bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The anisotropic scattering coefficient of sea ice
Authors: Katlein Christian , Nicolaus Marcel , Petrich Chris 
Published: January 2014

AbstractRadiative transfer in sea ice is subject to anisotropic, multiple scattering. The impact of anisotropy on the light field under sea ice was found to be substantial and has been quantified. In this study, a large data set of irradiance and radiance measurements under sea ice has been acquired with a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) in the central Arctic. Measurements are interpreted in the context of numerical radiative transfer calculations, laboratory experiments, and microstructure analysis. The ratio of synchronous measurements of transmitted irradiance to radiance shows a clear deviation from an isotropic under‐ice light field. We find that the angular radiance distribution under sea ice is more downward directed than expected for an isotropic light field. This effect can be attributed to the anisotropic scattering coefficient within sea ice. Assuming an isotropic radiance distribution under sea ice leads to significant errors in light‐field modeling and the interpretation of radiation measurements. Quantification of the light field geometry is crucial for correct conversion of radiance data acquired by Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and ROVs.
Testing the accuracy of a 1‐D volcanic plume model in estimating mass eruption rate
Authors: Mastin Larry G. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDuring volcanic eruptions, empirical relationships are used to estimate mass eruption rate from plume height. Although simple, such relationships can be inaccurate and can underestimate rates in windy conditions. One‐dimensional plume models can incorporate atmospheric conditions and give potentially more accurate estimates. Here I present a 1‐D model for plumes in crosswind and simulate 25 historical eruptions where plume height Hobs was well observed and mass eruption rate Mobs could be calculated from mapped deposit mass and observed duration. The simulations considered wind, temperature, and phase changes of water. Atmospheric conditions were obtained from the National Center for Atmospheric Research Reanalysis 2.5° model. Simulations calculate the minimum, maximum, and average values (Mmin, Mmax, and Mavg) that fit the plume height. Eruption rates were also estimated from the empirical formula Mempir = 140Hobs4.14 (Mempir is in kilogram per second, Hobs is in kilometer). For these eruptions, the standard error of the residual in log space is about 0.53 for Mavg and 0.50 for Mempir. Thus, for this data set, the model is slightly less accurate at predicting Mobs than the empirical curve. The inability of this model to improve eruption rate estimates may lie in the limited accuracy of even well‐observed plume heights, inaccurate model formulation, or the fact that most eruptions examined were not highly influenced by wind. For the low, wind‐blown plume of 14–18 April 2010 at Eyjafjallajökull, where an accurate plume height time series is available, modeled rates do agree better with Mobs than Mempir.
The importance of observed gradients of air temperature and precipitation for modeling runoff from a glacierized watershed in the Nepalese Himalayas
Authors: Immerzeel W. W. , Petersen L. , Ragettli S. , Pellicciotti F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe performance of glaciohydrological models which simulate catchment response to climate variability depends to a large degree on the data used to force the models. The forcing data become increasingly important in high‐elevation, glacierized catchments where the interplay between extreme topography, climate, and the cryosphere is complex. It is challenging to generate a reliable forcing data set that captures this spatial heterogeneity. In this paper, we analyze the results of a 1 year field campaign focusing on air temperature and precipitation observations in the Langtang valley in the Nepalese Himalayas. We use the observed time series to characterize both temperature lapse rates (LRs) and precipitation gradients (PGs). We study their spatial and temporal variability, and we attempt to identify possible controlling factors. We show that very clear LRs exist in the valley and that there are strong seasonal differences related to the water vapor content in the atmosphere. Results also show that the LRs are generally shallower than the commonly used environmental lapse rates. The analysis of the precipitation observations reveals that there is great variability in precipitation over short horizontal distances. A uniform valley wide PG cannot be established, and several scale‐dependent mechanisms may explain our observations. We complete our analysis by showing the impact of the observed LRs and PGs on the outputs of the TOPKAPI‐ETH glaciohydrological model. We conclude that LRs and PGs have a very large impact on the water balance composition and that short‐term monitoring campaigns have the potential to improve model quality considerably.
Content Analysis
Authors: A. Mackey David 
Published: January 2014

AbstractContent analysis is defined as “any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.” Data sources amenable to content analysis include political speeches; open‐ended survey items; newspaper articles; electronic or print communications such as e‐mail, interview transcripts, and audio recordings; and imagery such as photographs, video, graffiti, and even tattoos.
