bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Patenting Plants and Plant Products
Authors: Ergenzinger Edward R , Williams Jeff 
Published: April 2013

AbstractThe United States approach to protect newly developed plant varieties has fed a booming agribusiness industry, but the United States differs from many other parts of the world in terms of its views on patenting plants and public attitudes regarding genetically modified foods. This article reviews the relevant forms of intellectual property protection available to plant breeders in the United States, which includes the Plant Protection Act, the Plant Variety Protection Act, and utility patents under the Patent Act. These forms of protection are compared with the standard conventions available in Europe. Two brief discussions follow. First, the role of public attitudes in acceptance of genetically modified crops is reviewed. This is followed by a brief overview of the ethical and legal context related to bioprospecting.Key Concepts:The United States plant breeders have three forms of intellectual property protection available for use: PVPA, PPA and utility patents.The United States and European patent systems have been aligned to allow for more uniform international enforcement of patents.Bioprospecting has the potential to uncover powerful new discoveries, but ownership rules must be interpreted for both equity and efficiency concerns.The United States and European consumers generally have differing opinions of the safety of genetically engineered crops.
Molecular Farming in Plants
Authors: Hoja Ursula , Sonnewald Uwe 
Published: April 2013

AbstractThe commonly used term ‘molecular farming’ describes the large‐scale production of valuable proteins in transgenic plants, including antibodies, vaccines, other pharmaceuticals and industrial proteins. Compared to traditionally used systems such as microbial cultures, plants offer many advantages with respect to economy, quality and safety. Especially attractive is the possibility to power protein production using natural sunlight and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Furthermore, transient expression systems offer the possibility to rapidly produce personalised pharmaceuticals otherwise impossible. Several production systems including algae, mosses, tissue‐ and cell cultures have been reported, enabling contained protein production. Combining these cell‐based production systems with newly developed photo‐bioreactors promises powerful solutions for cost‐efficient and safe manufacturing of valuable proteins. However, constraints concerning protein yield and public acceptance must be overcome before the plant's full potential can be exploited.Key Concepts:Plant‐based production of proteins can be done in a wide range of systems including different species, tissues and organelles, for each protein the best combination must be identified.Light‐driven production of bioactive‐proteins offers an eco‐friendly and sustainable alternative to conventional production systems.Transient expression of proteins offers the possibility to cost efficiently produce customised pharmaceutical proteins.
Regeneration of Functional Neuronal Connections After Injury in the Central and Peripheral Nervous System
Authors: Schwab Martin E , Buchli Anita D 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

During development both the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system (CNS: brain and spinal cord) are very plastic and can adapt well to nerve fibre damage. In the mature organism, however, major differences exist in the molecular processes of nerve fibre regeneration in peripheral nerves and the CNS of higher animals and humans. Thus, spontaneous nerve fibre regeneration and functional recovery can occur only in the peripheral nervous system. In the adult CNS, specific molecules that suppress growth and block regeneration have been found. Some of the mechanisms blocking fibre regeneration can be experimentally influenced in animal models. They lead to nerve fibre regeneration and, importantly, to improved recovery after spinal cord injury or stroke. Several approaches are currently in the preclinical stage and some of them are being tested in human PhaseI/II clinical trials.

Key Concepts:

During development regeneration and functional recovery of the injured PNS and CNS take place.

Within the critical period of early postnatal life neuronal circuits are shaped by experience; the critical period is a time window with enhanced brain plasticity.

In the adult CNS spontaneous regeneration is strongly limited in contrast to the PNS where nerve fibres regenerate over long distances leading to functional recovery.

Axonal regeneration and plasticity in the mature CNS are restricted by growth inhibitory molecules found in particular in myelin, as well as inhibitory factors present in the glial scar and the extracellular matrix.

After acute CNS injury, secondary damage involving different cell types, secreted factors as well as ECM molecules at the site of primary damage leads to more tissue loss, eventually resulting in the formation of a glial scar.

After nerve axotomy or crush the distal nerve stump degenerates; this process is called Wallerian degeneration.

In the CNS, plasticity is defined as the functional adaptation of surviving tracts and anatomical areas of the CNS; this includes cellular and molecular modifications at the level of the synapse, and changes on the cellular level leading to the formation of new circuits through sprouting and anatomical reorganisation.
Altruism – A Philosophical Analysis
Authors: Clavien Christine , Chapuisat Michel 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Altruism is a malleable notion that is understood differently in various disciplines. The common denominator of most definitions of altruism is the idea of unidirectional helping behaviour. However, a closer examination reveals that the term altruism sometimes refers to the
outcomes
of a helping behaviour for the agent and its neighbours – that is, reproductive altruism – and sometimes to what
motivates
the agent to help others – that is, psychological altruism. Since these perspectives on altruism are crucially different, it is important to use a clear terminology to avoid confusion. In particular, we show that the notion of altruism used by biologists profoundly differs from the ones used by philosophers, psychologists and economists in cross‐disciplinary debates about human altruism.

