bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How Intelligent Knowledge Systems Will Improve Operations and Safety in the Future
Authors: Soignier Andrew 
Published: February 2015

Guest editorial
In an era of high workforce turnover, capturing operational knowledge is vital to improving safety and achieving operational excellence. Modern solutions must address not only the replacement of paper-based processes, but also contextually weave together multidisciplinary information in a form that provides a holistic view of equipment across an operation. Going forward, the oil and gas industry should have intelligent, automated systems designed to capture data, learn from events, optimize production, and prevent safety-related incidents. The time is now for this step change in the industry as these fully integrated systems will become as necessary and as expected as the use of tablets and laptops.
Trends and events in the oil and gas industry in recent years have shown that the focus on operation, maintenance, and safety requires more integration and embedding into operational processes. The industry has been aware of the issue of staff turnover for some time and the causes are not just aging baby boomers, but a change in working trends. The retention of employees is no longer assured through incentives, such as a good pension package, and the modern workforce recognizes that their skills are highly transportable. Lives are built more around portability, and information that would encourage one to realize new ambitions is more readily available than ever before. What attracted and retained previous generations of the workforce no longer has the same appeal. The industry must adapt to this new status quo and protect against the increasing risk that vital, safety-related information could disappear from an organization.
With increased staff turnover, the risk that an organization might not keep required information is particularly high in activities that are not part of daily operations. Less frequent occurrences, such as an operation startup or coming out of a turnaround process, may leave the company particularly vulnerable. Information may be especially limited when it comes to taking long-life, rarely cycled equipment in and out of operation. However, it is under such less frequent conditions that accidents are more likely to occur.
To combat the loss of knowledge retained by staff, intelligent systems should be not only work-process driven but also capture valuable information. These systems must be used by both seasoned and new employees and to capture and harness knowledge about various aspects of operations. They should learn, be intelligent, and make the knowledge they contain clearly available to operators as they work. In this way, when there are transitions, abnormal conditions, or opportunities for improvement, operators and engineers have ready access to the background and information gained from the past 20 years of accumulated knowledge. Such a system is a living, breathing application beyond anything that has been used in the industry to date.
Submersible Pump Selection for Dewatering CBM Wells
Authors: Brown Don 
Published: February 2015

Technology Update
Different artificial lift technologies have been used for decades to dewater coalbed methane (CBM) wells to reduce hydrostatic pressure and release the gas for production. Among the newest is the electric submersible pump (ESP) using progressive cavity pump (PCP) technology, known as an ESPCP (Fig. 1).
Close coupling between a PCP and a submersible electric motor enable these units to run more quietly, pump more, and last longer. And because of their lower profile above ground, submersible pumps lend themselves to gas operations near residential areas and other locations where aesthetics and quiet operation are a priority.
Dewatering CBM wells can be difficult because coal seams typically lie far below the groundwater level, often at depths greater than 2,000 ft. Conventional centrifugal water-well pumps and standard oilfield ESPs struggle at typical flow rates of wells of 250 B/D or less.
To overcome this, some operators overspeed a centrifugal pump, which requires start and stop cycles to avoid overpumping. Such operation is inefficient and shortens pump and motor life. In addition, most centrifugal pumps that operate in this range tend to have small flow passages and become easily clogged. A different style of pump is required to operate these “low and slow” wells efficiently. The ESPCP, which combines the benefits of the ESP and the PCP (Fig. 2), meets this need.
PCP Systems
A PCP transfers fluid by advancing it through a sequence of fixed-shaped, discrete cavities, as the rotor is turned. This leads to the volumetric flow rate being directly proportional to the rate of rotation, and to low levels of shearing being applied to the pumped fluid. The individual pump cavities are tapered toward their ends and overlap in the axial direction with neighboring cavities so at any given instant, multiple cavities are open and discharging fluid. This makes for smooth fluid flow, with no pulsing action.
Because the rotor is well sealed within the cavity walls, the pump is effective at low flow rates from significant depths. The pump’s lack of shearing action also makes it good for pumping fluids that contain fracturing sand, coal fines, or even large particles, typically present in CBM dewatering applications.
Also typical are varying levels of gas and varying flow rates, which the PCP’s smooth and uniform operation is able to handle more easily. Additionally, the high pump efficiency helps to keep the power requirements modest at low flow rates. Franklin Electric has found that power levels for its ESPCP systems can be as low as 600 W to 3 kW to maintain desired water levels at depths of 900 ft to 1,300 ft.
PCP systems have traditionally used aboveground motors with long drive shafts, but this can pose problems. The motors are noisy and if used near residential areas are often considered visually objectionable. If the well has a horizontal design, the drive shaft approach requires mechanical support such as bushings or bearings to negotiate the curve built into the well path. These will wear out, which increases operational costs.
In Search of Better Water Quality Through Continuous Monitoring
Authors: Rassenfoss Stephen 
Published: February 2015

