bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A RATIONALE FOR AN ASYMPTOTIC LOGNORMAL FORM OF WORD‐FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS1
Authors: Carroll John B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe lognormal distribution has been found to fit word‐frequency distributions satisfactorily if account is taken of the relations between populations and samples. A rationale for an asymptotic lognormal distribution is derived by supposing that the probabilities at the nodes of decision trees are symmetrically distributed around .5 with a certain variance. By the central limit theorem, the logarithms of the continued products of probabilities randomly sampled from such a distribution would have an asymptotically normal distribution. Two mathematical models incorporating this notion are developed and tested; in one, the number of factors in the continued products is assumed to be fixed, while in the other, that number is dependent upon a Poisson distribution. Psycholinguistic processes corresponding to these models are postulated and illustrated with reference to two sets of data: (1) word associations to the stimulus LIGHT, and (2) the Lorge Magazine Count. Reasonable fits to observed data or to underlying lognormal distributions are obtained but there remain certain problems in estimating parameters.
AN INVESTIGATION OF SOME OF THE EFFECTS OF “VERBAL LOAD” IN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
Authors: Bornstein Harry , Chamberlain Karen 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIt was argued that the language used in multiple choice achievement test items should be no more complex than is necessary to test the examinee's knowledge of the subject matter. Excessive complexity might constitute a source of bias against people with limited verbal skills. A test of this hypothesis was made by comparing a simplified language version of STEP social studies test items against an “original language form” with junior and senior high school students in Oakland, California. About two‐thirds of the students were Negro. Mean reading comprehension scores fell at about the 30th percentile on national norms. Test results on both forms appeared to be internally consistent and in accord with general expectations for this student sample. There was, however, no support for the notion that the simplified language test version would yield different results. Test difficulty and relationships with reading comprehension scores and social studies grades were essentially the same for both forms.
A THEORETICAL STUDY OF TWO‐STAGE TESTING1
Authors: Lord Frederic M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWhen items cannot be answered correctly by guessing, certain two‐stage testing procedures are about as effective over the ability range of interest as the “best” up‐and‐down procedures studied previously. When answers can be guessed correctly 20 percent of the time, no two‐stage procedure is found to match the “best” up‐and‐down procedures over this ability range. Feet‐on‐the‐desk designs for two‐stage procedures may produce poor results.
ON DISCOVERING YOUDEN RECTANGLES WITH COLUMNS OF TREATMENTS IN CYCLIC ORDER
Authors: Beall Geoffrey , Ferris John J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWe are concerned with the important class of Youden rectangles, or incomplete latin squares, with treatments in cyclic order. The most economical way to write such a design is to conceive the treatments of the first block, or row, in ascending order and the forward differences of that row. By a special algorithm involving diagonal addition of the differences, it is possible to determine rapidly whether a given arrangement of such differences, and hence of treatments, will give rise to a Youden rectangle.
CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN
Authors: Ward William C. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFourth through sixth grade children were given two kinds of creativity measures–divergent measures in which the child named all the ideas he could that met a simple requirement, and convergent measures, adaptations of Mednick's Remote Associates Test, in which he attempted to find one word which was associatively related to each of three others. Divergent and convergent measures shared little variance, and the latter were strongly correlated with IQ and achievement. Moreover, convergent items requiring production of the correct association were strongly related to items requiring only recognition. It was argued that in children Remote Associates performance depends on evaluative abilities rather than the size of the associative repertoire.
A SIMPLE CONFIDENCE TESTING FORMAT1
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper presents the development of scoring functions for use in conjunction with standard multiple‐choice items. In addition to the usual indication of the correct alternative, the examinee is to indicate his personal probability of the correctness of his response. Both linear and quadratic polynomial scoring functions are examined for suitability, and a unique scoring function is found such that a score of zero is assigned when complete uncertainty is indicated and such that the examinee can expect to do best if he reports his personal probability accurately. A table of simple integer approximations to the scoring function is supplied.
MEASUREMENT PROPERTIES OF SUBJECTIVE MAGNITUDE ESTIMATES OF WORD FREQUENCY1
Authors: Carroll John B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTStevens' subjective magnitude estimation (SME) method was used in obtaining estimates of relative word frequency from two adult groups (15 lexicographers, 13 other adults) for 60 words ranging widely in objective frequency. Lexicographers rendered more reliable estimates, and their averaged data correlated more highly (.970) with objective log frequency than those of the second group (.923). The objective frequency of the first stimulus considered in the SME task is not related to an S‘s overall accuracy in predicting objective frequency, but accuracy is related to the S‘s tendency to perceive frequency ratios as relatively large. Subjective estimates measure something slightly different from what is indexed by currently available objective counts, and may be more valid measures of true word probability.
