bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Levels of Inference in Cross‐Cultural Research
Authors: Poortinga Ype H. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe interest of a data set lies in the explanation or interpretation that is derived from it. On the basis of the observation of some events researchers makegeneralizationsorinferencesabout other, non‐observed, events which usually cover a much broader or inclusive range. As a rule cross‐cultural data are collected on individuals who are nested in various cultural populations. A distinction can be made between interpretations at the cultural level and at the individual level. The entry in thisEncyclopediaabout hierarchical linear modeling deals with this distinction; here the focus is on the individual level.
Lonner, Walter J
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji 
Published: October 2013

AbstractWalter J. Lonner, professor emeritus of psychology at Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, has made extensive contributions to cross‐cultural psychology. Throughout his career, Lonner has been active in development of a subfield of psychology that, since the 1960s, has made the discipline more inclusive, aware, and culturally‐sensitive. After obtaining a B.A. and M.A. from the University of Montana, he pursued the Ph.D. at the University of Minnesota, where he became increasingly interested in the effects of culture on basic psychological processes. Influenced and encouraged by graduate school professors, and increasingly concerned about the lack of cultural perspectives in the field of psychology, he conducted his doctoral research in Europe in the mid 1960s. Shortly after his return to the United States and earning his Ph.D. in 1967, he joined the faculty at Western Washington University (then Western Washington State College) in 1968, where he continued to shape his career around the interface between psychology and culture. His overriding concern, that the influence of culture on people's lives around the world had not been systematically accounted for in psychological theory or application, was then shared by a small yet growing number of psychologists in various countries.
Malinowski, Bronislaw
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J. I. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Bronislaw Malinowski (1884 − 1942) was a well‐known Polish‐British‐American anthropologist who became famous for his first book (1922/1984),
Argonauts of the Western Pacific
, which discussed the Kula Ring. The Kula Ring is a fascinating topic because it so clearly shows that in pre‐modern, traditional economics many of the so‐called “laws” of neo‐classical economics clearly do not apply in any simple, straightforward manner. The Trobriand Islands, just east of Papua New Guinea, were his object of study. His research in the modernist tradition has been critiqued by postmodernist thinkers who would like to recast the epistemological basis for social anthropology. Malinowski the “fieldworker” and Malinowski the “theoretician” have sometimes been replaced by Malinowski “the anti‐hero” in some of the postmodernist accounts. Publication of Malinowski's
Diary
(1967) contributed to the controversy. For those who believe that striving for some degree of objectivity in ethnographic monographs is possible, Malinowski still represents a founder of the kind of fieldwork that constitutes the bedrock of solid anthropological work. Much of the rhetoric against Malinowski ignores his path‐breaking innovations. pointed out: “… it is often a great deal easier to criticize one's intellectual heritage than to acknowledge one's inheritance”.
Malnutrition
Authors: Pilisuk Marc 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Cultural beliefs and practices often revolve around food harvesting and eating, but the richness of culture recedes when life is reduced to a struggle for food. Malnutrition is the world's greatest public health problem. It is widespread in developing countries but is also a problem in industrialized countries. Nine hundred twenty‐five million people do not have enough to eat and 98 percent of them live in developing countries.
Masculinity‐Femininity
Authors: DeSouza Eros 
Published: October 2013

AbstractDuring most of the twentieth century, masculinity‐femininity (MA) followed a trait‐based approach. In the first half of the century, the one‐dimensional perspective dominated the field, so that the more masculine one was, the less feminine one would also be. However, in the second half a shift occurred, giving way to a two‐dimensional perspective in which masculinity and femininity were two independent dimensions. For example, both thePersonal Attributes Inventoryand theBem Sex Role Inventorydefined the dimension of masculinity in terms of instrumental or agentic traits (e.g., independence and assertiveness), whereas they defined femininity in terms of communal or expressive traits (e.g., nurturing and caring). Bem also introduced the concept of androgyny (i.e., individuals with high levels of both masculinity and femininity) and viewed it as the key to optimal mental health. shifted from a trait‐based approach to schemas, so that androgynous individuals were aschematic (i.e., they did not categorize the social environment strictly in terms of maleness or femaleness), showing much more flexibility in their lives than gender‐schematic individuals. meta‐analytic studies showed that masculinity was much more strongly linked to psychological wellbeing and adjustment than femininity. Thus, the claim of androgyny as the index of mental health was not supported.
