bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dispute Settlement
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the mechanisms of international dispute settlement. It explains how the text of international agreements often gives room for different interpretations, but interpretations must have several factors to consider, such as the application of treaties or the applicability of international law. Additionally, jurisdiction and the legitimacy of judgments, awards, and other decisions on disputes depend on consent. International commercial arbitration is very often the first choice as a dispute settlement mechanism for private parties to transboundary economic transactions. The chapter then cites that national courts are expected to decide any legal dispute unless there is any agreement on dispute settlement.
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). It explains how the SPS Agreement established standards for trade restrictions that aimed to protect the life and health of humans, animals, and plants. The SPS Agreement has its own scope of application which is independent from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1994, but it does have measures that operate in conformity with the GATT. In principle, WTO members must be guided by available international standards, guidelines, or recommendations. Additionally, the SPS Agreement became the crucial frame of reference for divergent regulatory philosophies in regard to risks associated with new technologies.
The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter covers the application of Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement). TBT Agreement primarily focuses on technical regulations and other technical standards related to product characteristics or production processes. Technical rules are subject to the national treatment principle and the most-favoured-nation principle. Moreover, recognized international standards must be considered as guidelines and as standards of review for national regulations, even if they were established after a technical regulation. The chapter explains that technical regulations may not restrict international trade beyond the extent necessary to protect a legitimate interest.
The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter looks into the scope and application of the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). It cites that the Agreement provides for national treatment and most-favoured-nation treatment. During the negotiations of the Uruguay Round, industrialized countries, led by the United States, pushed hard for TRIPS, which is a specific treaty regime on the protection of intellectual property rights. Some of the important provisions of the TRIPS Agreement include the mandatory scope of patents for inventions and the protection of intellectual property rights in a broader international context. Additionally, the protection of intellectual property rights under the TRIPS Agreement stands in context with several other international agreements.
Subsidies and Anti-dumping Measures
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the notion of subsidies and anti-dumping measures. The Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement) establishes a regime for subsidies which is much tighter than pre-existing rules. However, the most contentious issue within the field is the subsidies in the agricultural sector responsible for a massive distortion of international competition. The chapter also details the provision of the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies and Agreement on Agriculture (AoA). While the GATT does not categorically prohibit subsidies, it does not categorically ban dumping measures as long as it is within the context of marketing exported goods at a price lower than their usual value.
Dispute Settlement in the WTO
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the dispute settlements in the World Trade Organization (WTO). It enumerates the three stages of the WTO dispute settlement process after detailing the establishment of the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) by the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU). Essentially, the DSU sped up the entire dispute settlement process. Moreover, the DSU facilitates the adoption of findings and recommendations given by expert committees dealing with a dispute before introducing an appeal mechanism. Despite the sometimes ambiguous language of the DSU, the member found in breach of WTO law has an obligation of full compliance in terms of withdrawing the wrongful measure.
WTO Law in Broader Perspective
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter presents a broader perspective on the World Trade Organization (WTO) law. It explains that WTO agreements often explicitly refer to obligations or standards established in context with other regimes. Thus, problems arise when treaties lay down objectives which collide with free trade, however, it could be reconciled by exceptions in the multilateral WTO Agreements. Moreover, customary law may affect the understanding and interpretation of WTO rules, especially when universal human rights and environmental standards are involved. The chapter mentions the possibility of controversy in line with the interplay between the WTO dispute settlement regime and specific mechanisms of dispute resolution under free trade agreements.
International Sales and Contract Law
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter covers the interplay between international sales and contract law. It introduces the application of the Rome Convention, the Rome I Regulation, and the Common European Law on Sales. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) mainly serves to prepare and promote the use and adoption of legislative and non-legislative instruments in several key areas of commercial law. The UNCITRAL drafted and adopted the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods of 1980 (CISG) to integrate and balance the principles of different legal and economic systems around the world. The chapter then explains how modern free trade agreements address legal issues of e-commerce in special sections.
