bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Caucasus, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Gevorkyan Aleksandr V. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Spread from the southern boundaries of Russia's plains all the way to the southern Armenian highlands enclosed between the Black and Caspian seas, the Caucasus is one of the world's most ancient and diverse regions. Because of that, migration in the Caucasus is a necessarily more complex issue than just an economic or political problem. A site of some of the earliest settlements in human history, despite its near‐impassable mountains, the region served as a center for the population exchanges that occurred en masse from the days of the earliest civilizations and that continue unabated now.
Central America: migration 1960s to present
Authors: Hamilton Nora 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe Central American population in the United States can be distinguished from other ethnic and migrant populations in the United States on the basis of the diversity of its origins, its relatively recent arrival, its rapid growth, and its changing character. Central Americans have come from seven different countries: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Belize. While the majority are of mixed European and indigenous descent (ladino), a significant number are indigenous, for most part from different Mayan ethnic groups including Q'anjob'al, K'iche, Mam, Kaqchiquel, and Q'eqchi. Most indigenous groups in Central America speak their own languages and are often geographically and culturally isolated from ladino society. The Central American foreign‐born population also includes Afro‐Caribbean groups from Belize and the Caribbean coast of Central America, among them the Garifuna, a mixed population descended from Africans who allegedly escaped from slave ships and Amerindians who migrated north from South America, meeting in the Caribbean islands of St. Vincent and Dominica, from which they were subsequently expelled, resulting in their migration to Central America.
Central America: regional migration and border policies
Authors: Kron Stefanie 
Published: January 2013

AbstractInternational migration management has become the predominant framework for discourses and practices claiming to create a new global regime of rules and norms for the governance of cross‐border mobility. This migration management paradigm has converted the intergovernmental agency the International Organization for Migration (IOM) into an important non‐state actor (Geiger and Pécoud 2010). Since the mid‐1990s, the most important activity of the IOM has consisted of the creation of at least 15 Regional Consultative Processes on Migration (RCPs) all over the world. RCPs are informal forums of governmental and nongovernmental actors. Their objective is to create new alliances between sending, receiving, and transit countries.
Central Asia: migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Laruelle Marlíne 
Published: January 2013

AbstractCentral Asia, defined as the five post‐Soviet states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, has a history that is entirely traversed by migrations. Central Asia is made up of a vast flat expanse, comprising desert and steppe, which, unimpeded by any geographical obstacle, links Mongolia and south Siberia to the plains of central Europe. It also includes the mountainous zones of the Pamirs and Tian‐Shan, the foothills of the Himalaya, which for several centuries served as a transit zone between the Indian, Chinese, and Persian worlds. Since the ancient era the region has seen a succession of Indo‐European populations, including the Scythes, and Turkic‐Mongol populations, including Huns, Seljuks, and Mongols. These migrations changed the cultural and linguistic face of the region, intensified its ethnic complexity, and embedded the zone in the great empires of the time.
Children and migration: disease and illness
Authors: Gozdziak Elzbieta M. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractPoverty, political turmoil, armed conflict, and human trafficking are but a few factors that lead to the significant migration of children. Researchers claim that the burden of ill health, infection, and emotional disturbance is much higher in child migrants than in other children (Hjern & Bouvier 2004). More than one‐quarter of refugee children in the UK are believed to have significant psychological disturbances (Fazel & Stein 2003). Scandinavian studies of refugee children indicate that 40 to 50 percent of children in asylum‐seeking families suffer from psychiatric and psychosomatic symptoms (Ekblad 1993; Almquist & Brandell 1997; Hjern et al. 1998). Almost all subjects (94%) among a group of internally displaced Bosnian children fulfilled the criteria for post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Goldstein et al. 1997). Similar findings were reported about Sudanese refugee children in Uganda (Paardekooper et al. 1999). Rates of PTSD varying from 11.5 to 28 percent were found in refugee children from Tibet and Bosnia (Weine et al. 1995; Servan‐Schreiber et al. 1998). Children who experienced war in Cambodia and former Yugoslavia reportedly had PTSD prevalence rates of 40 to 50 percent upon resettlement in the US (Weine et al. 1995; Servan‐Schreiber et al. 1998; Papageorgiou et al. 2000).
