bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Shadrapa
Authors: Hvidberg‐Hansen Finn O. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

In Phoenician‐Punic and Aramaic inscriptions
Shdrp'
= “healing god or daimon”:
shd
= Hebrew
shêd
(Septuaginta:
daimòn
), cf. Babylonian
shêdû
(gods of favorable or malevolent character), and
rp'
(“heal”).
Tanit
Authors: Hvidberg‐Hansen Finn O. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Tanit, in Phoenician‐Punic inscriptions, is normally
Tnt
, rarely
Tynt
,
Tnnt
, or
Tnyt
, Greek
Thenneith
,
Thinith
; the name is explained as the Egyptian Neit, female counterpart of the Canaanite Sea‐Dragon Tannin, the Canaanite‐Phoenician Anat with Libyan prefix
ta‐
, or “the weeping one,” cf.
Arabia, Roman province
Authors: Dombrowski Justin 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The emperor Trajan annexed the Arab Kingdom of the Nabataeans in 106
CE
as the province of Arabia, which represented the Roman Empire's easternmost frontier. Arabia included the region east of the Jordan River, stretching from the Arabian Peninsula to the province of Syria, though its contours changed over time and eventually included portions of Palestine and Syria. In addition to its position along the Roman frontiers, Arabia owed its significance to its involvement in late second century
CE
civil wars and above all to trade.
Dalmatia
Authors: Kos Marjeta Šašel 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The province of Dalmatia, formerly Illyricum, was named after the Delmatae, who occupied the hinterland of Salona between the rivers Titius (Krka) and Nestos/Hippius (Cetina) on the fringes of the Illyrian kingdom, with their center at Delminium on the Duvanjsko polje plain. Their northern neighbors, the Liburni, controlled the region from the Titius to the Arsia River (Raša) in Istria, including the nearby islands.
Decebalus
Authors: Zahariade Mihail 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Decebalus was king of the Dacians from 86 to 106
CE
. He was probably the son of King Scorillo, or Coryllus (28/9–68/9) (Jord.
Get
. 78): a vase from the Dacian capital, Sarmizegetusa, bears the inscriptions “DECEBALVS” and “PER SCORILLO” (“Decebalus” and “the son of Scorillo”).
Frontiers, Roman
Authors: Cordovana Orietta Dora 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn contrast to the modern idea of a frontier as a clear‐cut customs line or border under the political control of a territorial state, the structure of Roman frontiers took a variety of forms that developed over centuries, from the continuously fortified linear frontiers of Britain to the intermittently fortified non‐linear frontiers of North Africa and the east.
Gaul (Tres Galliae)
Authors: Thorne James 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe rivers of Gaul, and its position west of the Alpine barrier, make it the easiest section of Europe to cross between the inner and outer seas. As a result, the “Three Gauls” — Aquita‐nia, Belgica, and Lugdunensis — were the first non‐Mediterranean regions to be incorporated into the Roman world, and came to display a highly developed provincial civilization. The geographical location of Gaul, however, also caused it to be especially exposed to the problems which beset the later empire.
Paphlagonia
Authors: Mitchell Stephen 
Published: December 2012

AbstractPaphlagonia was the name given to a large region of northern Anatolia lying east of Bithynia and stretching to the Halys River, covering the Pontic highlands of Mount Olgassys, the basin of the Amnias River, which formed an east–west corridor through the region, and the southern shore of the Black Sea between Herakleia Pontica and Sinope.
Poetovio
Authors: Wilkes John 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Poetovio (now Ptuj, formerly Pettau, Slovenia), a prehistoric settlement on the borders of Pannonia and Noricum, later a Roman legionary base and then a colonial city, lay on the ancient Amber route between Italy and the Baltic at the crossing of the Drava/Drau River on the eastern fringe of the Alps.
Pottery, Roman Empire
Authors: Poblome Jeroen , Malfitana Daniele , Lund John 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIt is hard to conceive of a household in the Roman Empire that could make do without pottery – for the storing of foodstuffs, the cooking and serving of meals, the drinking of wine and other beverages, etc. Artifacts of glass and metal were used for similar purposes, and they were presumably more prestigious than their ceramic counterparts.
