bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Parmenion
Authors: Heckel Waldemar 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Parmenion, son of Philotas, was Macedon's foremost general during the reigns of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander III, The Great. Born ca. 400
bce
, Parmenion was the father of the hipparch (cavalry commander) Philotas and of Nikanor, who commanded the hypaspists (shield‐bearers: the elite of the infantry). Attalos, the uncle of Philip's last wife, Cleopatra Eurydice, was Parmenion's son‐in‐law, and his liquidation at the end of 335 was Parmenion's guarantee of loyalty. In 334 he transported most of the infantry and cavalry from Sestos to Abydos, and at the beginning of the Persian campaign he commanded the infantry: twelve thousand Macedonians, seven thousand allies, and five thousand mercenaries. Parmenion's contribution to the great victories at the GRANIKOS and ISSOS are obscured by the tendency of Alexander historians to focus on the achievements of the king, who led the attack on the right; Parmenion was instructed to maintain a defensive position on the Macedonian left. At Gaugamela some hostile writers went so far as to blame the old general for Alexander's failure to capture the Great King after the latter had turned in flight. In 330 Parmenion was left in ECBATANA (HAMA‐DAN), as Alexander pushed on in pursuit of Darius; although it appears that he was to rejoin the king at a later point, Alexander decided to leave him behind, once he realized that the forthcoming campaign would require mobility and would be less dependent on heavy infantry.
Peisistratos
Authors: Lewis Sian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPeisistratos (c. 600–527bce) ruledAthensas tyrant for twenty years; he made Athens prosperous and successful, and his rule is said by Aristotle to have been considered a golden age (Ath. Pol. 16.7). Yet the democratic ideology which emerged after the fall of thetyrannyled to Peisistratos' political and architectural legacy being devalued in the Athenian tradition.
Phalanx (Macedonian)
Authors: Sekunda Nicholas V. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Macedonian phalanx was a typical Greek hoplite phalanx until the emergency reforms of Philip II in 359/8bce; even then, essentially, the only things that changed were the use of a different type of spear, the use of different types of shields, and the greater level of training, which allowed for a greater range of tactical formation.
Philosophy, Classical Greece
Authors: Napolitano Linda 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe termphilosophiaemerges from a testimony about Pythagoras, who, after reaching the Egyptians and becoming their disciple, allegedly brought back to the Greeks, “first among men, the study of every kind ofphilosophy” (DK 14 A 4) – a study he interpreted religiously. This eastern origin has been the object of a long and yet unresolved argument: it is, however, likely that a transplant of such knowledge into Greece entailed a wholly new interpretation.
Satraps' revolt
Authors: Facella Margherita 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFor the year 362–361BCEDiodorus (15.90.1–92.5) reports that the inhabitants of the Asiatic coast, together with some of the Satraps, rose up against the Persian king, Artaxerxes II, in what is conventionally called the “great satraps' revolt.”
Selinous
Authors: De Vido Stefania 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Selinous, a Greek colony on the southern coast of Sicily, was founded by Megara Hyblaea (in 627
BCE
: Thuc. 6.4.1–2; in 650
BCE
: Diod. Sic. 13.59.4): the first generation of colonists occupied the entire urban area, and in a short time the
Polis
extended its boundaries from the Mazaro River (
Emporion
: Diod. Sic. 11.86.2) to Minoa (
apoikia
of Selinous: Hdt. 5.46.2).
Social War, Classical Greece
Authors: Dreher Martin 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Social War was a military conflict betweenATHENSand her allies in the Second Athenian Confederacy (seeATHENIAN CONFEDERACY, SECOND). It lasted from 357 to 355BCEand weakened the position of Athens in the Greek world. Our main source,DIODORUS OF SICILY, already uses the phrase “social war” (16.7.3:polemon symmachikon).
Tagos
Authors: Sprawski Sławomir 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Tagos
was the name of a city official in
THESSALY
and in various regions of central (e.g.,
DELPHI
) and northern Greece (e.g., Mieza and Tyrissa:
SEG
47.999). In Thessaly a board of
tagoi
is attested for the first time in Atrax, in the late sixth century
BCE
(
SEG
45.553). Until the end of the fourth century they seem to have been minor officials, although their precise functions are difficult to determine. Some believe that they were responsible for the mobilization of citizens and served as commanders of military detachments (Helly 1995). From ca. 300
BCE
they are attested as chief magistrates in various Thessalian cities. They are always listed in groups or
collegia
, frequently of five, although their numbers vary between cities.
