bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
THE EFFECTS OF AGE, SEX, AND SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS ON RESPONSIVENESS TO TWO CLASSES OF VERBAL REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Rosenhan David , Greenwald Jean A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe effects of two classes of verbal reinforcers, one more abstract (performance reinforcers) and the other less abstract (person), were examined among lower‐ and middle‐class children. Previous work that had shown lower‐class children to be relatively unresponsive to abstract reinforcers was not substantiated. The experiment suggested serious deficiencies in the experimental methodology (and hence in conceptualization) for examining the psychological properties of lower‐class children.A second experiment examined the developmental implications of responsiveness to person and performance reinforcers. The results suggested that, in growing older, children become more sensitive to a broader band of reinforcers and particularly to abstract reinforcers, without declining in their responsiveness to concrete ones.
CAN GROUP MEMBERS RECOGNIZE THE EFFECTS OF GROUP DISCUSSION UPON RISK TAKING?
Authors: Wallach Michael A. , Kogan Nathan , Burt Roger B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe present investigation was designed to determine whether group members recognize the occurrence of group‐induced shifts toward enhanced risk taking. The subjects, 122 male and 139 female university students, were assigned at random within sex to decision‐making groups calling for discussion with or without a consensus requirement. As in previous work, groups gravitated toward increased risk taking under both conditions. Upon the completion of all decisions, the group members made judgments concerning the effect of the discussion on the groups' risk‐taking levels. These judgments were significantly biased in the risky direction, but fell significantly below the actual magnitude of the risky shifts. Results were highly uniform for both sexes and for both types of group. We then inquired whether the trend toward veridicality in the judgment data reflected a genuine awareness of group outcomes or a process of assimilative projection, i.e., attribution of one's own shift behavior to the group. The findings pointed to greater genuine awareness for the females and stronger assimilative projection for males, suggesting that females may display greater interpersonal attentiveness than do males. In the case of both types of group and both sexes, group members ascribed greater forcefulness to those who in fact had higher initial risk‐taking levels.
ENGINEERING PRODUCTS: EXPERIMENTAL MANIPULATIONS AND RATINGS BY SUPERVISORS AND ENGINEERS1
Authors: Sprecher Thomas B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWhen descriptions of engineering products were deliberately altered, supervisors responded positively to increases in the dollar savings reported, while engineers responded positively to increases in the additional contributions reported. The marked spread of scores occurring when all judges rated the same nonmanipulated product is only in part due to the moderate test‐retest reliability of the judgments. Differing criteria systems and even differing perceptions of the kind of achievement (e.g., novel versus conventional) were also involved.
NUMERICAL METHODS FOR POLYNOMIAL MODELS IN NONLINEAR FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: McDonald Roderick P. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe basic concepts of nonlinear factor analysis are introduced and some extensions of the general theory are developed. An elementary account of the class of multiple‐factor polynomial models is presented, using more elementary algebraic methods than have been employed in earlier accounts of this theory. Working formulas are developed for the multiple‐factor polynomial model without product terms and for the simplest case of a model with product terms.Some empirical results are presented.
EFFECTIVENESS OF PSAT AND SAT BOOKLETS II. YOUR COLLEGE BOARD SCORES: PRELIMINARY SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST1
Authors: Halpern Gerald , Sasajima Masu 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTStudents in 19 different schools were asked to answer a number of questions in order to evaluate the comprehensibility of the booklet entitled Your College Board Scores: Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test. Five hundred and sixty‐five students, selected at random within these schools, completed the questionnaire.Information is provided on students' comprehension of the booklet, including their ability to convert test scores to percentiles and to predict SAT scores from a knowledge of PSAT scores. The perceived implication, by students, of the use of the PSAT for college admissions and for the prediction of college success is discussed.The booklet, in general, was comprehensible to the majority of students. However, some of the facts and concepts presented (e.g., prediction of SAT scores, use of interpolation, interpretation of a percentile) did prove difficult for many of the students. Comprehension was found to be positively related to scholastic aptitude.
WORD ASSOCIATION: VARIABLES AFFECTING POPULAR‐RESPONSE FREQUENCY1
Authors: Wynne Ronald D. , Gerjuoy Herbert , Schiffman Harold , Wexler Norman 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTNormal subjects were given 54 Kent‐Rosanoff word‐association‐test items in one of two different orders; antonym‐eliciting items were concentrated either (a) near the beginning or (b) near the end of the list. For each order, testing was administered under three different test conditions: (a) standard free‐association instructions, (b) instructions to give the response “most people” would give, and (c) “most people” instructions with a multiple‐choice test format. The order starting with antonym‐eliciting items elicited more popular antonym responses than did the other order. Popularity‐set instructions, particularly with the multiple‐choice format, elicited more non‐antonym popular responses than did free‐association test conditions. With repeated testing, popular antonyms became more frequent. For some sequences of test conditions, there was also an increase in non‐antonym popular responses with repeated testing.
