bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Memory Development
Authors: Howe Mark L. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractUnlike the traditional view of memory development that dominated researchers' agendas throughout the 20th century, the current chapter is focused on research that has defined theoretical advances in the early 21st century. The chapter begins with a brief review of the earlier 20th‐century views about memory development and then turns to three additional issues that have enjoyed a renewed interest early in the 21st century. The first issue changes the theoretical focus from questions about the structure of memory and its development to one about the (adaptive) function of memory. What the research shows is that at least some of the functional attributes of memory include the extraction of meaning, binding information into regular patterns, and using these patterns to predict future outcomes. The second issue addressed in this chapter concerns how these adaptive memory systems develop. To answer this question, I review recent research that has examined correlated changes in neurobiological and cognitive functioning. The final issue concerns whether we share these adaptive memory developments with other animals. The answer to this is found by reviewing the comparative memory development literature. Overall, this adaptive view of memory suggests that it develops not simply to remember one's past, but to understand the present, and anticipate the future.
Language Development
Authors: MacWhinney Brian 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThe modern study of children's language is influenced by two contrasting perspectives. The theory of Universal Grammar emphasizes the role of innate abilities in a core language module. In contrast, Emergentism views language learning as a result of processes of variation, competition, and generalization, operating across a diverse set of space‐time scales ranging from online processing to long‐term patterns of social and genetic consolidation. This chapter reviews language development in terms of seven levels of emergent structure: articulatory phonology, auditory phonology, lexicon, morphology, syntax, mental models, and conversation. For each level, the analysis considers the role of input language structure, neural processes, and social mechanisms. On each level, we observe ways in which the initial learning of specific items gives rise to subsequent pattern extraction and generalization. We then examine the neuronal basis of language control in terms of structures and methods for allowing highly interactive online processing between the seven components. Processing models provide ways of understanding both developmental language disorders and the learning of multiple languages at different stages in development.
Gesture and Cognitive Development
Authors: Goldin‐Meadow Susan 
Published: March 2015

AbstractWhen people talk, they gesture. The goal of this chapter is to explore the role that gesture plays in talking and thinking. The chapter begins by situating gesture within behaviors traditionally identified as nonverbal. It then charts the developmental course that gesture follows in children whose language learning is on track, and in children whose spoken language learning has gone awry. Even early in development, gesture is fully integrated with the speech it accompanies––it is part of language. But when spoken language learning is not possible, gesture can assume the role typically played by speech––it can become language. At all ages, gesture has the potential to provide insight into a child's thoughts, at times offering a unique picture of those thoughts. The final sections of the chapter explore gesture's mechanisms––what makes us gesture––and its functions––what purpose does gesture serve. The underlying theme of the chapter is that, by playing a role in communication and thinking, gesture can have an impact on cognitive change. Gesture thus goes beyond reflecting a child's thoughts to having a hand in shaping those thoughts.
The Development of Reasoning
Authors: Ricco Robert B. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThis chapter discusses the course of development for deductive and inductive forms of reasoning across childhood and adolescence. Key theories of how best to account for that course are critiqued. The development of deduction is considered primarily with respect to syllogistic and conditional reasoning. Mental logic, metacognitive, and mental models accounts of deduction are contrasted and compared and the potential for rapprochement is identified. The development of inductive reasoning is discussed with respect to three primary types of induction—category‐based induction, causal induction, and inductive processes in scientific thinking. The discussion of the development of reasoning provided in this chapter is situated within a dual systems or dual process account of cognition. According to this account, human cognition consists of two distinct systems (1 and 2) or types of processing, with the primary basis for the distinction being the question of whether processing engages working memory resources. By adopting this framework, it becomes possible to shed light on the processes that underlie deductive and inductive reasoning and to trace how the development of each type of reasoning is related to changes in these underlying processes. Among the key conclusions of the chapter is that while the development of certain aspects of System 1 processing contributes to age‐related changes in performance on reasoning tasks, the most significant changes in both deductive and inductive reasoning result from key developments in System 2 processing.
The Development of Scientific Thinking
Authors: Lehrer Richard , Schauble Leona 
Published: March 2015

