bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Development of Achievement Motivation and Engagement
Authors: Wigfield Allan , Eccles Jacquelynne S. , Fredricks Jennifer A. , Simpkins Sandra , Roeser Robert W. , Schiefele Ulrich 
Published: March 2015

AbstractIn this chapter we review the research on the development of children's motivation and engagement. We organize our review into four major sections: the development of children's achievement motivation; gender, cultural, and ethnic differences in children's motivation; socialization of motivation in the family; and socialization of motivation in school. We take a social‐cognitive expectancy‐value theoretical perspective to organize our discussion of this work. We first discuss the development of children's motivation and engagement and take another look at the often‐observed decline in motivation, focusing on new work showing different patterns in these declines among different groups of children. We also discuss how children's motivation relates to their performance and choice, two kinds of outcomes of major importance to children's healthy development. The second major section discusses gender, ethnic, and cultural differences in children's motivation and the important advances researchers have made in understanding these over the past 10 years.In the family and school socialization sections we focus on processes by which parents, teachers, and schools can impact children's motivation both positively and negatively. We note the similarities of these processes across socializers: Providing appropriate challenges and emotional warmth and support, and having high expectations for children. We discuss the need for more integrative studies of how parents and also teachers impact children's motivation. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of important future directions: A continuing focus on culture and motivation, further examination of motivation in specific domains and contexts, a stronger focus on biological influences on the development of motivation, and a consideration of unconscious processes and their impact on the development of motivation.
Origins and Development of Morality
Authors: Killen Melanie , Smetana Judith G. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractOrigins and Development of MoralityMorality is a central aspect of social life and has been at the core of psychological theories for more than a century. The scientific study of morality poses enduring questions about how individual psychological needs for autonomy and attachment to groups and society can be met while also ensuring the integrity, dignity, and fair treatment of others. Drawing on philosophy, biology, anthropology, and sociology, developmental scientists have addressed these questions by studying the origins and acquisition of morality as well as the sources and nature of change. We provide a brief review of the theories that provided the foundation for research over the past half‐century and then reflect on the controversies and misconceptions that still exist. We review current psychological research on the developmental roots of morality, morality and mental state knowledge, and moral judgments and reasoning. We also examine the various contexts, ranging from the family and peer groups to society, in which moral development occurs. The rich and growing literature on children's moral judgments has demonstrated that children's concepts of harm, resource allocation, fair and equal treatment of others, social inequities, and rights each develop from a very focused and narrow form in early childhood to their application to broader situational and cultural contexts. As they grow older, children become able to weigh and coordinate competing concerns in different contexts as they apply their moral judgments and emotions to social situations. We conclude with implications and directions for research. Throughout the chapter, we demonstrate how the study of morality has shed light on fundamental topics in developmental science, contributed novel methods, and discovered new knowledge about child development.
Development of the Self
Authors: Spencer Margaret Beale , Swanson Dena Phillips , Harpalani Vinay 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
Conceptualized as having salience for well‐being, the social, economic and cultural realities and complexities evident in 21st‐century North America are seen as central foundational themes for understanding “the self.” This chapter offers and extends traditional considerations of self‐processes to include the implications of social inequalities experienced in the early decades of life. It does so by focusing on racial and socioeconomic inequities, along with social and cultural complexities that compound these inequalities. While researchers have conceptualized these inequities as having salience for well‐being, this chapter extends theorizing about the self to incorporate these themes. It integrates racial and socioeconomic inequity with traditional theories of self‐processes. Given the growing racial and ethnic diversity occurring across the world, there is a need for developmental psychologists—and social scientists more generally—to place racial and economic inequality at the forefront, even when studying self‐appraisals as an individual psychological phenomenon.
This chapter draws from a life‐span developmental perspective, but it especially focuses on adolescence, when self‐consciousness is heightened and self‐processes are most salient. The breadth of normative developmental influences on self‐processes makes the exploration of cross‐domain manifestations, such as health, education, and juvenile justice, exceedingly important. Patterned disparities and assumptions about self‐processes are highlighted, particularly as relevant for diverse groups who share the same physical space. Self‐processes are discussed as they are linked to evaluative judgments about body image, color awareness, social status, nativity, faith group, and gender bias. All of these attributes impact the self as a function of the individual's developmental status. In light of these themes, this chapter examines historical perspectives regarding self‐development and presents contemporary conceptualizations of self‐processes with specific attention to race and gender as visible characteristics. It presents these issues are particularly salient particularly for youth, because they reinforce societal expectations that shape conditions for privilege or marginalization.
Friendships, Romantic Relationships, and Peer Relationships