Zaleukos of Lokroi
Authors: Papakonstantinou Zinon 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Zaleukos was a lawgiver of Lokroi Epizephyrioi. Ephoros (
FGrH
70 F 139) maintains that he was the first to introduce written laws, and late chronographers suggest that he was active in the mid‐seventh century
BCE
. Although the date might be approximately accurate, many details about his life as transmitted by late traditions of dubious value are almost certainly spurious creations.
Brasidas
Authors: Powell Anton 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBrasidas (d. 422bce) was Sparta's most influential commander in the Archidamian War (431–421) against Athens Our main source, the Athenian historian and general Thucydides, was outmaneuvered by Brasidas at Amphipolis in 424 and exiled in consequence. But if he was biased concerning Brasidas, it was through excess of respect. Brasidas was a rarity (“a good speaker ‐ for a Spartan,” Thuc. 4.84). Yet sparta repeatedly trusted Brasidas for vital campaigns; his career reveals Spartan military values in general.
Dokimastes, dokimasia
Authors: Tiersch Claudia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDokimasiawas an examination procedure in ancient Greekpoleis. The best documented case fordokimasiais Athens, not only as a result of the privileged sources, but as a consequence of the developed procedures of Athenian democracy.Dokimasiain Athens was applied to several different matters: (1) to prove the quality of measures and coinage (IGII2 1492 B, 102; 137); (2) to test the ability of knights and mariners ([Arist.]Ath.
Petra papyri
Authors: Frösén Jaakko 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The discovery of the remnants of ca. 140 charred papyrus rolls during the excavations of the Petra church in 1993 substantially expanded our knowledge of the Byzantine city. At the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century
CE
, a fire destroyed the church, also affecting the room where the papyri were kept.
Trade, Roman
Authors: Williams D. F. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRoman trade was multi‐faceted and existed on several different levels. It produced complex patterns of commercial activity in many ways atypical of a pre‐industrial state, many of which are not entirely understood today. Trade was generally considered an unfitting activity for the aristocracy and propertied classes of ancient Rome, whose main ambitions lay in the acquisition of land and the status in society which this gave them.
Hermopolis Magna (Greco‐Roman)
Authors: Maehler Herwig 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Hermopolis Magna, whose modern name el‐Ashmunein is derived through Coptic
Shmûn
from the original Kmunu (“City of the Eight”
sc
. gods), is situated on the west bank of the Nile some 40 km south of el‐Minia and 7 km north of Mellawi.
Katoikoi
Authors: Fischer‐Bovet Christelle 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThekatoikoiare the “inhabitants” of a place (Arist.Oec. 1352a33), the noun being synonymous with the participial formkatoikountes, while akatoikiais a “settlement” or “colony” (village or town) lacking the status or the institutions of aPolisor “city” (Polyb. 2.32.4; Strabo 7.4.4).
Libelli
Authors: Hirt Marguerite 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThelibellifrom Roman Egypt, also known as certificates of sacrifice, were applications or petitions to a specially constituted commission to certify that the applicant had demonstrated constant religious conformity, and had complied with the edict of the emperor Trajan Decius (249–51CE). Promulgated in Rome around December 249, shortly after Decius' accession, the edict ordered all subjects of the empire, women and children included, to publicly sacrifice to the gods, pour a libation, and taste the offerings. The official certification took the form of an official subscription added to the end of the application.
Names, personal, Egyptian
Authors: Clarysse Willy 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Both Greeks and Egyptians identified themselves by a single name, to which could be added the name of their father; the Roman
tria nomina
, not discussed here, used a different system. Mothers' names are used in religious and magical contexts, and become a common feature of full identification in the Roman period. Names are usually either masculine or feminine: unisex names are non‐existent in Greek, and rare in Egyptian (e.g., Herieus, Stotoetis).
Ostraca, Greco‐Roman Egypt
Authors: Cowey James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Ostracon (ὄστρακον) is the term used to describe a potsherd with writing on it. This material was prolific owing to the widespread use of pots for storage and transport. They cannot, of course, be recycled, so reuse was an obvious choice. Such writing material was used throughout various parts of the Greek and Roman world and had already been in use in Egypt before the Ptolemaic period. Ostraca thus cover a timespan of well over one thousand years from the sixth century
BCE
to the eighth century
CE
. Broken Athenian glazed pottery was used by scratching through the glaze in order to write on the pieces.