AbstractWe introduce three views of science that ground different perspectives on the long‐term development of scientific thinking: science‐as‐reasoning, science‐as‐conceptual change, and science‐as‐practice. An emphasis on science as an integrated set of epistemic practices is receiving increasing attention. For example, new science education standards in the United States highlight the importance of students' participation in scientific practices, which are communally recognized and supported ways of generating, revising, and critiquing scientific knowledge. Based on reviews of the history, philosophy, and psychology of science, we argue that the defining practice of science is modeling, and that it is useful to conceive of other scientific practices in relation to this foundational one. Accordingly, we trace the ontogeny of representational and material practices of modeling and situate seven related scientific practices, such as constructing and interpreting data, or developing explanations and arguments, as motivated by modeling. This perspective identifies fruitful areas for additional research that can inform the field's understanding of how to describe and support the development of scientific thinking.
Media and Cognitive Development
Authors: Anderson Daniel R. , Kirkorian Heather L. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractBy the time children reach adulthood, they will have spent more time using electronic screen media than learning in formal school settings. Thus screen media have enormous potential to influence cognitive development—for good or ill. This chapter describes popular concerns about media impact, usingSesame Streetas a case study. Current estimates of children's use of media and engagement in multitasking behavior are presented. Empirical research is summarized with respect to children's cognition during use of media and implications for media effects on children are noted. Possible direct and indirect pathways of media influence on cognitive development are outlined, followed by a summary of research on media effects on cognitive skills and academic achievement. The chapter concludes with a critical analysis of research to date, including areas in need of future study.
Resilience and Adversity
Authors: Luthar Suniya S. , Crossman Elizabeth J. , Small Phillip J. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractResilience research involves the study of processes predicting better‐than‐expected adjustment following exposure to adversity, with the central goal of informing effective interventions. This chapter presents a review of accumulated research findings on salient risk‐modifiers across the realms of family, community, and individual characteristics. Cumulatively, findings highlight the power of proximal relationships, particularly with primary caregivers in the family, and with teachers, mentors, and peers in the community. Forces inimical to psychological and physical survival (such as maltreatment and violence) are much more powerful than positive influences (such as affection or support). Children's own “protective attributes” such as self‐efficacy are themselves continually shaped by salient socializing influences. Future research aimed at fostering childhood resilience—and future interventions—must prioritize attention to risk‐modifiers that are broadly deterministic (with large effect sizes, and generative of other assets); to gender‐specific patterns; and to developmental contexts (mores, needs, and existing resources). Understanding the processes underlying salutary salient relationships, and systematically harnessing these in large‐scale, community‐based interventions, is the best hope in maximizing the yield of science on resilience in childhood, adolescence, and subsequently in development.
Socioemotional Development in Changing Families
Authors: Golombok Susan , Tasker Fiona 
Published: March 2015

AbstractSince the latter part of the 20th century, dramatic changes have taken place to the structure of the family such that the traditional nuclear family headed by a heterosexual married couple is now in the minority. This chapter begins with a description of these changes and some of the key factors involved. The consequences of different family contexts for parent–child relationships and children's socioemotional development are then examined. These include single‐parent families, stepparent families, cohabiting parent families, families created through assisted reproductive technologies, and families headed by same‐sex parents. The specific issues and concerns raised by each family type are outlined, followed by a discussion of key empirical findings regarding parenting and child adjustment. The chapter ends by drawing on research relating to children in these different family forms to examine the relative importance of family structure and family processes for children's socioemotional development. The implications for policy and practice, and directions for future research, are also discussed.
Prosocial Development
Authors: Eisenberg Nancy , Spinrad Tracy L. , Knafo‐Noam Ariel 
Published: March 2015

AbstractIn this chapter, we review research and some current theory on the development of prosocial responding (including prosocial behavior and empathy‐related responding) and possible antecedents/causes, outcomes, and correlates. In the initial section of this chapter, we briefly present a general framework for integrating factors that contribute to prosocial responding. Then the empirical literature related to the development of prosocial behavior, with an emphasis on the emerging literature on early development and development during adolescence, is reviewed. Next we review literature on the potential origins of prosocial responding, including potential biological, cultural, familial, and peer/school factors. Then we address sociocognitive correlates of prosocial responding and the relations of temperamental/personality and social‐behavioral individual differences (e.g., aggression) to prosocial behavior and/or empathy‐related responding. Due to space constraints, we focus more on current rather than older publications and disproportionately on topics of central importance to prosocial development and issues that have been foci of interest in the past decade. In the final sections of the chapter, gaps in the field and future directions are discussed.
Early Childcare and Education
Authors: Burchinal Margaret , Magnuson Katherine , Powell Douglas , Hong Sandra Soliday 
Published: March 2015

