bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
APPLICATIONS OF BAYESIAN METHODS TO THE PREDICTION OF EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Novick Melvin R. , Jackson Paul H. , Thayer Dorothy T. , Cole Nancy S. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe feasibility and effectiveness of a Bayesian method, due to Lindley, for estimating regressions in m groups is studied by application of the method to data from the Basic Research Service of The American College Testing Program. Evidence is found to support the belief that in many testing applications the collateral information obtained from each subset of m ‐ 1 colleges will be useful for the estimation of the regression in the mthcollege. Specifically, on cross‐validation in a second sample, the Bayesian predictions had a smaller mean squared error in each of the 22 colleges, the reduction averaging 9.7%, when compared with the least squares predictions when four predictor variables were used on a quarter sample in 22 colleges with initial within‐college sample sizes ranging from 26 to 184. Furthermore, even when based on the full sample within each college, the least squares predictions had an average cross‐validated mean squared error only barely less than the Bayesian predictions based on the quarter sample. The most apparent benefit of the Bayesian method is that it permits regression to be done in subpopulations (e.g., male‐female) where sample sizes are small and where the regressions are different in the subpopulations. In the present study a decrease of more than 10% in mean squared error was obtained using this approach.
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR NONRANDOMIZED DATA
Authors: Hall Charles E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe technique of analysis of covariance is examined for its relevance to educational and psychological investigations. A study of the arithmetic procedures, history, and statistical properties shows that, though the concepts are relevant to many data collection designs, the customary calculations are often inappropriate. Some suggestions are made relevant to altering the arithmetic procedures or the data collection design under some common conditions encountered in educational and psychological studies.
STATE AS AN INFANT‐ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION: AN ANALYSIS OF MOTHER‐INFANT BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF SEX1
Authors: Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAfter a review of the literature it was proposed that state be defined in terms of an infant‐environment interaction. In order to investigate state differences as well as individual differences in state, it was necessary to explore and discuss various types of interactive processes and analyses. Having accomplished this task, empirical data were presented which seemed to support the proposed model of state, namely that infant condition (behavior) alone was insufficient to describe state since often the same condition had widely different consequences which in turn should affect future conditions. The data also revealed individual differences as a function of the sex of the infant. Briefly, girls received more distal responses to the same behavior for which boys received proximal responses. This was discussed as an important source of individual variance and its effect on subsequent cognitive functioning.
PROJECT ACCESS RESEARCH REPORT #2 PATTERNS OF TEST PERFORMANCE BY HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS OF FOUR ETHNIC IDENTITIES1
Authors: Flaugher Ronald L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAmong the four participating ethnic groups in Project Access for Los Angeles (Black, White, Mexican‐American, and Oriental), the patterns of test performance that emerged were surprisingly similar to those from two previous studies of first‐grade children, even though Access involved eleventh graders. Partially replicated was the finding that overall level of performance varied with social class, while the patterns remained rather constant within ethnic group, regardless of social class.This new evidence adds to the strength of the argument that our educational systems should be attending to, and utilizing, the variety of talents and aptitudes presented by the students, rather than attempting to treat everyone as a member of the majority group.
A STUDY OF TEST SPEEDEDNESS AS A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF BIAS IN THE ADMISSION TEST FOR GRADUATE STUDY IN BUSINESS QUANTITATIVE SCORE1
Authors: Evans Franklin R. , Reilly Richard R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTMinority and majority groups were administered a special quantitative section of the Admission Test for Graduate Study in Business (ATGSB) under varying time conditions to determine if increasing the time allotted for the test would eliminate any bias which may exist due to an irrelevant speed factor. By a commonly employed definition the special section was found to be moderately speeded for all candidates under normal time conditions. Neither the main effects due to time condition nor the interaction between the ethnic and time factor reached significant levels suggesting that increasing the time per item does not reduce any bias which may exist in the test. Although a substantial proportion of minority group scores fell at or below the chance level, these scores appeared to retain fairly high levels of reliability.
SUBJECTIVE ESTIMATES OF CONSONANT PHONEME FREQUENCIES1
Authors: Carroll John B. , Lamendella John T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSubjective magnitude estimates of the frequencies of 24 consonant phonemes were obtained from 65 university students, some with training in linguistics, by a method that had been used by Attneave (1953) for judgments of letter frequencies. Reliabilities of averaged judgments for comparably sized groups of 30 judges were estimated as in the neighborhood of .95. Averages of logarithmically transformed judgments were correlated with log frequencies from objective counts with coefficients in the range .736 to .876 (or .764 to .907 when corrected for attenuation). Despite the high reliabilities and predictive validities, there was evidence that the judgments were strongly influenced by experienced frequencies of letters of the alphabet.
