bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Assessing the magnitude of CO2 flux uncertainty in atmospheric CO2 records using products from NASA's Carbon Monitoring Flux Pilot Project
Authors: Ott Lesley E. , Pawson Steven , Collatz George J. , Gregg Watson W. , Menemenlis Dimitris , Brix Holger , Rousseaux Cecile S. , Bowman Kevin W. , Liu Junjie , Eldering Annmarie , Gunson Michael R. , Kawa Stephan R. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractNASA's Carbon Monitoring System Flux Pilot Project (FPP) was designed to better understand contemporary carbon fluxes by bringing together state‐of‐the art models with remote sensing data sets. Here we report on simulations using NASA's Goddard Earth Observing System Model, version 5 (GEOS‐5) which was used to evaluate the consistency of two different sets of observationally informed land and ocean fluxes with atmospheric CO2 records. Despite the observation inputs, the average difference in annual terrestrial biosphere flux between the two land (NASA Ames Carnegie‐Ames‐Stanford‐Approach (CASA) and CASA‐Global Fire Emissions Database version 3 (GFED)) models is 1.7 Pg C for 2009–2010. Ocean models (NASA's Ocean Biogeochemical Model (NOBM) and Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean Phase II (ECCO2)‐Darwin) differ by 35% in their global estimates of carbon flux with particularly strong disagreement in high latitudes. Based upon combinations of terrestrial and ocean fluxes, GEOS‐5 reasonably simulated the seasonal cycle observed at Northern Hemisphere surface sites and by the Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite (GOSAT) while the model struggled to simulate the seasonal cycle at Southern Hemisphere surface locations. Though GEOS‐5 was able to reasonably reproduce the patterns of XCO2 observed by GOSAT, it struggled to reproduce these aspects of Atmospheric Infrared Sounder observations. Despite large differences between land and ocean flux estimates, resulting differences in atmospheric mixing ratio were small, typically less than 5 ppm at the surface and 3 ppm in the XCO2 column. A statistical analysis based on the variability of observations shows that flux differences of these magnitudes are difficult to distinguish from inherent measurement variability, regardless of the measurement platform.
Site‐Specific Requirements for
pT
and
pN
Authors: Wittekind Ch. , Henson D. E. , Hutter R. V. P. , Sobin L. H. 
Published: December 2014

Abstract

This chapter is an expansion to the following general rules of the TNM system (TNM Classification 2010):

Pathological assessment of the primary tumour (pT) entails a resection of the primary tumour or biopsy adequate to evaluate the highest pT category. The pathological assessment of the regional lymph nodes (pN) entails removal of nodes adequate to validate the absence of regional lymph node metastasis (pN0) and sufficient to evaluate the highest pN category.

If there is doubt concerning the correct T, N or M category to which a particular case should be allotted, then the lower (i.e., less advanced) category should be chosen.