AbstractMost children now experience early care and education (ECE) during early childhood in the United States, Western Europe, and many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin and South America. This chapter reviews the current landscape of ECE programs in the United States as well as current directions in research and the accumulated findings from more than 50 years of research. We begin this chapter with a discussion of developmental theories and their focus on how nonparental care for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers affects early development. Then we discuss the key dimensions of ECE‐;type, quality, quantity‐;describing the experiences of children in childcare along those dimensions. Next, empirical research describing associations between ECE and early development are presented along with the contextual challenges of addressing confounds between family characteristics and the selection of childcare arrangements. The section after that examines whether ECE serves as a risk or protective factor with particular attention to some subgroups of children, especially low‐income or ethnically diverse children. The final section describes public policies and programmatic strategies to improve quality and ensure access to ECE, and it includes findings from recent experimental studies of professional development and curriculum studies.
Children's Organized Activities
Authors: Vandell Deborah Lowe , Larson Reed W. , Mahoney Joseph L. , Watts Tyler W. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractOrganized activities (including afterschool programs, extracurricular activities, sports, community service, summer camps, and other activities outside of the regular school day) account for a significant segment of children and adolescents' lives. These activities often provide hands‐on, child‐driven experiential learning that often involve youth working collaboratively with peers. Although research on organized activities is comparatively recent, it suggests that these types of activities support the development of self‐direction, initiative, teamwork, and emotional skills, as well as cognitive and academic skills. In this chapter, bioecological and sociocultural theories are used to guide our understanding of organized activities. Methodological strategies and common assessments used to study organized activities are reviewed. Key parameters and processes, including dosage, type of activities, and program quality, are described. We consider individual, family, peer, and school/community factors that predict participation in organized activities. We also evaluate evidence of links between organized activities and child developmental outcomes. Finally, youth experiences and outcomes associated with unsupervised settings are juxtaposed to experiences and outcomes found in organized activities.
Children and the Law
Authors: Cauffman Elizabeth , Shulman Elizabeth , Bechtold Jordan , Steinberg Laurence 
Published: March 2015

AbstractLegal policy in the United States regarding children and adolescents has changed a great deal over time, reflecting oscillations in societal perceptions of young people. The prevailing laws regulating the treatment of children and adolescents are the product of conventional wisdom, philosophical reasoning, and practical considerations. Recent advances in the developmental science of mature judgment have allowed testing of many of the presumptions on which such laws are based, and developmental science is being called upon, with increasing frequency, to inform legal decisions. This chapter provides a broad overview of the legal regulation of children, as well as the extant or potential use of developmental science to guide legal decision making. The scope of this discussion is limited to legal policy regarding children and adolescents within the United States, and we focus our attention specifically on legal issues important and controversial enough to have been addressed in decisions by the Supreme Court. We review the ways that legal regulation of minors has evolved across a broad array of domains, including the family, school, the justice system, medical settings, and society more broadly. Legal policy in these domains often must reconcile the competing interests of children, their parents, and broader society. We discuss the implications of developmental science for informing debates over the appropriate balance between these differing interests.
Children and Government
Authors: Dodge Kenneth A. , Haskins Ron 
Published: March 2015

AbstractThis chapter addresses the influence that government has on children's development. Government exerts its influence as part of the social ecological macrosystem through direct funding of programs, laws that constrain or encourage behavior, support for research, and the creation of institutions to uphold laws or implement policies. Because government's roles are to affect both the mean and the distribution of outcomes for children, we focus on the problem of poverty, its impact on children, and ways government tries to buffer children from those outcomes. After providing a history of government policies that affect families and children, we synthesize the state of knowledge about how specific public policies in domains such as health, education, and social services affect children's development. We ground this synthesis in relational developmental systems theory, which asserts a bidirectional relation between a child and his or her context. We describe methods that developmental scientists use to study public policies. We highlight the contemporary challenge of optimizing children's development in a context of economic uncertainty, federal deficit, and an aging population. Finally, we argue that children's development can be optimized through more systematic, evidence‐based policy making that is grounded in developmental science.
Assessing Bioecological Influences
Authors: Wachs Theodore D. 
Published: March 2015