Children of migrants
Authors: Glick Jennifer E. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMigration is a growing global phenomenon that impacts individuals, families, and communities. Although migration is often thought of as an adult activity, migration by children and youth is quite common throughout the world and is on the rise. The United Nations estimates that approximately 16 percent of all international migrants are under the age of 20, although this ranges considerably from a low of 11 percent in North America to just over 40 percent in Africa (UN 2009). One study comparing Argentina, Chile, and South Africa estimated that over one‐quarter of all migrants are children under the age of 18 (Yaqub 2009). Children migrate for many of the same reasons that adults migrate; they move toward jobs or better education and away from poverty and conflict. In some cases, children are taken along as families migrate. Other children are in the lead of this migration, while still others follow subsequent to family members' migration. This essay considers the impact of all types of migration on young children and provides contemporary examples of children's participation in migration. The essay concludes with a review of some findings on the consequences of migration for children's health and education.
Children: migration and human capital
Authors: Antón José‐Ignacio 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The hope for improving living conditions – particularly, of children – represents one of the main motivations behind the massive migration flows that characterize the current age of globalization. In this context, how migration can make a difference in minors' lives represents one of the prime focuses of current research in social sciences. The aim of this essay is to provide a summary of the current state of research on the impact of migration on child welfare from an economic perspective, which has been concentrated in the last three decades.
Children, migration, and human rights
Authors: Bhabha Jacqueline 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Like adults, children migrate for a range of reasons and in varying circumstances. And like adults, they experience migration in differing ways. In recent years, it has been increasingly recognized that children are part, indeed a growing part, of the contemporary migration phenomenon. And yet no single piece of international or regional legislation comprehensively addresses their distinctive situation and particular needs. Instead, three broad, intersecting approaches can be identified: inhibitory, regulatory, and protective.
Chile, migration 1885 to present
Authors: Mena Carolina Stefoni, translated by Andrés I. Pérez y 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
During recent years Chile has begun to be recognized as a country of emerging migratory attraction in the Latin American region, in that there are still more Chileans living abroad than there are foreigners living within their national territory. The percentage of foreign population residing in Chile has historically remained below 5 percent, and, in the last three decades, has not exceeded 2 percent. The period spanning 1885–1940 represents the largest foreign population stock in the country (in 1907 it reached 4.1%), although, during the second half of the 20th century, it fell below 1 percent. This figure began to increase recently (following the resurgence of democracy in 1990), rising to 1.3 percent of the national population in 2002 (Martínez 2003; Doña & Levinson 2004) and 1.9 percent in 2010 according to INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística) estimates. Estimates of the number of Chileans residing abroad vary from 3.5 percent and 5 percent in relation to the national population (Martínez 2003: 17; Solimano & Tokman 2008: 190).
China: ancient era migrations
Authors: Miščević Dušanka 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe term “ancient China” usually refers to the roughly two millennia before the Common Era, during which time, according to traditional Chinese historiography, the earliest civilization of China was created under the Three Dynasties (Sandai) – Xia, Shang, and Zhou (K. C. Chang 1983a). Traditional chronology places Xia between 2205 and 1766BCE, Shang between 1766 and 1122BCE, and Zhou between 1122 and 256BCE. Only the last date – the year the rising power of Qin vanquished the state of Zhou, on its way to creating the first unified empire in 221BCE– is certain. The others have been repeatedly and convincingly rejected, and continue to be debated, because they are irresoluble (K. C. Chang 1983a; Shaughnessy 1999; Keightley 1999b). Some scholars even regard the Xia dynasty as sheer invention. For the purposes of discussing ancient Chinese migration, we will include territorial expansions and consolidation of the Former (Western) Han dynasty (202BCE–8CE) because they bring to a conclusion the trends that started earlier in the ancient period.
China: internal migration
Authors: Chan Kam Wing 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe success story of Chinese manufacturing in the last quarter‐century is inextricably meshed with the story of migrant workers toiling for subsistence wages to produce goods for export. Indeed, the total stock of rural migrant labor, estimated to be about 155 million in 2010 (Cai et al. 2011: 18), has been the backbone of China's export industry since the mid‐1990s. In export centers such as Shenzhen and Dongguan, migrant labor accounted for the great majority (70–80%) of the labor force in the early years of the 21st century (Chan 2007). Rural–urban migration has also played a very important part in China's recent epic urbanization. In the 30 years since 1979 China's urban population has grown by about 440 million to 622 million in 2009 (Chan 2010c). Of the 440 million based on de facto urban population counts, the increase of about 340 million was attributable to net migration and urban reclassification (for estimates of components and definitions, see Chan & Hu 2003; Chan 2007). The latest urban population count, based on the 2010 census, was 666 million in November 2010 (NBS 2011). Even if only half of that increase was due to migration, the volume of rural–urban migration in such a short period is likely the largest in human history. The latest urban population count, based on the 2010 census, was 666 million in November 2010 (NBS 2011).
