bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Ethical Crisis in Microfinance: Issues, Findings, and Implications
Authors: Hudon Marek , Sandberg Joakim 
Published: October 2013

ABSTRACT:Microfinance is often assumed to be an ethically progressive industry, but in recent years it has been the target of much ethical criticism. Microfinance institutions have been accused of using exploitative lending techniques and charging usurious interest rates; and critics even question the ability of microfinance to alleviate poverty. This article reviews recent research on the microfinance sector that addresses these ethical issues. We show how this research is relevant to a number of theoretical issues, such as how to define poverty, how to understand exploitation, and how to balance financial and social goals in commercial organizations. We conclude by identifying a critical agenda for future research.
Pseudo 3‐D P wave refraction seismic monitoring of permafrost in steep unstable bedrock
Authors: Krautblatter Michael , Draebing Daniel 
Published: October 2013

AbstractDegrading permafrost in steep rock walls can cause hazardous rock creep and rock slope failure. Spatial and temporal patterns of permafrost degradation that operate at the scale of instability are complex and poorly understood. For the first time, we used P wave seismic refraction tomography (SRT) to monitor the degradation of permafrost in steep rock walls. A 2.5‐D survey with five 80 m long parallel transects was installed across an unstable steep NE‐SW facing crestline in the Matter Valley, Switzerland. P wave velocity was calibrated in the laboratory for water‐saturated low‐porosity paragneiss samples between 20°C and −5°C and increases significantly along and perpendicular to the cleavage by 0.55–0.66 km/s (10–13%) and 2.4–2.7 km/s (>100%), respectively, when freezing. Seismic refraction is, thus, technically feasible to detect permafrost in low‐porosity rocks that constitute steep rock walls. Ray densities up to 100 and more delimit the boundary between unfrozen and frozen bedrock and facilitate accurate active layer positioning. SRT shows monthly (August and September 2006) and annual active layer dynamics (August 2006 and 2007) and reveals a contiguous permafrost body below the NE face with annual changes of active layer depth from 2 to 10 m. Large ice‐filled fractures, lateral onfreezing of glacierets, and a persistent snow cornice cause previously unreported permafrost patterns close to the surface and along the crestline which correspond to active seasonal rock displacements up to several mm/a. SRT provides a geometrically highly resolved subsurface monitoring of active layer dynamics in steep permafrost rocks at the scale of instability.
Abnormality/Psychopathology
Authors: Tan Josephine C. H. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe concept of psychopathology varies across cultures. The prevailing perspective in the Western world involves deviations, alterations, or abnormalities in the cognitive, behavioral, and affective domains that are often accompanied by distress or functional impairment. However, behaviors that are considered pathological in one culture might be deemed acceptable in another culture. For instance, in Southeast Asia, some Hindus participate in the religious festival of Thaipusam, during which they fall into a trance and tolerate multiple bodily piercings. And within some North American Aboriginal societies, what is considered deviant behavior in a mainstream Western mindset might be interpreted as a special gift.
Acting White Accusation
Authors: Neal‐Barnett Angela , Chong Alexandra , Murray Marsheena S. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractActing white is one of the most controversial issues in African American adolescence research. A phenomenon embedded in the racial/ethnic identity literature, acting white has nothing to do with wanting to be white and everything to do with what it means to be black. The accusation of acting white arises when one adolescent's racial identity is perceived as being not “black” enough by another adolescent.
Adamopoulos, John
Authors: Lonner Walter J. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractJohn Adamopoulos is professor of psychology at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Michigan (United States). He has also taught at the University of Illinois and Indiana University at South Bend. He was born and grew up in Thessaloniki, Greece, a city that has been at the crossroads of many cultures and civilizations in its long history. He finished his high school education in the United States and received his undergraduate degree in psychology from Yale University, where he worked as an assistant to Leonard Doob, an early contributor to cross‐cultural psychology. Adamopoulos received his Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Illinois, where he studied with Harry C. Triandis, his dissertation advisor.
Aging
Authors: Trisko Jenna , Kagan Colleen , Ferraro F. Richard 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Aging is a universal process, in that all human beings age; however, the definition of aging is not universal. Views of the aging process vary across geographic space and cultural traditions. Differences between Western and Eastern cultural practices are some of the most well documented views of aging. Less obvious are the differences in social status and how wise aged populations are considered in various cultures.
Allocentrism
Authors: Caldwell‐Harris Catherine L. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Allocentrism refers to a set of personality traits that indicate a collectivist orientation. Allocentrics define themselves as interdependent with others. In social relations, they stay close to members of their ingroup, are sensitive to social norms, and may choose to subordinate their own personal goals to those of their family or ingroup. They tend to share resources with others, often with the explicit expectation of receiving reciprocity or assistance in the future. Allocentrics frequently feel honored or shamed when other ingroup members are honored or shamed.
Alloparental Care
Authors: Brown Jill R. , de Guzman Maria Rosario T. , Rubango Kani 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Much of modern thinking about child development has been heavily influenced by John Bowlby, who was the mind behind current attachment theory. Studying children and nonhuman primates such as gorillas and rhesus monkeys (which happen to be cared for almost exclusively by their mothers) he concluded that from an evolutionary perspective, the mother–child dyad was probably the “safest” place for the infant within the family of mother, father, and baby. Much of the cross‐cultural support for this idea, later conceptualized into the Continuous Contact and Care (CCC) Model, came from, who studied the !Kung and observed that among these hunters and gatherers infants were in constant contact with their mothers 70–80% of the time and nursed four or five times per hour for short periods of time. This model flourished in large part because of the belief that this form of caretaking evolved when our ancestors were hunters and gatherers. The CCC is also known as the bonding model and has influenced the field of pediatrics and developmental psychology, positing that in the immediate post‐partum period a critical period exists during which physical contact between the mother and the child is crucial for optimal development.
Amae
Authors: Pena‐Shaff Judith B. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The Japanese term
amae
is the noun form that derives from the verb
amaeru
, which means “to depend and presume upon another's benevolence”. This noun also shares the same root with the adjective
amai
, which means sweet or sugary but it also means “not strict or generous”. This indigenous Japanese term has attracted the interest of psychologists because it appears to relate closely to a particular type of bond between child and caregiver as described by attachment theory and also because this concept is thought to play a key role in understanding Japanese psyche and personality.
Analytic Cognition
Authors: Fitz Nicholas , Giordano James 
Published: October 2013

