bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aristonikos
Authors: Daubner Frank 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Aristonikos (ca. 160–126
BCE
) was the natural son of Eumenes II (only Velleius Paterculus 2.4.1 doubts this fact; Daubner 2006: 53) and, as Eumenes III, he was the last of the Attalid kings.
Asandros, satrap of Caria
Authors: Müller Sabine 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAsandros, son of Agathon from Beroia and often erroneously called “Cassander” (Curt. 10.10.2; Just.Epit. 13.4.15), was one of the Macedonian Satraps of Caria, appointed after the death of Ada, the last Hekatomnid (seeHekatomnids).
Asia Minor, Hellenistic
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe history of Asia Minor following the death of Alexander III, The Great comprised diverse forms of interaction between the Hellenistic kingdoms that emerged on the ruins of his empire, local Greek and non‐Greek cities, different non‐Greek peoples, indigenous or migrant, and the Romans, who would establish their control over that region through contacts with cities and client‐kings and, eventually, by founding provinces.
Asoka
Authors: Mairs Rachel 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Asoka (ca. 304–232
BCE
; Sanskrit
Aśokah
, “without sorrow,” also commonly transliterated “Ashoka”) was ruler of the Indian Mauryan empire from around 269 until his death (Thapar 1997; Falk 2006). He was son of Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Dynasty. Asoka occupies an important position in the ancient Indian historical and epigraphic tradition, where he appears as a ruthless conqueror and subsequently as a patron of Buddhism. He is also one of the few Indian rulers whose dealings with the west, especially with the kings of the Hellenistic eastern Mediterranean and with the Greek‐speaking population of Arachosia, are well documented.
Attalos I
Authors: Coloru Omar 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAttalos I of Pergamon (r. 241–197BCE), the son of Attalos, youngest nephew of Philetairos, and of Antiochis, daughter of Achaios (Strabo 13.4.2), was the first member of the Attalid Dynasty to assume the title of king. While Philetairos, founder of the dynasty, and his nephew Eumenes I were quite obscure dynasts still trying to consolidate their power and to affirm their independence from the Seleucids, Attalos I managed to bring the small principality of pergamon into the number of the Hellenistic monarchies. Several major events contributed to this result.
Bactria
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey. D 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBactria, corresponding to northern Afghanistan, whose capital was the important commercial city of Bactra‐Zariaspa (modern Balkh), was demarcated by the plain extending from the Paropamisos (Hindu Kush) in the south to the Oxos (Amu Daria) river in the north (e.g., Strabo 11.8 [513–514]).
Civil war, Hellenistic
Authors: Gray B. D. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCivil war(Stasis), defined as war between parties claiming to be the legitimate members or rulers of a single political unit, was common in the Hellenistic period – in cities, leagues, and monarchies. This was a reflection of socio‐economic, political, and cultural tensions and a factor that weakened the Greek world in its relations with Rome.
Dikaiarchos, Aitolian
Authors: Antonetti Claudia , Cavalli Edoardo 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAmong the magistrates of the Aitolian League named “Dikaiarchos”, the most important one from a historical point of view was the son of Alexander and the brother of Thoas from Trichonion, who was politically active in the first quarter of the second centuryBCE.
Epidosis
Authors: Migeotte Léopold 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In ancient Greek, the noun
epidosis
meant “donation” and, like the cognate verb
epididonai
, it applied to any kind of generosity. However, modern historians generally use the noun to identify a group of donations which combined as subscriptions. Such donations could be organized by private associations and local communities, for instance demes and garrisons. But they could also be applied to the whole city, hence being public in the literal sense of the word. The latter variety is the one most abundantly illustrated by epigraphic evidence from the fifth entury
BCE
to the second century
CE
, and it is the one dealt with here.
Epigraphy, Greek
Authors: Rousset Denis 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGreek epigraphy aims at deciphering, editing, and commenting upon the texts that are written, either carved or painted, in the Greek alphabet on hard surfaces (especially stone, but also bone, metal, glass, clay, and mosaics), while those texts written on papyrus or parchment, as well as the ostraca found in Egypt (not in Athens), conventionally come within the area of papyrology.
