bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE OIL SPILLS FROM TANKERS, OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT, AND ONSHORE PIPELINES
Authors: Beyer A. H. , Painter L. J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper summarizes historical spill statistics and describes techniques and equations that can be used to predict possible future oil spillage from marine tankers, offshore petroleum development facilities, and cross-country pipelines. These techniques would be expected to provide worst-case estimates because they do not account for continuing improvements in technology, operating procedures and safety measures.
Information compiled from the literature on world-wide tanker casualty spills during 1969–972 indicates that such spills can be expected to occur within 50 miles of land an average of once in every 1,000 vessel port-calls or about once in every 50 vessel-years of operation. The average size of these casualty spills (within 50 miles of land) is 7,100 bbl and the average spill rate is about 87 bpmb (bbl per million bbl) transported.
Oil spill data from the U.S. Geological Survey are presented for outer continental shelf (OCS) petroleum development operations during 1966–1975. This information indicates an average spill rate from all causes (pipeline accidents, blowouts, fires, etc.) of about 72 bpmb produced.
Oil industry cross-country pipeline spill data for Western Europe (1968–1974) and Canada (1965–1972) show that 1.1 to 1.5 spills can be expected from all causes per year per 1,000 miles of pipeline. The mean spill rate (obtained for Western Europe only) was 3.6 bpmb of throughput.
A DISTRIBUTED REUSABLE-SORBENT OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM
Authors: Shaw Sidney H. , Dorrler J. Stephen 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the design, fabrication and test of a prototype system for the recovery of spilled oil from the surface of river, estuarine and harbor waters. The system uses an open cell polyurethane foam, in the form of small cubes, to absorb the floating oil. The system is highly mobile and is capable of being transported in two pickup trucks.
The sorbent is distributed onto the oil slick by means of a pneumatic broadcaster. An inclined, open wire-mesh belt conveyor is used to remove the saturated sorbent from the water. The recovered oil and water are removed from the sorbent by squeezing in a converging belt press, or regenerator. After regeneration, the foam is reapplied to the oil slick. The foam is capable of being reused for more than 100 cycles.
Tests of the system, using both diesel fuel and lubricating oil, were conducted at the Environmental Protection Agency's OHMSETT test tank. The sweep speeds ranged up to five knots in both calm water and in waves. System throughput efficiencies ranged from 45% to nearly 100%. Oil collection rates of up to 2,300 gal/hour were achieved. The oil content of the recovered liquid varied from 38% to 79%.
DISCOVERY, CONTAINMENT AND RECOVERY OF A JET FUEL STORAGE TANK LEAK: A CASE HISTORY
Authors: Talts Andres , Bauer John , Martin Calvin , Reeves Douglas 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
In October 1975, product accountability suggested the loss of approximately 83,000 gallons of JP-4 from a newly cleaned 3.3 million gallon above ground storage tank at a U.S. government-owned fuel terminal. There was no visible evidence of a leak; however, a soil investigation confirmed the presence and extent of the fuel loss. Fuel was found within the porous ground at the water table 7-to-14 ft below the surface. Quick response permitted the use of a construction site well point system to contain the leak within the tank farm by drawdown and reversal of the water table gradient. Recovery of product was accomplished by diverting the pump discharge through the dike drainage system to the terminal oil/water separator. Approximately 21,000 gallons of fuel were recovered in a one month period. High system costs and declining flow and fuel recovery rates resulted in attempts to use different systems. A large diameter excavation and a new well point system failed to recover additional fuel; it was lost to evaporation or bound within the soil for bacterial degradation. It is recommended that spill plans for terminals in areas with porous soil should include provisions for containment and recovery of potential leaks and spills from within the ground.
