bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Spatial and temporal variations of methane flux measured by autochambers in a temperate ombrotrophic peatland
Authors: Lai Derrick Y. F. , Moore Tim R. , Roulet Nigel T. 
Published: April 2014

AbstractWe measured CH4 flux at high temporal resolution with triplicate autochambers from three different plant communities at the ombrotrophic Mer Bleue bog in Canada to investigate the spatial and temporal variations, and factors that related to the CH4 flux. Our results show that seasonal mean CH4 fluxes from the Eriophorum‐dominated community were 1.4–2.2 and 3.7–5.5 times higher than those from Maianthemum/Ledum and Chamaedaphne communities, respectively. Significant interannual variations in CH4 flux were observed in Maianthemum/Ledum and Chamaedaphne communities, attributable to a 55–60% reduction of mean summer (July–September) CH4 flux in 2010 as a consequence of a 5.5–9.0 cm lower mean summer water table compared to 2009. The Eriophorum community showed a much larger rate of increase in CH4 flux with peat temperature in the early growing season than in midsummer, which might be caused by a concomitant increase in root exudation of labile carbon for methanogenesis. Temporal variability of log‐transformed CH4 flux was correlated (r ≥ 0.4) with peat temperature only when water table was less than 20, 30, and 40 cm below the peat surface for Maianthemum/Ledum, Chamaedaphne, and Eriophorum communities, respectively. This difference in water table threshold among communities might partly be related to differences in rooting depth and hence the ability of plants to sustain CH4 flux in dry conditions. These results suggest that modeling of CH4 flux from ombrotrophic peatlands over time should take into account the role of different vegetation types, since the relationships between CH4 emissions and environmental factors vary among vascular plant communities.
Ionospheric variability over Indian low latitude linked with the 2009 sudden stratospheric warming
Authors: Patra A. K. , Pavan Chaitanya P. , Sripathi S. , Alex S. 
Published: April 2014

AbstractIn this paper, we analyze radar observations of E × B drift and plasma irregularities, ionosonde observations of E and F layer parameters including spread F, and magnetic field observations made from Indian low latitudes linked with the 2009 sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) event. E × B drift variations presented here are the first of their kind from the Indian sector as far as the effect of SSW is concerned. Difference of magnetic fields observed from the equator and low‐latitude (∆H) and E × B drift show linear relation, and both show remarkably large positive values in the morning and negative values in the afternoon exhibiting semidiurnal behavior. Remarkable changing patterns in the critical frequency of F2 layer (foF2) and F3 layer (foF3) were observed after the occurrence of SSW. Large variations with quasi 16 day periodicity were observed in ∆H, foF2, and foF3. Both semidiurnal and quasi 16 day wave modulation observed after the 2009 SSW event are consistent with those reported earlier. We also noted quasi 6 day variations in ∆H and foF2 soon after the SSW commencement, not much reported before. During the counterelectrojet events linked with the SSW event, while equatorial Es (Esq) disappeared as expected, there were no blanketing Es (Esb), a finding not reported and discussed earlier. Esb was also not formed at the off‐equatorial location, indicating the absence of required vertical wind shear, but E region plasma irregularities were observed by the ionosonde and radar with a close relationship between the two. Weak F region irregularities were observed in the postmidnight hours, and case studies suggest the possible role of SSW‐related background electric field in the manifestation of postmidnight F region irregularities.
Temporal variation of “solar dimming” induced by composite and carbonaceous aerosols: Observations from mineral‐rich eastern Indian region
Authors: Latha R. , Murthy B. S. , Lipi K. , Kumar Manoj , Das S. K. , Mahanti N. C. 
Published: April 2014

