bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Corruption
Authors: Koller Cynthia 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Corrupt activities by individuals, organizations, and larger social systems around the world cost businesses, countries, and their citizens, hundreds of millions of dollars in lost revenues, opportunities, and other social benefits every year. As such, the causes and consequences of corruption, and appropriate responses to regulate it, are major concerns of lawmakers, policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and the judicial system. Although corruption is not a new phenomenon, with pre‐Biblical concerns evident in the early writings of Western philosophers, it has become an increasingly high priority in the modern age of a global economy, advancing technology, diminishing natural resources, unstable governments, and unpredictable financial markets.
Civic Engagement
Authors: B. Harden Susan 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Civic engagement is intentional action in service to one's community or efforts to contribute to the common good. Drawing on the political system of Ancient Greece, the democratic system of government in the United States requires civic engagement by citizens to successfully operate the functions of government. Activities which constitute civic engagement include political participation such as voting and running for political office; civic duties such as jury duty, registering for selective service, and paying taxes; public, community, and military service careers such as public safety officers, nonprofit directors, or Armed Forces members; community work such as volunteering or participating in a community organization; service learning; and civic learning. Participating in civic engagement activities has been shown to increase civic knowledge and skills, commitment to serving the community, levels of trust, and the psychological and social well‐being of participants.
Religion/Ideology and Crime
Authors: Lasky Nicole V. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This essay on religion/ideology and crime provides a thorough overview of the empirical research to date on this topic, focusing on the shifting trends in the literature since the 1960s, especially the gradual theoretical and measurement developments that have occurred since the groundbreaking “hellfire hypothesis.” It concludes with some recommendations for future research examining the religion–crime relationship.
Reiss, Albert
Authors: Arnold Thomas K. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Albert J. Reiss Jr.'s long career made an enormous impact on the field of criminology. Reiss helped shape the direction of American and international criminology through his activities as a prolific and influential author, educator, editor, leader, researcher, and consultant. He developed and tested one of the first formal statements of a control theory of delinquency and worked extensively in the field of policing. As an educator, he helped shape the careers of other criminologists.
Differential Opportunity Theory
Authors: Blair Lesli 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDifferential opportunity theory was one of the first to integrate the ideas from two distinct theories. The motivation for deviance strain theory was combined with the theories about means to learn criminal behavior. Differential opportunity theory was used to explain the emergence of three different delinquent subcultures: the criminal, the conflict, and the retreatist subcultures. Over the years since its inception, differential opportunity theory has received mixed empirical support.
Furlough
Authors: Peterson Bryce E. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis essay provides a thorough overview of furlough programs used in jails and prisons, distinguishing between different types of furloughs. Also discussed is the history and prevalence of furloughs in the United States and globally, perceptions of furlough programs, and measures of success. Furloughs are used by correctional administrators to save money, reduce overcrowding, and, more importantly, rehabilitate offenders by promoting healthy relationships between offenders, their families, and the community. It concludes with a discussion of the effect of furloughs on recidivism and post‐release employability.
Intelligence and Crime
Authors: Muncy Amanda Marie 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Researchers have been interested in the relationship between crime and intelligence throughout different points in history. Some researchers see a significant correlation between crime and intelligence quotient (IQ), while others, although they recognize the correlation, do not see the significance. As psychometric measures of intelligence have developed, more specific variables in the correlation between crime and intelligence can be isolated. Although much of the research thus far has focused on how low IQ serves as a catalyst for delinquent behavior, there is a limited amount of research on the effect of high IQ on delinquency. There is a serious underreporting of individuals who are considered genius by psychometric determination that engage in criminal activity.
Police Stress
Authors: Rivera‐Vazquez Omara 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPolice stress has strong negative effects on individuals, police organizations, and communities. Studies indicate that officers who experience high levels of occupational stress report increased rates of physical and psychological illnesses. The purpose of this entry is to discuss the issue of police occupational stress and to provide information on the contributing factors and the related consequences. An overview of coping mechanisms at the individual and organizational levels as well as prevention and intervention programs currently utilized is provided.
