bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pacific Coast and Mountain System
Authors: Muhs Daniel R. , Thorson Robert M. , Clague John J. , Mathews W. H. , McDowell Patricia F. , Kelsey Harvey M. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Pacific Coast and Mountain System (PCMS) includes the coastal mountains and plains fronting the Pacific Ocean from the United States-Mexico border in the south to the northernmost part of the Alaska Range in Alaska, a latitudinal span of approximately 31°. In Alaska, the region encompasses the Alaska-Aleutian Range, the coastal mountain ranges to the south (the Kodiak, Kenai, Chugach, St. Elias, and Fairweather ranges), and the lowlands in between. In British Columbia, the PCMS includes, from west to east, the Insular Ranges on Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, the Coastal Depression, which includes the coastal lowlands and the continental shelf, and the Coast Mountains. The PCMS in Washington and Oregon comprises the Olympic Peninsula, the Coast Ranges, the Klamath Mountains, and the coastal plain bordering the Pacific Ocean. The Klamath Mountains extend into extreme northern California, but the Coast Ranges, which comprise the bulk of the PCMS in this region, continue from the Klamath Mountains and extend southward over most of the northern two-thirds of California. South of the Coast Ranges in California, the PCMS includes the Transverse and Peninsula ranges. In addition, a narrow coastal plain extends along much of the California coast.
The great latitudinal variation of the PCMS, along with elevations that extend from sea level to almost 7,000 m, make the PCMS in North America a region of extreme climatic contrasts. Conditions have been cold and moist enough to support glaciers in Alaska since the Miocene, whereas southern California probably has had a
Arctic Lowlands
Authors: Carter L. David , Heginbottom J. Alan , Woo Ming-ko 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The Arctic Lowlands as defined for this chapter includes the Arctic Coastal Plains of Canada and Alaska and the western Arctic Islands of Canada (Fig. 1). In this chapter we discuss landforms and geomorphic processes that are characteristic of this part of North America, processes whose attributes are significantly different in the Arctic Lowlands than elsewhere, and landforms that occur elsewhere but have been studied most extensively in the Arctic Lowlands. Landforms and processes included are associated with the formation and degradation of ground ice, fluvial processes in the arctic environment, arctic coastal processes, and the formation of oriented lakes. We also discuss the sensitivity of the landscape of the Arctic Lowlands to human activity and to climatic change. Finally, we present recommendations for geomorphological research that will help us to better understand the evolution of the landscape of this region and to predict the effects on this landscape of natural or human-induced environmental perturbations. Brief descriptions of the physiography, climate, permafrost, and vegetation are presented as background for these discussions.
The heritage of engineering geology; Changes through time
Authors: Kiersch George A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The history of remarkable engineering construction feats is as old as man’s records. Subsurface mining for copper ore on the Sinai Peninsula began at least 15,000 years ago (Stone Age), and tunneling (adit) was started about 3500 B.C. As civilization and commerce advanced and people congregated in cities, the problem of water-supply protection agianst the attacks of enemies became increasingly acute, and new methods, such as construction of aqueducts and reservoirs, had to be devised.
Use of “geologists” to assist in evaluating natural sites for engineering works and related legal implications has a long history if we include the lore of our forefathers regarding natural conditions and their meaning. In North America, early assistance and insight on geological reasoning for engineering purposes was fostered by a group of pioneers whose endeavors are described in this chapter; geological input for litigation and forensic purposes is discussed in Chapters 24 and 25 of this volume. However, any review of the early efforts in application of geology to engineering works in North America must recognize the fund of knowledge that had been acquired by earlier pioneers in Europe and Asia, and parts of Central and South America.
The numerous remnants and intact examples of remarkable construction feats built in past centuries represent a legacy to the early “engineer’s” skills. It is not difficult to imagine a relation and interdependence between the “architect-engineer” and the “geologist,” which began far back in ancient times. Obviously, even then, some individuals had an awareness of rock and soil conditions and offered counsel on excavations and the properties of natural materials for siting and construction of castles, canals, water tunnels, and aqueducts.
History and heritage of Engineering Geology Division, Geological Society of America, 1940s to 1990
Authors: Kiersch George A. , Hatheway Allen W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
During the 1890s, the importance of an interrelation between geologic principles and guidance for construction of major engineering works was being clearly demonstrated through the efforts of Professor William O. Crosby (M.I.T.) and Professor James F. Kemp (Columbia). A half-century earlier, geologists in North America had begun to show this interdependence, as indicated by works of James Hall of the New York State Geological Survey in 1839 on rock cuts of the Erie Canal and William W. Mather of the Ohio Geological Survey in 1838 on rotational slides along the lake front at Cleveland. The contributions of these and other early workers are described in Chapter 1, as are other early geological studies for dams, tunnels, aqueducts, canals, and related works. However, the first organizations and groups formed to represent the early practitioners of applied geology only developed in the early 1900s.
