bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
State Law Enforcement
Authors: Burns Ronald G. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
State police agencies in the United States have geographical jurisdiction over their respective state and provide a variety of law enforcement services. They emerged at various points throughout the history of the United States, often in response to problematic incidents. State law enforcement agencies continue to grow in size, and recent concerns for homeland security have expanded their responsibilities. The agencies have statewide jurisdiction, and some have general legal jurisdiction while others are restricted to serving specific law enforcement functions. State law enforcement agencies vary in organization and function. Highway patrol is an important function of state agencies, although they also perform a wide array of other services, including conducting investigations, protecting natural resources, and training other law enforcement agencies. In addition to the primary state law enforcement agencies, various special jurisdiction agencies provide law enforcement services at the state level. As such, states may have specific‐jurisdiction investigative divisions or agencies which are typically narrow in focus and address specific types of crimes and regulatory offenses.
Prisons
Authors: Emeka Traqina Q. , Emeka Franklin C. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPrisons developed from the philosophy of punishing the offender. Classical criminology provided the theoretical foundation for the creation of institutions for the punishment of those who have been adjudicated criminal. Initially, the goal of prison systems was to correct deviant behavior and thus return offenders to society. The Auburn System and the Pennsylvania System were the first prison systems and each sought to correct behavior through repentance and training. Retribution, incarceration, deterrence, and rehabilitation have been the reasons for incarcerating offenders in prisons in the United States. Professionalization of corrections in the 1960s changed the way prisons operated. No longer were prison closed institutions; they became open institutions that encouraged professionalism in prison management, administration, and correctional staff. Even so, prisons today continue to reflect many of the goals of early prisons.
Quasi‐Experimental Designs
Authors: Shelley Gregory P. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Quasi‐experimental designs are any experimental designs that are not considered “true experiments.” True experiments are ones in which participants are randomly assigned to different experimental groups. Quasi‐experimental designs lack random assignment of participants to experimental groups. Such designs are very common, particularly in the social sciences, because it is often impossible, impractical, or unethical to use random assignment.
Victimization Patterns
Authors: Morris, Sherill V. C. , Rockett, Jennifer L. , Elechi O. Oko 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Once we have crimes, there are victims of crimes, but not everyone has an equal risk of being a victim; therefore, personal victimization rates are not evenly distributed throughout the population. Research has found that many factors, called correlates of crime, may put individuals at risk of victimization, and include: demographics (age, gender, race, ethnicity, and marital status), spatial and temporal factors, neighborhood, and types of offender. Certain demographic groups are found to be more likely to be victims of crimes than others: for example, age, gender, race, and income will affect personal lifestyle and therefore home life, schooling, recreation, and work. Lifestyles will then affect the individual's contact with dangerous people, places, and times.
Domestic Violence
Authors: Brown Bethany 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDomestic violence is clearly not a new problem, as it dates back to ancient times where men were in charge of and controlled women. Women were seen as the property of men and as the continuation of the family name and heritage. As a result, women were subject to the control of husbands or fathers. Because of their status in relation to that of men, if a woman was to act out, punishments were handed down to the husband, as well as the woman. Therefore, to control the wife, it was an acceptable solution for the husband to confine, beat, torture, and even kill her. Today, domestic violence is considered a serious crime that has evolved from focusing just on the female spouse to include unmarried women, in addition to males in the relationships.
Broken Windows
Authors: Crawford Charles 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
James Q. Wilson and George Kelling's “broken windows” article is one of the most widely cited and influential articles in policing. The authors proposed that focusing police activities on disorder and regulation would lead to reductions in serious crime. During the 1990s many of the nation's largest police departments embraced this simple metaphor and began implementing their own versions. The original theory is not without shortcomings, however, and both academics and practitioners continue to debate and refine the concepts involved.
Environmental Crime
Authors: Mailley Jen 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEnvironmental crime is a term commonly used in popular culture that encapsulates a wide range of activities that typically include water, air, and soil pollution. These crimes include the illegal trade in ozone‐depleting substances; activities that cause direct and indirect harm to nonhumans; and the loss of biodiversity due to illegal fishing, deforestation, and illegal trade in flora and fauna. Pollution in its colloquial and broadest sense ranges from the pollution of the atmosphere by greenhouse gas emissions, to littering on the street. Transnational Environmental Crime is a term used to refer to these activities when they cross national boundaries, and also encompasses carbon fraud and corruption related to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) schemes.
