings, ban development, and construct massive infrastructure projects battled for support. At the heart of the controversies were conflict over what counts as knowledge and whose knowledge counts, how to hold an effective participatory dialogue, and how to understand and protect the core meaning of the place at risk. The book identifies lessons from the town’s experience that can help other small towns and communities staring at a future of risk from floods, wildfires, drought, and other disasters.
A single sample of continuous data
Authors: Neuhäuser Markus , Ruxton Graeme D. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Methods for analysing a single sample of continuous data are discussed. The paired t test and nonparametric methods such as the sign test and the signed rank test are introduced. Ways how the commonly adopted approach for removing zeros before applying a sign or signed rank test can be avoided are shown. In addition, the Hodges–Lehmann estimator and (bootstrap) confidence intervals are described. The robustness of the paired t test is discussed and permutation and bootstrap tests are offered as possible alternatives. We show how the presented methods can also be applied to differences between paired measurements. Example data and R code are given.
Binomial data
Authors: Neuhäuser Markus , Ruxton Graeme D. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter starts with methods for a single sample of binomial data. The binomial test and confidence intervals are introduced. Moreover, confidence intervals for the comparison of two binomial proportions are presented. A range of measures for comparison (e.g. the difference, the relative risk, and the odds ratio) are considered. In addition, tests for the null hypothesis of two or more identical proportions are discussed, such as Fisher’s exact test and the Cochran-Armitage trend test. Paired binomial data, as well as the concepts of association and agreement, are discussed, before the chapter concludes with logistic regression. Different approaches, including the conditional logistic regression, are considered. Example data and R code are given.
The Philosophy of Free Will
Authors: Tse Peter Ulric 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers several of the key philosophical arguments against the possibility of free will. It begins by defining the term “free will,” and evaluates what conditions are necessary to attain a free will that meets this definition. It then considers positions that are compatible or incompatible with determinism. It considers the consequence argument against compatibilism, the exclusion argument against mental causation, and the luck argument against the possibility of free will. It counters these arguments and concludes that the conditions required for a libertarian free will are met in the human brain, assuming ontological indeterminism to be the case. This chapter examines evidence from physics in support of the view that reality is ontologically indeterministic. It concludes that there are two types of libertarian free will: one involving the weighing and the selection of options (which might really happen, and could have turned out otherwise) and the other involving choosing to become a new kind of chooser in the future.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Beal Jennifer S. , Dostal Hannah M. , Easterbrooks Susan R. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the diversity of DHH learners. This range of diversity is wide and includes language(s), listening technology, literacy outcomes, early intervention, and learning environments. The chapter then shows how literacy theories and models are applied to DHH learners and it goes on to present considerations for literacy instruction, such as learner motivation, learning standards, accommodations and modifications, and learning environment. A discussion of criteria that define evidence-based instructional practices and causal factors is presented. Finally, a review of curricula for DHH learners and how to make informed choices during instruction with DHH learners closes the chapter.
Assessment for Reading Instruction
Authors: Beal Jennifer S. , Dostal Hannah M. , Easterbrooks Susan R. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Chapter 2 provides an extensive overview of language and literacy assessments and how to use assessment results to guide literacy instruction for deaf/hard-of-hearing (DHH) students. A myriad of assessment purposes is covered, including documentation of eligibility, vocabulary, language(s), emergent reading skills, print awareness, phonological skills, fluency, comprehension, writing, spelling, and motivation. Administration and application of assessment results is addressed through seven case vignettes with DHH learners. Assessment accommodations and modifications, considerations when creating assessments, and the roles of educators in the assessment process are discussed. A summary of recommended assessment practices concludes this chapter.
