bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The archaeological geology of the Calico site, Mojave Desert, California
Authors: Shlemon Roy J. , Budinger Fred E. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
One of the most famous and yet controversial archaeological sites in North America is the Calico site, located in the central Mojave Desert of California (Fig. 1). The Calico site has evidence, albeit controversial, for the presence of early man some 200,000 years ago, far earlier than any site in North America presently wholly accepted by the archaeological community, and almost as old as recent discoveries in South America (de Lumley and others, 1988).
The controversy generally centers on two issues: (1) the authenticity of the artifacts, and (2) the age of the deposits (Haynes, 1973; Bryan, 1978; Taylor and Payen, 1979; Meighan, 1983). At present, more than 11,000 inferred stone tools and flakes have been recovered, mainly from 7- to 10-m-deep master pits. The Calico site was apparently a quarry utilized because of the local presence of high-quality knappable chert and chalcedony (Budinger and Simpson, 1985). Despite ongoing debate, many archaeologists believe that the lithic specimens are tools and flakes of human manufacture, rather than fortuitously created, natural "geofacts" (see, for example, discussions in Leakey and others, 1968, 1970; Schuiling, 1972, 1979; Haynes, 1973; Taylor and Payen, 1979; Carter, 1980; Gruhn and Young, 1980; Patterson, 1983; Patterson and others, 1989; Budinger, 1983; Budinger and Simpson, 1985; West, 1983).
New World archaeologists would more likely accept Calico as an archaeological site if the age of the artifact-bearing beds were on the order of 20,000 or 30,000 years old, rather than 200,000 years or older, as shown by recent soil-stratigraphic and
Holocene landscapes of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico; Geomorphic, climatic, and cultural dynamics
Authors: Hall Stephen A. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Landscapes are a blend of physical, biotic, and human interactions through time. The arid landscape of the San Juan Basin in northwestern New Mexico has undergone significant alterations in geomorphology, climate, and human occupation during the past 10,000 years as shown by sequences of eolian and fluvial deposition and erosion, soil development, pollen and plant macrofossils, and numerous archaeological studies; this information contributes to one of the goals of geoarchaeology, the determination of the relation between the physical-biotic environment and the activities of humans. This chapter examines the evidence for Holocene environments and their relationships to the archaeological record in the San Juan Basin.
The San Juan is both a structural and a topographic basin located at the southeastern comer of the Colorado Plateau in San Juan, Rio Arriba, and McKinley counties, northwestern New Mexico (Fassett and Hinds, 1971). The climatically arid basin is drained primarily by the Chaco River and its tributaries, which head in the east along the Continental Divide at an altitude of 2,300 m. The southern, western, and northern margins of the basin are bounded by the Mt. Taylor-Zuni, Chuska-Lukachukai, and San Juan mountains, respectively (Fig. 1). The modern vegetation at altitudes above 2,750 m in these ranges is a sprucefir forest with ponderosa pine and Douglas fir; at lower altitudes, pinyon pine and juniper woodlands occur. Below about 2,100 m, pinyon-juniper and juniper woodlands disappear, except along some escarpments, and the vegetation becomes a treeless shrub grassland (Wright and others, 1973). Mean annual temperatures within
Late Pleistocene and Holocene pedogenic and environmental trends at archaeological sites in plains and mountain areas of Colorado and Wyoming
Authors: Reider Richard G. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Bryan and Albritton (1943) were among the first to demonstrate the use of soil morphology, genesis, and stratigraphy in interpretation of archaeological sites for purposes of understanding climatic change and conditions at time of site occupation. This was an outgrowth of Bryan's pioneering work in studies at the Lindenmeier site (Fig. 1) in Colorado (Bryan and Ray, 1940) and cave sites, such as Sandia and Ventana Caves in New Mexico and Arizona (Bryan, 1941a, 1950). Judson (1953) did similar work at the San Jon site in New Mexico as did Hack (1942) in the Hopi Buttes area of Arizona. At the Horner site (Fig. 1) in Wyoming (Jepsen, 1953; Frison and Todd, 1987), Judson (1950) and Schullinger (1951) interpreted conditions based on stratigraphy, and Moss (1951) and Hack (1943) duplicated this at the Finley site (Fig. 1), also in Wyoming, while giving attention to soil morphology and climatic interpretation. Leopold and Miller (1954) recognized the recurrence of an Altithermal caliche or paleosol in alluvial sediments in Wyoming. Similar to Bryan (1941b), Haynes recognized soils in sediments throughout the West and Southwest, concluding that there was regularity in stream cutting and filling. In Wyoming, Haynes and Grey (1965) correlated events at the Sister's Hill site (Fig. 1) with the Leopold and Miller (1954) model and with patterns recognized elsewhere, especially in Arizona (Haynes, 1968). Later, Irwin-Williams and others (1973) identified a calcareous pedogenic unit at the Hell Gap site (Fig. 1) in Wyoming, and Benedict (1973, 1981,1985) and Benedict and Olson
Microstratigraphic analysis of sediments and soils; Wasden archaeological site, eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho
Authors: Moody Ula L. , Dort Wakefield 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Information about former environments of an archaeological site traditionally is acquired through interpretation of cultural materials and of associated faunal and floral remains. A synthesis based on data from these sources can be augmented by investigation of sediments and soils present at the site or in the immediate vicinity. The composition and structure of both sediments and the soils developed in them are products of geologic and pedologic processes that are influenced in varying degrees by aspects of local environmental controls. Therefore, the greater the detail of observations acquired through study of a sequence of sediments and soils, the more that becomes known about the environmental changes through time at a specific locality.