McCrae, Robert R
Authors: Keith Kenneth D. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Robert R. McCrae was born in Maryville, Missouri in 1949. He received the B.A. in philosophy from Michigan State University in 1971, then went on to complete the M.A. (1974) and Ph.D. (1976) in personality psychology at Boston University. Following two years of research on smoking and personality at the University of Massachusetts, he joined the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institute on Aging (NIA), National Institutes of Health, in Baltimore, Maryland, first as a senior staff fellow, and then as research psychologist. He remained at NIA from 1978 until his retirement in 2009.
Measurement Invariance
Authors: Chen Fang Fang 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Measurement invariance in cross‐cultural research involves testing the equivalence of a measured construct in two or more cultures. It assures that the same constructs are being assessed across different cultural groups. With continuous variables, the most frequently used technique for testing measurement invariance is confirmatory factor analysis, investigating both covariance and mean structures. During the last decade, confirmatory factor analysis has been frequently conducted to examine if a factor structure is similar in different cultures.
Mental Health
Authors: Tan Josephine C. H. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Mental health is primarily a Western concept. Mental status is measured on a continuum which is anchored by disabling mental illness at one end and mental health at the other. In between are “mental health problems” experienced by many individuals at different points in their lives. Hence, mental health can be described as the absence of mental illness. Western models of mental illness have traditionally pointed to medical, psychological, and/or social factors to explain the origin of mental illness, but have evolved over time to incorporate recognition that cultural factors also play an important role.
Mental Number Line
Authors: Fischer Martin H. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The speed of processing in simple number tasks, such as magnitude comparison (“which number is larger?”), reveals much about the cognitive representation of numbers. Three effects, in particular, point to a “mental number line” as the universal representation of number meaning in our minds. First, we usually find that the time to discriminate two numbers decreases with increasing numerical distance between them: we know that 8 is larger than 2 before we know that 4 is larger than 2. This distance effect holds regardless of number format (digits, words, dot patterns, Roman numerals), stimulus modality (visual, auditory), or response modality (verbal, button press). Second, if we hold the distance between numbers constant (as in the pairs 4 − 2 vs. 8 − 6) we need less time to process small than large numbers, and are also more accurate (the size effect). Finally, varying their spatial arrangement (4 − 2 vs. 2 − 4) often reveals faster responses with smaller numbers on the left and larger numbers on the right side. This spatial‐numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect does, however, depend on cultural factors.
Metacognition
Authors: Padakannaya Prakash 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The term
metacognition
was introduced to refer to knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them, including active monitoring and regulation of these processes. Metacognition (MC) is a higher order cognitive phenomenon. If cognition is concerned with information processing, thinking, and problem solving, MC refers to deliberate control and monitoring of these cognitive processes. Thus, it is awareness of one's own thinking or “cognition of cognition” that enables one to monitor and regulate cognitive processes. Cognitive neuroscience associates MC with the prefrontal cortex which receives and monitors sensory signals from other cortical regions and implements control through feedback loops.
Minority Group‐Affiliation Hypothesis
Authors: Goforth Anisa N. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The minority group‐affiliation hypothesis contends that when a bilingual person is speaking the language of his or her minority group, that person will be more likely to behave in a manner that perpetuates the majority culture's stereotypes of the minority group. In other words, a bilingual person will adopt the stereotypical behaviors of the minority group when he or she is speaking the language associated with that group .
Misra, Girishwar
Authors: Srivastava Ashok K. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Girishwar Misra (b. 1951), is a leading cultural psychologist from India and currently teaches psychology at the University of Delhi. The teaching of psychology in Indian universities started under British colonial rule in 1916, predominantly following the Wundtian tradition and subsequent developments in North America. This tradition gave prominence to the physical science model, for which culture was a confounding variable and a source of error that needed to be controlled. However, several endogenous and exogenous developments during the last two decades have paved the way for the emergence of an interdisciplinary, culturally informed perspective on psychology as a socially conditioned endeavor using plurality in its approaches and recognizing the limitations of the traditional model. Misra represents this new tradition of psychological thought and has contributed substantially toward the development of cultural psychology.
Moghaddam, Fathali M
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji 
Published: October 2013

AbstractFathali Moghaddam is a professor in the Department of Psychology at Georgetown University (USA) and director of the Conflict Resolution Program at the Department of Government in the same university. He is also a Senior Fellow at the Center for Interdisciplinary Policy, Education, and Research on Terrorism at Stanford University and serves as an external expert at the London School of Economics and Political Science.