Political Parties in Brazil
Authors: Krause Silvana , Schaefer Bruno Marques 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
In the current Brazilian scenario, it is possible to observe the general weakening of political parties, particularly concerning the main parties that led the democratic political transition. What challenges do these party organizations have in relation to the chronic high party fragmentation and electoral volatility? In this chapter, we present factors that impact the country’s political state, such as: (a) the combination of majority voting presidential elections and open-list proportional elections; (b) the presence of solely regional (state-level) electoral districts for the national legislature; and the (c) formation of political careers independent of political parties, grounded on regional electoral support. Additionally, we explore the consequences of this situation: the instability of party preference; the loss or stability of the number of affiliates, party fragmentation and volatility; and the concentration of (public) resources in the national directorates of the parties. Based on the analysis of three cases in greater depth (PT, PSDB, and MDB), we propose to contribute to the analysis of the relationship between parties and democracy in Brazil.
The Coast of (Labour Law’s) Utopia
Authors: Langille Brian 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The relationship between the fundamental values of labour law (its utopian vision) and our understanding of what labour law is—its content and range—is often misunderstood. This chapter encourages looking beyond what labour law is and moving away from the way of thinking that labour law’s role is best conceived as cleaning up some of the damage done in the world of work. This way of thinking puts a real limit on labour law’s possible utopias. Recent events both force and offer us the opportunity to contemplate these truths and to re-imagine labour law as Labour Law Utopias does.
Social Security and the Right to Laziness Beyond just Basic Income
Authors: Becker Alexander De , Claus Flore 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This contribution examines the positioning of the right to laziness and the potential for guaranteeing a basic income within a utopian, post-productive labour paradigm. That necessitates a profound shift in the financing of social security. While social security systems in various countries historically relied on the Bismarck or Beveridge models, this distinction has become fluid. Several countries combine elements from both models but inadequately address the need to reform the social security system in light of demographic shifts. With a shrinking workforce, the pressure to finance the current system is increasing. Work is progressively considered an obligation rather than a fundamental right. Establishing the right to laziness, granting individuals the freedom to choose whether to work or not, requires a fundamental shift in perspective. By financing social security through alternative means, such as consumption taxes instead of labour and income taxes, a pathway to generating a basic income within a utopian context becomes possible.
Jacob’s Ladder
Authors: Werth Tiffany Jo 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Jacob’s ladder provides the template for the complex relationality of human to stone. The stone pillow that undergirds the dream is more than dull matter; it vitally binds heavenly and earthly realms to create a “hybrid geography” (Sarah Whatmore) where geographical terrains intermix with human anatomies and cultural systems. This scala naturae is not a stable hierarchical chain, but one where horizontal axes embed humans within a violent macrocosm. The introduction next outlines the book’s methodological investments in two subfields of Renaissance study—religion and ecocriticism—while offering a prehistory to twenty-first-century new materialisms. It prompts future discussion between eco-studies and premodern critical race studies by focusing on the elemental substance of embodiment and the category of “human.” It then explains the book’s morphology across early modern English texts and visual culture that cluster around three thresholds of a human life cycle: 1) lithic creations and petrogenesis, 2) lithic–fleshly conversions and, 3) lithic continuum or petrologic ontologies extending into the afterlife.
The Callous Stony Heart and Conversion
Authors: Werth Tiffany Jo 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
“The Callous Stony Heart and Conversion” explores how the Reformation renews scrutiny into the nature of a “stony heart.” The emerging fascination with anatomical dissection and drawing coupled with the medical and biblical injunction of nosce te ipsum (know thyself) revealed the heart to be quite unlike a stone; yet, the Calvinist refrain to beware the stony-hearted reprobate insists on humankind’s double nature. These contexts inform mid-seventeenth-century devotional lyrics’ obsession with the trying of the heart: most familiarly George Herbert’s poems, but also in the popular emblem book Schola Cordis (School of the Heart), and Henry Vaughan’s alchemical poetry. These male-authored ruminations frequently find a salvational spark within their stony cores. By contrast, female poets like Hester Pulter find calcification to herald an undistinguished oblivion. As with Niobe, whose tears endure despite her petrified state, the conversion to stone amplifies suffering. Within a range of religious devotional lyric, then, stone is never simply an antithesis to the human. Instead, it lies at the core of human anatomy and human salvation.