Eurydike, wife of Philip Arrhidaios
Authors: Carney Elizabeth 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Adea (ca. 336–16
BCE
), daughter of Kynnane (Philip II of Macedon's daughter by the Illyrian Audata) and of Amyntas, son of Perdikkas III, took the name “Eurydike” when she married (322/1) Philip III Arrhidaios, the half‐brother of Alexander III, The Great (Arr. in
FGrH
156 F9.23).
Hieron I of Syracuse
Authors: Zambon Efrem 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Hieron I (d. 467
BCE
) was the brother of Gelon, and when the latter died (478/7) he became tyrant of Syracuse, greatly increasing the power and the influence of his city, both in Sicily and in southern Italy. He possessed great personal prestige also in mainland Greece: he won several times in the chariot races at Delphi and Olympia, and he made dedications in the two sanctuaries to celebrate his athletic triumphs and his military successes in the West.
Kinship, between cities and peoples
Authors: Sammartano Roberto 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAs Herodotus explains (8.144.2), the whole Greek‐speaking people was envisaged like one big “family” composed of kinsmen. Nevertheless, within this wide “family” there were various degrees of blood relationship due to the ancestral subdivision of the Hellenic people into the earlygeneof Aiolians, Ionians, and Dorians.
Koine dialect
Authors: Colvin Stephen 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The term koine comes from the Greek phrase
hē
koinē
dialektos
“the common dialect,” and refers to the language spoken across the Greek‐speaking world from Alexander the Great to Late Antiquity. Prior to this, there was no “standard” Greek language; each political unit in Greece used its own dialect and (if it wrote) its own alphabet. The Greeks themselves grouped their dialects into three main families (Attic‐Ionic, Doric, and Aeolic), which corresponded to their ideas about ethnic divisions among themselves.
Ktesibios of Alexandria
Authors: Petrovic Ivana 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Ktesibios of Alexandria was a third‐century
BCE
innovator and founder of pneumatics, a study of the use of pressurized gas to affect motion. Since Ktesibios' work
Hypomnemata mechanika
is lost, we must rely on the writings of those to whom it was still available (Vitruvius) and on the report of Philo of Byzantium, who saw Ktesibios present his inventions, such as the air valve (
Belopoiika
77f.).
Lysippos
Authors: Bobou Olympia 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lysippos (active ca. 370–300
BCE
) was one of the most innovative sculptors of the late Classical and Hellenistic period, working primarily in bronze and equally adept at portraiture, depictions of deities, heroes, personifications, and even animals, all in different scales. His versatility, innovations, and productivity (more than 1,500 statues, Pliny
HN
34.37) ensured his everlasting fame in antiquity and beyond.
Menander
Authors: Iversen Paul A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMenander (342/1–292/1 or 291/0BCE;IGXIV 1184), son of Diopeithes, a distinguished Athenian from Kephisia (IGII21926.19), and of Hegestrate, was the “star” of New Comedy (scholium adDion. Thrax 20.5) and was particularly noted for his pithy one‐liners (gnomai monostichoi).
Mithradatic wars
Authors: Kantor Georgy 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA series of military conflicts between Rome and the king Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontos between 89 and 63BCEresulted, after some early victories for the Pontic king, in the destruction of his kingdom, vast expansion of the area directly governed by Rome in Asia Minor and the Levant, and removal of the last serious threat to Roman domination in the region.
Perseus, Macedonian king
Authors: Čašule Nikola 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPerseus (213–165 or 162BCE), king of Macedonia 179–168, revived Macedonian power and pursued a foreign policy which led to conflict with Rome in the Third Macedonian War. Perseus' defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 resulted in the partition of Macedonia and the end of the Macedonian monarchy.
Philodemos, Epicurean
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGreek Epicurean philosopher and poet from Gadara (modern‐day Umm Qais, Jordan). He studied in Athens under the Epicurean Zeno of Sidon, moved to Italy in the mid‐70s, and enjoyed the patronage of Lucius Calpurnius Piso, father‐in‐law of Julius Caesar, residing in his villa in Herculaneum, known today as “Villa dei Papiri.”
Phraates V of Parthia
Authors: Heller André 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Phraates V Phraatakes (“little Phraates”), son of king Phraates IV of Parthia and of his concubine Musa, reigned from 2
BCE
to 4
CE
. The earliest he could have been born is 19
BCE
, if Musa was given as a gift by Augustus in 20. Musa later persuaded Phraates IV to send his other sons to Rome.
