bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Sanding of Oil Wells
Authors: Suman John R. 
Published: June 2014

Excepting the very few oil fields of the world in which the production comesfrom a limestone formation, the greatest problems encountered in oil wells comefrom trouble caused by sand. These troubles are brought about by sandaccumulating in the strainer, liner, tubing, or cutting out various parts ofthe well equipment. The remarks here made are intended to apply to theso-called "soft sand" producing areas such as those of California andthe Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. However, there are certain features ofsanding problems in pumping wells which are almost universal.
In the "soft sand" producing districts such as California or the Gulf of Texas and Louisiana, wells often come in flowing at the rate of severalthousand barrels of oil per day, and after flowing a few hours, "sandup." In many cases it will be found that when the sand is cleaned out ofthe strainer or liner, and the well again starts flowing the production will bebut a small fraction of what it was originally. Many and varied opinions havebeen handed down by oil men to account for this condition.
The most satisfactory explanation of this failure of wells to come back toinitial flow, after once sanding, will be found from a close study of theproducing formations. It will usually be found that the oil-producing zoneconsists of alternating layers of sand and shale. In the Gulf Coast districtthese alternating layers may be only a few feet or a few inches thick. When thewell blows out or starts to flow with an accompaniment of strong gas pressurethe sand is blown into the hole through the screen, strainer, or perforatedpipe. Large quantities of sand quite commonly accompany these flows. Theholding of back pressure on the wells by use of "flow beans," etc., tends to hold back the sand. Also the use of fine-gage screen helps to hold thesand back; but if the pressure is very strong and the gas is present the screenis usually cut out in short order.
The explanation of the failure of the well to "come-back" afterbeing cleaned out, consequent to the initial sanding up, will be found back ofthe liner or screen.
Waters of the Salt Creek Field, Wyo.
Authors: Young H.W. , Estabrook E.L. 
Published: June 2014

The analysis of oil field waters in the Salt Creek field as an aid in fielddevelopment and operation was begun by the Midwest Refining Co. in a systematicway during the spring of 1923. Previous to that time some samples had beentaken for analysis but uncertainty as to the sampling methods employed casts acloud on all these early analyses.

Sands
In the Salt Creek field there are at present five sands which are of specialinterest from the standpoint of the character of the waters which they contain, the Shannon, the First Wall Creek, the Second Wall Creek, the Lakota, and theSundance. There is a Third Wall Creek sand but it is so unevenly distributedthat it hardly seems possible that analyses of water from this source will beof any great benefit. Occasionally water is found in shale crevices above theFirst Wall Creek sand, and has also been found in the Dakota sand within 900ft. structurally of the apex of the dome.
The First Wall Creek sand is divided into two distinct layers, or benches, by an impervious layer of shale or limy sand. The lower bench contains muchmore water than the upper bench. No attempt has been made to distinguishbetween the waters of the two benches. By far the greater number of the watersamples that have been analyzed have come from the First sand.
In certain sections of the field the Second Wall Creek sand is divided intoseveral benches by layers of shale or bentonite, but these layers are notcontinuous as is the dividing bed in the First sand. Comparatively few watersamples have been obtained from the Second sand, as the number of edge wellsthat have been drilled into water is small.
The Lakota sand, like the First Wall Creek sand, is divided into two membersby an impervious layer of shale. Edge water is found in both members, but atslightly different levels. Since comparatively few wells have reached thissand, not many water samples have been obtained.
Theories of Normal Production and Methods of Introducing Gas and Air to Increase Normal Recovery
Authors: Brundred L.L. 
Published: June 2014

In one respect only does the oil business compare with the mining industry.They both have for definite purpose the production, refining and marketing ofnatural resources found beneath the surface of the ground. The methods ofobtaining this production are so entirely different that the field engineermust, of necessity, be definitely trained to solve the problems confronting theparticular industry he hopes to enter. Of prime importance to both is thesubsurface information available. Here the mining engineer, by sinking hisshaft and cutting his laterals, is able to examine with the naked eye hisproductive formations. Not so with the petroleum engineer. At best, he has onlythe small cores taken at random to furnish information on the measurespenetrated. As we propose to advance certain theories of oil production, let usfirst examine what subsurface information is available.

