bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Relationship with Prior and Subsequent Treaties and Conventions
Authors: Benvenuti Paolo 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the relationship of the Geneva Conventions with prior and subsequent International Humanitarian Law (IHL) treaties. Prior IHL treaties include older Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions. As to the relation of the Geneva Conventions to subsequent IHL treaties, the essential aspect to be considered is the link with the three Additional Protocols. In all such situations, the relationship is governed, as is usual in international law, by the later treaty, insofar as the Geneva Conventions do not contain rules providing for a procedure of amendment or revision; and, moreover, do not prohibit modification of their content by subsequent treaties.
Who Is a Prisoner of War?
Authors: Watts Sean 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the qualification provisions for prisoner of war (POW) status under the Third Geneva Convention (GC III). It shows that Article 4 GC III merely identifies groups whose members are entitled to POW status and enumerates conditions for other groups whose members are entitled to POW status. The Article does not identify general requirements for individual belligerent conduct, or for armies and armed groups generally. Nor, strictly speaking, does it constitute a code of conduct or enumeration of criminal offences. By de-coupling POW status determinations from combatant immunity and other individual pre-capture conduct, the interpretive approach advocated by this chapter ensures broad and principled application of the GC III protective regime by states.
Concept, Sources, and International Organizations Relating to Shipping Law
Authors: Arroyo Ignacio 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the different concepts, sources, and international organizations relating to shipping law. It analyses the various international maritime conventions than constitute shipping law, such as ship registration and maritime liens and mortgages. It then describes the two types of international maritime organizations: intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. The intergovernmental maritime entities such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO) are exclusively composed of Member States, although some private organizations may be invited to participate as observers in working groups depending on the agenda. On the other hand, intergovernmental maritime organizations are made up of private companies. Both types have contributed to produce sources of maritime law, unification of the rules and guidelines, and criteria to avoid problems of interpretation.
Sale and Purchase of Second-Hand Ships
Authors: Strong Malcolm 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter delves into the practice of the selling and purchasing of second-hand ships. It looks into the standard forms used for the sale of ships, in particular the so-called ‘Saleforms’. These forms are primarily used for the sale of cargo-carrying vessels but, with appropriate adaptation, may also be used for the sale of passenger vessels, oil rigs, and other commercially used vessels. The chapter compares the standard contracts used for sale and purchase of second-hand ships to newbuilding contracts. A newbuilding contract is a substantial construction contract of significant length accompanied by a number of detailed schedules including the technical specifications. It is often negotiated face to face by representatives of the shipyard and of the buyers rather than through brokers and provides for the ship to be built to precise technical standards. The form also provides for a supervision team to be in place during the construction period.
Multimodal Transport
Authors: Faghfouri Mahin 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes the effects of the rising use of multimodal transport in the trading industry. Multimodal transport refers to the use of more than one mode of transport to carry goods to their destination. This practice, together with advances in technology such as the improved integration of different transport modes and more sophisticated automated cargo-handling facilities, have affected transportation practices both in efficiency and capability. However, many problems arise as a result of the lack of an international framework to regulate multimodal transport. The chapter discusses attempts by the international community to establish this framework, with the earliest attempt coming from the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT). It also proposes three types of liability systems that may be adopted by international trade law as the basis for a regulatory framework-the Uniform liability system, Network liability system, and Modified liability system.
Law of Marine Collisions and other Casualties to Hull and Machinery
Authors: Wiswall Frank L 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter outlines the development of international law regulating marine collisions and other casualties to hull and machinery of the ship. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS), flag State administrations are obliged to conduct investigations to determine the cause of collisions, with the objective of reporting causes and seeking changes in international and national regulations that will aid in preventing such collisions in the future. Since collisions are more likely to happen in their national jurisdiction, coastal State authorities also have sovereign jurisdiction to conduct similar investigations into collisions. The chapter also looks into the types of non-collision casualties. It elaborates on the requirements needed to consider a casualty non-collision as stated in Lloyd’s Casualty Return Classifications, the leading source for shipping and vessel casualty alerts, analysis, and information.
Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims
Authors: Martínez Gutiérrez Norman A 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the limitation of liability for maritime claims. Specifically, it analyses the main provisions of the Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (LLMC Convention) and the actions being taken to improve the system built upon the 1996 LLMC Protocol. The Convention recognizes the right of limitation of liability for salvors, any person for whose act, neglect, or default the shipowner or salvor is responsible, and insurers of liability. The chapter then describes the different claims subject to limitation and the claims exempted from limitation, as well as conduct barring limitation which emerges if it is proven that the loss resulted from a person’s act or omission, committed with the intent to cause such loss, or recklessly and with knowledge that such loss would probably result.