The simplest way to measure return on investment for an offshore water treatment system is to determine whether using the system actually reduces the risk of paying a fine for violating water pollution laws. This has typically been done through laboratory tests—required by regulators—on periodically collected samples of treated water.
But increasingly, water testing systems are being installed on production platforms offering constant updates of the effectiveness of the water treatment systems. The argument for them is that what flows out of oil fields changes constantly, with surges and slugs dense with hydrocarbons. An unnoticed surge or slug can cause a sharp increase in the oil level in the treated water that is disposed overboard. Without quick adjustments, these excursions can create a telltale sheen around a platform, which can lead to trouble.
“There is the dreaded sheen,” said Sandy Rintoul, executive vice president of Wilks Enterprise, which was recently acquired by Spectro. “If there is a sheen on the water, watch out. The helicopters will see you pretty soon.”
Wilks sells tabletop devices, used on platforms for periodic processed water quality checks that have been used for decades. It now faces multiple competitors in a niche where new testing methods are for sale. If done properly, those tests can indicate how a platform will fare when tested for regulatory compliance.
“They (platform crews) typically use it at least once a day. You see some do it four times a day. If something is going on with the system and there is an issue, they could grab samples every hour,” said Rintoul.
A small but growing number of platforms have installed constant monitoring systems. The future of this option will depend on convincing operators that there is a favorable return on investment in monitoring systems that cost many times more than periodic checks.
There was keen interest at the annual meeting of the Produced Water Society, which spent one day at its 3-day annual Produced Water Seminar, held 14–16 January in Galveston, Texas, for presentations and debate on the value and effectiveness of continuous monitoring and its future.
At the meeting, an employee of a water treatment company asked an engineer from a major oil company what it would take to convince operators of the value of smarter water treatment systems.
The answer was: “It is hard to prove how much you can save when you do not know the problem you will solve.”
One answer came from MyCelx, a young company that sells equipment for water polishing, which reduces the oil content at the last stage of treatment. Also called tertiary treatment, this step is often taken when there is an upset pushing up oil levels of water from the primary and secondary treatment systems.
A case study conducted by MyCelx covered 2 years’ experience on a deepwater facility in the US Gulf of Mexico where the company observed 10 to 12 upsets a year, some lasting for days.
Beyond Forecasting: Energy Markets in a Time of Unprecedented Uncertainty
Authors: Leis Jorge , Gottfredson Mark 
Published: February 2015

Management
Imagine if you could have seen North America’s shale gas phenomenon coming, years ahead of the competition. What would you have done differently?
Some companies might have avoided spending billions of dollars on liquefied natural gas import facilities in the United States. Some might have acquired acreage before hyperinflation escalated land values. Others would have reallocated capital to better position their companies for the onslaught of natural gas and natural gas liquids. If you had seen it coming, would you have anticipated the global competitive advantage of US domestic industries, from manufacturing to fertilizer to plastics to coal, and the resulting changes to international flows?
Hindsight is 20/20, but there were indicators pointing to a shale gas supply shock. What was missing for most executive teams was a systematic approach for identifying plausible scenarios and defining the leading indicators that would allow them to monitor the market’s evolution toward them.
Most energy companies could benefit from this type of approach, especially with the high level of today’s uncertainty. We have developed a series of plausible scenarios based on our analytical models. To build these scenarios, we capture the dynamics of the energy ecosystem along three major vectors: natural gas supply, crude oil supply, and the uptake of renewables (Fig. 1). Within each, we consider experience curves and the relevant efficiency gains to determine supply curves and possible clearing prices. We then use those prices to calculate intrafuel substitution (such as shale gas for coalbed methane gas) and interfuel substitutions (such as natural gas for coal). We also reasoned that regulatory actions and technology breakthroughs could make renewables competitive and lead to substitution away from fossil fuels. Then we looked at the constraints on infrastructure build-out and we balanced supply and demand by industry sector (power generation, transportation, industrial heating and power, and industrial feedstock). This type of scenario building is a forward-looking process that anticipates disruptive change and can help inform executives for better decision making.
Conversations: Willing is not Enough - We Must Do
Authors: Fattahi Behrooz 
Published: February 2015