Chinese emigration to 1948
Authors: Lockard Craig A. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHundreds of temples in Chinese communities worldwide honor Tianhou (Mazu), the Taoist protective goddess of sailors, fishermen, and traveling merchants who made possible Chinese emigration over the past millennium. Pushed by necessity and drawn by opportunity, Chinese have long migrated into nearby Asian regions and eventually beyond Asia in search of work or commercial opportunities. The majority went as temporary sojourners, hoping to return wealthy but many became permanent settlers in their new homes. Today over 30 million people of Chinese descent live outside their ancestral homeland while millions in China have relatives or ancestors who have resided abroad. In addition to Southeast Asia, home to perhaps 25 million ethnic Chinese today, the emigrants also eventually established substantial communities in the Americas, Pacific and Indian Ocean islands, Japan, Europe, and parts of Africa. The emigration of Chinese and other Asians into distant lands constituted an important social and economic development in modern world history.
Chinese in Southeast Asia, c.1400–1950
Authors: Heidhues Mary Somers 
Published: January 2013

AbstractVisitors, traders, and even migrants came to Southeast Asia from China long before the time of Western colonialism. Many people crossed the southern borders of China – if they were defined as borders at all. Even more traveled by sea, either to trade in Southeast Asian ports or on the way to India and beyond. The invasions of the Yuan (Mongols, 1271–1368) and the official missions of Admiral Zheng He on behalf of the Ming emperor in the early 15th century were additional opportunities for interaction, trade, and migration. For people of the land‐poor southeastern coastal provinces, Fujian and Guangdong, where most migrants originated, trade was a necessity and emigration a way of life. Geography helped. The monsoon winds that propelled sailing ships from the Chinese coast to Southeast Asia reversed their direction only after months, so traders would “sojourn” abroad for a time before, hopefully, returning home (Wang 1996).
Chinese urban migration and politics
Authors: Mobrand Erik 
Published: January 2013

AbstractLarge‐scale migration to cities and urban areas since the 1980s has been a major symptom of China's reforms and growth. These migrants have been portrayed variously as protagonists of Chinese reform and as its victims. Former peasants who sought urban opportunities have been pioneers of economic and social reform, while migrant laborers and petty merchants have also been among the most vulnerable to exploitation by capitalists, state agents, and wealthier residents.
Citizenship education and migration
Authors: Banks James A. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
This entry describes the ways in which global migration has influenced the development of citizenship and citizenship education in nations around the world. It also delineates the goals of citizenship education in multicultural nation‐states that are derived from theory and research in the field. Citizenship consists of the rights, duties, and identities that connect citizens to the nation‐state. Citizenship education is the school, college, and university experiences designed to help students develop an allegiance to the nation and the knowledge, skills, and values required to function effectively in the nation and the world.
Citizenship, nationality, and legal status
Authors: Lee Chulwoo 
Published: January 2013

AbstractCitizenship is defined in terms of its three fundamental axes: “extent(rules and norms of inclusion and exclusion),content(rights and responsibilities) anddepth(thickness or thinness)” (Isin & Turner 2002: 2). Here, we are concerned primarily withextentand partially withcontent. Theextentof citizenship is gauged by the rules governing membership of the given political community. That community could be a small substate unit or a supranational entity such as the European Union. Yet membership of the nation‐state has been the quintessential mode of citizenship, although it is under debate whether national citizenship will remain the dominant modality in the face of globalization.
Climate change, migration, and displacement
Authors: Afifi Therese Rosenfeld, Koko Warner, and Tamer 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe links between human migration and environmental changes can be traced back to the earliest existence of humanity. However, from the rise of industrialization up to the advent of globalization, human activities have had a particularly strong impact on the Earth's natural architecture. Extensive research by the global scientific community such as the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report has revealed that climate change due to human activities is having an increasingly destabilizing impact on the relationship between man and nature.
Criminality and victimization
Authors: van San Marion 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe history of victimology goes back over half a century. Von Hentig 1948 is often credited with being the founder of this approach. What is remarkable about his work is that he posited that victims are at least partly to blame for their own victimization. In his view, victims of crimes often deliberately seek out risky situations and are therefore partly responsible for their own victimization. Mendelsohn 1956 also argued that victims sometimes play a role in their own victimization, but whereas Von Hentig stressed the importance of the victims' active behavior, Mendelsohn focused on their carelessness, such as a neglect to take precautionary measures. Critical criminologists (Fattah 1992) have argued against this approach by drawing attention to the victims of the powerful, such as victims of state violence, victims of sexual violence, or employees forced to work under unsafe working conditions (Lissenberg et al. 2001).