In this chapter we seek to increase knowledge of paleoenvironments that affected an archaeological site in southeastern Idaho. The chapter is specifically designed to illustrate to those unfamiliar with microstratigraphic analysis of sediments and soils some of the data that may be applied to geoarchaeological interpretations, as well as to outline the methodology used to acquire those data. We obtained and interpreted field observations and laboratory analyses separately, then tested our conclusions by integrating the two sets.
A regional application of tephrochronology in Alaska
Authors: Dixon E. James , Smith George S. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The first section of this chapter is a review highlighting some of the important trends and developments that occurred during the past century in the application of geomorphic and stratigraphic principles and techniques in Alaska archaeology. It compliments Thorson's (this volume) review of geological problems and contexts applicable to many Alaskan archaeological sites by providing the historic context that led to contemporary application of geological principles and techniques to archaeological research in Alaska. The review is followed by a regional example used to illustrate a contemporary application of tephrochronology for the Middle Susitna River Project. From it, we see both the utility and limitations of tephrochronology for the establishment of a broad local cultural chronologic framework, and how such a framework can be used to interpret prehistory.
Applications of molluscan microgrowth analysis to geoarchaeology; A case study from Costa Rica
Authors: Pallant Eric 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
For more than 2,500 years, pre-Columbian Americans subsisted in part on marine fauna. The refuse, largely molluscan, was discarded in large heaps or mounds known as shell middens. Today, shell middens are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of most of the New World. Studies of shell middens have been undertaken to assess the degree of prehistoric dependence on molluscs as a food supply, the nutritional value of the molluscs, the size of the human population that might have been sustained by the shells in a midden, and the seasonality of human habitations (Borgogno and Linares, 1980; Coutts, 1970, 1975; Coutts and Higham, 1971; Ham and Irvine, 1975; Karp, 1970; Kenney, 1980; Lange, 1971,1978; Matykiewicz, 1978; Moreau, 1979, 1980; Robinson, 1979; Stark and Voorhies, 1978; Turpin, 1978).
From recent studies of the microgrowth patterns in marine molluscs, researchers showed that some bivalves record important environmental information such as variations in marine temperature, storm events, and the length of seasons. As a result, information from shell-midden analyses regarding changes in microenvironmental conditions through time can be used to accurately determine (1) the season a certain type of mollusc was harvested, (2) the seasonality of an occupation, (3) the age of the harvested mollusc, and (4) whether a clam was harvested while alive for food, or perhaps dead for use of its shell as jewelry (Koike, 1979, 1980). As molluscs recovered from shell middens preserve a record of their ontogeny, inferences about paleoenvironmental conditions can also be made.
Native copper sources of artifact copper in pre-Columbian North America
Authors: Rapp George , Henrickson Eiler , Allert James 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Archaeological and anthropological interest in the sources of North American artifact copper center on trade relations and network systems. If exchange networks are to be accurately modeled, positive identification of source areas is vital. We know that North American copper technology began in preceramic times. Quimby (1960) considers the center of its development as the Upper Great Lakes Region.
Utilitarian copper artifacts in the archaeologic record appear initially about 5,500 yr BP. Halsey (1983) describes the distribution of these "Old Copper Culture" artifacts. This culture flourished in eastern Wisconsin and the western Upper Peninsula of Michigan, but artifacts attributable to it are found as far away as the Dakotas and Quebec. Interestingly, few are found in Illinois, Indiana, or Ohio.
The Archaeometry Laboratory at the University of Minnesota has been involved in the location and trace-element "fingerprinting" of North American native copper deposits for nearly two decades (Rapp and others, 1980, 1984). This chapter summarizes significant geologic occurrences and possible sources of prehistoric native copper north of the Rio Grande River. Our voluminous trace-element data are being published elsewhere.
The earliest accounts of Europeans who came into contact with the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North America noted that the indigenous peoples used copper, primarily for decorative purposes (Vastokas, 1970). In the early to middle seventeenth century, explorers became interested in tracing the source of the copper. Griffin (1961a) and Vastokas (1970) describe the early historical accounts of tracing copper to the Lake Superior district.