A FIELD EVALUATION OF OIL SPILL RECOVERY DEVICES
Authors: Solsberg Laurence B. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
During the past three years, the Research and Development Division of the Environmental Emergency Branch of Environment Canada has undertaken the field evaluation of 10 generic classes of commercially-available oil skimmers. Included in this program was the examination of three prototype machines developed in Canada. The field trials were designed to allow for the assessment of the skimmers in actual operating conditions in both summer and winter environments. In this regard, three petroleum types–bunker, crude and diesel oil—were used in testing the mechanical devices under study in the coastal harbours of Halifax, Vancouver and Victoria and in the St. Lawrence River at Quebec City.
Results indicate that for contained spills, a sorbent rope system, a hydro-adjustable weir and oleophilic disc skimmer exhibited relatively higher oil recovery rates. A sloping weir device with oil/water separation capability was determined to be effective in a current situation over a range of sea states. For an uncontained slick or situation which would otherwise require the use of a mobile skimmer, an inverted oleophilic endless belt appeared to be the most versatile device tested. Other skimmers tested were determined to be effective for the recovery of specific oil types in more narrowly-defined conditions.
ARCTIC OFFSHORE OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES WITH EMPHASIS ON AN OIL AND GAS BLOWOUT IN THE SOUTHERN BEAUFORT SEA1
Authors: Thornton D. E. , Ross S. L. , Logan W. J. , Ross C. W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A summary is presented of a review of arctic offshore oilspill countermeasures which was prepared by Environment Canada as one of the 33 projects comprising the government/oil industry-funded Beaufort Sea Environmental Program, initiated in 1974 to assess the potential impact of exploratory drilling for oil from drillships in the southeastern Beaufort Sea in 1976. Preliminary findings also are included from a study utilizing ice-movement data to predict the fate of oil from an underwater oil and gas blowout in the Beaufort Sea ice transition zone between the stationary landfast ice and moving polar pack. From field work on ice porosity in 1976, it is surmised that most oil discharged under multi-year ice will likely migrate to the ice surface within one year during the summer and early fall months. An outline is given of arctic offshore oil spill countermeasures projects which have been initiated to develop efficient methods of combusting oil on ice; to evaluate the effectiveness, fate and effects of dispersants in cold sea water; to develop effective dispersant deployment methods in ice-infested waters; and to generate innovative ideas for containing oil from underwater blowouts.
HYDRODYNAMICS OF A DIVERSIONARY BOOM
Authors: McCracken W. E. , Freestone F. J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The failure of booms to contain oil in currents above 0.5 meters per second (m/s) when deployed in a containment mode appears to be well established. A method suggested to surmount this limitation is to use the boom in a diversionary mode with the intent to move the oil into regions of low currents where containment and removal can be accomplished. Previous tests with booms deployed in a diversionary mode have shown that oil droplets are entrained in a flow under the booms at lower current than theory predicted. Failure of a boom to control oil was shown to occur over approximately one-third of the length of the boom, near the trailing end.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sponsored a test program at their Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) to study the near-field hydrodynamics of a diversionary boom. Three dimensional flow fields were first examined visually using dye and oil droplets with an underwater video system designed and built as part of the program. Turbulence intensity was measured with a single-axis, hot-film anemometry probe.
USE OF FLOATING DEFLECTORS FOR OIL SPILL CONTROL IN FAST FLOWING WATERS
Authors: Eryuzlu N. E. , Hausser R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Although oil booms of various types now are available, it is well established that they are ineffective when the spill occurs in fast flowing waters. A system was developed to control an oil spill under such circumstances. The principle employed is to deflect the oil from where the spill takes place into a portion of the river where the currents are slower and the oil could be collected by conventional means. This is achieved by a system of floating deflectors comprising a series of hydrofoils mounted on a horizontal frame anchored to the shore. The interaction of the hydro dynamic forces on the hydrofoils creates an equilibrium state at which the system floats at an angle with the main current. At this equilibrium state the deflectors induce a controlled spiral circulation which deflects the surface currents and spilled oil in a selected direction. Experiments were conducted in a straight flume to study the characteristics of hydrofoils used as deflectors. The general location of the several oil refineries around Montreal-East was selected for testing the practical application of the proposed method on a model of the St. Lawrence River. Results show that in the majority of cases without deflectors only about 40% to 50% of the oil would go in the north arm of the river, whereas with the deflectors this can increase to about 90%. Presently, preparations are being made for a prototype testing program to be conducted near Montreal-East on the St. Lawrence River.
