bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Occupational Chemical Carcinogenesis
Authors: Huff James , Melnick Ronald L. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractWorkers are exposed to carcinogens and carcinogenic exposure circumstances, as well as to many other agents considered probably, possibly, or reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens. Covered herein are occupational carcinogens: chemicals, uncharacterized exposure circumstances, and occupations/workplaces known or suspected to cause cancer in workers, and agents causing cancers in animal bioassays, which are proven predictive for human cancers. Importantly, individuals differ in susceptibility for developing cancer due to exposure to a carcinogenic substance; factors influencing cancer outcomes include exposure circumstances, genetic differences, lifestyle, health condition, age, and gender. Identification of agents as carcinogens is based on information from epidemiological studies, long‐term animal studies, in vitro and in vivo evaluations, and assessments of mechanistic data and structure‐activity relationships. Various agencies, such as IARC, NTP, U.S. EPA, CalEPA, and others have developed classification schemes that categorize potential carcinogenicity of environmental and industrial agents in humans based on strength‐of‐evidence from human studies, animal studies, and mechanistic information. Categorizations formulated by authoritative bodies serve as the initial basis for standard's settings and regulatory actions. Several health and safety laws have been promulgated to protect workers from harmful effects of hazardous agents in the workplace. Risk characterization provides an integrative summary of available and relevant information on hazard identification, exposure assessment, and dose‐response relationships that have been used to estimate potential human cancer risks under various exposure circumstances. This information serves as the basis for risk management decisions on the extent to which workers' exposures to hazardous agents should be controlled. Likewise reducing or eliminating exposures to known and suspected carcinogens will reduce or prevent the incidences of occupational cancers. The World Health Organization reports occupational carcinogens are responsible for ∼152,000 cancer deaths per year and cancer prevention is essential because ∼40% of all cancer deaths can be prevented.
Wood Dust
Authors: Dement John 
Published: August 2012

AbstractWood dust is any particle arising from processing or handling wood. Woods are classified into two broad botanical classifications: hardwood is the common name given to the botanical classification angiosperms, and softwood is the common name given to the botanical classification gymnosperms. Gymnosperms have exposed seeds whereas angiosperms have encapsulated seeds. Although there are more than 12,000 species of trees recorded, most species are deciduous trees or hardwoods, and only about 800 species are coniferous trees or softwoods.This chapter discusses production and uses of wood. Wood use depends on availability. Biologically active organic compounds in wood are described. Wood dust is not a component of the ambient environment except in the vicinity of woodworking operations. Toxicity information is given for populations exposed to wood dust (mill workers, furniture makers, etc.). Diseases studied include nonmalignant lung disease, lung cancer, digestive cancer, and Hodgkin's disease. Wood exposure limits for hardwoods and softwoods are listed.
Cotton and Other Textile Dusts
Authors: Merchant James A. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe production of cotton products is commercially important to developed and developing countries alike. Processing of flax and hemp remains regionally important industries, which continue to provide traditional textile products. It has been reported that millions of workers are occupationally exposed to these vegetable dusts worldwide. It is now clear that symptoms typical of byssinosis in the textile industry are observed among those occupationally exposed to vegetable dust arising from the processing of cotton, flax, hemp, and other textile fibers. Several investigations have provided a good understanding regarding the epidemiology of byssinosis. It has been observed that exposure to textile vegetable dusts lead to increase prevalence of nonspecific airway symptoms, modest cross‐shift declines in spirometry, and progressive declines in lung function that may result in significant lung impairment. Linear dose‐response relationships have been observed between byssinosis prevalence, cross‐shift declines in FEV1, and concentration of inhalable cotton dust and endotoxin. These findings have led to regulation of cotton dust in the United States and in several other countries.
Tuberculosis and Other Mycobacteria
Authors: Yadav Jagjit S. , Kapoor Renuka 
Published: August 2012

AbstractMycobacteria are a group of microbial pathogens associated with tuberculosis (TB), one of the world's most prevalent human disease and several nontuberculous diseases in humans. Another major human infection caused by this genus is leprosy. TB is predominantly a pulmonary disease infecting lungs but extrapulmonary TB is also prevalent and includes lymphatic, pleural, meningeal, pericardial, skeletal, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, or miliary form. The genusMycobacteriumcomprises of about 130 species that are groupable into two major categories: (A) theMycobacterium tuberculosiscomplex: it comprises of two obligate pathogenic species, namelyM. tuberculosis(the agent of tuberculosis) andMycobacterium leprae(the agent of leprosy). This complex contains four other species of mycobacteria that also cause TB viz.,Mycobacterium bovis,Mycobacterium africanum,Mycobacterium microti, andMycobacterium canetti. (B) The nontuberculous mycobacteria (also called atypical mycobacteria or environmental mycobacteria): this group comprises of a large number of saprophytic species that live freely in the environment such as in soils, water, and other organic matrices. These organisms may be inhaled via dust particles or ingested via drinking water or food and produce various syndromes. Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are increasingly being recognized to cause human infections, frequently in immunosuppressed individuals such as those who have organ transplants, individuals being treated for leukemia or cancer, and patients suffering from AIDS. The range of infections caused by NTM species is very broad and includes pulmonary infections (symptoms often indistinguishable from TB), cervical lymphadenitis, skin infections, bone and soft tissue infections, and nosocomial infections. An occupational disease in machinists, designated hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) has also been associated with NTM species (Mycobacterium immunogenumandMycobacterium chelonae) that have the ability to colonize metalworking fluids in occupational environments. Although this chapter focuses primarily on tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacteria that are associated with human disease are also discussed. It includes discussions on taxonomy, growth requirements, as well as the morphological characteristics, physiology, pathogenicity, and the metabolic activity of these organisms.