Key Concepts:

Reproductive altruism refers to a behaviour that increases other organisms' fitness and permanently decreases the actor's own fitness.

It is important to distinguish reproductive altruism from cooperation, in which both partners gain direct fitness benefits.

Reproductive altruism decreases the direct fitness of the altruist and thus its persistence in the course of evolution requests an ultimate explanation.

Kin selection, the indirect transmission of genes through relatives, is the key process explaining the evolution and maintenance of reproductive altruism.

Psychological altruism refers to an other‐directed motivation to help and increase others' welfare independently of self‐directed calculations.

Psychological altruism is a proximate mechanism; in contrast to reproductive altruism, it may confer direct fitness benefits.

To avoid misunderstandings, it is important to identify which form of altruism is at stake in interdisciplinary literature about human altruism.
Homology and Homoplasy: A Philosophical Perspective
Authors: Amundson Ron 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Homology refers to the underlying sameness of distinct body parts or other organic features. The concept became crucial to the understanding of relationships among organisms during the early nineteenth century. Its importance has vacillated during the years between the publication of Darwin's
Origin of Species
and recent times. For much of the twentieth century, homology was regarded as nothing more than evidence of common descent. In recent times, however, it has regained its former importance. It is regarded by advocates of evolutionary developmental biology as a source of evidence for developmental constraint, and evidence for biases in phenotypic variation and the commonalities in organic form. The recent growth in understanding of developmental genetics has made possible a new theory about the mechanical causes of homology, which was impossible under the naïve views regarding genetic causation that were available during most of the twentieth century. This new theory, proposed by Günter Wagner (2007), states that homologies of character are due to the development of a certain kind of genetic regulatory network called a character identity network.

Key Concepts:

For much of the twentieth century, the concept of homology was regarded as secondary in importance to adaptation, with homology regarded as merely the evidence for common ancestry.

Recent advances in molecular biology and developmental genetics have enhanced the importance of homology, and it has regained the importance that it had during the nineteenth century.

One might expect homologous characters to develop from identical embryological precursors, but this is not correct; paradoxically, homologous traits can have distinct embryological origins.

This ‘paradoxical’ fact about homology has led to great frustration among those who have attempted to explain the developmental basis of homology.

Recent developments in developmental genetics may have given us a way to explain the ‘paradoxical’ nature of homology.
Medical Futility
Authors: Loeben Gregory S 
Published: April 2013

AbstractMedical futility is a concept that has been heavily debated since the late 1980s. It is increasingly invoked in end‐of‐life decision‐making as a way to both describe certain situations and to justify refusing treatment as a response to those situations. As the emphasis on patient autonomy has grown, so have demands for treatment that the medical team thinks are inappropriate because they are insufficiently beneficial. The concept of medical futility addresses these treatment demands. Futility judgments have been categorised as physiologic, quantitative and qualitative depending upon the nature of the claim being made. Despite an ongoing dialogue about the nature of these judgments, there is still widespread disagreement about the appropriate use of the concept as a justification for limiting treatment.Key Concepts:Medical futility is a concept used both to describe certain treatment and as a justification for refusing certain treatment.There is significant disagreement about exactly what medical futility means, in what situations it should be applied, and what justification it ultimately provides for refusing treatment.Medical futility can usefully be distinguished into physiological, quantitative and qualitative futility.The debate over medical futility can be seen as arising from several factors: the development of modern technology, the rise of patient autonomy as a dominant value in Western medicine, and growing concern with cost control.Medical futility can only be determined relative to particular goals and futility judgments require us to consider what we think the appropriate function and goals of medicine should be.Institutional policies about medical futility generally focus on fair procedures for resolving futility disagreements rather than on a universal definition.
Bioethics of Gene Therapy
Authors: Resnik David B 
Published: April 2013