The Economic Geology Publishing Company was formed to serve the interests of all applied/economic geologists in 1905, and the first issues of Economic Geology were released that year. This scientific journal soon developed a wide circulation, both domestic and foreign, and was the medium for all four branches of applied, or economic, geology, described by D. W. Johnson in 1906 as mining, petroleum, ground water, and “applications of geology to various uses of mankind and engineering structures.” Waldemar Lindgren, chief geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey, in his 1913 textbook Mineral Deposits, defined these four branches and made reference to engineering geology practice. The main geological principles and their relevance to engineering works were put forth in the textbook by Ries and Watson (1914), Engineering Geology.
Surface water and flooding
Authors: Rahn Perry H. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Rivers provide numerous benefits to man as avenues of commerce and sources of water supply. Flood plains have rich agricultural soils, and some of the earth’s most heavily populated areas occur along rivers.
Yet the riverine environment can be hazardous. Ancient civilizations struggled against floods while trying to earn a living from the fertile land adjacent to the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, and Yellow Rivers. The worst geologic disaster known occurred in 1887 when about 800,000 Chinese lost their lives from the Yellow River flood (Costa and Baker, 1981). Another 100,000 Chinese died when the Yangtze River flooded in 1911. The great flood of 1927 extensively damaged the lower Mississippi River Valley and a flood-control plan was quickly adopted. The Arno River ripped through Florence, Italy, in 1966 and damaged one of the foremost art centers of the world.
Legget (1973, p. 66) has noted that in Central Europe the builders of medieval towns generally avoided the flood plains. They were rightly afraid of floods, and recognized the difficulty of construction on the wet ground adjacent to rivers. The early sectors of the older cities were usually located on the higher ground provided by river terraces. This wise practice was not based consciously on geological training, but utilized the same craft-lore demonstrated by the builders of the Pyramids and other early works (Chapter 1, this volume). Unfortunately, since the late 1800s, buildings on flood plains has steadily increased throughout the world with the growth of major cities to satisfy pressures for urban living.
In the United States, flood-related deaths continue, and annual flood damage is increasing (Rahn, 1986).
Coasts and beaches
Authors: Leatherman Stephen P. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Coasts, often sedimentary in nature, serve as the dynamic interface between land and sea. While rocky shores exist along much of New England and the West Coast, the preponderance of United States coastal urbanization has occurred along sedimentary coasts. Indeed, much of the outer shoreline along the U.S. East and Gulf coasts is characterized by barrier systems.
The study of sedimentary coasts is a multidiscipline effort involving geologists, physical geographers, and coastal engineers, including hydraulic engineers and fluid hydrodynamicists. These specialities can all be considered under the general field of coastal geomorphology wherein the morphological development of the coast, acting under the influence of winds, waves, currents, and sea-level changes, is the subject of these physical science investigations. Coastal engineering, while primarily a branch of civil engineering, leans heavily upon coastal and geological sciences. Their charge is to address both the natural and human-induced changes in the coastal zone, design structural and nonstructural devices and procedures to intercede against such changes, and evaluate the impacts of proposed solutions on these problem areas.
Because numerous factors govern the development and evolution of coastal areas, solutions devised for one area will often fail if blindly applied to another. This stems from the wide-ranging morphologies and energy conditions found along the coast. Coastal engineering, therefore, is site specific, and project success requires careful collection and evaluation of all pertinent physical data from the geosciences.
The coastal engineering literature is replete with coastal defense or harbor failures due to a lack of understanding of coastal processes. The importance of applied coastal research is clearly demonstrated by harbors built in Dublin, Ireland, during the nineteenth century.
Slope movements
Authors: Fleming Robert W. , Varnes David J. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Hillslopes are a fundamental unit of a landscape, comprising that reach of ground between a drainage divide and a valley floor, and thus much effort has been expended in their study. Early research by Davis (1899) and Penck (1924) was directed toward developing unified theories of slope formation and evolution. Subsequently, emphasis has shifted toward morphometric description of slopes (Strahler, 1956) and study of hillslope processes (Schumm, 1956). Currently, geomorphologists are making impressive advances in understanding hillslope forms and processes (Carson and Kirkby, 1972; Scheidegger, 1970, 1975; Huggett, 1985). While unified theories of hillslope formation and evolution are apparently many years away, the next generation of models can be based on carefully obtained measurements of hillslope processes.