The numbers of lymph nodes given in the different tumour sites are considered adequate for staging. If the examined lymph nodes are negative, but the number ordinarily resected is not met, classify as pN0. The number of nodes examined and the number involved by tumour should be recorded in the pathology report. This information may also be added in parentheses, e.g., for colorectal carcinoma pN0 (0/11) or pN1 (3/10).
In many tumour sites, the number of involved regional lymph nodes indicates differences in prognosis. A correlation exists between the number of examined lymph nodes and the pN classification. With increasing number of examined lymph nodes a higher frequency of lymph node‐positive cases is found and—in tumour sites where more than one positive pN category is provided—a greater proportion of higher pN categories can be observed. Therefore, the number of examined lymph nodes reflects the reliability of the pN classification.
NewTNMClassifications Recommended for Testing
Authors: Wittekind Ch. , Henson D. E. , Hutter R. V. P. , Sobin L. H. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractThis chapter contains proposals for new classifications as follows:SpecificGastrointestinal sarcomas (other than GIST)Malignant thymic epithelial tumours (thymoma)Cranial and facial bonesPrimary cutaneous lymphomasCutaneous T‐cell lymphomaMycosis fungoides and Sézary SyndromeChronic myeloid leukaemiaMultiple myelomaPrimary liver carcinoma in infants and children/HepatoblastomaAdrenal cortex carcinomaLiver metastasis of colorectal carcinomaGastrointestinal malignant lymphomasThese new classifications are provisional. Testing by several institutions and on large numbers of patients is needed before general acceptance can be recommended. Those having relevant data, published or not, on these classifications are invited to contact the TNM Prognostic Factors Project Committee of the UICC.
Scientific Method and Statistics
Authors: Hand David J. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractStatistics is the science of extracting information from data. As such, the methods of statistics are intimately interwoven with ideas of scientific method to formulate scientific explanations of natural phenomena; that is, with ideas of how science progresses and of scientific method. Examples of such common features are the notions of descriptive summaries of data, of experimentation, of model selection and formulation, and of inference from samples of observations.
Model Checking
Authors: Chandler R. E. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractMost statistical analyses are, implicitly or explicitly, based upon an underlying model for the data at hand. The conclusions from any analysis can therefore be justified only if the model is adequate. This article gives an overview of general principles for checking the adequacy of a statistical model. The focus is primarily upon models for relationships between variables. Specific techniques are summarized; for the reader who requires more detail, pointers to the relevant literature are given.
Inference, Foundations of
Authors: Fisher Lloyd D. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractThe foundations of statistical inference are summarized beginning with regularity as embodied in probability theory. Both objective external probability and subjective internal Bayesian probability are discussed. The law of large numbers is the theoretical underpinning of the usefulness of probability. Objective large probability methods have led to concepts such as confidence intervals, hypothesis testing, andp‐values. Subjective probability uses data to go from prior to posterior distributions. No known method of statistical inference can withstand all rational criticism. Important areas of inference arise from descriptive and graphical methods of summarizing data and are mentioned.
History of Factor Analysis: A Psychological Perspective
Authors: Thorndike Robert M. 
Published: December 2014

Abstract
The history of unrestricted (exploratory) factor analysis is briefly reviewed from the perspective of its contribution to psychological theory, particularly models of mental abilities. Attention is focused on the contributions of Spearman and Thurstone. Various means of judging the quality of a factor solution are described. The logic of factor analysis as a means of identifying meaningful psychological constructs from a matrix of correlations is introduced from the algebraic and geometric perspectives.
Authorial Voice in Second Language Writing
Authors: Zhao Cecilia Guanfang 
Published: December 2014

Abstract
Can we “see” a writer's voice in his/her writing, just as we can hear a person's voice when he/she speaks? What defines an authorial voice in a written text, anyway? How, if at all, can we measure the strength of an author's voice in a written text? To what extent is this concept important to second language (L2) writers and in L2 writing instruction and assessment? Is this concept of voice even teachable to L2 writers? All these questions are what many writing researchers and teachers have been trying to answer, and they together illustrate the complexity of the topic under discussion. Probably due to its elusive nature, voice is often seen as a concept that is at once intriguing and perplexing, indispensable and yet hard to define and operationalize. This entry will seek to offer an overview of the existing scholarly work on this particular topic, including the many discussions about the nature, characteristics, and measurement of voice, the role it plays in L2 writing, and its teachability to L2 writers.
Dictation in Language Assessment
Authors: Cai Hongwen 
Published: December 2014

Abstract
In real life, dictation is widely used in courts of law, medical institutions, mass media organizations, and administrative offices. Depending on the urgency of the related event, dictated materials may be transcribed in a real‐time manner or recorded for subsequent transcription, usually verbatim by professional transcribers. Different professions have their own exams for certifying practitioners, but an accuracy of over 95 percent, including spelling, is often required to pass these exams.
Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction
Authors: Housen Alex 
Published: December 2014

