bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Earth's Color March (
M
exico)
Authors: Chihu Amparán Aquiles 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Earth's Color March was the name of the journey made by 24 leaders from the Zapatista Liberation Army (EZLN), including Subcommander Marcos. The Zapatista delegation was accompanied by Mexican men and women from various ethnic groups, members from domestic and international civil organizations, and celebrities such as Portuguese writer and Nobel Prize winner José Saramago. The delegation departed in a convoy of over 60 buses from Chiapas on February 24, 2001, and arrived in Mexico City on March 11. The marchers were pushing for a reform to the Constitution to have the rights of the indigenous peoples of Mexico recognized, the establishment of an autonomous government, and power over the resources in the areas where they live.
Equal Rights Amendment (UnitedStates)
Authors: Mansbridge Jane 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe movement for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the constitution of the United States promoted a policy change central to the liberal branch of “second wave” feminism in the United States. That movement illustrates several dynamics, including those of abeyance structures, communicative distrust, the politics of contingency, the role of moral incentives in collective action problems, “deafness” in social movements, decision by accretion, participatory decentralization, and movement/countermovement interaction.
FARC
(The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia)
Authors: Avilés William 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarios de Colombia, or FARC) is the largest guerrilla army in Latin America and has waged a military campaign against the Colombian state since 1964. The tactics involved in their guerrilla war have ranged from the defense of isolated rural communities from military assaults, ambushes of military and police patrols, and militarily complex offensives destroying entire military bases, to the planting of landmines to protect coca crops or militarily sensitive areas. Since the mid‐1960s FARC has expanded from a few hundred combatants in a few departments to a military presence in more than half of the country and approximately 20 000 combatants by 2002. As of this writing their numbers have declined from this height to estimates of 8000–9000 combatants. Neither the end of the cold war, the demobilization of guerrilla armies in Central America nor the relative democratization of the Colombian state with the 1991 constitution have led FARC to give up its armed struggle. FARC's commitment to take power to establish a socialist society remains an officially stated goal. However, a specific political and social agenda short of a socialist revolution has been clear for some time. In different failed peace processes during the 1990s and 2000s FARC has demanded agrarian reform that eliminates large landholdings, the earmarking of 50 percent of the national budget toward welfare, education, health, and housing, a moratorium on the foreign debt, alternative development in the “war against drugs,” and the substantial reduction in the size of the Colombian armed forces (Kline 2007: 72–73). In almost five decades of war its military strategies have thus far been unable to bring these reforms about, let alone take national power.
First Nation Sovereignty Movements (
C
anada)
Authors: Wilkes Rima 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Most of British Columbia is Aboriginal territory. It is Aboriginal territory because indigenous peoples have never ceded their land or rights via treaties. According to the 1763 Royal Proclamation, treaty‐making is the only way the crown (or government) can acquire territory. Despite this legal rule, the government in British Columbia has sold Aboriginal land, and rights to the resources contained on this land, to third party interests, with the justification that this land is “crown” land. The ongoing situation in British Columbia provides one example of the grievances of First Nations peoples in Canada. Elsewhere in the country, both federal and provincial governments have also sold indigenous people's land and resources to third‐party interests, expropriated land for roads, military bases, and military training exercises, failed to provide adequate compensation for land use, as well as failed to provide sufficiently for housing, health, and education as spelled out in the terms of the Indian Act. Indeed, since 1973 although hundreds of claims have been formally submitted to the federal Claims Commission, an average of only four per year are settled (Ramos 2006).
French Revolution
Authors: Wernick Andrew 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

In the cascade of uprisings that followed Louis XVI's reluctant convening of the Estates General to address a fiscal and political crisis precipitated by imperial overreach, failing harvests, and the bankruptcy of the French state, the monarchical, feudal, and ecclesiastical pillars of what was immediately dubbed the
ancien régime
were swept away. By the end of 1789, spurred on by great popular enthusiasm, the Estates General had transmogrified into a unicameral National Assembly, the privileges of the nobility and clergy had been abolished (willingly for some), and an interim body had been set up to draft a new constitution, to be modeled, at first, on that of post‐1688 England. As well, the Assembly had proclaimed a charter of Rights and Duties of Man and Citizen, including religious freedom, and formally ended feudalism and serfdom. While Paris was the center of these activities the revolution had spread to other urban centers like Lyons and Marseilles, and the rural poor had taken matters in their own hands, refusing taxes, tithes, and seigneurial dues, and looting chateaux and religious houses. The capital itself was awash with section committees, political clubs, agitational newspapers, and, beginning with the July Days and the storming of the Bastille, the increasingly radical actions of the laboring and artisanal
sans‐culottes
.