Aliphatic Nitro, Nitrate, and Nitrite Compounds
Authors: Ovesen Jerald L. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractAlthough aliphatic nitro compounds, aliphatic nitrates, and aliphatic nitrites have several features in common (nitrogen–oxygen grouping, explosiveness, methemoglobin formation), there are significant differences in their toxic effects. Some of their attributes are summarized. The esters of nitric and nitrous acids, whose nitrogen is linked to carbon through oxygen, are very similar in their pharmacological effects. Both produce methemoglobinemia and vascular dilatation with hypotension and headache. These effects are transient. None of the series has appreciable irritant properties. Pathological changes occur in animals only after high levels of exposure and are generally nonspecific and reversible. The nitric acid esters of the monofunctional and lower polyfunctional alcohols are absorbed through the skin. Information is not available on the skin absorption of alkyl nitrites. Members of both groups are well absorbed from the mucous membranes and lungs. Heinz body formation has been observed with the nitrates but not with the nitrites.Nitro compounds, like nitrates and nitrites, cause methemoglobinemia in animals. Heinz body formation parallels this activity within the series. Although some members are metabolized to nitrate and nitrite, there is no significant effect on blood pressure or respiration. As with the lower nitrates and nitrites, anesthetic symptoms are observed in animals during acute exposures, but these occur late. The prominent effect is irritation of the skin, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract. This is most marked with chlorinated nitroparaffins and nitroolefins. In addition to respiratory tract injury, cellular damage may be observed in the liver and kidneys. Skin absorption is negligible except for the nitroolefins.The nitramines have entirely different activity. RDX is a convulsant for humans and animals. Skin absorption, irritation, vasodilatation, methemoglobin formation, and permanent pathological damage are either insignificant or absent after repeated doses.Transient illness has been associated with the industrial use or manufacture of these materials, but fatalities and chronic intoxication have been uncommon. Some members of each group present extremely high fire and explosion hazards.
Aromatic Amino and Nitro–Amino Compounds and Their Halogenated Derivatives
Authors: Woo Yin‐Tak , Lai David Y. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractAromatic amines are organic compounds that contain at least one amino group attached directly to an aryl moiety. Aromatic amines represent one of the most important classes of industrial and environmental chemicals. Many aromatic amines have been shown to be potent carcinogens, mutagens, skin sensitizers, and/or hematotoxicants capable of inducing methemoglobinemia. Since the introduction of substituted anilines and naphthylamines as intermediates for the manufacture of azo dyes in the mid‐1800s, aromatic amines have found numerous uses in various industries. Substantial worker exposure to aromatic amines with subsequent induction of bladder cancer occurred before preventive measures were instituted. Beyond occupational exposure, humans may also be exposed to aromatic amines through environmental sources. At least three carcinogenic aromatic amines (4‐aminobiphenyl, 2‐naphthylamine, ando‐toluidine) have been detected in cigarette smoke. Many commonly used pharmaceuticals contain or are aromatic amines. Owing to their hazard potential, aromatic amines have been the subject of many biomonitoring studies, making them model compounds in molecular dosimetry and epidemiology studies. Since extensive information is available on the metabolic pathways and, to a lesser extent, the mechanism(s) of action, aromatic amines have also become targets for genetic polymorphism studies with ultimate goals of identifying susceptible subpopulations and designing of strategies for cancer prevention and intervention. The multifaceted interest in aromatic amines has continued to attract a tremendous amount of scientific studies and attention. Since the publication of the previous edition of Patty's on aromatic amines, many reviews and important research articles on aromatic amines and halogenated nitroaromatics have been published. In addition, a number of heterocyclic aromatic amines have attracted increasing attention as carcinogens of environmental significance. In this chapter, we present an overview of the aromatic amine class as a whole with emphasis on recent studies, followed by an updated description on individual chemicals grouped into eight subgroups of structurally related compounds.