Hewing the Human
Authors: Werth Tiffany Jo 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
“Hewing the Human” considers the Ovidian figures of Echo and Narcissus as two templates for imagining posthumous life via stone. The Narcissus story illustrates a self-preservative fantasy by mirroring the self in a stony effigy. A focal case study is John Donne’s effigy in St. Paul’s which heralds Donne’s vision of reuniting with Christ, the cornerstone, in the heavenly afterlife. By contrast, Echo’s story offers a more dialogic reanimation. Voice collaborates with stone to project life across time. Through a reading of George Herbert’s meditations on Christ’s sepulcher (in devotional lyrics) and of Edmund Spenser and Sir John Harington’s depiction of Merlin’s lively entombment (in their rewriting of Orlando Furioso), the chapter demonstrates how the desire for a stony afterlife is stubbornly syncretic. Yet while these lithic posthumous futures promise reanimation via the monumental human, they do so in ways that are both startlingly familiar and unnervingly alien.
The New Jerusalem, Geologic Election, and Lithic Afterlives in Heaven’s Marble Vault
Authors: Werth Tiffany Jo 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
“The New Jerusalem, Geologic Election, and Lithic Afterlives in Heaven’s Marble Vault” considers stone’s place in the imagined geography of the afterlife. It begins with Othello’s invocation to “yond marble heaven” and explores how the celestial afterlife frequently mirrors the earthly lithic imagination—along with its prejudices. It analyzes the eschatological preoccupation with the New Jerusalem, whose material perdurance emerges in St. John’s Revelation and whose vision lays the foundation for the translated saints to reside in a crystalline corpus coeleste. Moving from Edmund Spenser and Anne Vaughan Locke (late sixteenth century) through Milton and Bunyan (late seventeenth), the chapter frames a pervasive heavenly lithic materiality conjoined with a Protestant, geologic election. It concludes by following a continuum from the Christian New Jerusalem to twenty-first century after-earth, posthuman, and transhuman H+ futures as envisioned by elite Silicon Valley techno prophets. The chapter maps the transmission of the lithic imagination from Old to New, from this life into the next, noting its exclusionary potential and its proclivity for a particular elect or elite.
Framing Refugees
Authors: Drewski Daniel , Gerhards Jürgen 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
After the catastrophic experiences of World War II, the Human Rights Declaration of 1948 defined the right to seek asylum as a fundamental human right. However, not all countries comply with the requirements of international refugee law. While some open their borders and grant protection, others keep their borders completely closed, and yet others admit some groups of refugees while excluding others. How can we make sense of these different responses to admitting refugees? Framing Refugees analyzes political discourse on the admission of refugees in six countries from different regions of the world: Germany, Poland, and Turkey, all responding to the exodus of Syrian and Middle Eastern refugees; Chile’s reaction to the Venezuelan displacement; Singapore and its stance toward Rohingya refugees; and Uganda facing the displacement from South Sudan. The book takes a cultural sociological perspective, emphasizing the importance of framing and the cultural repertories that frames are based on. It shows that refugee policies are shaped by how governments and opposition parties respond to two questions: Who are “we,” the receiving nation? And who are “they,” the refugees? In framing the “we” and the “others,” politicians draw on cultural repertoires, which vary by country and political constituency within a country. Contrary to accounts that emphasize a cross-national convergence toward either a more liberal or a more “securitized” discourse on refugees, Framing Refugees uncovers the country-specific cultural repertoires such as a neo-Ottoman ideology in Turkey, Pan-Africanism in Uganda, or Poland’s self-understanding as a Christian nation. This approach also helps to understand why sometimes illiberal regimes such as Turkey and Uganda pursue a more open refugee policy than liberal ones.
Types of Recognition
Authors: Kilibarda Pavle 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The vocabulary of international law and international relations knows several different forms of recognition beyond full and unqualified diplomatic recognition. These various types are intended to modify or qualify the effects of recognition in a given case. State practice, jurisprudence, and scholarship thus distinguish between de jure and de facto recognition, external and internal recognition, and conditional recognition. These types differ according to the effects of the act in question, whether the author considers it revocable, whether recognition comes from the executive or judicial branch of government, and whether recognition is conditioned upon the recipient meeting certain additional criteria. Chapter 3 examines the types of recognition in light of historic and contemporary practice.