AbstractComposite and carbonaceous aerosol radiative forcing (RF) over Ranchi (23.5°N, 85.3°E) in eastern India at monthly and seasonal scales during February 2011 to January 2012 is derived from mean optical properties obtained from Sun‐sky radiometer and a radiative transfer model. Ranchi is located on the Chotanagpur plateau at 650 m above mean sea level; the region is unique with dense open active mines, a source of mineral aerosols with opposing optical properties such as coal and limestone. Diurnal mean composite aerosol RF at the surface, in the spectral band 0.3–3.0 µm increases from winter (December, January, February) to premonsoon (March, April, May) with maximum (−65 Wm−2) aerosol RF in March that is associated with highest black carbon (BC) aerosol optical depth (AOD), 0.05. Minimum surface aerosol RF occurs in July with minimum values of AOD and AODBC. Aerosol RF at top of the atmosphere is maximum (−17 Wm−2) in April, and is positive (+1.2 Wm−2) in March. On an average, carbonaceous aerosols (BC) contribute ~8.8% to total AOD and about 60% to total atmospheric absorption. A rapid increase of BC is seen in the postmonsoon with 1.0 µg m−3 in September to 3.0 µg m−3 in October. Aerosol‐induced solar dimming is about 9.4% (premonsoon), 7.0% (monsoon), 10.6% (postmonsoon), and 10.2% (winter) of the surface radiation. Seasonal mean aerosol heating rate is observed to be maximum in premonsoon (~1.15°K/d−1), followed by postmonsoon, while winter and monsoon experience minimum (~0.45°K/d−1) heating, assuming typical aerosol profiles of the model.
Assessing the role of sublimation in the dry snow zone of the Greenland ice sheet in a warming world
Authors: Cullen Nicolas J. , Mölg Thomas , Conway Jonathan , Steffen Konrad 
Published: April 2014

AbstractMeteorological and glaciological data obtained over an intensive 2 year measurement period (2000–2002) are used to run a physically based climatic mass balance model to characterize a seasonal variability in mass and energy exchanges at Summit, Greenland. The model resolves the full surface energy balance and the subsurface temperature profile by inclusion of energy release from penetrating shortwave radiation. A Monte Carlo approach using 1000 different parameter combinations is adopted to assess model uncertainty, with output compared to measured surface and subsurface temperatures, changes in surface height, and eddy correlation data. The heat exchanges associated with the change in phase of water are very small in all seasons, with the average turbulent latent heat flux equal to 0.4 (±0.2) W m−2. This suggests that the mean annual water vapor gradient is toward the surface, resulting in a mass gain of 4.1 mm WE yr−1. The mass gain represents only a small fraction of the total accumulation (<2%), in part because of the change in sign of the water vapor flux from winter (deposition) to summer (sublimation), but if assumed to be typical of the entire dry snow zone (40% of the total ice sheet area) is equivalent to approximately 5.5 Gt yr−1. A simple experiment based on 2012 atmospheric conditions suggests that mass turnover from water vapor exchanges will likely be enhanced in a warming climate, with sublimation increasing more than deposition. Should the sign of the mean turbulent latent heat flux change due to warming, the present mass gain in the dry snow zone could easily become a mass loss of equal proportion, which would further enhance the negative mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Authors: Maclachlan Ian 
Published: April 2014

AbstractBovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is an incurable degenerative neurological disorder of cattle that is invariably fatal. It was first identified in 1986 in the United Kingdom and by 1996 BSE had been associated with a variant form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans. Though largely concentrated in the United Kingdom, BSE has infected cattle in most of Europe, the Americas, and in Japan, disrupting the international trade of live cattle, beef for human consumption, and beef byproducts. BSE has attained global significance by revealing the potential for the intercontinental spread of an infectious animal disease and its implications for risk management and for animal and human health.
Diaspora
Authors: Fiddian‐Qasmiyeh Elena 
Published: April 2014