Warehousing Prisoners
Authors: Berthelot Emily R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Warehousing prisoners has been a persistent problem in the United States for over 30 years. Strategies to reduce prison populations include limiting admissions to prison and reductions in length of sentences. Nonviolent offenders, particularly drug offenders, account for a large proportion of both federal and state prison populations, mostly due to sentencing changes associated with the war on drugs. Sentencing changes based on three‐strikes legislation and mandatory minimums have also influenced prison overcrowding. Minorities, especially black males, are disproportionately represented in prison populations.
Voyeurism and Exhibitionism
Authors: Calvert Clay 
Published: January 2014

AbstractVoyeurism and exhibitionism reside at the intersection of psychiatry and law. Both behaviors can, but do not always, constitute sexual disorders and/or criminal offenses. Indeed, voyeurism may be the most common, potentially law‐breaking, sexual behavior. Other data suggest exhibitionism is the most widespread sexual offense. Voyeurism centers on nonconsensual observation of the sexual activity of others, while exhibitionism pivots on the illicit exposure of genitalia to an unwilling audience. Both voyeurism and exhibition are thus considered hands‐off sexual behaviors, as neither requires physical contact with a victim, unlike rape, which requires penetration.
Shock Probation
Authors: Lowe Nathan C. , Matz Adam K. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Shock probation is a program built on the assumption that specific deterrence is effective in reducing probationer recidivism. Similar to a split sentence, shock probation combines a brief stay in prison with release in the community under probation supervision. Generally used for nonviolent offenders, the
shock
of short‐term incarceration serves as the motivation for offender behavior change. The brevity of the stay, ranging from 30 to 120 days, avoids the negative aspects of long‐term exposure to correctional institutions. Though more often available to first‐time offenders, shock probation is also available to some probationers whose probation is revoked for violating conditions of release or arrest for a new crime. Though the concept of combining incarceration with probation has been in practice in some form since the 1920s, it has not been subjected to sound scientific evaluation, thus the effectiveness of shock probation programs continues to be debated.
Vollmer, August
Authors: Rennison Callie Marie 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
August Vollmer, the father of American policing, is recognized for his innovative approaches to professionalizing the occupation. His contributions to modern policing strategies are numerous. Vollmer became the first chief of police in Berkeley, California. He was the first to require college degrees for officers and the first to place officers on motorcycles and in patrol cars. His police reform efforts to curb corruption are legendary in the history of policing in the United States.
Education and Crime
Authors: Pearman Joshua Frank 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry discusses how educational levels correlate with criminal activity. In general, those with higher levels of educational achievement are less likely to participate in criminal activity. Education is a form of socialization that is taught to individuals at a very young age. People are often taught to obey the rules and respect authority figures through education. This socialization process then translates into the way people act when they get older. Early education is examined to illuminate the importance of behaviors learned at a young age and how such education can benefit individuals as they get older. A discussion is formulated to show how correctional facilities are also moving towards an educational approach to reduce recidivism rates.
Classical Criminology
Authors: Valasik Matthew 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The classical school of criminology was a response to the brutal and arbitrary criminal justice system of eighteenth‐century Europe. Classical criminology emphasizes both the government's role in regulating and punishing inappropriate behavior and individuals' ability to guide their own actions. Individuals are considered to be rational actors who are able to logically determine if the pleasure received from a criminal act is greater than the potential sanction. Thus, individuals can be inhibited from engaging in criminality if the punishments outweigh the rewards. Specifically, a deterrent must have three components—severity, certainty, and celerity—if it is to be successful. The absence of one component reduces a rational actor's ability to calculate the benefits from the disadvantages, diminishing the deterrent effect. Classical criminology has been the foundation for several paramount theories in the discipline, including rational choice, self‐control, and routine activity theories.
Fear of Crime
Authors: Farrall Stephen 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe fear of crime is a significant social problem for two reasons. First, because a large portion of citizens report being worried about crime, and second, because worry is assumed to shape people's lives. Worry is believed to erode well‐being, promote precaution, restrict movement, encourage the “flight” from deprived areas by “respectable” citizens, harm social trust, intergroup relations, and the capacity of communities to exercise social control. This entry focuses on a “secondary literature” of studies of the fear of crime. This literature has tried to unpack the questions surrounding the origin of interest in the fear of crime and, in so doing, uncovered political influences on the criminological research agenda.
Juvenile Sex Offenders
Authors: Farina Katie A. , Mahoney Margaret 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In recent years, three aspects of juvenile sexual offenders have been largely investigated: the motivations of offenders, types of offenses committed, and treatment options. It has been found that juvenile sex offenders may have experienced previous distressing situations such as abuse or discord in the household, which can result in a negative self‐image and poor coping skills. It is also possible that juvenile sex offenders fit into different offending typologies: molesting children or assaulting peers. Finally, it has been suggested that group‐based cognitive therapy may be beneficial in rehabilitating juvenile sex offenders. However, such treatment options are rare, since the juvenile court system has become increasingly more punitive in its approaches, often transferring juveniles to adult court so they can be tried as adults.
