bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Relationship between education and age‐related cognitive decline: a review of recent research
Authors: Lenehan Megan Elizabeth , Summers Mathew James , Saunders Nichole Louise , Summers Jeffery Joseph , Vickers James C. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractThe association between level of educational attainment and cognitive performance is well studied. People with higher education perform better across a broad range of cognitive tasks. However, there is uncertainty as to whether education moderates the trajectory of age‐related cognitive decline. This review paper addresses the potential link between education and age‐related cognitive decline by evaluating relevant research published since 2000. Studies reporting data on education and its association with the rate of cognitive decline across various cognitive domains were reviewed. A total of 10 studies were identified with a mean follow‐up period of 7.6 years; each contained a population‐based, non‐demented sample. In the majority of studies, results showed that education did not moderate age‐associated cognitive decline. The few studies that did find an association between education and decline in specific cognitive functions should be interpreted with caution because of methodological issues. The literature reveals little consistent evidence that normal age‐related cognitive decline is moderated by education attainment. This supports a passive theory of cognitive reserve: people with a higher level of education will continue to perform at a higher level of cognitive functioning than their lower educated peers, which may delay the onset of impairment in the future.
ON PROTAGON: ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ITS BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS ALCOHOL, AND ITS INDIVIDUALITY
Authors: Wilson R. A. , Cramer W. 
Published: December 2014

1. Protagon is a substance of a definite chemical composition, retaining this composition after repeated recrystallisation.2. Protagon is a substance with definite and constant physical properties. The specific rotatory power and the refractive index of several samples of protagon have been determined.3. Protagon is identified by its chemical composition and by its physical constants. Many substances to which the name protagon has been given on account of their method of preparation, do not conform to these conditions, and therefore have no claim to the name protagon. Couerbe's cerebrote is not identical with protagon, but probably a mixture of substances of which protagon is one.4. Protagon is decomposed by a prolonged treatment with warm alcohol. The so‐called process of fractional crystallisation is therefore in reality a process of partial decomposition. The conclusions which have been drawn on the assumption that it is a process of recrystallisation are not valid. There is, consequently, no evidence for the view that protagon is a mixture f cerebrosides and phosphatids.5. The constancy of the physical and chemical properties of protagon support the view that protagon is a definite compound. The substances isolated from protagon after prolonged treatment with warm alcohol, and formerly held to exist as such in the mixture protagon, must now be considered to be the constituents of the protagon molecule. They are the intermediate decomposition products of protagon.6. Details of a method for the preparation of protagon are given, by means of which a prolonged contact with warm or boiling alcohol can be avoided as much as possible.
ON THE RESULTS OF HETEROPLASTIC OVARIAN TRANSPLANTATION AS COMPARED WITH THOSE PRODUCED BY TRANSPLANTATION IN THE SAME INDIVIDUAL
Authors: Marshall F. H. A. , Jolly W. A. 
Published: December 2014

As a result of these experiments, taken in conjunction with those described in our former paper, the following conclusions may be drawn:—(1) Greater success attends transplantation of the ovaries into the kidney than on to the peritoneum, probably on account of the greater vascularity of the kidney.(2) Homoplastic transplantation of ovaries is very considerably easier to perform successfully than heteroplastic transplantation. This fact can scarcely be ascribed to differences in the technique of the two operations, since this was identical in each experiment, the two animals being operated upon simultaneously in the case of the heteroplastic transplantations.(3) Heteroplastic transplantation of ovaries is apparently easier to perform successfully when the two animals employed in the experiment are near relatives of each other. In our experiments there were few exceptions to this rule.(4) The presence of an animal's own ovaries does not seem to exert any inhibitory influence on the successful attachment and growth of additional ovaries obtained from another individual.(5) The presence of a successfully grafted ovary in an abnormal position in the body, whether obtained from the same or from another individual, is sufficient to arrest the degenerative changes which habitually take place in the uterus after the complete extirpation of the ovaries, as other experiments have shown. It may be concluded, therefore, that the ovarian influence on the uterus is chemical rather than nervous in nature.
THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON THE OSMOTIC PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
Authors: De Souza D. H. 
Published: December 2014