COMBINED SKIMMER-BARRIER HIGH SEAS OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM1
Authors: Milgram Jerome H. , Griffiths Richard A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the development of an oil recovery system to be used in conjunction with the U.S. Coast Guard's high seas oil containment barriers. The system was tested at the EPA's OHMSETT facility in 1975. Its oil recovery capability was shown to be good, with promise for yet better recovery when used on a large spill. Operational practicality was demonstrated in sea trials during May 1976, when the barrier was string towed, catenary towed, and moored in a tidal current.
Because of the difficulty of handling large or complicated equipment in offshore conditions, a major design criterion was that the system be as simple as possible. Weir skimmers are particularly simple, but collection of more oil than water or air requires that the weirs follow the vertical motion of the waves. Simplicity and efficiency were achieved by utilizing the wave-following ability of the Coast Guard barrier design. Weirs were built into six struts at the center of a length of barrier, so that barrier deployment results in simultaneous skimmer deployment. To recover oil, it is only necessary to attach pump hoses to the barrier. Three double-acting diaphragm pumps are used. These self-priming pumps were specifically designed to pass any debris that can enter through the three-inch diameter suction hoses. Hydraulic drive was chosen so the pumps could be powered by the Coast Guard's ADAPTS diesel-engine-driven hydraulic power units.
THE CONCENTRATIONS OF OIL IN SEA WATER RESULTING FROM NATURAL AND CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISPERSION OF OIL SLICKS
Authors: Cormack D. , Nichols J.A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Results are presented on the factors relating to the dissipation of oil spills at sea, including evaporation, emulsion formation, spreading, and natural dispersion into the water column.
For Ekofisk oil, 20% evaporates in about 7.5 hours and, while emulsion formation is as rapid as for Kuwait crude, the resulting viscosity is low and insufficient to allow interference with the natural spreading and dispersion rates. Spreading has two components. One is controlled by surface tension-viscous drag forces and the other is wind-induced. Together they contribute to the two dimensional dissipation of the oil so that subsequent oil concentrations in the sea are of necessity, low. These concentrations were measured for naturally dispersing and chemically dispersed slicks. The chemically-dispersed slicks were of two kinds. One was previously weathered for three hours, the other was of controlled thickness and was dispersed immediately upon being laid. Resulting concentrations of oil in the sea are low and of short duration compared with those required to give observable effects in laboratory toxicity studies.
No significant deleterious effects were found to result from the dispersion of oil slicks at sea using low toxicity dispersant chemicals; also it was noted that, in any case, substantial quantities of oil can be expected to enter the sea before oil recovery operations can be mounted.
SOME RECENT OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF SELF-MIX CHEMICAL DISPERSANTS
Authors: Canevari Gerard P. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
There has been an increasing awareness of the utility of conventional chemical dispersants in general, and self-mix dispersants in particular as a viable means to minimize damage from oil spills. This paper will update the use of, and activity regarding the self-mix dispersant as noted in applications over the past two years. In addition, those aspects that are still little understood are discussed.
Specifically, uniformly sized, dispersed oil droplets of approximately 1 micron diameter are formed by the diffusion action of self-mix chemical dispersants. The droplet size influences the dilution rate of the spilled oil in field applications, and data to support this are presented. The results of laboratory bioassays performed with these much smaller dispersed oil droplets, as opposed to larger droplets formed with mechanical mixing, can be misinterpreted since the increased rate of dilution afforded by smaller droplet size is not replicated.