President's column
The oil and gas industry employs a large number of people around the world. The American Petroleum Institute (API) estimates that in the US alone, the oil and gas industry is one of the largest employers, supporting more than nine million jobs providing cost-competitive energy and adding more than USD 1 trillion to the US economy.
However, the measure of our industry is not only in the numbers that it employs, but more significantly is in the number of lives that it touches, and that is the entire population of our planet, roughly seven billion people. This creates a profound sense of social responsibility for us as an industry.
Without a doubt, our industry impacts the lives of almost all of us, regardless of whether we reside in developed or developing countries, in large or small urban areas, or in the remotest corners on this planet. Every day we use hundreds of products that have their roots in petroleum—the clothing we wear; equipment that we use in our work or leisure pursuits; health and beauty products; household furnishings; building materials; transportation; and many other applications. Without these products, the lifestyles and health of many, many people would be significantly different.
However, at least a segment of the general public views the activities of the oil and gas industry as incompatible with the concept of a sustainable planet. I am not certain of the extent of the sentiment or the significance of the numbers, but I have clearly heard about it from the industry leaders and the officials in many countries that I have travelled to as the SPE president. Jeane Kirkpatrick, a former US ambassador to the United Nations, once said that “Oil is a product that arouses so much passion. A lot of people have a passionate fear, or distaste, or downright hatred almost for oil. There is no other product that so many people need so badly, yet so many people believe should be produced entirely without profits.”
This is a serious matter. Public perception is an intangible asset that helps the industry attract resources, and develop a sustainable viability. We may differ on whether there is a scientific basis for this negative public opinion, but the reality is that the perception exists, and it translates into a more difficult environment for the industry to conduct its business. We, as members of the industry, need to recognize this and find ways to reverse the sentiment. Erosion of our image, I suggest, has not been due to the way we have run our business, but rather because we have behaved somewhat passively in the past, allowing unqualified others to make sweeping negative claims that portray our industry as insensitive to a sustainable planet. SPE’s energy education program is a key weapon in the fight against misinformation. Our outreach efforts that give teachers the science and facts about energy and our industry’s contributions are hugely important.
Embracing the Low-Carbon Economy of Sustainable Energy Development
Authors: Jiping Zhou 
Published: February 2015

Guest editorial
Sustainable development of the economy, using energy while protecting the environment, has become an important global issue. A consensus already has been established regarding the development of a low-carbon economy.
Our industrial civilization, based on fossil fuels, consumes substantial energy resources while producing abundant materials to benefit mankind. However, it also has had a negative impact on the natural environment, and this negative impact is intensifying. The balance between the requirement for low-cost energy, and the need to protect the environment, is the greatest challenge facing mankind today.
Sustainable development of energy calls for a low-carbon approach. Currently, the world is at a critical stage in the industrialization of developing countries. During the past two centuries, industrialization, based on the intensive use of fossil fuels, has modernized a population of 1.2 billion in advanced, developed countries. And developing, emerging countries with a population approaching 3 billion will likely follow the tide of industrialization over the next 30 to 40 years.
As this development takes place, it is essential to choose a low-carbon development based on efficient energy consumption, with low pollution and emissions. Low-carbon development should not be simply interpreted as the development of low-carbon energy; it is rather the sustainable utilization of low-carbon energy. The process of energy evolution from high carbon to low carbon will be a prolonged one, and during this transition period fossil fuels will continue to play a major role in ensuring the sustainable development of the global economy.
During this transition, to further the goal of low-carbon development, our energy industry bears the responsibility to assist in adjusting the energy mix, accelerating natural-gas development, and increasing the proportion of clean energy to gradually replace fossil fuels.
Low-carbon development brings important opportunities especially to the natural-gas industry. As the most environment-friendly fossil fuel, natural-gas plays a unique role in the transition of the energy mix from high to low carbon, and therefore carries tremendous potential for development. Not only will natural-gas development increase the proportion of clean energy in fossil fuels, but it can also compensate for some of the disadvantages of renewable energy, for example, the difficulties of storing power in batteries, and the unstable supply of wind and solar energy. In this respect, by providing stable backup energy supplies, the gas industry will also help to accelerate the development of renewable energy.
In the coming 20 years, the global demand for natural gas will continue to grow at an average annual rate of 1.8%, and gas will overtake oil as the world’s largest energy source sometime in the first half of this century.
Cryogenic Piping Reduces the Effect of LNG Transfer Terminals on Local Communities
Authors: Bybee Karen 
Published: February 2015