ORTHOGONAL INTER‐BATTERY FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIt is the purpose of this paper to present a method of analysis for obtaining (i) inter‐battery factors and (ii) battery specific factors for two sets of tests when the complete correlation matrix including communalities is given. In particular, the procedure amounts to constructing an orthogonal transformation such that its application to an orthogonal factor solution of the combined sets of tests results in a factor matrix of a certain desired form. The factors isolated are orthogonal but may be subjected to any suitable final rotation, provided the above classification of factors into (i) and (ii) is preserved. The general coordinate‐free solution of the problem is obtained with the help of methods pertaining to the theory of linear spaces. The actual numerical analysis determined by the coordinate‐free solution turns out to be a generalization of the formalism of canonical correlation analysis for two sets of variables. A numerical example is provided.
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF STUDENT ATTITUDES IN THE PRIMARY GRADES
Authors: Cohen Sandra R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn exploratory study was carried out to investigate the feasibility of using a structured projective interview to study the attitudes that children in the primary grades have about school and about teachers. One hundred and twelve first‐ and second‐graders in seven schools were shown a series of specially prepared sketches depicting teacher‐child or child‐child interaction in the classroom; they were asked to tell what had led up to the pictured situation or what would happen next.Responses were studied both in terms of overt content and in terms of underlying attitudes that they were believed to be revealing. Fourteen of 24 items were judged independently by four judges. The other items were judged by the investigator. Judges showed a very high percentage of agreement in their scoring: at least three of the four agreed in 92% of the responses judged.Items that were believed to be tapping aspects of the same underlying attitudes generally showed modest but significant correlations with each other and zero correlation with items believed to be unrelated. Responses to items did not differ according to the sex, grade, or socioeconomic background of the respondent. However, children in an urban slum school gave a greater number of responses expressing violence than did children in other schools.Children showed a high degree of responsiveness to the interview with virtually no refusals to respond; however, in many cases, skilled and patient interviewing was needed to obtain complete protocols. It was concluded that while a technique of this type probably cannot presently be considered suitable for mass administration as part of large‐scale evaluation programs, its further development as a research tool may be warranted.
COLLEGE DECISIONS ON ADVANCED PLACEMENT: I. A FOLLOW‐UP OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT CANDIDATES OF 1963
Authors: Casserly Patricia L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe results of a mail survey of all colleges and universities that received May 1963 A. P. score reports are presented in this, the first of two reports dealing with College Decisions on Advanced Placement. The report is based on tabulations of returns from 90% of the colleges questioned and represents over 97% of the potential candidates involved.Previous studies carried out by Educational Testing Service and elsewhere had indicated considerable variability in awards of placement and/or credit in relation to A.P. examination score. There were indications that the variability might be related to regional differences or the relative volume of A. P. candidates at colleges as well as a product of differences across subject matter fields. Therefore, the data were analyzed to test these tentative hypotheses.Differences across and within individual colleges proved to be the greatest source of variability. In comparison, differences across regions, college groups (as determined by the number of 1963 A.P. candidates) and subject fields were found to be of minor importance.Data on awards of placement and credit to students who had not participated in the formal A. P. Program were also collected and compared with data for the formal A. P. candidates. Although approximately three times as many non‐A.P. students were given some positive college action, our tabulations showed that only 27% of this group were given recognition carrying credit, whereas the achievement of 75% of A. P. students who gained any reward for college level work done in secondary school was recognized by awards of placement and credit or credit alone.In the appendices of this report are tables which present the relation of A. P. examination score to various college actions by region, college group and subject matter fields.
DOUBLE ALTERNATION IN CHILDREN'S BINARY CHOICE RESPONSES1
Authors: Rosenhan David 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe presence of significant amounts of double alternation in a 70:30 binary choice problem is demonstrated among first‐grade children as a function of positive reinforcement and of instructions that stress only correct responses. Evidence supports the notion that Ss understood the response behavior required of them, but nevertheless persisted in this stereotyped response. Like single alternation, double alternation poses problems for various learning theories. However, the hypotheses advanced to account for single alternation do not appear to explain double alternation. A partial and cognitive explanation that assumes that Ss impose complexity on what they perceive to be a boring task is offered.