Wolfgang, Marvin
Authors: Steele Skylar R. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Marvin Wolfgang is one of the most famous criminologists in the United States and his work has received global recognition. His contributions to research on delinquency, subcultures, and capital punishment continue to inspire generations of scholars. Wolfgang left behind a legacy in criminology and criminal justice that provided frameworks for uniting researchers around the world to critically examine problems in the field through empirical research.
Three Strikes Laws
Authors: Marie Martensen Kayla , Nichole Vigil Brandi 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Three‐strikes laws provide longer prison sentences to law‐breakers, specifically those individuals with repeat felony convictions. Between 1993 and 1995 the trend of implementing three‐strikes laws surged. Each law is distinct based on three factors: what constitutes a strike, how many strikes are required to be “out,” and the consequences of being “out.” The rationale behind the three‐strikes laws emanated from: (1) research into career criminals, (2) the theory of incapacitation, (3) the theory of deterrence, and (4) public support. Despite support for three‐strikes laws, implementation of the law created a cascade of criticisms. The most criticized factor is cost, specifically with housing an aging population. While three‐strikes laws are in use in the majority of US states and the federal government, the law is most broadly, frequently, and harshly used in the state of California.
Juvenile Arrests
Authors: C. Kurlychek Megan 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA formal arrest is the most frequent mechanism by which a juvenile comes into contact with the juvenile justice system. However, police enjoy considerable discretion when coming into contact with a juvenile and often choose not to make an arrest, but handle the situation informally. This is of primary concern to anyone studying juvenile delinquency in understanding which youth are formally arrested and why. Moreover, while many of the policing procedures are similar for adults and juveniles, there are special considerations and regulations an officer must adhere to when arresting a juvenile.
Assault and Battery
Authors: Currul‐Dykeman Kathleen 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
It is generally understood that an assault is a lesser included offense of a battery. This means in almost every case, an assault is included in a battery. During the time period when a victim is aware that a battery is about to come upon her (and up and until the contact is made) an assault has taken place. Once the touching occurs it results in a battery. That is why many jurisdictions have codified this behavior as one crime, “Assault and Battery.”
Assignment of Counsel for Indigents
Authors: Block Lauren M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractProvision of legal counsel for indigent defendants is one of the most important rights given to citizens of the United States. It is an essential guarantee of fair and just court proceedings. An indigent defendant is someone who lacks the financial means to hire his/her own counsel to represent him/her in court. After a series of US Supreme Court decisions, the right to counsel for indigent defendants in criminal cases was recognized and applied to defendants charged with felonies at the state level—more specifically, after the landmark decision inGideon v. Wainwright1963. Indigent defendants may be assigned counsel in a variety of ways. These various methods utilize different funding sources and often suffer from inadequate resources and lack accountability, which may compromise the quality of legal representation.
Safeguarding Youth Interrogation Rights: The Effect of Grade Level and Reading Complexity of Youth Waiver Forms on the Comprehension of Legal Rights
Authors: Freedman Stuart , Eastwood Joseph , Snook Brent , Luther Kirk 
Published: January 2014

SummaryThe extent to which youths understand their interrogation rights was examined. High school students (N = 160) from five different grades were presented with one of two Canadian youth waiver forms—varying widely in reading complexity—and tested on their knowledge of their legal rights. Results showed that comprehension of both waiver forms was equally deficient, and systematic misunderstandings of vital legal rights were discovered (e.g., the right to remain silent). There was also a positive linear relationship between high school grade level and amount of comprehension. Potential ways to enhance youths' understanding of their rights and provide them protection during interrogations are discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Resorption of mandibular alveolar bone following loss of molar teeth and its relationship to age at death in a human skeletal population