Producing Formations
Roughly speaking, it may be said that our present oil production is obtainedfrom the following formations, their importance as producing strata occurringin the order named:sand,sandy shale,porous lime,sandy lime,crevices in either sand, lime or shale, andoil-bearing shales.
Classes1 and 2, sand and sandy shale, are so closely allied as to be practically oneclass. They yield by far the bulk of our present daily production. Classes 3and 4, porous lime and sandy lime, are also closely associated, yielding, forthe moment, enormous wells, which soon decline to the pumping class and readilybecome unprofitable to operate. Class 5, crevices, also yield enormousquantities of oil for a few days but decline most rapidly unless fed from someextraneous source. They can hardly be considered as having a lasting economiceffect on the industry. Class 6, oil-bearing shales, are not vital to thisdiscussion. As we are primarily interested in the formations producing most ofthe oil, we shall confine ourselves to a discussion of the sands and sandyshales.
Effect of Dissolved Gas upon the Viscosity and Surface Tension of Crude Oil
Authors: Beecher C.E. , Parkhurst I.P. 
Published: June 2014

In the course of the experimental and development work of Henry L. Dohertyin an endeavor to obtain an increased yield of oil from oil-bearing sands, itwas Mr. Doherty's claim and contention that oil in an undisturbed pool wasdifferent in character and behavior than the same oil when raised to thesurface of the earth, and that the gas dissolved in the oil caused a markedreduction in its viscosity and surface tension. Prior to 1924 no information tosupport this contention could be found in the literature or by a discussion ofthe subject with technical men in Government and private laboratories. So faras could be ascertained no experimental work had been carried on to indicatethat Mr. Doherty's claim was either right or wrong. All parties consultedagreed that the viscosity of the oil would be affected by gas dissolved thereinto the extent that natural gasoline was present in the gas, but so far as couldbe determined any additional effect of the natural gas was unknown.
Accordingly, it was necessary to devise equipment and carry on experimentswhich would either prove or disprove Mr. Doherty's contention or claim. Suchapparatus was built under Mr. Doherty's direction and experiments were carriedon to determine definitely the viscosity and the surface tension of the crudeoils which contain dissolved gases under different pressures. The results ofthe experimental work carried on have proved that the claim and contention ofMr. Doherty were correct in every particular, as will be seen from thediscussion of the subject and the data contained in this paper.

Reduction of Viscosity by Dissolved Gas
At a pressure of 500 lb., and a temperature of 70?F., it was found that anatural gas such as is associated with the oil would reduce the viscosity about50 per cent when a given crude oil was saturated with the gas. Increasing thepressure another 500 lb. could not be expected to reduce the viscosity theremaining 50 per cent. However, some reduction in viscosity would take place asindicated by the curves showing the relation between pressure and relativeviscosity.
Corrosion in Oil and Gas Wells - Its Causes and Prevention
Authors: Mills R. Van A. 
Published: June 2014

Introduction
The subject of corrosion is forcing itself to the attention of all branchesof the engineering profession because of the enormous wastes that are involved.Petroleum engineers are obliged to deal with it all the way from the bottom ofthe well to the last still in the refinery and even to the internal combustionengine itself. The subject of corrosion in the petroleum industry is, ofcourse, too broad to cover in a brief paper, but certain phases of its causesand prevention in the producing fields can be outlined to advantage. This paperdeals with underground corrosion in the wells themselves.
A large part of the corrosion troubles that are now harassing operators inold fields could have been prevented, at only nominal cost, if protectionagainst the corrosion of well equipment had been properly established when thewells were first drilled and equipped. To wait until corrosion troubles developin an oil or gas field is like waiting until an army develops a typhoidepidemic before applying inoculation against the disease.
In presenting this paper, there are three purposes in mind. The first is tooutline briefly the causes for corrosion in oil and gas wells. The second is topoint out reliable methods of detecting corrosive conditions in the wells atthe time they are being drilled and equipped. And the third is to emphasize theadvantages of establishing adequate protection of well equipment againstcorrosion at the time the wells are first drilled and equipped, that is, beforethe corrosion in the wells begins.
The effort has been made to outline as briefly as possible a part of theresults of a three-year investigation of the corrosion of oil and gas fieldequipment by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The subject has been more broadlycovered in Bulletin 233.
Mechanical Installations for Air-gas Lift in the Gulf Coast Area
Authors: Brundred L.L. 
Published: June 2014