Panopolis
Authors: Van Rengen Wilfried 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPanopolis, modern Akhmim, was a major Greek city on the eastern bank of the Nile in Upper Egypt, some 450 km south of Cairo. It has an uninterrupted history of about 6,000 years. In Greco‐Roman times it was an important focus of Hellenistic culture, later a stronghold of paganism and traditional Egyptian religion, but also one of the centers from which Christianity and Coptic monastic life spread in Egypt.
Amplificatio (auxesis)
Authors: Longley Georgina M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAmplificatio(auxesis) or “magnifying” was the convention employed to express and emphasize the importance of a work, a chosen topic or a particular theme, point, or fact. In rhetoric,auxesiswas anexornatio, “adornment/embellishment,” employed to create emotional effect—to move, persuade, and convince the audience.
Constitution of the Athenians, [Aristotle]
Authors: Rhodes P.J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheConstitution of the Atheniansis the only surviving work from a collection of 158Constitutions (Politeiai)written in Aristotle's school in the fourth centuryBCE: it comprises a history of the constitution itself, down to the end of the fifth century, and an account of how it worked at the time of writing.
Hirtius, Aulus
Authors: Fronda Michael P. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAulus Hirtius (ca. 90–43BCE) was a staunch supporter of Caesar, one of the core group of the Caesarians whom Cicero called by the deicticisti(“those men”). He was also an author of some note. Hirtius' political career owed much to Caesar's patronage. He served as Caesar's legate in Gaul in the late 50s, and he later served with Caesar in Spain (49) and Antioch (47). He was praetor (46), governor in Gaul (45), and finally he was designated consul for the following year by Caesar in 44. During his consulship (43), Hirtius, along with his colleague C. Vibius Pansa and with young Octavian, raised Mark Antony's siege of Mutina. Hirtius died during this campaign.
Suetonius
Authors: Rutledge Steven H. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (ca. 69–121
CE
) was born sometime between 69 and 75 to an equestrian father, Suetonius Laetus, tribune of the thirteenth legion at the Battle of Bedriacum during the civil war of 69 (Suetonius
Otho
10.1).
Agron, Illyrian
Authors: Šašel Kos Marjeta 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Agron, son of Pleuratos (a common Illyrian name), came from the royal house of the Ardiaioi. In the period before 230
BCE
, he reconquered southern Illyria, which had since Pyrrhos belonged to Epirus, and also brought under his dominion Corcyra, Epidamnos, and Pharos.
Amphictyony, Delphic
Authors: Sánchez Pierre 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Pylaeo‐Delphic Amphictyony (from
amphi + ktiones
, “those dwelling around”) was a religious association of the
ethne
of northern and central Greece, which was in charge of the two sanctuaries of Demeter at Anthela, near Thermopylai, and of Apollo at Delphi.
Cappadocia
Authors: Michels Christoph 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCappadocia extended in antiquity from the Taurus mountain range to the southern Black Sea coast, bordering Paphlagonia and Phrygia at the Halys River and Lake Tatta in the west, Kolchis, Armenia, and the upper Euphrates in the east, and Cilicia and Kommagene in the south.
Deiotaros of Galatia
Authors: Coşkun Altay 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDeiotaros (ca. 120–41/40BCE) was the most important Galatian ruler and the leading ally of the Romans in Asia Minor of his time. He succeeded his father Sinorix (Ogis I 347) as tetrarch of the Tolistobogii, whose territory included the castles of Blukion and Peion north of the Sangarius bend, and the region around Gordion (Strabo 12.3.13, 12.5.1f.).
Democracy, Hellenistic
Authors: Grieb Volker 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDemocracy as a constitution was widespread in Hellenistic times. The term itself characterizes first of all a specific form of institutional organization that had developed in city‐states in the Classical period and in which the citizens' assembly was the central institution. However, Hellenistic democracies in particular could differ from each other to a considerable degree, with a strong and independent rule of thedemos, the citizen body, in some places and a more oligarchic character in others.
Genthios, Illyrian king
Authors: Kos Marjeta Šašel 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAccording to Appian, the center of the kingdom of the last “Illyrian” king Genthios (early second centuryBCE) was different from that of Agron and Pinnes (III. 9.25); and indeed, as is known from Livy, Genthios reigned among the Labeates (43.19.3), who had the capital near Labeatis Lacus.