Morality
Authors: Vauclair Christin‐Melanie 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
One aim of an encyclopedia is to define concepts; however in the case of morality this is a challenging task. The problem is that the meaning of morality is ambiguous and controversial. It can be understood in both a descriptive and normative way. This means that psychologists may simply describe norms of right and wrong conduct of individuals in different societies without making claims about what is objectively right or wrong. Alternatively, psychologists may make claims about what is objectively right or wrong and study whether individuals in different societies conform to these ideas about morality. Hence, there is considerable disagreement among psychologists on what exactly morality is, with important implications for its conceptualization and measurement in cross‐cultural research.
Müller‐Lyer Illusion
Authors: Keith Kenneth D. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The Müller‐Lyer illusion is an apparently simple visual illusion, first described by Franz Müller‐Lyer in 1889. Although lines (a) and (b) are identical in length, many viewers perceive (a) as longer than (b). However, despite the fact that introductory psychology textbooks generally present this phenomenon as if it were universal, researchers have known for more than a century that it is not. The British scientist W. H. R., on a Cambridge University expedition to the Torres Straits, between New Guinea and northeastern Australia, tested local people on visual perception tasks, including the Müller‐Lyer. He also gathered similar data from the Todas of rural India and from urban dwellers in England.
Munroe, Ruth Hagberg
Authors: Munroe Robert L. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Ruth Hagberg Munroe was born in Youngstown, Ohio in 1930. She graduated from Antioch College, was trained in measurement and statistics (Ed.M.) and human development (Ed.D.) at Harvard University, and in 1964 became a member of the founding faculty at Pitzer College in Claremont, California. There, she helped to build a new institution and devotedly and successfully taught at the school for the rest of her career. Her primary professional affiliation was with the International Association for Cross‐Cultural Psychology. She served for six years as its secretary‐general, and in 1996 was named an Honorary Fellow of the organization. She died in Claremont in 1996.
Murphy, Henry Brian M
Authors: Draguns Juris G. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
H. B. M. Murphy was one of the founders of transcultural psychiatry as a distinct and cumulative subdiscipline. He was born on September 17, 1915 in Edinburgh, Scotland and graduated from the University of Edinburgh Medical School with M.B. and Ch.B degrees in 1938. Service in the Royal Army Medical Corps soon followed, and after World War II Murphy went to work for United Nations agencies providing medical services for East European refugees stranded in displaced persons camps in Germany. He soon discovered that many of the medical problems presented by refugees had a psychological meaning and origin, which often differed across nationalities and cultures. This insight formed the basis of his first major transcultural publication, an edited volume on flight and resettlement. It focused on refugees’ problems of adaptation prior to and following resettlement and related them to culturally distinctive and often traumatic experiences in their countries of origin. Murphy pursued these interests while obtaining a diploma in public health at the London School of Public Health in 1952.
Music Perception
Authors: Prieto José M. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractCarl E Seashore (1866 − 1949) was the first psychologist who made efforts to analyze the musical medium in the laboratory, with an emphasis on physical sound. introduced the notion of “musical mind,” which, he said, is “… first of all a normal mind. What makes it musical is the possession, in a serviceable degree, of those capacities that are essential for the hearing, the feeling, the understanding, and ordinarily … with a resulting drive or urge toward music.”
Obedience
Authors: Shiraev Eric , Levy David 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Obedience is a form of conformity by which a person simply follows orders given by others. Obedience to authority is defined as following orders given by an authority figure. This type of behavior is usually based on a belief that those with authority have the right to issue requests and give such orders. Historically, obedience to authority was generally regarded across cultures as a kind of virtuous behavior and an important foundation of social order. Cultural traditionalism is generally associated with obedience to authority. Disobedience of children to parents, wives to their husbands, slaves to their owners, and subjects to their rulers were commonly qualified as immoral behavior. The development of modern industrial society was associated with a re‐orientation in socialization practices and a greater cultural emphasis on individual responsibility, personal rights, and freedom to choose. Even in non‐traditional cultural settings, certain political ideologies, as research shows, seem to be associated with obedience. Authoritarian societies generally promoted obedience as an important socialization outcome. In totalitarian societies, obedient reactions were reported to be more frequent than in democratic societies.
Organizational Climate
Authors: Lowery Meghan R. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractOrganizational climate is a set of shared perceptions among employees in an organization about their behaviors, attitudes, and feelings. Organizational climate is, in part, differentiated from organizational culture by the depth and stability of core beliefs. Organizational climate tends to be more unstable, based on perception, and is developed through employee behaviors and attitudes. Lewin, Lippitt, initially outlined the concept of organizational climate. These researchers distinguished among three types of identifiable climates: autocratic, democratic, and laissez faire. This early foray into describing organizational climate is more easily recognizable as what more modern literature identifies as types of managerial styles, rather than true climate. Further research explored many different dimensions of climate.
Organizational Culture
Authors: Hannon Geraldine Y. , Nadler Joel T. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Organizational culture is a reflection of the attitudes, beliefs, and values of an organization. These values and norms for behavior are shared by members within the organization and influence behavior and interaction inside and outside the organization. Organizational culture is a group‐level construct that is socially constructed through the shared history and experiences of the individuals within an organization. Organizational culture often guides an organization's values, standards, behavioral norms, and pursuit of goals on an organizational level. On an individual level, organizational culture guides acceptable behaviors and expectations. Organizations with a healthy organizational culture are characterized by strong values favoring productivity, fairness, communication, personal development, and pride. Organizations with healthy cultures are associated with profitability, growth, efficiency, and worker satisfaction and loyalty. Additionally, a strong organizational culture (clearly defined and communicated values and norms) is associated with more successful and productive organizations. Organizations with a weak organizational culture (poorly communicated, ambiguous values and norms) often are less efficient and require more complex bureaucracies to communicate goals and expectations.
Organizational Structure
Authors: Nadler Joel T. , Murphy Lauren M. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Organizational structure refers to the specific design of a company or group in regard to the ways in which management is arranged, the way decisions of the organization are made, the ways employees or members interact with one another, and the ways the organization interacts with other organizations. Understanding the differences between the various types of organizational structures is important in order to choose what type of structure would be best for an organization. Choosing the best organizational structure can lead to more productive workers, a better work environment, and a more effective organization. However, a disorganized structure can lead to a loss of production, a strained and stressful work environment, dissatisfied workers, and an inefficient organization. Theories of organizational structures fall into three broad areas: Classical Organization Theory, Humanistic Organizational Theory, and Contingency Organizational Theory.
Qualitative‐Quantitative Research Approach Distinction
Authors: Allwood Carl Martin 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The concept of qualitative research methodology developed during the last half of the twentieth century, and the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research appears to have followed as a consequence of this development. Other contrasts suggested earlier, such as Wilhelm Dilthey's distinction between the natural and the human sciences, might have functioned as a thought model for many authors promoting the distinction. Today, the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is well entrenched, as evidenced, for example, in the organization of research methodology texts, book series, and courses on research methodology. The distinction often appears in the cultural and cross‐cultural research context. For example, some writers have suggested that cultural psychology and the indigenous psychologies should be identified or associated with a qualitative approach and cross‐cultural psychology with a quantitative approach.
Reference Group
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractIn the inaugural issue of theInternational Journal of Testing, reported the case of an Italian job applicant assessed at a test center in France using an English language test. The person was applying for a position as manager in the Tokyo office of a U.S. multi‐national corporation. The test was developed in Australia by an international test developer and publisher. The report of the test results was to be sent to the applicant's potential supervisor in Japan, having first been interpreted by a human resources consultant in Belgium.
Religion and Spirituality
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji 
Published: October 2013

AbstractLike culture, religion is a complex phenomenon. The term could imply one or more of the following: religious faith, tradition, affiliation, doctrine, values, practices, or culture. Furthermore, the terms religion, religiosity, and spirituality have often been used interchangeably in the literature. Some social thinkers believe these terms are similar or even identical, whereas others consider them distinct and having different connotations. Thus, definitions of religion vary considerably depending on the orientation, background, understanding, and worldview of the people involved in the discussion.
Dimensions of Culture (Shalom H. Schwartz) – Intellectual Autonomy
Authors: Niu Jianghe 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Described two types of autonomy: affective and intellectual autonomy. Intellectual autonomy refers to the independent pursuit of ideas, intellectual directions, and rights (e.g., creative work and curiosity). Intellectual autonomy also motivates individuals to follow their ideas and paths through values like broadmindedness, creativity, and curiosity.