Gandhi, Mahatma (1869–1948)
Authors: Kurtz Lester R. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, often known as Mahatma Gandhi, is widely cited by contemporary activists as a source of inspiration and strategies. Gandhi was arguably unparalleled at mobilizing resources, taking advantage of—and creating—political opportunities, and effectively framing such messages as justice, equality, and independence or freedom (
Swaraj
, self‐reliance). His legacy has almost become a cliché among movement organizers worldwide.
Land Movements inAfrica
Authors: Derman William 
Published: January 2013

AbstractLand has become a major issue in Africa. However, the enduring importance of land has, for the most part, not been matched by social movements organized around land issues. Despite the vast dispossession that occurred due to colonial conquest, especially in the establishment of plantations in Central Africa and colonial seizure of land in eastern and southern Africa, anticolonial movements were based far more on the themes of independence and dignity in urban and union‐based political parties. As noted by Bernstein there is little experience in modern African history of popular rural political organization centered on land and agrarian issues (Bernstein 2005: 88), This situation is distinct from that that in parts of Latin America and Asia. This was less true of the later liberation movements struggling to end Portuguese, Rhodesian, and white South African domination where land was central to rural protests. As has been demonstrated by Isaacman, rural protests in Africa were an important part of political struggles but peasants engaged in subterranean protests, not social movements (Isaacman 1993: 263).
Landless Workers Movement (
MST
)
B
razil
Authors: Hammond John L. , Rossi Federico M. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Landless Workers Movement (Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais sem Terra, or MST), for many years the largest and most active social movement in Brazil, organizes unemployed and landless farmworkers to take over idle, absentee‐owned farmland. It challenges landowners and authorities and agitates for a broad agrarian reform. It grew out of land occupations beginning in 1978 in Brazil's southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, led by activists from the Catholic Church's Christian base communities and some Protestant churches under the inspiration of liberation theology. The movement was formally founded in 1984 near the end of a 21‐year military dictatorship. It acts nationwide in a huge country with a great variety of local social, economic, and agricultural conditions, so its practice varies from place to place. Typically, however, the movement's collective action can be described in three phases: occupation, camp, and settlement.
Liberation Theology/Base Communities (
S
outh
A
merica)
Authors: Sean Mackin Robert 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Liberation theology is a radical, predominately Catholic movement of theologians, bishops, priests, nuns, and laity that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s across Latin America. Bishops, gathering in regional conferences, called for the church to abandon long‐standing alliances with the rich and powerful and instead take the side of the poor and oppressed. Theologians, who wrote books and presented papers using Marxian concepts, put forward a new way of doing theology—from the perspective of the poor. It was the poor, gathering in small groups to discuss the Bible, known as base ecclesial communities (CEBs), which offered a new interpretation of scripture based on their experiences, leading to unprecedented grassroots activism. In the 1970s and 1980s CEB members were actively involved in revolutionary movements in Nicaragua and El Salvador, and in other parts of Latin America they played important roles in democratization movements.
M
arch
F
irst
M
ovement of 1919 (
K
orea)
Authors: Shin Gi‐Wook 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The March First Movement (
Samil Undong
) was the first nationwide nationalist movement in Korea. The Korean peninsula was “annexed” to imperial Japan in 1910 and, despite much armed resistance, Koreans experienced a decade of minimal rights under a brutal colonial regime. In the aftermath of World War I, and specifically indicated in the Versailles peace conference, the international climate began to change, giving Korean leaders a glimmer of hope for national independence from Japanese rule. Inspired by Woodrow Wilson's idea for national self‐determination for weak nations, Korean student and intellectual leaders in Tokyo published a statement in January of 1919 demanding national liberation from Japanese colonizers. Organizers hoped to spark resistance within the Korean community while simultaneously appealing for help at an international level. Even future president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee, who resided in the US, took part in the movement by attempting to attend the Versailles conference in an effort to personally appeal to President Wilson for Korea's independence.
M
au
M
au Revolt (
A
frica)
Authors: Brinkman Inge 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
At the end of the 1940s central Kenya experienced the growth of a movement that came to be known as Mau Mau. People were initiated into the movement through pledging an oath, a fact interpreted as “traditional” by the British colonial authorities. Yet, people in central Kenya saw it as a novelty, since for the first time women and children were also allowed to take this oath. Initially Mau Mau received much support amongst Kikuyu squatters working on the farms of white settlers in the White Highlands. Later the movement expanded into the Kikuyu Reserve, an area designed by the colonial authorities as the homeland of the Kikuyu and into Nairobi, Kenya's buzzing capital. Much of the support came from people with little hope of a better future: poor people with little to lose.
