bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Networks
Authors: McGee John , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

A network is a set of connections between nodes. There are one‐way networks such as broadcast television, where information flows in one direction only. In two‐way networks, such as railroads and telephone systems, links are operated in both directions. Networks can be real or virtual. Real networks are found in industries such as telephony and railways, where a physical network is present. Electricity grids, telecommunications networks encompassing telephones, fax machines, online services, and the Internet are typical examples of products or services within real networks. Virtual networks are typified by computer and software platforms where the interconnection between users is intangible. Relatively new, yet ubiquitous virtual networks are online social networks such as Facebook and Linkedin. Operating systems are typical of virtual networks. The strategic relevance of recognizing network products is that they are ruled by a specific set of market dynamics products. Network products benefit from the mechanism of network externalities that fuel rapid adoption – evident in the exponential diffusion of the Internet, the Windows platform,
iTunes
, and Gmail. Networks have been the subject of research in economics, which provides the theoretical framework of network effects and innovation diffusion. More recently, networks are being analyzed from the perspective of complexity theory, which adds an understanding of how networks of interacting agents (such as hardware platforms, software platforms, and consumer platforms) evolve and flourish through the collective behavior of adaptation, cooperation and self‐organization.
Gap Analysis
Authors: Channon Derek F. , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A comparison of the objectives and the expected business outcomes usually leads to a performance gap between the two. Gap analysis is concerned with why the gap occurs and the development of measures for reducing or eliminating it. This might be achieved by changing the objectives, or by changing strategy at the level of the businesses. The first step in gap analysis is to consider revising the corporate objectives. If expected outcomes from the businesses should exceed aspirations, the objectives can be revised upward. When aspirations substantially exceed possible performance, it may be necessary to revise the objectives downward. When, after such adjustments, a significant gap still remains, new strategies need to be developed to eliminate the gap.
Radar Mapping
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , Channon Derek F. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A radar mapping permits management to see the performance of a company at a glance. Radar maps are also referred to as radar charts and spider charts. On the map the factors influencing strategy are broken down under seven capabilities – labeled core competences, customer relationship management, logistics and distribution, technological infrastructure, leadership and management, innovation management, and market positioning.
Frugal Innovation
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , McGee John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Frugal innovation can be defined as the practice of simplifying product components and manufacturing processes into basic elements, in order to redesign both the product and the processes to become more efficient and cost effective. The economic relevance of frugal innovation is the creation of low‐cost mass market products that are affordable to all social strata including the less affluent segments. As the price of a frugal product is low, the margin per product is proportionately low. However, the volume of the mass market is vast and the total gains are extraordinarily high. Cost savings through frugal innovation rely on three ways of reducing expenditure: subcontracting, utilizing existing technology, and applying mass‐production techniques. Frugal innovation can be explained through the economies of substitution. It works best when the cost of substituting older components with newer, more technologically advanced components, is lower than the cost of designing the product afresh. The substitution effect in frugal innovation occurs because of the time lag in the technological development of different components within a product. The dynamics of economies of substitution and frugal innovation create an intertemporal substitution of components and a process of modularity in the design of high‐performance products.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Davies Gary 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Corporate reputation is defined somewhat differently in various literatures but a common theme is “the accumulated impression held of the organization”. Two stereotyping factors have a substantial influence on reputation, the company's country of origin and the company's market sector. Reputation can be central to the management of, in particular service, business. In this context many argue a link between the company culture and how the business is viewed externally. Research shows how having customer facing employees who hold more positive views of the organisation than those held by its customers will produce sales growth.
Reputation management is constrained by a lack of agreement as to how it should be measured. A danger is for managers to try to improve upon what a particular measure contains, ignoring what might really influence market performance. As a business function reputation is still in its infancy, many seeing it as an evolution of Public Relations, a few as a main board role.
Fragmented Businesses
Authors: Whitehead Jo 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Fragmented businesses are those which inhabit one quadrant of the advantage matrix in which there are many ways to build advantage, but none of them provide a significant degree of advantage: examples include restaurants, specialist engineering, and chemical specialities. An example of a fragmented business is garages for automobile repair. Typically, these are very small businesses owned and operated by a single individual. There are apparently few economies of scale and, to the extent there are, these are outweighed by the overhead requirements and loss of tight management control. Another example is the local restaurant business – but very few restaurants can establish a significant advantage over the others because they share similar cost structures, and innovations can generally be copied very quickly.
