bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Accounting, Liability in
Authors: Rockness Joanne W. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Sole practitioners to large public accounting firms continue to face potentially devastating legal liabilities. The legal basis of accountants' liability primarily lies in the U.S. Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934 and the common‐law theories of fraud, breach of contract, and negligence. The 1933 Securities Act imposes liability for actions related to initial public offerings of securities. It imposes civil and criminal liability for false statements or omissions in registration statements or if securities are sold without an accurate prospectus. The 1934 Securities Act regulates purchases and sales of securities. It imposes civil and criminal liability for false or misleading statements filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), or if an accountant intentionally deceives others through oral or written misstatements or omissions in connection with a sale or purchase of securities.
Advertising to Children, Ethics of
Authors: Gale Christopher 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
While false and grossly misleading advertising is condemned, some forms including “puffery” – partial truths and/or exaggerated suggestions and tone are accepted. This leads to cynicism toward the practice and worth of advertising, especially when children are affected. Children are particularly vulnerable especially given their poorly developed sense of critical judgment and underdeveloped sense of self. This has brought increased consumer pressure and government regulation.
Altruism and Benevolence
Authors: Blum Lawrence A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAltruism is action taken out of concern for others for their own sake. Benevolence is such concern. Altruism does not require self‐sacrifice, although it generally has more moral worth when it does than when it does not. Altruism can bring about satisfaction in the agent. But such satisfaction is seldom the motive for engaging in beneficent action, and when it is, it is not a case of altruism at all. An altruist may fail to bring about benefit to the other, but built into altruism is a concern to discern the other's good, not merely to act on what one (perhaps mistakenly) takes to be her good. As humans, we have reason to care not only that other people's well‐being is enhanced, but also, about the motives for which people engage in actions that bring that result about, even though sometimes those motives are difficult to discern.
Casuistry
Authors: Jonsen Albert R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A word coined, and almost always used, with a pejorative intent: it refers to the ability of clever and devious persons to argue, under the cover of specious moral reasons, for the rightness of their own case. Historically, this negative meaning arose out of theological disputes of the seventeenth century. At that time, Roman Catholic theologians commonly presented “cases of conscience,” short analyses of a wide variety of moral dilemmas, to educate believers about their moral duties and to help confessors judge the seriousness of sins and faults revealed to them in confession. Since that time, it is applied almost exclusively to a moral argument that is seen as overly complex, devious, and self‐justifying.
Conflict of Interest
Authors: Davis Michael 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Conflict of interest occurs if and only if
P
is in a relationship with one or more others requiring
P
to exercise judgment in their behalf, and
P
has a (special) interest tending to interfere with the proper exercise of judgment in that relationship.
P
may be an individual, corporation, or other decision‐making entity. A conflict of interest creates a loss of objectivity making
P
's judgment significantly less reliable than it would otherwise. A conflict of interest may be actual, potential, or apparent. The best response to conflict of interest is, depending on circumstances, avoidance, escape, disclosure, or management. While empirical research on conflict of interest remains thin, the overall results are clear: Conflict of interest is insidious. People, though generally aware of the conflict, generally fail to appreciate how much it is actually influencing their decisions.
Consulting, Ethics of
Authors: Toffler Barbara L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
As an organizational intervention consulting helps management understand the link between values, goals, structural design, systems and process and their impact on organizational outcomes; it may also help design and implement steps to design, re‐design and/or implement changes intended to improve performance. Asked to “make things better,” the consultant, at an ethical minimum, must do no harm. But without the review and accountability that comes with licensing and accreditation in some professions, the consultant operates essentially without established standards of practice and intervention; the client's trust in the consultant's knowledge and character is the main is the main basis for the service relationship. Furthermore, an organization's decision to bring in a consultant may by itself signal vulnerability. Little or no standard for professional accountability along with the client's vulnerability challenge the consultant to know his or her own limitations and to take seriously the admonition to “do no harm.” In consulting, ethical practice begins with recognizing the emotional and proprietary value of the business that is the subject of consultative intervention. Beyond this, other factors are crucial as well: respectful attention and action on behalf of the client; attentive listening; an effort to acquire and to understand essential relevant information; sensitivity to personal biases that may influence recommendation; and walking the line between suggesting and imposing change.