Kritolaos, Achaian
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA prominent politician and a general of the Achaian League, Kritolaos determined Achaian policy, including the league's relations with Rome, whose interference in Greek affairs had become much more pronounced in the mid‐second centuryBCE: it culminated in an open assault on the Achaian League and in the destruction of Corinth in 146BCE.
Agrippina the Younger
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAgrippina the Younger (14–59CE) was the daughter of Augustus' ambitious grand‐daughter, Agrippina the elder, and of Germanicus, the highly popular nephew and adopted son of Tiberius. She would exploit these powerful family connections relentlessly. She was born in 14CEon the Rhine frontier, where her mother had accompanied Germanicus. By 17 the family had returned to Rome, where Agrippina participated in her father's Triumph. She remained there when Germanicus went to Syria, where he died in 19.
Donatus, Tiberius Claudius
Authors: Harrison Stephen J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTiberius Claudius Donatus (not to be confused with the earlier scholar Aelius Donatus) is known only as the author of the extantInterpretationes Vergilianae, a line‐by‐line commentary on Vergil'sAeneid, dedicated to his son Tiberius Claudius Maximus Donatianus; its epilogue implies that the author is now old but would still like to write further, more factual exegesis of theAeneid.
Golden Age
Authors: Holford‐Strevens Leofranc 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Golden Age is a mythical period of peace, ease, and abundance, when human beings enjoyed the earth's fruits without agriculture, land ownership, animal slaughter, slavery, or navigation. Such conditions supposedly obtained under Kronos/Saturn, before his overthrow by Zeus/Jupiter; this conception is accommodated by Hesiod (Op. 106–201) within a succession of human races: golden, silver, bronze (the first of Zeus's reign), followed by the Heroes and the present iron race, each except the Heroes morally inferior to its predecessor (a hint of a better future remains undeveloped). Similar four‐age schemes are found in Near Eastern cultures; as a Greek, Hesiod thought of people rather than periods and needed to include the Heroes, superior but warlike.
Gromatici
Authors: Peterson John W. M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
gromatici
, named for the surveying instrument the
groma
, were instructors and (usually) practitioners of land survey. They wrote from the Flavian period onward; the earliest surviving manuscript probably dates from the sixth century
CE
. Some works are illustrated. Epigraphic and archaeological evidence supports these sources and confirms the land surveyor's role as planner and administrator, as well as expert witness.
Humor and satire, Greece and Rome
Authors: Nisbet Gideon 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA joke can reveal much about the individual who tells it, and more about the culture that he or she inhabits. Humor invites us to realize that something important has been concealed or disguised; satire comically exaggerates and distorts a perceived underlying truth. Like parody, ancient humorous and satirical texts typically affirm (while at times playfully burlesquing) the approved values and norms of the societies that produced them. The ancient genres of non‐serious literature may thus help historians explore ancient ideologies. If we try to mine them for material “facts” the joke usually turns out to be on us.
Lucan (Annaeus Lucanus, Marcus)
Authors: Cowan Robert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLucan (39–65CE), epic poet of theBellum civile(Civil War, also known as thePharsalia), was born in Corduba, grandson of Seneca The Elder (Lucius Annaeus Seneca) and nephew of Seneca The Younger (Lucius Annaeus Seneca); he was educated at Rome, but recalled from philosophical studies in Athens by Nero. He became an intimate of theprinceps, being appointed quaestor and winning a prize at the Neronia festival in 60 for a panegyrical poem. However, Lucan's relations with Nero deteriorated, perhaps because of poetic rivalry, and he eventually joined the Pisonian conspiracy (65). When it was discovered, he is alleged to have tried to betray his confederates, including his mother, before committing suicide.
Philhellenism
Authors: Gallia Andrew B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn ancient history, “philhellenism” refers to the behavior of non‐Greeks (typically Romans) who adopted Greek habits or pursued policies favorable to Greek states. The term derives from the adjectivephilhellen(”Greek‐loving”), which was deployed by the Greeks themselves to describe foreign rulers, like the Egyptian pharaoh Amasis (Hdt. 2.178), from whom they received benefits.Philhellenalso applied to individuals, such as Hieron I of Syracuse (Ael.VH9.1), who expressed a particular affinity for Greek culture. Both meanings may be imputed to its appearance in an inscription from Boiotian Akraiphia (Syll.3814=ILS8794), in which the Roman emperor Nero, who not only immersed himself in Greek pursuits but also proclaimed Achaia's freedom from taxation in 67CE, is celebrated as a lover and benefactor of Greece. However apt this conflation of political action with cultural sympathy may appear in particular circumstances, it is important to bear in mind thatphilhellenwas primarily an etic label, which reveals more about the aspirations of the Greeks who deployed it than it does those of the potentate to whom it was applied. Reputation and reality were not always commensurate (cf. Cic.Att. 1.15.1; Plut.Ant. 23.2).