Abstract
Since the mid‐1990s applied linguistics and SLA research have given increasing attention to how instruction affects language features, such as forms, items, structures, patterns, and rules, and whether some features are more effectively instructed than others. These issues are of relevance to various stakeholders. For SLA researchers, knowing how the nature of the input stimulus interacts with the human cognitive‐processing and learning mechanisms is important for constructing a comprehensive theory of language acquisition.
Process Research Screen Capture
Authors: Mroz Aurore P. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractScreen capture, or “screencasting,” refers to a method of data collection in applied linguistics research. The researcher uses a stand‐alone camera or digital software to make video recordings of users' on‐screen activity. Screen capture results in a recording consisting of a series of frames that document moment‐by‐moment on‐screen phenomena used to investigate real‐time computer‐based processes. Screen capture is an important instrument to conduct qualitative research in computer‐assisted or ‐mediated language learning and other online communication investigated by applied linguists.
Gender and Pragmatics
Authors: King Brian W. , Holmes Janet 
Published: December 2014

Abstract

In the field of
language and gender,
there is a widely accepted origin narrative in which Robin Lakoff's seminal article is identified as the inaugural publication that launched investigations of a relationship between men, women, and language. Following its publication, there was a veritable explosion in language and gender research, with pragmatic issues attracting a good deal of attention. In the earliest decades, researchers examined features which could be interpreted as interactional dominance or power strategies, such as the distribution of turns of talk, the number of interruptions, and the amount of feedback contributed by women and men in different contexts, as well as features which expressed politeness, such as linguistic hedges and intensifiers.
Minimal Disease Activity and Anti–Tumor Necrosis Factor Therapy in Psoriatic Arthritis
Authors: Haddad Amir , Thavaneswaran Arane , Ruiz‐Arruza Ioana , Pellett Fawnda , Chandran Vinod , Cook Richard J. , Gladman Dafna D. 
Published: December 2014