TESTING A MODEL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS1
Authors: Hermann Margaret G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA model of stress drawn from work by Lazarus and his associates was explored. The model suggests, first, that the more motivated individuals are to achieve a goal, the more likely they are to perceive the goal as threatened when potentially threatening stimuli are directed toward it. Second, the more motivated individuals are to achieve goals they perceive are threatened, the more negative affect they experience. And, third, the more negative affect they experience, the greater are their attempts to cope with it.These three hypotheses were tested in a simulation of international politics in which Ss assumed the roles of national decision makers. Usable Ss were 163 Navy Petty Officers. Each S was instructed to assist his government in achieving specified goals. Threats, differing in intensity and decision time, were directed toward these national goals by six experimental situations introduced into the simulation activities. The Ss rated their goal motivation before each intervention and recorded their feelings after each situation. Participation in reacting to the experimental situation was used as a general measure of coping behavior.The analysis used those experimental interventions that the Ss perceived to threaten one of their goals and which aroused high, moderate, and low negative affect. These data supported the first and third hypotheses but not the second. Increases in motivation were not associated with increases in negative affect. Differences in negative affect appeared to be a function of the characteristics of the threat. Related to increases in negative affect were generalization of threat to other goals, a tendency to increase motivation in the threatened goal, and higher post‐threat motivation.The implications of the results for the model of stress were discussed.
ALONENESS AND TOGETHERNESS AS DRIVE CONDITIONS IN CHILDREN1
Authors: Rosenhan David 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn order to examine the effects of aloneness (social deprivation) and togetherness (social satiation) on the subsequent responsiveness of children to reinforcers, younger and older Ss were socially deprived or satiated and then exposed to either positive or negative, social or nonsocial reinforcement The findings indicate that socially deprived children are indifferent to the valence of the subsequent reinforcement, so long as it is social. Socially satiated children are subsequently most responsive to nonsocial reinforcement (or pure information). The findings are more consistent with a drive than an anxiety interpretation of social deprivation. Additional findings indicate that younger children respond more to negative reinforcement, while older children show a strong preference for positive reinforcement. The results are examined for their implications for theories of social drives, and for the limitations they set on the development of problem‐solving behavior.
DIMENSIONS FOR EVALUATING ART PRODUCTS1,2
Authors: Klein Stephen P. , Skager Rodney W. , Schultz Charles. B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFaculty at a school of design assigned a drawing problem to 191 student artists. Seven expert judges evaluated the drawings on three dimensions: (1) general preference, (2) technical facility, and (3) “involvement.” The correlations between the average ratings on each dimension were .91, .95, and .97. The reliability of the preference ratings was .92. It was concluded that an assessment of a drawing's quality was not improved by considering separately dimensions other than simple preference.
A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MATHEMATICAL SECTIONS OF THE SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST1
Authors: Pruzek Robert M. , Coffman William E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the research reported here was to explore ways of generating a factor pattern from interrelationships among items. The basic data consisted of tetrachoric correlations among the 60 items in the mathematical sections of one form of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Two methods of factoring and four methods of analytical rotation were compared.The factoring methods were: (1) a factoring of the tetrachoric correlation matrix with squared multiple correlations as communality estimates, the R ‐ S2 matrix, and (2) a principal axis factoring of the tetrachoric covariance matrix using communality estimates obtained by an iterative procedure. The rotations were the varimax, the equamax, the promax, and an oblique rotation recently described by Harris and Kaiser.All methods produced compatible results; however, the clearest simple structure resulted when the first 11 factors extracted from the R ‐ S2 matrix were rotated to oblique simple structure by the oblique rotation described by Harris and Kaiser. Six factors were interpreted: geometric interpretation, computation, speed, arithmetic reasoning, data sufficiency, and rules.
PLEASANT AND UNPLEASANT VIOLATIONS OF EXPECTANCIES1
Authors: Lamb Patricia F. , Singer Jerome E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwo experiments are reported which test the hypothesis that the disconfirmation of an expectancy is unpleasant. In Experiment I, Ss in two groups–Expectancy Confirmed and Expectancy Disconfirmed–tasted quinine and sugar solutions. Contrary to predictions, quinine was judged more pleasant when tasted unexpectedly. In Experiment II, the 2 × 2 × 2 design varied Importance, Confirmation, and Solution. For one solution, a significant Importance x Confirmation interaction was demonstrated; Ss in the Importance condition found disconfirmation unpleasant while those in the Unimportance condition found it pleasant. Results are interpreted in relation to dissonance theory and need for variety.
“SPONTANEITY VS. DELIBERATENESS” AS A DIMENSION OF ESTHETIC JUDGMENT1
Authors: Klein Stephen P. , Skager Rodney W. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe authors' previous research indicated that there were two major viewpoints among experts as to what constituted quality in a drawing. It was hypothesized that these viewpoints were related to the distinction between “spontaneous” and “deliberate” drawing styles. To investigate this hypothesis, drawings rated high and low by the experts holding each viewpoint were sorted by laymen into a “spontaneous” or a “deliberate” pile. A partitioning of the total chi‐square indicated that one of the viewpoints was highly related to this distinction and that even though laymen and experts do not agree on what constitutes quality, laymen could easily adopt an orientation that permitted such agreement.