Abstract

The term “diaspora” derives from the classical Greek word

, which literally means “scattering” or “dispersion.” While the classical Greek term reflected the positive and widespread scattering of seeds, in addition to the dispersion of people, today “diaspora” is used in academic and popular discourses primarily with reference to peoples who have been involuntarily displaced. The usage of the term diaspora in the Greek translation of the Bible to refer to the expulsion of the Jews (Deut. 28:25), led both to the Jewish diaspora being considered to be the archetypal diaspora, and to the equation of diasporas with forced displacement. Other prototypical diasporas have included the Greek and Armenian diasporas.
Empire
Authors: Passavant Paul 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
Debates over globalization in the 1990s typically posited one of two assessments. Either globalization and the nation‐state exist in a zero‐sum balance such that increases in globalization necessarily mean that the sovereignty of the nation‐state is weakening. Or globalization does not indicate a weakening of the nation‐state's sovereignty because nation‐states are represented within the institutions promoting globalization. Therefore, if some complain that market liberalization policies are being forced upon developing countries against their will, we can analyze this phenomenon using familiar concepts or arguments. Those who claim that globalization is not a dramatically new development for the international system can argue that imperialism – projections of national power beyond a nation's territorial boundaries for economic or political advantage – has long been part of world politics. They can point to the political reality that some states are hegemonic and others are weaker, hence vulnerable to the assertion of a strong state's interests. In other words, they would say that legal “sovereignty” has long been circumscribed in the international system by the political realities of national interest and unequal power. “Globalization,” according to those who claim that nothing much has changed, is nothing other than stronger states (sometimes acting through international institutions) imposing policies that suit their interests upon weaker states, and this is nothing new for the international system.
Environmental Problems
Authors: Dunlap Riley E. , Jorgenson Andrew K. 
Published: April 2014

AbstractIn recent decades environmental problems have become globalized in terms of their existence and impacts as well as the socioeconomic forces that generate them. After briefly noting the growth of international awareness of environmental problems, this entry examines first the nature of environmental problems and their global reach, then evidence that humans are increasingly pushing against global ecological constraints, next the global politico‐economic forces that generate and exacerbate ecological degradation on a worldwide basis, and finally ends with concluding remarks.
Guantanamo Bay
Authors: Olesen Thomas 
Published: April 2014