1. A solution of sodium chloride isotonic for a muscle at one temperature is isotonic for that muscle at other temperatures, provided coagulation does not occur.2. Apparent exceptions to this rule are due to injury to the muscle or to hypotonicity of the solution.3. Both the gain and loss in weight of a muscle in hypotonic or hypertonic solution are increased in rapidity by rise in temperature.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE PROTOPLASM OF THE WHITE BLOOD‐CELL
Authors: Schäfer E. A. 
Published: December 2014

1. The protoplasm of the amœboid leucocyte of Triton and Salamandra is not homogeneous throughout, but exhibits even in the living condition a structural differentiation, although a part may, to all appearance, be homogeneous.2. The differentiation takes the form of a fine reticulation. This implies the separation of the colloid constituents of the protoplasm into a less fluid portion (spongioplasm) which forms the reticulum and a more fluid homogeneous portion (hyaloplasm) which occupies the meshes of the reticulum.3. The hyaloplasm may extend beyond the reticulum and form a superficial layer (ectoplasm) which tends to flow outwards to form the commencing pseudopodia. The reticular, often granular, part which constitutes the main portion of the protoplasm may then be distinguished as endoplasm; this distinction is similar to that met with in amœbæ.
THE EXCRETION OF CREATIN IN DIABETES
Authors: Krause R. A. 
Published: December 2014

1. Typical diabetes mellitus is associated with the excretion of creatin in the urine.This conclusion is confirmed by the observations of Krause and Cramer on the appearance of creatin in the urine in phloridzin diabetes. It is in agreement with the observations of Cathcart on the creatin excretion of normal persons living on a diet free from carbohydrates.2. In each of the cases examined the excretion of creatinin was found to be below the normal.3. Observations are recorded regarding the fallacies which are introduced in the estimation of creatin and creatinin by the presence of small quantities of acetone and its allies.This work was carried out at the suggestion of Dr Cramer, to whom I desire to express my indebtedness for advice and assistance. I also wish to thank Professor Greenfield, Dr Gibson, and Dr Russell for their kindness in giving me facilities for the study of cases in their wards.
STUDIES IN THE REFLEXES OF THE GUINEA‐PIG. V.: SOME EXPERIMENTS ON THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY THE HIGHER CENTRES UPON THE SCRATCH‐REFLEX
Authors: Brown T. Graham 
Published: December 2014

1. Removal of the cortex of one cerebral hemisphere depresses the excitability of the scratch‐reflex of the Brown‐Séquard phenomenon upon the contralateral side, or abolishes it completely. Where not completely abolished, the rhythm is slowed and the tonic flexion factor in the movement—as measured by the extent of the initial rise of the curve—is reduced. The extent of the clonic beats may also be diminished. In some cases this is more marked than the reduction of the tonic flexion, and in other cases the reverse is the case.2. The effect of the removal upon the excitability of the reaction of the ipsilateral side is not one of depression. Although in some cases there may be little change, in others the excitability is increased and the rhythm of the response is quickened. A previously “incomplete” reaction may become “complete.”3. Section of both crura cerebri in the normal guinea‐pig allows scratching movements, which may be mistaken for the movements of the scratch‐reflex, to be evoked on the application of mechanical stimulation to the skin of the neck and face. These movements are very irregular in rhythm; their rhythm is much slower than that of the scratch‐reflex; their extent is much greater; and the “tonic” factor is usually much smaller or entirely absent. These characteristics serve to distinguish the movements from those of the scratch‐reflex on careful examination.4. Similar movements, but at first of greater regularity, are evoked after a transsection at the upper border of the pons Varolii.5. The movements of the true scratch‐reflex persist after section of both crura cerebri. The rhythm is markedly slowed, but the extent of the beats remains the same or may be increased. The “complete reaction” of the Brown‐Séquard phenomenon may be present, but the passage of the scratching movements themselves to the opposite side has not been observed.6. After section at the level of the upper border of the pons Varolii the scratching movements of the Brown‐Séquard phenomenon also persist, but the “complete reaction” has not been observed. The extent of the beats is increased, but the rhythm is not further altered. The “tonic” flexion factor, as measured by the rise of the curve, is decreased.
THE EFFECTS OF CERTAIN ANIMAL EXTRACTS UPON THE BLOOD‐VESSELS
Authors: Campbell J. Argyll 
Published: December 2014