ObjectiveA state of minimal disease activity (MDA) was defined and validated as target for treatment in psoriatic arthritis (PsA). We aimed to identify disease characteristics, outcome, and predictors of MDA in patients treated with tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) blockers.MethodsPatients fulfilling the Classification of Psoriatic Arthritis criteria treated with TNFα blockers were followed every 3–6 months. Patients were considered in MDA when they meet at least 5 of the 7 criteria. Sustained MDA was defined as an MDA state lasting ≥12 months. Patients achieving MDA were compared to non‐MDA patients. A proportional odds discrete time survival analysis model was applied, adjusting for sex, age, PsA duration, abnormal erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and clinically damaged joint count at each visit to identify predictors for MDA.ResultsOf the 306 patients treated with TNFα blockers identified from our database, 23 patients were in an MDA state when treatment was commenced; 57 were taking TNFα blockers prior to enrollment. Therefore, 226 subjects were in a non‐MDA state and constituted the study population. One hundred forty‐five patients of 226 patients (64%) achieved MDA within a mean ± SD duration of 1.30 ± 1.68 years. The mean ± SD duration of MDA was 3.46 ± 2.25 years. At total of 17 patients withdrew from therapy and remained in an MDA state. Male sex (odds ratio [OR] 1.65, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.08–2.53; P = 0.02) and normal ESR (OR 2.27, 95% CI 1.22–4.17; P = 0.009) increased the odds for achieving MDA.Conclusion. MDA is achieved in 64% of patients treated with TNFα blockers in a clinical setting. Male sex and normal ESR are predictors for MDA. On withdrawal or reduction in treatment, 11.6% of patients maintained MDA state.
New model for estimating the relationship between surface area and volume in the human body using skeletal remains
Authors: Kasabova Boryana E. , Holliday Trenton W. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractA new model for estimating human body surface area and body volume/mass from standard skeletal metrics is presented. This model is then tested against both 1) “independently estimated” body surface areas and “independently estimated” body volume/mass (both derived from anthropometric data) and 2) the cylindrical model of Ruff. The model is found to be more accurate in estimating both body surface area and body volume/mass than the cylindrical model, but it is more accurate in estimating body surface area than it is for estimating body volume/mass (as reflected by the standard error of the estimate when “independently estimated” surface area or volume/mass is regressed on estimates derived from the present model). Two practical applications of the model are tested. In the first test, the relative contribution of the limbs versus the trunk to the body's volume and surface area is compared between “heat‐adapted” and “cold‐adapted” populations. As expected, the “cold‐adapted” group has significantly more of its body surface area and volume in its trunk than does the “heat‐adapted” group. In the second test, we evaluate the effect of variation in bi‐iliac breadth, elongated or foreshortened limbs, and differences in crural index on the body's surface area to volume ratio (SA:V). Results indicate that the effects of bi‐iliac breadth on SA:V are substantial, while those of limb lengths and (especially) the crural index are minor, which suggests that factors other than surface area relative to volume are driving morphological variation and ecogeographical patterning in limb prorportions. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:614–624, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A Three‐Minute Synthesis and Purification of Ibuprofen: Pushing the Limits of Continuous‐Flow Processing
Authors: Snead David R. , Jamison Timothy F. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractIn a total residence time of three minutes, ibuprofen was assembled from its elementary building blocks with an average yield of above 90 % for each step. A scale‐up of this five‐stage process (3 bond‐forming steps, one work‐up, and one in‐line liquid–liquid separation) provided ibuprofen at a rate of 8.09 g h−1 (equivalent to 70.8 kg y−1) using a system with an overall footprint of half the size of a standard laboratory fume hood. Aside from the high throughput, several other aspects of this synthesis expand the capabilities of continuous‐flow processing, including a Friedel–Crafts acylation run under neat conditions and promoted by AlCl3, an exothermic in‐line quench of high concentrations of precipitation‐prone AlCl3, liquid–liquid separations run at or above 200 psi to provide solvent‐free product, and the use of highly aggressive oxidants, such as iodine monochloride. The use of simple, inexpensive, and readily available reagents thus affords a practical synthesis of this important generic pharmaceutical.
LED‐beleuchtete NMR‐Spektroskopie Flavin‐katalysierter Photooxidationen zeigt Lösungsmittelkontrolle des Elektronentransfermechanismus
Authors: Feldmeier Christian , Bartling Hanna , Magerl Kathrin , Gschwind Ruth M. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractMechanistische Einblicke in die Photokatalyse erhält man vor allem durch UV/Vis‐Spektroskopie, da die Möglichkeiten der NMR‐Spektroskopie bislang durch die Art der Beleuchtung limitiert waren. Mit einer LED‐Beleuchtungseinheit können nun sowohl Reaktionsprofile von Photoreaktionen unter Synthesebedingungen detektiert als auch Photo‐CIDNP‐spektroskopische und Intermediatstudien durchgeführt werden. Das Potenzial dieses Aufbaus wird anhand Flavin‐katalysierter Photooxidationen von Alkoholen gezeigt. Nach identischer Photoinitialisierung ist die Stabilisierung eines nachgelagerten Intermediats der Schlüssel zum weiteren Reaktionsmechanismus und zur Reaktivität. Flavin als chemischer Photokatalysator kann als Ein‐ wie auch als Zwei‐Elektronen‐Mediator fungieren, indem die Stabilität der zwitterionischen Radikalpaare durch verschiedene Lösungsmittel gesteuert wird. Dies demonstriert die Bedeutung nachgelagerter Intermediate und der NMR‐Spektroskopie zugänglicher, ergänzender Informationen in der Photokatalyse und demonstriert das Potenzial, photoorganische Reaktionen durch Lösungsmitteleffekte zu steuern.
Copper‐Catalyzed 1,2‐Addition of α‐Carbonyl Iodides to Alkynes
Authors: Xu Tao , Hu Xile 
Published: December 2014

Abstractβ,γ‐Unsaturated ketones are an important class of organic molecules. Herein, copper catalysis has been developed for the synthesis of β‐γ‐unsaturated ketones through 1,2‐addition of α‐carbonyl iodides to alkynes. The reactions exhibit wide substrate scope and high functional group tolerance. The reaction products are versatile synthetic intermediates to complex small molecules. The method was applied for the formal synthesis of (±)‐trichostatin A, a histone deacetylase inhibitor.
Effect of Certolizumab Pegol Over Ninety‐Six Weeks in Patients With Axial Spondyloarthritis: Results from a Phase III Randomized Trial
Authors: Sieper J. , Landewé R. , Rudwaleit M. , van der Heijde D. , Dougados M. , Mease P. J. , Braun J. , Deodhar A. , Kivitz A. , Walsh J. , Hoepken B. , Nurminen T. , Maksymowych W. P. 
Published: December 2014