Slope movements of several different types are among the principal processes by which hillslopes evolve. Slope movements are downward and outward movements of slope-forming materials composed of natural rock, soils, artificial fills, or combinations of these materials. This definition is identical to the definition of landslide used by Eckel (1958a). The terms landslide and mass wasting are sometimes used synonymously for slope movement. Slope movements, however, include some processes that involve little or no true sliding, such as falls and flows, and do not include some processes contained in mass wasting such as subsidence (Sharpe, 1938).
Progress in understanding and control of slope movements has been the result of a truly interdisciplinary effort involving geological scientists, engineers, physicists, and hydrologists. Most of the major practitioners in applied geology in the 19th and 20th centuries have contributed significantly to our understanding of slope movement types and processes.
Nontectonic subsidence
Authors: Holzer Thomas L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Geologists have investigated many different types of subsidence (Table 1) in North America during the past 100 years. Their principal contribution has been a better understanding of subsidence processes associated with the sudden formation of sinkholes, volcanic activity (Schuster and Mullineaux, this volume), tectonism (Bonilla, this volume), and sediment compaction induced by withdrawal or natural expulsion of underground fluids. Although major advancements in the understanding of other types of subsidence processes have been made primarily by engineers and soil scientists, geologists have outlined the geologic framework within which these subsidence processes are active. Allen (1969) provides an overview of the geologic processes that contribute to subsidence and the geologic setting of subsidence.
This chapter traces the evolution during the past 100 years of the conceptual understanding of land subsidence in North America caused by compaction of unconsolidated sediment induced primarily by the withdrawal of underground fluids. It reviews the ways these concepts have been applied, both to development of the theory of fluid flow through porous media and to gain insight into natural geologic processes. Four important case histories are examined, and the chapter concludes with discussions of the outlook for future investigations of subsidence in North America and a summary of research needs. Terminology used in the chapter follows Poland and others (1972).
Subsidence associated with man-induced compaction is one of man’s major inadvertent engineering feats. At least 34 areas in Mexico and the United States have subsided (Fig. 1); an aggregate area of about 22,000 km2, approximately equal to the area of New Jersey, has been lowered more than 30 cm.
Faulting and seismic activity
Authors: Bonilla Manuel G. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
This chapter traces some of the ideas and concepts leading to the current understanding of the process of faulting and earthquake generation, gives examples of engineering geology investigations contributing to that understanding, describes some engineering projects that have been strongly influenced by the process, and suggests needed research. Each of these topics is discussed in sequence.
The understanding of faulting and earthquakes and of the significance of these to engineering has developed over several centuries. John Michell in 1761 was probably the first to publish a cross section of a clearly recognizable fault (Adams, 1938, Fig. 66). Michell did not attribute earthquakes to faulting, but proposed the important idea that seismic vibrations were the result of the propagation of elastic waves in the earth (Adams, 1938). Charles Lyell (1830) emphasized the uplift and depression of land that accompanies earthquakes. He did not attribute earthquakes to faulting, but a contemporary of his evidently did, for the following statement appeared in a review of Lyell’s book (Scrap, 1830, p. 463):
The sudden fracture of solid strata by any disruptive force must necessarily produce a violent vibratory jar to a considerable distance along the continuation of these strata. Such vibrations would be propagated in undulations, which may be expected, when influencing a mass of rocks several thousand feet at least in thickness, to produce on the surface exactly the wave-like motion, the opening and shutting of crevices, the tumbling down of cliffs and walls, and other characteristic phenomena of earthquakes.
This idea was apparently disregarded, and coseismic faulting, some of which reached the ground surface, was generally considered to be the result rather than the cause of earthquakes until the time of G. K. Gilbert.
Permafrost
Authors: Péwé Troy L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The long, cold winters and short, cool summers in the polar regions result in the formation of a layer of frozen ground that does not completely thaw during the year. This perennially frozen ground, known as permafrost, affects many human activities in the Arctic, as well as in the Subarctic and at high altitudes, and causes problems that are not experienced elsewhere.
Permafrost is a naturally occurring material that has a temperature below 0°C continuously for two or more years (Muller, 1943, p. 3). This layer of frozen ground is designated exclusively on the basis of temperature. Part or all of its moisture may be unfrozen, depending upon the chemical composition of the water or depression of the freezing point by capillary forces. For example, permafrost with saline soil moisture, such as that found under the ocean immediately off the arctic shores, might be colder than 0°C for several years but would contain no ice and thus would not be firmly cemented. Most permafrost is consolidated by ice; permafrost with no water, and thus no ice, is termed dry permafrost. The upper surface of permafrost is called the permafrost table. In permafrost areas, the surficial layer of ground that freezes in the winter (seasonally frozen ground) and thaws in summer is called the active layer. The thickness of the active layer under most circumstances depends mainly on the moisture content; it varies from 10 to 20 cm in thickness in wet organic sediments to 2 to 3 m in well-drained gravels. Permafrost is a widespread phenomenon in the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere, underlying an estimated 20 percent of the land surface of the world (Fig. 1).