In addition to the vital dilution study results, this paper also presents evidence to clarify several popular misconceptions regarding chemical dispersants. For example, it is explained that the apparent synergistic effects between oil and dispersant do not indicate that chemical dispersants release toxic substances from the oil into the water. Data is also presented which shows that dispersants do not cause the oil to sink.
TECHNIQUES FOR MIXING DISPERSANT-TREATED OIL SLICKS INTO THE WATER
Authors: Smith Gary F. , McCracken W.E. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The effective use of dispersants requires the addition of mixing energy to the oil slick after the application of the dispersant chemicals. This U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sponsored project was conducted at their OHMSETT testing facility to test the relative effectiveness of four devices for adding mixing energy to an oil slick under varied conditions. The four devices were: a five-bar gate, two fire-hose streams, a modified five-bar gate, and a small outboard motorboat. Tow speeds, wave conditions, and oil/water interfacial tension were varied. Underwater photography was used to record the depth of penetration of the oil droplets caused by the mixing devices at each test condition.
CLEANING AGENTS FOR OILED WILDLIFE
Authors: Berkner Alice B. , Smith David C. , Williams Anne Stairs 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Attempts to save oiled wildlife cannot be successful unless appropriate treatment is given. One of the more critical areas of rehabilitation is the selection and correct use of a suitable cleaning agent. The advantages and limitations of detergents and solvents are discussed with respect to the types of wildlife affected, the types of oil involved, and the available equipment and facilities. Seven commercial detergents out of 22 tested are ranked in order of their effectiveness in removing eight specific types of oil. Optimal concentrations and available toxicity data are also given. Solvents that have been successfully used are listed along with other solvents that appear promising on the basis of their composition and physical parameters. Further evaluations of cleaning agents and additional basic research are still needed.
NEW YORK HARBOR OIL DRIFT PREDICTION MODEL
Authors: Kollmeyer R. C. , Thompson Cadet M. E. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
An operational predictive oil slick movement model is developed and applied to New York Harbor. This computer simulation employs hourly tidal currents for all stages of the tide as input data, combined with river flow and continuous wind data to predict oil slick movement. Slick spreading and transport is accomplished using a conservative form of the diffusion/advection equation. The shape of the slick as well as its possible separation into multiple slicks due to current divergence is predicted. Time steps on the order of three minutes and grid spacing of 200 meters allow short term, small scale slick position and shape predictions to facilitate quick response for location of sites for containment or cleanup activities. Hindcasting features allow for possible source location of the initial spill.
THE FATE OF PETROLEUM IN A SOIL ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Cresswell L. W. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Information generated from Conoco studies of waste oil biodegradation in the soil environment could have direct application in the clean up of residual oil left after an accidental spill. The studies, which included the tilling of oil into the upper 6-8 in of topsoil followed by addition of commercial fertilizer as nutrients, resulted in oil degradation of up to 56% after 41 months of exposure for initial oil concentrations in the soil of 4%-8%. Annual degradation rates of 7-16 gm oil/kg soil found in these studies for a soil environment compare favorably with those rates for biodegradation studies found in the literature using shake flask systems. No adverse environmental effects have resulted to date from the oil-in-soil biodegradation studies. The oil appears to stay bound tightly in the layer of soil where it was originally applied, and healthy appearing crops of wheat have been grown in the oily soil plots.
EFFECTS OF DRILL MUD ON SEDIMENT CLEARING RATES OF CERTAIN HERMATYPIC CORALS
Authors: Thompson Jack H. , Bright Thomas J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The hermatypic corals Diploria strigosa, Montastrea annularis and Montastrea cavernosa were subjected to large uniform doses of four sediments; used whole drill mud, barite, aquagel and calcium carbonate (a sediment occurring naturally on coral reefs). The rates at which each species cleared itself of the sediment covers were measured in square millimeters per hour. No corals were able to remove the used whole drill mud, but all could rid themselves effectively of the other three sediments. Diploria strigosa exhibited a generally faster clearing rate than the other two species, but there was no difference in the rates at which any one species cleared itself of either barite, aquagel or calcium carbonate. It is suspected that the dramatic effect of used whole mud, which also caused mortality, was due to dissolved chemical components which we have yet to identify.