Prison Administration
Authors: Stojkovic Stan 
Published: January 2014

AbstractLeadership concerns and management functions define the essential elements of prison administration. While for most prisons there is not a formal title of “prison leader” or “prison manager,” there are persons in administrative positions who take on leadership roles and perform management duties. Leadership involves the articulation of both mission and vision, while management involves the accomplishment of specific tasks. Both leadership and management are needed for effective prison administration to exist. We have developed and paid attention to the management concerns of prison administrators but very little attention to the development of mission and vision among them.
Delinquency Prevention
Authors: Miller Riane N. , Fagan Abigail A. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Juvenile delinquency has been and continues to be a major concern to parents, the public, and policy makers. Due to this fact, there has been a growing interest in the prevention of delinquency. The essay provides an overview of the current research on delinquency prevention. This includes a review of risk and promotive/protective factors identified through empirical research as influencing involvement in crime, a discussion of effective delinquency prevention programs that target these factors, and information on delinquency programs that have been demonstrated to be ineffective in reducing delinquency. The essay concludes with a brief discussion of important next steps in delinquency prevention research.
Kidnapping
Authors: Toggia Pietro 
Published: January 2014

AbstractKidnapping is generally and generically defined as the intentional act of forcefully holding, carrying away, and confining a person. Kidnapping relates to and somewhat overlaps with such offenses as abduction, false imprisonment, unlawful restraint, and custodial interference. Kidnapping, as a state or federal offense, encompasses varying forms such as simple kidnapping, aggravated kidnapping, and parental kidnapping. Simple kidnapping involves taking, asportation, or removal and holding of a person. Aggravated kidnapping is the taking and holding of a person with intent to benefit from the act through ransom, robbery, or any form of property or financial reward. Parental kidnapping is the taking of one's child in violation of judicial custody or an illegal act of interference with parental custody and visitation rights.
Juvenile Violence
Authors: Singer Simon I. , Rocque Michael 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe reasons for juvenile violence appear related to adolescence. Life course, frustration, and status‐anxiety perspectives are all related to incidences of violence, along with possible familial, educational, and peer group influences. Contemporary responses to juvenile violence include prevention and treatment programs as well as laws that mandate that juveniles receive lengthy adult‐like sentences in criminal court.
McCord,Joan
Authors: Gover Angela R. , Tunstall Ashley M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJoan McCord is best known for the use of experimental methodology and longitudinal data in her research. Throughout her career, McCord maintained a consistent focus on investigating the effectiveness of various interventions for youth. One of her greatest contributions was the classic evaluation of the Cambridge‐Somerville Youth Study. This was the first longitudinal experiment conducted in criminology. One of McCord's subsequent studies utilized data from the Cambridge‐Somerville Youth Project to examine the effects of child rearing characteristics on adult men.
Prisonization
Authors: Naderi Nader 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
“Prisonization” refers to the process by which inmates adapt to prison life by adopting the mores and customs of inmate subcultures. Some regard prisonization as the socialization of inmates to the culture of prison. Prisonization of inmates enhances successful participation in prison society and results in the continuity of prison culture. Prisonization, like socialization, is an educational process whereby inmates learn prison culture through social interaction. Several models have been employed to explain the origins of inmate subcultures, namely deprivation, importation, integrated/multilevel, and situational.
Matza,David
Authors: Wolf Aaron , Gaspar Donessa L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDavid Matza's collaboration with Gresham Sykes during the 1950s on techniques of neutralization represents an important contribution to understanding how deviant behavior can be accomplished by an otherwise “good” person. Additionally, Matza's idea of drifting in and out of delinquency established a new framework for exploring juvenile and adult deviant behavior.
Interpol
Authors: Marks Rubin Marilyn , Walker Michael C. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

With its 190 member nations, Interpol is the world's largest international police organization. Its primary objective is to reduce criminal activity across the world by facilitating the cross‐border exchange of police information and promoting cooperation among law enforcement authorities in its member nations. One of Interpol's most important functions is to assist its members through the issuance of
notices
that facilitate the sharing of crime‐related information among countries and are the main instruments of international police cooperation. These notices are discussed in this entry, as are the databases provided by Interpol to law enforcement authorities in its member countries who are connected through a secure communications system giving them real‐time access to current global crime data.