New archaeometallurgical perspectives on the Old Copper industry of North America
Authors: Vernon William W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Thousands of copper artifacts have been found in the Great Lakes region, most of which are attributed to the Old Copper industry, a Late Archaic Indian manifestation characterized by dominantly utilitarian artifacts with distinctive typologies. This industry had a geographic center in Wisconsin, with secondary centers in Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Native copper used by the Old Copper Indians was obtained from the Lake Superior region by mining surface deposits, such as those on Isle Royale in Lake Superior and on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Upper Michigan, and by collecting nuggets, cobbles, and larger pieces from glacial-till deposits. Mining, in the sense of the Old Copper Indians, consisted of digging open pits beside a ledge of copperbearing rock and pounding with stone mauls to loosen the rock from the copper. Some charcoal deposits are evidence that the rock was possibly also fractured by heating and dousing with water. Copper axes, chisels, and wedges for working the copper into portable pieces have been found, and the bulk of the metal most likely was transported to workshops and villages for fabrication, use, and trade. Comprehensive accounts of the role of copper in the prehistory of the Lake Superior region are given in Griffin (1961).
Artifacts fabricated from Lake Superior region copper occur as surface finds, in caches, and in burials, commonly associated with a chipped-stone complex. Dispersal of the artifacts was widespread in eastern North America and emanated from the Great Lakes area along shores and major waterways (see Fogel, 1963).
The early occupations of the Glacial Lake Agassiz basin in Manitoba; 11,500 to 7,700 B.P.
Authors: Buchner A. P. , Pettipas L. F. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Glacial Lake Agassiz was undeniably one of the most imposing physiographic features of the early postglacial landscape in the American midcontinent (Fig. 1). While all three of the recognized Paleoindian “traditions” (Clovis, Folsom, and Piano) are known in Manitoba, the frequency and distribution of the fluted point complexes (that is, Clovis and Folsom) differ radically from those that came after. This is primarily due to the fluctuating levels of the lake and the nature of the evolving macro- and microenvironments surrounding its basin. The chronology of Lake Agassiz (Clayton and Moran, 1982) is correlative with the broad sweep of Paleoindian prehistory and is divided into three major phases. The Lockhart Phase (roughly 11,500 to 11,000 B.P.) coincides with the Herman, Norcross, Tintah, and early Campbell subphases of the lake. This was followed by the lowlevel Moorhead Phase (ca. 11,000 to 10,000 B.P.) and finally by a return to high levels and subsequent demise during the Emerson Phase (approximately 10,000 to 7,700 B.P.). These closely coincide with the Clovis, Folsom, and Piano periods of Paleoindian prehistory (Fig. 2).
Archaeological stratigraphy
Authors: Stein Julie K. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Archaeologists have utilized stratigraphy to represent temporal relations for over a century, but not until Gasche and Tunca (1983) published their Guide to Archaeostratigraphic Classification and Terminology was attention drawn to the fact that archaeologists were not rigorous in the systematization of archaeological strata. Geologists compiled stratigraphic guides during the last century in response to the need " . . . for uniform standard and common procedures in defining and classifying formal rock bodies, their fossils, and the time spans represented by them" (NACOSN, 1983, p. 847). In these guides the language used to denote rock units and their spatial and temporal relations is formalized.
Gasche and Tunca (1983) and other archaeologists believe that the terminology of archaeological stratigraphy used in describing archaeological sediments and their spatial and temporal relations also needs to be formalized. They argue that stratigraphic descriptions of archaeological sites are imprecise, and that descriptions are confused with interpretations. Following the example of geologists, these archaeologists propose a clarifying set of rules for terminology and classification for archaeological stratigraphy. The purpose of the Gasche and Tunca's guide is to ". . . facilitate and even to stimulate the exchange and correlation of all information produced from archaeological sites. . . and to establish a cross-referencing system, which would be as objective as possible . . . and that would eliminate the ambiguities brought about by an arbitrary language." (Gasche and Tunca, 1983, p. 325). They presented their guide as a proposal to the archaeological community for consideration.
Stable isotope geochemistry applied to archaeology
Authors: Herz Norman 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Isotopic ratios of elements in natural materials on the earth were either constant in time and space or varied subsequently as a result of radioactive decay or geochemical fractionation. Information about elements that vary in isotopic abundances in different samples, as well as the reasons for these variations, help to resolve many geological and archaeological problems. For example, radioactive decay is used to establish absolute dating clocks; for archaeology, the most useful systems are the 14C, Ar, and Udisequilibrium series. Further, variations in isotopic ratios of the stable elements H, C, O, N, S, Sr, and Pb are used to solve problems of provenance, paleoenvironments, and paleodiets. Isotopic fractionation of light elements by physical, chemical, and biological processes is controlled by the thermodynamic properties determined by atomic weight and electronic configuration. Thermodynamic properties of molecules that are mass and temperature dependent include energy, which increases with decreasing temperature, and vibrational frequency, which varies inversely in proportion to the square root of the reduced mass.