THE EFFECTS OF PELAGIC HYDROCARBONS ON THE ROCKY INTERTIDAL FLORA AND FAUNA OF BERMUDA
Authors: Maynard Nancy G. , Gebelein Conrad D. , Zsolnay Adam 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Over the past decade, the islands of Bermuda have been exposed to an increasing influx of floating pelagic hydrocarbons (“tar balls”). Large quantities of the pelagic tar become stranded on the rocks in the intertidal zone. Tar coverage on the rocks is controlled by the slope of the shore, with the maximum amount accumulating on gently sloping or flat shores. The tar is deposited almost exclusively in the splash zone, and, therefore, the only animals directly affected by the attached tar are those who inhabit and/or feed in this zone. Chemical analyses show that the snails, Nodilittorina tuberculatus and Tectarius muricatus, which live in the splash zone, have the highest hydrocarbon content in body tissue of all animals analyzed. In contrast, all animals sampled from immediately adjacent tide pools contained no petrogenic hydrocarbons.
The most abundant life in the intertidal zone is concentrated below this splash zone area of tar accumulation. With few exceptions, the animals from this zone have demonstrated low or zero levels of petrogenic hydrocarbons in the body tissue. The presence of tar on the rocks does not appear to adversely affect reproductive potential, size frequency or abundance of the animals in this intertidal region below the splash zone. The microscopic and macroscopic algae produce very large amounts of biogenic hydrocarbon material. In addition, however, some algal samples from sites of heavy tar accumulation contained high levels of petrogenic hydrocarbons.
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF TWO EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILLS IN AN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
Authors: Bieri Rudolf H. , Stamoudis Vassilios C. , Cueman M. Kent 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The fate of fresh and artificially weathered South Louisiana crude oil was investigated in large-scale experimental oil spills. The oil, originally introduced to the surface of a creek bounded by walls of transite (but open at subtidal level to allow communication with surrounding waters), was distributed by tidal action over a marsh of Spartina alterniflora. Samples of surface film, water, organic detritus, sediment, fish (Fundulus heteroclitus), oyster (Crassostrea Virginica), and clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) were collected over long periods and subjected to detailed chemical analysis by gas chromatography and computerized low resolution GC-MS techniques. Results are presented for water and Fundulus.
Maximum concentrations of individual aromatic compounds found in fish were similar for both oils. This maximum occurred six hours after the spill for weathered crude, and 76 hours after the spill for fresh crude for all aromatic compounds except naphthalene and the methylnaphthalenes. Uptake appeared to be non-specific. In all cases investigated, hydrocarbon concentrations in animal tissue reached a maximum and then decreased to levels below measurability (&lt;10 ppb). In the interpretation of the data, a distinction is made between environmental residence times observed in natural systems and the biological residence times measured in laboratory experiments.
A CONTINUOUS FLOW BIOASSAY SYSTEM FOR THE EXPOSURE OF MARINE ORGANISMS TO OIL
Authors: Hyland Jeffrey L. , Rogerson Peter F. , Gardner George R. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A continuous flow-through bioassay system is described for exposing marine test organisms and their various life stages to oil. The apparatus consists of two principal stages—one for administering the water-accommodated fractions of oil (WAF) and the second for administering “whole” oil fractions (WF), including the soluble as well as nonsoluble fractions. The oil-contaminated effluent from the system first passes through a chamber to skim off separated oil and finally through a filter which lowers the oil concentration to below one part per million (1 ppm). Short-term lethal and chronic sublethal bioassays of several months duration were conducted in the system and are summarized briefly herein. Biological effects observed during bioassays have ranged from lethal toxicity at oil concentrations of approximately 10 parts per million (ppm) to sublethal behavioral modifications at approximately 10 parts per billion (ppb).