EthnicChinese Family Business
Authors: Tsui‐Auch Lai S. , Chow Dawn 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThis article summarizes the common characteristics of ethnic Chinese businesses, and acknowledges that they are rapidly evolving entities in response to economic globalization. Increasingly, ethnic Chinese business elites in Asia are both local and traditional in their cultural norms and globalizing in their business approaches. In general, large ethnic Chinese businesses have developed a form of hybrid capitalism combines family control and professional management, as well as personal relationship‐based and contract‐based employment and business relations.
Conglomerate Strategy
Authors: Simmonds Paul 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The Model of Corporate Development shows increasing levels of diversification to reflect the evolution of corporate entities with unrelated diversified companies (conglomerates) being the ultimate corporate form. Conglomerates, many created through acquisitions, were seen as offering greater stability and reduced risk through the diversity and unrelatedness of their activities although problems of complexity, inadequate management competence and unavoidable cyclicality, have caused investors to question their performance. The trend to greater focus over the last 20 years or so has seen a sharp reduction in conglomeration in the United Kingdom and the United States.
Competitor Analysis
Authors: Daellenbach Urs 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Competitor analysis is essential to effective strategic management. It requires careful consideration of who a business is competing against directly and indirectly as well as new or potential rivals. Analyzing competitor's strategies involves drawing on a wide range of information available about their activities in product/service markets, their interactions with suppliers and customers, their company histories and annual reports, and media sources or presentations to key stakeholders. Moving beyond the snapshot view of a competitor to understanding its goals and direction and the factors driving these changes is particularly desirable.
Five Forces of Competition
Authors: Grant Robert M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Introduced by Michael Porter in 1979, the Five Forces of Competition framework has become the best known and most widely applied analytical framework in strategic management. This framework uses information on industry structure to explain and predict the intensity of competition within an industry, or within an industry segment, and in turn the level of profitability within that industry ore segment. It is used to guide choices of which industries and markets to enter, to allocate resources between a firm's different businesses, to develop strategies to influence industry structure, and to guide a firm's competitive positioning within an industry.
Competitive Strategy
Authors: McGee John , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Competitive strategy is the process of developing competitive advantage and earning above‐average returns for stakeholders. Competitive advantage is achieved through the strategic management of resources, capabilities, and core competences, as well as the firm's responsiveness to opportunities and threats in the external environment. Navigating through as complex set of strategic factors requires an understanding of their influence on competitive strategy. The competitive strategy view of the firm is that understanding and manipulating the factors that cause these inequalities, to give the firm a sustainable competitive advantage, largely govern long‐term business success. These factors vary widely. Different businesses, even within the same industry, often need to be doing different things. Thus, there are many strategies open to firms. In formulating competitive strategy, there are some important things to remember. Resources are limited and opportunities are infinite. The essence of strategy is choosing to perform activities differently than rivals. In the long run, what matters is not how fast you are running, but whether you are running faster than your competitors. A company can only outperform rivals if it can establish a difference that it can sustain.
Corporate Strategy
Authors: Smith Chris 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Corporate strategy is the long term rationale and associated actions to create value from the scope of businesses in the firm's portfolio. To justify the grouping of the businesses under one management this value needs to be greater than the sum of the values of the stand‐alone business units. As shareholders can diversify assets for themselves this value must also transcend that embedded inrisk diversification. One of the most powerful value‐adding mechanisms lies in the sustained reduction of transaction costs in sharing assets or knowledge in the creation of pan‐business capabilities. In stand‐alone businesses the ongoing risk of mutual exploitation militates against such sharing without expensive safe‐guards that can never be truly fail‐safe.
Keiretsu Structures
Authors: Collinson Simon 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Keiretsu are corporate groupings of Japanese firms characterized by long‐term relations and cross‐shareholdings. Members of the group maintain their operational independence but co‐ordinate strategy and often exchange assets and resources with other firms in the group. There are two types of keiretsu, the horizontal (kinyu), diversified type and the vertical, manufacturing keiretsu. Both are undergoing change in an era of austerity for Japan.
