bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Spill Prevention in Offshore Petroleum Producing Facilities
Authors: Warner D. G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Blowout prevention and pollution control in offshore petroleum operations are of prime concern to Industry, Government and the public. This paper reviews spill prevention equipment and procedures used in offshore oil production and discusses Exxon Company, U.S.A. and Industry programs to achieve maximum protection.
Several pollution prevention systems are utilized. Subsurface safety valves shut in the wells below the mud line if an emergency develops. Surface safety valves on each well provide automatic shut-in if an abnormal condition is detected by one of a large number of platform sensors. Oil leaks are retained in sumps. Sand erosion detectors are installed on wells to identify potential erosional failures before they can occur.
The paper concludes that various Industry and regulatory programs are providing the pollution control that is needed. Technological developments and reliability improvements are continuing. Ongoing work emphasizes development of improved subsurface safety valve concepts applicable to all wells, better manufacturing quality control and standards, and future reductions of human errors through training and safety programs.
Evaluation of a Unique Centrifuge for Separation of Oil from Ship Discharge Water
Authors: Harvey Andrew C. , Stokes Vijay K. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A centrifuge was conceived and tested especially for the separation of oil as it is usually dispersed in the bilge and ballast water of ships. The centrifuge is unusual in having predominantly axial flow allowing comparatively high throughput and low speed. It has both primary and secondary stages of separation incorporated into the design and is thus capable of operating with high input concentrations. The device was tested in the laboratory using mixers in a storage tank and a centrifugal pump to disperse up to 8 percent oil in water.
Effluent concentrations in the range of 10 ppm were obtained with inputs containing 1000 ppm of No. 2, No. 4 and Nigerian Crude Oils. At higher concentrations ranging up to 58,800 ppm for No. 2 oil and 18,900 for No. 4 oil the effluent contained less than 100 ppm. Centrifuge performance on No. 2 and No. 4 oils containing ten percent Gamlen D was lower than with pure oils. Coalescence occurred but produced drops smaller than with pure oils requiring a modification to the separator design. The input and output oil droplet size distributions were measured using the Coulter particle counter. This permitted an evaluation of separator performance as a function of the drop size content of the oil dispersion and a rational assessment of the design method and its application to the development of future prototypes.
Analytical Examination of Oil/Water Separation by Coalescence
Authors: Finger Stanley M. , Yu T. S. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The physical separation process of coalescence has been studied analytically under controlled conditions in regard to the separation of oil from oily water mixtures. Variations in coalescer performance were studied as a function of the oily water feed to a three stage prototype separation system of which coalescence was the final stage. The data were analyzed statistically and it was shown that increasing suspended solids concentration, increasing oil viscosity, and increasing oil concentration decreased coalescer element lifetime, however, above a certain level increasing oil concentration had no effect. Variations in the total flow rate in the range of one to four gallons per minute per square foot did not have a significant effect on coalescer element life. Under all conditions studied, the effluent water contained less than 15 parts per million oil, only ten percent of the samples analyzed contained more than this amount. The results indicate that coalescence is useful as a final polishing step in an oil/water separation system.
Design Parameter Study of an Oil-Spill Boom
Authors: Chung J. S. , Cunningham G. R. , Evon J. M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Oil-spill containment boom design involves a broad area of technology: air-oil-water flow in the presence of a moving barrier, wave mechanics, and motions of bodies acted on by winds, waves, and currents. Although many devices have been designed to control oil spills, systematic parametric studies and published engineering design data have been scarce. For this reason, we have studied fundamental design parameters and tested their application to boom design with models in towing tanks and a full-scale sea trial in the Santa Barbara Channel. The results have been applied to a boom owned by Clean Seas, Inc.
This work has developed the proper relationships between the size and shape of boom modules and waves to (1) achieve in-phase motions, (2) determine the optimum net depth for a net-system boom, (3) reduce modular interaction and damage, (4) reduce boom tensions, and (5) determine boom strength requirements. All these are interrelated, but the various parameters are presented by categories. The test results supporting these parameters are also presented.
Measurement of Evaporation Rates from Oil Slicks on the Open Sea
Authors: Sivadier Henri O. , Mikolaj Paul G. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
A gas chromatographic method of analysis, applicable for all types of petroleum products, has been developed to measure the time dependent extent of evaporation from an oil slick on the open sea. Laboratory calibration tests show the method to have an uncertainty in evaporative weight loss of less than 1 percent. The method has been tested in the Santa Barbara Channel using oil from natural seeps at Coal Oil Point. Under sea state four conditions, this oil lost most of its volatile components in one to two hours. The resulting oil slick residue became sufficiently dense that it could easily enter the water column where it would be subjected to subsurface transport mechanisms. Sea surface roughness was observed to have a significant effect on the rate of evaporation.