A RE‐EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF MONAURAL STIMULATION UPON THE PERCEPTION OF VERTICALITY1
Authors: Baker A. Harvey , Cirillo Leonard , Wapner Seymour 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA classic effect of sensory‐tonic theory–viz., apparent verticality shifts opposite the side of monaural sound–has been questioned in three more recent studies. In attempting to evaluate these “failures to replicate,” the present paper (a) elaborates upon certain findings only briefly reported earlier and summarizes additional findings which are supportive, (b) examines in detail the “failures to replicate,” and (c) offers a tentative reconceptualization of the problem (viz., that the original effect occurs under the original conditions but becomes attenuated under conditions thought to reduce degree of differentiation between self and object) and briefly reports two new studies bearing on this reconceptualization.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SELECTED TRANSCRIPT INFORMATION TO PREDICTION OF LAW SCHOOL PERFORMANCE
Authors: Reilly Richard R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGraduate and professional schools usually base their admissions decisions on a combination of test scores and on an overall index of undergraduate achievement such as cumulative grade‐point average or rank‐in‐class. The present study sought to investigate whether considering more specific indices of undergraduate performance, through a detailed analysis of college transcripts, could lead to increased accuracy in predicting law school performance. Stepwise multiple regression analyses, performed separately for each of two schools, resulted in the selection of the LSAT, social science GPA, and a moderator variable as the most useful predictors. Because of the effects of selection, however, caution was urged in interpreting the results.
ITEM‐RACE INTERACTION ON A TEST OF SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE
Authors: Angoff William H. , Ford Susan F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSeveral samples of Black and White students were drawn from the 1970 PSAT administration in Georgia and studied for item x race interaction on both the verbal and mathematical sections of the test. When subsamples of candidates were drawn from their respective racial groups, matched on mathematical for the study of verbal items and matched on verbal for the study of mathematical items, there was an observable decrease in the size of the item x race interaction, suggesting that one factor contributing to that interaction was simply the difference in performance levels on the test shown by the two races. Further analyses demonstrated a moderate item x group interaction for Blacks native to different cities and a moderate item x group interaction for Blacks native to areas of different population density.
TESTING A LINEAR RELATION BETWEEN TRUE SCORES OF TOO MEASURES1
Authors: Kristof Walter 
Published: August 2014

SUMMARYWe concern ourselves with the hypothesis that two variables have a perfect disattenuated correlation, hence measure the same trait except for errors of measurement. This hypothesis is equivalent to saying, within the adopted model, that true scores of two psychological tests satisfy a linear relation. Statistical tests of this hypothesis are derived when the relation is specified with the exception of the additive constant. Two approaches are presented and various assumptions concerning the error parameters are used. Then the results are reinterpreted in terms of the possible existence of an unspecified linear relation between true scores of two psychological tests. A numerical example is appended by way of illustration.
AN EMPIRICAL EVALUATION OF FACTOR RELIABILITY1
Authors: Jackson Douglas N. , Morf Martin E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe psychometric reliability of a factor, defined as its generalizability across samples drawn from the same population of tests, is considered as a necessary precondition for the scientific meaningfulness of factor analytic results. A solution to the problem of generalizability is illustrated empirically on data from a set of tests designed to measure facets of response styles and of personality dimensions. Parallel sets of measures based on personality scales defining each of seven factors were separately factored. Independent sets of component scores derived from the. orthogonal least squares fit to the oblique factor pattern matrix were computed, and these component scores were intercorrelated between the two sets, yielding factor reliabilities, whose values ranged from .65 to .85 (p < .0001, for each factor). A corresponding analysis based on scores derived from random binary data yielded nonsignificant factor reliabilities ranging from ‐.12 to +.07. It was recommended that such a test of factor generalizability be incorporated routinely into factor analytic investigations, particularly those employing Procrustes‐type rotations.
ESTIMATING CAUSAL EFFECTS OF TREATMENTS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
Authors: Rubin Donald 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA discussion of matching, randomization, random sampling, and other methods of controlling extraneous variation is presented. The objective is to specify the benefits of randomization in estimating causal effects of treatments. The basic conclusion is that randomization should be employed whenever possible, but the use of carefully controlled nonrandomized data to estimate causal effects is a reasonable and necessary procedure in many cases.
