bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL AT NAVAL SHORELINE ACTIVITIES1
Authors: Hansen Warren G. , Clements Ernest , Lundt Elizabeth A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
In response to Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Coast Guard regulations, the United States Navy has undertaken a comprehensive program to minimize the potential for land-based oil spills originating from naval shoreline oil storage and handling facilities. Construction and maintenance projects have been begun to prevent land-based oil spills from occurring or from reaching adjacent navigable waters. These projects were preceded by careful policy development, surveys of existing conditions, and analyses of remedial alternatives. Specifically, the Naval Facilities Engineering Command divisions have assisted shoreline activities in the preparation of oil spill prevention, control, and countermeasures (SPCC), and oil spill contingency plans. Improved spill containment and cleanup technologies, as well as improved personnel training, have contributed greatly to the refinement and upgrading of these plans. SCS Engineers (SCS) has been involved in all phases of compliance with these plans. Plan and manual reviews were supplemented by detailed field surveys and subsequent development of remedial projects to be instituted at all deficient facilities. Based on the preliminary recommendations and design sketches prepared for tank farm sites at San Clemente Island, SCS is now providing design and related services for oil spill prevention and control facilities.
CLEAN CARIBBEAN COOPERATIVE
Authors: Alberts Donald A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A number of oil companies operating in the Caribbean have formed the Clean Caribbean Cooperative (CCC) with the objective of enhancing the capability to promptly and efficiently respond to oil spills which cause, or threaten to cause, pollution damage to beaches, harbors, offshore islands, and waters of the Caribbean. CCC resources are available to respond to spills within the area bounded by the coasts of Central America, South America, and Panama. These resources are designed to be used in remote areas where little or no response capability is in place, as well as to supplement the present capability in certain other areas.
CCC member companies agreed to share the costs of providing a source of materials, equipment, and services to be used in responding to an oil spill incident. Use of the equipment, as well as management of the total response effort, is the responsibility of the company or agency which is taking action to control the spill. The CCC as an organized unit does not engage in joint or collective action in transporting or operating the facilities, arranging for personnel, providing management, or in any way becoming part of the on-scene control activity at the spill site.
Because of the large area of the Caribbean, surface transportation cannot be relied on totally to bring resources to a spill at a great distance from locations where the oil industry and other agencies have oil spill cleanup capability in place. Therefore, the CCC leased a select stockpile of equipment which is kept in readiness for prompt dispatch by air.
Because of the great variation in conditions surrounding an oil spill, control measures cannot be expected to be 100% effective in preventing any damage. However, by rapidly initiating action under a preplanned response system, the ability to avoid or substantially mitigate the effects of an oil spill is greatly enhanced.
PIPELINE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION SAFETY AND OIL SPILL REDUCTION
Authors: Driscoll William J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Although statistics indicate that about five percent of the nation's oil spill incidents are caused by pipeline breaks, these spills are of such a nature that they cause about 15 percent of the annual total accidental release. Because such spills contribute considerably to the total problem of oil spills, they are the subject of particular attention for the Materials Transportation Bureau (MTB), U.S. Department of Transportation. This agency discharges the department's safety responsibility over all types of liquid pipelines.
Some 225,000 miles of these pipelines transport crude oil, petroleum products, liquefied petroleum gases, anhydrous ammonia, and comparable fluids. The MTB responsibility stems from several legislative acts, including pipeline safety requirements contained in the Transportation of Explosives Act and the Deepwater Port Act of 1974.
The MTB also regulates important aspects of the safe transportation of hazardous materials, including many petroleum products, by highway and rail. These regulations and those applicable to liquid pipelines constitute a tangible, albeit indirect, program providing sanctions against a number of types of discharges. A comprehensive system of rules applicable to surface carriers and container manufacturers is under continuous review and enforced through both criminal and civil penalties.
The problems of hazardous materials transportation by surface means have received renewed attention in recent months. As a result, the prospects are for improved containment of petroleum products in transit, resulting from a more vigorous and consistent compliance program and more extensive research and development of carrying equipment and handling techniques. How this improved compliance program will be achieved is addressed within the context of the recent reorganization of the Materials Transportation Bureau and the bureau's inclusion within the Research and Special Programs Administration of the Department of Transportation and of current legislative initiatives.
TEN-YEAR OVERVIEW OF OIL SPILL CLEAN-UP AT SEA
Authors: White I. C. , Nichols J. A. , Garnett M. J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to illustrate, by reference to our experience gained from attendance on-site at major oil spills around the world, that the capability to combat oil on the high seas has improved little over the past ten years. Too often this failure has resulted in considerable areas of shoreline being severely oiled, damage being caused to areas of ecological, fishery, or amenity importance and has necessitated expensive clean-up measures being adopted that have on occasions been more damaging than the oil itself.