Prediction of Oil Slick Motions in Narragansett Bay
Authors: Premack Joel , Brown George A. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
In the development of meaningful oil spill contingency plans, it is of great value in establishing the response to a spill emergency to have predictions of oil slick motions once the spill occurs. In an attempt to evaluate some of the present technical literature on oil spill motion, a calculation was made for the oil spill motion which occurred in Narragansett Bay in September, 1960 when the tanker P.W. Thirtle ran aground and emitted about 24,000 barrels of Bunker C oil over a 12 hour period before successful abatement of the source was completed.
The existing literature on oil slick spreading was reviewed and the work of Fay was chosen to represent the slick's spreading characteristics. The existing literature on oil slick drift was reviewed and the work of Teason, et. al, was used to establish the drift motion under the influence of current and wind actions. An available numerical hydrodynamic model of Narragansett Bay was used to calculate the current characteristics in the vicinity of the spills during the period of interest. Appropriate wind data were combined with the current data in order to obtain the important hydrodynamic and meteorological conditions. Since no comprehensive theory exists at the moment for oil slick spreading and drift, a simple model was taken in which the 24,000 barrels were emitted from the source in the form of 12 hourly discharges of 2000 barrels each. These individual spills were then handled on the basis of the available spreading theory and the drift motion calculated as described above. Although this is a crude approximation, it does give an estimate of the location and area magnitude of the spreading as a function of time after the spill.
The predicted results were compared with documentation of this spill as presented in the Providence Journal. The overall slick motion as calculated by this procedure was in good agreement with arrival times of the spill in Newport Harbor and other places in Narragansett Bay and with the overall surface area involved in the spill. This example of the calculation of the oil slick motion in an estuary at least gives some confidence to oil spill contingency planners that numerical calculations can be made for use in planning response and abatement to oil spills.
Cleanup of Inland Oil Spills
Authors: Betts W. E. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
This paper outlines the requirements for dealing with accidental inland oil spills. It emphasizes the importance of using the optimum method of cleanup for each spill and the desirable features for cleanup equipment of efficiency, portability, low cost, ease of use and versatility.
Several gaps in oil pollution technology have been bridged by the development of equipment specially designed to meet the needs of inland spills.
These new devices are described and have been incorporated into a low-cost package of cleanup equipment which can be used in a variety of ways to meet the containment, removal and storage needs of each unique spill situation.
The necessity of a flexible approach to inland oil spills is shown by examples of how a variety of spills have been successfully cleaned up. Examples include oil on a fast flowing stream, removal of accumulated oil in a port, oil on a covered drinking water reservoir and oil on rivers. Examples are also given of the method of handling underground pollution by hydraulic drive systems and by recovery from the groundwater for both shallow groundwaters up to 8 m below the surface and deep drinking water bore holes.
Two Types of Oil Spills in Swedish Inland Waters — Tests of New Materials, Ideas and Methods
Authors: Jerbo Allan 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
At several places in Sweden there is a continuous oil-spill into ponds and lakes from engine sheds. During 1969–1971 new methods and materials were tested in order to reconstruct oil-contaminated water and sediment. Thus the bottom of a lake was harrowed with compressed air and the oil brought to the water surface where it was adsorbed. A new type of adsorption material, adsorbent blower, booms, incinerators and technique were designed.
The result of the reconstruction was the following:
In February 1972, 600 tons of diesel oil was spilled in a river in the northern part of Sweden. Downstream from the spill is a system of hydroelectric power stations, fisheries and freshwater-intakes. Thus there was a real chance to destroy domestic water. The mean temperature during January and February was between −25°C to −35°C and the river was partly frozen.
Materials and methods were thus tested during hard conditions. The restoration was divided into using standard methods and developing new methods and materials.
Thus:a pontoon bridge was built across the riverfrom the bridge adsorption material, Saneringsull, was blown out over the floating oiloil-contaminated ice and snow was burned together with Saneringsullthe adsorbed oil was allowed to be frozen in the icethe ice containing oil and adsorption materials was lifted to an ice-tip, later on the ice was meltedoil on free water surface was adsorbed. The adsorption material was spread from aircraft and boatslater on the adsorption material was transported to the shore and burned in incineratorsin order to protect the downstream area three types of booms were designed, no conventional boom could ever be usedevery week water-samples were taken and analysedtestfishing was performed in May 1972.
Summary: The amount of oil one mile downstream from the last boom was never higher than 1 PPM and the fish did not contain any phenols or oils. The oil content of the surface water in the spill area and 5 miles downstream was, after the clean up job, at about 3 PPM which is normal for rivers during the timber-floating period.
Total Cost: about $170,000 including the innovation and tests.