Corporate Punishment
Authors: Rafalko Robert J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The question of whether some form of punishment is appropriate and warranted for corporations that break the law centers around two chief issues. The first issue is the corporation a moral agent that can be punished? The second issue concerns the justice and effectiveness of punishment of corporations which have broken the law. Corporate punishment based on – rectification, rehabilitation, and deterrence – do have meaningful applications. While corporation cannot be incarcerated they can be fined. The U.S. Sentencing Commission issued guidelines for the sentencing of organizations. Under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, fines are to be assessed against law–breaking organizations.
Fairness
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Although closely related to concepts such as “equality” and “impartiality,” the distinctive domain of fairness is in reference to decision procedures, with the sense that cases that are similar in important respects should be decided according to similar procedures. The notion has a long history. Among the ancient Greeks, Aristotle, in particular, observed that fairness can have different specific senses in different political regimes. In recent years, fairness has received considerable attention, largely because of John Rawls's theory of “justice as fairness.” It is also discussed prominently in the literature on political obligation, social psychology of justice, and other subjects.
Marxist Ethics
Authors: Gould Carol C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Marxist ethics focus on the material and practical situation of agents. The class of an agent is especially important, because class relations have tended to be exploitive throughout history. Marx critiques capitalistic exploitation. His critique presupposes norms of freedom and justice. A more just system requires social cooperation and a community in which all free and equal individuals can flourish. Marx insists upon the need for trade unions to protect exploited persons. Marx's view would seem to support economic democracy (e.g., employee stock ownership) as well.
Stockholder
Authors: Clarkson Max B.E. , Deck Michael 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A shareholder, also called stockholder, is the owner of one or more shares of the authorized common stock issued by a corporation. Despite having certain rights, the shareholders do not own the corporation. The board of directors, elected by the stockholders, is legally responsible for the management of the corporation. The fiduciary duty of the board is to the corporation itself and not solely to the stockholders in order to maximize their wealth.
Trust
Authors: Hosmer LaRue T. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Trust is essentially the reliance of one person, group or firm upon the cooperative and/or beneficial actions of another person, group or firm. As such trust is critical for the well being of society. The problem is that the construct of trust has been used, with vastly different definitions for vastly different applications in the conceptual frameworks of vastly different disciplines: psychology, social psychology, sociology, organizational behavior, corporate strategy, and economic theory.
This entry on trust cites twelve definitions for different applications by different disciplines. All have an implicit moral assumption of behavior that can be considered to be right and just and fair. The trust entry concludes that there is a need to make this assumption explicit rather than implicit, with the proposed wording “Trust is the expectation by one person, group or firm of ethically justifiable behavior – that is, morally correct decisions and actions based up ethical principles of analysis – on the part of the other person, group or firm in a joint endeavor or cooperative exchange.”
Values
Authors: Ozar David T. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The use of the word “values” and its cognates in ordinary speech is explained and then the role of the concept,
values
, in people's explanations of their actions and in moral/ethical thinking generally is explained along with its role in those moral theories, commonly labeled “utilitarianism” or “consequentialism,” for which, the basis of correct moral judgment consists precisely in determining which of the available alternatives maximizes intrinsic values.
China, Business Ethics In
Authors: Enderle Georges , Lu Xiaohe 
Published: January 2015

AbstractBusiness ethics faces a vast array of daunting challenges in China. Because of the country's size and the pace of change, developing business ethics in China is a highly complex task. The approach must be comprehensive as well as differentiated. To focus solely on what individuals and organizations can and should do does not suffice; and to deal only with questions of the economic system is not sufficient either. Instead, business ethics in China has to come to grips with all three levels, the individual, organizational, and systemic. It has to speed up and strengthen its reform by contributing to and implementing reasonable international standards in technical, legal, and ethical terms. As a major economic power, China is expected to play a constructive and responsible part in shaping globalization.
Efficient Markets
Authors: Lenn D. J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The market system is deemed efficient when it uses and allocates resources by means of the price mechanism so as to minimize cost while satisfying demand. This definition is aligned with that of Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), who described “optimality” as the point at which a change in the market leads to some people being better off without anyone else being worse off. His work laid the foundation for the development of modern welfare economics with its focus on how to correct imperfections in the operation of the market to alleviate income inequalities.