Diamond of National Advantage
Authors: Collinson Simon 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The Diamond of National Advantage was developed by Professor Michael Porter to explain why some countries have “bred” internationally competitive firms in particular industry sectors. The framework identifies six national‐level factors that underpin firm‐level competitive advantage: four core elements (factor endowments, demand, supporting industries, and firm rivalry) and two additional elements (government and chance). The framework has been applied to inform regional development policy in the public sector and market‐entry strategies by managers in multinational firms.
Scenario Planning
Authors: McKiernan Peter 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Scenario planning (SP) is a process within strategic management that combines the creation of several stories of plausible futures with the practical strategic responses that are required to deal with them. The creation of stories maps the future terrain through a systematic analysis of the key drivers of contextual change. By focusing on the uncertain outcomes of those drivers, SP becomes a major component of organizational learning. The most well known of SP methods was trialed at Shell and transferred widely into public and private organizations around the world. Although very powerful in stimulating innovative thinking, its critics have noted that warning signals are often difficult to identify and also that scenarios themselves can be too rigid lacking the creativity they are supposed to engender.
C
haebol Structure
Authors: Kim In‐Ho Stephen 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Since WWII, when mass economy age characterized as mass production‐mass distribution‐mass consumption had been burgeoning/maturing and there had been the Vietnam War and Middle East Boom during 1950s–1970s, Chaebol Structure, which formed in Korea 1960s–1970s, have started industrialization with technologies and money borrowed from abroad under the leadership of the founders who have usually unyielding character, hurry‐hurry mind & hungry spirit, by following ‘from Import‐substitution to Export’ driven by the President Park Jung‐Hee Government.And from late 1970s Chaebol have taken ‘from Imitation to Innovation’ with the full support from public R&D institutions government initiated, and have been able to adapt to the global economy trends. Especially when the US manufacturing became declining in 1980s, Chaebol have established manufacturing‐based business domains and kept continued expanding horizontally and/or vertically and doing needs‐focused innovation ceaselessly by the 2nd generation leadership to take advantage of the harmony of ownership and management, so called ‘centralized decision‐making by owner with decentralized execution by professional manager.’ However, when Asian financial crisis (1997) brought about, 13 Chaebol Structure among 30 who were lack of capabilities to innovate became bankrupted. Yet the survived ones have become successful even in global economic crisis after Wall Street meltdown (2008), thanks to manufacturing‐based business domains and more intensified needs‐focused innovation adapting to needs evolution, leading Korean economy and contributing to make Korea G20 in 2010. In brief,the evolution of Chaebol Structure makes sure that no firm will be sustainable unless it meets customer needs through needs‐focused innovation while needs evolves.
International Strategy
Authors: Segal‐Horn Susan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Every initiative taken by an international firm has an impact on the ability of local firms to satisfy their customers. Larger organizations have resources and capabilities (financial, human, technical) of greater sophistication and usually (although not always) of greater efficiency than local, smaller providers of goods and services. International strategy initiatives by multinationals have an impact on small local firms. So, even when organizations have no activities outside their domestic market and no plans to develop any in the future, international strategy will influence their ability to survive. International strategy requires judgments about degrees of political risk, financial risk, and commercial risk which do not arise within the domestic home market. Therefore expanding outside the domestic market, dramatically increases risk.
There are many different ways of being international. Different approaches to international strategy suit different companies in different industries at different times. Four different types of design and implementation of international strategies and organization structures have emerged: multidomestic; global; international exporter; and transnational. There is also a newer form of international strategy: the “born global” firm. As industries change, so firms need to evolve too. New industry structures require new international strategies. As international strategies change, then so also must international organization structures and the organizational processes within the multinational. That is why international strategy and structures must always be seen as contingent upon external conditions.