Singidunum (Belgrade)
Authors: Wilkes John 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Singidunum (Belgrade/Beograd, Serbia) lies on the right bank of the Danube opposite the confluence with the Sava, and is centered on the Kalmegdan Hill, occupied successively by a pre‐Roman settlement possibly of the Scordisci, a legionary camp, and the massive fortresses of the Byzantine and Ottoman eras.
Thracia
Authors: Zahariade Mihail 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThracia (Greek: Thrake) was a region in the Balkan peninsula, traditionally framed by the Danube River to the north, Macedonia to the west, the Aegean and Marmara seas to the south and southeast, and the Black Sea to the east, and inhabited by the Thracians (Thraces, Thraeces).
Augustus (Imperator Caesar Augustus)
Authors: Osgood Josiah 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAugustus (63BCE–14CE) was Rome's first emperor. He was the key figure in bringing permanent monarchy to Rome, and also an unprecedented peace across the Mediterranean, named after him “Augustan Peace.” Centuries after his death, he was gratefully remembered, though his bloody and duplicitous rise to power was not forgotten either.
Constantine I (Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractConstantine “the Great,” son of Constantius I Chlorus and his wife or concubine Helena, was born at Naissus in Moesia, was proclaimed Augustus on July 25, 306CEat Eboracum (York), and died near Nicomedia on May 22, 337, at an age variously stated as 62 or 66 (his birthday was February 27).
Diplomata
, military
Authors: Holder Paul 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

“Military diploma” is the modern term for a Roman legal document which recorded privileges awarded to various types of troops by the emperor beginning with Claudius. Each bronze diptych was a personalized copy of the original constitution set up at Rome. As a modern study aid, individual tablets are labeled
tabella I
and
tabella II
. Across the inner faces was engraved the version of the text that guaranteed legality. The outer face of
tabella I
had another copy. On the outside of
tabella II
were the names of witnesses whose seals were attached to the wire binding the two tablets together and then protected by a metal box soldered to the document. Honorable discharge was administered separately. Military diplomas are therefore not discharge documents.
Evocati
Authors: Rankov Boris 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Under the republic, adult male Roman citizens were liable to serve in the legions for a period of up to six years continuously, and could then be “called out” again until they had served a total of sixteen years. Such
evocati
were prized as experienced troops, and by the first century
BCE
, when Roman armies were becoming more and more attached to individual commanders, they were being recognized and rewarded as a special group alongside the centurions (Caes.
B Civ
. 1.3.4, 17.4, 3.53.1, 88.5, 91.1;
see also Centurio
). According to Cassius Dio, Octavian called out
evocati
from Caesar's army to fight Antony in 44
BCE
(45.12.3–6) and continued to make use of such men thereafter (55.24.8).
Fulvius Plautianus, Gaius
Authors: Lusnia Susann S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractC. Fulvius Plautianus, African by birth, was akinsman of the emperor Septimius Severus (Herodian 3.10.6), who became Praetorian Prefect and amassed extraordinary power and wealth before his downfall in 205CE(Dio. 76(75).15–16; Herodian 3.11.2–3).
Tacitus (Marcus Claudius Tacitus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMarcus Claudius Tacitus Augustus, born ca. 220 (Zonaras claims he was seventy‐five at his accession but he may have been considerably younger), was Roman emperor from 275 to 276CE(PLREI 873 Tacitus 3;PIR2C 1036;REClaudius 361).
Trasimene, battle of
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The battle of Trasimene was fought, on June 21, 217
BCE
, between a Roman consular army of two legions and Italian allied units (some twenty‐five thousand men in all) and the invading army of Hannibal, consisting of North African and Spanish veteran troops, Gallic recruits, and Numidian (North African) cavalry, about fifty‐five thousand all told.
Vegetius Renatus, Flavius
Authors: Milner N. P. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Flavius Vegetius Renatus was author of the
Epitoma rei militaris
(four books; Reeve 2004) and, under the
praenomen
Publius, of the
Digesta artis mulomedicinae
(four books; Lommatzsch 1903;
see
Veterinary Medicine).
Atellane farce
Authors: Panayotakis Costas 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The adjective
Atellanus
“Atellane” is already linked with theater in the early first century
BCE
(Varro
Menippeae
189), and its feminine form (
Atellana
) is first attested as a technical term in Cicero's time (Ad
familiares
9.16.7, written in 46
BCE
) with reference to the noun
fabula
“play”; it seems to indicate a category of native Italian comic drama named after the town Atella, an Oscan town of Campania in west central Italy.