Employment at Will
Authors: Werhane Patricia H. , Radin Tara J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Employment at will (EAW), a common law doctrine dating back to 1887, states that absent law, contract obligations, or (in the U.S.) union agreements, employers have the right to hire, promote, demote, and fire whomever and whenever they wish “for a good cause, for no cause, or even for causes that are morally wrong, thereby without being guilty of legal wrong”. Effectively, EAW lets employers sidestep due process and grievance procedures. Legal trends in the U.S. indicate expanding EAW protections for employees, particularly where discrimination is an issue, and disallowing practices that curtail employees' rights as citizens, e.g., voting or collecting unemployment. EAW may be justified on the basis of employers' proprietary rights; co‐equal rights of employees who voluntarily contract to be hired to quit at will; transparency of the law and practice; avoiding time consumed in due process activities that reduce productivity; and avoiding legal requirements that may undermine employer/employee relationship. Critics of EAW suggest it may be seen as justifying arbitrary management behavior that is at odds with a preference for consistent and rational decision‐making.
Hinduism and Business Ethics
Authors: Prakash Sethi S. , Steidlmeier Paul 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Hinduism is one of the dominant religions of India. It has evolved over a period of 3000 years and in the process absorbed a multitude of beliefs and valuesover the ages through global trade with people from other nations.

Nevertheless, the basic tenets of the Hindu religion remain firmly ensconced in the psyche and value set of its followers. These include:
Samsara
which suggests a continuous cycle of life–death–rebirth where one's current life reflects one's actions in the previous life, and where one's actions in the current life would reflect one's status in the next life. Other tenets include
Dharma
, that is, one's duty;
Karma
(manifest destiny), and ultimately,
Nirvana
, when one's merger with GOD and in thus freed form worldly cycle of life + death and rebirth.

At an intellectual level, Hindu religion provides both a basis for moral values and a prescriptive mode that influences one's conduct and actions. This flexibility in interpretation allows Hindus to adapt to different religions and mores. This approach has led India's leading companies to imitate the conduct of their foreign MNCs and adopt their exploitative practices for their own benefit while bemoaning the poverty and misery of the masses as their manifest destiny (
Karma
).
Human Resource Management, Ethical Issues in
Authors: Davidson Martin N. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractHuman resource management (HRM) is the science of managing people systematically in organizations. The unique individual actor in the organization—a given executive, manager, line worker—is not the focus of HRM, per se. Rather, human resource practices and policies concerning recurring cycles of staffing, reward and compensation, and performance management inform how any person or group of people is introduced into the organization, managed while there, and exited from the organization. When these three overarching aspects of human resource management are designed effectively, the organization benefits from a management system that enhances the sustained competitive advantage of the organization. In this entry, we outline critical ethical challenges that emerge throughout the human resource management cycle.
International Society of Business, Economics, and Ethics
Authors: Enderle Georges 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

ISBEE, formed in 1989, is the first worldwide professional association to focus exclusively on the study of business, economics, and ethics, involving people not only with academic competencies but also with practical competencies in responsible management positions, as well as entrepreneurs of medium and small enterprises. Its mission is to provide a forum for the exchange of experiences and ideas; to enhance cooperation in cross‐functional and cross‐cultural projects; and to discuss the ethical dimension of economic, social, and environmental issues which affect companies nationally and international. A culminating event of ISBEE's activities is the World Congress of Business, Economics, and Ethics, held every four years. Past congresses have taken place in Tokyo (1996), Sao Paulo (2000), Melbourne (2004), Cape Town (2008), and Warsaw (2012). The next World Congress will take place in Shanghai (2016). Selected contributions to the congresses were published in books and special issues of journals. Web site:
http://www.isbee.org
.
Islam and Business Ethics
Authors: Sachedina Abdulaziz A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Islam, the third and last of the Abrahamic religions to emerge, literally means “submission to God's will.” It was proclaimed by Muhammad (born 570 CE), the Prophet of Islam and the founder of Islamic public order, in the seventh century CE in Mecca, Arabia. Mecca was the most important trading center of western and central Arabia. Meccans played a dominant role in the creation of a culture that developed and nurtured a socioeconomic system based on Islamic justice. Islam required a good public order in which spiritual interests were organically related to individual material well‐being. Hence, the law of the marketplace was given almost equal weight with the regulations connected with acts of worship in the mosque. The market mechanism is an integral part of the Islamic economic system because the institution of private property depends on it for its operation. It also provides for consumers to express their desires for the production of goods of their liking by their willingness to pay the price. But the profit motive that is essential for the operation of free enterprise, if not controlled, could also become a tool of greed and violate the Islamic goals of social and economic justice and equitable distribution of income and wealth. For perspective, the article addresses the market economy and contractual relations, citing historical aspects, concerns, and several principles; Sharia and the emergence of principles from cases; market ethics and the charging of interest (riba); and contemporary attitudes toward interest (riba).