Crusades: Middle East migration, medieval era
Authors: Mitchell Piers D. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe crusades were military expeditions from Europe that were bound for Christian holy sites in the eastern Mediterranean (Riley‐Smith 1999; Tyerman 2004; Murray 2006). The first crusade left Europe in 1096 and captured Jerusalem in 1099. A series of Frankish states were established along the coast of the Levant, namely the kingdom of Jerusalem, the county of Tripoli, the county of Edessa, the principality of Antioch, and the kingdom of Cyprus. The last mainland city (Acre) was retaken from the Europeans by Muslim troops in 1291. Hundreds of thousands of Europeans are thought to have migrated to these Frankish states as part of military expeditions, as pilgrims, or traders. Some stayed for a year and returned to Europe, others died during their travels, and yet others decided to settle in the east. Modern study of these migrations helps us to understand who chose to settle in the east, how the Frankish states in the east may have differed from European states and the social and health consequences of these migrations (Mitchell and Millard, in press).
Cuba: immigration and emigration
Authors: Moya José C. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Immigration has been the single most important element in the historical formation of Cuba, and the island represents one of the most extreme examples of a global population crossroads in the history of human mobility. Amerindians from the mainland, Spanish conquerors and colonizers, African slaves, Chinese coolies, Maya Indians deported from Yucatan, laborers from Haiti and the British West Indies, and immigrants from Spain, other European countries, the Middle East, and North America have arrived in the island, often in the hundreds of thousands, throughout its history. Emigration also has a long tradition. The conquistadors of the Aztec Empire departed from Cuba. Cigar workers, merchants, and political refugees began settling in Key West, Tampa, and New York around the middle of the 19th century. More than a million exiles and emigrants have left the island since the Cuban Revolution of 1959, mainly for the United States, but also for Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Mexico, and Spain, among other destinations.
Cuba: migration to United States, 1957 to present
Authors: Masud‐Piloto Felix R. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMigration has always been an important and constant factor in modern Cuban history. The United States has historically been the destination of choice for Cuban migrants and exiles during times of economic hardship and political repression on the island. During the 1950s Cubans who opposed the military government sought political asylum in New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Even Fidel Castro, while in exile in Mexico, visited the United States several times to recruit fighters and raise funds for his struggle against Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista.
Czech Republic and Slovakia, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Szczepanikova Alice 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Up until the early 1990s today's Czech and Slovak Republics were countries of emigration rather than immigration. The 19th and the early 20th centuries witnessed large‐scale emigrations from Czech and Slovak lands – then still part of the Austro‐Hungarian empire – due to primarily economic deprivation but also religious and political persecution. The main destinations of these emigrants were other parts of the empire as well as the United States, southeast Europe, Germany, and Russia. In the interwar period immigration restrictions imposed by the United States shifted emigration toward new destinations such as Canada, Latin America, and France. Smaller immigration flows in that period consisted mostly of return migration in reaction to the foundation of the independent Czechoslovak state in 1918 and the entry of Russian post‐revolutionary exiles (Drbohlav et al. 2009).
Demographic deficit and migration
Authors: Tosun Mehmet Serkan 
Published: January 2013

AbstractDemographic deficit refers to an imbalance or shortage, in the human population of a country, province, or any other regional or local jurisdiction that arises mainly from differences in age, sexes, and geographic concentration of that population, such as rural–urban or suburban population differences. While different forms of demographic imbalances have been present throughout human history, recent focus has been on the significant shift in the age distribution towards an older population, which is also referred to as population aging. Migration as a response to demographic deficit has received particular attention recently, where replacement migration has been examined as one possible solution to demographic deficit.
Demographics and migration: an overview
Authors: Jun Kwang‐Hee 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe field of demography (often referred to as population studies) studies various aspects of human populations – their size, composition, and distribution across place – and the process through which populations change. Births, deaths, and migration are the “big three” elements of demography, jointly producing population stability or change. The first aspect of a population's demographics or structural composition may be described in terms of basic demographic features – age, sex, family, and household status – and by features of the population's social and economic context – ethnicity, religion, language, education, occupation, income, and wealth. On the other hand, the second aspect of a population's demographics can be defined spatially at multiple levels (local, regional, national, global) and with different types of boundaries (political, economic, and geographic).
Denmark, migration 16th century to present
Authors: Andreassen Rikke 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
This essay focuses on recent – 20th‐century – migration to Denmark. However, migration to Denmark is not a new phenomenon, and therefore the essay briefly describes older historical migration as well as emigration. Migration is intertwined with the regulations of migration movements as well as with debates about migrants, border regulations, and citizenship rights, and so the article also touches upon regulations of migration and debates about migration.