Hekatomnids
Authors: Müller Sabine 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The dynasty of the Hekatomnids provided the satraps of Caria in southwestern Asia Minor in the fourth century
BCE
. Originally a member of a local dynasty from Mylasa, Hekatomnos was installed as satrap by Artaxerxes II in 392/1 (Diod. Sic. 14.98.3), when Caria became a separate satrapy.
Herodas
Authors: Petrovic Ivana 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Herodas was active in the first half of the third century
BCE
. Apart from what we can gather from his poetry, nothing is known about his life. His entire extant opus — seven complete poems ranging in length from 85 to 129 lines and fragments of two more — was preserved on a papyrus published in 1891. Like other Hellenistic poets, Herodas experimented with traditional genres and combined mime and iambos, thus creating a new genre called
mimiambus
.
Lamian War
Authors: Wallace Shane 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Lamian War (323–322BCE) was fought between the Macedonian governor of Europe, Antipater, and an alliance of Greek states under Athens. It ended with the introduction of oligarchies and garrisons throughout Greece, including Athens. Our main sources are Diodorus of Sicily (17.109, 111, 18.8–18), Plutarch (Phoc. 23–9, Dem. 27–31), and numerous Athenian inscriptions (see below).
Laodike, wife of Anxtiochos II
Authors: Mittag Peter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Laodike (dates of birth and death unknown) was the daughter of Achaios according to Porphyry (
FGrH
260 F 32.6; for Laodike as daughter of Antiochos I Soter, see Polyaenus
Stmt
. 8.50) and married the future king Antiochos II Theos, probably in 266
BCE
.
Roxane
Authors: Carney Elizabeth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRoxane (ca. 345–ca. 310BCE), daughter of the Bactrian noble and later satrap Oxyartes, married Alexander the Great in 328/7 and bore him a son, Alexander IV, only a few months after his death in 323 (Curt. 10.6.9; Just.Epit. 13.2.5).
Seleukos IV Philopator
Authors: Ehling Kay 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Seleukos IV Philopator (as is his byname in
OGIS
247) was the second son of Antiochos III Megas and Laodike, daughter of Mithradates of Pontos, and was born after 220
BCE
. In 196, his father gave him the task to rebuild the city of Lysimacheia, located on the Thracian Chersonese, which was supposed to become the future residence of the European part of the Seleucid empire (Polyb. 18.51.8; Livy 35.15.5).
Skerdilaidas
Authors: Antonetti Claudia , Matijašić Ivan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Skerdilaidas (Livy:
Scerdilaedus
), ruler of the Illyrian Labeatai, was a relative of Agron and the father of Pleuratos (Šašel Kos 2002: 146). He played an important role in the political affairs of the late third century
BCE
.
Spartokids
Authors: Wallace Shane 
Published: December 2012

AbstractKnown in antiquity as “the Leukonidai” (Ael.VH6.13) or “the dynasty of Leukon, Satyros, and Pairisades” (Strabo 7.4.4), the Spartokids were a dynasty of Thracian origin centered on the city Pantikapaion.
Herakleides Lembos
Authors: Gray B. D. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Herakleides Lembos wrote and compiled works on history and philosophy. He was probably identical with a second‐century
BCE
government official under Ptolemy VI Philometor, whose political prominence is evident from his role in negotiating peace between Ptolemy VI and Antiochos IV Epiphanes in 169 (Suda).
Aelius Aristides
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPublius Aelius Aristides (117–ca. 180CE) was an Antonine Sophist active in Asia Minor, and is by far the best preserved of those catalogued by Philostratus in hisLives of the Sophists. His multi‐faceted corpus gives us a detailed glimpse of intellectual and political life in the Antonine age, particularly from a Greek perspective.
Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus)
Authors: Gibson Bruce 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, as he was called after adoption by his maternal uncle, Gaius Plinius Secundus, probably in his will, was born in 61 or 62CE(since he was seventeen when Vesuvius erupted in 79;Ep. 6.20.5), and both sides of his family belonged to the local aristocracy of Comum in northern Italy.
Adiabene, ruling dynasty of
Authors: Witakowski Witold 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAdiabene (Hadyab, Syriac:Hedayyab) was a minor kingdom in northern Mesopotamia, east of the Tigris, between the Upper and Lower Zab, its main city being Arbela. It occasionally included other areas to the west, north (Gordyene), and northwest (Nisibis).
