bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Repressuring and Initial Pressuring
Authors: George H.C. 
Published: June 2014

Since 1911, when J. L. Dunn first used compressed air for repressuringdepleted oil sands in southeast Ohio, the rejuvenation of many depleted oilfields has been directly due to repressuring by means of air or gas.
Developments in repressuring in recent years have resulted in its successfuluse in the early life of some deep, high-pressure oil fields, conserving thenatural gas dissolved in and associated with the oil by returning it to theproducing oil sand after it has been compressed above the existing rockpressure of the reservoir. One of the most successful operations of this typeis that of the Humble Oil &Refining Co., on the DeWalt salt dome atSugarland, Texas.
I quote from a personal communication with reference to this field:
"Structurally, the field is dome-shaped, having a closure of approximately350 ft. Production comes from a sandy shale interbedded with a clean sand andlying over a cap rock which is about 3400 ft. deep on top of thestructure."
A feature of the operation of this field is the production of the requiredamount of oil with the minimum of gas production. Wells on top of the dome havehigh gas-oil ratios, while those down structure have lower ratios, dependingupon the distance of the well from the peak. To date, it has been possible toproduce the oil 'needed from the wells circling the dome above the water zoneand below the gas zone, and in this manner the average gas-oil ratio has beenkept low. The gas from all separators is turned into a gas system which servesthe entire field. From this system, all drilling rigs and utilities requiringgas for a fuel draw their requirements, and the remainder of the gas (abouttwo-thirds of the production) is delivered to a compressor plant which booststhe pressure until it can be returned to the sand at the top of the dome wherethe rock pressure is 1400 lb. per square inch.
"The Sugarland wells produce through 2-in. tubing with a %-in. choke in onewing of the well-head manifold. The pressure builds up as high as 1300 lb. persquare inch on the casing while on the tubing it varies from 0 to 900 lb. persquare inch, depending upon the amount of gas produced with the oil."
Problems in Proration on the Basis of Gas Energy
Authors: Stephenson Eugene A. 
Published: June 2014

Critical analyses of the work expended in producing oil by the utilizationof gas energy have appeared in the publications of Shaw,! Pierce and Lewis, andHerold, authors who have ably discussed the factors which must be taken intoconsideration in comparing energy consumed per barrel in various wells whichare flowed by means of gas-lift.
However, two distinct phases of oil production are concerned with the ratio ofgas energy consumed to oil produced. One of these phases is the gas-lift, whichutilizes the differential gas pressures for the purpose of flowing oil, whetherthese pressures be natural reservoir pressures or be induced by artificialcompression of gas or air. The other phase has to do with prorating oilproduction in pools which are operated either as units, or are subject to suchrestrictions as those imposed at Oklahoma City by the Corporation Commission, or by similar controlling groups in other fields. An abundance of literature isavailable relative to the problems of flowing wells by gas-lift, but the firstsuggestion that the energy of the gas within the oil and gas pool might serveas a basis for proration, appeared in the timely article by McWilliams.
Much of the dissatisfaction with proration in certain fields arises becausesome operators feel that besides the hazard to the wells which accompanies thetest, the method of allocating production on the basis of the"potential" gage is inequitable and gives some operators a distinctadvantage over others. The most severe penalty may be exacted from the mostprogressive operators or those who attempt to produce their oil with a minimumquantity of reservoir gas.
Water Problems of the McKittrick Oil Field
Authors: Jensen Joseph , Stevens J.B. 
Published: June 2014

The history of the normal oil field is supposed to show an oil graphstarting high in flush production, descending more or less steeply into thecurve of settled production and dropping gradually to the vanishing point ofeconomical operation. Together with this, somewhere in the early history of thefield, there appears from a vanishing point a graph showing the production ofwater. During the period of settled production this graph rises higher and, toward the close, unless extensive work is done in the line of correction, rises far above the oil graph to the point at which the cost of operationterminates profitable pumping. Fields that start out with a high relativecontent of water are generally very short-lived. Fields that never develop awater problem are exceedingly rare.
The McKittrick oil field, Kern County, California, with 840 acres of provedground, 300 wells and a present recovery per acre of 94,598 bbl. from 1898 to Aug. 1, 1930, presents a study which is an apparent reversal of the outlinednormal history. Though the history of the field now covers over 30 years ofoperation, it is still too early and the conditions too unique to project thegraph of production to completion. The present conditions and directions ofchange are most interesting, in that the curve of oil production is remarkablyflat and the curve of water invasion, after reaching an appalling height, hasshown a definite reversal and a continued decline for 10 years.
Early drilling in the McKittrick field was in or prior to 1898. Developmentcontinued steadily to 1918 when the present limitations of the field weredetermined. Shut-offs, according to accepted practice of the time, were made bydriving the shoe into a shale stratum or into a tamped-in bridge of sand, rosinand clay.
Records of early days speak of three waters:surface water which was fresh;an intermediate sulfur water, encountered below the top oil or tar sand;bottom salt water.
In different portions of the field anyone of thesewaters let into a well by faulty completion might require immediate correctionto obtain satisfactory production.
Bottom-hole Beans-Theory, Methods and Effects of Their Use
Authors: Clark William A. 
Published: June 2014

