bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Idea of Emergent Properties in Data Privacy Law
Authors: Esayas Samson Y. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter uses the concept of emergent properties to examine the challenges that the commercialization of personal data presents to the application of data privacy laws. Applying this concept, the chapter explains the modus operandi of EU data privacy law, characterizing its application as ‘atomized’. This relates to the focus of the rules on distinct processing activity based on a specific and legitimate purpose, with little attention paid to the totality of the processing activities—i.e. the whole—based on separate purposes. This atomized approach presents systemic challenges to the application of data privacy rules considering the changes resulting from commercialization of personal data, namely the tendency to process personal data for a panoply of purposes and aggregate data across these processing activities. These changes blur the lines between the different processing activities, complicating the attribution of individual data to a particular processing operation. Further, the atomized approach does not adequately address emergent privacy risks borne from the cumulative and interconnected data processing operations. The chapter advocates for a holistic approach that imposes enhanced responsibilities based on the totality of processing activities and data-aggregation practices. This approach is akin to the regulation under competition law, where companies in a dominant position bear special responsibility. As shown in Chapter 3, employing an emergent property perspective enables a connection between data privacy and competition laws, revealing the similarities in how both regimes are applied, particularly their atomized approach, the challenges they encounter with big data, and the need for a holistic approach to address these challenges.
The Rise and Fall of Public Enterprises in Latin America in the 20th Century
Authors: Nem Singh Jewellord T. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the place of state ownership in natural resource governance in Latin American states during the 20th century. It seeks to demonstrate the significance of SOEs in developing indigenous industrial capacity and human capital stocks in the region. In so doing, the chapter interrogates how and why Latin American states embraced economic nationalism as a development strategy, highlighting the role of natural resource sector in the process of industrial transformation in the region. In particular, it pays close attention to Venezuela’s economic fate and its institutional development as a petro-state in response to societal demands for structural transformation through its oil wealth. It likewise presents the hard limits of this SOE-based growth that paved the way for the implementation and continuing dominance of neoliberalism in the region from the 1980s onwards.
The Future of Latin America’s Natural Resource States in the 21st Century
Authors: Nem Singh Jewellord T. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the prospects and challenges of developmental states in the 21st century—starting with China as the most recent example of efforts at building a ‘developmental state’. By analysing the gradual, steady reforms leading to the ‘advance of the state’ and ‘retreat of the market’ in China, the book offers a rethinking on what lessons can be learned as regards state ownership. Beyond summarizing the theoretical contributions of the book, the chapter examines the future of natural-resource-producing states and why policymakers need to reexamine their assumptions about the place of state ownership in the new geopolitical context of strategic competition and climate emergency. In so doing, it proposes to rethink how resource wealth management can complement state ownership—something that the scholarship on the resource curse and neoliberalism dismissed as infeasible in the era of economic globalization.
National Security and the Separation of Powers
Authors: Ward Robert , Laird Karl 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the evolving approach of the different branches of state to national security matters. The chapter begins by examining the development of Parliament’s approach to national security questions. It examines its scrutiny of such issues, in particular through the Intelligence and Security Committee as well as dealing with the devolved legislatures and the National Cyber Security Centre. Next, Chapter 2 considers the approach of the executive to national security matters. It examines, in particular, the various governmental bodies which are concerned with national security issues, including the National Security Council, the Civil Contingencies Committee (‘COBRA’), the Joint Intelligence Committee, the Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre, and the Joint State Threats Assessment Team, before examining more generally the relationship between Ministers and officials through the Carltona principle. Chapter 2 also considers the policy responses to threats to UK national security, in the terrorism (Counter-Terrorism Strategy, ‘CONTEST’), extremism (Counter Extremism Strategy, Commission for Countering Extremism, and Extremism Analysis Unit) and state-based threats arenas. Finally, Chapter 2 concludes by examining the approach of the courts to national security questions. It examines the twin principles of judicial deference and relative institutional competence, reviews the relationship between fact and evidence, and considers the influence of human rights cases, the relationship of national security to other aspects of the public interest, and finally the approach to derogations from the European Convention on Human Rights in times of war or other public emergencies.