Prisons for Juveniles
Authors: Naples Michelle 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe nature of juvenile corrections has changed over the course of different eras in juvenile justice. Juvenile correctional facilities (prisons for juveniles) represent the most restrictive type of placement in the juvenile justice system. Security of the juvenile correctional facility and its staff and residents is a primary concern. Youth placed in juvenile correctional facilities are not representative of the general population of youth, with boys and minority youth (particularly African American youth) confined at disproportionate rates. Despite constitutional rights to reasonable safety, adequate medical and mental health care, rehabilitative treatment, and education for youth in confinement, juvenile correctional facilities vary widely in terms of the quality and extent of services and programming offered. States differ in terms of how placement, commitment length, and release decisions are made. Recent trends in juvenile corrections include moving away from large, congregate facilities in favor of small, regional facilities, and an emphasis on the adoption of evidence‐based practices, which research has shown to be effective in reducing offending.
Repeat Victimization
Authors: Cernat Charlie T. , Moloney Joseph 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Repeat victimization can be understood as repeat targets; those targets can be persons (e.g. a victim of domestic violence), objects (e.g. motor vehicle), or property (e.g. a precise address, a business chain with several locations). According to a typology of repeat victimization, victims can be classified into four types, namely true repeat victims, near victims, virtual repeats, and chronic victims.
Chambliss, William
Authors: Burke Alison S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWilliam Chambliss is a professor of sociology and is best known for his work in criminology and sociology of the law. He has received numerous awards, including the prestigious Edwin H. Sutherland Award from the American Society of Criminology, which recognizes outstanding contributions to theory or research in criminology, law, or justice. He has published more than 20 books addressing conflict criminology and social problems.
Bail
Authors: Lateano Thomas A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBail is a means by which a criminal court will release individuals formally accused of a crime while ensuring their appearance at future court proceedings. It is a form of collateral established by the court and provided by the defendants or a third party on the defendants' behalf. The collateral is held by the court and forfeited if the defendants fail to meet the obligations of their pretrial release. If the defendants meet their bail obligation, the collateral is then returned. Once set, bail may subsequently be revoked if a condition of release is violated. Finally, bail may also be reduced or increased if the new risk assessment and applicable laws support the determination.
Families
Authors: Sugie Naomi F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry provides an overview of the relationship between the role of families and criminal offending. It discusses how sociological theories of crime perceive families as either regulators or facilitators of criminal behavior, and how the role of families for offending changes throughout the life course. The entry also describes the consequences of crime and punishment, specifically incarceration, for the families of offenders. It concludes by suggesting future areas of fruitful research at the intersection of criminal justice and families.
Determinate Sentencing
Authors: Johnson Jermaine A. , Sterling RaShaunda V. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Determinate sentencing, based on fixed or flat sentences, reemerged in the late 1970s to enhance punishment and limit disparity in punishment by limiting the discretion of judges, as well as prison and parole authorities, in the United States. New sentencing guidelines, established by legislatures throughout the country, often replaced indeterminate sentences with mandatory fixed sentences for many felony offenses. Mandatory sentences, three‐strike laws, and truth in sentencing are often associated with determinate sentencing. Despite the benefits of determinate sentencing, it is not without controversy. For example, there is evidence some measures were unconstitutional and that determinate sentences caused severe overcrowding in prison systems throughout the United States.
Tannenbaum, Frank
Authors: Geis Gilbert 
Published: January 2014

AbstractFrank Tannenbaum is recognized as a major figure in labeling and symbolic interaction theories. His interpretation of how law‐abiding groups create outcasts when wrongdoers violate social norms and behaviors is a process called “the dramatization of evil.” Tannenbaum, who had a brief stint in prison, is also well known for his work in correctional reform.
Lombroso, Cesare
Authors: Shichor David 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Cesare Lombroso, often referred to as the “father of modern criminology,” applied biological positivism to the study of criminal behavior. He is, perhaps, best known for his classification of criminals as born criminals and criminoloids (minor offenders). Born criminals were labeled by Lombroso as atavistic or evolutionary throwbacks. Though his work is often fraught with criticisms, his contributions to anthropology and criminology furthered the use of the scientific method and objective empirical inquiry, which served as an important foundation for future research in criminology.
Training in Corrections
Authors: Bailey Diana 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe inmate population has increased rapidly in the United States, with an estimated 2.3 million individuals incarcerated in 2008. Correctional personnel are responsible for the safety of the offenders, staff, and the public. With increasing numbers of offenders and understaffing of correctional officers within the corrections system, effective training is paramount. The screening process and types of training across correctional agencies are examined. This entry discusses the struggles that correctional personnel face within the institution, and the importance of training when handling inmates while maintaining safety and order.