A bean placed at the bottom of tubing in flowing wells is not a new idea. Infact, a device which in effect was a bottom bean was patented prior to 1890 byJohn D. Rockefeller. Because of the limited use of the bottom bean, prior to1922, when it was installed in a few wells in the Santa Fe Springs field, California, the knowledge of the results of its operation is very meager. Sincethen various oil operators have experimented with bottom beans, but most of therecords of the results obtained by their use are unavailable. For the past yearor two, more attention has been directed to this method of producing wells; thetheory and best means of application have been studied, and accurate recordsmaintained.
In theory, the use of bottom beans in flowing orgas-lift wells should secure certain advantageous results. With the exceptionof flow friction of the tubing and flow lines, there is no back-pressure heldon the rising column of fluid. Thus severe beaning is possible with no dangerof killing the well by too heavy a fluid column, a condition that often existswhen a surface bean is used.
The whole energy of the gas expanding to atmospheric pressure is utilized tolift the fluid in the well. The same effect is obtained when flowing a wellthrough open tubing or casing. In using a surface bean this energy of expandinggas is wasted into the flow lines beyond the bean, because the fluid hasreached the surface by the time the restriction is reached and the work of thegas performed. The bottom bean affords an efficient use of the expanding forceof gas, utilizing less gas to raise the same amount of oil, hence allowing forlower gas-oil ratios.
The flow restriction being at the entrance to the flowstring, a more uniform mixture of gas and oil enters the tubing and a steadierbackpressure is held on the well. The uniform mixture and high velocityattained while flowing through the bean, which is above the critical velocityrequired to suspend a spray condition of gas and oil, prevent slippage of gas, surging and heading with its resultant strain on the casing.
Velocity of Flow through Tubing
Authors: Davis E.L. 
Published: June 2014

There have been many attempts to devise formulas for flowing efficiency andflow friction of oil-gas mixtures in oil-well flow tubes. Actually, however, flowing efficiency is rarely any real concern of the oil producer andflow-friction formulas contain so many unknown variables as to be of little, ifany value.
The production engineer is generally concerned with producing as much oil aspossible with a minimum expense per barrel, and with the lowest possible netgas-oil ratio. These ends frequently are opposed to each other and the gas-oilratio usually is sacrificed. In competitive operations, such as in town-lotfields, high current production is the sole interest.
In conservative operation the greatest possible amount of oil obviously shouldbe produced by natural flow unless the net formation gas-oil ratio can beimproved by circulating gas. In practice this condition frequently exists. Itwould be a great advantage if the flowing condition of a well could be analyzedto determine the best possible producing status. Anticipating the death of awell so that gas-lift could be started immediately after the death, orpreferably before, would save both production and expense. Frequently ithappens that circulating gas fails to help a flowing well, or will not flow itafter it has stopped flowing naturally. A knowledge of the laws governing flowwould save considerable expense in testing such cases. A predetermination ofprobable pressures and amounts of circulating gas needed to flow wells and givebest possible producing conditions would help in designing compressorinstallations.
The optimum producing status of an oil well generally may be obtained by theconditions that subject the producing formations to the least possibleback-pressure. This pressure is made up of the weight of the fluid column, frictional resistance to flow and the reaction from the acceleration of thefluid mass. A mathematical calculation of these components to arrive at acondition giving a minimum summation is impractical. Formulas would be complexand the results untrustworthy because it is impossible to assign proper valuesto the many variables involved.
Characteristics of Drilling Fluids
Authors: Parsons C.P. 
Published: June 2014