Authors: Mays Simon 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEstimating adult age at death in skeletal remains is problematic, particularly in older adults. Molar wear is arguably the most reliable ageing technique for palaeopopulations, but many older adult skeletons have lost their molar teeth ante mortem, precluding its application. Resorption of the alveolar process occurs following tooth loss, and this appears to continue for a prolonged period. The current work investigates the relationship of this process to individual age in a nineteenth century AD European archaeological skeletal series of known age at death (N = 92 individuals), and discusses its potential as an age indicator. Mandibular corpus height was measured at the different molar positions. In females, reduction of corpus height with age was found at molar positions showing ante mortem loss. In both sexes, a relationship was found between age and a simple composite measure of corpus height in the molar region in those showing ante mortem loss of one or more mandibular molars. The correlation was stronger in females (r = −0.74) than in males (r = −0.49), appeared approximately linear, and continued into the ninth decade, the oldest age group in the study material. The results suggest that investigation of height of the posterior part of the mandibular corpus as a skeletal age indicator for individuals that have lost one or more molar teeth is merited in other palaeopopulations. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:643–652, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Ecogeographical and phylogenetic effects on craniofacial variation in macaques
Authors: Ito Tsuyoshi , Nishimura Takeshi , Takai Masanaru 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTThe widespread and complex ecogeographical diversity of macaques may have caused adaptive morphological convergence among four phylogenetic subgroups, making their phylogenetic relationships unclear. We used geometric morphometrics and multivariate analyses to test the null hypothesis that craniofacial morphology does not vary with ecogeographical and phylogenetic factors. As predicted by Bergmann's rule, size was larger for the fascicularis and sinica groups in colder environments. No clear size cline was observed in the silenus and sylvanus groups. An allometric pattern was observed across macaques, indicating that as size increases, rounded faces become more elongated. However, the elevation was differentiated within each of the former two groups and between the silenus and sylvanus groups, and the slope decreased in each of the two northern species of the fascicularis group. All allometric changes resulted in the similar situation of the face being more rounded in animals inhabiting colder zones and/or in animals having a larger body size than that predicted from the overarching allometric pattern. For non‐allometric components, variations in prognathism were significantly correlated with dietary differences; variations in localized shape components in zygomatics and muzzles were significantly correlated with phylogenetic differences among the subgroups. The common allometric pattern was probably influenced directly or indirectly by climate‐related factors, which are pressures favoring a more rounded face in colder environments and/or a more elongated face in warmer environments. Allometric dissociation could have occurred several times in Macaca even within a subgroup because of their wide latitudinal distributions, critically impairing the taxonomic utility of craniofacial elongation. Am J Phys Anthropol 154:27–41, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Die Supersäure HBr/AlBr3: Protonierung von Benzol und ausgeordnete Kristallstruktur von [C6H7]+[Al2Br7]−
Authors: Scholz Franziska , Himmel Daniel , Eisele Lea , Unkrig Wiebke , Krossing Ingo 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDie Reaktion von festem AlBr3, Benzol und HBr‐Gas führte zur ausgeordneten Kristallstruktur des protonierten Benzols der Zusammensetzung [C6H7]+[Al2Br7]−⋅(C6H6) (1). Die Verbindung konnte mittels Röntgenstrukturanalyse, NMR‐ und Raman‐Spektroskopie zweifelsfrei nachgewiesen werden. Dieser unerwartet einfache und leicht zugängliche Syntheseweg zeigt, dass HBr/AlBr3 eine Supersäure ist, deren Potential bisher unterschätzt wurde und noch weiter untersucht werden sollte.
SF and SC Activation of SF6 and SF5 Derivatives at Rhodium: Conversion of SF6 into H2S
Authors: Zámostná Lada , Braun Thomas , Braun Beatrice 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe degradation of SF6 and SF5 organyls by SF and SC bond‐activation reactions at [{Rh(μ‐H)(dippp)}2] under mild conditions is reported. Fluorido and thiolato species were identified as products or intermediates, and were characterized by X‐ray diffraction analysis and multinuclear NMR spectroscopy. An unprecedented cyclic process for the conversion of the potent greenhouse gas SF6 into H2S was developed.