J
apan, business ethics in
Authors: Taka Iwao 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
In Japan, ethics is bound up with a religious dimension (two normative environments) and a social dimension (a framework of concentric circles). The normative environments, influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and other traditional and modern Japanese religions, emphasize that not only individuals but also groups have their own spirit (numen). The framework of concentric circles lets moral agents apply different ethical rules to the circles. The dynamics of these religious and social dimensions lead to a different view of both individuals and corporations from that dominant in the West. There are mainly two influential normative environments in Japan: the transcendental normative environment and the group normative environment. Although there are many individuals, groups, and organizations that, taken together, constitute the overall social environment, the Japanese are likely to categorize them into four concentric circles: family, fellows, Japan, and the world. To provide opportunities for others to enter the Japanese market, as an ethical responsibility, Japanese corporations should have access channels through which newcomers can approach equally.
Monopoly
Authors: Natale Samuel M. , Sora Sebastian A. , Libertella Anthony F. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Monopoly is exclusive control over producing and/or selling a commodity or service. By definition, a monopoly is a market in which new entrants are barred from entering. It may be held by the state or by a private interest. Moreover, it may be owing to the nature of the commodity, or it can be established by legislation. Such factors as original patents and sizable initial investment in start‐up costs may discourage others from entering a market until a break through, disruptive technology/process, is created. Monopolies raise at least three closely related moral issues: (i) a basic issue of justice in price (commutative justice); (ii) the issue of efficiency of the economic system amidst concentration of power (distributive justice); and (iii) the issue of corruption and other negative effects on economic society. The legal environment is now different as several regulations were created when national boundaries were the sphere of influence: the Interstate Commerce Act, the Sherman Antitrust Act, and the Clayton Act of the Federal Trade Commission Act. Now with globalism, these laws have less significance. Monopolies are open to the kinds of concerns that characterize a general corruption of the system and a wounding of society.
P
areto Optimality
Authors: Clyman Dana R. , Tripp Thomas M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A Pareto optimal allocation is one from which it is impossible to improve any party's share without diminishing the share of another party. When allocating resources, whether through a negotiation process, political process, or simply by edict, the question arises: How do you know whether the final allocation is a “good” one? Regardless of one's philosophy, a necessary condition for “goodness” with which few people would argue is Pareto optimality. One would never want to accept a non‐Pareto optimal allocation, because such an allocation could always be improved upon for at least one party–if not for all parties – without requiring any sacrifice from any other party.
Stakeholder Theory
Authors: Freeman R. Edward 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
In the traditional view of the firm, the shareholder view, the shareholders or stockholders are the owners of the company, and the firm has a binding financial obligation to put their needs first, to increase value for them. However, stakeholder theory argues that there are other parties involved, including governmental bodies, political groups, trade associations, trade unions, communities, financiers, suppliers, employees, and customers. Sometimes even competitors are counted as stakeholders—their status being derived from their capacity to affect the firm and its other stakeholders.
Sweatshops
Authors: Arnold Denis G. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe term “sweatshop” is typically used to denote a factory where workers are subjected to working conditions that harm their well‐being (e.g., dangerous health and safety conditions, extremely low wages, extremely long work hours, physical or psychological abuse by supervisors, and disregard for local labor laws). The article outlines the debate between those who argue that sweatshops are necessary for developing countries to attract much needed foreign direct investments and those who claim that such arguments cannot justify exploitation of workers. It outlines a third approach which calls on voluntary commitments of multinational corporations to improve labor conditions in developing countries.
Taxation, Ethics of
Authors: Roin Julie A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
In the United States, “tax ethics” are prescribed by law for federal tax purposes. Both taxpayers and their advisors must adhere to behavioral standards exquisitely detailed by statute and administrative regulation; failure to adhere to those standards, leads to the imposition of monetary (and even criminal) penalties and, in the case of providers, the possible loss of the right to represent clients before the taxing authorities. These standards have become more demanding over time. This entry provides a short description of the current statutory and regulatory regime.