To properly account for the various characteristics of drilling mudsobtained in different areas and geological horizons, it is necessary to studythe composition of the mud from a chemical and physical standpoint asdetermined by the proportions and activities of the various solid contituentsthat are present in various states of division.
Briefly summarized, science teaches that there are three states of divisioninto which these solid constituents or particles may be grouped:namely, the suspended state, the individual particles of which are known assuspensoids;the colloidal state, in which the individual particles are termedcolloids;and the crystalloidal state, wherein the individual particles areheld in true solution and are termed crystalloids,
The suspended state is one wherein the particles are fairly large and arepresent as molecular complexes, having none of the properties of colloids orcrystalloids. Since matter varies in physical character and in chemicalactivities with its state of division, these coarser suspensoids do notthemselves materially affect the physical or chemical properties of thesolution in which they are suspended. On the other hand, they are distinctlydetrimental in drilling muds and it is desirable that they be removed. Underthe general classification of suspensoids are included sand, gravel andcuttings which contribute nothing to the colloidal stability or other desirableproperties of the drilling fluid.
As the state of division approaches but does not reach a molecularsimplification, the term "colloidal state" is used in describing thiscondition. The colloidal state arises when one form of matter is in a very finestate of division and is distributed through a second phase. The material inthe finely divided state is called the dispersed phase, while the liquid inwhich it is dispersed is called the dispersive phase. These particles of matterare in a colloidal state and will not settle out from the dispersive phase solong as colloidal conditions are stable. Moreover, they exhibit the property ofhaving an oscillating movement around a central position in solution (theBrownian movement).
In the third state of division, the crystalloidal state, the individualparticles are held in true solution and are usually present as single moleculesor ions.
Experimental Measurement of Slippage in Flow through Vertical Pipes
Authors: Moore T.V. , Wilde H.D. 
Published: June 2014

In many of the important problems of the petroleum engineer, it is necessaryto know accurately the laws governing the flow of gas and liquid mixtures invertical pipes. Although much work has been done along these lines, nosatisfactory solution to the problem has been found. A good theoreticaldiscussion of the energy balance in a gas-lift has been published by Versluys.One of the most important factors affecting the efficiency of the flow of oiland gas mixtures is slippage, and in most of the experimental work that hasbeen done no provision has been made for the measurement of this quantity. As Versluys pointed out, since there is no method now known to estimate it fromthe data usually taken, slippage must be determined empirically.
This paper presents the results of some work carried on to measure slippage inshort experimental gas-lifts. As shown herein, slippage can be easilycalculated in a vertical pipe carrying a mixture of oil and gas if thefractions of the pipe occupied by liquid and gas respectively are known. In this work, the fraction of the pipe occupied by the liquid was measured under awide variety of conditions and the relationship between this fraction and otherquantities, which are easily measured in ordinary work, was determined.
It was hoped that the quantitative relationship obtained from this work couldbe used for making accurate calculations in flowing or gas-lift wells, butunfortunately it did not check satisfactorily when applied to actual wells. Apparently flow in long flow pipes is more efficient than in the short onesused for the experimental work. Nevertheless, it is felt that the datathemselves are of interest; that the method of attack may be of value in futurework and that the relationship derived between slip and the relative velocitiesis a contribution toward the solution of the gas-lift problem.
Stabilizing the Oil Business
Authors: Beaty Amos L. 
Published: June 2014

The oil industry can prosper only if crudeproduction is not excessive. This is true for several reasons.
In the first place, the marketing branch of thebusiness is so highly competitive that there is little room for profits in it.There are too many service stations, too many middle men or jobbers, too manyrefiners eager to press their products upon the market. And the battle isbetween the strong. If any money is being made in oil today it is by smallmarketers who buy products from the refining companies and sell on guaranteedmargins.
In the second place, refineries are overbuilt. There isa large surplus refining capacity. If refined stocks were drawn down they couldand would be replenished in short time on short notice. This excessive refiningcapacity is not serious, however, if the supply of crude is limited to traderequirements. True, it may reflect upon the intelligence of the industry, butif there were a shortage of crude for a few years refining capacities would bereadjusted. In the meantime no great harm could result from some idle capacity.It requires no computation to see that refiners could not produce surplusstocks of products from a short supply of crude. I have in mind, of course, theincreased yields from cracking. Allowance must be made for that. Still, thepicture is the same; less crude is required.
I think we can have prosperity in the oil business iftoo much crude is not produced. A proper limit at this point would be felt allthe way down the line. It would slow the refiner and slow the marketerinevitably. Once this constant pressure to make more and sell more is off, operations will be normal and there will be some return on investments.

Prices In Relation To Production
Potential production at this time is very large, andthis condition has existed for many months. As a result the price of crude islow. It is below the average cost of production. Nevertheless, if restraintswere withdrawn actual production would immediately increase and the situationwould become even worse than it is now.
Changing Concepts in the Petroleum Industry
Authors: Umpleby J.B. 
Published: June 2014