Authors: Furman Wyndol , Rose Amanda J. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThis chapter reviews the current state of the literature on children and adolescents' dyadic peer relationships. Particular emphasis is placed on children and adolescents' same‐sex friendships and romantic relationships, but research on other‐sex friendships, antipathies, passionate friendships, and sexual relationships are covered as well. The chapter uses a unified relational perspective, which has four key points. First, friendships and romantic relationships need to be studied as relationships. They are dyadic phenomena with a history. Second, children and adolescents' friendships, romantic relationships, and other peer relationships all share common features. They have been studied as separate phenomena and typically by different investigators, but the field would benefit by simultaneously considering all of these types of relationships. Third, any particular relationship is embedded in a network of dyadic relationships. Finally, dyadic peer relationships cannot be understood without incorporating the contexts in which they occur, such as the general peer group, family, and culture.Using this unified relational perspective, the chapter reviews research on the development of dyadic relationships, the role of the self and partner and gender. The chapter then discusses the associations with family relationships, the peer group, media, and the cultural context in which they are embedded. The links between relationships and adjustment are also covered. The chapter also outlines a number of definitional, conceptual, methodological, and analytical issues that need to be addressed in future research, and identifies a number of understudied topics. It concludes by discussing the merits of the unified relational perspective.
Religious and Spiritual Development
Authors: King Pamela Ebstyne , Boyatzis Chris J. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractAlthough religion and spirituality have long been an integral part of being human, this is the first empirical chapter to be included in theHandbook of Child Psychology. We examine major theoretical perspectives but emphasize the recent explosion of empirical findings on religion and spirituality in childhood and adolescence. Recognizing the centrality of bidirectional relationships between young persons and their context that contribute to religious and spiritual development, we advocate for an understanding of reciprocating spirituality. Within the chapter, we examine how children and adolescents develop in religiousness and spirituality in the context of proximal and more distal relationships. The chapter offers a history of the field, an overview of the demographic landscape of religion and spirituality in the lives of children and adolescents, and presentation of key areas of religiousness and spirituality in younger children and also in adolescents. The chapter also reviews research regarding religion, spirituality, and positive development in children and adolescents and examines the psychological mechanisms by which religion and spirituality may be a resource or detriment to young people. Finally, we offer suggestions for a more integrative science of religious and spiritual development as well as map future directions for the field.
Human Development in Time and Place
Authors: Elder Glen H. , Shanahan Michael J. , Jennings Julia A. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThe study of the life course and human development has evolved rapidly over the past quarter century, extending across substantive boundaries of the social, behavioral, and medical sciences. These advances have coincided with the spread of life course studies across diverse societies, as scholars draw on long‐term longitudinal archives to examine the implications of social change for human development. Viewed collectively, these cutting‐edge studies tell us much about the dimensions of historical time and place and their importance in shaping biographical pathways. The chapter begins with the theoretical traditions that have formed an interdisciplinary life course perspective on human development, one that views the person as embedded in a life‐long pattern of social roles, age distinctions, and relationships, processes that are themselves responsive to place and time. In the second section, elementary concepts (e.g., trajectories, transitions) and paradigmatic principles are introduced as a theoretical map of the life course. These concepts and principles have been applied in longitudinal studies of lives across societies (e.g., China, Germany, and Russia) and, within societies, by geographic distinctions (e.g., states, regions, and communities/neighborhoods). The chapter concludes by noting important advances in studying the impact of historical time and place.
Children's Parents
Authors: Bornstein Marc H. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThis chapter surveys central issues concerning children's parents. The chapter first addresses the two faces of parenting, parenting as a phase of adult development and parenting as an instrumental activity vis‐à‐vis children. Next, the chapter briefly overviews the origins of parenting studies, theories of parenting, and future directions in parenting research. The following two sections of the chapter address the principal actors in the human drama of caregiving, mothers, fathers, and children's other principal caregivers, and, then, cognitions and practices that principally instantiate parenting. With the actors, attitudes, and actions associated with parenting introduced, arguments for the meaningfulness of parenting effects are then evaluated in correlational designs and various kinds of experiments that demonstrate the value of parenting (challenges to parenting effects from behavior genetics and group socialization theory are also addressed). Parents and parenting vary tremendously, and determinants of parenting are a major issue in the field; the multicausal origins of parenting in characteristics of parents, characteristics of children, and contextual characteristics are explored next. The chapter closes with some practical issues‐;for example neglect, abuse, and parenting interventions‐;before reaching more general conclusions.
Children in Diverse Families
Authors: Ganong Lawrence , Coleman Marilyn , Russell Luke T. 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
Children in diverse families often have divergent life courses from children reared in other family forms. Diverse families, unlike first‐marriage nuclear families, often are not formed by marriage, and when they are, the marriage may not be the first for at least one of the adults. Children in diverse families may be genetically related to only one parent or to neither parent. Diverse families may include more than two adults who serve in parental roles, or only one adult, not always a genetic parent, may be rearing children. Legal connections between parents and children, like genetic bonds, vary widely in diverse families. In this chapter we examine several types of diverse families as environmental contexts within which children develop: Families headed by unmarried and cohabiting parents, children who have had a parent die or whose parents have divorced, stepfamilies, families headed by gay and lesbian individuals, grandfamilies (grandparents raising grandchildren), and parents who utilized assisted reproductive technologies (ART). These categories are not homogeneous, so when feasible, we examine the state of the scholarship within subcategories of these larger family types.
Children in Neighborhoods
Authors: Leventhal Tama , Dupéré Véronique , A. Shuey Elizabeth 
Published: March 2015