AbstractWithin ecologically based approaches to human development the environment is viewed as a multidimensional and structurally organized system, with person and environment contributions functionally linked and probabilistic in nature. Bronfenbrenner's PPCT (process × person × context × time) theory is used as a conceptual framework to illustrate the implications of an ecological perspective, both for understanding and studying development. Within this framework five major issues are reviewed in this chapter: (1) the structure of the human ecosystem, which encompasses the micro‐, meso‐, exo‐ and macrosystems as well as the bioecological and subjective environments; (2) major methodological implications of an ecological perspective for studying development, such as the need to study children in real world situations and to consider both environment and experience; (3) how linkages between the bioecological dimensions of process, person, context and time both structure and moderate ecosystem influences upon development; (4) statistical and measurement issues when integrating across process, person, context and temporal influences, such the need to utilize cost‐efficient ecological assessments; (5) applications of the linked PPCT dimensions to the design and implementation of intervention strategies to promote development.
Bankruptcy
Authors: Thorne Deborah 
Published: March 2015

Abstract

The vast majority of
US
bankruptcies are filed by individuals and couples rather than by corporations. Most filers are middle class and middle aged; however, there has recently been a notable increase in the percentage of filers aged 65 or over. Since bankruptcy eliminates most or all of a petitioner's eligible debt, the majority of filers, although certainly not all, make a financial rebound after bankruptcy. Bankruptcy also remains stigmatized. Leading reasons for filing include job loss, medical problems, and divorce or separation. Although wives are significantly more likely to manage the household debts before a couple files, husbands and wives alike experience considerable emotional and marital distress; after bankruptcy, however, emotional and marital distress decrease sharply among these same couples.
Capitalism
Authors: Beamish Rob 
Published: March 2015

Abstract

Capitalism may refer to an economic, political and/or social system (e.g., feudalism, capitalism, communism), a broad historical period, or specific forms within that period (e.g., mercantile, industrial, finance, monopoly, or late capitalism). It is often politically encumbered through association with Marx's and other socialist or communist critiques of capitalism (although Marx never used “capitalism” in the
Manifesto
or
Capital
– first employing it in his late‐1870s correspondence). Werner Sombart tried to depoliticize the term, maintaining it was an analytical concept applicable to a specific socioeconomic system.
Consumer Protection Agency
Authors: King Martha W. 
Published: March 2015

Abstract

Consumer protection agencies exist around the world and regionally to protect the interests of consumers. They are commonly established as the result of advocacy by consumer organizations and movements and are most generally designed to ensure that the rights of consumers are acknowledged and protected. The United States failed to create a Consumer Protection Agency in the 1970s. The Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 established the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (
CFPB
) in 2011. The
CFPB
consolidates most federal consumer financial protection authority in one place and is intended to protect people from unfair, deceptive, and abusive financial practices. There are also a series of regional networks devoted to consumer protection, and international agencies have taken up consumer protection more seriously since 2008.
Cosmetic Surgery
Authors: Applequist Janelle 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
Cosmetic surgery, a popular surgical practice performed to achieve aesthetic appeal, has been marketed heavily since the 1940s. Researchers have long debated the industry through a theoretical lens of feminism, questioning whether the elective procedures perpetuate Western ideas of beauty or open up a space for self‐expression and reflexivity. Research has often found that cosmetic surgery clinics advertise their services as forms of beauty or fashion improvement rather than emphasizing the surgical and medical dimensions. Consumers continue to take out medical loans in an effort to conform to the physical demands that they feel society imposes on them.
Credit Cards
Authors: Guseva Alya 
Published: March 2015

Abstract

Credit cards were invented and mass issued for the first time after World War
II
in the United States. The credit card is a protagonist of globalization and, until recently, Visa and
MasterCard
have been unchallenged leaders of the global card market. Their dominance has recently been challenged by Chinese
UnionPay
cards. Building new credit card markets is a challenging task. At the dawn of the American market, card‐issuing banks mailed unsolicited cards to unscreened individuals, the practice that was successful in jumpstarting the
US
market, but costly to the banks owing to defaults and fraud. Banks in postcommunist countries frequently resort to coercion in their attempt to disseminate cards and develop card acceptance among merchants. Credit cards are subject to moral critique: they encourage overspending and through their reliance on screening technologies and variable risk‐based pricing of credit, they can amplify inequality.
Culture Jamming
Authors: Kuehn Kathleen 
Published: March 2015

Abstract
Culture jamming is a form of rhetorical protest through pranking, hoaxes, hacking, and other types of sabotage. The “guerrilla communications” tactics of culture jamming are rooted in the tenets of social activism, which aim to reclaim independent thought and public spaces from the control and influence of ubiquitous media culture. As identified by cultural critic Mark Dery, four common jamming techniques include subvertising, billboard banditry, media hoaxes, and audio agit‐prop.