The major portion of the production of the Gulf Coast area, represented bySouth Texas and South Louisiana, comes from the flanks of well-defined saltdomes. This oil, containing an excellent lubricating stock, ranges from 17? to28? Be. gravity. Some lighter oil is encountered but the life of such fieldsis, in general, an open question. In fact, there are few light-gravity fieldswhich have proved of much value.
In all of the fields water encroachment, or, more properly, water producedwith the oil, is a vital factor. After the first head of high-pressure gas isremoved, ever-increasing percentages of water appear, and naturally the life ofthe wells is materially affected thereby.
The sands are, as a rule, extremely fine, very soft, and must be carefullyexcluded from the hole by the use of fine screen to prevent sanding up. Allsands are tipped at such extreme angles as to make coring essential for thelocation of water strata, oil-bearing sands and important shale beds. Even withmodern coring, the correlation of logs is a difficult problem.
Due to the fact that the bulk of the oil is refined for its lubricatingproperties, little attention has been paid to losses by evaporation in thefield. This is largely influenced by the fact that the major companies have seta price schedule, showing but two grades, "A" and "B." Theaverage oil company, therefore, does not attempt to use the gas-lift but reliesprimarily on the air-lift and then only on wells considered to be particularlyadapted to its use, namely those capable of producing large quantities of fluidand yet not having sufficient "kick" to flow.
Furthermore, as the gas contained in the reservoirs is mostly methane, suchgas being very quickly vaporized and produced in large quantity in the earlylife of the fields, there is little gas left after the first flush flowingperiod of the wells. In fact, it is very generally conceded that gas is aprecarious fuel to depend on in any of the coastal fields. This situationlargely accounts for the fact that air, as the lifting medium, is almostuniversally used.
Mechanical Equipment of Air-gas Lifts in Oklahoma and Kansas Exclusive of Seminole
Authors: Bond Reid W. 
Published: June 2014

The gas-lift is a comparatively recent development in the Oklahoma andKansas fields. It was used to some extent in the old Dilworth field severalyears ago, but the first extensive installations were made in the Tonkawa andGarber fields in Oklahoma early in the year 1926.

Compressor Equipment
During the early development of the system, the equipment used generallyconsisted of small tandem compressors of about 250 cu. ft. per min.displacement, driven by automotive-type gas engines, using a short belt drive.These compressors were first installed at the individual wells largely as anexperiment.
After the experimental installations had proved the method a success, it wasconsidered economically advisable to centralize the compressor equipment instrategically located stations. However, as the information in regard to"gas-lift flowing life" was anything but definite, and the mostoptimistic estimates in regard to it did not exceed six months, portability ofequipment was still the first consideration in the minds of many operators, whocontinued to install small semi-portable compressors in their centralizedstations.
As electric power became available in the fields, the electric motor camerapidly into use as the prime mover for the small compressors. The operatingcost of this motor is greater than that of the automotive-type gas engine forthe same power output, but the greater continuity of service tends to balancethe extra cost.
Aside from the semi-portable units, a number of strictly portablecompressors were used. These consisted of automotive-type gas engines directconnected to vertical compressors. The unit was assembled on one base and couldbe mounted on wheels or skids as desired. The chief objection to these, in thewriter's opinion, was their small capacity - approximately 150 cu. ft. per min.- which made it necessary to use two, three, and sometimes more units per well, thus making the installation rather costly. However, they have been foundvaluable for test purposes and emergencies, where installation time is animportant factor.
Deep-well Pumping in California
Authors: Marsh Hallan N. 
Published: June 2014