International Building and Construction Contracts
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the correlation between international building and construction contracts. International construction contracts belong to the category of long-term contracts which are particularly sensitive to unforeseen developments. The chapter then explains the work of the FIDIC (Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs Conseils) which adopted various sets of standard terms which international usage incorporates into contracts. It then provides an outline of long-term contracts, such as the classical form of BOT (build, operate, transfer). A special form of building contract provides that contractors shall also operate the building or installation (most of which are infrastructures and power plants) for a given time.
International Tax Law
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the extent of the international tax law. It primarily revolves around the rules on taxation in cross-border contexts. National tax law reaches out to bases of taxation located abroad, while a State’s tax jurisdiction extends to foreign individuals who earn income or hold property within the State. The chapter elaborates on the key concepts of the world income principle that signifies an unrestricted tax liability covering all income or taxable assets, and double taxation that remains to be a central issue of international tax law. It also cites another contentious issue of extraterritorial enforcement of tax law, which relates to government measures to coerce foreign banks to disclose accounts held by nationals abroad.
Foreign Investment in Practice
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter details the notion and practice of foreign investment. It acknowledges that foreign investment is a crucial factor for economic and social development, sustained economic growth, poverty reduction, improved infrastructure, and financial stability. Thus, the adequate protection of foreign investments relates to economic growth and often contributes to the improvement of infrastructure and education. The chapter looks into the types of investors after discussing that foreign investment is divided into direct investment and portfolio (indirect) investment. It then cites the control of foreign investment, mentioning how regulations may exclude strategic sectors from foreign investments or limit foreign direct investments.
The Interplay of Investment Protection and Other Areas of International Law
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter covers the interplay of investment protection and other areas of international law. For some time, investment protection has drawn popular criticism for being insensitive to environmental issues or environmental protection. Thus, the international rules on investment must be read in context with human rights, labour standards, and international environmental law. Codes of conduct for investors, self-commitments, and mechanisms of surveillance by the home State of investors are instruments to establish and to control corporate social responsibility. The chapter cites the numerous treaties that dedicate specific clauses to legitimate measures to protect the environment, health, and life of living beings.
International Monetary Law and International Financial Relations
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the correlation between international monetary law and international financial relations. It starts with the impact of monetary relations on international trade and business, which highlights the international monetary law involved with cross-border payments and capital movements. Financial aid to countries with balance of payment problems provided by governments and international organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), became an important mechanism to stabilize currencies. The chapter then presents the Bretton Woods system in line with the development of currency exchange arrangements. It considers the development and role of cryptocurrencies and digital central bank money in payment transactions.
Debt Crises and State Insolvency
Authors: Herdegen Matthias 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the issue of debt crises and state insolvency. The power of taxation and State property nourish the far-spread concept of the State as a reliable debtor, so State insolvency is often triggered by an unsustainable burden of foreign debt. Several mechanisms were developed to alleviate the debt burden of poor countries vis-à-vis private creditors. The chapter then details how the Paris Club and London Club (Bank Advisory Committee) helped with rescheduling and restructuring sovereign debt. It details the process of debt-equity swaps that reduce debt and stimulate investment, citing that its success primarily depends on the investment climate prevailing in the debtor country.
Introduction
Authors: Clooney Amal 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This introductory chapter provides an overview of the right to freedom of expression in international law. The chapter surveys the drafting history of the treaty provisions that enshrine this right and the development of jurisprudence interpreting them. It analyses the impact on the right to free speech of states’ reservations, declarations and derogations to article 19 of the ICCPR and regional instruments. It also canvasses whether these treaty provisions have reached customary international law status and therefore apply to states—such as China, Myanmar and Cuba—that have not ratified these agreements. Finally, this chapter charts points of convergence and divergence among the jurisprudence of international and regional human rights bodies as they interpret and apply international and regional treaties.
Hate Speech
Authors: Clooney Amal , Gardoll Alice 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the regulation of hateful speech: an urgent issue as social media allows hate speech to spread faster and wider than ever before. However, this must be balanced with the right to speak freely. International law sets out the standards for penalizing hateful speech and unlike other types of speech, states can be required rather than simply permitted to penalize hate speech. International and regional treaties therefore create a web of mandatory and discretionary penalties that add to the complexity of states’ compliance with these standards. This chapter explores the minimum international standards that apply to states when it comes to drafting, interpreting and applying both mandatory and discretionary restrictions to speech. It explores key points of divergence between human rights bodies’ interpretation of these restrictions, such as in relation to blasphemy and denialism laws. It also provides insight into the recent role of technology and social media companies in responding to online hate speech. And it makes recommendations based on international standards applicable to hate speech, or suggests a best practice approach where international bodies have taken divergent views.
