bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Qualitative Corpus Analysis
Authors: Hasko Victoria 
Published: December 2012

AbstractQualitative corpus analysis is a methodology for pursuing in‐depth investigations of linguistic phenomena, as grounded in the context of authentic, communicative situations that are digitally stored as language corpora and made available for access, retrieval, and analysis via computer. Researchers using qualitative corpus analysis as the methodological basis for their investigations adopt an exploratory, inductive approach to empirically based study of how the meanings and functions of linguistic forms found in the corpus interact with diverse ecological characteristics of language used for communication (speaker age, gender, level of education, and socioeconomic background; place and time of a communicative event; relationship between interlocutors; speech modality; etc.). A common belief shared by all corpus linguists is that it is important to base linguistic investigations on “real data,” that is, actual instances of oral or written communication as opposed to contrived or “made‐up” data. Unique goals of qualitative corpus analysis include facilitating computer‐aided retrieval of authentic examples of the language phenomena under investigation, interpreting these empirical data in depth, and applying the ensuing insights to a broad range of intellectual explorations in language studies. This entry summarizes the evolution of the field, outlines the methodological foundations and principles of qualitative corpus analysis, and enumerates major areas of application of the methodology.
Quality in Interpreting
Authors: Barranco‐Droege Rafael , Aís Ángela Collados , Sánchez María Manuela Fernández , Becerra Olalla García , Fernández Emilia Iglesias , Macías E. Macarena Pradas , Stévaux Elisabeth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractInterpreting quality is a multifaceted and complex concept resulting from a variety of communication situations and interpreting types, including conference, community, court, and signed language interpreting. It also comprises the views, motivations, and goals of the interpreters and all other stakeholders—speakers, event organizers, public institutions, trainers, and so on.
Quirk, Randolph
Authors: Mair Christian 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Randolph Quirk was born on the Isle of Man in 1920. In 1939 he enrolled at University College London (UCL), to read English under Albert Hugh Smith and Norse under Raymond Wilson Chambers. Having served in World War II from 1940, he resumed his studies in 1945. On his graduation in 1947 he joined UCL's English Department as a lecturer and was subsequently awarded the degrees of MA, PhD and DLitt, all solely in the fields of medieval English and Norse. He spent a year at Yale and Michigan in the United States as a Commonwealth Fund (Harkness) Fellow in 1951–2 and moved to Durham to become a Reader (1954) and subsequently a Professor of English (1958). He returned to UCL as a Professor of English in 1960 and succeeded Albert Hugh Smith as Quain Professor in 1968. Beyond his immediate professional domain in (English) linguistics, Randolph Quirk has been active in university and academic politics, serving as vice‐chancellor of the University of London (1981–5) and president of the British Academy (1985–9). In recognition of his services, he was made a life peer (Lord Quirk of Bloomsbury) in 1994 and, as such, became an active member of the British House of Lords. The following universities have expressed their recognition of his work through the award of honorary doctorates: Aston, Bar Ilan, Bath, Brunel, Copenhagen, Durham, Essex, Glasgow, Helsinki, Leicester, Liège, London, Lund, Newcastle‐upon‐Tyne, Nijmegen, Open University, Paris, Poznan, Prague, Reading, Richmond, Salford, Sheffield, Southern California, Uppsala, and Westminster.
Multimedia Digital Engagements by Readers and Learners
Authors: Tierney Robert J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractVarious researchers, theorists, and applied scholars are reinvigorating, expanding, and shifting our view of reading comprehension as they explore the nature of the meaning making within digital environments. These scholars include: social anthropologists interested in digital literacies as literacy practices and events; cultural and critical theorists intent on studying the politics of individuals and group identities; linguists including socio‐semioticians interested in the advent of language systems especially the shifts in signs via new media; cognitive psychologists interested in learning in the context of the new knowledge economies and literary theorists intrigued by discussions of author–reader–text relationships provoked by new forms of text and educators interested in the nature and role of learning.
Reading–Writing Connection
Authors: Harste Jerome C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractI have often said to teachers, “If your reading program is having problems, your writing program probably has problems too. And vice versa, if your writing program is problematic, your reading program is more than likely problematic too.” While some people may think these statements are speculative at best, what follows is an analysis of what we know about the reading–writing connection and why these statements are more fact than speculation.
Receptive Multilingualism
Authors: Bahtina Daria , Thije Jan D. ten 
Published: December 2012

AbstractReceptive multilingualism refers to language constellations in which interlocutors use their own language while speaking to each other. This mode was widely applied in the Middle Ages, but linguistic constellations were transformed into monolingualism determined by nation‐state formation from the 17th to the 19th century. Mainly due to areas and countries where receptive multilingualism still flourishes, researchers have demonstrated increasing interest in the processes behind this type of multilingual communication. This entry first discusses the theoretical concept of this phenomenon and then describes historical developments, linguistic and mental characteristics, as well as current applications.