EFFECTIVENESS OF PSAT AND SAT BOOKLETS III. A DESCRIPTION OF THE COLLEGE BOARD SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST
Authors: Halpern Gerald , Sasajima Masu 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA questionnaire was developed and distributed to over 500 students in 19 different schools. The purpose of the questionnaire was to evaluate the effectiveness of A Description of the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test. Additional information was obtained on school practices in handling this booklet.It was concluded that the booklet has been found to be both understandable and attractive to most of the students who participated in this study. These 17 questions which were scored were, on the average, answered correctly by about 70% of the students. Booklet comprehension was associated with scholastic aptitude. Several of the facts and concepts presented (e.g., when to guess, order of difficulty of the items) were misunderstood by the students and should be revised in later editions of the booklet.
AN INVESTIGATION OF ITEM BIAS1
Authors: Cleary T. Anne , Hilton Thomas L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFor this research, bias was defined as an item x group interaction. Grade 12 students in integrated high schools who had taken two forms of the PSAT were divided into two races and three socioeconomic levels within the races. Four analyses of variance were performed: one for the Verbal section and one for the Mathematical section of each of the two forms of the PSAT. Because of the large sample sizes used, the tested effects were expected to be and were significant. However, only a minimal percentage of the total variance was contributed by the item x group interactions. On this basis, it was concluded that, if PSAT scores are discriminatory, the discrimination is not largely attributable to particular items, but to the test as a whole.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ACQUIESCENCE: AN INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH EVIDENCE1
Authors: Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper reviews evidence pertaining to the operation of acquiescent response style in psychological tests and to the possible interpretation of acquiescence as a personality variable. Acquiescence was initially conceptualized in terms of consistent individual differences in the probability of agreeing with items that subjects are at a loss to answer, either because they lack knowledge or because they are uncertain about the meaning of the item or because they cannot evaluate the desirability of the response. In addition to this agreement tendency, an acceptance tendency was empirically differentiated and conceptualized in terms of consistent individual differences in the tendency to accept many heterogeneous characteristics as descriptive of the self.
MEASURING ARTISTIC CREATIVITY AND FLEXIBILITY1
Authors: Klein Stephen , Skager Rodney , Erlebacher Walter 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between flexibility and artistic ability. To achieve this end, students (N = 92) at a school of design were asked to draw the same thing twice, once using one mode of organization and again using an opposite mode. The rated dissimilarity between each S's drawings provided a behavioral measure of flexibility. The Ss also took three tests that supposedly measured various facets of flexibility. Indices of artistic ability included grades in fine arts courses and the rated quality of the Ss' drawings in both modes and on a drawing problem assigned earlier in the semester. The results indicated that only the behavioral measure of flexibility was positively related to indices of artistic ability. The implications of these findings are discussed.
FITTING THE FACTOR ANALYSIS MODEL
Authors: Browne Michael W. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWhen the covariance matrix Σ(p × p) does not satisfy the formal factor analysis model for m factors, there will be no factor matrix Δ(p × m) such that is diagonal. The factor analysis model may then be replaced by a tautology where is regarded as the co‐variance matrix of a set of “residual variates.” These residual variates are linear combinations of “discarded” common factors and unique factors and are correlated. Maximum likelihood, alpha and iterated principal factor analysis are compared in terms of the manner in which is defined, a “maximum determinant” derivation for alpha factor analysis being given. Weighted least squares solutions using residual variances and common variances as weights are derived for comparison with the maximum likelihood and alpha solutions. It is shown that the covariance matrix defined by maximum likelihood factor analysis is Gramian provided that all diagonal elements are nonnegative. Other methods can define a which is non‐Gramian even when all diagonal elements are nonnegative.
COINS IN THE KETTLE: MODELS AND DONATION BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Bryan James H. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwo experiments assessing the effects of altruistic models upon subsequent helping behaviors were conducted. The sites of the experiments were the parking lots of two large department stores located in either Princeton or Trenton, New Jersey. Shoppers served as the Ss. Ss in the model condition were exposed to a collaborator of E who, at certain fixed intervals, contributed money to the Salvation Army by throwing a nickel into the Army's kettle. Following the contribution, the subsequent number of donors who then contributed within the next 20‐second (Experiment 1) or 30‐second interval (Experiment 2) were tallied. Ss in the no‐model condition were not exposed to E's donating collaborator, although they may have been exposed to other donors. The number of donors within the appropriate time intervals were tallied. One model and one no‐model observational period occurred every minute.Results of both experiments strongly support the hypothesis that altruistic models will affect the subsequent aiding behaviors of the observers.