The function of gas in the development and production of oil hasfar-reaching consequences that should be emphasized. The technical aspects ofthe subject have recently had a great deal of attention but less thought hasbeen given to fundamental concepts underlying oil and gas law and the manycustoms and practices that have grown up in the industry. I shall reviewbriefly the advance in knowledge of the subject and attempt to relate theseconcepts to legislative, judicial and operating problems.
Early writers on oil and gas in Pennsylvania noted their close association inoil pools and their contemporaneous decline in output; also, that as gaspressure decreases so does production, that new offset wells reduce the outputof existing wells, and even that tubing a well lengthens its flowing life.Expanding gas was deduced as the principal expulsive force. These fundamentalobservations had been made at least as early as 1880. They were treated, however, as academic considerations and did not greatly influence law orpractice for many years except to instill into all operators an urgent desireto hasten offset drilling in order to obtain as much of the flush aspossible.
The most noteworthy later advance in knowledge came in 1926 when Beecher andParkhurst published their paper on Effects of Dissolved Gas upon the Viscosityand Surface Tension of Oil. This paper added to the old idea of an expellingforce the concept of a modifying agent that actually changes the physicalcharacteristics of the oil and facilitates its movement through the pore spacesof the reservoir rock. Largely since the publication of this paper, intensivestudy and concerted effort have been given to means of using to a maximum, inproducing oil, these combined properties of gas. This is shown clearly by thenumber of papers dealing with the subject, and the new and revived terms nowwidely used to express thought, such as the expressions gas energy, reservoirpressure, reservoir energy, gas-oil ratio, bottom-hole pressure, beaning, tapered tubing and back-pressure.
Propositions and Corollaries in Petroleum Production
Authors: Snider L.C. 
Published: June 2014

All important industries have certain basic principles in common whichgovern them and give them a family resemblance. In addition, each industry hasa certain individuality due to some principle or principles which govern, orare accepted as governing, that industry and which is not effective in others.The customs and practices of an industry depend on these basic principles muchas the corollaries follow a proposition in geometry. After the proposition isproved or is accepted as proved, the corollaries are seen to be true almostwithout additional evidence or proof. In many cases, the corollaries are moreimportant in practical affairs than the proposition on which they depend. Bycontinued application the corollaries may come to be accepted as law and thefact that their truth depends on the correctness of the fundamental propositionis forgotten or ignored. If it is discovered that an error was made indemonstrating the proposition and that the proposition is untrue, thecorollaries are, in most cases at least, equally untrue. Considerable time maybe required, however, to realize the fact that the corollaries have failed, particularly if they have been embodied in custom and law.
For example, in the business of government the proposition that women areintellectually inferior to men was formerly considered, by most men at least, to be duly proved if not axiomatic. This proposition was never embodied in law, but its corollaries-that the rights of the wife in property and even in her ownchildren were inferior to the rights of the husband, and that women had noplace in governmental affairs-were duly incorporated in law or so completelyapproved by custom that they had the effect of law.
Developments of the past few decades have proved, to the satisfaction of themajority, that woman's intellectual inferiority to man had not beensatisfactorily demonstrated, and that the proposition that she was inferior, although accepted for many generations, was untrue. It was not so great a shockto men to discover that this proposition was wrong as it was to find out thatits corollaries were also untrue and that the laws embodying them were not goodlaws and were subject to repeal.
Relation between Gas Energy and Oil Production
Authors: Boatright Byron B. 
Published: June 2014

The energy which causes oil and gas to flow from a reservoir formation intoa well depends upon a differential between the formation pressure and thepressure at the well face. This differential pressure may be the result ofanyone of at least three forces, or a combination of them. Gas under pressurein an oil-producing formation (part of the gas may be in solution and part incontact with the oil) is the principal source of energy for producing oil inmost fields. In some fields, however, hydrostatic pressure due to water incontact with the oil and/or the force of gravity may be important factors incausing oil to flow into a well. Still another force affecting oil movement issuggested by some students of the problem; the force dependent upon thephenomenon of capillarity.
Hydrostatic pressure is seldom the only source of energy in an oil sand, but itis commonly an adjunct to the compressed gas in the formation. Where thiscondition prevails, increased production may be obtained provided the waterencroachment is properly controlled. In addition to the water-drive effect, thehydrostatic head may tend to maintain pressure in the formation byprogressively reducing the volume of the reservoir as withdrawals to thesurface are made through the producing wells.
The action of the force of gravity on the oil in a formation is of relativelysmall importance, from an energy standpoint, until the last stage of theproductive life of a well is reached. This force is the only remaining naturalsource of energy in some of the eastern fields, but in most of the deep wellsof the Mid-Continent and California districts the force of gravity can beprecluded as a source of energy, because the wells reach their economic limitof production before the force of gravity becomes an important factor in movingoil to the wells.
Since the majority of fields produce oil chiefly by reason of the gas pressurein the oil horizons, the following treatment deals mainly with factors thatinfluence gas-energy relationships.

Gas-Energy Relationships

Formation Pressures
The gas pressures existing in oil-producing formations may be the result of acombination of several contributing factors.