Duilius, Gaius
Authors: Kendall Seth L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gaius Duilius first appears in Roman history as one of the consuls elected in the year 260
BCE
. According to Polybius (1.22–3), he was given oversight of the army while the navy then being constructed was placed under the supervision of his colleague Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina (although Cassius Dio is quoted by Zonaras as claiming that Scipio too was a land commander; Zonar. 8.11a). When the latter was captured near Lipara due to false reports that the city would be betrayed to him, Duilius assumed command of the fleet (Polyb. 1.23) and hastened to meet the Carthaginians under Hannibal (Zonar. 8.11a).
Fasces
Authors: Stone Shelley C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Fasces
were bundles of rectangular or rounded rods that served to distinguish important Roman magistrates and priests. Each
fasces
was carried by an attendant called a lictor. The tradition that they were originally Etruscan regal implements bound with an axe (Dion. Hal.
Ant. Rom
. 3.61, Flor. 1.5.6) is confirmed by a miniature
fasces
found in a seventh‐century tomb at Vetulonia. The
fasces
symbolized the magistrate's authority, and were used in the administration of justice, since
lictores
were so named because they would bind (
legare
) the convicted before punishment with the appropriate implement.
Forum Boarium
Authors: Hopkins John North 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

According to Varro, the Forum Boarium was Rome's cattle market, situated in the valley between the Capitoline and Aventine hills and between the Velabrum and Tiber River (on the function: Varro
LL
5.146; on the location: Livy 25.7.5–6, 27.37.5, 41.27.9–11; Ovid
Fasti
6.477–9). However, the site was originally low‐lying and unsuitable for construction: the Tiber's right bank flooded yearly, leading to periodic catastrophic inundations until the Late Republic. Thus, the area was not well suited for the cattle trade, and so many believe the name of the forum refers instead to an Aeginetan bronze statue of an ox that stood in the forum (Tac.
Ann
. 12.24.1) or the legendary bulls of Cacus, which were said to roam the valley (Prop. 4.9.19–20).
Tribuni plebis
Authors: Kondratieff Eric J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAncient tradition holds that tribunes of the plebs were created in the first plebeian secession (494BCE) to act as officers for the assembly of the plebs, to pass resolutions (plebiscites) binding on the plebs, and to defend the plebs and their property against abusive magistrates. By 287BCE, tribunes were Rome's primary legislators, their plebiscites encompassingallcitizens. Through aggressive use of their legislative and obstructive powers,popularistribunes of the second centuryBCEsparked off the so‐called “Roman Revolution,” a century of civil and military conflicts that culminated in the establishment of the Augustan principate and the reduction of the tribunate to a shadow of its former self.
Tiro, Marcus Tullius
Authors: Tempest Kathryn L. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Marcus Tullius Tiro (ca. 103–4
BCE
) was first a slave and later a freedman of M. Tullius Cicero, from whom he inherited his
nomen
and
praenomen
. Little is known about his birth and parents, but Groebe (
RE
col. 1319) dates his birth at 103 based on the evidence of Jerome (in Euseb.
Chron
. Olymp. 194). However, references to Tiro in Cicero's correspondence and elsewhere suggest that he was probably much younger than his master. Furthermore, a date of birth in 103 would mean that Tiro was fifty when he received his freedom in 53: this seems late if we can accept Cicero's remark that good slaves normally received their freedom within six years (Cic.
Phil
. 8.32). It is, therefore, perhaps better to posit a date of birth some time around 80, with the implication that he was in his twenties when he was manumitted.
Umbrians
Authors: Pretzler Maria 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Umbrians were an ethnic group based in central Italy, from the upper Tiber valley across the Apennines to the Adriatic coast; their language was Indo‐European and closely related to Oscan. They lived in small city‐states with strong individual identities, which came under Roman control in the late fourth and early third centuryBCE. In 12BCEUmbria was, for the first time, defined in exact geographical and administrative terms as Augustus' regio VI with ca. forty municipia (Harris 1971: 335–41; cf. Plin.HN3.112–14).