The subject of this paper is apt to bring to mind wells ranging from 6000 toover 8000 ft. in depth. However, it is uncommon to pump wells at depths greaterthan about 5000 ft. Fig. 1 shows the number of wells being pumped at variousdepths by one company in Southern California.
A few companies have a very few wells pumping at depths greater than this.This paper will deal with wells between 3000 and 5500 ft. in depth. MostCalifornia oils at these depths are between 25? and 35? gravity. The subject isso broad that it will be necessary to omit many interesting phases, and totreat others very briefly. Power, power transmission equipment, powerefficiency, counterbalancing, sucker rods, pumps and volumetric efficiency willbe discussed.

Power
As a source of power, the 50/20-hp. electric motor is generally preferred.Input is generally between 10 and 25 hp. Due to the unevenness of the load, aninput of 20 hp. on the low range is generally about all that these motors willcarry without overheating, in spite of their overload capacity.
Capillary Phenomena as Related to Oil Production
Authors: Tickell Frederick G. 
Published: June 2014

Petroleum engineers are displaying considerable interest in thosefundamental properties of matter and energy that control the phenomena of oiland gas production. The subject is a difficult one to investigate by laboratoryexperiments for two reasons:it is impossible to reproduce in thelaboratory the scale of forces and dimensions that exist in the undergroundreservoir;if we attempt to scale down the dimensions we are unable toreduce all proportionally.
It is as if we tried to construct a model blastfurnace for the reduction of iron ore, and reduced all lineal dimensions. Weshould find that the interstices between the miniature chunks of ore would notpermit rapid transfer of gases, that combustion and heat transfer would nottake place as in the full size furnace and that, in short, the contraptionwould not work. Just so, when we attempt to make a reduced scale oilfield wefind we must have, not only miniature reservoir and miniature wells, but"miniature" sand, oil, gas, etc. Much valuable work, however, has been donealong these experimental lines and more will no doubt follow, but investigatorsshould bear this point in mind and strive to attain dimensional homogeneity anddynamical similarity in order that their conclusions may be translated intoterms applying to the oil reservoir. As Gibson says, "These conditions areattained when all terms of the physical equation have the same dimensions…when all corresponding particles of the two systems trace out similar paths andwhen the velocities are such as to make all corresponding forces acting on twosuch particles in the same ratio." It is the purpose of this paper todiscuss the mechanics of fluid movement as it pertains to the oil pool and topoint out the complexity of the laws of fluid delivery under the conditionsoften found.
We have to do, fundamentally, with confined fluids, possessing potential energywhose expenditure is restricted by certain properties of the confining mediaand of the fluids themselves. The equation of motion and time is completelystated when we can assign values to the propulsive
Proration in Texas
Authors: Donoghue David 
Published: June 2014

The efforts towards curtailment in Texas have been successful, despite thegreat area covered and the wide variety of oils offered. There are, of course, examples of noncooperation, perhaps of absolute indifference, but of such itcan at least be said that they have benefited from the restrictions imposedelsewhere.
The prevention of waste is the legal background for proration in Texas. Thelegislature in 1899 passed the first laws to prevent waste of oil and gas.Subsequent legislatures, especially those of 1905, 1913 and 1917, undertook toregulate the development and transportation of oil and gas to the end thatwaste would not occur. In 1917 a constitutional amendment was submitted to thepeople, providing that natural resources of the state should be conserved andrequiring that the legislature pass appropriate laws. This amendment wasadopted, and the Acts of 1919 and 1929 have been passed, and these have had theeffect of making a rather elaborate plan for the conservation of oil and gasand their protection against waste, In 1930 the new pipe line act, designed toprovide for ratable purchases, was passed.
The administration of these laws has been placed under the Oil and Gas Divisionof the Railroad Commission of Texas. The Commission can only consider actualwaste, not economic waste, The various proration plans in use in the state, while differing in efficiency, are based on engineering principles. In theproration of flush fields, the limiting of drilling and the steady productionof oil under restriction are the principal points involved, and these methodsare entirely different from those which prevailed until recently in theOklahoma City Pool, where apparently nothing beyond the restriction ofproduction on a time basis was attempted.
There is little to say in defense of proration in the older and smallerproducing areas in Texas, except that, inasmuch as the market outlet has beenreduced, proration distributes the market ratably among the producers.
An Economic Comparison of Developments in the South Field Oil-producing Region of Mexico
Authors: Knight Oliver B. 
Published: June 2014