AbstractSeveral decades of research demonstrate a link between neighborhood residence and human development throughout the life course. This chapter goes beyond enumerating studies that have found such connections between neighborhoods and development; we focus on synthesizing findings from methodologically rigorous research to lay a foundation of what we know about how and why neighborhoods matter for children during the first two decades of life. We begin the chapter with an overview of the history and context of neighborhood research, with special attention to the intersections of research and policy. We next turn our attention to defining the neighborhood context for children. By addressing issues of theory and measurement in neighborhood research, we provide a framework for the third section on approaches to studying neighborhood influences on children's development. The fourth section presents a review of the current state of research in the field, integrating multiple aspects of the neighborhood context and synergies with related contexts and individual characteristics. The fifth section then considers the neighborhood as a unit of intervention. Finally, we offer a dynamic framework for the study of neighborhoods and child development before presenting our conclusions.
Children in History
Authors: Stearns Peter N. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThe foundation for the historical exploration of childhood and children, and for paying attention to historical research in the area, centers on the recognition that conditions for children can and do change, often quite substantially. Historical research can highlight how children in various past periods differed from each other, and from their contemporary counterparts, and it can seek to explain why key changes have occurred. Applied explicitly to the most contemporary historical period, historical research can also explore more specifically how present conditions and features of childhood have emerged, for some truly fundamental shifts in children's roles and expectations are quite recent. This chapter discusses the purposes and challenges in researching the history of childhood, and summarizes major periods of change, with attention to major regional patterns and comparisons, but also to developments at a more global level. Analysis of change includes explicit discussion of the new conditions generated by the industrial revolution and more recently still by globalization itself.
Adorno, Theodor
Authors: Casaqui Vander 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
This entry discusses the legacy of the German philosopher and exponent of the Frankfurt School, Theodor W. Adorno (1903–69), in particular his study of consumption in relation to the concept of the culture industry. Through the meanings and implications of this concept, the following themes are developed: the Marxist perspective applied to media theory; the serial production of cultural goods and the process of commodification of culture; the consumption of mass culture as a factor of alienation of subjects, instituted as consumers; dialogues and polemics of Adorno's theory alongside authors such as Walter Benjamin, Guy Debord, and schools of communicational thought, such as cultural studies.
Boycotts
Authors: Kuehn Kathleen 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
Boycotts are the strategic avoidance of a person, country, organization, firm, product, or service, usually to express dissatisfaction with a particular set of practices. They are a form of protest, the goal typically being to effect some change nonviolently through the application of economic pressure. Designed to punish offending or unfavorable behavior, boycotts are a popular form of consumer and political activism and have been levied against a range of institutions, organizations, and goods including the slave trade, racial segregation, corporations, and consumer culture, generally.
Celebrity
Authors: Rojek Chris 
Published: March 2015