Villanovan culture
Authors: Becker Hilary 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe label “Villanovan culture” describes the Early Iron Age (ca. 900–700BCE), cultures of central and northern Italy, specifically in the areas of Etruria and the province of Reggio‐Emilia. Giovanni Gozzadini created this label in 1853 when he recognized what he saw as a distinct cultural period among artifacts from the Podere di Caselle necropolis near Bologna; his nearby estate provided inspiration for the name Villanovan.
Aretaios of Cappadocia
Authors: Cronier Marie 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAretaios of Cappadocia was a Greek physician, generally thought to have lived in the first centuryCE(Oberhelman 1994), although recent research (Nutton 2002, 2004: 205–6) suggests that he lived slightly earlier than Galen (ca. second centuryCE) or that he was his contemporary.
Caelius Aurelianus
Authors: Langslow David 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCaelius Aurelianus was a doctor from Sicca Veneria in Numidia,fl.probably ca. 400CE; the “Latin 'shadow'” of Soranus (Tecusan 2004: 5), “Latin learned medicine at its best”(Nutton 2004: 299), and our most important source on Methodism.
Calendar, Greek
Authors: Hannah Robert 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIn the historical period, all the Greek city‐states based their calendars on the Moon, counting usually twelve months to the year starting from the evening appearance of the new Moon's crescent (AratosPhaen.733–5; Samuel 1972: 57), but adding an extra thirteenth month every two or three years, soas to bring the calendar and its associated religious festivals back into a workable alignment with the Sun and hence the agricultural seasons on which the festivalslargely depended (the names of the months in Greek calendars tend to reflect religious festivals in the respective months).
Censorinus
Authors: Parker Holt 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAuthor ofDe Die Natali, perhaps a descendant of L. Marcius Censorinus (cens. 149BCE,DDN17.11). Priscian (fifth–sixth century) called him “most learned in the art of grammar” (Priscian,Institutiones1.16=13.9 ed. H. Keil) and quotes from his bookOn accents(cf. Cassiodorus,Institutiones2.1.1, 2.5.1 and 10, 2.6.1); Sidonius Apollinaris (Carmina14praef. 3) called it a “famous book” (volumen illustre).
Childbirth
Authors: Touwaide Alain 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAs early as Babylon and Assyria, the process of giving birth (which was put under the protection of several divinities) was described with some precision (Stol 2000), contrary to what seems to have happened in Egypt. There, physicians (and women) were anxious to determine as soon as possible the time of birth and if delivery (again, under the protection of divinity) would proceed normally or not. The main concern was to ascertain that pregnant women were healthy enough for a pregnancy and would be so for its whole length. Texts in papyri include formulae for medicines in case the delivery is problematic, as well as for the elimination of the placenta after the delivery (Bardinet 1995: 221–9 and 441–4; Westendorf 1999: 425–39). Although the divinity's action was necessarily positive (complications resulted from women's constitution), parturient women had talismans to protect themselves and their babies from possible accidents (e.g., Bulté 1991).
Comets
Authors: Taub Liba 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWhen Octavian arrived in Rome in May 44BCE, to accept Julius Caesar's inheritance and name, some were initially dismissive. The appearance of a comet in July at the games he sponsored in Caesar's honor was interpreted as a sign confirming Caesar's divinity (even his apotheosis as a star) and Octavian's right to succeed his adopted father as emperor. Cicero, our only extant contemporary source, does not mention Octavian's games or the comet, but this may be due to his own denial of comets as portents of future events (Div. 2.60). While comets were often regarded as portents, some ancient philosophers, including Aristotle, explained them as occurring naturally, and in some cases as predictive of particular weather events.
Conflagration
Authors: Salles Ricardo 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAccording to the ancient concept of conflagration (in Greek:ekpurosis), the cosmos, or universe, will be totally consumed by fire. This concept often goes along with that of cosmic rebirth or reconstitution: once the fire of the conflagration is exhausted, a new cosmogony begins and gives rise to a new cosmos, identical to the present one. In addition, these two processes are cyclical. The new cosmos will also undergo a conflagration, and will be followed by a new reconstitution and so onad infinitum. According to the latest interpretations, these concepts go back to the presocratic Heraclitus in the late fifth centuryBCEand probably, earlier still, to Anaximander of Miletos in the early 6th century. But it is to the Stoics that we owe the full development of a systematic doctrine.