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, Jewish
Authors: Henze Matthias 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe terms “Apocrypha” and “Pseudepigrapha” have both been used loosely to designate collections of ancient Jewish books that are similar to the biblical books in content, language, and form but have not been unanimously accepted into the biblical canons. Since the lack of a clear definition has led to some confusion, it is important first to define each term and then to discuss the literature it subsumes.
Bar Kokhba, Shim'on
Authors: Bilde Per 
Published: December 2012

AbstractShime'on Bar Kokhba was a Palestinian Jew living in the second centuryCE. He appears to have been the undisputed leader of the second Jewish revolt in Palestine against the Romans (132–5), and for that reason, he has been a major hero in Jewish history, in particular in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Marks 1994).
Gamaliel II, Rabban
Authors: Oppenheimer Aharon 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Rabban Gamaliel was the prime Jewish leader of the Yavneh period, replacing Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai at the head of the rabbinical leadership institution, the
Beit ha‐Va'ad
(
Sanhedrin
in the Babylonian Talmud) around 96‐115
CE
.
Johanan ben Zakkai, Rabbi
Authors: Raphael Blumenthal , Steven Fine 
Published: December 2012

AbstractJohanan ben Zakkai (first centuryCE) was a rabbinic sage and leader in Roman Judaea near the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70CE. The Jews had a long history of dwelling under the hegemony of greater powers. After the end of the Davidic Dynasty, they fell beneath the shadow of a succession of overlords, whether near or far: Babylonians, Persians, Ptolemies, Seleucids, and Romans. A form of autonomy existed briefly for the Jews in the time of the Hasmoneans and Herod, but even that was cramped by the need to peer regularly over their shoulders at, and seek the collaboration of, either Seleucids or Romans. Under the circumstances, how would Jews formulate and express a sense of their own identity in the larger world of the Mediterranean and Near East – where they regularly played a subordinate role?
Manasseh, Prayer of
Authors: Leicht Reimund 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The Prayer of Manasseh is a short penitential prayer attributed to the Judaean king, who did repentance after his deportation to Babylon and was (according to 2 Chron 33:13, 18–19) ultimately restored to his kingship (differently in 2 Kgs 21 and 24).
Phocylides, Pseudo‐(Jewish author)
Authors: Rotman Youval 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheSentences,an ethical moral code of conduct in the form of a gnomic poem, was written in didactic hexameters of 230 verses in Ionian dialect and cites as its author Phocylides of Miletos (middle of the sixth centuryBCE). The text is, however, later than this and was written in a Hellenistic‐Jewish milieu which some scholars date to 30BCEto 40CE. Although it is normally defined as a Hellenistic gnomic text, its combination of references to Old Testament rules together with Hellenistic ethics and ideas about the afterlife makes it a one‐of‐a‐kind text and raises questions about its authorship.
Politeuma
Authors: Cowey James 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe term politeuma (πoλíτευμα) is attested in literary sources (e.g., Attic orators, Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus). It is used to refer to a number of different political concepts: political activity as such, but also specific political activities and action, form of government, the power of state or government, a constitutional form. Documentary evidence from inscriptions and papyri offers many specific examples, the earliest of which come from the end of the fourth centuryBCEand survive until the first centuryCE.
Septuagint
Authors: Aitken James K. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Septuagint as the Jewish translation into Greek of the Old Testament provides both an extensive example of literary translation in antiquity and one of the largest pieces of Hellenistic Greek writing. The Septuagint, a term coined to reflect the legend of “seventy” translators, originally applied to the translation from Hebrew of the first five books, the Pentateuch.
Shemoneh Esreh (Jewish daily prayer)
Authors: McClister David 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Shemoneh Esreh (literally meaning “eighteen”) is a Jewish liturgical, communal prayer which actually consists of nineteen parts. It is also known as the
Amidah
(literally “standing,” because of the posture in which it is recited) or the
Tefillah
(“the prayer,”
par excellence
).
Tax, Jewish (fiscus Judaicus)
Authors: Curran John 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFollowing the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70CE, Vespasian ordered that the two‐drachmas/half‐shekel tax (thefiscus Judaicus) traditionally paid by Jews to fund its upkeep should be diverted to pay for the reconstruction of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in Rome and the subsequent cult at the site (Jos.BJ7.218; Cass. Dio 66.7.2).