Relations Between Oral Language and Literacy
Authors: Dyson Anne Haas 
Published: December 2012

AbstractOne might expect oral and written language to be perceived as having an intimate relationship, born of their kinship as modes of verbal communication. Quite the opposite is the case: one mode or the other has reigned supreme. This contentious relationship is not just a matter of scholarly interest. Ultimately, views of this relationship have consequences for the formal education of children and youth.
Robinson,Peter
Authors: Gilabert Roger 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBorn in London, United Kingdom, Peter Robinson is probably best known for his empirical studies, beginning in the mid‐1990s, into the roles of attention and awareness during implicit and explicit second language learning, and the effects of task complexity on L2 learners’ production and acquisition. Throughout his work in these areas he has consistently addressed the influence of individual differences in cognitive abilities on successful learning under implicit or explicit conditions, or on different types of task. His long list of academic interests and his contributions to the field of applied linguistics through journal articles, conference presentations, book chapters, and edited and authored books have revolved around three main hypotheses that he has put forward. These are the cognition hypothesis, the aptitude complex/ability differentiation hypothesis, and the fundamental similarity hypothesis, which will be further described below.
Role of Instruction in Second Language Acquisition Theories
Authors: Williams Jessica 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlthough a natural relationship between theories of second language (L2) acquisition and instruction might be expected, surprisingly the connection between many theories and instruction is tenuous, or even absent. Since it is clear that the L2 often, indeed usually, proceeds in the absence of instruction, any viable theory of L2 acquisition should specify that instruction isnotnecessary. The possible role for instruction ranges from significant to helpful to no effect or, potentially, even detrimental. First, it is important to specify the target of instruction. Is it the morphosyntactic core, or does it include the L2 lexicon, phonology, and sociolinguistic rules? Second, if instruction has a role, what kind of instruction is indicated? The answer will depend, in part, on how a given theory handles the explicit–implicit knowledge interface. Teachers and researchers have long acknowledged that learners often seem to draw on knowledge they cannot articulate, and, conversely, are able to verbalize knowledge they cannot reliably use in communication. The theories below differ considerably on their acknowledgment of this interface and how they characterize it. This list of theories is by no means exhaustive; rather, it includes those that have been the most widely discussed.
Role of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Skutnabb‐Kangas Tove 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLinguistic human rights (LHR) can be defined as “only those language rights . . . which are so basic for a dignified life that everybody has them because of being human; therefore, in principle no state (or individual) is allowed to violate them” (e.g., Skutnabb‐Kangas, 2008, p. 109; see Skutnabb‐Kangas, in press‐a, for a discussion of definitions). For basic presentations of LHR, including Web sites for all human rights (HR) instruments below, see Skutnabb‐Kangas, 2000, in press‐a, in press‐b).
Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction
Authors: Lyster Roy 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe multifaceted roles of corrective feedback in second language instruction continue to attract the attention of both researchers and practitioners interested in how it can most effectively be integrated into classroom interaction in ways that benefit second language development. In contrast to theoretical arguments that a learner's underlying interlanguage system is affected only by positive evidence and not by negative evidence, other theoretical perspectives that run the gamut from cognitively to socially oriented suggest that corrective feedback is not only beneficial but may also be necessary for moving learners forward in their second language development. For example, a cognitive‐interactionist perspective of second language acquisition attributes a role not only to positive evidence but also to negative evidence in the form of feedback that triggers noticing of nontarget output; skill acquisition theory attributes a pivotal role to feedback in tandem with practice that leads learners from effortful to more automatic use of the second language; and sociocultural theory views feedback as other‐regulation that provides learners with dialogically negotiated assistance as they move toward more self‐regulated use of the second language.
Sampling: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Brown James Dean 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSamplingis the act of choosing a smaller, more manageable subset of the objects or members of a population to include in an investigation in order to study with greater ease something about that population. In other words, sampling allows researchers to select a subset of the objects or members of a population to represent the total population. Sampling is used in language research when the objects or members (hereafter simplyobjectsormembers, but not both) of a population are so numerous that investigating all of them would be unwieldy. Such objects of study might include the total populations of all ESL learners, TOEFL examinees, essay raters, words, cohesive devices, and so on. For instance, to study the test scores of the roughly one million TOEFL examinees in a given year, a researcher might sample just 15,000. Sampling can thus increase the researcher's efficiency by minimizing the resources and effort needed to conduct the project (Brown, 2001, p. 71), while at the same time increasing the speed, scope, and accuracy of the project (as explained in Cochran, 1977, pp. 1–2).