False Speech
Authors: Milanovic Marko , Webb Philippa 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
sAlthough prohibitions on false speech have existed for at least 140 years, many laws criminalizing misinformation have been introduced in recent times. States have responded to the rise of social media and its role in spreading false information by introducing laws limiting free speech. And while there are certain circumstances under which false speech can be penalized, lies, alone, should not be the basis for legal sanction. Under international law, state regulation of false speech must comply with individuals’ freedom of expression, and this chapter explores where these lines are drawn in international treaties and human rights jurisprudence. The chapter outlines international standards relating to when false speech can be penalized and makes recommendations as to how the law should be applied or reformed to meet the challenges of ‘truth decay’.
Evidence for rapid variability at high energies in GRBs
Authors: Aldrich E Casey , Nemiroff Robert J 
Published: June 2024

ABSTRACT
Intrinsic variability was searched for in arrival times of six gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) at high energies – between 30 MeV and 2 GeV – detected by the Fermi satellite’s Large Area Telescope (LAT). The GRBs were selected from the Fermi LAT catalogue with preference for events with numerous photons, a strong initial pulse, and measured redshifts. Three long GRBs and three short GRBs were selected and tested. Two different variability-detection algorithms were deployed, one counting photons in pairs, and the other multiplying time gaps between photons. In both tests, a real GRB was compared to 1000 Monte Carlo versions of itself smoothed over a wide range of different time-scales. The minimum detected variability time-scales for long bursts (GRB 080916C, GRB 090926A, GRB 131108A) was found to be (0.005, 10.0, 10.0) s for the photon pair test and (2.0, 20.0, 10.0) s for the time-gap multiplication test. Additionally, the minimum detected variability time-scales for the short bursts (GRB 090510, GRB 140619B, GRB 160709A) was found to be (0.05, 0.01, 20.0) s for the photon pair test and (0.05, 0.01, 20.0) s for the gap multiplication test. Statistical uncertainties in these times are about a factor of 2. The durations of these variability time-scales may be used to constrain the geometry, dynamics, speed, cosmological dispersion, Lorentz-invariance violations, weak equivalence principle violations, and GRB models.
Selfing Promotes Spread and Introgression of Segregation Distorters in Hermaphroditic Plants
Authors: Wang Hongru , Planche Léo , Shchur Vladimir , Nielsen Rasmus 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Segregation distorters (SDs) are genetic elements that distort the Mendelian segregation ratio to favor their own transmission and are able to spread even when they incur fitness costs on organisms carrying them. Depending on the biology of the host organisms and the genetic architecture of the SDs, the population dynamics of SDs can be highly variable. Inbreeding is considered an effective mechanism for inhibiting the spread of SDs in populations, and can evolve as a defense mechanism against SDs in some systems. However, we show that inbreeding in the form of selfing in fact promotes the spread of SDs acting as pollen killers in a toxin–antidote system in hermaphroditic plants by two mechanisms: (i) By reducing the effective recombination rate between killer and antidote loci in the two-locus system and (ii) by increasing the proportion of SD alleles in individual flowers, rather than in the general gene-pool. We also show that in rice (Oryza sativa L.), a typical hermaphroditic plant, all molecularly characterized SDs associated with pollen killing were involved in population hybridization and have introgressed across different species. Paradoxically, these loci, which are associated with hybrid incompatibility and can be thought of as Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibility loci are expected to reduce gene-flow between species, in fact cross species boundaries more frequently than random loci, and may act as important drivers of introgression.