Monte Carlo methods
Authors: Limmer David T. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
In this chapter, we will focus exclusively on Monte Carlo approaches employed to study statistical mechanics of equilibrium systems. The basic idea of Monte Carlo is to estimate ensemble averages by sampling configurations from the Boltzmann distribution, which can be done by evolving the system using a stochastic process known as a Markov chain. In many cases, this can be done straightforwardly and the limitations of such an approach are only in the accuracy with which a system’s Hamiltonian is modeled, and the finite capacity of a computer that will restrict the system sizes and number of samples collected. Here, we will introduce both basic and more advanced algorithms, as well as discuss some practical aspects associated with simulating efficiently. We will render our presenta- tion concrete by considering a few paradigmatic models related to both classical and quantum mechanical systems.
Time dependence near equilibrium
Authors: Limmer David T. 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Here we develop the formalism to quantify dynamical evolution statistically. The dynamical view of how an equilibrium distribution emerges supplements the static perspective we have thus far built. In contrast with our discussion of static equilibrium phenomena, the development will be concerned with the probability distribution associated with trajectories that microstates trace out over time, rather than the particular microstates themselves. Initially, the basis of our development will be Hamiltonian mechanics, and from it we will deduce theorems concerning the conservation of probability, and by association, the equations governing the evolution of collections of particles or their collective properties like mass and momentum. The statements we will develop here are sufficient to clarify principles of reversibility alluded to macroscopically in early chapters, and state general theorems restricting the behavior of systems evolving irreversibly. Of overarching importance will be the perspective we develop on time, both its extent and its direction.
A Cartography of Resistance
Authors: Grint Keith 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Resistance is universal, but why does it occur, and fail or succeed? Resistance is often regarded as a problem to be overcome because it is regarded as short-sighted or self-interested, but this book suggests that resistance is not necessarily right or wrong, it just is. From resistance to the Roman Empire to resistance to slavery, the Nazis, racism, the state, capitalism, patriarchy, and imperialism, this book ranges across time and place to explain the success or failure of resistance. While many contemporary approaches focus on leadership as the explanatory variable, this book expands the approach to include management and command of resistance movements—and of their opponents. Many of the case studies explore the failures, as well as the successes, of resistance, and the book suggests that even the failures reveal a fundamental truth about the human condition: just because the situation looks bleak for those suffering from oppression does not mean they surrendered meekly. Rather, many seemed to adopt the same attitude that led Sisyphus to keep rolling the boulder up the hill: they were determined not to let their situation define or defeat them.
Why Do (Some) People Resist?
Authors: Grint Keith 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Most people do not resist their oppressors, and usually significantly fewer than 10 per cent engage in activities that attract penalties from the authorities. This chapter examines the various explanations for this and explores the ideas that suggest a consensus is both unlikely and unnecessary for successful resistance. To explain why people do, or do not, resist, we turn to existentialist arguments and particularly the critical approach taken by Albert Camus, especially his retelling of the myth of Sisyphus, doomed to push a boulder uphill, only to see it topple back each time. For Camus this ‘absurd’ response by Sisyphus captures the heart of resistance because it recognizes both the pointless nature of the task in a meaningless world—and its absolute necessity. The chapter then explores the Exit, Voice, Loyalty work of Hirschman and takes that as a frame for understanding the resistance of Russian men in the call to fight in the Ukrainian War. Of course, not all resistance is armed and the difficulties of organizing resistance in universities and Total Institutions are considered next, along with the role of incrementalism in undermining resistance. Finally, the chapter explores the work of Lenin, Luxemburg, and Marx in explaining the role of political parties, and ends with Arendt’s concerns about the apparent totalitarian nature of the Nazi state and the inability of those subject to it to resist: a claim undermined by Primo Levi’s experiences in Auschwitz.