Schachter, Jacquelyn
Authors: Bhatia Tej K. , Ritchie William C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractDr. Jacquelyn Schachter contributed extensively to pioneering basic research on second language acquisition (SLA) in the 1970s and 1980s as the field was becoming independent of its previous role as a subsidiary to language teaching. In addition to her research, Schachter contributed to the expansion of the field by extensive editing of volumes of collected papers, conference proceedings, and periodicals.
Self‐Access and Independent Learning Centers
Authors: Reinders Hayo 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Self‐access centers (SACs) are learner‐oriented language learning environments that encourage the development of learner autonomy. SACs provide materials, activities, and staff support to help learners develop the skills necessary for taking control over the content, pace, and method of their learning. SACs do not have to be physical spaces (although in practice they often are); increasingly, learning environments are being designed that either combine a physical space with an online
support
system or provide all elements of self‐access online. SACs are especially common at tertiary institutions, although they exist at all other school levels, including in primary schools.
Societal Pragmatics
Authors: Mey Jacob L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGiven that pragmatics, by definition, is social, one could legitimately raise the question: Why is it necessary to talk about “societal pragmatics”? Implicit in this question is a preliminary assumption, which leads us to a further, more fundamental question: What do we mean by saying that pragmatics by definition is social, and why is this a “given”?
Sociocultural Theory
Authors: Lantolf James P. , Poehner Matthew E. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractVygotsky's (1926/2004) monographThe Historical Meaning of the Crisis in Psychologyis his foundational work in which he lays out the theoretical basis of his theory of culturally mediated mind, which is eventually expanded into his much better known publicationThinking and Speech(Vygotsky, 1987).
Systemic Functional Linguistics
Authors: Herriman Jennifer 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSystemic functional linguistics (SFL;http://www.isfla.org/Systemics/index.html) was founded in the 1960s by M. A. K. Halliday, who developed the theory between the 1930s and 1950s from the work of J. R. Firth and his colleagues in London, among others (Halliday, 1967–8).
Tarone, Elaine
Authors: Swierzbin Bonnie 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The most succinct summary of the applied linguistics and teaching career of Elaine Tarone (1945– ) is the title of one of her early books:
Focus on the Language Learner
. Her research and teaching career has focused on second language (L2) learners as social beings in a variety of contexts and has emphasized the effects of those contexts on both the learners' use of language and the manners in which they learn it. She is one of the leading theorists of variationist second language acquisition (SLA), which has as its fundamental premise that the form of second language learners' utterances can vary dramatically depending on the learners' perceptions of social contextual variables such as the interlocutor, task, or topic. In a variationist perspective of SLA, variability in a learner's interlanguage (IL) (e.g.,
I study grammars
vs.
I study grammar
) is not viewed as “noise” in the researcher's data or necessarily as errors for a teacher to correct; instead, variability is considered to be a potential source of new language forms appearing in the learner's IL and an indicator of transition in the language development process.
Teacher Education for Multilingual Education
Authors: García Ofelia , Kleyn Tatyana 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIf, as García (2009, p. 5) states, “bilingual education isthe only wayto educate children in the twenty‐first century,” thenallteachers must be prepared both to advance the plurilingual competencies of students, as well as teach students with different home language practices and bilingual abilities.
Teaching Indigenous Languages
Authors: Meek Barbra A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn the introduction to the edited volume,Teaching Indigenous Languages, Dr. Jon Reyhner reflected that “I have written on this subject of maintaining and renewing indigenous languages before . . . but the recent work of Dr. Evangeline Parsons Yazzie and Dr. Richard Littlebear . . . has crystallized for me the centrality of this effort for the survival of indigenous peoples” (1997, p. v).
Technology and Phonetics
Authors: Hincks Rebecca 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSound cannot be studied methodically unless it can be captured in some way, and so from the phonograph to the tape recorder to the computer, the development of new technologies has facilitated the study of phonetics. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine studying phonetics without technology. Other entries in this encyclopedia discuss the topics of acoustic phonetics, speech analysis software, automatic speech recognition, text‐to‐speech synthesis, and computer‐assisted pronunciation teaching. This entry will thus simply provide an overview of the position of technology in phonetics.