Sanctions including Asset Freezes
Authors: O’Brien Richard , Fisher Toby 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Chapter 14 addresses the international and domestic sanctions regimes relevant to national security. The focus is on sanctions applied as part of international and domestic efforts to combat terrorism rather than geographic sanctions applied to achieve foreign policy or international security objectives. The chapter begins with an introduction covering the nature of sanctions and their key forms. The chapter then examines three key elements to the sanctions regime: United Nations sanctions, pre-2021 UK sanctions, and the approach in the UK from 2021 onwards. The analysis of United Nations sanctions examines sanctions against both specific organisations and terrorists. The pre-2021 UK sanctions regime focuses on the European Union (EU)-based nature of the regime prior to the end of the implementation period for the withdrawal of the UK from the EU at the end of 2020. The regime after that date focuses on the regime introduced by the Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Act 2018 (SAMLA) to replace the previous EU basis for the sanctions system. The authors provide a detailed analysis of the regime, examine the scope for challenges to decisions under SAMLA, consider exceptions and licences, and consider penalties and enforcement. Finally, they consider other counter-terrorism financing legislation.
Intervention in Investments on National Security Grounds
Authors: Phillips Rory , Wolfe Georgina 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Chapter 15 covers the National Security and Investment Act 2021 (NSIA). The NSIA is an important new Act of Parliament designed to enable government to respond to the threat to national security posed by certain foreign state investments. The authors begin by introducing the concerns that led to the enactment of the NSIA. They then set out the framework of the Act, explaining how its key provisions operate. They introduce the Investment Security Unit (ISU), the key unit in government created to lead on the operation and functioning of the Act. Next, they describe in detail the operation of trigger events, which occur when a person gains control of a qualifying entity or asset in the manner prescribed by the legislation. This leads to a consideration of the notification requirements in the Act, the call-in process, and the risk assessment stages. The authors then consider the notifications and order stage, including both interim and final orders, the possibility of financial assistance, and interactions with the Competition and Markets Authority. Finally, they consider enforcement and sanctions (both civil and criminal) before concluding with an analysis of the means of challenge to orders under the NSIA.
Public Inquiries and National Security
Authors: Smith Martin 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Chapter 23 examines the topic of public inquiries which involve the consideration of national security matters. It begins with a general introduction to the different types of public inquiry, statutory and non-statutory, as well as related issues concerning their establishment (terms of reference, whether there should be a chair or a panel, the requirement to hold the inquiry in public, and the identification of core participants). Disclosure to the inquiry is considered in detail, in particular the power to compel witnesses and the production of documents, processes for the identification and provision of relevant documents, and the law relating to the admission of intercept material in evidence. The author then considers how an inquiry can access the sensitive material it needs without damaging national security, with a focus on the issue of relevance and public interest immunity (PII). The author then proceeds to explain the procedure for restriction notices and orders, as well as Closed hearings and the use of special measures in Open hearings. The inquiry report is considered in detail before the chapter concludes with a review of the scope for challenging the chair’s rulings.
National Security Vetting
Authors: Green Mark 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Chapter 25 begins by introducing the topic of national security vetting, part of the government’s personnel security controls, as essentially a risk evaluation process necessary for those seeking to work in sensitive posts and underpinned by policy rather than law. Particular consideration is given to the government guidance document Personnel Security Controls. The author examines the range of considerations that are taken into account in national security vetting decisions and how those decisions are made and communicated. The consequences of the decisions are set out before the compatibility of the UK vetting system with the requirements of the European Convention on Human Rights are considered. The author deals next with the topic of appeals to the Security Vetting Appeals Panel, reviewing in particular procedure, disclosure, and decisions. Finally, the author considers the interaction with other jurisdictions: the Investigatory Powers Tribunal, judicial review, and the Employment Tribunal.
Attributions of Blame and Credit in Policy-Making
Authors: Ching Leong , Howlett Michael , Safaei Mehrdad 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
While credit-claiming has long been the currency for policy-makers, policy studies since Weaver (1986) have paired this with the concept of ‘blame avoidance’ as a second oft-observed motivator of policy-making activity. Credit- and blame-related activities range from the agenda-denial behaviour of politicians to the use of policy evaluations to paint overly positive pictures of the effectiveness of policy efforts. Despite their frequent invocation by analysts, however, the interactions of ‘blame’ and ‘credit’ activities are not well understood, and questions abound about how both are deployed in the political world. This chapter uses Natural Language Processing (NLP) machine-learning sentiment analysis of the tweets of the ex-prime minister of the United Kingdom, Boris Johnson, during 2020–2022 to clarify the relationship existing between ‘blame’ and ‘credit’ behaviour and the ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’ conditions of the worsening and lessening of the pandemic in order to determine if standard expectations of such behaviours were indeed found in the high-profile COVID case.