Measurable isotopic separation is generally restricted to the lighter elements—that is, with atomic weights less than 40. Because isotopic fractionation is mass dependent, the separation is greater for elements with the greater mass difference between isotopes. Thus, the greatest separation is expected for hydrogen (mass 1) as opposed to deuterium (mass 2) when compared to other light elements that commonly have isotopic differences closer to 10 percent. Thus, the lighter isotopes have higher vibrational energy, and their chemical bonds are more easily broken. The different reactivity
Some uses for the magnetic properties of materials in archaeological sites
Authors: Tarling D. H. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
Most substances, including those found in an archaeological context, contain iron-oxide impurities, even if only in minute quantities, and so have detectable magnetic properties. These, coupled with improved instrumentation for measuring rock magnetism (palaeomagnetism), mean that the magnetic properties of archaeological materials can be measured easily, quickly, and cheaply. Unless reheating is involved, virtually all forms of magnetic analysis can be undertaken without any effect on any other properties. Magnetic measurements can be used for a variety of archaeological purposes, of which dating is the best known and will be discussed only briefly.
Less well-known uses include restoring the original shapes of the objects or structures, determining the sources of artifacts, determining past heating temperatures, evaluating different manufacturing technologies, and evaluating local environments. Where examples are unreferenced, they are from unpublished reports by the author, commonly in conjunction with postgraduate students.
Archaeological geology of sites in western and northwestern Canada
Authors: Bobrowsky Peter T. , Catto Norm R. , Brink Jack W. , Spurling Brian E. , Gibson Terry H. , Rutter Nathaniel W. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The region of western and northwestern Canada encompasses the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and Yukon Territory, for a total of approximately 3,400,000 km2. Much of the region, especially in the boreal forest, is presently uninhabited and essentially undeveloped. Access to many areas is either limited or cost prohibitive. Difficulties of discovery and excavation of the archaeological sites exceeds normal research constraints, especially when dealing with such natural phenomena as intensive wind deflation and collapsed stratigraphy in the southern prairies, or frost heaving and frozen ground in permafrost conditions of the north. Despite these problems, however, study of the approximately 50,000 prehistoric and historic archaeological sites presently on record with various agencies in the region has permitted a geoarchaeological synthesis.
Western and northwestern Canada is unique from a Quaternary geological perspective. Recurrent glaciations from Laurentide, Cordilleran, and Montane sources imprinted deposits and landforms upon an already complex topography encompassing fluvially dissected prairies and rugged mountainous peaks several thousand meters high. The erosive and depositional events that accompanied the various glacial and nonglacial episodes determined where prehistoric man could live, affected the state of preservation for such behavior, and continues to influence all research endeavors toward understanding this prehistoric past.
We provide a review of the archaeological geology of western and northwestern Canada. Our discussion is summarized under five primary headings: (1) “Geological framework”; (2) “Archaeological geology of prairie and foothill sites”; (3) “Archaeological geology of boreal forest sites”; (4) “Archaeological geology of Yukon sites”; and (5) “Archaeological geology
Tectonic evolution of the central U.S. Cordillera
Authors: Saleeby J. B. , Speed R. C. , Blake M. C. 
Published: April 2015

Abstract
The evolution of the North American continent and adjacent ocean basins in the central Cordillera of the western United States in Phanerozoic time was governed by three sequential tectonic regimes. The first included the creation of a passive margin during the latest Proterozoic to Early Cambrian (Stewart, 1976) and the removal of an unknown amount of sialic crust from the western margin of the continent. The second regime maintained a passive continental margin of western North America from Middle Cambrian to Triassic time, but permitted collisions of outboard terranes with the sialic margin in Mississippian and Permian-Triassic time (Speed, 1982; Dickinson and others, 1983). Since Triassic time, western North America, adjacent oceanic plates, and intervening microplates and other tectonic packets have existed in a regime of active margin tectonics (Hamilton, 1969; Coney and others, 1980; Saleeby, 1983; Saleeby and Busby-Spera, 1992) driven mainly by eastward subduction of oceanic lithosphere. This third and currently operating regime has been marked by diverse phenomena including subduction of oceanic lithosphere below the continent and phases of highly oblique convergence and suture-zone or intra-arc spreading, ridge-trench collision, growth of a continental arc, major foreland contraction and extension, and the accretion of displaced terranes to the sialic edge.
Corridors C1 and C2 of the Ocean-Continent Transect Program traverse all essential elements of the transition from Pacific plate oceanic crust to cratonal North America that have resulted from these three tectonic regimes. Figure 1 shows the locations of the corridors in relation to the major tectonic elements