AbstractGuantanamo Bay is geographically part of Cuba, but has been leased by the United States since 1903. The lease agreement followed the Spanish–American war and was confirmed in a 1934 treaty. The treaty allows the United States to use the area for coaling or naval stations as long as required, in practice making the lease indefinite. Guantanamo Bay is a naval base, but was used in the 1990s as a detention camp for Haitian and Cuban refugees and asylum seekers (Gregory 2006: 411–412; Johns 2005: 616). In January 2002, shortly after the beginning of the war in Afghanistan, the United States started transferring persons captured on the battlefield to Guantanamo. The base was used by the Bush administration because it was initially considered to be outside of the United States legal jurisdiction. In 2006, in the court caseHamdan(a detainee at Guantanamo Bay)vs. Rumsfeld, the United States Supreme Court ruled that this assertion did not conform to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and the Geneva Conventions. Guantanamo is part of a global pattern of CIA‐run so‐called black sites. Black sites are facilities outside the United States where detainees from the war on terror are being held and interrogated for intelligence purposes. These sites remain shrouded in secrecy but it is widely believed that such sites have been in operation in several countries around the world, including in Europe (for an account of the early phase of the detention camp, see Greenberg 2009; for a wider historical perspective, see Carvin 2010; for a collection of papers and statements by detainees, see Worthington 2007).
Labor markets, informal
Authors: Medina Octavio 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
If a labor market is the place where individuals sell their human and physical capital to firms, with wages set by supply and demand, informal labor markets are, broadly speaking, those in which this process is not overseen by, or does not comply with, the rules set by the relevant regulatory authority. However, the exact definition remains under debate, despite decades of research and academic argument (Maloney 2004). As Peattie (1987) quotes from Schaefer (1976), “the informal sector is still too broad to be meaningful; at one end is a pool of surplus labor, at the other a skilled high‐income earning entrepreneur; at one end a proliferation of residual enterprises involuntary in nature, at the other end of the spectrum dynamic evolutionary enterprises.” As a result, throughout the past century several competing theories appeared, in an attempt to explain what informal labor markets are, and also why they exist.
Mortality
Authors: Ram Bali , Ram Shefali S. 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
Mortality and fertility are two major determinants of population growth. Demographic history reveals that mortality decline is the primary cause of population growth in most countries around the world. Prior to industrialization, birth and death rates in Northwest Europe – a region with reliable, historical vital statistics – used to be high and of a similar magnitude, resulting in almost no population growth. It was only at the beginning of the nineteenth century that mortality began to decline, while fertility remained almost unchanged, resulting in what is known as “demographic transition.” The transition has since spread to other parts of the world, although many less industrialized countries are still struggling in the early stages, similar to those experienced in Northwest Europe two centuries ago. On the other hand, in less than 50 years many countries have achieved the status that European countries took more than hundred years to achieve.
Pacification
Authors: Özcan Gülden , Rigakos George S. 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
Pacification is a military concept that was popularly used during the US war in Vietnam. Since then, however, the term had disappeared not only from the discourse of political power and the opposition but also from the academic literature until Mark Neocleous and George S. Rigakos revisited it. Neocleous and Rigakos theorized the rising concern for “security” in the post‐9/11 period with recourse to the term's historical significance and relationship to security as part of their broader project, called “Anti‐Security” (Neocleous & Rigakos 2011).
Polar regions, law and
Authors: Loukacheva Natalia 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
Over the course of the past few decades, the magnitude of changes happening in the Arctic and in Antarctica has prompted a renewed inquiry into the role of law in dealing with the various issues and challenges relevant to both polar regions. Although law is not a panacea for all issues, it has its own role to play in addressing many of them. Noteworthy generalizations on this matter are not feasible as each legal challenge may require a specific solution and a detailed analysis of the case in question. Present polar law developments also indicate that both polar regions will continue to be the focus of growing legal, political, international, scientific, media, and public interest and discourse for the foreseeable future. Thus, the question becomes: what is polar law, or should the notion of “Arctic” law be used instead?
Russian Revolution
Authors: Zajda Joseph 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
The Russian Revolution in 1917 was a monumental political and social transformation in Russia, which brought down the autocratic monarchy; toppled Kerensky's Provisional government; and installed the Bolshevik government under Lenin. It refers to the February and October 1917 Revolutions. The February Revolution resulted in the collapse of tsarist autocracy and the establishment of the Provisional government, which was led briefly by Kerensky. The October 1917 Revolution toppled the Provisional government and brought the Bolsheviks to power. It resulted in the formation of the Marxist–Leninist state – the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR) – in 1918, under the leadership of Lenin, and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. Russia became the world's first socialist country.
Performance Target Conflicts in Normal Tires and Ultrahigh Performance Tires
Authors: Mundl Reinhard , Wies Burkhard 
Published: April 2014

Abstract

Tire development is a demanding task following the requirements of original equipment and replacement under challenging cost considerations and legal requirements. A tire development engineer faces a multiple set of customer‐oriented performance requirements often conflicting with each other and making it difficult to achieve a balanced optimum. The way of gaining the necessary know‐how to apply design measures, target oriented, is described, and a qualitative overview on the findings is given. The most important performance conflicts, which can be related to the main tire domains (tread pattern and compound, tire contour, and construction), are described. Most of the chapter is dedicated to the explanation of the described conflicts based on rubber physics and tire mechanics. The reasons for the dominating performance conflicts of
UHP
tires between handling, high speed, and wear resistance are given in detail. Some ideas for future possible improvements based on material innovations and interactions with vehicle control systems are discussed.
Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems
Authors: Underberg Victor , Roscher Thomas , Jenne Frank , Pucar Predrag , Sturmhoebel Jörg 
Published: April 2014