Helical Carbon and Graphite Films Prepared from Helical Poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene) Films Synthesized by Electrochemical Polymerization in Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystals
Authors: Matsushita Satoshi , Yan Bairu , Yamamoto Shinsuke , Jeong Yong Soo , Akagi Kazuo 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHelical carbon and graphite films from helical poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene) (H‐PEDOT) films synthesized through electrochemical polymerization in a chiral nematic liquid‐crystal (N*‐LC) field are prepared. The microscope investigations showed that the H‐PEDOT film synthesized in the N*‐LC has large domains of one‐handed spiral morphology consisting of fibril bundles. The H‐PEDOT films exhibited distinct Cotton effects in circular dichroism spectra. The highly twisted N*‐LC with a helical pitch of smaller than 1 μm produced the H‐PEDOT film with a highly ordered morphology. The spiral morphologies with left‐ and right‐handed screws were observed for the carbon films prepared from the H‐PEDOT films at 800 °C and were well correlated with the textures and helical pitches of the N*‐LCs. The spiral morphologies of the precursors were also retained even in the graphite films prepared from the helical carbon films at 2600 °C.
A General Catalytic Hydroamidation of 1,3‐Dienes: Atom‐Efficient Synthesis of N‐Allyl Heterocycles, Amides, and Sulfonamides
Authors: Banerjee Debasis , Junge Kathrin , Beller Matthias 
Published: January 2014

AbstractTransition‐metal‐catalyzed hydroamination reactions are sustainable and atom‐economical CN bond‐forming processes. Although remarkable progress has been made in the inter‐ and intramolecular amination of olefins and 1,3‐dienes, related intermolecular reactions of amides are still much less known. Control of the regioselectivity without analogous telomerization is the particular challenge in the catalytic hydroamidation of alkenes and 1,3‐dienes. Herein, we report a general protocol for the hydroamidation of electron‐deficient N‐heterocyclic amides and sulfonamides with 1,3‐dienes and vinyl pyridines in the presence of a catalyst derived from [{Pd(π‐cinnamyl)Cl}2] and ligand L7 or L10. The reactions proceeded in good to excellent yield with high regioselectivity. The practical utility of our method is demonstrated by the hydroamidation of functionalized biologically active substrates. The high regioselectivity for linear amide products makes the procedure useful for the synthesis of a variety of allylic amides.
Supramolecular Protein Assemblies in the Nucleus of Human Cells
Authors: Bellapadrona Giuliano , Elbaum Michael 
Published: January 2014

AbstractGenetically encoded supramolecular protein assemblies (SMPAs) are induced to form in living cells by combination of distinct self‐assembly properties. A single fusion construct contains genes encoding the heavy chain (H) of human ferritin and the citrine fluorescent protein, the latter exposing a weak dimerization interface, as well as a nuclear localization signal. Upon expression in HeLa cells, in vivo confocal fluorescence and differential interference contrast imaging revealed extended SMPA structures exclusively in the nuclei. Assemblies were typically round and took alveolar, shell‐like, or hybrid structure. Transmission electron microscopy revealed a crystalline packing. Site‐specific mutagenesis of the citrine dimerization interface clarified the mechanism of SMPA formation. The constituent proteins retained their activity in iron binding and fluorescence emission, thus suggesting a general strategy for formation of synthetic cellular bodies with specific biochemical function.
Palladium‐Catalyzed Difluoroalkylation of Aryl Boronic Acids: A New Method for the Synthesis of Aryldifluoromethylated Phosphonates and Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
Authors: Feng Zhang , Min Qiao‐Qiao , Xiao Yu‐Lan , Zhang Bo , Zhang Xingang 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe palladium‐catalyzed difluoroalkylation of aryl boronic acids with bromodifluoromethylphosphonate, bromodifluoroacetate, and further derivatives has been developed. This method provides a facile and useful access to a series of functionalized difluoromethylated arenes (ArCF2PO(OEt)2, ArCF2CO2Et, and ArCF2CONR1R2) that have important applications in drug discovery and development. Preliminary mechanistic studies reveal that a single electron transfer (SET) pathway may be involved in the catalytic cycle.