CLEMENT: genomic decomposition and reconstruction of non-tumor subclones
Authors: Chung Young-soo , Kang Seungseok , Kim Jisu , Lee Sangbo , Kim Sangwoo 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Genome-level clonal decomposition of a single specimen has been widely studied; however, it is mostly limited to cancer research. In this study, we developed a new algorithm CLEMENT, which conducts accurate decomposition and reconstruction of multiple subclones in genome sequencing of non-tumor (normal) samples. CLEMENT employs the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm with optimization strategies specific to non-tumor subclones, including false variant call identification, non-disparate clone fuzzy clustering, and clonal allele fraction confinement. In the simulation and in vitro cell line mixture data, CLEMENT outperformed current cancer decomposition algorithms in estimating the number of clones (root-mean-square-error = 0.58–0.78 versus 1.43–3.34) and in the variant-clone membership agreement (∼85.5% versus 70.1–76.7%). Additional testing on human multi-clonal normal tissue sequencing confirmed the accurate identification of subclones that originated from different cell types. Clone-level analysis, including mutational burden and signatures, provided a new understanding of normal-tissue composition. We expect that CLEMENT will serve as a crucial tool in the currently emerging field of non-tumor genome analysis.
Multiplexed sequential imaging in living cells with orthogonal fluorogenic RNA aptamer/dye pairs
Authors: Zheng Ru , Wu Rigumula , Liu Yuanchang , Sun Zhining , Xue Zhaolin , Bagheri Yousef , Khajouei Sima , Mi Lan , Tian Qian , Pho Raymond , Liu Qinge , Siddiqui Sidrat , Ren Kewei , You Mingxu 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Detecting multiple targets in living cells is important in cell biology. However, multiplexed fluorescence imaging beyond two-to-three targets remains a technical challenge. Herein, we introduce a multiplexed imaging strategy, ‘sequential Fluorogenic RNA Imaging-Enabled Sensor’ (seqFRIES), which enables live-cell target detection via sequential rounds of imaging-and-stripping. In seqFRIES, multiple orthogonal fluorogenic RNA aptamers are genetically encoded inside cells, and then the corresponding cell membrane permeable dye molecules are added, imaged, and rapidly removed in consecutive detection cycles. As a proof-of-concept, we have identified in this study four fluorogenic RNA aptamer/dye pairs that can be used for highly orthogonal and multiplexed imaging in living bacterial and mammalian cells. After further optimizing the cellular fluorescence activation and deactivation kinetics of these RNA/dye pairs, the whole four-color semi-quantitative seqFRIES process can be completed in ∼20 min. Meanwhile, seqFRIES-mediated simultaneous detection of critical signalling molecules and mRNA targets was also achieved within individual living cells. We expect our validation of this new seqFRIES concept here will facilitate the further development and potential broad usage of these orthogonal fluorogenic RNA/dye pairs for multiplexed and dynamic live-cell imaging and cell biology studies.
protoSpaceJAM: an open-source, customizable and web-accessible design platform for CRISPR/Cas insertional knock-in
Authors: Peng Duo , Vangipuram Madhuri , Wong Joan , Leonetti Manuel D 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
CRISPR/Cas-mediated knock-in of DNA sequences enables precise genome engineering for research and therapeutic applications. However, designing effective guide RNAs (gRNAs) and homology-directed repair (HDR) donors remains a bottleneck. Here, we present protoSpaceJAM, an open-source algorithm to automate and optimize gRNA and HDR donor design for CRISPR/Cas insertional knock-in experiments, currently supporting SpCas9, SpCas9-VQR and enAsCas12a Cas enzymes. protoSpaceJAM utilizes biological rules to rank gRNAs based on specificity, distance to insertion site, and position relative to regulatory regions. protoSpaceJAM can introduce ‘recoding’ mutations (silent mutations and mutations in non-coding sequences) in HDR donors to prevent re-cutting and increase knock-in efficiency. Users can customize parameters and design double-stranded or single-stranded donors. We validated protoSpaceJAM’s design rules by demonstrating increased knock-in efficiency with recoding mutations and optimal strand selection for single-stranded donors. An additional module enables the design of genotyping primers for deep sequencing of edited alleles. Overall, protoSpaceJAM streamlines and optimizes CRISPR knock-in experimental design in a flexible and modular manner to benefit diverse research and therapeutic applications. protoSpaceJAM is available open-source as an interactive web tool at protospacejam.czbiohub.org or as a standalone Python package at github.com/czbiohub-sf/protoSpaceJAM.