bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evolution of Avian Flight
Authors: Heers Ashley M 
Published: October 2013

AbstractThe origin of birds and of bird flight has drawn scientific interest since the inception of evolutionary thinking. Though early investigations were hampered by a paucity of fossils, new discoveries have filled in many gaps and provided unprecedented detail into morphological changes that attended the evolutionary appearance of birds and bird flight. Birds are now widely regarded as the descendents of theropod dinosaurs. In contrast, form–function relationships and behaviours that might have facilitated the evolutionary acquisition of flight remain widely debated. Given the versatility of extant birds, we should not expect to find only one solution to this problem. Nevertheless, much debate seems to stem not from looking for multiple plausible functions and behaviours, but rather from traditional ‘ground up’ versus ‘trees down’ assumptions and a general lack of experimental and ecological support for inferred form–function relationships. Many researchers have therefore called for more rigorous hypothesis testing, and a plethora of new techniques and perspectives are up to the challenge.Key Concepts:Birds are the descendents of bipedal theropod dinosaurs.Evolutionary assembly of the avian body plan occurred gradually, with bird‐like wings evolving before bird‐like skeletons, in conjunction with a reduction in body size and then a cranial shift in centre of mass.These changes took place via a series of transitional anatomical stages that were presumably associated with transitional functions and behaviours before becoming co‐opted for flapping flight.Many origin‐of‐flight hypotheses have been proposed, and it is challenging to discriminate among them. Much debate seems to stem from traditional ‘ground up’ versus ‘trees down’ assumptions and a general lack of experimental and ecological support for inferred form–function relationships.A growing number of researchers have therefore suggested that hypotheses must be consistent not only with the fossil record, but also with experimental support for form–function relationships and behaviours inferred by origin‐of‐flight scenarios.New techniques and perspectives are meeting this challenge and providing more rigorous insight into the origin of flight in birds.For example, recent work on developing birds with dinosaur‐like anatomies clearly demonstrates that behaviours involving the cooperative use of wings and legs (e.g. wing‐assisted incline running and steaming) act as a developmental (or evolutionary) bridge between leg‐based terrestrial locomotion and wing‐based aerial locomotion, by allowing developing birds (or evolving dinosaurs) to supplement their wings with their legs until the wings can fully support body weight during flight.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm
Authors: Tietz Sarah 
Published: October 2013

AbstractGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) was a German philosopher, mathematician, physicist, scientist, politician, diplomat, historian and librarian. He is known as the last universal genius and as one of the most famous philosophers of his time. Leibniz invented a mechanical calculator, developed the infinitesimal calculus, anticipated modern computational science and paved the way for the discovery of the principle of the conservation of energy in physics. He was one of the first to solve mechanical problems by self‐regulating systems, anticipated modern geology in claiming that the earth has a molten core and paved the way for the distinction between conscious and subconscious states. Leibniz exchanged more than 15 000 letters with both intellectual and political persons of distinction, among them two German emperors, Tsar Peter the Great and almost all important scientists and philosophers of his time.Key Concepts:Monads are indivisible, mind‐like entities, which the late Leibniz considered as the fundamental building blocks of reality.Divine machines, for Leibniz, are the bodies of living beings. The term refers to the functional organisation of the body of living beings which, contrary to that of artificial machines, Leibniz thought to be infinite.‘Pre‐established harmony’ is Leibniz's term for the relation between substances, most notably for the relation between mind and body.Optimism is a Leibnizian position according to which this world is the best of all possible worlds.Corporeal substances are living beings with a body.The Stepped Reckoner is a digital mechanical calculator designed to execute all four basic arithmetic operations.
Molecular Genetics of Hyperuricaemia and Gout
Authors: Merriman Tony R , Flynn Tanya J 
Published: October 2013