M
ay
F
ourth
M
ovement (
C
hina)
Authors: Cadot‐Wood Antoine 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The May Fourth Movement, in a narrow sense, refers to a series of student demonstrations that occurred in Beijing on May 4, 1919. The demonstrations were in response to territorial concessions made by Chinese delegates at the Paris Peace Conference that ended World War I. In a broad sense, however, “May Fourth Movement” also serves as an umbrella term for a series of political, social, and intellectual movements that began nearly ten years prior, known collectively as the New Culture Movement.
M
exican Revolution
Authors: Matute Álvaro 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Mexican Revolution started in the early years of the twentieth century and consisted of a set of events involving a number of social actors. Accordingly, the deeds and misdeeds that occurred as part of it served a variety of purposes. Some historians argue there were several rebellions, as opposed to only one revolution, and that all of them simultaneously converged in a major event referred to as the Mexican Revolution. The numerous geographical locations where actions unfolded highlight the diversity of the movement.
M
ovement
T
oward
S
ocialism (
MAS
–
IPSP
) (
B
olivia)
Authors: Albro Robert 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The Movement Toward Socialism (
Movimiento al Socialism
, hereafter MAS) is the political instrument of Bolivia's president Evo Morales. The story of Morales is well known. He grew up poor in a rural Aymara‐speaking community of miners, and migrated to the lowland coca‐growing Chapare region upon conclusion of his military service. In the early 1980s Morales became active in his local union of coca growers, and since 1988 he has been primary leader of the Six Federations of the Chapare, the region's coca grower movement. He has continued as the titular head of the coca growers since 2006 while serving as Bolivia's president.
Muslim Activism inEurope
Authors: Lindekilde Lasse 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFor a long time Muslims in Europe, predominantly work migrants of the 1960s–1970s and their descendants, were ignored as political agents, both by authorities and academics. The sociology of religion has approached European Muslims in terms of religious identity, transformation of religious practices, and the institutionalization of Islam in different national contexts, but has largely ignored political manifestations (see Maréchal et al. 2003). Until recently, social movement studies considered religion an issue of the past (Kniss & Burns 2004) and rarely acknowledged it as a source of political activism.
N
ational
A
ssociation for the
A
dvancement of
C
olored
P
eople (
NAACP
) (
U
nited
S
tates)
Authors: Parker Chris 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Barely a decade into the twentieth century, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded. Its principal charge, issued by the cadre of white reformers, in addition to W.E.B. Du Bois and Ida B. Wells‐Barnett, was to secure for blacks the rights guaranteed them by the Constitution. More concretely, the organization was originally intended to help black Southerners overcome what Aldon Morris calls the “tripartite system of domination” in which whites subjected them to social, political, and economic oppression (Morris 1984). The NAACP did so in manifold ways, most of which rested upon appealing to federal authorities for legislative and legal redress.
N
ative
A
merican Movements (
U
nited
S
tates)
Authors: Apodaca Paul 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Prehistoric Native Americans developed complex societies that include confederations, nations, and empires built upon social movements whose only record lies in myth and folklore. Social movements in the historic period are noted as regional or ethnic movements responding to social changes brought by European and American societies that became pan‐Indian movements as the US exercised uniform control over all Native Americans.
NIMBYMovements
Authors: Driscoll Adam 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe acronym NIMBY stands for “not in my backyard.” It is a term that has been used to characterize local, grassroots movements that are endeavoring to resist the siting of some unwanted land use in a particular neighborhood, community, or region. NIMBY movements have formed to oppose a wide array of undesirable entities that include environmental hazards (landfills, waste incinerators, polluting industries), perceived social hazards (homeless shelters, prisons, mental health facilities), and aesthetic offences (wind turbines, airports, cell phone towers). When viewed collectively, the general tendency of local residents to resist the siting of unwanted entities within their community has been described as the “NIMBY phenomenon” or the “NIMBY syndrome.” Critical perspectives emphasize that the term can be applied in a pejorative, dismissive sense, where the motivations behind the movement are viewed as selfish and exclusionary. While NIMBY movements themselves have a tendency to be narrowly focused, small in scale, and relatively short lived, some do evolve into more broadly focused NOPE (“not on planet earth”) movements that can achieve large size and complexity as well as prolonged longevity. This entry explores the history behind the use of the NIMBY label, the various movements that have been characterized by it, and some of the unintended consequences of those movements' efforts.