Snow and ice
Authors: Weeks Wilford F. , Brown Robert L. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Glaciology, the study of snow and ice, encapsulates many aspects of the more conventional world of geology, including the study of igneous (lake, river, and sea ice), sedimentary (snow packs), and metamorphic (glaciers, ice sheets, and shelves) ice masses. However, glaciology avoids some of geology’s inherent problems because snow and ice bodies always occur on or near the surface of the earth and are, geologically speaking, quite thin: snow, lake, river, and sea ice are less than a few tens of meters; ice shelves and glaciers are less than a few hundred meters; and ice sheets are less than 4,000 m. Consequently, their investigation by either direct sampling (coring) or indirect geophysical methods is comparatively straightforward. They are also basically mono-mineralic; ice 1(h) and gas, plus in the case of sea ice, a liquid phase with minor amounts of a few simple solid salts. This is clearly a simplification when one considers the mineralogical complexities of most rock masses. Furthermore, color presents few problems, basic white on white.
In considering the differences between the behavior of natural ice masses and the more typical materials considered by engineering geologists, one must remember that ice on the Earth’s surface invariably exists at or near its melting temperature, as contrasted with surficial rock masses that occur at temperatures far below melting and are, relatively speaking, the real “frozen” bodies. From a research point of view, the “high” temperatures of natural ice masses are an advantage in that igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes occur rapidly, resulting in changes that are invariably measurable in a few years and more commonly in a few hours or days; geologically near-lightning speeds.
Investigation of preferred sites for selection and design
Authors: Cabrera John G. , Hatheway Allen W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Preferred sites represent those locations that have been identified and subsequently survived a Phase I screening against a set of general locational, design, and environmental requirements, which provide the basic ingredients for functionality. Ordinarily, the candidate sites are identified on a broad basis, using small-scale topographic maps (less than 1:250,000 scale), remote images such as aerial photographs, and aerial reconnaissance; geologic factors are partly downgraded, due to the lack of specific details provided during this second phase of feasibility investigations (Chapter 18, Fig. 1).
Preferred sites, representing Phase II of a project, are those considered worthwhile on the general basis of location and topography, design requirements, environmental impact potential, seismic and groundwater characteristics. By their nature, Phase II efforts are geologically intensive. During Phase II investigations, reconnaissance-level mapping and subsurface exploration, sampling, and testing of the materials can provide enormous returns when planned and conducted by mature and field-experienced applied geologists.
The concept of the alternative site-selection process emerged in the 1930s, as a result of developments in the internal combustion engine, which served as a power plant to drive mass-produced heavy construction equipment. Thus, early, large-scale heavy construction projects, such as dams, canals, and tunnels, were possible. With this capacity, national governments and cities alike became owners of transportation and water supply projects that could have, by nature of their function, several choices for location.
Heavy construction was widespread during the 1930s, with projects like dams of the Tennessee Valley Authority, and Boulder (Hoover), Coulee, and Shasta dams, and dozens of military bases and installations for World War II.
The geologist and legal responsibilities
Authors: Waggoner Eugene B. , Kiersch George A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Throughout the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth, the involvement of geologists in legal matters as part of their normal professional services was rare. A geologist’s principal endeavors prior to the early 1900s were mainly restricted to the more classical and academic studies of the Earth’s features and resources. An exception, and one of the earliest recorded cases of geological litigation and the as-encountered site conditions, involved excavation to enlarge the Erie Canal Locks at Lockport, New York, in 1839. James Hall of the New York Geological Survey was asked to evaluate and classify a “Slate Rock and Shale” sequence; the engineer’s contract quoted a unit price for “solid rock” and a lower price for “Slate Rock and Shale” (described in Chapter 1, this volume). Terms of the 1839 contract made a clear distinction between the rock types impossible.
Even the early applied geologists (Chapter 1, this volume) were mainly involved with collecting and describing the geologic setting of a proposed project and providing the relevant information on areal and site maps with accompanying texts that described the general geologic conditions to be expected. Only on rare occasions would the highly respected early applied geologists, such as W. O. Crosby, James Kemp, Heinrich Ries, Charles P. Berkey, or Warren J. Mead, be invited to serve in litigation, and never as part of a large-scale claim or changed-conditions argument so common since the 1960s. Rather, those early applications of geology for legal purposes were usually restricted to a single geologic entity, such as the two detective problems of a geological flavor in the early 1900s solved by Professor Berkey: