bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Discovery
Authors: Ellison Jared M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDiscovery is a legal concept that pertains to the disclosure of evidence by a prosecutor to a criminal defense attorney. The Supreme Court has ruled that prosecutors must share certain types of evidence with defense attorneys, but the standards remain somewhat ambiguous. Therefore, rules and expectations about discoverable evidence are not uniform across jurisdictions and problems sometimes arise. In 2006, while a case against three athletes from Duke University began to unravel, a prosecutor was charged with numerous ethical violations (and was subsequently disbarred) for his failure to share material evidence with a team of defense attorneys. To minimize the possibility of prosecutorial misconduct, some have called for the adoption of open‐file policies. This entry provides a discussion of the key Supreme Court cases in the area of discovery, highlights differences in practices across jurisdictions, and outlines some reasons why an open‐file policy may provide a fairer legal system.
Diversion
Authors: Kremser Jonathan 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDiversion from formal court processing is a popular and common practice for first‐time, non‐violent offenders. Within juvenile justice, there has been a long history of diverting youth from the formal process to specific programs that focus on the individual's unique treatment needs. This practice is based upon the belief that formal adjudication often stigmatizes the offender, and restricts or eliminates future opportunities within the community. This entry defines diversion, identifies the various institutions in which diversion programs may be delivered, provides a historical background, and explains the theoretical framework that informs diversion practices. The entry also provides examples of specific diversion programs, and concludes with a discussion of some of the benefits and challenges of diversion.
Juvenile Delinquency Trends
Authors: Fowler Eric 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Juvenile delinquency has become an issue of increasing importance to the American public in recent decades. Youth crime and deviance, as a dynamic phenomenon, represents and is determined by contextual social, political, and economic realities. Through the analysis of official police records, as well as self‐report and victimization surveys, we are able to describe the temporal, demographic, and spatial trends in violent, property, drug, and status offenses. This information is useful for developing policies to prevent delinquency as well as designing appropriate law enforcement responses.
Theoretical Integration
Authors: Benefiel Rodger 
Published: January 2014

AbstractSignificant debate has occurred within the field of criminology on whether falsification or theoretical integration is the preferred method for scientific progress. The types and methods commonly used for integration are explained and examples of existing theories that are the product of integration are provided. It is noted that theories are rarely created completely independently of the work of earlier authors, and the rigors of scientific progress demand the use of both falsification and integration for the continued advancement of the field.
Colonial America Criminal Justice
Authors: J. Brooker Dale 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Colonial America was a crucial time in the development of the history of the United States and moreover it set the foundation for the criminal justice system that was to develop along with it. The small communities that dotted the eastern part of the continent initially were ones where religion, work, and adjustment to a new world came together. The early colonists were spiritual, and this drove the social control mechanisms, both formal and informal. The development of an agrarian economic culture also shaped the way in which justice was dispensed and how colonists were treated.
International Crime Victims Survey
Authors: Kennedy Jonathan 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This essay on the International Crime Victims Survey summarizes the purpose, history, coverage, content, recent findings, and strengths and weaknesses of the survey. Data from the survey are used extensively in comparative international studies of crime and victimization. To date the survey has been administered five times, first in 1989 and most recently in 2004–2005. The survey is supported by a working group of European criminologists and a range of institutional actors, including the United Nations Interregional Criminal Justice Research Institute, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Gallup Europe, and the European Commission's Directorate General for Research and Technology Development.
Expert Witness
Authors: Mantle William P. , Chenane Joselyne 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the types of evidence that experts may be called upon to provide and the legal standards for the admissibility of their testimony at trial. Also included is a discussion of the legal process of discovery as it relates to the use of expert testimony by prosecutors and defense attorneys. Concerns about the use of expert testimony are then delineated and specific examples of unethical behavior by so‐called “experts” are provided. The entry concludes with proposed solutions to the concerns about expert testimony and a statement about the future use of such evidence.
Civil Liberties
Authors: Williamson Ché D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis essay summarizes the general definition of “civil liberties,” as understood philosophically, internationally, and in the United States. What rights are included in the concept of “civil liberties” are explained as well as how quantitative research can measure the extent to which the citizens of a country are granted civil liberties. The history of civil liberties is briefly summarized and examples of how the concept of civil liberties has evolved through time. The remaining sections of the essay provide an analysis of the sources of these liberties and a brief summary of how such rights have been interpreted by the US Supreme Court through history. Each civil right guaranteed by the US Constitution is discussed with relevant US Supreme Court case law.
Service Learning
Authors: Sims Barbara 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Instructors are often looking for ways in which to enrich the learning experience for their students. The use of pedagogical tools that increase the higher order thinking among students is one way to meet that goal. Through the service‐learning experience, students have an opportunity to engage civically with community sponsors in ways that are meaningful and have a long‐lasting impact. Further, the service‐learning experience creates an opportunity for building a relationship between the institution and the sponsoring agency or organization. When developed and implemented in a way that will allow for continuous improvement over time, quality service‐learning experiences can become the hallmark of any department situated in an institution of higher learning.
Prediction of Crime (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Houser Kimberly , Fratello Jennifer 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCriminal justice practitioners are frequently asked to make decisions based on predictions of whether an individual is likely to offend or reoffend based on a set of known characteristics about that individual. To help practitioners make more informed and objective decisions, risk assessment instruments are designed by researchers to help guide decisions on release, incapacitation, and treatment approaches based on scientific research on human behavior. There are several approaches to the design of risk assessment instruments, each with its own set of strengths and weaknesses. Although each generation of risk assessment instruments advances our predictive abilities, the complexity of human behavior precludes the forecasting of all human behavior with complete accuracy. Thus, crime prediction is far from being an exact science.
M
ueller,
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erhard
O. W
Authors: Dammer Harry R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Many criminologists around the world consider Professor Gerhard O. W. Mueller the “father” of international/comparative criminal justice. His work as one of the first chiefs of the UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch, and his scholarly research in various aspects of the globalization of crime and criminal justice, especially comparative criminal law, international criminal law, and maritime criminology, have made him among the pioneers in the fields of law, criminology, and criminal justice.
Reasonable Suspicion
Authors: Robert Cencich John 
Published: January 2014

AbstractReasonable suspicion is a legal standard that relates to the amount of information a law enforcement officer needs in order to undertake certain activities. The most common law enforcement practice that incorporates this standard is the notion of “stop and frisk.” This entry will provide a background into relevant police practices, their proper application in the field, and consequences and implications in the courts if they are misapplied.
Hate Crime—Sexual Orientation
Authors: Dixon Shane M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHate crimes are crimes of intolerance and bigotry that are committed to hurt and intimidate protected classes including race, ethnicity, national origin, sexual orientation, or disability, with bias being a motivational factor. Hate crimes are more likely than non‐hate crimes to be violent crimes, with 84% of all hate crimes falling into the categories of sexual assault, robbery, aggravated or simple assault, compared to only 23% of non‐hate crimes.
Diet of upper paleolithic modern humans: Evidence from microwear texture analysis
Authors: El Zaatari Sireen , Hublin Jean‐Jacques 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTThis article presents the results of the occlusal molar microwear texture analysis of 32 adult Upper Paleolithic modern humans from a total of 21 European sites dating to marine isotope stages 3 and 2. The occlusal molar microwear textures of these specimens were analyzed with the aim of examining the effects of the climatic, as well as the cultural, changes on the diets of the Upper Paleolithic modern humans. The results of this analysis do not reveal any environmentally driven dietary shifts for the Upper Paleolithic hominins indicating that the climatic and their associated paleoecological changes did not force these humans to significantly alter their diets in order to survive. However, the microwear texture analysis does detect culturally related changes in the Upper Paleolithic humans' diets. Specifically, significant differences in diet were found between the earlier Upper Paleolithic individuals, i.e., those belonging to the Aurignacian and Gravettian contexts, and the later Magdalenian ones, such that the diet of the latter group was more varied and included more abrasive foods compared with those of the former. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:570–581, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Changing patterns of mobility as a response to climatic deterioration and aridification in the middle Holocene southern Sahara
Authors: Stojanowski Christopher M. , Knudson Kelly J. 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTThe African Humid Period witnessed a rapid human re‐occupation of the Sahara as numerous lakes formed during the Holocene climatic optimum circa 10‐5 kya. Permanent waters attracted a variety of aquatic and terrestrial fauna allowing for long‐term occupation of specific paleolake basins. The Gobero paleolake in central Niger was one such location that preserves a unique mortuary record from the southern Sahara. Here, we use radiogenic strontium isotope analysis to investigate how human communities adapted to aridification throughout the Holocene. In particular, we examine the effects of increasing climate instability on patterns of human mobility. Results of radiogenic strontium isotope analysis of enamel and bone samples from Middle Holocene burials (∼7.2–4.9 kya) indicate predominantly local values with no evidence for sex‐based variation. Comparisons of radiogenic strontium isotope data with previously published (Stojanowski and Knudson: Am J Phys Anthropol 146 (2011) 49–61) Early Holocene burials (∼9.7–8.3 kya) indicate significant differences in both enamel and bone values. Middle Holocene individuals demonstrate a predominantly non‐local signature for enamel values and a predominantly local signature for bone values. Those individuals with non‐local bone values always demonstrated non‐local enamel values; however, the opposite was not the case. This suggests a divergence of mobility strategies during the Middle Holocene with a minority of individuals maintaining a more mobile existence throughout their life and others maintaining a similar strategy as Early Holocene hunter–gatherers that was tied to the paleolake basin. The more mobile individuals likely lived during the terminal phase of the lake's occupation. One response to aridification by Saharan peoples, then, was increasing mobility. Am J Phys Anthropol 154:79–93, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The Superacid HBr/AlBr3: Protonation of Benzene and Ordered Crystal Structure of [C6H7]+[Al2Br7]−
Authors: Scholz Franziska , Himmel Daniel , Eisele Lea , Unkrig Wiebke , Krossing Ingo 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCrystalline and properly ordered protonated benzene as the [C6H7]+[Al2Br7]−⋅(C6H6) salt 1 are obtained by the combination of solid AlBr3, benzene, and HBr gas. Compound 1 was characterized and verified by NMR, Raman and X‐Ray spectroscopy. This unexpected simple and straight forward access shows that HBr/AlBr3 is an underestimated superacid that should be used more frequently.
Sodium Phosphaethynolate as a Building Block for Heterocycles
Authors: Chen Xiaodan , Alidori Simone , Puschmann Florian Frank , Santiso‐Quinones Gustavo , Benkő Zoltán , Li Zhongshu , Becker Gerd , Grützmacher Hans‐Friedrich , Grützmacher Hansjörg 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPhosphorus‐containing heterocycles have evolved from laboratory curiosities to functional components, such as ligands in catalytically active metal complexes or molecular constituents in electronic devices. The straightforward synthesis of functionalized heterocycles on a larger scale remains a challenge. Herein, we report the use of the phosphaethynolate (OCP)− anion as a building block for various sterically unprotected and functionalized hydroxy substituted phosphorus heterocycles. Because the resulting heterocycles are themselves anions, they are building blocks in their own right and allow further facile functionalization. This property may be of interest in coordination chemistry and material science.