MOTHER‐INFANT DYAD: THE CRADLE OF MEANING
Authors: Lewis Michael , Freedle Roy 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe interest of this paper was to explore the early communication network that exists between a mother and her 12‐week‐old infant. Over 50 infants of both sexes from a variety of social classes were seen in their homes. A wide variety of maternal and infant behaviors were studied. Of special interest was the vocalization‐in‐communication data. The results indicate a lawful, consistent, and predictable pattern of communication and suggest that meaning is being established at the very beginning of life.
EFFECTS OF AGE AND FAMILIARITY OF EXAMINER ON TEST PERFORMANCE
Authors: Orost Jean H. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThree third‐grade, three sixth‐grade, and three adult female examiners tested 108 kindergarten and third‐grade girls, half of whom were familiar to them, on three individually administered measures.No differences in performance on any measure as a function of familiarity were found at either grade level. No differences by examiners of different ages were noted on the numerical test, while differences in favor of the third‐grade examiners were found on the classification test (p = .07, n.s.) and on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) vocabulary subtest (p = .01).The effects of interpersonal and task‐related variables were discussed, along with implications for peer instruction.
PATTERNS OF TEST AND ITEM DIFFICULTY FOR SIX FOREIGN LANGUAGE GROUPS ON THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Authors: Angoff William H. , Sharon Amiel T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwo‐factor analyses of variance with multiple measurements on one factor were conducted for the five sections of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and six language groups, and also for the items of each section, based on data collected at the first administration of this form of the test, in October 1969. The principal findings, that the Test x Group interaction and the Item x Group interactions were significant, indicated that some tests and some items were relatively more difficult for some language groups than for others.Displays of the Item x Group interactions were made by analyzing the item difficulty plots for each language group against a spaced sample of all candidates taking this form of the test in October 1969. A measure of the deviation of each item from the central tendency of the plot was developed, expressing the degree to which the item was especially difficult—or easy— for a particular language group relative to the other items. Distributions of these measures are given for each of the five parts of TOEFL, for each of the six language groups.
THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION FOR THREE KINDS OF MATHEMATICS APTITUDE ITEMS1
Authors: Pike Lewis W. , Evans Franklin R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA different Instructional program was developed for each of three mathematics aptitude item formats to determine the relative susceptibility of each to special instruction. Male and female high school junior volunteers in each of 12 schools were given a pretest composed of items of each format and a parallel form as a posttest several weeks later. In the intervening time experimental Ss received seven weeks (21 hours) of instruction directed at one of the three formats, while control Ss received no special instruction.Pretest to posttest gains were analyzed in a two‐way (sex by instructional group) multivariate analysis of covariance. The six dependent variables were the geometry and nongeometry posttest scores for each of the item formats. The seven covariates included the pretest scores corresponding to the six dependent variables and the SAT‐verbal (SAT‐V) pretest score.Results of the statistical analysis showed that each of the three item formats was susceptible to the special instruction specifically directed toward it. The complex or novel item formats appeared to be more susceptible than the relatively straightforward item format. Female volunteers were found to be slightly less able mathematically at the outset and to benefit somewhat less from the instruction than male volunteers. Mean gains of nearly a full standard deviation obtained by the groups instructed for the complex or novel formats were considered to be of practical consequence and likely to influence admission decisions.The results of the study were consistent for all 12 schools. Although no group received instruction for the SAT‐M per se, substantial pre‐ to posttest gains on that measure were also observed. Further analysis revealed that instruction, particularly for the complex or novel formats, was effective in at least two ways. S>s appeared to have learned a systematic approach to the item format as well as some very basic mathematical concepts.
RESPONSE STYLES AND 16 PF HIGHER ORDER FACTORS1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study's aim was to explore the relationship of acquiescence, social desirability (SD), and defensiveness response styles with first, second, and any higher order factors on the 16 PF. All the various kinds of response bias indexes were appreciably correlated with the first order factor scales. Each kind of response style measure predominantly loaded a different second order factor—four such factors were extracted, three of them corresponding to well established 16 PF second order factors. SD scales defined a novel factor somewhat resembling an anxiety factor, and acquiescence and defensiveness measures loaded but did not define independence and anxiety factors, respectively. None of the various kinds of response style indexes consistently loaded an extroversion factor. And none loaded the single third order factor obtained. This factor was not similar to previously reported 16 PF third order factors and its nature was unclear.