Plautus (Titus Maccius Plautus)
Authors: May Regine 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Titus Maccius Plautus (active ca. 205–184
BCE
, from Sarsina in Umbria) is the earliest comic playwright of
fabulae palliatae
(Latin comedy with Greek subject matter) of whose output complete plays survive. Ancient biographies claim that he worked as a stagehand, lost all his money in a business venture, and worked in a mill, but are unreliable and probably fictitious. Even his name is uncertain, as Maccius may be a reference to the Atellana (native Italian farce) fool Maccus, and Plautus (“flatfoot”) a nickname from mime. At one time, about 130 plays were attributed to him, some erroneously (Gell.
NA
3.3).
Saeculum
Authors: Holford‐Strevens Leofranc 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Saeculum
properly denotes the longest human lifespan. The Etruscans believed that cities were allotted a fated number of
saecula
, each ending with the death of the longest‐living person born on its first day, but the Romans equated the
saeculum
with a hundred years; tradition made the twelve vultures seen by Romulus to promise the city twelve such
saecula
of existence.
Wonders of the world
Authors: Brodersen Kai 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

A canon of seven “sights” of man‐made art and architecture is first attested in the second century
BCE
in a Hellenistic context: in the Laterculi Alexandrini (P. Berol. 13044 v, cols. 8–9) and in a poem by Antipater of Sidon (
Anth. Pal
. 9.58), referring to the pyramids of Egypt, the city wall of Babylon, the hanging gardens of Semiramis in the same city, the temple of Artemis at Ephesos, the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, and the colossus of Rhodes. While the number “seven” remains stable until Late Antiquity, and is sometimes used to celebrate an “eighth” wonder (e.g., the Colosseum at Rome in Martial,
Spect
. 1, or St. Basil's hospital in Gregory of Nazianzus,
Or
. 43.63 =
PG
36.577), the items listed vary, and replace “wonders” in the list by others.
Diktys of Knossos
Authors: Thornton Daniel James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Diktys of Knossos, also known as Dictys Cretensis, was a legendary companion of the Cretan prince Idomeneus during the war against Troy, and is the alleged author of an
Ephemeris
of the Trojan War preserved in a Latin translation in the following (likely fictional) circumstances.
Musonius Rufus, Gaius
Authors: Engels David 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The life of C. Musonius Rufus of Volsinii, Roman
eques
and Stoic philosopher, is mostly known through the
Suda
. Born before 30
CE
as son of Capito and teaching Stoicism at Rome, he was in the entourage of the senator Rubellius Plautus at his banishment to Asia Minor by Nero about 60.
Aelia Capitolina
Authors: Weikert J. Christopher , Klein Konstantin M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Aelia Capitolina was a Roman colony founded in the wake of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135/6
CE
) by the emperor Hadrian at the site of the ancient city of Jerusalem. The city's name referred to Hadrian's
Gens
, the Aelii, a common component in names of Roman cities, and to
Iuppiter Capitolinus
, to whom the Jews had to pay a special tax (
fiscus Iudaicus
) since the first Jewish Revolt. During the reign of Septimius Severus the city received the additional name
Commodiana
.
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
Authors: Witakowski Witold 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The
Apocalypse of Zephaniah (AZ)
is known only from fragments: a short quotation in Clement of Alexandria's (d. ca. 215
CE
)
Stromata
(5.11.77.2), and two fragments in Coptic: a short one in the Sahidic dialect, and a longer in the Akhmimic.
Assumption of Moses
Authors: Magliano‐Tromp Johannes 
Published: December 2012

AbstractTheAssumption of Mosesis a Jewish writing from the first centuryCE, presumably composed in Judaea. Some scholars also refer to it as theTestament of Moses. It is preserved only in a fragmentary Latin palimpsest from the fifth or sixth century, as well as in a small number of quotations in early Christian literature (including the New Testament letter of Jude); these quotations guarantee the identification of the writing as theAssumption of Moses‐in the manuscript itself, the title is lost.