Conventions Relating to Pollution Incident Preparedness, Response, and Cooperation
Authors: Gonzalez Gabino , Hébert Frédéric 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter sets out the timeline and evolution of the international and regional regulatory regime governing marine environment protection and provides information on the landmark conventions that have, over time, served to first establish and then further strengthen and improve the protection of the marine environment from the adverse effects of shipping. An analysis of the content of these instruments and their geographical coverage identifies areas requiring further development. It also highlights the complementarity of international (OPRC Convention) and regional frameworks (eg Regional Seas Programmes) and the importance of common efforts, approaches and initiatives engaged by their respective governing bodies, in close cooperation with other stakeholders.
The Human Element of Maritime Crime
Authors: Mallia Patricia 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of the legal regime relevant to stowaways, migrant smuggling, and trafficking in individuals. While the human element is a common thread which runs throughout all of these offences, the latter two share a much closer connection since they constitute the subject of two of the three Protocols to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2000 (CATOC). The regime relating to stowaways is dealt with first, and the duties of States with regard to rescue at sea and State rights and powers under the law of the sea regime is discussed in relation to migrant smuggling and trafficking in individuals. This joint consideration also reflects the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) approach to dealing with these forms of organized crime, the focus being on combating unsafe practices associated with the trafficking or transport of migrants by sea.
Introduction
Authors: Antkowiak Thomas M. , Gonza Alejandra 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The Introduction presents the Inter-American Human Rights System’s impact, primary legal instruments, and its two key institutions, the Inter-American Court and Inter-American Commission. Next, it synthesizes and critiques major developments of the System’s jurisprudence—developments that have expanded or contracted the rights of the American Convention. Finally, the Introduction outlines the structure and methodology of the book’s remaining chapters.
Property
Authors: Antkowiak Thomas M , Gonza Alejandra 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
Among regional treaties, the Convention’s Article 21 provides a strong formulation of the right to property. The Court has elaborated a broad notion of property, including tangible and intangible property, as well as private and communal property. The Tribunal’s property case law has especially influenced international jurisprudence on indigenous rights. The Court’s 2001 ruling on an indigenous right to communal property was a first for an international human rights court. Throughout the Americas, States and private companies have extracted natural resources and developed commercial projects on lands belonging to indigenous peoples and Afro-Latin communities. In response, the Court has required that States comply with specific “safeguards”; however, the protections are easily evaded. To better defend vital ancestral lands and resources, we argue that the Court should adopt a robust right-to-life approach, rather than relying upon the more modest right to property in these cases.
Reparations
Authors: Antkowiak Thomas M , Gonza Alejandra 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The Court’s extensive reparations are hailed as trailblazing. Interpreting the Convention’s Article 63, the Tribunal’s remedial approach comprises measures of restitution, rehabilitation, satisfaction, and guarantees of non-repetition, in conjunction with pecuniary and non-pecuniary damages. The Court is the only international body with binding jurisdiction that has consistently ordered this full range of reparations. Especially noteworthy is the Tribunal’s focus upon non-monetary remedies. Of course, the Court’s reparations are not without their flaws. As for non-monetary remedies, the Court at times could require more intensive victim engagement in the design and implementation of reparations. Yet, above all, the Tribunal’s inconsistent monetary reparations invite scrutiny. Particularly in the judgments involving groups, such as indigenous communities, the Court does not always respond to substantiated claims for monetary damages by both individuals and collectivities. If it neglects well-founded requests for material or moral compensation, the Court will compromise both individual and collective rights.
Interpretation and Application of Investment Treaties
Authors: Dolzer Rudolf , Schreuer Rudolf 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the interpretation and application of investment treaties. The first section covers the methods of treaty interpretation, travaux préparatoires (preparatory work), interpretative statements, the authority of ‘precedents’, and suggestions to improve the consistency of decisions. The second section discusses the inter-temporal application of treaties, inter-temporal rules for jurisdiction and substance, relevant dates to determine jurisdiction, relevant date under the ICSID Convention, and inter-temporal rules in other treaties
National Court Interference: Anti-Arbitration Injunctions
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
National courts are an essential component of successful international arbitration. Arbitrators, as private persons, lack the coercive police power of the state, which is reserved for government. At various stages in the arbitration process, effective adjudication may therefore become difficult to achieve without implementation or the threat of implementation by a national court. However, most parts of the world have realized that excessive intervention by state courts can deprive arbitration of its usefulness. Court interference slows the process, makes it more expensive, and can tilt the playing field if a party turns to its own national courts for support in an arbitrable dispute. This chapter discusses anti-arbitration injunctions and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes Convention.