Conic sections
Authors: Fried Michael N. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlthough the modern theory of conic sections largely concerns solutions of irreducible second‐order equations, ax2+ by2+ cxy + dx + ey + f = 0, the ancient theory was quite literally about the sections of a cone. Why such curves produced by cutting a cone became a subject for inquiry among the Greeks is not entirely clear. One possibility is that the study of conic sections originated in the investigation of sundials and shadow curves; another is that it arose in the context of more general problem‐solving efforts, particularly those of Menaechmus (ca. 380–320BCE) and Aristaeus (ca. 370–320) connected with doubling the cube. But whatever its exact origin, one can say confidently that the systematic study of conic sections was well underway by the end of the fourth century. Euclid (fl.ca. 300), for example, certainly worked on conics and may have written a treatise on the subject.
Conon of Samos
Authors: Bowen Alan C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractConon of Samos (250–200BCE) was a mathematician and astronomer in the time of Ptolemy III Euergetes. Conon is known mainly through the story told by Callimachus (Aetia4. fr. 110 Pfeiffer) and Catullus (Carm. 66) about how the constellationComa Berenicesgot its name. As this story goes, Berenike II, Ptolemy's recently wedded wife, dedicated a lock (coma) of her hair to ensure her husband's safe return from war (his invasion of Syria shortly after he became ruler in 246BCE). On his return, it was discovered that the lock was missing from the temple, but then Conon reported that he had observed it in the heavens.
Demiurge
Authors: Zeyl Donald J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract“Demiurge” (Gk.demiourgos) is the term commonly used to refer to the personified divine agent of Plato's dialogueTimaeus, who gives mathematical form to a pre‐existent chaos to create the visible universe. The use of this term – which means “handicraftsman” – repeatedly in theTimaeusand once previously in theRepublicattests to Plato's conviction that the observable order and beauty in the universe is not fortuitous, but the product of a craft‐like and hence purposeful, beneficent, and rational agency. The Demiurge is represented as an artist who copies the eternal forms (the realm ofbeing) by molding a spatio‐temporal manifold (the realm ofbecoming) into conformity with those forms. The task of creating individual “mortal” types of living beings is subsequently handed over to “lesser gods.”
Dentistry
Authors: Bliquez Lawrence J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractApart from incantation and ritual, cuneiform tablets recovered from the library of Ashurbanipal (Assurbanipal) attest to applications derived from plants, etc., for cleaning, stabilizing, and relieving inflammation, toothache and the famous “worm” (probably decay) in ancient Mesopotamia. Extraction may also be mentioned. The sixteenth‐centuryBCEEbers and Smith papyri are extensive sources for dental conditions in pharaonic Egypt. The Ebers papyrus deals with dental wear and toothache as well as with pastes for gum disease, and the Smith papyrus with interventions for fractures and dislocations of the jaw. X‐rays of royal mummies reveal appalling examples of wear and disease.
Diaries, astronomical
Authors: Hunger Hermann 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAstronomical diaries are Babylonian records of day‐by‐day observation of events in the sky and on earth. Written on clay tablets, they were composed regularly from the eighth to the first centuryBCE. More than one thousand mostly fragmentary tablets are preserved. With few exceptions they come from the city of Babylon and are kept in the British Museum.
Dogmatism, medical
Authors: Craik E.M. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe term “Dogmatism” is applied, somewhat artificially, to one of the medical “sects” regarded as originating in the Hellenistic period; the other main groups are Empiricism (at the opposite extreme from Dogmatism;seeEmpiricism, Medical) and Methodism (occupying an intermediate position).
Encyclopedias
Authors: Almagor Eran 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Although the word
encyclopedia
is modern, first attested in the works and correspondence of late fifteenth century Italian humanists, mentioned by Rabelais (1532), Ringelbergh (1541), and Skalić (1559), and made popular in the wide‐ranging volumes of Chambres (1728) and Diderot and D'Alembert (1751–65), its conceptual as well as etymological roots are to be found in Classical antiquity.
Epicycle‐on‐deferent
Authors: Duke Dennis W. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
To an observer on the Earth, the Sun, the Moon, and the five visible planets appear to slowly orbit the Earth in a west‐to‐east direction, but their motion is irregular. The average forward motion is variable for all of these bodies, and the five planets exhibit retrograde motion: their forward motion appears to halt for a few days, then they move backward relative to the stars, and then they halt again before proceeding forward. Venus and Mercury never get very far from the Sun, and Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are always about 180° from the Sun during their retrograde motion.