Belial/Beliar
Authors: Woolstenhulme Guinevere T. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBelialandbeliarare Greek equivalents of the Hebrew wordbeliyya‘al,meaning “wickedness” or “worthlessness.” Outside the Hebrew Bible, Belial is the leader of the forces of darkness. Proposed etymologies include the rootbala‘,“to swallow,” and a combination of beli, “without,” and eitherya‘al,“worth,” or‘ala,“to go up.”
Psalms of Solomon
Authors: Atkinson Kenneth 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThePsalms of Solomonis a collection of eighteen pseudonymous poems that recount an unknown Jewish community's response to the 63BCERoman conquest of Jerusalem. Composed in Hebrew, it survives only in Greek and Syriac translations. Although the authorship of thePsalms of Solomonis unknown, the terminology and theology of several poems are reminiscent of many Dead Sea Scrolls. ThePsalms of Solomonwas likely written by several authors, and collected together at a later date for liturgical use. The collection was probably attributed to Solomon because of the similarity between canonical Psalm 72, which is ascribed to this biblical king, and the reference to the “son of David” inPsalms of Solomon17.21.
Qumran
Authors: Babkina Svetlana V. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractQumran or Khirbet (Arabic “ruins”) is a small ruined settlement on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea excavated soon after the discovery of the Dea Sea Scrolls in 1947. The settlement was known from the mid‐nineteenth century and was described as “the remains of Gomorrah” or as a frontier stronghold.
Salome Alexandra
Authors: Ilan Tal 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSalome Alexandra was a Hasmonean queen (seeHasmoneans), the wife and then successor (76–67BCE) of Alexander Jannaeus. She is principally mentioned in the writings of Josephus but also in Rabbinic Literature and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Her Hebrew name – Shelamzion – is recorded correctly only in the latter. Scholars assume that Jannaeus married Salome, the widow of his childless brother and predecessor Aristobulus I, in a levirate union. There is, however, no evidence for this assertion.
Tefillin
Authors: Cohn Yehudah B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Hebrew/Aramaic plural nountefillinfirst appears in the Mishnah (seeMishnah and Tosefta, designating a pair of small leather cases, whose parchment contents are inscribed, according to rabbinic convention, with four biblical passages (Ex 13:1–10, 11–16; Deut 6:4–9, 11:13–21 – these latter two are also found in theShemaprayer).
Temple, Samaritan, on Mount Gerizim
Authors: Klein Konstantin M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Mount Gerizim (Hebrew:
Har Gərizzim
, Samaritan:
Ar‐Gerizim
) is a hill, rising up to a height of 880 m, close to the modern city of Nablus (ancient
Neapolis
/
Shekhem
).
Administration, Late Antique
Authors: Schmidt‐Hofner Sebastian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFrom Diocletian onwards, the Roman imperial administration rapidly expanded to become the largest and most complex bureaucracy in the history of the ancient world, with an estimated number of 30,000–40,000 imperial officials (excluding those of the cities). The structure, responsibilities, and social implications of this bureaucratic machine are amply documented in sources such as the legal codes of the era, the Notitia Dignitatum or the works of John Lydus.
Arabic and old Arabic
Authors: Klein Konstantin M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Arabic (and old Arabic as a stage in the development of Arabic) is a Semitic language of the North Arabian group, which itself is classified as Central Semitic. This group is divided into South Arabian and North Arabian. The North Arabian languages themselves consist of Ancient North Arabian (which is attested in five dialects: Taymanitic, Dadanitic, Safaitic, Hismaic, and Thamudic) and Arabic, which encompasses old Arabic, Classical Arabic, and Middle Arabic, as well as the Arabic dvernacular dialects.
Aramaic and Syriac
Authors: Law T. M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In the first millennium
BCE
Aramaic, like Akkadian and Sumerian before it, became the
lingua franca
of the Near Eastern world. Unlike its predecessors, however, Aramaic's reach extended far beyond its center, and it was used from Egypt in the south to Anatolia in the north to India in the east. Through many permutations, Aramaic has survived over a span of ca. 3,000 years and is attested in ancient inscriptions, seals, coins, manuscripts, and now in the modern spoken dialects of several Middle Eastern communities. To describe Aramaic, scholars have used various systems of classification, but the one followed here divides the language by chronology into Old, Imperial, Middle, Late, and Modern.