AbstractGene therapy in human beings raises a variety of important ethical, legal and social issues. Somatic gene therapy (SGT) is similar to other forms of medical treatment in that the goal is to treat or prevent diseases in individuals. SGT raises questions concerning safety and efficacy of treatments and protection for human research subjects. Germline gene therapy is different from traditional medicine because it involves manipulation of the human genome to prevent the birth of children with genetic diseases. Germline gene therapy has been much more controversial than SGT, because it creates risks not only to patients but also to future generations, and because it may lead to genetic enhancement. Genetic enhancement raises a number of difficult issues, including the ethics of changing human traits, parental control over children's lives, exacerbation of discrimination and social inequalities and eugenics.Key Concepts:Advances in genetics and biotechnology in the 1970s and 1980s made possible the first somatic gene therapy experiments, which took place in the 1990s.Somatic gene therapy has had some successes but still faces significant technical challenges.Somatic gene therapy can pose significant risks to patients and some have died in somatic gene therapy experiments.Germline gene therapy has been more controversial than somatic gene therapy because it involves deliberate, inheritable changes in the genome.Germline gene therapy poses risks not only to patients but also to future generations.Germline gene therapy raises difficult ethical questions related to tampering with human nature, enhancing human traits, parental control over children, discrimination, social justice and eugenics.The distinction between therapy (which aims to prevent or treat disease) and enhancement (which aims to improve human traits), plays a key role in debates about gene therapy.The therapy/enhancement distinction is not as clear as some have assumed, because the concept of disease is not purely objective and includes social, cultural and ethical dimensions.Investigators and institutions should take appropriate steps to protect the rights and welfare of gene therapy patients participating in clinical research.In thinking about the balance of benefit and risks of a gene therapy study, it is important to consider the safety and efficacy of the proposed research and the availability of alternatives.
History of Cortisone and Related Compounds
Authors: Patrick Graham 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Steroidal hormones were isolated from the adrenal cortex in the 1930s and were synthesised a decade later. Several of these structures have highly effective anti‐inflammatory activity but also exhibit serious side effects. Chemical analogues have now been discovered with better activity and reduced side effects. Such agents are administered for the treatment of a wide range of inflammatory conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis and asthma. Anti‐inflammatory activity can be improved by introducing functional groups or substituents at key positions of the steroid structure. Similarly, substituents placed at key positions can reduce side effects and metabolic susceptibility. Nevertheless, there are still risks associated with the long‐term use of steroids, and research is currently looking at novel agents that will act locally at the site of administration and are rapidly metabolised to inactive compounds once they reach the blood supply.

Key Concepts:

Adrenocorticoids are released by the adrenal glands and can be classified as glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids.

Cortisone, hydrocortisone and corticosterone are examples of glucocorticoids.

Cortisone was isolated in the late 1930s, and a synthesis was devised in 1948.

The beneficial anti‐inflammatory effects of cortisone on patients with rheumatoid arthritis were demonstrated in the late 1940s.

Glucocorticoids have important effects on cell metabolism and are released as a result of stress.

Several glucocorticoids have anti‐inflammatory activity making them useful in the treatment of conditions such as skin and mucosal inflammations, rheumatoid arthritis and asthma.

Endogenous glucocorticoids such as cortisol and cortisone are used in the clinic but suffer from side effects.

Analogues of cortisone and cortisol have been developed that have improved anti‐inflammatory activity and reduced side effects.

Key structural features have been identified that can be introduced to the steroid structure in order to increase anti‐inflammatory activity and absorption, while decreasing side effects and metabolism.

Soft drugs have been developed since the 1970s, which act locally at the site of administration and are rapidly metabolised should they reach the blood supply.
Brugada Syndrome
Authors: Campuzano Oscar , Sarquella‐Brugada Georgia , Brugada Ramon , Brugada Josep , Brugada Pedro 
Published: April 2013

AbstractBrugada syndrome (BrS) is characterised by right bundle branch block and persistent ST‐segment elevation in right precordial leads. It is responsible for 4–12% of total sudden cardiac death cases and 20% of sudden cardiac death in healthy individuals with structurally normal hearts. The prevalence is difficult to estimate because the pattern is not always recognised or because it may transiently normalise. BrS is more common in males approximately 40 years of age. In individuals with a history of syncope or cardiac arrest, the only effective treatment is the implantable defibrillator. BrS is a familial disease with an autosomal dominant pattern of transmission and variable penetrance. Currently, several mutations have been described in 13 genes being all together responsible for 30–35% of total BrS cases. Identification of relatives at risk using electrocardiogram or molecular genetic testing enables use of preventive measures and avoidance of medications that can induce ventricular arrhythmias.Key Concepts:The electrocardiographic pattern is thesine qua nonof Brugada syndrome diagnosis.The diagnosis of Brugada syndrome is difficult because of incomplete penetrance and dynamic electrocardiographic manifestations.Cardiac events typically occur in men approximately 40 years old, mainly at rest, during sleep.Patients with the typical electrocardiographic pattern who present with cardiac arrest or syncope of suspected cardiac origin should be protected with a defibrillator.The controversy still remains as what to do with asymptomatic patients.The Brugada syndrome is a familial disease inherited with an autosomal dominant pattern of transmission and variable penetrance.Only 30–35% of patients with the clinical phenotype currently have a causative mutation identified.
Ecological Integrity: Evaluating Success in National Parks and Protected Areas
Authors: Cafaro Philip , Primack Richard 
Published: April 2013