AbstractAs first defined in the early nineteenth century by Georg Hegel in theScience of Logic, “analytic cognition” was a phenomenological construct of German idealist philosophy. Hegel claimed that cognition “always proceeds from the known to the unknown”, and asserted that the fragmented, atomistic nature of analytic cognition does not involve holistic heteronomic (non‐autonomous) interconnections between terms and concepts. In this way, Hegel stated that analytic cognition “starts from a presupposed, and therefore individual, concrete subject matter; this may be an object already complete in itself for ordinary thought, or it may be a problem … analytic cognition, the transformation of the given material into logical determinations, has shown itself to be two things in one: a positing that no less immediately determines itself as a presupposing. But the two moments are not to be separated”.
Anger
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji 
Published: October 2013

AbstractAnger is a complex emotion that is easily misunderstood and often confused with other emotions or responses. Anger is a strong feeling of annoyance or fury caused by a real or perceived grievance. It can be suddenly aroused (temper outburst) or gradually built up (progressive aggression). Anger has many facets and could be described as a phenomenon rather than one isolated feeling. It can also be perceived as an attitude, a habit, a state of mind, a multi‐layer dynamic, or a wave of psychosocial reactions. There are some aspects of anger that are common and universal in nature, across time and place. Other aspects are particular to a setting or specific to a culture. Anger can be conceptualized on a spectrum of intensity, ranging from mild to severe. Thus, anger can be simple irritation, frustration, or resentment; antagonism, hate, or low‐level aggression; or hostility, rage, wrath, high‐level aggression, or destructive violence.
Anti‐Fat Attitudes
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Sepers Charles E. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractHuman beings are among the fattest of all mammals and unlike other mammals that primarily use fat as insulation, humans tend to use fat as an energy reserve. Unfortunately, in today's rapidly modernizing world, neither use of fat has the survival value that it once had. In understanding anti‐fat attitudes, it is worth noting three social epidemiological facts about obesity. First, females are more at risk of becoming obese and therefore more likely to be the target of anti‐fat attitudes. Second, obesity is rare in primitive populations but increases rapidly with modernization and as a result anti‐fat attitudes are more likely in industrialized societies. Finally, obesity is related to social class – in some cultures the relationship is positive but in affluent societies, the relationship is negative. Thus, anti‐fat attitudes are related to the value a culture places on body weight.
Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Fisher Paige H. , Nolan Susan A. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractAccording to the World Health Organization (WHO), anxiety disorders are the most common mental health problem worldwide, with global lifetime prevalence rates of approximately 16%. However, of locations included in the WHO survey, rates ranged from approximately 2% (Shanghai, China) to 18% (United States). In addition to the considerable heterogeneity of prevalence, numerous studies have examined cultural variation in anxiety symptomatology. These studies typically compare outcomes between countries or between different ethnic groups within one country, such as the United States.
Arab Americans
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe termArab Americansrefers to people from Arabic speaking countries, immigrants from the Middle East, or those of Arabic descent who are born and raised in North America. Historically, an Arab is a member of a Semitic group inhabiting Arabia, whose formal language and religious culture spread out to the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain in the seventh and eighth centuriesad. Thus, the termArabianmostly refers to the people of the Gulf Peninsula. Presently, the term Arab American is prevalent in the literature, but some authors prefer the use of a broader term or phrase to describe this sociocultural and geographical association (“people with an Arabic Middle Eastern background”). Nevertheless, an Arab American is a person related or tied to the Arabic language and culture in one way or another. This connection can be as close as that of a fresh and newly arrived immigrant or as distant as a third generation American‐born child in a multicultural family.
Autobiographical Memory
Authors: Zabrucky Karen M. , Bays Rebecca B. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractAutobiographical memory is memory for experiences and events relevant to oneself. Of all the cognitive processes studied by psychologists, those that have garnered the most attention in the laboratory as well as the real world are the processes that allow us to store, encode, and retrieve information we are exposed to in our environment. Psychologists have proposed several models of memory in the last several decades to help us gain a better understanding of the cognitive processes that lead to eventual memory representations. Atkinson and Shiffrin developed one of the more influential models in 1968.
Basic Color Terms
Authors: Lillo Julio A. , Moreira Humberto 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