Workplace Violence
Authors: Calnan Kate , Kelloway E. Kevin 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry provides an introductory overview of workplace violence. Key constructs such as workplace violence and aggression are defined, along with a variety of other terms frequently found in the literature. The parallels and differences among several of the major concepts (e.g., workplace violence, bullying, harassment) are explored. Additionally, the sources (i.e., Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV) of workplace violence are described and discussed in detail, along with the prevalence of each. Situational and imminent risk to violence while at work is also discussed via the SAV‐T first model. Lastly, the entry identifies common strategies for preventing, reducing, and coping with the trauma of workplace violence. Specifically, three approaches for dealing with workplace violence are presented (administrative interventions, target hardening, and behavioral interventions), along with examples of intervention techniques most commonly employed by organizations.
Obstruction of Justice
Authors: Siffert John S. , Malizia Kathryn E. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Obstruction of justice is the crime of interfering with the orderly administration of the law. Common examples include intimidating jurors or witnesses, lying under oath or to government officials, bribing court officers or jurors, and altering or destroying evidence. Many states also prohibit a wide and varied range of wrongdoing that extends beyond the courtroom to interference with police officers, firefighters, and other public officials in the execution of their duties.
Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: McDonald Courtney , Belknap Joanne 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIntimate partner violence (IPV) is a frequent and significant force, yet it remains hidden from the general public. This entry defines IPV and the different behaviors it entails, reports on the frequency of IPV, describes the feminist movement's response to IPV, and discusses research on the criminal legal system responses to IPV victims and offenders.
Race/Ethnicity
Authors: Donner Christopher M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractRace and ethnicity have always been a significant topic of interest and research in the United States. Specifically, the relation between race/ethnicity and crime continues to be an important and noteworthy area of inquiry in criminology and criminal justice. This entry covers a number of topics within the realm of race/ethnicity and crime, including the conceptualization of race, the disproportionality of racial/ethnic groups in the criminal justice system, the history of race/ethnicity in the United States and in the criminal justice system, racial profiling, race/ethnicity and sentencing, race/ethnicity and the death penalty, and the collateral consequences of criminal justice involvement for racial minorities.
Immigration, Crime, and Criminal Justice
Authors: McDonald William F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractImmigration and crime are an old topic that has fluctuated as a public concern over centuries from the vagrancy laws of the Middle Ages to today's campaign against human trafficking. Many but not all criminological studies have found that immigrants appear to be less involved in crime than natives. Despite such findings, the public continues to believe that immigrants are crime‐prone. Anti‐immigrant prejudice varies by a country's experience with immigration. Second‐generation immigrants tend to be more involved in crime than natives but not everywhere. Research on immigrants and crime is seriously hampered by the lack of data regarding the immigrant status of criminals and victims. Studies indicate that immigrants are primarily the victims of other immigrants for conventional crime. Living in ethnic enclaves tends to protect immigrants from intergroup conflict but exposes them to intragroup conflict. The deportation of immigrants who have committed crimes has contributed to new crime problems in less‐developed countries as well as the growth of transnational gangs. The criminalization of immigration policy has provided governments with a means to achieve crime control objectives via immigration rules which do not abide by the traditional safeguards against the unfair use of power or the infliction of excessive punishment.
Transnational Organized Crime
Authors: Siegel Dina 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The globalization of the world's economy and culture has led to the spread of the activities of old and established criminal groups to other parts of the world. In addition, new criminal markets, products, and services emerge as a part of transnational organized crime activities. Today transnational organized crime is involved in the provision of illicit services and goods and is associated with three main cross‐border activities, namely drug trafficking, human trafficking, and human smuggling.
Victimless Crime
Authors: A. Veneziano Carol 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWhen there is a consensus that classifying an act or behavior as a crime is no longer justifiable, is unenforceable, or society simply no longer views it as a threat, decriminalization offers a means to remove the criminal sanctions attached to the act or behavior. This occurrence is most closely associated with victimless crimes, but the specific crimes discussed for decriminalization vary from area to area, such as prostitution in the US and homosexuality in Germany. The crime most associated with debates about decriminalization is drug use, more specifically, marijuana use. Although frequently discussed, marijuana decriminalization has only occurred in limited areas due to concerns over increased marijuana use after decriminalization and the possibility of a gateway effect toward other illicit substances. Despite these concerns, research has shown only minimal increases in drug use in areas following decriminalization that often mirrors increases in areas that have not decriminalized.