The response options available for dealing with oil spills and their limitations are discussed and the importance of a thorough and rapid evaluation to ensure that the response adopted is appropriate to the particular circumstances of the incident is emphasised. Also stressed is the necessity for good contingency planning, organisation and control.
JAPANESE GOVERNMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL MEASURES FOR THE CONTROL OF MARINE OIL SPILLS
Authors: Funatani Chikao 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Development of an effective oil spill control system in Japan was spurred by two marine disasters in 1974 which brought about an organizational and physical reinforcement of the nation's capability to respond to oil spills. This paper describes today's legal structure for oil spill control, the organizational concepts used at various levels to provide joint efforts by government agencies and industry, the role of the Marine Disaster Prevention Center which serves as the nucleus of the necessary control operations, and research and development highlights of ongoing Japanese efforts to prevent, control, and clean up oil spills.
AN ONGOING ASSESSMENT OF THE USE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN MONITORING OIL SPILLS
Authors: Croswell William F. , Fedors John C. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The U.S. Congress has directed NASA to conduct an assessment of the potential use of space technology in the monitoring of oil spills and ocean pollution. As a result, laboratory studies, aircraft missions, and spacecraft studies are underway to perform this assessment with the cooperation of the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. Primary emphasis in the space system will be directed toward all-weather remote sensing and surveillance in which the space system would provide information to regulatory agencies for closer investigation with aircraft or ships. Laboratory and aircraft missions will be directed toward understanding and obtaining simultaneous microwave and optical imagery of oil spills on the sea with instruments of potential usefulness in the modeling of the movement of spills, along with detection and surveillance image definition. This paper summarizes the status of these efforts as of late 1978. Initial results of the required assessment should be available by the end of 1979.
A SAFETY ANALYSIS OF THE FOREIGN TANKER BOARDING PROGRAM—JANUARY 1977 THROUGH JUNE 19781
Authors: Ecker William J. , Sancrant Robert J. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The U.S. Coast Guard Foreign Tank Vessel Examination Program was given increased emphasis as a result of a series of tanker incidents during the winter of 1976/1977. Foreign flag tank-ships calling at U.S. ports are now examined at least annually to insure that they are in compliance with the general safety control provisions of SOLAS 60, the applicable Load Line Convention, and all applicable U.S. regulations.
During the 18 months from January 1977 through June 1978, more than 3,400 examinations were conducted on more than 1,500 different foreign tank vessels. A comparison of vessel age versus deficiencies revealed that 55 percent of the vessels examined were in excess of 10 years old and they accounted for almost 74 percent of the total deficiencies.
The deficiency data was further tabulated in three six-month periods for vessels registered under the six most frequently examined flags. It showed an improved level of safety, evidenced by a downward trend in the deficiencies per examination during each succeeding period. In short, the apparent rise in the overall level of safety aboard foreign flag tankers calling at U.S. ports is a measure of the success of this program.
METHODS FOR THE SOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND QUANTIFICATION OF OIL POLLUTION
Authors: Frank U. , Stainken D. , Gruenfeld M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Petroleum oil analyses frequently are performed by government and industrial organizations and by academic institutions to identify the source of discharge of oil pollutants and to quantify such oils in water, sediments and tissues. This paper presents a concise review of oil analysis methods used by several U.S. agencies, industrial organizations and standard setting societies. Oil analysis methods published by these organizations are evaluated with regard to their convenience and safety for general laboratory use, ability to yield correct quantification data, and correctness in identifying the presence and source of discharge of petroleum oil pollution. Several procedures also are addressed for isolating individual petroleum fractions and hydrocarbons from environmental samples for the purpose of monitoring for the presence of oil pollution in sediments and tissues.
CONTAINMENT AND RECOVERY TECHNIQUES FOR COLD WEATHER, INLAND OIL SPILLS
Authors: Allen Alan A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The maintenance of an around-the-clock oil spill cleanup service in Alaska offers an unusual opportunity to develop and test a variety of oil spill containment and recovery techniques. The experiences during numerous actual cleanup efforts, together with the results of training exercises on snow, ice, water, and land, provide valuable information for those faced with the potential spillage of oil during cold-weather conditions. Off-the-shelf cleanup equipment and materials can frequently be modified or used in a slightly different mode to achieve effective spill control under subzero temperatures on, in, and beneath ice and snow.