Patriot/Militia Movement in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Van Dyke Nella 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The patriot/militia movement has waxed and waned since it first came to the attention of the public in 1995. At its peak, in 1996, there were over 800 documented patriot/militia organizations in the US (Southern Poverty Law Center 1996). The number of organizations declined dramatically after that, possibly in response to a crackdown from law enforcement (Southern Poverty Law Center 1999), and as militia and patriot groups adopted a mode of organization known as “leaderless resistance” whereby they function largely underground (Southern Poverty Law Center 1999,2002; Berlet & Lyons 2000). In 2000, there were 194 documented militia/patriot organizations, and the movement hit a low of 131 groups in 2007. What is remarkable is the movement's explosion in 2009. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (Potok 2010), the number of militia groups increased by 363 in 2009, a growth of 244 percent. Research on the emergence of the movement suggests that this explosive growth was likely fueled by both economic and political threats. After providing information on the movement's history and ideology, the research on the movement's emergence will be briefly reviewed, and in conclusion a speculation about the reasons for the increase in documented militia organizations in 2009.
Peasant Rebellions of Imperial
C
hina
Authors: Hung Ho‐fung 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
China's imperial history was characterized by a dynastic cycle, in which the decay and collapse of a dynasty was often triggered by peasant rebellions. Many of these rebellions followed a similar pattern. A dynasty that prospered on the abundance of cultivable land and natural resources would inevitably encounter depletion of those resources when its population grew. Hardship inflicted by rising population–land ratio, in tandem with the concentration of landownership having developed over time, drove many to believe that the dynasty's mandate of heaven had gone and a new bearer of the mandate was about to emerge. When a new dynasty was established, the rulers usually expanded the available land by colonizing uncharted regions. They would also even out landownership. These measures, together with the relief of population pressure owing to turbulent dynastic transitions, created the foundation for the dynasty's heyday. Then resources would diminish again with rising population and the cycle would be repeated.
Peronism
Authors: Rossi Federico M. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Peronism is one of the main social and political movements of contemporary Argentina. Peronism owes its name to its founder Juan Domingo Perón—three times president of Argentina (1946–1952, 1952–1955, and 1973–1974). Peronism is a national‐populist movement related to the first incorporation of laborers into Argentina's political arena. The movement since then has evolved and diversified.
Pro‐Democracy of 1987 (
K
orea)
Authors: Sonn Jaesok 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
On October 26, 1979, President Park Chung Hee, a military dictator who ruled South Korea for 18 years, was assassinated. Two months later, Chun Doo Hwan led a military coup that virtually secured his position as a commander‐in‐chief. In May 1980, he declared martial law and sent special forces to the city of Gwangju to crush protest, slaughtering at least 200 civilians. This massacre has become a very important collective memory for both the movement activists and the ruling elites.
Right‐Wing Movements
Authors: Hirsch‐Hoefler Sivan , Mudde Cas 
Published: January 2013

AbstractWhile social movements are defined as “collectivities acting with some degree of organization and continuity outside of institutional or organizational channels for the purpose of challenging or defending extant authority, whether it is institutionally based or culturally based in the group, society, culture, or world order of which it is a part” (Snow, Soule, & Kriesi 2004: 11), many authors exclusively focus on movements that “promote” change, or even more narrowly, change toward a more egalitarian society. Indeed, some scholars explicitly define social movements as those challenging the status quo (Tarrow 2011: 9), which is their implicit justification for focusing only on left‐wing or “progressive” movements.
Satyagraha
Authors: Chabot Sean 
Published: January 2013

AbstractSatyagraha literally means tenacity in the pursuit of truth, with the purpose of activating our capacity for moral compassion and love of humanity in struggles for personal and social liberation. Mohandas Gandhi, India's famous leader, coined the concept as an alternative to passive submission and violent extremism in the face of oppression. It implies a nonviolent yet forceful approach to resolving conflict that addresses structural causes of suffering, benefits oppressed people, and creates favorable conditions for peace and social justice. This entry reviews satyagraha's principles and methods, compares it to other forms of nonviolent action, illustrates its application during the Indian independence movement, and considers its historical and global relevance.
Science and Social Movements
Authors: Moore Kelly , Hoffmann Matthew 
Published: January 2013

AbstractScientific knowledge has been a growing subject for organized political movements primarily since World War II. Science developed as a distinctive form of social activity in the seventeenth century, and refers to the collectivities of knowledge, tools, practices, and people who create verifiable, reliable knowledge about the natural world. Scientific knowledge may be in the form of words or formulas, or it may be represented in material things, such as a weapon or a drug. The growth of movements that challenge aspects of science parallel the immense government investments in science research post‐World War II, particularly in the areas of weapons development, agriculture, health and medicine, and industrial processes. As governments have used measurable standards to characterize more aspects of their citizens' lives—race, population, crime rates—social movements have come to challenge what Jürgen Habermas in his influential workTheory and Practice(1973) called interference in the “life world” of citizens. Today, many active social movements in the US, including Creationism, the pro‐life movement, health social movements, and environmental movements and their critics, use science to frame their claims. Ironically, although scientific claims are ubiquitous in political debates, they are often highly contested and therefore have less power than they once did.