Dibenzo‐p‐Dioxins: 2,3,7,8‐Tetrachlorodibenzo‐p‐Dioxin
Authors: Hee Shane Que 
Published: August 2012

AbstractChlorinated dibenzo‐para‐dioxins or dibenzo‐p‐dioxins (CDDs) are a class of compounds with 75 possible congeners. When the CDDs contain more than one chlorine they are termed polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins (PCDDs). Most of the information is for 2,3,7,8‐tetrachlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin (2,3,7,8‐TCDD), the most toxic congener. The bulk of the material in this chapter relates to this compound. The toxic PCDD congeners are substituted with chlorines in the 2,3,7, and 8 positions. The least toxic congeners are the monochlorinated PCDDs and octachlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin [CAS RN3268‐87‐9], the fully chlorinated PCDD. PCDDs often are accompanied by the dibenzofuran analogs, the polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and the diphenyl ether analogs, the polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDPEs). The cumulative toxicity of the toxic congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCDPEs in a sample is expressed through the 2,3,7,8‐TCDD toxicity equivalent (TEQ) and toxicity equivalency factor (TEF) concepts because real‐life exposures are to mixtures of PCDDs, PCDFs, PCDEs, and PCBs rather than to 2,3,7,8‐TCDD alone.
Organic Chlorofluoro Hydrocarbons
Authors: Rusch George M. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been used as refrigerants for many years. Because of their low chemical reactivity, they typically have long atmospheric residence times, and as a consequence, are distributed globally. The widespread use of these chemicals has been associated with depletion in ozone layer. Most of the nations of the world drafted and signed an agreement calling for the phaseout of CFCs. Further developments were initiated on two types of “in‐kind” replacements. The first were the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and the second were the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These chemicals are treated as greenhouse warming gases. It has been found that many of these chemicals are not highly toxic. The most typical responses observed following overexposure are sensitization of the myocardium to the action of adrenalin and CNS depression related to the anesthetic properties of many of these chemicals. Studies have been designed to allow for the determination of no‐observed‐effect levels (NOEL), thresholds, and EC50s as median effect concentrations. The present chapter summarizes the properties, production, uses, toxic effects, environmental impact and guidelines of exposure of these chemicals.
Aliphatic Carboxylic Acids: Unsaturated
Authors: Szilagyi Maria 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe alkenoic series of carboxylic acids are obtained from such natural sources as animal tallows and greases, and vegetable, coconut, palm, and marine oils. Several have also been produced synthetically from petroleum sources. They are frequently referred to as fatty acids (C6–C24) and have important commercial applications in plastics, coating materials, fungicides, food preservatives, lubricants, and perfumes. They have been used as softening agents for rubber and as pharmaceuticals in medicine and dentistry. Acids of this type are unstable and polymerize readily, hence offering important chemical and physical properties for use in producing esters, acid halides, acid amides, and acid anhydrides.As a class, the unsaturated carboxylic acids have been subjected to an extensive battery of studies, including acute, short‐term, and chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity tests and reproductive and developmental toxicity and genotoxicity tests. Overall, these acids have a low level of mammalian toxicity, although they are strong skin and eye irritants in animal tests and are irritating to mucosal membranes in humans. For those acids for which adequate studies have been conducted, there is no evidence that they are reproductive or developmental toxicants or carcinogens. Mutagenicity and clastogenicity studies suggest that this group of acids is devoid of genotoxic activity. The biochemistry of many of these acids can be found in general textbooks. Rapid metabolism to other fatty acids may explain their general low degree of toxicity. The physical properties and acute toxicity of saturated monocarboxylic acids are provided.Dietarytransfatty acids are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and have been implicated in the incidence of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus.Transfatty acids from industrial sources (i.e., partially hydrogenated vegetable oil) have been associated with several chronic human diseases, especially coronary heart disease.
Aldehydes and Acetals
Authors: Borchers Michael T. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractMore than 300 aldehydes occur in foods, water, and air. Due to the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon, particularly when proximal to a carbon–carbon double bond, aldehydes react with thiols and amines to form protein–protein, DNA–protein, and DNA–DNA cross‐links. Despite their potential for causing cell damage, toxicological and exposure data for a large number of aldehydes are lacking. Inhalation and ingestion studies have demonstrated that a number of aldehydes are irritants and can induce tumors in animal models. Formaldehyde, which is a suspected carcinogen, is the most widely studied of these compounds. The physicochemical properties of saturated aldehydes are summarized. Toxicological and health effects are given.