EFFECTS OF REPRESENTATIVE STATUS AND DECISION STYLE ON COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER'S DILEMMA1
Authors: Hermann Margaret G. , Kogan Nathan 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTLevel of cooperation in the Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) is examined for opponents acting in their own behalf, or as members of a reference group consisting of strangers or friends. This subject classification interacted with trials, representatives of friend groups manifesting a consistently high level of cooperation throughout, and representatives of stranger groups and individuals showing progressive increases from moderate to high levels of cooperation over trials. After 30 trials, subjects were given positive or negative feedback (indicating that they were doing better or worse than their respective reference groups). On subsequent trials, positive feedback yielded no strategy change for the 3 types of subjects. Negative feedback produced strategy changes for individuals and stranger groups, but not for friend groups. A number of personality variables presumed relevant to decision style in the PD were examined. On both orientation to the PD–intention to be cooperative or competitive and expectation of cooperation or competition from one's opponent–and actual level of cooperation and competition in the PD, significant personality effects were obtained. Of particular interest in the latter case is the evidence that the influence of personality is manifested exclusively at the level of the dyad. It is concluded that the impact of personality on the PD can most profitably be studied with a dyadic focus.
WHAT DO ADULTS READ?
Authors: Sharon Amiel T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA survey of the reading habits of a national sample of 5,067 adults was conducted in order to determine what is being read, by whom, for how long, for what reason, and how reading fits into people's daily activities. The results indicate that reading is a ubiquitous activity of American adults. A substantial portion of the waking hours of many persons is spent in reading, frequently during daily activities such as working; shopping; attending school, church, or theater; traveling or commuting; and recreational or free‐time activities. Most reading time is spent on newspapers, magazines, books, and job‐related matter. Many types of reading on which a relatively short time is spent, however, are an integral part of other activities of the individual, such as the reading of street or traffic signs while traveling. Although the average person reads for almost two hours on a typical day, people differ greatly in the amount that they read. Persons with high socioeconomic status tend to read more of all kinds of printed matter than those with low status. The 5% of all adults who are unable to read, including the visually handicapped, the foreign language readers, and the illiterates (those who never learned to read in any language), have an extremely low socioeconomic status and frequently depend on others to read to them.
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORE AND LESS1
Authors: Weiner Susan L. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTMore and less were analyzed into two meaning dimensions, “existence” (derived from children's early language) and “quantity,” which were hypothesized to be developmentally related to acts of addition and subtraction. Two experiments tested two‐ and three‐year‐olds' comprehension of these concepts when initially equal or unequal rows were added to, subtracted from or left static. Addition and subtraction had little effect on Ss' comprehension of either term. Ss understood more first when number characteristics of the array were relatively large, suggesting ‘many’ as an intermediate stage of meaning for more. No evidence was found for less meaning more as others have claimed. Ss understood less later than more, a difference attributed to the restricted use of less as ‘smaller in amount.’
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ATTENTION WITHIN A GROUP OF INFANTS “AT RISK”1
Authors: Yoshida Roland K. , Lewis Michael , Schimpler Suzanne , Ackerman Judith Z. , Driscoll John , Koenigsberger M. Richard 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGroups of normal and “at risk” infants were given an attentional task using sucking suppression as an index of attending. Attending as a measure of perceptual‐cognitive development was found to be a sensitive task capable of differentiating high and low risk infants. Further, the performance on this perceptual‐cognitive task and the infants' 5 minute Apgar scores were assessed and found to be significantly related. These data together with earlier reports suggest that infants with Apgar scores of 8 or less may be at risk in terms of their cognitive development.
THE ROLE OF NEGATION IN CONSERVATION ACQUISITION: EVIDENCE FROM JUSTIFICATIONS AND CLINICAL‐TYPE PROBING1
Authors: Young Gerald 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGrades 1 and 2 boys (N = 70) were preselected for verbal ability and given conservation and negation measures. Of 59 subjects who gave at least one logical justification on the conservation tasks, only 5 subjects used negation justifications, where the probing consisted of one question. Negation users were matched with negation nonusers and retested using clinical‐type probing. The negation users needed significantly fewer questions per task to elicit negation justifications than negation nonusers (p < .05) and each was operational on the negation measure. Negation seems to be more relevant for conservation acquisition in the negation users than in the majority of children in the study.
AN ETHOLOGY‐BASED CATALOGUE OF FACIAL/VOCAL BEHAVIORS IN INFANCY1
Authors: Young Gerald , Décarie Therese Gouin 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe ethological approach is suggested as a fruitful research strategy in the study of how infants express emotions. This approach led to the development of a large catalogue of facial/vocal behaviors that was used in the systematic observation of 75 girl and boy infants in the last quarter of the first year of life placed in a series of standardized laboratory situations. Each of the 42 facial expressions contained in the catalogue are precisely defined according to the expressive elements of the brow, eyes, mouth, and other facial regions. The vocalizations are also operationally defined. The possible ways that the facial expressions and vocalizations could be combined in the expression of emotional behavior in infants are discussed.