Governing Law in Investment Disputes
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
There are four primary sources of substantive law pertinent to investment disputes: rules or contractual terms agreed to by the parties, if any; the investment treaties themselves; the law of the host state and other relevant rules of national law; and public international law. As the investment treaty regime has developed over the last few decades, tribunals have turned ever more frequently to investment treaty texts and evolving norms of international law. This chapter examines different sources of substantive law that may be applicable to the merits of an investment arbitration.
The Concept of Investment
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the definition of the term investment under investment treaties, national investment legislations, and the Washington Convention, in light of the relevant case law. Topics covered include definitions of investment in protection instruments; definition of investment and its implications for the jurisdiction of arbitral tribunals under the Washington Convention; the concept of unity of investment under the Washington Convention; the concept of investment and its implications for the jurisdiction of arbitral tribunals under arbitral rules other than the Washington Convention; and preinvestment protection.
Annulment and Set Aside
Authors: Dugan Christopher F , Wallace Jr , Rubins Noah , Sabahi Borzu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of International Centre for Settlement of Investor Disputes (ICSID) annulment process. It then discusses challenge to non-ICSID investment arbitration awards, waiver of objections, agreements to narrow the grounds for annulment, effect of annulled investment awards, and case studies of non-ICSID challenge proceedings.
Antitrust and Patent Law
Authors: Devlin Alan 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
The antitrust-patent interface evolves as rapidly as the technologies and strategic behaviour that it scrutinizes. Lawyers in this field must master doctrine, but also the economic principles and policy concerns that inform antitrust limits on the use of proprietary technology. This book seeks to inform those interested in the antitrust–patent space accordingly. It examines the intersection of competition policy and patents from the perspective of both US and EU law. Part I introduces the essential features of antitrust and IP, the fraught boundary between them, and the law’s recent developments. Part II explores whether the US patent regime is in crisis, discusses the benefits and dangers of the unified patent system recently adopted in Europe, and addresses the differences between the US and EU competition-law regimes. Part III articulates a new framework for understanding antitrust and patent law. Part IV addresses idiosyncratic questions that arise at the boundary between patent and competition laws. It discusses the law and economics applying to market definition, the virtues of open and closed systems, and patentees’ immunity from competition law in petitioning the government. Part V explores patent hold-up in the form of PAE activity and abuse of the standard-setting process. It also discusses the patent-misuse doctrine under US law. Part VI analyses technology transfer, as well as pay-for-delay agreements in the pharmaceuticals sector. A short conclusion follows.
Important Developments in Antitrust–Patent Law
Authors: Devlin Alan 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores recent developments in antitrust–patent law. In particular, it focuses on the US Supreme Court’s 2013 decision in Actavis, which promises to readjust the doctrinal relationship between the antitrust and patent laws, and the Court of Justice of the European Union’s (CJEU) 2012 judgment in AstraZeneca, which clarified the application of EU competition rules to the procurement and assertion of patent rights. A further critical event for EU competition law generally, but with important implications for the antitrust–patent intersection, is the CJEU’s 2014 judgment in Cartes Bancaires, which put the brakes on the European Commission’s practice of summarily condemning complex phenomena as by-object restrictions. Further topical questions concern agency and judicial pronouncements on the law governing the use and abuse of standard-essential patents and the antitrust implications of patent-assertion-entity conduct.
Antitrust Issues Surrounding Open and Closed Systems
Authors: Devlin Alan 
Published: August 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the tension between open and closed systems. Open networks allow technology creators and users to operate freely, building on what others have done without permission. In contrast, closed platforms operate under owners’ rules. By reducing free-riding, proprietary interests encourage owners to coordinate network usage and optimally to invest in their improvement. Thus, open and closed platforms can both foster innovation, but each can also depress it. The chapter explores when antitrust requires a patent owner to license its competitors to facilitate competition. That question requires the analysis of competitive effects where the challenged restraint implicates offsetting considerations in the present and future. This phenomenon is especially acute at the antitrust–patent intersection.