Monitoring the fate and behavior of several types of oil under such real-world conditions also provides quantitative data leading to the development of innovative spill control techniques which emphasize the use of naturally found materials at the site of a spill. Such techniques involve snow berms, cross-river ice cuts, induced ground-surface leaching with snow, various damming and trenching methods, surface flooding, absorption of pooled oil with snow, and the construction of various types of filter fences and diversionary booms.
DIFFICULTIES IN UNLOADING HEAVY OIL FROM DAMAGED BARGES DURING EXTREMELY COLD WEATHER AND ICE CONDITIONS
Authors: Bailey John L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
During the severe winter of 1977, five loaded tank barges grounded on a rock in the upper Mississippi River, 42 miles above the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. The hull of one of those barges was ruptured and approximately 1,000 barrels of its cargo of heavy, black No. 6 fuel oil was subsequently discharged into the river. Because of inadequate action by the owner, the incident became a federal removal activity involving the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, several commercial companies, and several units of the Coast Guard, including the Gulf Strike Team. The closure of the Mississippi River due to heavy ice and ice gorging restricted the availability of necessary equipment, and the extremely low temperatures, often well below zero, sometimes made available equipment inoperative. This paper offers no panacea for dealing with damaged oil barges under these adverse conditions, but does provide a description of the incident so that others in similar situations may assess their problems quickly and plan improved courses of action.
CLEANUP EFFICIENCY OF A FUEL OIL SPILL IN COLD WEATHER
Authors: Schrier Eric , Eidam Carl 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
When the difficulties imposed by the ice and snow conditions and the lack of previous experience with spills in ice-infested waters are considered, the cleanup effort at Buzzards Bay was commendable; roughly 89,000 liters (28 percent) of oil were recovered. Of the cleanup techniques used, shore-based vacuum skimming was most successful. Contaminated ice removal was least successful. Burning of oil pools was not used extensively but showed some promise.
Modifications of the vacuum skimming technique to prevent the vacuum lines from freezing are recommended. In addition, expanded use of burning and the endless rope skimming techniques are recommended for future spills in similar environmental conditions. Only pooled oil should be collected; oil incorporated in ice should be allowed to go to sea. Removal of shorefast ice is not recommended. The Marco and the Lockheed skimmers were not effective at Buzzards Bay, but may be applicable under similar circumstances if modified or used in a stationary position. Adopting the above recommendations could improve cleanup efficiency at future spills; however, further research in modifying existing equipment and development of new equipment for all types of cold climates will be necessary if significant progress is to be made.
BEHAVIOR AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISPERSANTS AT SEA AND AT SHORELINES
Authors: Mackay Donald , Watson Alex , Ng Cecilia , Nadeau Stuart 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A laboratory experimental program was conducted in which the aims were to investigate quantitatively the factors which influence the effectiveness of chemical dispersants (1) when applied to oil under various open sea conditions, and (2) in modifying the behavior of oil advancing on a shoreline. Open sea conditions were simulated in a previously-devised dispersant effectiveness test apparatus.
The effectiveness of a dispersant was shown to be profoundly influenced by turbulence level. An approach also was made to relating the turbulence level in the apparatus to natural environmental conditions. A simulated shoreline, impacted by waves from a wave generator, was used to examine the behavior of crude oil and No. 6 fuel oil on the shorelines with and without dispersant additions. Wave action caused sand beaches to “filter” dispersed oil from the water column, resulting in enhanced, but possibly reversible, oil penetration. Larger oil particles were observed to capture sand particles and sink. Implications of the results are that in many situations the use of dispersants on oil advancing on shores or even on the shoreline itself could prove advantageous.
DECISION CRITERIA FOR THE CHEMICAL DISPERSION OF OIL SPILLS
Authors: Castle Robert W. , Schrier Eric 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Chemical dispersion promises to play an increasing role in the control of oil spills in the United States. The question of when and how dispersants are best used to protect the environment is the subject of considerable controversy. This controversy is generated, on one hand, by insufficient understanding of real-world dispersant effectiveness and environmental implications, and on the other, by lack of guidelines by which all relevant factors can be considered together. With time, the first aspect will ultimately be resolved. This paper presents an approach to the second.
While a certain degree of pre-planning and preliminary decisionmaking can be accomplished, ultimate decisions to conduct chemical dispersion should be made on a case-by-case basis. Criteria for determining the acceptability of chemically treating a specific incident include human risk, feasibility and adequacy of physical control and recovery, dispersibility of the oil, logistic considerations, and whether dispersion will achieve a reduction in environmental impacts and interference with water usage. Assessed conservatively, these criteria should provide the basis for sound and acceptable decisionmaking. As knowledge in the use of dispersants improves, the validity of decisions using these criteria is expected to improve.