Cruel and Unusual Punishment and the Eighth Amendment
Authors: De Leon Jennifer , Fowler, Jr James E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Eighth Amendment of the Constitution provides that people residing in the United States will not be subjected to cruel and unusual punishment by the government. This guarantee also applies to prisoners. What constitutes cruel and unusual punishment is open to interpretation, thus prisoners and prison systems often disagree. The Supreme Court, guided by evolving standards of the day, establishes boundaries of cruel and unusual punishment in landmark cases. Some examples of cruel and unusual punishment include inhumane prison conditions and corporal punishment.
Human Trafficking
Authors: Winterdyk John , Kaye Julie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDomestic and international attention to human trafficking—a gross violation of human rights—continues to expand, particularly as more countries adopt and implement counter‐trafficking policies and laws. Yet, human trafficking is a complex crime and definitions of trafficking are contested by a number of stakeholders involved in the response. In this context, the following discussion of human trafficking provides an overview of the United Nations definition, including some key challenges associated with definitions of trafficking. We also discuss the extent of human trafficking and some initiatives aimed at responding to the problem. We recommend a comprehensive and highly coordinated approach to counter‐trafficking approaches.
Sykes, Gresham
Authors: Schaible Lonnie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractGresham M. Sykes, a celebrated sociologist and criminologist, is best known for his groundbreaking book on prisons,Society of Captives, which examines how the context of the penal environment shapes the behaviors of correctional officers and inmates. He is also widely cited for his contribution to the development of techniques of neutralization.
Capital Punishment and Legal Standing
Authors: McConnell Elizabeth H. , McConnell John A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCapital punishment was once common throughout the world. As of January 2009, most countries, 135, had abolished the death penalty in law or in practice, while 62 countries continued its use. In fact, 2,390 people were executed in 25 countries in 2008, with six countries being responsible for 95% of the people executed. The countries, listed from highest to lowest number of confirmed executions in 2008, include China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, United States, Pakistan, and Iraq.
Treason
Authors: Bein Steven 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Treason has always been viewed as the most serious offense against a higher authority. It is considered an act against not only an individual but also society as a whole, embodied in the ruling authority, whether individually as in the monarch or collectively as in the government. It is indeed the act or attempt to destroy one's nation. While harsh penalties have been used to deter such offenses, the very reason that such acts are considered the worst of crimes are the same motives which drive people to commit them. Those who seek freedom from the oppression of uncontrolled governance often are those who would be considered as a threat to the same.
Southern Crime and Justice
Authors: Eichenberg M. George 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe focus of this entry is the historical evolution of criminal justice practices in the American South, much of it predicated by its legacy of slavery. Amongst the important developments that made the South's criminal justice system distinct from that of the rest of America were the creation of slave patrols, the slow development of the correctional system, and a punitive punishment regime that has consistently led the nation in terms of the number of executions.
Victim Profiles
Authors: Schreck Christopher J. , Posick Chad 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Victim profiles refer to either the distinctive demographic characteristics of crime victims (e.g., age, race, and sex) or individual traits (e.g., self‐control and genetic factors) that correspond to having a greater probability of victimization. Victim profiles assume that victimization is not a random event. In fact, the data show that many factors are linked with victimization risk.
Evaluation Research
Authors: Shannon Lisa M. , Schaefer Julie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEvaluation is a type of research which examines various components of social problems and programs and draws from a variety of research methodologies, often utilizing both quantitative and qualitative strategies to provide numeric and in‐depth information. This entry provides an overview of the most common evaluation methodologies: needs assessment, process evaluation, outcome evaluation, and cost/benefit evaluation. Each methodology will be overviewed to highlight the purpose and give a description of the critical elements. An example which highlights terminology specific to each evaluation methodology will be utilized. Additionally, strengths and limitations of each type of evaluation methodology will be discussed. Furthermore, an overview of relevant ethical principles important for evaluation research will be provided.
Irwin, John
Authors: Petrosian Lilit 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
John Irwin is best known for his work as a convict criminologist. Irwin's passions for exposing the problems faced by offenders who struggle to reenter society after jail or prison terms reveal his compassion and humanitarianism. Irwin devoted much of his career to describing the problems offenders face and the tragedy of high incarceration rates in the United States. Irwin described his life as a journey involving witnessing and gathering observations in the process of experiencing criminology.