Suprarenal extract in the form of hemisine causes marked constriction of the vessels of all the organs, with the exception of those of the heart and lungs. In the heart it does occasionally produce slight constriction, but more often has no effect. In the lungs slight constriction is more frequently observed than is the case with the heart.Pituitary Extract.—The evidence from the experiments indicates that there are at least two substances—one causing contraction and the other relaxation—in this extract. Each is capable of producing its characteristic effect (this varying with the composition of the Ringer solution) on all the arteries except the renal, where contraction is hardly ever obtained, the result being nearly always relaxation.The subject of this research was suggested by Professor Schäfer, to whom I have been indebted for advice. The work was performed during my tenure of the Vans Dunlop Research Scholarship. The expenses have been defrayed out of the Earl of Moray Fund of the University of Edinburgh.
THE INFLUENCE OF MUSCULAR RIGIDITY ON THE CARBON DIOXIDE OUTPUT OF DECEREBRATE CATS
Authors: Roaf H. E. 
Published: December 2014

1. In decerebrate animals the muscles become rigid. This rigidity differs from ordinary tetanus as it does not readily become fatigued. Previous observers have suggested that the metabolism underlying the rigidity is different from that which accompanies ordinary contraction.2. The carbon dioxide output has been measured in the cat after decerebration, and also after other treatment of the decerebrate preparation.3. The temperature coefficient for carbon dioxide output is about 2·5±0·2.4. By applying suitable corrections for the internal temperature and weight of the preparation, a fairly uniform carbon dioxide output can be calculated. The formula is Carbon dioxide output in grms. x (2·5)40−t/10/3√weight. = respiratory ratio.5. The average of twenty‐three experiments gives a respiratory ratio of 1·705±0·026, and the median is 1·695, showing that the distribution is a portion of a normal curve.6. Slight muscular movements increase the carbon dioxide output to an average of 1·930±0·054 for ten experiments. This is 0·225 above the ordinary decerebrate preparation, and the probable error of the difference is 0·060.7. Abolition of decerebrate rigidity by curare does not cause any significant reduction in the carbon dioxide output, the average for eleven experiments being 1·669±0·047. This is less than the average of the ordinary decerebrate preparation by 0·036, and the probable error of the difference is 0·054.8. Cutting the nerves to all four of the limbs abolishes the rigidity in the limbs, but does not diminish the carbon dioxide output.9. By excluding the muscles of the limbs, the carbon dioxide output of these muscles was found to be of the same order as that of resting muscles.10. It is therefore evident that the decerebrate rigidity differs from tetanus in that it does not cause an increase in carbon dioxide output.11. Decapitation and cutting of the spinal cord both diminish the carbon dioxide output. This, as shown above, cannot be due to the abolition of the rigidity. It seems possible that the reduction is due to general circulatory disturbance, but decreasing the blood‐pressure by cutting the splanchnic nerves does not appear to produce so great a diminution as that which occurs as the result of cutting the spinal cord.12. Removal of all the abdominal viscera diminishes the carbon dioxide output to 1·250±0·066 as the average of three experiments. This is 0·455 below the average of the ordinary decerebrate preparation, and the probable error of the difference is 0·071.13. It appears that a large amount of the carbon dioxide output is furnished by some portion of the body other than abdominal organs or skeletal muscles.
ADRENIN‐LIKE ACTIONS OF COBRA VENOM
Authors: Gunn James A. 
Published: December 2014