AbstractGout results from an innate immune reaction to monosodium urate crystals deposited in the joints of individuals with elevated serum urate levels (hyperuricaemia). Urate, the primary cause of gout, is a metabolite with beneficial properties. The use of genome‐wide association scanning has identified 28 loci that control serum urate levels. Predominant among these are loci containing uric acid transporter genes involved in renal and gut excretion of uric acid. The SLC2A9 (GLUT9) and ABCG2 genes have particularly strong effects on serum urate and risk of gout. In contrast to serum urate, the genetic control of inflammatory gout is very poorly understood, largely because no genome‐wide association scan has been conducted using clinically ascertained gout cases. Similarly, the full‐scope of the beneficial (or harmful) properties of urate is currently unknown; a genetic technique called Mendelian randomisation is being employed to better understand the relationship between urate and other metabolic conditions.Key Concepts:Urate is evolutionarily beneficial.Urate is under genetic control.Genetic variants in genes involved in the excretion of uric acid have the strongest effect on serum urate.A total of 28 loci have been associated with control of serum urate.Not all genes associated with serum urate have been associated with gout.There are no genes associated with inflammatory gout with robust statistical evidence.
Role of the JAK‐STAT Signalling Pathway in Cancer
Authors: Dutta Pranabananda , Li Willis X 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

The JAK‐STAT pathway is important in cytokine‐mediated immune responses. Research in the JAK/STAT field has elucidated its roles in various cellular processes such as proliferation, apoptosis and migration, and has found frequent dysregulation of the JAK/STAT pathway in diverse types of cancer. In recent years, JAK and STAT have also been implicated in a noncanonical mode of action: the regulation of genomic stability independent of their functions in cytokine signalling. Research in
Drosophila
has shown that nuclear, unphosphorylated STAT physically interacts with heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) and stabilises its binding to heterochromatin. A similar interaction occurs in human cells, where unphosphorylated STAT5A interacts with HP1α and acts as a tumour suppressor. Nuclear JAK2, however, functions as a histone tyrosine kinase, displacing HP1α from chromatin. These data have important implications for human cancer: They suggest new drug therapies, which could target the noncanonical functions of JAK and STAT. In this article, we discuss how the canonical arm of the JAK‐STAT pathway functions in tumourigenesis, focussing on JAK and on STAT1, STAT3 and STAT5. We then discuss recent findings regarding epigenetic silencing of JAK/STAT pathway components, and the direct involvement of JAK and STAT in regulating heterochromatin integrity.

Key Concepts:

The tyrosine kinase JAK and its downstream target STAT respond to cytokine signalling in cells.

In response to cytokines, JAK itself is phosphorylated, leading to its activation. The activated JAK kinase then phosphorylates specific STATs.

STAT proteins dimerise and translocate into the nucleus upon phosphorylation by JAK, where they bind to DNA and regulate transcription.

Overactivation of the JAK‐STAT pathway can cause cancer by bypassing apoptosis and cell cycle checkpoints.

Unphosphorylated STAT is also found in the nuclei and mitochondria of cells that are not stimulated by cytokines.

Mitochondrial STAT upregulates cellular respiration and can promote oncogenic transformation.

Unphosphorylated nuclear STAT binds to HP1α and stabilises heterochromatin. STAT5A in colon cancer cells acts as a tumour suppressor via this mechanism.

Nuclear JAK2 is a histone tyrosine kinase. Phosphorylation of histone 3 tyrosine 41 displaces HP1α/CBX5 from chromatin and contributes to tumourigenicity.