ABSTRACT IDEAS: THE RELATION OF LINGUISTIC TIME AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TIME1
Authors: Hurtig Richard 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn the first section a sketch of a tense logic is presented and a mechanism is suggested for including aspects of the tense logic into the Grammar (theory of language). Specifically, several grammatical structures are shown to incorporate temporal features. A semantic projection mechanism is utilized to amalgamate the temporal features in elements of the Auxiliary, Conjunctions, Adverbials and, in addition, the inherent temporal features of Nouns and Verbs to yield an overall reading of temporal specification.The second section examines the psychological validity of a tense logic model. Two alternative hypotheses are considered to account for the encoding of structures of temporal specification. The first is a derivational theory of complexity of the sort proposed in recent psycholinguistics. The other is a theory based on the structure of the tense logic model. The results of the recall and recognition experiments appear to support the tense logic hypothesis that the subjects encode sentences (and perhaps discourses) into an Event Space in which the temporal information concerning both explicit and implicit predicates (events) is represented. The Event Space appears to be subject to Tense Shift laws. It would appear that subjects are sensitive to the temporal information in conjunctions as well as the information expressed by the elements of the verbal auxiliary. This supports the hypothesis that the overall temporal specification is derived by the amalgamation (projection) of temporal features or properties of various linguistic structures, and, furthermore, that the encoded representation can be conceived of as a complex Event Space in which the temporal relations among all the events in an utterance or discourse are specified.
ASSESSING DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING IN PERFORMANCE TESTS
Authors: Zwick Rebecca , Donoghue John R. , Grima Angela 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAlthough the belief has been expressed that performance assessments are intrinsically more fair than multiple‐choice measures, some forms of performance assessment may in fact be more likely than conventional tests to tap construct‐irrelevant factors. As performance assessment grows in popularity, it will be increasingly important to monitor the validity and fairness of alternative item types. The assessment of differential item functioning (DIF), as one component of this evaluation, can be helpful in investigating the effect on subpopulations of the introduction of performance tasks. Developing a DIF analysis strategy for performance measures requires decisions as to how the matching variable should be defined and how the analysis procedure should accommodate polytomous responses. In this study, two inferential procedures and two types of descriptive summaries that may be useful in assessing DIF in performance measures were explored and applied to simulated data. All the investigated statistics appear to be worthy of further study.
LOGISTIC REGRESSION WITH RANDOM COEFFICIENTS
Authors: Longford N. T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn approximation to the likelihood for the generalized linear models with random coefficients is derived and is the basis for an approximate Fisher scoring algorithm. The method is illustrated on the logistic regression model for one‐way classification, but it has an extension to the class of generalized linear models and to more complex data structures, such as nested two‐way classification. Both full and restricted maximum likelihood versions of this algorithm are defined. The estimators of the regression parameters coincide with the generalized estimating equations of Zeger and Liang (1986) but an essentially different class of estimators for the covariance structure parameters is obtained. A simulation study explores the properties of the proposed estimators.
ON THE VIABILITY OF SOME UNTESTABLE ASSUMPTIONS IN EQUATING EXAMS THAT ALLOW EXAMINEE CHOICE§
Authors: Wang Xiang‐bo , Wainer Howard , Thissen David 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn increasingly popular test format allows examinees to choose which items they will answer from among a larger set. When examinee choice is allowed fairness requires that the different test forms thus formed be equated for their possible differential difficulty. For this equating to be possible we need to know how well examinees would have answered the items that they did not choose. In this paper we report the results of an experiment in which examinees are asked to choose among several multiple choice items but are then required to answer all of them. We conclude that allowing choice while having fair tests is only possible when it is unnecessary.
INFORMATION FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERALIZED PARTIAL CREDIT MODEL
Authors: Muraki Eiji 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe concept of information functions developed for dichotomous item response models is adapted for the partial credit model. The information function is explained in terms of the model parameters and scoring functions. The relationship between the item information function and the expected score function is also discussed. The information function is then used to investigate the effect of collapsing and recoding categories of polytomously‐scored items of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Finally, the NAEP writing items are calibrated and the item and test information is used to discuss desirable properties of polytomous items.item response model polytomous item response model partial credit model information function NAEP