API/SC-PCO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 1978 OIL SPILL TEST PROGRAM
Authors: Smith David D. , Holliday George H. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Using Alaskan crude in a special offshore test zone authorized by an EPA Research Ocean Dumping Permit, API/SC-PCO generated a series of small oil slicks for testing dispersant application methods and mechanical cleanup equipment in late September 1978. Seven test slicks ranging in volume from 5 to 20 barrels (bbl) were sprayed with low-toxicity dispersants using a helicopter, a crop-dusting monoplane, and two types of boat-mounted spray systems. A Cyclonet 100 centrifugal skimmer was tested on an eighth slick. In addition, a capsule demonstration in which four one-barrel slicks were generated and dispersed provided agencies, media, and the public the opportunity to witness the use of dispersants at close range. The technical and operational testing was supplemented by detailed chemical and biological monitoring studies and by extensive motion picture and air photographic coverage.
Field observations and photographic documentation indicate that: the two dispersants tested dispersed the Alaskan crude; the four dispersant application techniques tested are all viable methods for applying dispersants to oil spills at sea; and, the Cyclonet recovered oil, but the test slick was too small to assess the Cyclonet's probable performance in a major spill situation. This test use of dispersants on oil slicks at sea is a key step toward more effective control and cleanup of spilled oil in the open ocean.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL SPILL CLEANUP: ARE THEY SIGNIFICANT?
Authors: Siva June Lindstedt 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Clear goals are needed in formulating and applying oil spill response plans whether at the level of the individual company, the oil cleanup cooperative, or the federal or state agency. There are two primary goals which have been considered, and problems arise from the fact that, in practice, these goals may not always be compatible. The goals are: (1) minimize the overall ecological impacts of the oil spill; and (2) remove all visible spilled oil from the environment.
The first goal is based on an ecological rationale, the second on an esthetic one. During actual spill experiences, the second goal has most often been the guiding force behind the response. There are a number of areas of conflict between these two philosophies; but, except in cases where life and limb are threatened, the first goal should be the prime directive in oil spill response. Application of goal (1) is most important in areas of high ecological value. Goal (2) may be applicable under certain conditions in high visibility areas such as beaches.
This paper summarizes the findings of a task force of biologists organized by the Society of Petroleum Industry Biologists; reviews the ecological effects of various oil spill cleanup methods in several different habitat types; notes research needs; and recommends minimum-impact cleanup methods for specific environments.
THE RATES OF TRANSPORT AND FATES OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN A CONTROLLED MARINE ECOSYSTEM, AND A NOTE ON ANALYTICAL VARIABILITY
Authors: Gearing Juanita N. , Gearing Patrick J. , Wade Terry , Quinn James G. , McCarty Harry B. , Farrington John , Lee Richard F. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
In order to predict the chemical behavior of oil spilled in a marine environment, it is necessary to quantify the rates of the different transport mechanisms operating on the oil. At the Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory (MERL), University of Rhode Island, the fluxes of water and sediment are controlled, making possible accurate budgeting of petroleum hydrocarbons in an environment approximating a temperate estuary.
Four separate laboratories have cooperated in a study on the MERL tanks to which known amounts of water-accommodated No. 2 fuel oil have been added. A preliminary budget has been completed, indicating that the primary loss was to the atmosphere via evaporation. Biodegradation was important for some classes of hydrocarbons and increased with temperature and duration of oil exposure. Particulate material adsorbed hydrocarbons amounting to approximately 15 percent of the oil added to the tanks, and carried them to the sediment where 7–16 percent of the added oil was eventually found. The sedimentary hydrocarbons were depleted in low molecular weight aromatic compounds (up to three rings) relative to the original oil.
An unexpected but valuable result of these studies has been a better understanding of the levels of variability to be expected when naturally inhomogeneous systems are studied by different methods in different laboratories. Variability has been determined for measuring lipids in uncontaminated water (x = 8.2 µg/1; σn–1 = 6.5; one laboratory; 43 samples taken over a period of 8 weeks) and in tank sediments (x = 146 µg/g dry weight; σn–1 = 33.6; two laboratories; 37 samples taken over a period of six months). Comparisons have also been conducted on rates of biodegradation obtained by two different methods (gas chromatographic analyses of water column hydrocarbons with emphasis on the changing ratios of n-alkanes to isopre-noids, and laboratory studies of individual radio-labelled hydrocarbons converted to 14CO2).