Populist Blame Games
Authors: Jakobson Mari-Liis 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
With the surge of populism around the world, blame games have also begun to transform. For populists, blame is not something to be avoided but rather generated and used to one’s own advantage, even when being at the receiving end of blame. Based on the twenty-one months that the Conservative People’s Party of Estonia (EKRE), a populist radical-right party, spent in office as a junior coalition partner, the chapter outlines blame-game strategies that conform to the ideological, performative, and strategic logics of populism. It demonstrates how populists are keen to generate blame even while in office and play credit-claiming games also when these are likely to result in blame. When taking blame, populists use five complementary strategies: playing innocent, justifying, undermining accountability mechanisms, escalating, and issuing non-apologies. Populists’ playbook thus differs notably from the blame-avoiding style of neoliberal governments, as also its understanding of political accountability is dramatically different.
Super-Humeanism
Authors: Loewer Barry 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses a Best System Humean account that dispenses with fundamental perfectly natural properties except enduring elementary material particles called “super-Humeanism” invented by Michael Esfeld. Super-Humeanism replaces the Humean mosaic with the totality of particle trajectories throughout space-time. According to it scientifically fundamental properties/relations are not metaphysically fundamental but are introduced to systematize these trajectories. Laws are generalizations entailed by the scientifically optimal systematization. It avoids many of the problems of Lewis’s perfectly natural properties but has problems of its own. The chapter goes on to show that the account fails to be an adequate account of scientific laws mainly because the systematization turns out to be enormously complicated.
Special Science Laws and the PDA
Authors: Loewer Barry 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses how laws of special sciences like thermodynamics, chemistry, biology, economics, and so on can be accommodated by the PDA. The central idea is that plausible candidates for optimal scientific systematizations of our world include statistical mechanics. The best formulation of statistical mechanics developed by David Albert and me posits a law specifying that the macroscopic state of the early universe is of very low entropy (the Past Hypothesis) and a probability distribution of all microstates compatible with this law. It is shown that this entails conditional probabilities P(B/A) for all pairs of macroscopic propositions where P(A) &gt; 0. This results in a probability map of the universe called “The Mentaculus.” The chapter develops an account of special science laws that is a modification of Callender and Cohen’s “Better Best Systems Account” on which special science laws are optimal systematizations of propositions expressed in a special science vocabulary where the probability of the consequent given the antecedent is sufficiently high.
Conclusion
Authors: Ostacchini Luisa 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This Conclusion summarizes the book’s main arguments and its engagements with the fields of Ælfric studies and hagiography. It concludes that Ælfric adapted continental characters, geographies, and narratives in order to promote unity, a value that was both at the heart of Benedictine ideology and a political necessity in the turbulent landscape of late tenth-century England. Further, it demonstrates how Ælfric’s approaches to translation and to Europe vary from those of contemporary and later English writers such as Bede, Aldhelm, and Usuard. In concluding, it also highlights the imperative for further work on the Lives of Saints as a collection.
Introduction: What Is in a Word?
Authors: Khair Tabish 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
With extensive reference to a short story by Anton Chekhov, this chapter introduces the notion of agnostic reading of literature, argues for a definition of literature as literature, traces the relationship between literature and ‘God’, and outlines the chapters to follow. It points out that the book is not a study of how fundamentalism has been narrated in recent literary works. Instead, it focusses on how reading and understanding literature as literature—a rare activity these days—is an antidote to what we call fundamentalism. It outlines the ways in which ‘reading God’ and reading literature overlap, a matter exfoliated in other chapters. It also provides an overview of the chapters to come.
Memory for Time
Authors: Howard Marc W. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The brain maintains a record of recent events, including information about the time at which events were experienced. This chapter reviews behavioral and neurophysiological evidence as well as computational models to better understand memory for time. Neurophysiologically, populations of neurons that record the time of recent events have been observed in many brain regions. Time cells fire in long sequences after a triggering event demonstrating memory for the past. Populations of exponentially decaying neurons record past events at many delays by decaying at different rates. Both kinds of representations record distant times with less temporal resolution. The work reviewed in this chapter converges on the idea that the brain maintains a representation of past events along a scale-invariant compressed timeline.