Development of Methodology and Apparatus for the Bioassay of Oil
Authors: Lichatowich J. A. , O'Keefe P. W. , Strand J. A. , Templeton W. L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Bioassay of petroleum or its components presents technical problems not encountered in testing of soluble and less volatile materials. The literature includes numerous accounts of toxicity for both crude and refined oil. In most instances, the indices of toxicity are based on metered inflow. Few such studies, however, consider the concentrations of oil in the water column to which the test organism is exposed.
Essentially oil and water form a two-phase system. Even on a continuous flow basis, oil cannot be maintained as a homogeneous oil-water mixture within a bioassay test system. Homogenization techniques produce a totally artificial environment dissimilar to natural conditions characterized by a slick of floating oil. Furthermore, since subsurface oil concentrations may represent a small fraction of the metered inflow, currently applied indices of toxicity based on metered inflow may be erroneous.
This presentation summarizes techniques that may be applied in the bioassay of oil and other non-miscible materials. Special attention is directed to the above problems. Bioassay procedures are described that are conducted in flow-through tanks equipped with gravity oil metering systems and static mixers to equilibrate diluent water. Oil concentrations measured at different depths are utilized to calculate the mean level of exposure of the test organisms in the water column. Habitat preference and behavior of the test organism during bioassay were assessed in relationship to toxicity.
This work was performed under contract to the American Petroleum Institute, Committee on Environmental Affairs.
A Salt Marsh Microcosm: An Experimental Unit for Marine Pollution Studies
Authors: Nadeau Royal J. , Roush Thomas H. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Present day bioassay procedures are inadequate to assess impact of a pollutant upon the environment. Using a single species tested under rigid laboratory conditions does not produce ecologically relevant information.
A salt marsh microcosm was established and monitored to assess its applicability as a water pollution research tool toward determining the impact of oil spills upon coastal salt marshes. Growth of the major grass species was a measure of similarity between a nearby native salt marsh and the microcosm. No significant differences in growth were observed in low (Spartina alterniflora) and high marsh (Spartina patens and Distichlis spicata) species during most of the growing season.
Gas chromatography, ultraviolet and fluorescent spectrophotometry were used to monitor the fate of oil released into one side of the microcosm. High boiling range hydrocarbons probably of biogenic origin, interfered with quantification by ultraviolet and fluorescent spectroscopy, but could be separated by gas chromatography for qualitative examination.
Salt marsh microcosms can be easily used for studying the fate and effects of pollutants through a program of careful observation and monitoring.
Effects of Seawater Extracts of Crude Oil on Carbon Budgets in Two Species of Mussels
Authors: Gilfillan Edward S. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Effects of crude oil and salinity stress on the metabolism of two common filter feeding animals (Mytilus edulis and Modiolus demissus) have been investigated. Carbon budgets have been calculated for each species under a variety of combination of oil content and salinity. Both reduced salinity and crude oil tend to decrease the net carbon balance for each species; stresses from each source were additive in their effects on experimental animals. Although similar responses to oil were shown by each species, Mytilus appeared to be somewhat more resistant to oil than Modiolus.
Biological Effects of Refinery Effluents
Authors: Baker Jenifer M. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Refinery effluents contribute an estimated 300,000 tons of oil per year to the sea, but the biological effects of continuous but low concentrations of oil and other compounds are not well known. Different approaches to the problem are described, and field and laboratory results summarized. Different ecosystems differ in their capacity to receive and degrade effluents, and speed of dispersion and dilution is a major factor determining amount of biological damage. Changes in distribution and abundance of species are often very localised and in some cases may result from behavioural responses rather than direct toxic effects; areas of influence in terms of sub-lethal absorption of oil or other effluent constituents are not yet known. Biologically acceptable limits for effluents will vary considerably between sites and do not necessarily correspond with the present somewhat arbitrary restrictions.
A Study of the Effects of the San Francisco Oil Spill on Marine Organisms
Authors: Chan Gordon L. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
The San Francisco oil spill occurred on January 18, 1971, during the early morning hours when two Standard Oil vessels collided almost directly under the Golden Gate Bridge, releasing 840,000 gallons of Bunker C fuel. This asphalt-like oil was washed up on intertidal shores of the area.
Duxbury Reef, northwest of the Golden Gate Bridge, is literally the “backyard” of the author and the College of Marin's Bolinas Marine Station staff. Baseline transects have been established on this reef since 1958. The oil was heavily deposited on the reef's mussel beds and high tidal berm rocks.
From comparative transect and laboratory observations, it was determined that marine organisms died from being smothered by the oil, with certain species, such as acorn barnacles and limpets, suffering the highest mortality at Sausalito and on Duxbury Reef. Comparison of pre-oil and post-oil transect counts showed there was a significant decrease in marine life after the oil spill on the reef Marine snails suffered less mortality than the sessile barnacles and other sedentary animals. The normally large population of striped shore crabs is missing from the rocky crevices. Finally, marine algal blooms were also observed in certain reef localities.