Transcription of Click‐Linked DNA in Human Cells
Authors: Birts Charles N. , Sanzone A. Pia , El‐Sagheer Afaf H. , Blaydes Jeremy P. , Brown Tom , Tavassoli Ali 
Published: January 2014

AbstractClick DNA ligation promises an alternative to the current enzymatic approaches for DNA assembly, with the ultimate goal of using efficient chemical reactions for the total chemical synthesis and assembly of genes and genomes. Such an approach would enable the incorporation of various chemically modified bases throughout long stretches of DNA, a feat not possible with current polymerase‐based methods. An unequivocal requirement for this approach is the biocompatibility of the resulting triazole‐linked DNA. The correct function of this unnatural DNA linker in human cells is demonstrated here by using a click‐linked gene encoding the fluorescent protein mCherry. Reverse transcription of mRNA isolated from these cells and subsequent sequencing of the mCherry cDNA shows error‐free transcription. Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is shown to not play a role in the observed biocompatibility by using a NER‐deficient human cell line. This is the first example of a non‐natural DNA linker being functional in a eukaryotic cell.
Ruthenium‐Catalyzed Cascade CH Functionalization of Phenylacetophenones
Authors: Mehta Vaibhav P. , García‐López José‐Antonio , Greaney Michael F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThree orthogonal cascade CH functionalization processes are described, based on ruthenium‐catalyzed CH alkenylation. 1‐Indanones, indeno indenes, and indeno furanones were accessed through cascade pathways by using arylacetophenones as substrates under conditions of catalytic [{Ru(p‐cymene)Cl2}2] and stoichiometric Cu(OAc)2. Each transformation uses CH functionalization methods to form CC bonds sequentially, with the indeno furanone synthesis featuring a CO bond formation as the terminating step. This work demonstrates the power of ruthenium‐catalyzed alkenylation as a platform reaction to develop more complex transformations, with multiple CH functionalization steps taking place in a single operation to access novel carbocyclic structures.
Synthesis of magnetite multi‐walled carbon nanotubes composite and its application for removal of basic dyes from aqueous solutions
Authors: Dalali N. , Habibizadeh M. , Rostamizadeh K. , Nakisa S. 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTA magnetic composite of multi‐wall carbon nanotubes and magnetite nanoparticles was synthesized, and its applicability to the removal of dye contaminants from aqueous solutions was investigated as adsorbent. Tris(4‐(dimethylamino)phenyl)methylium chloride or crystal violet (also known as gentian violet) was used as a representative of the basic dyes, and an orthogonal array design with four factors—three levels (34) matrix—was applied to assign the significant factors affecting the dye uptake. The chosen experimental parameters and their ranges were the following: pH, 9–11; adsorbent, 0.002–0.01 g; NaCl concentration, 0–4%; removal time, 1–5 min. L9 orthogonal array for experimental design and the smaller the best criterion based on reduction of residual dye were used to determine the optimum conditions, which were found to be pH = 9, 0.01 g adsorbent, 5 min removal time, and 0% NaCl, respectively. Analysis of variances revealed that the amount of adsorbent affected the adsorption efficiency of crystal violet significantly. The adsorption capacity of sorbent was found to be 38 mg g−1. The magnetic composite displayed the main advantage of separation convenience compared with the other adsorption techniques. © 2014 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Hyperbranched polyglycerols, obtained from environmentally benign monomer, as reactive clays inhibitors for water‐based drilling fluids
Authors: Teixeira Gleber Tacio , Lomba Rosana Fátima Teixeira , Francisco Agatha Densy dos Santos , da Silva João Francisco Cajaíba , Nascimento Regina Sandra Veiga 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTTo prevent the degradation of the borehole and also the disintegration and dispersion of drilled cuttings, different shale stabilizing additives are used in water‐based drilling fluids (WBFs). Glycols, poly(ethylene glycol), glycerols, and polyglycerol derivatives, also called polyols, have been used to inhibit shales containing reactive clays in WBF. These additives are normally used in conjunction with KCl to reduce clay swelling and dispersion of drilled cuttings. Highly branched polymers have become an important field in current polymer science. Such materials typically exhibit compact, globular structures in combination with an exceptionally high number of sites with functional groups. They have unique properties that differ significantly from their linear counterparts, and the hyperbranched polyglycerol (hPG) is an important hyperbranched polymer that can be produced from an environmentally benign monomer, the glycerol carbonate. In this article, the clay inhibitive properties of hPG were evaluated by different test methods including bentonite inhibition test, cuttings recovery, and X‐ray diffraction measurements. The results show that the hPG has a great potential to be used as an environmental friendly inhibitor additive in WBFs. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40384.