Testing in Pragmatics Research
Authors: Roever Carsten 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIt may seem contradictory to talk about “testing” in the context of “research”: after all, testing in a narrow sense is usually done to collect evidence for real‐world decisions and involves stakes for all parties involved in the process, and tests therefore need to be based on a carefully designed interpretive validity argument (Messick, 1989; Kane, 2006; Bachman & Palmer, 2010), which in itself requires a fairly extensive research program. However, testing in a simpler sense is the measurement of the strength of an attribute, which does not necessarily have to be the basis for a high‐stakes decision. Rather, it might be undertaken to answer a research question; for example, to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional intervention intended to improve learners’ knowledge or skills, trace learners’ development in language abilities over time, or compare participants with each other who differ in theoretically interesting background variables, such as proficiency level, gender, native language, or study‐abroad experience.
Tests
Authors: Grant Leslie 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTests are used in applied linguistics research to measure variables of interest to researchers. A test is “a particular type of measurement that focuses on eliciting a specific sample of performance” (Bachman, 2004, p. 9). Test tasks “elicit performance from which we can make the inferences we want to make” (p. 9). Language ability is one, but not the only, variable of interest in applied linguistics research, and therefore, language testing is a critical area of concern. Because language ability, like all constructs, cannot be seen directly, test takers demonstrate their linguistic abilities by observable choices, words, and actions. These choices, words, and actions are taken as evidence of the ability in question; thus, every test score is the result of the process of inference whereby observed performance is interpreted as indicative of the test takers’ level of ability on the construct measured. Researchers who use test scores in their own studies often count on proficiency tests that have been developed for educational purposes, but in many cases, they need to develop their own tests in order to measure the specific construct that they intend to study.
Term Banks
Authors: Thomsen Hanne Erdman 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
According to the international standard ISO 1087–2:2000, a term bank is a “data bank containing terminological data,” i.e., “data related to concepts or their designations.” It contains terminology relevant to one or more subject fields, and can thus be compared to a dictionary of (some) language for special purposes. Term banks are maintained in the context of an institutionalized organization such as a government agency or a department of a major company.
Thibault, Paul
Authors: O'Halloran Kay L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Paul J. Thibault (b. 1953) has a distinguished research background in general and applied linguistics in areas relating to the sociocultural and biological‐physical dimensions of human meaning‐making activity, which he has developed into a transdisciplinary field of knowledge involving social semiotics, cognitive science, psychology, biology, and complex dynamical systems theory.
Third Language Acquisition
Authors: Cenoz Jasone 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIs it the same to acquire a second language or a third language? Does the second language play a role in third language acquisition? Are we more expert learners if we have already learned a second language? These are fascinating questions taking into account that multilingualism is spread all over the world. This entry discusses the issues examined in third language acquisition research in order to answer these questions. The entry has three sections. In the first section the scope and focus of this research area are defined. The second section gives an idea of the different situations in which a third language or an additional language is learned. In the third section some of the main findings are discussed.
Technology and Translation
Authors: Bowker Lynne , Fisher Des 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe application of technology to translation got off to an early but inauspicious start in the post‐World War II period, when initial attempts were made to develop fully automatic high‐quality machine translation systems intended to replace translators. Researchers learned, however, that translation was a highly complex task consisting of more than simply word‐for‐word substitution. Contextual, pragmatic, and real‐world information proved very difficult to program, and attention has since shifted to finding ways in which computer tools can assist, rather than replace, professional translators. Indeed, in our current fast‐paced, globalized, and information‐thirsty society, the use of technology by translators is no longer a luxury but a necessity if they are to meet escalating market demands for the speedy delivery of high‐quality texts in many languages.
Translation and Interpreting and Bilingualism
Authors: Angelelli Claudia V. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Translation and interpreting are deeply interconnected with bilingualism. Without high degrees of bilingualism, neither translation nor interpreting is feasible. This does not mean, however, that either translation or interpreting is a by‐product of bilingualism. Rather it means that high attainment in bilingualism is a precondition for highly proficient translation/interpreting. The relationship between language ability, types of bilingualism, and translation/interpreting performance has not been sufficiently researched.
Translation Tools
Authors: Dunne Keiran J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn the wake of the digital revolution and the advent of the knowledge economy, the concept of “tool” has expanded beyond its traditional meaning of an implement for performing or facilitating mechanical operations to encompass specialized software applications that help users accomplish specific tasks on computers. In this way, translation‐specific applications are typically referred to as “translation tools.” More than mere jargon, this usage underscores the commonalities between specialized software applications and their mechanical forebears: Both are operated by people; both are designed to facilitate specific tasks; and both are only as good as their operators. This entry offers an overview of translation tools, the problems they have been designed to solve, the ways in which they have evolved, and their limitations, with a focus on their primary components: terminology management and translation memory.