The present condition of Duxbury Reef (December, 1971) is one of apparent good health; the recruitment of some marine animals appear to be approaching normal levels. The oil has disappeared from much of the reef surfaces and is barely discernible in the most heavily deluged areas. Continued studies will be aimed at watching the effects of oil on the recruitment of marine life throughout the afflicted areas of the Marin County coastline.
Interagency Investigations of a Persistent Oil Spill on the Washington Coast: Animal Population Studies, Hydrocarbon Uptake by Marine Organisms, and Algae Response Following the Grounding of the Troopship GENERAL M. C. MEIGS
Authors: Jr. Robert C. Clark, , Finley John S. , Patten Benjamin G. , Stefani Dennis F. , DeNike Edward E. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
An interagency team of biologists, chemists, oceanographers and engineers has been investigating the long-term effects of oil spilled by the grounding of the troopship GENERAL M. C. MEIGS January 6, 1972, on an ocean coast intertidal community of plants and animals. Oil has continuously been released from the 440,000 liters of Navy Special Fuel Oil carried by the vessel. The team assessed biological damage by making 1) surveys of abundance and physiological condition of animals, 2) qualitative evaluation of obvious damage to plants, and 3) measurements of the hydrocarbon uptake in both plants and animals. A series of sites, forming a vertical profile of the rocky shelf area from the upper intertidal zone to the lowest low tide level in Wreck Cove, have been studied.
This report describes the preliminary findings of the first ten months (January-October, 1972) of the investigation. Abnormal and dead urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) indicated that this species was affected. Loss of fronds and bleached thalli not evident in control areas were observed in the plant community in the immediate vicinity of the hulk. Petroleum hydrocarbons were taken up in the intertidal community. The normal paraffin hydrocarbon patterns and content over the range n-C14 H30 to n-C37H76 of healthy-appearing goose barnacles (Mitella polymerus), crabs (Hemigrapsus nudus) and an alga (Fucus gardneri) display the same basic characteristics as the fuel oil which had been lost from the GENERAL M. C. MEIGS.
The Visibility of Oil-Water Discharges
Authors: Hornstein Bernard 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT

Oil Spills:
Controlled oil films from 15 through 3000 nanometers (3 microns) thick show reflectance and interference color effects that vary in an orderly way with film thickness, and that agree with the well-known table published by the American Petroleum Institute. This inherent appearance depends only upon local film thickness and is independent of oil type. Visibility of a given film is variable and is affected by ambient factors that include sky conditions, water surface state, and the depth and color of the water.

Oil-Water Discharges:
Controlled streams of 25 to 100 gpm, containing 5 to 250 ppm of oil, were discharged into Raritan Bay from a 65-foot vessel. Discharge points were above the surface or 2 to 5 feet below the surface, with the vessel an anchor in tidal currents, simulating a fixed source in a low current. Above-surface discharges were also made with the vessel underway at 6 to 15 knots. The visibility and appearance of films resulting from the discharges were recorded from the vessel and from a helicopter.
The visibility of above-surface discharges for all combinations of water rate, oil content, and vessel speed, is correlated by a Specific Oil Rate (SOR) parameter:
Discharges of SOR = 4 or less were not visible, while those of SOR = 40 or more were visible. Visibility varied for intermediate discharges in the SOR range of 4 to 40. Visibility was infrequent near SOR = 4, and became more frequent as SOR increased. Fifty percent of the SOR = 20 discharges were visible. This correlation is for observations made from an aircraft.
Results of discharges reported by the Coast Guard for vessel speeds of 10–17 kt and by the British for 8–16 kt correlate with ours via the SOR parameter. These observations were also from aircraft.
Subsurface discharges appeared substantially less visible than corresponding above surface discharges. Replication, however, was insufficient to allow development of a correlation.
LOCAL AREA POLLUTION SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS: A SUMMARY OF THE COAST GUARD'S RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES*
Authors: White G. P. , Arecchi A. V. 
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACT
Each year a large number of discharges of oil and other hazardous polluting substances from transportation-related processes occur in the navigable waters of the United States. In order to minimize environmental damage from such discharges and to effect prompt containment and cleanup efforts, these spills must be detected and reported as quickly as possible. The Coast Guard has been investigating oil detection techniques and sensor equipment with a view to establishing local area pollution surveillance systems in various port and estuarine areas. The exact configuration of the surveillance systems will be dictated to a large extent by the capabilities of the detectors available. Consequently, the Coast Guard effort, to date, has been concentrated primarily on the development and evaluation of the sensors themselves. This paper summarizes that effort and presents an overview of work still to be accomplished.