This article, written by Assistant Technology Editor Karen Bybee, contains highlights of paper OTC 20223, ’How the Use of Cryogenic Piping Can Reduce the Impact of LNG Transfer Terminals on Environment and Local Communities, While Increasing Site Safety and Security,’ by Phillip Cox and Raul Risi, Technip, originally prepared for the 2009 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 4-7 May.
Environmental considerations play an important part in the permitting process for new liquefied-natural-gas (LNG) facilities. Ports generally are overworked, while coastal green-site areas often are protected and populated by local communities. An attractive alternative to conventional solutions can be achieved by installation of subsea cryogenic pipe in pipe (CPIP) to a nearshore transfer post, and by displacing the process facilities inland. This avoids the installation of a jetty and brings significant savings to the project, while improving the operational aspects of site safety and security.
Introduction
Use of alternative technology in the LNG industry, whether it is new or proven, always will provide a challenge, and solid justification for its choice will be needed. Respect of the environment, linked closely to safety and security, is an item of prime importance during the permitting phase of any proposed new LNG terminal, and use of modern technology to address these issues will assist in obtaining required permits. Positive impact statements, supported by detailed engineering and certification, relative to the operability of the LNG chain and reduction of costs are an integral part of the engineering package to be supplied.
During the development phase of new equipment and methods, the overall picture must always be considered because the knock-on effect of upgrading one “link in the chain” may lead to further modification of associated equipment. This has been the case with the double development of the CPIP and the new marine offloading posts that are exposed to dynamic conditions, leading to the requirement for heavy-duty cryogenic flexible transfer systems.
Technology Focus: HP/HT Challenges (April 2010)
Authors: Payne Mike 
Published: February 2015

Technology Focus
Industry focus on high-pressure/high-temperature (HP/HT) operations seems to go in cycles as exploration successes identify new hydrocarbon resources that can be developed commercially and as technical advances allow wells to be drilled and completed that extend prior capabilities. When production of HP/HT reservoirs becomes dependent upon the development of a particular technology, business incentives create both a substantial momentum and a sharp focus that drives technology development to a successful end.
Historically, this drive has been the case with HP/HT developments. With the passage of time, some may be unfamiliar with the substantial foundation of HP/HT technologies that were created by the hard work of our predecessors. For example, the Association of American Wellhead Equipment Manufacturers (AWHEM) started work on 15,000-psi wellhead equipment in 1952. That research resulted in AWHEM Standard No. 6 in 1957, which would later become part of the API 15K wellhead standards. The first 20,000-psi wellhead system was developed in 1972, which was followed quickly with the development of the first 30,000-psi wellhead system in 1974. These developments were in response to Shell’s discovery of the Thomasville field in Mississippi, USA, in 1969. In addition to Thomasville and Piney Woods fields in Mississippi, other substantial HP/HT developments include the Tuscaloosa fields in Louisiana, USA, and the Central Graben fields in the North Sea.
Currently, the industry is pursuing new generations of HP/HT fields including deeper wells in deep water and deep gas wells on the outer continental shelf (OCS). Relative to the deepwater operations, well pressures may approach 15,000 psi at the mudline, and, hence, 20,000-psi subsea equipment is being pursued. Relative to the deep gas wells on the OCS, 20,000-psi surface wellheads and trees, such as those used in Mississippi, Louisiana, and elsewhere, will again be needed, and discussions are active on 25,000-psi equipment.
Just as the industry addressed the new HP/HT requirements successfully and safely that appeared in the 1950s and onward, the industry’s current engineering rigor, innovation, and advanced technical capabilities will again converge to address today’s HP/HT challenges. These challenges should invigorate our engineers as they lay the foundations and groundwork for the next generation of HP/HT capabilities.
HP/HT Challenges additional reading available at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org
SPE 123681 • “Elgin/Franklin: What Could We Have Done Differently?” by Eric Festa, Total E&P(See JPT, January 2010, page 54)
SPE 118904 • “First Application of High-Density Fracturing Fluid To Stimulate a High-Pressure/High-Temperature Tight Gas Producer Sandstone Formation of Saudi Arabia” by K. Bartko, Saudi Aramco, et al.
SPE 124713 • “Depletion-Induced Stress Changes in an HP/HT Reservoir: Calibration and Verification of a Full-Field Geomechanical Model” by M.H.H. Hettema, StatoilHydro, et al.