A basic color term (BCT) is a word consistently used by common speakers of a language for naming colors. Such a word identifies a chromatic category (
Color Categorization
in this
Encyclopedia
). For example, the word “yellow” identifies one of the 11 English BCTs because it allows the consistent naming of some colors. Such consistency must appear between observers (different people use the same word for naming the same stimuli) and for each observer (the same person uses the same word for naming the same stimuli at different times).
Benedict, Ruth
Authors: Rutherford Alexandra 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Ruth Benedict was a pioneer of cultural anthropology and one of the most prominent members of the Culture and Personality school that operated in anthropology during the first half of the twentieth century. In her classic work
Patterns of Culture
, she articulated the connection between anthropology and psychology by promoting the idea that culture could be thought of as a set of personality traits “writ large”: “A culture, like an individual, is a more or less consistent pattern of thought and action”. She stressed the mutual reinforcement of individuals and their cultures. Furthermore, she was a strong proponent of cultural relativism, the idea that each culture should be understood on its own terms and should not be judged on the basis of norms developed in other cultures. In
Patterns of Culture
, she demonstrated her approach by constructing case studies of three different tribes – the Zuñi of New Mexico, the Dobu of New Guinea, and the Kwakiutl of Vancouver Island – proposing that each was characterized by a particular “personality” or cultural pattern. Further, she argued that these patterns were environmentally, not biologically transmitted.
Best, Deborah L
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , D'Angelo Kimberly J. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractRecognized internationally for her work in gender stereotyping and the effects of cultural and contextual variants on gender development, Deborah Best received the B.A. in psychology (1970) and a master's degree in experimental psychology (1972), both from Wake Forest University, and the Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the University of North Carolina.
Biculturalism
Authors: Nguyen Angela‐Minh TuD. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Biculturalism is the internalization of two cultures, and according to the dynamic constructivist approach, these cultures are a loose network of two cultural meaning systems. Within the framework of acculturation (i.e., process of cultural change and adaptation), biculturalism is an orientation to both the dominant and non‐dominant cultures (i.e., integration strategy). Biculturalism can be used to refer to individuals who learned one culture first and then another (e.g., immigrants, international students) or to those who learned two cultures at the same time (biculturation; e.g., ethnic minorities, biracial individuals). Moreover, biculturalism need not apply only to non‐dominant group members; dominant group members with prolonged exposure to another culture (e.g., via a significant other) may internalize that second culture and become bicultural.
Boesch, Ernest Eduard
Authors: Lonner Walter J. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Ernst (Ernest) E. Boesch, an early and authoritative figure in cultural psychology, was born on December 26, 1916 in St. Gallen, Switzerland. As a young boy, he was raised primarily by his father when the Swiss economy presented many challenges for a self‐employed embroidery designer. The economic collapse of St. Gallen during Boesch's childhood strongly influenced the formation of his worldview, as did the divorce of his parents. He studied English, French, and Spanish in gymnasium. He was a voracious and inquisitive reader and talented musician.
Bronfenbrenner, Urie
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Manita Jessica , Northart Dayna 
Published: October 2013