The effects produced by cobra venom on the heart and blood‐vessels, as described by Elliot, are comparable rather to an adrenin‐like action than to a strophanthin‐like action, to the latter of which they have been likened by Elliot.Experimental evidence for an adrenin‐like action of cobra venom has been sought in the reaction to it of various kinds of involuntary muscle and of secreting glands. The following table summarises the results obtained, and serves to compare the effects of cobra venom and adrenin.It is evident, therefore, that cobra venom causes contraction of some kinds of unstriated muscle and relaxation of others, and it is, consequently, unlikely that it acts on muscle directly. On the other hand, its action on the heart, on plain muscle, and on secreting glands corresponds so closely with that of adrenin that the presumption is it acts in a similar way, namely, by peripheral stimulation of some part of the sympathetic nerves.
THE DESTRUCTION OF ALKALOIDS BY THE BODY TISSUES
Authors: Clark A. J. 
Published: December 2014

1. The liver of the frog and rabbit possesses the power of destroying atropine; this power persists when all living cells are destroyed, and is due to a soluble body, resembling a ferment in its action.2. In the frog the liver has a marked power, and the heart and kidneys a slight power, to destroy atropine; no other tissues have any such power.3. In the rabbit the liver has a marked power, and the blood a less marked power, to destroy atropine; no other tissues have any such power.4. None of the tissues investigated in the cat, the rat, and the dog have any power to destroy atropine.5. The minimal lethal dose per kilo of atropine, given subcutaneously, is highest in those animals whose livers can destroy atropine.The writer holds a research scholarship from the British Medical Association; part of the expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society.The writer holds a research scholarship from the British Medical Association ; part of the expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society.
ON AGE AND METABOLISM AND ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXCRETION OF CREATINE
Authors: Krause R. A. 
Published: December 2014

1. From the analyses of the urines of children it is seen that the protein metabolism of the child exhibits differences from that of the male adult.2. Creatine occurs in the urine of children. The creatinuria in boys ceases about the age of 5 or 6; in girls it persists longer than in boys: in some cases it may even perhaps go over to the intermittent creatinuria which characterises the female sexual cycle.3. The creatinine‐nitrogen coefficient is much lower in children than in adult men. The creatinine‐nitrogen coefficient increases more rapidly during the first few years of life than in later childhood.4. Even small quantities of creatine (about 0·3 gm.) are partly excreted by children. In other words, the power to assimilate creatine is very much weaker in children than in adult men.5. As the result of these observations and of previous investigations on the metabolism of normal women, the conclusion is drawn that creatine is constantly being formed as a product of normal metabolism, and that it is constantly being further metabolised. The excretion or non‐excretion of creatine in the urine depends upon the balance between these two processes of the formation and the destruction of creatine. The various far‐reaching conclusions which have been drawn by different authors on the significance of the excretion of creatine in pathological conditions are briefly discussed.I wish to thank Dr Cramer for his valuable criticisms in connection with this work. My thanks are also due to Drs John Thompson, J. S. Fowler, and Harry Rainy for their kindness in allowing me to make use of the clinical material under their care.The expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the Earl of Moray Fund for the Prosecution of Research in the University of Edinburgh.
THE EFFECT OF PITUITARY EXTRACT ON MILK SECRETION IN THE GOAT
Authors: Hill Reuben L. , Simpson Sutherland 
Published: December 2014