Affective Memory
Authors: Kensinger Elizabeth A. , Fields Eric 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Only a fraction of the events that humans experience will be remembered, and even when the occurrence of an event is remembered, only a portion of its details will be retrieved. This selectivity is a hallmark feature of episodic memory. Events that elicit an affective response tend to be prioritized in memory, although there is often an unevenness to those memories, with some details remembered well and others forgotten. This chapter examines the many ways in which an affective response can modulate memory. The chapter is organized around processes that act as an event is initially experienced and encoded, updated or prioritized by new learning, and retrieved. For each of these processes, the chapter integrates knowledge learned from laboratory assessments of behavior with that acquired through investigations of neural mechanisms.
Inhibition as a Cause of Forgetting
Authors: Marsh Laura C. , Anderson Michael C. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Inhibitory control is a fundamental process that enables suppression of representations or processes that interfere with ongoing cognition and behavior. This chapter reviews the role of such control processes in causing forgetting from long-term memory. It considers several functional contexts that trigger inhibitory control, including the need to selectively retrieve information and the need to stop retrieval. These give rise to retrieval-induced forgetting and suppression-induced forgetting, respectively. The chapter reviews the extensive cognitive and neurobiological work conducted during the past three decades on how inhibitory control induces forgetting in these contexts, including work establishing its fundamental functional properties, neural mechanisms underlying them, and recent work establishing the species generality of the phenomena. Taken together, this work illustrates the adaptive function of inhibition in overcoming interference that can arise during memory retrieval and in adapting the state of memory in accordance with current behavioral goals.
Memory Development in Middle Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Ghetti Simona 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The capacity to remember past episodes develops rapidly from childhood into adolescence. This development emerges from the contribution of neurocognitive processes supporting improvements in the quality of memory representations and in the ability to monitor and regulate memory accuracy. After a brief historical overview, this chapter discusses these contributing factors. First, it examines evidence linking changes in hippocampal processes to memory representations becoming increasingly more precise, rich in spatiotemporal detail, and retrievable through a larger variety of cues. Second, the chapter reviews the literature on strategy and metamemory development and highlights initial findings suggesting that cortical changes especially in frontoparietal regions support children’s ability to monitor and regulate their memory states. Finally, given the importance of healthy development of episodic memory, the chapter examines atypical functioning observed in several medical conditions, neurodevelopmental disorders, and environments; this body of work calls into question the understanding of normative development and urges the consideration of the complexity and multidetermined nature of memory development.
Episodic Memory
Authors: Ranganath Charan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Episodic memory refers to the ability to recollect a past event. Episodic memory is thought to differ from other forms of memory in that it is organized according to spatiotemporal context and is associated with the conscious experience of re-experiencing the past from the first person. In other words, episodic memory enables a person to put together the relationships between people, things, and situations that characterize a past event, such that the person can consciously recollect it later. This chapter reviews evidence about the functional characteristics of episodic memory, the extended brain networks that support episodic memory, and how episodic memory may be related to semantic knowledge. It closes by considering how episodic memory might be related to imagination and planning.
Basal Ganglia Diseases
Authors: Ryman Sephira G. , Poston Kathleen L. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
The concept of multiple memory systems is based on the foundational studies that have dissociated the roles of the basal ganglia and medial temporal lobe structures in memory. While it is increasingly appreciated that there are complex interactions between these systems, there is clear evidence for nondeclarative memory dysfunction in basal ganglia disorders such as Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease. Recent investigations emphasize the role of goal-directed learning in Parkinson's disease, urging a deeper understanding of frontostriatal system dynamics in both stimulus-response and goal-directed feedback tasks. It is important to differentiate between encoding and retrieval deficits in declarative memory processes in basal ganglia disorders, which reflect dysfunction in different anatomical systems (frontostriatal versus medial temporal lobe). While basal ganglia disorders were once thought to reflect circumscribed disease processes, there is enormous heterogeneity of neuropathological processes involved and it is important carefully characterize the nature of memory dysfunction in these disorders.
Acquiring an Accurate Mental Model of Human Learning
Authors: Pan Steven C. , Bjork Robert A. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
To learn effectively requires understanding some fundamental, but unintuitive, properties of how the human learning and memory system works. A variety of research findings suggest, however, that human beings are prone to employ a mental model of learning and memory processes that is inaccurate and/or incomplete in some fundamental ways—due, in part, to the implicit or explicit assumption that the storage and retrieval processes that characterize human learning and memory are similar to those that characterize man-made recording devices, such as a computer hard drive or a memory disk. Consequently, many humans engage in practices that yield short-term gains in performance but do not foster durable and flexible learning. This chapter discusses why and in what ways humans tend to misunderstand how to optimize their own learning, and it provides a set of principles that are essential components of any owner’s manual on how to learn and remember.