Cold Stress: Effects on Performance and Health
Authors: Holmér Ingvar , Hassi Juhani , Ikäheimo Tiina M. , Jaakkola Jouni J. K. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe present chapter is intended to provide an overview of cold stress and strain not only on workers in cold workplaces, but also on people in general exposed to cold climate. Human adaptation to cold can be either acquired or inherited and occurs through acclimatization. The pattern of cold adaptation is dependent on the type (air, water) and intensity (continuous, intermittent) of the cold exposure. It has been reported that cold exposure and cooling can have profound effects on physical and cognitive performance. The majority of scientific reports related to health consequences of cold weather are on acute health changes. The study finds that total mortality among most populations is highest in winter and lowest in summer. Regulations or standards defining acceptable cold stress situations rely on one or a combination of approaches to control cold stress. Most prevalent national or international exposure guidelines have been provided comprehensively.
Heat Stress
Authors: Larrañaga Michael D. , Wang Qingsheng 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThis chapter's goal is to provide useful information about the way people respond to acute and chronic heat stress and heat strain, the man's physiological response to heat stress. The chapter provides detailed information about the physiological aspects of heat stress. It also presents some groundwork about biological control systems, how heat is produced and stored in the body, and how it is exchanged with the environment. This background is necessary to understand the many complex and interactive phenomena associated with heat stress and with the challenges of heat strain. It is important to recognize the uniqueness of heat as a form of energy to understand issues of heat stress and strain and to see its special role in human welfare. No other potentially endangering energy, for example, is produced by the body itself, none other is so essential for life, and none other is the thermodynamic destiny in entropy for all other forms of energy.
Recent Advances in Metal Oxide‐based Electrode Architecture Design for Electrochemical Energy Storage
Authors: Jiang Jian , Li Yuanyuan , Liu Jinping , Huang Xintang , Yuan Changzhou , Lou Xiong Wen (David) 
Published: August 2012

AbstractMetal oxide nanostructures are promising electrode materials for lithium‐ion batteries and supercapacitors because of their high specific capacity/capacitance, typically 2–3 times higher than that of the carbon/graphite‐based materials. However, their cycling stability and rate performance still can not meet the requirements of practical applications. It is therefore urgent to improve their overall device performance, which depends on not only the development of advanced electrode materials but also in a large part “how to design superior electrode architectures”. In the article, we will review recent advances in strategies for advanced metal oxide‐based hybrid nanostructure design, with the focus on the binder‐free film/array electrodes. These binder‐free electrodes, with the integration of unique merits of each component, can provide larger electrochemically active surface area, faster electron transport and superior ion diffusion, thus leading to substantially improved cycling and rate performance. Several recently emerged concepts of using ordered nanostructure arrays, synergetic core‐shell structures, nanostructured current collectors, and flexible paper/textile electrodes will be highlighted, pointing out advantages and challenges where appropriate. Some future electrode design trends and directions are also discussed.
Prevalence rates of work organization characteristics among workers in the U.S.: Data from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey
Authors: Alterman Toni , Luckhaupt Sara E. , Dahlhamer James M. , Ward Brian W. , Calvert Geoffrey M. 
Published: August 2012

AbstractBackgroundSurveillance is needed to capture work organization characteristics and to identify their trends.MethodsData from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) were used to calculate prevalence rates for four work organization characteristics (long work hours, non‐standard work arrangements, temporary positions, and alternative shifts) overall, and by demographic characteristics, and industry and occupation of current/recent employment.ResultsData were available for 27,157 adults, of which 65% were current/recent workers. Among adults who worked in the past 12 months, 18.7% worked 48 hr or more per week, 7.2% worked 60 hr or more per week, 18.7% had non‐standard work arrangements, 7.2% were in temporary positions, and 28.7% worked an alternative shift.ConclusionsPrevalence rates of work organization characteristics are provided. These national estimates can be used to help occupational health professionals and employers to identify emerging occupational safety and health risks, allow researchers to examine associations with health, and use the data for benchmarking. Am. J. Ind. Med. 56:647–659, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Properties of recycled polycaprolactone‐based thermoplastic polyurethane filled with montmorillonites
Authors: Žukienė Kristina , Jankauskaitė Virginija , Betingytė Vitalija , Baltušnikas Arūnas 
Published: August 2012

AbstractThe properties of recycled low temperature biodegradable polycaprolactone‐based thermoplastic polyurethane (rTPU), filled with different types of organically modified montmorillonite (MMT) prepared by two‐roll milling, were studied. The dependence of rTPU properties on the mastication time and clays content was determined by various structural and physical testing methods. Results show that the melt flow and mechanical properties of rTPU deteriorate with increasing of mastication time, but thermal properties were affected only slightly. rTPU/MMT composites show exfoliated or intercalated structures depending on the nature of organic modifier of clay. MMT reduces slightly rTPU tensile and melt flow properties, but accelerates hydrolytic degradation process. During degradation the weight loss and polydispersity increase significantly in the presence of MMT, but it does not accelerate crystallinity changes. The degradation of rTPU composites with higher hydrophilicity organoclays proceeds faster than that with hydrophobic ones due to the relatively higher interaction with polymer matrix. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013