A COMPARISON OF SELECTED SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS MEASURES BASED ON LONGITUDINAL DATA1
Authors: Marco Gary L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to compare five methods of computing school effectiveness indices (SEIs) from longitudinal data. The five methods were within‐school regression, within‐school regression corrected for the unreliability of measurement, mean difference scores, average individual residual scores (based on the regression of student output scores on student input scores), and school residual scores (based on the regression of school mean output scores on school mean input scores). The sample consisted of 3,769 third‐graders from 70 elementary schools in the Midwest. The raw data consisted of Total Reading scores from the Metropolitan Primary II Achievement Test administered in Fall 1970 and Spring 1971.While the various school effectiveness indices differed from one another and in their correlations with other variables, little evidence could be found for the lack of validity of any school effectiveness index. Further, all of the school effectiveness indices were highly stable across samples, except for the school effectiveness indices for initially high‐scoring students. Finally, predictions from nonlongitudinal data furnished reasonable estimates of school effectiveness as measured by one of the school effectiveness indices.The methods should be tried out at other grade levels. Further, the stabilities of the various school effectiveness indices across years should be studied.
SIMPLIFIED FORMULAS FOR STANDARD ERRORS IN MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Jennrich Robert I. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTStandard errors for maximum likelihood estimates of factor loadings are expressed in terms of the inverse of an augmented information matrix. This formulation arises naturally by viewing the problem as one in constrained maximum likelihood estimation. The constraints correspond to the form of rotation used. Results are given for canonical rotation and analytic rotations in the orthomax family.
FACTOR ANALYSIS OF LAW SCHOOL GRADES
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGrades of 116 law school students were obtained from transcripts, along with LSAT, Writing Ability, and Background scores. The grades were factored, and an analysis of the goodness of fit of one‐ through four‐factor systems indicated that the system of grades was essentially one factor in nature. A plot of factor loadings for the various courses made for the two‐ and three‐factor systems indicated that a few courses were somewhat different than the rest but the reason was not clearly identifiable. The two‐factor system was decomposed into two uncorrelated components, one which correlated .96 with the single factor scores, and the other which correlated zero with the single factors scores. This latter component had a multiple correlation of .03 with LSAT, Writing Ability, and Background scores. These analyses produced no persuasive evidence for more than one factor. The results agree with those of a similar study on the business school context.The residuals produced were used to study the possible existence of instructor bias. Two instructors were found with residuals significantly different from zero. One was found to be a slightly easy grader, and the other was found to be a hard grader.
COMBINING UNBIASED ESTIMATES OF A PARAMETER KNOWN TO BE POSITIVE
Authors: Stroud T. W. F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe statistician has n independent estimates of a parameter he knows is positive but, as is the case in components‐of‐variance problems, some of the estimates may be negative. If the n estimates are to be combined into a single number, we compare the obvious rule, that of averaging the n values and taking the positive part of the result, with that of averaging the positive parts. Although the estimator generated by the second rule is not consistent, it is shown by numerical calculation that for small n it has a smaller mean square error than the first over a considerable region of the parameter space, and that for n = 2 or 3 the second is minimax relative to the first over a region consisting of almost the whole parameter space. The distribution of each of the n estimates is assumed to be either Gaussian or the distribution of a weighted difference of two independent chi‐squares with known degrees of freedom, as in one‐way components of variance. Some other simply calculated estimators, including the positive part of the median, are studied for the chi‐square difference case with (2, 2) degrees of freedom and n = 3.
INFRASTRUCTURE AND TRANSITION IN DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Daele Leland D. Van den 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe logic of set theory is applied to the problem of infrastructure and transition in developmental analysis. The analysis necessitates the decomposition of stages into components. The decomposition generates sets within sets, and from a sequential perspective, progressions within progressions. The relation of lower to higher, and precursor to successor items varies from the trivial to the rigorous. In a trivial analysis, a precursor is neither necessary nor sufficient for a successor; in a rigorous analysis, a precursor is necessary and sufficient. Infrastructure and transition are interdependent. When components are common to successive stages, stages are transformed or correlatively transformed; when components are discrete, stages are substituted, added, or deleted; and when some components are common and some discrete, stages are hybrid. Any transformation or correlative transformation implies a correspondence, integration, or differentiation with parallelism, subordination, or emergence. Any substitution, addition, or deletion implies a coincidence, augmentation, or reduction with coplanarity, expansion, or contraction. The implications of this analysis are discussed in relation to developmental theory and theory evaluation.