The producing formation in the South Field, or "Golden Lane"structure of Mexico, is a buried ridge of reef limestone of Comanchean ageoverlain unconformably with sediments of Upper Cretaceous, Eocene andOligocene. The structure extends in a long sweeping arc, with the convex sidetoward the west, from San Geronimo, Vera Cruz, to San Isidro, south of theTuxpam River, which it crosses at the town of Alamo. It is 52 miles long andaverages 3/4 mile in width.
The surface of the producing formation of EI Abra limestone consists of aseries of minor parallel highs which are separated longitudinally by synclinaltroughs and laterally by structural saddles. The presence of these highs hasbeen of utmost importance in the development of the field, especially in recentyears when the salt-water level has risen above the synclines and confined theoil to the isolated highs. In many cases, faulty information and interpretationof the subsurface has resulted in drilling costly dry holes and salt-waterwells.

Development
The development of the Golden Lane was started by the Mexican Eagle Oil Co. in1906. San Diego No.3, usually known as Dos Bocas, the first producing well onthe structure, was completed on July 4, 1908. This well came in unexpectedlyfor an estimated daily production of 129,000 bbl., and, as the casing was notproperly set, the well flowed wild into the Tamiahua Lagoon, causing a loss ofseveral million barrels of oil. In flowing wild the well formed a crater whichcovers an area of 48 acres, out of which salt water and small quantities of gasstill flow. Casiano No.2, the Huasteca Petroleum Co., which yielded 200 bbl. ofoil daily, and which was completed in November, 1909, was the next producingwell to be drilled on the structure. In 1910, the same company completedCasiano No.7, with an initial production of 50,000 bbl. daily, and CasianoNo.1, which produced 200 bbl. daily. In the same year, the Mexican Eagle OilCo. completed its Potrero del Llano wells 1, 2 and 4, with initial productionsof 500, 400 and 100,000 bbl. respectively.
Increasing the Ultimate Recovery of Oil
Authors: Shaw S.F. 
Published: June 2014

The theory that maintaining a high back-pressure on the oil sand lowers theviscosity of the oil has been generally accepted. The theory has also beenadvanced that lower viscosity permits the oil to be moved through the sand tothe well at an expenditure of less gas per barrel of oil than would otherwisebe required. It seems reasonable to assume that production of oil at theminimum gas-oil ratio will result in a greater ultimate recovery of oil.
During the past five years the writer has acquired data on thousands of testsmade on wells to determine the best rate at which to produce them. In themajority of cases reduction in back-pressure did not definitely increase thegas-oil ratio. The information obtained from these tests has raised doubt inthe mind of the writer as to the correctness of the theory that loweredviscosity results in lower gas-oil ratios and in higher ultimate recovery ofoil. The reasons that explain the results obtained in these tests cannot yet bedefinitely stated, but the hypothesis is being tentatively assumed that thereare other factors which outweigh the influence of viscosity.

Energy In Gas Moves Oil To Well
The general opinion is that in most cases it is the energy in the gas thatmoves the oil to the well. In wells flowing naturally it is also the energy inthe gas that lifts the oil to the surface. In a flowing well, there are twovery distinct operations:Moving the oil through the sand to the well.Lifting the oil to the surface.
The more important function of the gas is that of moving the oil to the well.Means for lifting the oil can always be found once it has been delivered to thewell.

Principles Involved In Lifting Oil
A well that flows naturally is the same as a gas-lift well except that all ofthe gas is supplied by the oil reservoir.