AbstractUrie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) was the developer of ecological systems theory. He is regarded as one of the key students of the relation between research and policy on child development. He was co‐founder of the Head Start Program, a nationwide American program that promotes school readiness for economically disadvantaged pre‐school‐aged children. The mission of the program is to enhance children's social and cognitive development through provision of services related to education, health, nutrition, and social welfare. Born in Moscow, Russia, and moving with his family to the United States at the age of six, Bronfenbrenner earned his doctorate at the University of Michigan in 1942. He worked in the Veterans' Administration following World War II, and then began teaching at the University of Michigan. In 1948, he accepted a professorship at Cornell University, his own undergraduate school, where he remained for the duration of his teaching career. In recognition of his extraordinary contributions to the field of developmental psychology and the Head Start program, Bronfenbrenner was named the Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Human Development and Psychology.
Bruner, Jerome S
Authors: Rich Grant J. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractJerome Bruner was born October 1, 1915 in New York City into a nominally Jewish family and his parents hailed from Poland. After his businessman father died when Jerome was 12, he moved each year with his mother and siblings, sisters Min and Alice, and half‐brother Adolf. He received his B.A. from Duke University in 1937 and his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1941, where his professors included Gordon Allport, Edwin Boring, Henry Murray, and Smitty Stevens. He served in the U.S. Army Intelligence Corps from 1941 to 1944, during which time he was involved with the wartime propaganda effort. His activities during the war included work in the United States on public opinion and work in France on “cultural relations” including psychological warfare and political intelligence. In France, the 26‐year‐old's duties included meetings with such literati as Paul Eluard, André Malraux, Jean‐Paul Sartre, and Gertrude Stein. In the United States, he became a close friend of Robert Oppenheimer, who some years later invited Bruner to spend a sabbatical at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.
Childhoods
Authors: Bame Nsamenang A. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
The title of this entry is pluralized because “comparative and cross‐cultural analysis reveals a variety of childhoods rather than a single and universal phenomenon”. Similar analysis of adolescence uncovered remarkably different adolescences across regions of the globe that do not correspond to the image of Western adolescence that overwhelms the scientific literature, policy frameworks, advocacy agencies, and childhood institutions. Furthermore, even cursory perusal of the literature and popular culture exposes most, if not all, cultures as handling and treating infants, children, and adolescents as non‐adults. The borders of these developmental stages are blurred, as their limits are framed in and shaped by differing cultural worldviews, epistemologies, and disciplinary lenses. In the face of differing cultural definitions or recognition of the boundaries of childhood, Article One of the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) defines a child as any person who is under the age of 18 years. This presents the end of childhood (itself not universal) as a universally recognized stage of transition into adulthood.
Cognitive Bias
Authors: Feren Laura 
Published: October 2013

AbstractCognitive bias is a pattern of mental processes in the human mind, leading to adaptive or maladaptive perceptual distortions and behaviors in particular situations. Cognitive bias can result when people make decisions using heuristics rather than complete rational analyses. Heuristics – a learned process of experience and intuition – are commonly employed to facilitate solutions to complex problems. Heuristics become problematic when they result in incorrect outcomes. In the early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman identified two heuristics used to make decisions – the availability heuristic and the representative heuristic – that can lead to errors in thinking. A decade later, their experimental research found that the phrasing or the framing effect of language can influence judgment and problem solving. People choose different options and are vulnerable to errors due to their individual perceptions, distortions, or manipulations of differences. One's own experiences shape one's perception and understanding of the world.
Collective Control
Authors: Wong Stephanie J. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe concept of control is defined as an individual's attempt to attain a goal through manipulation of situations or events and through implementation of resources. Western cultures have historically conceptualized control in terms of personal control, or an individual's perception that he or she is able to complete a task or goal based on his or her performance and autonomous behavior. However, many researchers have advocated an expanded view of the construct of control, particularly through a multicultural lens, because it would be more inclusive of a variety of cultures and groups and would capture the complexity of control. Specifically, from a Western perspective, the concept ofcollective controlis a relatively novel conceptualization of control. Understanding this construct may shift the emphasis in research and practice from theself(e.g., self‐control, self‐esteem) to the collective, furthering our understanding of diverse individuals who identify with collective strategies.
Color Language
Authors: Phillips William L. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract
Color language refers to the fact that different languages represent colors differently. For example, W. H. R. Rivers (during his visit to the Torres Straits in late 1890s) found that the Murray Islanders had only three words to represent color in their language (black, white, and red). These persons tended to group together green and blue color tiles, leading researchers to conclude that they could not differentiate the two. Numerous studies such as these led to the idea of linguistic relativity, or the Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis, which, in general, states that language determines our perception.