MS‐monitored conjugation of poly(ethylene glycol) monomethacrylate to RGD peptides
Authors: Bol'shakov Oleg I. , Akala Emmanuel O. 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTDevelopment of biologically active polymers is an active area of research due to their applications in varied and diverse fields of biomedical research: cell adhesion, tissue proliferation, and drug delivery. Recent advances in chemical modification allow fine‐tuning of the properties of biomedical polymers to improve their applications: blood circulation half‐life, stimuli‐responsive degradation, site‐specific targeting, drug loading, etc. In this article, convergent synthesis of polymerizable macromonomers bearing a site‐specific ligand (RGD peptide) using a low molecular weight MA‐poly(ethylene glycols) (PEGs) is presented. The method affords macromonomers useful as the starting materials to produce biomedical polymers. We found matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectromerty convenient in monitoring the conjugation process via step‐by‐step following of PEG modification. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40385.
Improvement of constraint‐based flux estimation during L‐phenylalanine production with Escherichia coli using targeted knock‐out mutants
Authors: Weiner Michael , Tröndle Julia , Albermann Christoph , Sprenger Georg A. , Weuster‐Botz Dirk 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTFed‐batch production of the aromatic amino acid L‐phenylalanine was studied with recombinant Escherichia coli strains on a 15 L‐scale using glycerol as carbon source. Flux Variability Analysis (FVA) was applied for intracellular flux estimation to obtain an insight into intracellular flux distribution during L‐phenylalanine production. Variability analysis revealed great flux uncertainties in the central carbon metabolism, especially concerning malate consumption. Due to these results two recombinant strains were genetically engineered differing in the ability of malate degradation and anaplerotic reactions (E. coli FUS4.11 ΔmaeA pF81kan and E. coli FUS4.11 ΔmaeA ΔmaeB pF81kan). Applying these malic enzyme knock‐out mutants in the standardized L‐phenylalanine production process resulted in almost identical process performances (e.g., L‐phenylalanine concentration, production rate and byproduct formation). This clearly highlighted great redundancies in central metabolism in E. coli. Uncertainties of intracellular flux estimations by constraint‐based analyses during fed‐batch production of L‐phenylalanine were drastically reduced by application of the malic enzyme knock‐out mutants. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2014;111: 1406–1416. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Engineering of a butyraldehyde dehydrogenase of Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum to fit an engineered 1,4‐butanediol pathway in Escherichia coli
Authors: Hwang Hee Jin , Park Jin Hwan , Kim Jin Ho , Kong Min Kyung , Kim Jin Won , Park Jin Woo , Cho Kwang Myung , Lee Pyung Cheon 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACT1,4‐Butanediol (1,4‐BDO) is currently produced from succinate via six enzymatic reactions in an engineered Escherichia coli strain. Butyraldehyde dehydrogenase (Bld) and butanol dehydrogenase of Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum were selected based on their activities of catalyzing the final two reactions in the 1,4‐BDO pathway. To fit Bld into the non‐natural 1,4‐BDO pathway, we engineered it through random mutagenesis. Five Bld mutants were then isolated using a colorimetric Schiff's reagent‐based method. Subsequent site‐directed mutagenesis of Bld generated the two best Bld mutants, L273I and L273T, which produced 1,4‐BDO titers fourfold greater than those of wild‐type Bld. The enhanced 1,4‐BDO titers obtained using L273I and L273T clearly correlated with their enhanced activities, which were caused by amino acid mutations at position 273 of Bld. The highest titer of 1,4‐BDO (660 ± 40 mg/L) was obtained in a knock‐out E. coli strain [ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔadhE ΔlpdA::K. lpd(E354K) Δmdh ΔarcA gltA(R164L)] coexpressing Bld273T+Bdh. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2014;111: 1374–1384. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.