Global Strategy
Authors: Segal‐Horn Susan 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Global strategy originally focused on competing internationally and increasing profitability through product standardization and production scale economies. The advantage of a simple, pure global strategy is international competitiveness at low‐cost; the disadvantage is the lack of local responsiveness to country and market differences. During the 1990s and 2000s, we have moved to global strategy that recognizes responsiveness (to market and segment differences, including the base of the pyramid, BOP) at low‐cost. This more complex global strategy is based on global resource optimization through shared internal knowledge and learning within and across the global firm. Over time, as the business context has grown more complex, many multinational corporations (
MNCs)
have more disaggregated value chains requiring more sophisticated levels of internal coordination capabilities. It is not a matter of trade‐offs, but of achieving the balance between global, regional, and local most appropriate in each context. As such, regional strategy as well as global strategy is driving the emerging “hub‐and‐spoke” structure of
MNCs
to support their interweaving of global, regional, and local into their international strategies.
Pareto analysis
Authors: Powell Taman , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

AbstractPareto analysis is based on the observation that operational results and economic wealth are not distributed evenly and that some inputs contribute more than others. It is referred to as the “80/20 rule,” a nomenclature which has popularized a complex economic concept introduced by Vilfredo Pareto, a nineteenth‐century Italian economist. The underlying concept is that the majority of problems (roughly 80%) are often caused by a small number of the sources (roughly 20%). The implication of the 80/20 rule is that most efforts are not efficient and should be reduced. The strategic objective would be to leverage and maximize the efforts that produce most of the results. In strategic management, Pareto analysis is linked to the analysis of an organization's internal environment. It is particularly useful to identify internal strengths and weaknesses through the evaluation of an organization's internal resources and capabilities, which are the source of its core competencies and which in turn, create competitive advantage.
Complex Adaptive Systems
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

AbstractComplex adaptive systems (CAS) consist of diverse components that are interdependent, act as a unified whole, and have the ability to learn from experience and to adapt to change in the environment. Examples of CAS are the global economy, stock markets, emerging cities, online social networks, and the internet. The insights from CAS that are significant to strategic management are their high degree of adaptive capacity and their resilience in the face of disruptive change. Strategists would benefit from an understanding of how to create businesses that react and adjust rapidly to changing market conditions, and that are able to innovate and evolve in difficult economic environments. Complexity theory provides an evolutionary perspective to explain how markets work and what organizations and industries do to survive and evolve. It proposes a set of insights on how to encourage market processes by adopting the features of CAS (adaptation, emergence, self‐organization, and cooperation) to create more responsive and agile organizations. The strategic relevance of CAS and the positive impact on revenues are becoming more evident to managers of traditional businesses. Hybrid business models are seen in both internet businesses and traditional companies. Companies are encouraging hierarchical structures and CAS to exist side by side.
Strategic Drift
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Strategic drift can be defined as a gradual deterioration of competitive action that results in the failure of an organization to acknowledge and respond to changes in the business environment. The term strategic drift is used to describe a sense of cognitive sloth in the ability to meet the original objectives of an organization. The symptoms of strategic drift are a homogeneous mind set at managerial and board levels, preservation of the status quo, lack of focus on the external environment, and decline in performance. The causes of strategic drift are found in cognitive mapping and organizational culture. When strategists develop cognitive assumptions, they are often limited by intuitive thinking. The strategic decisions made within an organization are framed by culture, which in turn develops around the organizational structure, hierarchy, routines, internal controls, symbols, and shared narratives. The paradigms of managerial assumptions provide the foundation of organization culture and have a strong influence on decision making. There are three main approaches of avoiding drift: developing an early warning system, developing strategic resilience, and encouraging organizational flexibility. When to implement strategic change versus when to leave it alone is a tactical dilemma for boards and top management.
R&DStrategy
Authors: Bessant John 
Published: January 2015

AbstractResearch and development (R&D) has come to play a key role in public and private sector organizations – but it raises strategic challenges around resource allocation for innovation against a background of uncertainty. During the twentieth century, a number of models emerged for enabling R&D strategy but in a climate of increasing knowledge availability and its global distribution new approaches are being developed around the theme of “open innovation”. Taking advantage of major shifts in networking technologies, emphasis is moving from R&D strategy as being concerned with knowledge creation and deployment and toward managing knowledge flows into and out from the organization. While this offers significant opportunities moving to open innovation and raises challenges for R&D strategy, especially in areas of skills, intellectual property management, and absorptive capacity to identify, acquire, and assimilate external knowledge.