Abstract

Celebrity may be defined as the accumulation of attention capital. Most commonly, it is understood to be a quality of individuals. However, it may also refer to social groups (sports teams, pop groups, business management partnerships) and social events (the Olympics, the World Series, the
FIFA
World Cup). With respect to individuals, there are three types of celebrity.
Ascribed celebrity
refers to social impact that reflects bloodline, whereby Hereditary titled individuals, such as kings, queens, emperors, ladies, duchesses, and so forth are positioned in the social hierarchy to automatically command enlarged respect and deference.
Achieved celebrity
refers to social impact that derives from recognized talents and accomplishments; successful sports stars, musicians, actors, comedians, and authors are pre‐eminent in this social category.
Celetoids
are individuals who attain intense bursts of fame. The term is an amalgamation of “celebrity” and “tabloid” (newspaper); this gives a clue to the meaning of the phenomenon by highlighting the pivotal role of media communication in the process.
E
lias,
N
orbert
Authors: Dolan Paddy 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
Norbert Elias (1897–1990) was a German sociologist whose work addressed social change and the development of habitus since the Middle Ages. While it was not his goal to explain consumption, he used evidence of changing consumption practices and standards to illustrate the shift to a more emotionally self‐controlled and stable personality structure in the context of increasing social interdependencies over many generations.
McDonaldization
Authors: Chen Chih‐Chin , Ritzer George 
Published: March 2015

Abstract

McDonaldization
is George Ritzer's modern theoretical adaptation of Max Weber's theory on rationalization. Where Weber uses bureaucracy as the model for the process of rationalization, Ritzer uses the fast‐food restaurant, especially
McDonald
's, as the contemporary paradigm of the process. He defines
McDonaldization
as “the process by which the principles of the fast‐food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as of the rest of the world.”
Taxes
Authors: Wernet Christine A. 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
There are many different taxes that are levied on citizens of a country. The two main reasons for taxation are to redistribute income among the population and to generate government revenue. Redistribution of income can generate more equality in a society, and government revenue is needed to fund various endeavors from national security to education, all of which are necessary to maintain peace and prosperity. There are three main types of taxation: proportional, progressive, and regressive taxes.
Emergency medicine as a primary specialty—French emergency medicine residents’ attitudes
Authors: Yordanov Youri , Sobotka Jennifer , Dahan Benjamin , Jacquin Laurent , Kalpokdjian Aurélie , Pateron Dominique 
Published: March 2015

AbstractEmergency medicine (EM) has been a fellowship program (supra-specialty) in France since 2004. Even though the program can be accessed after completion of one of several primary specialties, the vast majority (97%) of its residents enter the program after having completed training in family medicine. A change to develop a primary EM specialty is being discussed. Our objective was to assess French residents and young EM physicians’ attitudes toward EM as a primary specialty. We conducted a brief cross-sectional online survey among young EM physicians and trainees in November and December 2012. There were 288 respondents to the survey. Forty-nine percent (n=142) of respondents would have chosen EM if it was a primary specialty, but 73% (n=209) prefer maintaining the status quo, offering EM training as a supra-specialty fellowship program. Work-related quality of life was the main reason for those not choosing EM as a primary specialty.
Effects of post-training modafinil administration in a discriminative avoidance task in mice
Authors: Fernandes Helaine Arrais , Zanin Karina Agustini , Patti Camilla de Lima , Lopes-Silva Leonardo Brito , Bizerra Carolina Souza , Bittencourt Lia Rita Azeredo , Tufik Sergio , Frussa-Filho Roberto 
Published: March 2015

ObjectiveAlthough the cognitive-enhancing abilities after modafinil have been demonstrated, its effects on memory consolidation remain overlooked. We investigated the effects of repeated modafinil administration on consolidation of a discriminative avoidance task.MethodsMice were trained in the plus-maze discriminative avoidance task. After training, mice received intraperitonial modafinil (doses of 32, 64 or 128 mg/kg). Animals were treated for more 9 consecutive days; 30 min after the last injection, testing was performed. In addition, the effects of 32 mg/kg modafinil on consolidation at different time points were examined.ResultsThe smaller dose of modafinil (32 mg/kg) impaired memory consolidation, without modifying anxiety or locomotion. Still, modafinil post-training administration at 1 or 2 h impaired memory persistence.ConclusionsModafinil impaired memory consolidation in a dose- and time-dependent fashion.
Customising the length of the Montgomery T-tube whilst retaining a bevelled edge
Authors: Gan A , Varadarajan V , Rothera M P 
Published: March 2015

AbstractBackground:The Montgomery T-tube is used in a number of conditions that require safe tracheal stenting. Specific lengths of T-tube limbs are occasionally needed in patients with complex airway anatomy or differing neck proportions; this requires customisation of the T-tube limbs. This is done either by pre-ordering customised T-tubes from the manufacturer (which needs to be planned ahead of time) or using a tube cutter in the operating theatre. However, the latter does not provide a ‘factory like’ bevelled edge when shortened, which increases the risk of mucosal trauma and granulation formation.Objective:This paper reports a novel technique for customising the length of existing Montgomery T-tubes, with preservation of the bevelled edges. This technique can be easily performed with basic equipment available in operating theatres.