In some cancers, DNA methylation suppresses the expression of inhibitory SOCS proteins, resulting in uncontrolled JAK/STAT pathway activation.
Inducing and Characterizing Liver Regeneration in Mice: Reliable Models, Essential “Readouts” and Critical Perspectives
Authors: Mastellos Dimitrios C. , DeAngelis Robert A. , Lambris John D. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractElucidating the molecular circuitry that regulates regenerative responses in mammals has recently attracted considerable attention because of its emerging impact on modern bioengineering, tissue replacement technologies, and organ transplantation. The liver is one of the few organs of the adult body that exhibits a prominent regenerative capacity in response to toxic injury, viral infection, or surgical resection. Over the years, mechanistic insights into the liver's regenerative potential have been provided by rodent models of chemical liver injury or surgical resection that faithfully recapitulate hallmarks of human pathophysiology and trigger robust hepatocyte proliferation leading to organ restoration. The advent of mouse transgenics has undeniably catalyzed the wider application of such models for researching liver pathobiology. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the most reliable and widely applied murine models of liver regeneration and also discusses helpful hints, considerations, and limitations related to the use of these models in liver regeneration studies. Curr. Protoc. Mouse Biol. 3:141‐170 © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Collocation
Authors: Warren Martin 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Evidence from corpus linguistics studies shows that single words do not create meaning. Meaning comes from the co‐selections of words. The field of corpus linguistics has contributed significantly to our understanding of the extensive patterning to be found in language, by which is meant the variety of ways in which speakers and writers co‐select words which combine to make meanings. One of the patterns of co‐selection is collocation and, in terms of its role in meaning creation, it was brought to prominence by Firth in 1951 (1957, p. 194) through his notion of “collocability.” Firth's central claim is that the meaning of a word is best understood by the company it keeps, in other words by its associations. He describes these associations as “meaning by ‘collocations’”. One of his best‐known examples of collocation is
dark night
and he writes that “one of the meanings of
night
is its collocability with
dark
, and of
dark
, of course, collocation with
night
” (1957, p. 196).
Huddleston, Rodney
Authors: Collins Peter 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Rodney Desmond Huddleston was born near Manchester on April 4, 1937. He attended Manchester Grammar School and, after two years of compulsory military service, studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, graduating in 1960 with first class honors in modern and medieval languages. In 1963 he completed a
PhD
at Edinburgh University under the supervision of Michael Halliday entitled “A descriptive and comparative analysis of texts in French and English: an application of grammatical theory,” and was appointed to a lectureship in linguistics in the same year. In 1965 he moved to University College London, where he led a research project on the linguistic properties of scientific English. The findings were reported in his first monograph, which outlined many of the tenets that Huddleston was to subsequently develop in his major publications on descriptive English grammar. In 1967 Huddleston took up a lectureship at the University of Reading, where he worked with Frank Palmer, Peter Matthews, and David Crystal, before moving to a lectureship at University College London in 1968. In 1969 he moved to the University of Queensland (where he has stayed for the rest of his career).
Open Educational Resources (
OER
)
Authors: Blyth Carl S. 
Published: October 2013

Abstract

Digital technology has changed how we learn and teach languages. And nowhere has that change been more evident than in the innovative pedagogical materials referred to as open educational resources (
OER
) favored by 21st century language learners and teachers (see, for example,
http://loro.open.ac.uk/
and
http://www.khanacademy.org
,
http://oli.web.cmu.edu/openlearning
). Coined in 2002 during a
UNESCO
forum, the term was meant to emphasize knowledge construction as an ongoing process that required editable, digital materials more in keeping with the dynamics of online learning and teaching. Plotkin (2010, p. 1) refers to
OER
as “teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits sharing, accessing, repurposing—including for commercial purposes—and collaborating with others.” As such,
OER
represent a heterogeneous category of pedagogical materials that differ widely in scale, sophistication, and goals: online textbooks, supplementary exercises, lesson plans, language corpora, annotation tools, and so forth.
Genomic approaches for studying craniofacial disorders
Authors: Khandelwal Kriti D. , van Bokhoven Hans , Roscioli Tony , Carels Carine E.L. , Zhou Huiqing 
Published: October 2013

AbstractFast developing technologies in genomics have driven genetic studies of human diseases from classical candidate approaches toward hypothesis‐free and genome‐wide screening methods. Compared to the low‐resolution cytogenetic techniques that were the only available methods to visualize genomic changes at the chromosomal level until some 15 years ago, genome‐wide studies including analyses of copy number variation (CNV), genome‐wide association and linkage studies, and exome sequencing (ES) provide more accurate information for unraveling the genetic causes of diseases. Moreover, genome sequencing (GS) which interrogates the genome of a single individual at the nucleotide resolution has also been applied in genetic studies. Here we review genomic approaches in craniofacial disorders, with the emphasis on orofacial clefts, and discuss the applications, advantages, limitations, challenges, and future perspectives. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Nonmetric cranial trait variation and population history of medieval east slavic tribes
Authors: Movsesian Alla A. 
Published: October 2013