ObjectivePrevious reports of the RAPID‐axSpA trial (NCT01087762) described the efficacy and safety of certolizumab pegol (CZP) over 24 weeks in patients with axial spondyloarthritis (SpA), including ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and nonradiographic axial SpA. We report efficacy and safety data up to week 96 of the study.MethodsThe RAPID‐axSpA trial is double‐blind and placebo‐controlled to week 24, dose‐blind to week 48, and open‐label to week 204. Outcome variables included Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society criteria for 20% and 40% improvement in disease activity (ASAS20/40), ASAS partial remission responses (analyzed by nonresponder imputation), AS Disease Activity Score (ASDAS), ASDAS inactive disease, ASDAS major improvement, Bath AS Disease Activity Index (BASDAI), Bath AS Functional Index (BASFI), and Bath AS Metrology Index (BASMI) linear score (analyzed by the last observation carried forward method). Safety data were collected for patients treated with ≥1 dose of CZP.ResultsOf the 325 patients who were randomized, 218 received CZP from week 0. Of these, 93% completed week 24, 88% completed week 48, and 80% completed week 96. Improvements in ASAS responses were maintained to week 96 (for ASAS20, 67.4%, 72.0%, and 62.8% at weeks 24, 48, and 96, respectively), as well as improvements in ASDAS, BASDAI (mean score 3.3, 3.1, and 3.0 at weeks 24, 48, and 96, respectively), BASFI, and BASMI linear score. Comparable improvements were observed with both dosing regimens (200 mg every 2 weeks or 400 mg every 4 weeks) and in patients with AS and those with nonradiographic axial SpA. In the safety set, adverse events occurred in 279 patients (88.6%) and serious adverse events in 41 (13.0%). No deaths or malignancies were reported.ConclusionClinical improvements to week 24 in both CZP dosing regimens were sustained to week 96. Similar sustained improvements were observed in AS and nonradiographic axial SpA subpopulations. The safety profile was consistent with previous reports from RAPID‐axSpA, with no new safety signals observed with longer exposure.
Frühgeschichte des modernen Konstruktionsbetons
Authors: Holzer Stefan M. 
Published: December 2014

AbstractLange bevor der Beton mit Eiseneinlagen die Architektur und den Ingenieurbau der Moderne prägen konnte, hatten Ingenieure schon ausführliche Erfahrungen mit dem Werkstoff gewonnen. Die Wurzeln des modernen Betons reichen bis in die italienische Renaissance zurück. Der Beton entwickelte sich zunächst im Verborgenen, in Fundamenten, Unterwasserbauten oder versteckt im Inneren mehrschaliger Mauern. Eine dreiteilige Serie von Beiträgen wird die Entwicklungsgeschichte des modernen Betons von seinen Ursprüngen im 16. Jahrhundert bis in die Zeit des Aufkommens der Bewehrung beleuchten. Der vorliegende erste Teil zeigt am Beispiel von Molen und Wellenbrechern, wie die Betonbauweise sich zunächst dort etablieren konnte, wo an das Herstellen einer trockenen Baugrube nicht im Entferntesten gedacht werden konnte. Der zweite Teil des Aufsatzes wird sich dann dem Schleusenbau zuwenden, bei dem der Einsatz von Beton vielleicht nicht zwingend war, aber doch ebenfalls erhebliche Erleichterungen mit sich brachte. Im dritten Teil schließlich wird die frühe neuzeitliche Geschichte des Betons bei Bogen‐ und Gewölbetragwerken nachgezeichnet.On the early history of modern concrete – Part I: Jetties and breakwatersThe history of modern concrete can be traced back to the Italian Renaissance period. Some of the earliest recorded early modern uses of concrete are in hydraulic engineering, particularly the construction of jetties and breakwaters. These applications and the technologies developed around them are analyzed in the present contribution, the first of a three‐part series of articles on the early modern history of concrete prior to the introduction of reinforcement. The parts to follow will deal with the construction of canal locks and early concrete vaults, respectively.