1. Injection of the extract obtained from four ox pituitaries, intravenously or subcutaneously, produces a marked increase in the amount of secretion yielded by the mammary gland of the goat when milked fifteen minutes after the injection.2. This increase is followed by a corresponding decrease below normal at the next milking several hours later.3. As pointed out by Hammond, there is also a marked rise in the fat content of the milk secreted after injection, but there is no sudden fall in the percentage of fat at the next milking, as was observed by this investigator.4. The solids‐not‐fat of the milk do not appear to be affected by the extract.
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF THE PARS INTERMEDIA AND PARS NERVOSA OF THE OX PITUITARY QUANTITATIVELY COMPARED
Authors: Herring P. T. 
Published: December 2014

Both pars intermedia and pars nervosa of the ox pituitary contain an active principle which stimulates uterine muscle, but extracts of the two are not equally active. The pars nervosa is from two to five times more powerful than the pars intermedia in its action.The pars intermedia, in extracts of ·5 per cent. and under of the dried material, has no specific action upon blood‐pressure, kidney volume, or urinary secretion. On the other hand, extracts of pars nervosa of a strength of ·005 per cent. of the dried material produce, in doses of 2 to 3 c.c. injected intravenously, the prolonged rise of blood‐pressure, increase of kidney volume and of urine, characteristic of extracts of the posterior lobe of the pituitary.If the active principles producing uterine contraction, and the specific action upon blood‐pressure and kidney, are one and the same substance, one would expect that an extract of pars intermedia of from two to five times the strength of an extract of pars nervosa would have a similar action upon blood‐pressure and kidney as it has upon the isolated uterus. But this is not the case. An extract of pars intermedia of a hundred times the strength of that of the pars nervosa fails to give the typical action of extracts of pars nervosa upon the blood‐pressure and kidney. Dale and Laidlaw (op. cit.) state that they have never found an extract which was inferior in pressor action and had not a like inferiority as a diuretic and a uterine stimulant. This may be true of extracts of the pars nervosa, but does not hold in a comparison of the extracts of pars intermedia and pars nervosa.The evidence is not sufficient to prove that there are two separate active principles in the posterior lobe of the pituitary body, but it is at least suggestive of that being the case.The probability is that the active material of the posterior lobe of the pituitary is a product of the epithelial cells of the pars intermedia, and that there are stages in the breaking down of these cells in the pars nervosa. The substance acting upon the uterus is formed at an early stage in the cells of the pars intermedia, but the substance acting upon blood‐pressure and kidney is a later product resulting from the breaking down of the hyaline bodies or disintegrating pars intermedia cells in the pars nervosa.The expenses of this research have been defrayed by a grant from the Carnegie Trust.
THE INFLUENCE OF ADRENALIN ON THE CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Authors: Takayasu S. 
Published: December 2014

1. In solutions of physiological strength adrenalin has no perceptible influence on the contraction of the frog sartorius immersed in it (confirmation of Kuno). Even solutions of 1 in 1,000,000 show no distinct effect; if anything, the successive curves appear to be rather better maintained than in normal Ringer.2. When immersed in stronger solutions—from 1 in 500,000 to 1 in 5000—the contractile power of skeletal muscle is diminished; the curves described show less height and duration than normal; the latency period is little affected.3. The effect produced is not regularly proportioned to the strength of the adrenalin solution.4. Muscle which has been poisoned by immersion in solutions of adrenalin rapidly recovers on being transferred to normal Ringer.5. Injection of adrenalin solution into the dorsal lymph‐sac of the frog causes the muscular contractions to be diminished in amplitude as in the case of muscle immersed in adrenalin solution, and both the latency and duration of contraction are somewhat prolonged. Immersion of the muscle in normal Ringer is in this case not followed by rapid recovery.6. The contractions resulting from stimulation of muscle immersed in adrenalin are not fatigue contractions, nor are they like the contractions produced under the influence of veratrine. They resemble to some extent those obtained under the influence of excess of potassium salts, but differ from these in the fact that the latency period is less prolonged, and that at an early stage of the action the duration of the contraction tends to be somewhat lengthened instead of being considerably shortened.