Chemoselective Polymerization Control: From Mixed‐Monomer Feedstock to Copolymers
Authors: Romain Charles , Williams Charlotte K. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA novel chemoselective polymerization control yields predictable (co)polymer compositions from a mixture of monomers. Using a dizinc catalyst and a mixture of caprolactone, cyclohexene oxide, and carbon dioxide enables the selective preparation of either polyesters or polycarbonates or copoly(ester‐carbonates). The selectivity depends on the nature of the zinc–oxygen functionality at the growing polymer chain end, and can be controlled by the addition of exogeneous switch reagents.
Electron Transfer in a Supramolecular Associate of a Fullerene Fragment
Authors: Gallego María , Calbo Joaquín , Aragó Juan , Krick Calderon Rafael M. , Liquido Fernando H. , Iwamoto Takahiro , Greene Allison K. , Jackson Edward A. , Pérez Emilio M. , Ortí Enrique , Guldi Dirk M. , Scott Lawrence T. , Martín Nazario 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHerein, we investigate the association of a fullerene fragment, hemifullerene C30H12, with an electron‐donating bowl‐shaped tetrathiafulvalene derivative (truxTTF). UV/Vis titrations and DFT calculations support formation of the supramolecular complex, for which an association constant of log Ka=3.6±0.3 in CHCl3 at room temperature is calculated. Remarkably, electron transfer from truxTTF to C30H12 to form the fully charge‐separated species takes place upon irradiation of the associate with light, constituting the first example in which a fullerene fragment mimics the electron‐accepting behavior of fullerenes within a supramolecular complex.
Iron(II)‐Catalyzed Direct Cyanation of Arenes with Aryl(cyano)iodonium Triflates
Authors: Shu Zhibin , Ji Wenzhi , Wang Xi , Zhou Yujing , Zhang Yan , Wang Jianbo 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA direct oxidative cyanation of arenes under FeII catalysis with 3,5‐di(trifluoromethyl)phenyl(cyano)iodonium triflate (DFCT) as the cyanating agent has been developed. The reaction is applicable to wide range of aromatic substrates, including polycyclic structures and heteroaromatic compounds.
Synthesis of Triangular Tripalladium Cations as Noble‐Metal Analogues of the Cyclopropenyl Cation
Authors: Blanchard Sébastien , Fensterbank Louis , Gontard Geoffrey , Lacôte Emmanuel , Maestri Giovanni , Malacria Max 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe first C3‐symmetric 44‐core‐valence‐electron triangular palladium clusters, [{(SAr′)(PAr3)Pd}3]+, have been synthesized by activation of the CS bond of isothioureas. Owing to delocalized metal–metal bonding, these stable complexes are the first noble‐metal analogues of the π‐aromatic cyclopropenyl cation [C3H3]+, with their all‐metal aromaticity involving d‐type atomic orbitals.
Aufbau einer B‐C‐Doppelbindung in der Koordinationssphäre des Platins: ein Alkylidenborylligand, der isoelektronisch zu neutralen Aminoborylenen ist
Authors: Brand Johannes , Braunschweig Holger , Hupp Florian , Phukan Ashwini K. , Radacki Krzysztof , Sen Sakya S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDie Reaktion von [Pt(PCy3)2] mit Br2B‐CH(SiMe3)2 lieferte den ersten Alkylidenborylkomplex trans‐[Br(Cy3P)2Pt{BCH(SiMe3)}] unter Eliminierung von Me3SiBr. Der trans‐ständige Bromidligand dieses Alkylidenborylkomplexes konnte durch Umsetzung mit Methyllithium glatt gegen eine Methylgruppe unter Ausbildung eines weiteren Alkylidenborylkomplexes trans‐[Me(Cy3P)2Pt{BCH(SiMe3)}] ausgetauscht werden. Verschiedene spektroskopische Verfahren, Röntgenstrukturanalytik sowie quantenchemische Rechnungen bestätigen das Vorliegen einer Doppelbindung zwischen Bor und Kohlenstoff. Die quantenchemischen Rechnungen lieferten außerdem Belege für einen stärkeren trans‐Einfluss des Alkylidenborylliganden im Vergleich zu Iminoboryl‐ oder Oxoborylliganden.