ABSTRACTThe population history of the East Slavs is complicated. There are still many unanswered questions relating to the origins and formation of the East Slavic gene pool. The aims of the current study were as follows: (1) to assess the degree of biological affinity in medieval East Slavic tribes and to test the hypothesis that East Slavic peoples have a common origin; (2) to show their genetic connections to the autochthonous populations of the northern part of Eastern Europe (Baltic and Finno‐Ugric tribes); and (3) to identify a genetic continuity between the bearers of Chernyakhov culture and medieval Eastern Slavs. In this study, nonmetric cranial trait data for medieval East Slavic tribes and comparative samples from unrelated groups were examined. Analyzes of phenotypic differentiation were based on Nei's standard genetic distance and hierarchical GSTstatistics. The results obtained suggest that the genetic affinity of the East Slavic tribes is due not only to inter‐tribal gene flow, but is, more importantly, a result of their common population history. Evidence of gene flow from the Baltic and Finno‐Ugric groups was showed in the gene pool of Eastern Slavs, as was genetic continuity between medieval East Slavic tribes and the populations of the preceding Chernyakhov culture. These findings support a “generalizing” hypothesis of East Slavic origin, in which a Slavic community was formed in some particular ancestral area, and subsequently spread throughout Eastern Europe. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:495–505, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A new method to predict optimum cure time of rubber compound using dynamic mechanical analysis
Authors: Khimi S. Raa , Pickering K. L. 
Published: October 2013

ABSTRACTThe degree of vulcanization of a rubber compound has a big influence on the properties of the final product. Therefore, precisely defining the curing process including optimum cure time is important to ensure the production of final products having high performance. Typically, vulcanization is represented using vulcanization curves. The main types of equipment used for producing vulcanization curves are the oscillating disc rheometer (ODR) and the moving die rheometer (MDR). These can be used to plot graphs of torque versus time at a constant temperature to show how cure is proceeding. Based on the results obtained, optimum cure time (t90) is calculated as the time required for the torque to reach 90% of the maximum achievable torque. In this study, the use of Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) for assessment of t90 was assessed. DMA was carried out using shear mode isothermal tests to measure the changes in material properties caused by vulcanization. The results revealed that the shear storage modulus (G′), shear loss modulus (G′′), and tan δ all reflect the vulcanization process, however, tan δ gave the best representation of level of vulcanization. Indeed, the curve of tan δ was able to be used to derive the t90 for rubber compounds and showed good agreement with the results from an MDR. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2014, 131, 40008.
Metal–Organic Frameworks as Biomimetic Catalysts
Authors: Gu Zhi‐Yuan , Park Jihye , Raiff Aaron , Wei Zhangwen , Zhou Hong‐Cai 
Published: October 2013

AbstractIn this Minireview, we have summarized the recent progress of biomimetic catalysis in the field of metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) with a focus on the implantation of biomimetic active sites into a stable MOF. In addition, the potential of creating highly selective catalytic pockets and diffusion‐favored hierarchical structures in MOFs has also been explored. Furthermore, we have highlighted the achievements of MOF catalysts in the applications as mimics of peroxidase, cytochromes P450, hemoglobin, and photosynthetic systems.
Ionic Liquid Propellants: Future Fuels for Space Propulsion
Authors: Zhang Qinghua , Shreeve Jean'ne M. 
Published: October 2013

AbstractUse of green propellants is a trend for future space propulsion. Hypergolic ionic liquid propellants, which are environmentally‐benign while exhibiting energetic performances comparable to hydrazine, have shown great potential to meet the requirements of developing nontoxic high‐performance propellant formulations for space propulsion applications. This Concept article presents a review of recent advances in the field of ionic liquid propellants.
Retrospective 3D Modeling of RF Coils Using a 3D Tracker for EM Simulation
Authors: Kim Dong Eun , Park Yong Moon , Perez Marlon , Hernandez Daniel , Lee Juhyung , Lee Soo Yeol 
Published: October 2013