AbstractTire pressure monitoring systems (TPMSs) have become almost a commodity in all vehicle segments. Current and upcoming legal requirements will further enhance the market penetration ofTPMS. Two different pressure‐monitoring principles are available as there are direct and indirect systems. Direct systems place, in each wheel, a sensor that measures pressure and temperature. Indirect systems use sensor fusion to generate pressure loss information from the wheel speed signals. This chapter describes the importance of the correct tire pressure and the history of TPMSs. It presents in detail the working principle of state‐of‐the‐art direct and indirect systems as well as the current legal requirements that need to be fulfilled when designing tire pressure‐monitoring systems. The last section not only focuses on customer requirements and aftermarket topics but also gives an outlook on future developments and trends in the field of tire pressure monitoring.
EVPowertrain Configurations
Authors: Chau K.T. 
Published: April 2014

AbstractAn internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) employs a combustion engine for its powertrain. In contrast, an electric vehicle (EV) employs an electric motor for its powertrain. Differing from theICEVpowertrain that involves only the mechanical subsystem, theEVpowertrain includes both the electrical subsystem and the mechanical subsystem. The electrical subsystem consists of the electronic controller, the power converter, and the electric motor, whereas the mechanical subsystem is the mechanical transmission. The variations in the electrical subsystem are mainly due to various types of electric motors and power converters adopted, whereas the variations in the mechanical subsystem mainly depend on various types of gearings and differentials selected. As there are many possibleEVpowertrain configurations, only those viable and representative configurations are discussed in this chapter, with emphasis on their basic principle and qualitative comparison.
Overview of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
Authors: Chan C.C. 
Published: April 2014

AbstractWith the more stringent regulations on emissions and fuel economy, global warming and constraints on energy resources, the research, development and commercialization of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles have been accelerated. This chapter reviews the state of the art of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles with focus on their technical features and commercial road map. The fundamental features of electric, hybrid, and fuel fell vehicles are summarized. The importance of using engineering philosophy as overall guidance for research and development is emphasized. The architecture and functionality of powertrains is distinctly analyzed. The challenge of energy management is explored, the function and interaction of global control and local is discussed, and the possible types of appropriate control model are suggested. The success of commercialization of electric vehicles lies on the availability of three goodness factors, namely good product, good infrastructure, and good business model.
Rechargeable Battery Basics
Authors: Burke Andrew 
Published: April 2014

AbstractThis chapter discusses the basic concepts related to batteries for automotive applications including hybrid and electric vehicles. The construction and operation of cells are discussed in detail as well as the laboratory testing of the cells and modules. Test data for lithium batteries of several chemistries are given from which it can be seen that the performance of lithium batteries is now suitable for hybrid and electric vehicle applications. In addition, it is shown that lithium batteries can be fast charged in <1 h and that their cycle life can be several thousand deep discharge cycles. The cost ($/kWh) of the lithium batteries varies with cell chemistry, but the projected costs are in the range $300–400/kWh. When these batteries are used in plug‐in hybrid (PHEV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV), life cycle vehicle cost analyzes indicate effective break‐even gasoline cost to consumers in the range $3–4/gal when the cost of the battery is recovered over the battery lifetime of 10 years.
Fundamental Chemical Kinetics
Authors: Westbrook Charles K. , Pitz William J. 
Published: April 2014

Abstract
This chapter discusses the chemical kinetics of practical hydrocarbon and biodiesel fuels used in engines. Elementary reactions that provide chain branching are identified, and their role in producing autoignition is explained. Roles of differences in fuel molecular structure, particularly primary, secondary, and tertiary C–H bonds, on rates of combustion and ignition are explained and used to explain how fuel parameters such as octane and cetane numbers depend on the fuel molecule size and structure. Chemical kinetic factors are used to explain the way in which selected additives can improve either the cetane or octane ratings for fuels, through their roles in influencing chain‐branching rates. Examples are provided to illustrate the principles, including very recent studies in biodiesel fuel kinetic modeling.