OCULAR MOTILITY AND COGNITIVE PROCESS1,2
Authors: Weiner Susan L. , Ehrlichman Howard 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe claim has frequently been made that Ss produce scanning eye movements when experiencing visual imagery. Many investigators have concluded therefore that when ocular motility (as opposed to ocular quiescence) occurs, Ss are engaging in visual imagery. This hypothesis was tested by counting the eye movements Ss produced when required to answer two sets of questions presumed to vary in their imagery evoking properties, one requiring “verbal‐conceptual” processing properties and one requiring “visuo‐spatial” processing. Contrary to expectation, significantly fewer eye movements per second occurred when Ss answered “spatial” as opposed to “verbal” questions. This difference was discussed in terms of more general accounts of ocular motility than that proposed by the imagery‐scanning notion.
THE EFFECT OF TIME ON ATTACHMENT AS MEASURED IN A FREE PLAY SITUATION1
Authors: Brooks Jeanne , Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAttachment studies vary along several dimensions. Time within the situation may be an important variable. Fifteen minutes of observation of year‐old infants and their mothers reveals that proximity seeking and vocalization increase as a function of time while visual regard remains constant. The time dimension must be taken into account when studying sex differences as well as inconsistencies across various studies.
REPRESSION, INTERFERENCE AND FIELD DEPENDENCE AS FACTORS IN DREAM FORGETTING1
Authors: Goodenough Donald R. , Witkin Herman A. , Lewis Helen Block , Koulack David , Cohen Harvey 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA number of hypotheses about the effects of presleep stress on dream recall among field‐dependent and field‐independent Ss were tested to explore the role of repression and of dream affect in dream recall. The effect of presleep stress was to increase arousal during REM sleep and affect in dream reports. The data also suggest that the most affectful dreams are best recalled. Among field‐dependent Ss dream content was reported less frequently on stress than on neutral nights, but no stress effect on dream report frequency was found among field‐independent Ss. The results are discussed in terms of repression theory, and in terms of a possible alternative explanation that stress‐produced anxiety interferes with attentional processes required for dream recall at the moment of awakening.
MULTIVARIATE STATISTICAL INFERENCE UNDER MARGINAL STRUCTURE, II
Authors: Gleser Leon Jay , Olkin Ingram 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA previous paper [Gleser and Olkin (1972)] dealt with statistical inference problems in the context of an experimental design in which k randomly chosen groups of individuals from the same population of individuals are asked to take different psychological tests under identical testing conditions. The k tests (T***0,T1), (T0,T2), …, (T0,Tk) have one subtest T0 in common. It is desired to test whether (T0,T1), (T0,T2), …, (T0,Tk) are parallel forms of the same test.The experimental design described above is a natural one for ongoing testing programs such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), where forms must be changed from year to year (so that new items must be introduced and validated), yet experimentation with new forms and administration of old forms are done simultaneously. The design described above might be used in a given year to validate items for future years.The likelihood ratio test and relevant distribution theory is developed for a number of alternative models.
CATEGORIZING AND CONCEPTUALIZING STYLES IN YOUNGER AND OLDER ADULTS1
Authors: Kogan Nathan 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe classification behavior of male and female college students was compared with that of healthy well‐educated older males and females. Object‐sorting and photo‐sorting (male and female faces) procedures were employed. On measures of categorizing style–conceptual differentiation and compartmentalization–older adults were, respectively, lower and higher than college students. On measures of conceptualizing style–categorical‐inferential, analytic‐descriptive, and relational thematic–younger adults exhibited stronger preferences for the first two, older adults for the third. Females manifested higher levels of conceptual differentiation than males on both sorting tasks and lower levels of compartmentalization on object‐sorting. Five content categories for sorting human faces were derived–physical, age, psychological, demographic, and preferential. No systematic age or sex differences for sorting male photos was obtained. For female photos, however, younger adults were more likely to use physical attributes for grouping, males were more likely to group on the basis of age, and females more strongly favored demographically‐based groupings. On the whole, the results failed to confirm other published evidence maintaining that aging is marked by conceptual deficits or a regressed mode of cognitive functioning.
QUICK ESTIMATES OF THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF TWO TESTS AS A FUNCTION OF ABILITY LEVEL1
Authors: Lord Frederic M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWhen comparing two tests that measure the same trait, an overall comparison is not enough. Separate comparisons should be made at different levels of the trait. A simple, practical, approximate formula is given for doing this. The adequacy of the approximation is illustrated using data comparing seven nationally known sixth‐grade reading tests.