ABSTRACTThe 3D geometry of the RF coil in use is often unavailable when the RF coil is a commercial one or the RF coil has been developed through ad hoc modification of the coil shape at the laboratory. Without the coil geometry information, making a 3D model of the RF coil may be necessary to simulate the RF coil performance using a finite difference time domain (FDTD) solver. We used a stylus‐type 3D tracker to measure the 3D positions of the landmarks on the coil wires. From the measured landmark positions, we built 3D models of the coil wires using a 3D design tool. We also carried out FDTD simulation of the RF coil performances after transferring the 3D model data to the FDTD solver. For demonstration, we built 3D models of a shoulder coil and a 36‐channel helmet‐style array coil, and we computed B1 field maps of the coils using the FDTD solver. We think the proposed method can be greatly used for FDTD simulation of the RF coils in use whose geometries are unknown. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Concepts Magn Reson Part B (Magn Reson Engineering) 43B: 126–132, 2013
Radiotherapy influences local control in patients with desmoplastic melanoma
Authors: Strom Tobin , Caudell Jimmy J. , Han Dale , Zager Jonathan S. , Yu Daohai , Cruse C. Wayne , Marzban Suroosh S. , Messina Jane L. , Trotti Andy M. , Sondak Vernon K. , Rao Nikhil G. 
Published: October 2013

BACKGROUNDDesmoplastic melanoma may have a high risk of local recurrence after wide excision. The authors hypothesized that adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) would improve local control in patients with desmoplastic melanoma, resulting in at least a 10% absolute decrease in local recurrence rate.METHODSA total of 277 patients from 1989 through 2010 who were treated for nonmetastatic desmoplastic melanoma by surgery with or without adjuvant RT were reviewed. Clinicopathologic and treatment variables were assessed with regard to their role in local control.RESULTSA total of 113 patients (40.8%) received adjuvant RT. After a median follow‐up of 43.1 months, adjuvant RT was found to be independently associated with improved local control on multivariable analysis (hazards ratio, 0.15; 95% confidence interval, 0.06‐0.39 [P < .001]). Among 35 patients with positive resection margins, 14% who received RT developed a local recurrence versus 54% who did not (P = .004). In patients with negative resection margins, there was a trend (P = .09) toward improved local control with RT. In patients with negative resection margins and traditionally high‐risk features, including a head and neck tumor location, a Breslow depth > 4 mm, or a Clark level V tumor, RT was found to significantly improve local control (P < .05). The data from the current study would suggest that patients who would be good candidates for omitting RT included those with negative resection margins, a Breslow depth ≤ 4 mm, and either no perineural invasion present or a non‐head and neck tumor location.CONCLUSIONSRT for desmoplastic melanoma was independently associated with improved local control. Patients with positive resection margins or deeper tumors appeared to benefit the most from RT, whereas selected low‐risk patients can safely omit RT. Cancer 2014;120:1369–1378. © 2013 American Cancer Society.
Cutoff for General Spin Systems with Arbitrary Boundary Conditions
Authors: Lubetzky Eyal , Sly Allan 
Published: October 2013

The cutoff phenomenon describes a sharp transition in the convergence of a Markov chain to equilibrium. In recent work, the authors established cutoff and its location for the stochastic Ising model on the d‐dimensional torus (ℤ/nℤ)d for any d ≥ ;1. The proof used the symmetric structure of the torus and monotonicity in an essential way.Here we enhance the framework and extend it to general geometries, boundary conditions, and external fields to derive a cutoff criterion that involves the growth rate of balls and the log‐Sobolev constant of the Glauber dynamics. In particular, we show there is cutoff for the stochastic Ising model on any sequence of bounded‐degree graphs with subexponential growth under arbitrary external fields provided the inverse log‐Sobolev constant is bounded. For lattices with homogenous boundary, such as all‐plus, we identify the cutoff location explicitly in terms of spectral gaps of infinite‐volume dynamics on half‐plane intersections. Analogous results establishing cutoff are obtained for nonmonotone spin systems at high temperatures, including the gas hard‐core model, the Potts model, the antiferromagnetic Potts model, and the coloring model. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.