AbstractNational parks and protected areas have been established for a variety of purposes, but preserving wild nature is certainly one of the most important. Three concepts are particularly useful in defining what we want to protect within these areas. First,wilderness: unmanaged nature, free to be and to evolve into what it will. Second,biodiversity: the totality of natural life, including natural species, their genetic diversity and the diversity of wild communities they form. Third,ecological integrity: defined as the combination of biodiversity and wildness. Over the past two decades, land managers around the world have refined and applied the concept of ecological integrity to assess the status and evaluate management options for a wide range of landscapes. This article explores some of the main challenges and complexities of pursuing ecological integrity in parks management and in environmental policy more generally.Key Concepts:Over the past century, parks and natural areas managers have come to realise the value of maintaining all the natural processes and all the native species on the landscapes they manage.Ecological integrity involves preserving the full complement of native biodiversity in an area, while limiting human manipulation and control of nature.Preserving (and where possible restoring) ecological integrity is the primary goal in natural areas management, to which other goals are properly subordinate.Good progress has been made in developing measurements of ecological integrity for a variety of natural and managed landscapes.Climate change and global ecological degradation will make it increasingly difficult to maintain ecological integrity in coming decades.Preserving ecological integrity in the long‐term demands restricting inappropriate human uses within protected areas, while reining in human overpopulation and overconsumption outside them.Ecological integrity will continue to decline worldwide, until humanity accepts limits to growth and acts accordingly.
Gnetales
Authors: Carmichael Jeffrey 
Published: April 2013

AbstractThe Gnetales (Ephedra,GnetumandWelwitschia) represent a fascinating group of nonflowering seed plants (gymnosperms). This group of plants has intrigued plant biologists for well over a century due, in part, to their interesting growth habits, medicinal properties, unusual reproductive features, and status a potential link between flowering and other nonflowering seed plants. Indeed, the reproductive biology of Gnetales has increased our understanding of the origin of angiosperms including the process of double fertilisation. The phylogenetic position of Gnetales has been highly debated over the years. Early studies, based largely on structural data, concluded that the Gnetales are monopyletic and represent the sister group to angiosperms (‘anthophyte’ hypothesis). More recent studies provide evidence that the Gnetales represent the sister group to conifers (‘Gnetifer’ hypothesis) or are embedded within conifers and represent the sister group to Pinaceae (‘Gnepine’ hypothesis). Regardless of their phylogenetic position, various structural features of Gnetales have a strong bearing on our understanding of evolutionary trends in seed plants.Key Concepts:Members of the Gnetales are gymnosperms that possess some angiosperm‐like features.A modified form of double fertilisation occurs in Gnetales.Ephedrais a shrub that produces ephedrine, a stimulant and decongestant found in certain weight‐loss and energy‐boosting products.Welwitschiais endemic to the Namib desert in Africa and is considered by many to be one of the most bizarre plants on Earth.
Eudicots
Authors: Ronse De Craene Louis P 
Published: April 2013

Abstract

Eudicots represent the largest clade of flowering plants, comprising approximately 75% of all species and characterised by pollen having three apertures. Eudicots consist of a basal grade and a large (core eudicot) clade, which comprises the majority of species. Evolution of flowers in core eudicots is highly diverse and is driven by repeated diversifications of pollination mechanisms. Two major clades, the Asterids and Rosids, have evolved separately and have attained a high level of diversity. Eudicots are a highly successful group of plants, occupying almost all habitats on earth. Apart from Poaceae in the monocots, the major food crops are found in the core eudicots. Flowers of eudicots are mostly with parts in five and with a differentiated perianth of sepals and petals. Specific pollination mechanisms have led to groups with specialised animal‐pollinated zygomorphic flowers (Leguminosae and Lamiales) or wind‐pollinated apetalous flowers (Fagales and Caryophyllales). Dispersal mechanisms are also highly diverse.

Key Concepts:

Eudicots contain the highest concentration of economic plants outside the grasses.

Molecular phylogenies have almost resolved the relationships within eudicots.

Eudicots occupy almost all habitats on earth and range from the smallest to the largest flowering plants.

Eudicots represent the most successful plant group with the highest number of species in the flowering plants.

Eudicots are composed of a basal grade of early diverging eudicots and a clade of core eudicots.

Petals have evolved several times from stamens or from bracts.

The origin of the core eudicot flower remains controversial.

Floral evolution in eudicots is mainly dependent on diversity of pollination systems.

Flowers of core eudicots have undergone opposing trends of reduction and increased complexity.

The distinction dicot–monocot should be abandoned, as it does not represent a natural division.