Department of Homeland Security
Authors: Smith Carter F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created through the integration of all or part of 22 different federal departments and agencies into a unified, integrated department. The Homeland Security department assumed a large number of services, offices, and other organizations previously conducted in other departments, such as the Customs Service, Coast Guard, and US Secret Service. Homeland security leverages resources within federal, state, and local governments, coordinating the transition of multiple agencies and programs into a single, integrated agency focused on protecting the American people and their homeland. The three primary objectives of the National Strategy for Homeland Security are to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States; to reduce America's vulnerability to terrorism; and to minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur.
Shaw, Clifford
Authors: Prior Nicole 
Published: January 2014

AbstractClifford Shaw was best known for his work at the University of Chicago and for his development of the Chicago Area Project. Shaw in collaboration with Henry McKay further explored social disorganization by developing what was perhaps the first crime‐mapping analysis. Their work explained delinquency rates in Chicago using the Concentric Zone Model and discovered the highest level of offending in transition areas marked by poverty.
Justice on the American Frontier
Authors: George Eichenberg M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis article examines the process of crime and punishment on the American frontier beginning with the transplantation of English common law in the seventeenth century and covering the evolution of criminal justice practices as pioneers pushed American boundaries further west over the next 200 years. What becomes clear is that a variety of practices developed depending on the types of crime and disorder faced on each frontier, both geographically and temporally.
Abuse of Animals
Authors: Walsh Jeffrey A. , Krienert Jessie L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe abuse of animals for a variety of purposes has been documented throughout history. Today, amidst growing societal concern for the health and welfare of animals, empirical evidence establishes linkages between the abuse of animals and human aggression. Of particular interest has been the association between domestic violence perpetration and victimization and the role of animal abuse in some of these complex relationship dynamics. Further, the exploitation of exotic animals for profit has reached new heights, putting even greater numbers of animals at risk of abuse and neglect.
Date Rape
Authors: M. Tucker Jane 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe term date rape emerged in the mid‐1980s to specify a type of rape that occurs within the dating relationship. Since that time, researchers have focused attention on the previously overlooked crime of date rape and the historical and social issues that led to the minimization of this crime. This entry reviews existing research on the prevalence of date rape, historical views of women, rape, and the concept of “rape myths.” Additionally, current legal and social responses to the crime of date rape are reviewed.
Prison Work
Authors: Dhami Mandeep K. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In many jurisdictions, those sentenced to prison may be required to work while in prison. The type of work ranges from menial work, such as cleaning the institution, to private and/or public industrial work, vocational training, and work‐release programs. Assumed benefits of prison work include increasing prisoners' employment opportunities upon release and reducing recidivism. Some empirical evidence supports these assumptions, although much of the research is methodologically flawed; for example, many are characterized by sample‐selection bias. Despite potential benefits, prison work has been criticized for exploiting prisoners, not always being a productive use of inmates' time, and lacking rehabilitative value.
Distance Learning
Authors: Perlin Michael L. , Cucolo Heather Ellis 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Distance learning is a progressive pedagogy aimed at offering online courses to students of all ages, professions, and specializations. Advances in technology and internet capabilities have increased the demand for and availability of distance education. Online courses can be developed using synchronous and asynchronous delivery of information and incorporate a variety of formats. By offering information in a virtual classroom, institutions can reach a diverse population of students who are no longer constrained by geographic location and the necessity of in‐class physical presence. In addition, distance learning offers many benefits to individuals with disabilities who may otherwise be unable to participate effectively in a traditional classroom setting. Schools have the opportunity to enhance their enrollment and reputation through highlighting a specific area of study but must be willing to forgo consistent face‐to‐face interaction between instructors and students and overcome ingrained conceptualizations of education that remain resistant to moving outside of a traditional classroom environment.
Extortion and Blackmail
Authors: Cahill Michael T. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The crimes of extortion and blackmail have been in existence for centuries; however, there is some confusion about the nature of and similarities between the two crimes. While the Model Penal Code offers most jurisdictions definitional parameters, there still exists much diversity among existing statutory definitions in the United States. Blackmail is a complex crime that involves various dimensions of threat, whereas extortion involves conditional threats against victims. The intricacies of each crime are discussed along with various theoretical perspectives.