Predominance of hyperprogression in mucosal melanoma during anti-PD-1 monotherapy treatment
Authors: Zhou Li , Cao Min , Zhu Haibin , Chi Zhihong , Cui Chuanliang , Sheng Xinan , Mao Lili , Lian Bin , Tang Bixia , Yan Xieqiao , Bai Xue , Wang Xuan , Li Siming , Guo Jun , Sun Ying-shi , Si Lu 
Published: August 2024

Abstract

Background
A minority subset of immunotherapy patients manifests hyperprogressive disease (HPD), with the disparity in melanoma subtypes yet to be reported. This study aimed to delineate the proportion and prognosis of HPD in patients receiving anti-PD-1 monotherapy and to identify patient with HPD clinical characteristics across melanoma subtypes to inform clinical decision making.

Methods
Utilizing 4 established HPD definitions, the incidence of HPD in patients with advanced melanoma on anti-PD-1 monotherapy was determined. The incidence rates and prognostic abilities of various HPD definitions were compared to elect the most effective one. This facilitated a comparative analysis of subtypes and clinical features between patients with HPD and traditional progression.

Results
A total of 262 patients with advanced melanoma treated with anti-PD-1 monotherapy from 5 prospectively registered clinical trials were included in the study. The objective response rate (ORR) and disease control rate (DCR) was 21% and 58%, respectively, with 42% showcasing progression disease. The HPD incidences by 4 definitions were 13.2%, 16.8%, 10.8%, and 28.2%. All definitions effectively segregated HPD patients, with significantly poorer outcome than other progressive patients. The Delta TGR &gt; 100 definition was the most indicative of a reduced overall survival, corroborated by the highest hazard ratio and statistical significance. The number of metastatic organs over 2 is a risk factor for HPD (OR = 4.18, P = .0103). Mucosal melanoma was the HPD prevalent subtype (OR = 3.13, P = .0489) in multivariable analysis, which is also indicated by RECIST criteria (P = .005).

Conclusion
A delta TGR exceeding 100 best identified HPD patients in the advanced melanoma population treated with anti-PD-1 monotherapy. Hyperprogression was notably prevalent in mucosal melanoma patients with multiple metastatic organs. Caution against HPD is warranted when applying anti-PD-1 monotherapy in mucosal subtype.
Optimizing Corn Tar Spot Measurement: A Deep Learning Approach Using Red-Green-Blue Imaging and the Stromata Contour Detection Algorithm for Leaf-Level Disease Severity Analysis
Authors: Lee Da-Young , Na Dong-Yeop , Góngora-Canul Carlos , Jimenez-Beitia Fidel E. , Goodwin Stephen B. , Cruz Andrés P. , Delp Edward J. , Acosta Alex G. , Lee Jeong-Soo , Falconí César E. , Cruz C. D. 
Published: August 2024

Visual detection of stromata (brown-black, elevated fungal fruiting bodies) is the primary method for quantifying tar spot early in the season because these structures are definitive signs of the disease and essential for effective disease monitoring and management. Here, we present the Stromata Contour Detection Algorithm version 2 (SCDA v2), which addresses the limitations of the previously developed SCDA version 1 (SCDA v1), without the need to empirically search for optimal decision-making input parameters (DMIPs) while achieving higher and consistent accuracy in tar spot stromata detection. SCDA v2 operates in two components: (i) SCDA v1 producing tar spot–like region proposals for a given input corn leaf Red-Green-Blue (RGB) image and (ii) a pretrained convolutional neural network (CNN) classifier identifying true tar spot stromata from the region proposals. To demonstrate the enhanced performance of the SCDA v2, we used datasets of RGB images of corn leaves from field (low, middle, and upper canopies) and glasshouse conditions under variable environments, exhibiting different tar spot severities at various corn developmental stages. Various accuracy analyses (F1 score, linear regression, and Lin’s concordance correlation) showed that SCDA v2 had a greater agreement with the reference data (human visual annotation) than SCDA v1. SCDA v2 achieved 73.7% mean Dice values (overall accuracy) compared with 30.8% for SCDA v1. The enhanced F1 score primarily resulted from eliminating overestimation cases using the CNN classifier. Our findings indicate the promising potential of SCDA v2 for glasshouse and field-scale applications, including tar spot phenotyping and surveillance projects. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .