bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Kant and the Two Dogmas of Rationalism
Authors: Allison Henry E. 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis essay was inspired by Philip Kitcher's suggestion that in the first Critique Kant came close to anticipating Quine's “Two Dogmas of Empiricism.” It claims instead that Kant can more accurately be said to have written a critique of the “two dogmas of rationalism,” namely, the propositions that the predicate in every true proposition is contained in the concept of the subject (called the “predicate‐in‐notion principle”) and that sensible cognition is reducible in principle to purely conceptual or intellectual cognition (termed the “reducibility principle”). It is further claimed that these are mirror images of Quine's famous dogmas and that they reciprocally imply each other. Finally, it is argued that reading Kant in this ways shows that the fundamental problem with which the Critique deals is not how synthetic judgments are possible a priori but the possibility of a synthetic judgment as such.
Kant on Freedom of the Will
Authors: Allison Henry E. 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis essay discusses the various conceptions of freedom to be found in Kant's texts, analyzes the connection between them and Kant's moral theory and epistemology, explores the contrast between the empirical and the intelligible character of the will, and examines Kant's controversial views on the relation between freedom and causal determinism. In addition, it frames Kant's account of free will historically in relation to the views of his immediate predecessors, who exerted the most influence on him, and his idealistic successors, who strongly criticized him but were greatly influenced by his views. The former group includes Leibniz, Wolff and Crusius, and the latter Fichte, Hegel, and Schopenhauer.
Elementary Logic
Authors: Bostock David 
Published: September 2012

AbstractFrege, Peano, and Russell all shared what we now call elementary logic. Nowadays we think of this as given mainly by its criterion for validity, i.e. truth in all interpretations. But they were more concerned with elaborating its rules of proof. For illustration, the chapter gives an axiomatic set of rules, such as Frege and Russell used, though it does not reproduce their own versions. They did not think of the formulae of logic as schemata, open to many different interpretations.
Facts
Authors: Bostock David 
Published: September 2012

AbstractRussell advocates a logically perfect language. Its names will be names for simple particulars, and its predicates will signify simple universals. It is not immediately clear what he means by ‘simplicity’, nor why he thinks it desirable, but he does admit that it may not be attainable. The true sentences of this ‘perfect’ language are supposed to have the same structure as the facts that make them true. Russell claims that there are negative facts and general facts, but not (e.g.) disjunctive facts. He implies that there are no intensional facts involving necessity, causality, or value. He does apparently accept facts concerning beliefs, which are either intensional in themselves, or which involve facts concerning the meanings of symbols, which must be intensional. But it is perhaps better to set these aside, as requiring a metalanguage for their proper expression. Even so, we cannot accept the claim that the structure of the world is revealed by the structure of (the perfect) language.
The Scandinavian heritage of English
Authors: Miller D. Gary 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThe major structural changes in the history of English originated in northeast England and are shared with East Norse. This chapter outlines the evidence for the extent of the different types of contact and discusses specific innovations. Because of the fused Norse‐English, there was a large amount of accommodation‐convergence, or koineization, accompanied by the death of Norse in England. Especially in the realm of morphology and syntax the linguistic influence was mutual. The innovations were shared with especially Old Jutland Danish.
Continuity and revival of classical learning
Authors: Miller D. Gary 
Published: September 2012

AbstractRevival of the liberal arts and classical studies at several times was responsible for multiple periods of influx of Greek and Latin loanwords in English. This chapter outlines the works that were influential on the external history of English in connection with the continental background to the events in the British Isles discussed in previous chapters. The main topics are Ecclesiastical Latin, the reforms of Alcuin and Medieval Latin, the Humanistic and Neolatin of the Renaissance, the effects of printing and other factors on standardization, latinate vocabulary in Shakespeare and other literary works, and the technical and scientific terminology in the post‐Renaissance period.
Perspective: Otto the Great
Authors: Matthews Alastair 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This chapter examines narrative perspective in the episode about Otto the Great in the Kaiserchronik. It argues against concentrating on focalization at the expense of other aspects of perspective, as much recent research has done, and presents Boris Uspensky's planes of perspective as an alternative analytical framework. The chapter shows, with reference to temporal, phraseological, and psychological perspective, that Otto is capable of reflecting on his actions rather than simply embodying the fixed ideological role of a model of good Christian rulership. The associated nuances of perspective are highlighted by means of comparisons with hagiographical and historiographical texts in Latin and the vernacular, including the Frutolf/Ekkehard chronicle.
Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law
Authors: Emon Anver M. 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This book problematizes tolerance as a conceptually helpful or coherent concept for understanding the significance of the dhimmī rules, the Islamic legal doctrines that governed and regulated non-Muslim permanent residents in Islamic lands. In doing so, it suggests that the Islamic legal treatment of non-Muslims is symptomatic of the more general challenge of governing a diverse polity. Far from being constitutive of an Islamic ethos, the dhimmī rules are symptomatic of the messy business of ordering and regulating a diverse society. This understanding of the dhimmī rules allows us to view the dhimmī rules in the larger context of law and pluralism, and in that fashion, creates new spaces for analyzing Sharīʿa as one among many legal systems that, far from being unique, suffers similar challenges as other legal systems that also contend with the challenges of governing amidst diversity.
The Dhimmī Rules in the Post-Colonial Muslim State
Authors: Emon Anver M. 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This chapter addresses two case studies of how premodern Islamic legal answers are used to respond to contemporary questions of governance. The case studies concern Saudi Arabia and Malaysia. In the Saudi Arabian case, the example concerns how premodern dhimmī rules inform the liability structure in wrongful death claims. The Malaysia case concerns a recent legal controversy about apostasy, where a woman sought to convert from Islam to Christianity. Although the second case is not strictly about the dhimmīs, it nonetheless highlights alongside the Saudi Arabian case how contemporary conditions of governance and Rule of Law give new meaning or intelligibility to premodern legal answers.
Russell, Wittgenstein, and Synthesis in Thought
Authors: Johnston Colin 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Wittgenstein held that Russell's multiple relation theory of judgment fails to explain an atomic judgment's representation of entities as combined. He demonstrated this failure as follows. Under the multiple relation theory, an atomic judgment is a complex whose relating relation is judgment, the universal, and whose terms include the entities the judgment represents as combined. Taking such a complex we may arrive through the substitution of constituents at a complex whose relating relation is again judgment but whose terms do not include entities which are logically suited for combination. This second judgment complex will not represent any of its terms as combined, for entities that are logically uncombinable are unrepresentable as combined. Russell's theory does not, however, explain how the original judgment differs from the complex arrived at by the substitution of constituents such that the former but not the latter represents certain of its terms as combined.
The United Nations: No Hope for Reform?
Authors: Alston Philip 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Utopia is a notion that is inevitably in the eye of the beholder, but the assumption of this analysis is that a strengthened and more efficient UN has the capacity to contribute in essential ways to more effective global governance arrangements. This chapter identifies various steps that would promote the type of realistically utopian reform that this volume seeks to identify. They include the following. Amending the Charter to eliminate the Trusteeship Council and ideally also the Economic and Social Council; ensuring sustainable financing for core UN activities. Promoting a ‘One UN’ approach to on the ground service delivery, but complementing this with a more consultative approach to local actors. Becoming more media savvy. Making vastly better use of new information and communications technologies; moving towards a ‘smart’ and knowledgeable Secretariat. And finally, devoting more resources to three substantive areas (electoral assistance; development of a police rapid response capacity; tackling corruption at the national level).
The Security Council: Progress is Possible but Unlikely
Authors: Fassbender Bardo 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
There is broad agreement that it is better to have the Security Council with all its flaws than to have no such institution at all. It is difficult to envisage developments of the Security Council in the direction of an institution effectively promoting and sustaining a global community based on the values proclaimed by the UN Charter. Nevertheless, a set of fairly realistic measures can be suggested. Firstly, the Western members of the Council, especially the permanent members, should realize that their dominance is very fragile. Secondly, the Security Council should attach more importance to collective goods and interests of all peoples inhabiting the earth than to the individual goods and interests of the states represented on the Council. Thirdly, the Council should have at its disposal more information from independent sources, gathered and evaluated in the Secretariat, instead of being dependent on information provided by member states, especially the permanent members, on the basis of the work of their secret services. The role of the Office of Legal Affairs in advising the Security Council in matters of international law should also be strengthened. Fourthly, action taken by the Council (in particular in the form of economic and military sanctions) needs to be more reliable and consistent, and less arbitrary. The Security Council should try to build a precedential case law which makes it possible to predict in general terms its course of action. Finally, sanctions imposed on individuals not belonging to a small circle of members of a government, military command, or the leadership of a non-state party to a conflict should remain an exception.
International Lawmaking: Towards a New Role for the Security Council?
Authors: Boyle Alan 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Climate change represents one of the greatest challenges to international lawmaking the UN has ever faced. It is politically unrealistic to set up a new environmental organization and, on the other hand, the process frequently resorted to in the field of environmental law, namely inclusive consensus, is frequently unattainable. A possible alternative may lie in asking the UN Security Council to legislate on the matter, under its general power to deal with questions relating to the maintenance of peace and security. At present it is questionable whether the unreformed Security Council can be said to have the right process to make itself legitimate as a lawmaking body. Whether viewed in terms of accountability, participation, procedural fairness or transparency of decision-making, it remains a seriously deficient vehicle for the exercise of legislative competence. Nevertheless, this authority could be given to the Council subject to the condition that the involvement and the approval of the General Assembly would be required. Security Council resolutions should be debated and adopted in the General Assembly first, before giving them binding force in the Council. It would also be necessary to maintain and enhance deliberative and transparent processes in both the General Assembly and the Security Council when such resolutions are under discussion, but there is no reason why observers and accredited non-governmental organizations should not be involved at this stage as they are in the General Assembly.
Should the Implementation of International Rules by Domestic Courts be Bolstered?
Authors: Shany Yuval 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Our traditional outlook on the world of adjudication regards domestic and international courts as two very different sets of institutions. Whereas domestic courts apply national law to disputes brought before them and are part of the local institutions of government, international courts apply international law and resolve disputes between two or more states. It appears, however, that the traditional view of the dividing line between national and international adjudicatory bodies is increasingly hard to reconcile with ongoing legal and political developments — in particular, the increased occurrence of jurisdictional overlaps, the assumption of a stronger international law-applying role by national courts, and the emergence of hybrid courts. The erosion of the boundaries between the said two categories of judicial institutions generates new opportunities for the future evolution of international law, but also entails a number of serious challenges. This chapter describes in Section 1 the principal contours of the process leading to the meshing of the domestic and international adjudicatory powers to apply international law. Section 2 discusses the principal implications of bolstering the international law-implementing role of domestic courts. Section 3 concludes by asking whether and how the international law-implementing role of domestic courts should be further encouraged.
The Future(s) of Regional Courts on Human Rights
Authors: Evans Malcolm D. 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
This chapter offers a reflection on the future — or rather, the futures — of regional courts of human rights. There are as many futures as there are Courts, and each must take its own path, informed by the institutional parameters, jurisdictional competencies, and substantive criteria which are of relevance. These futures will be different and vary for each from time to time as the configurations and ambitions of the various regional bodies evolve over time. The future of the regional courts themselves is of considerably less significance than the realization of the tasks they were established to fulfil. While, then, it remains important that they are as well equipped as possible to fulfil their functions within their discrete regional and institutional settings, it is equally important to recognize that they must remain responsive to the changing political and intellectual configurations which continue to shape and reshape not only those regional and institutional settings themselves but which also form and reform the nature of the international community as a whole, in the interest of the human person which that community is there to serve.
Genetic Manipulation: How to Strike the Right Balance between Technology and Respect for Human Rights
Authors: El-Zein Souheil 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
There has been a rapid increase in scientific and technological advances in the areas of genetic manipulation and genetic engineering or biotechnology in the past thirty years, and there is still a great deal that remains to be discovered. Although this fast-growing technology, mainly applied to medicines and foodstuffs, has been promoted for its potential benefit for welfare and growth in the field of life sciences and the economy, it poses considerable risks (to biodiversity, human health, the environment, etc.) on which research is still scarce and thus has raised regulatory challenges under both regional and international law. This chapter considers the reaction of international law to those challenges. The evaluation of the impact of the treatment of biotechnology under international law requires a plurality of approaches and different levels of inquiry, depending on the fundamental legal, social, and cultural distinction between human genetic resources and other genetic resources (plants and animals), even if the gene of animals and human beings are scientifically similar.
Belligerent Occupation: A Plea for the Establishment of an International Supervisory Mechanism
Authors: Ben-Naftali Orna 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
The international legal order seeks to regulate belligerent occupation. This regulation is classified as part of international humanitarian law. Accordingly, it reflects the sensibility of ‘the lesser evil’: the very phenomenon of occupation is assumed to be a necessary evil, and on the basis of this assumption, the law seeks to regulate it in a manner designed to minimize its painful consequences for the occupied civilian population and its disruptive effect on the international order. The very reference to ‘the lesser evil’ raises a problem. This is partly because ‘evil’ — rather than ‘good’ — is accepted as the proper realm of thought and action and partly due to the strong affinity thereby suggested to cost-benefit analysis. The first reason tends to curb our political imagination; the second, to pollute our moral and legal reasoning, at least in the context of humanitarian and human rights concerns. In a ‘realistic utopia’, the law of belligerent occupation would work to prevent both effects. This chapter assesses whether the legal regime of occupation responds adequately to these challenges, identifies areas where change is required, and proposes ways to introduce it.
Modern Means of Warfare: The Need to Rely upon International Humanitarian Law, Disarmament, and Non-Proliferation Law to Achieve a Decent Regulation of Weapons
Authors: Ronzitti Natalino 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
At present disarmament and international humanitarian law employ two different techniques for regulating weapons. While disarmament prohibits the build-up and stockpiling of weapons, humanitarian law regulates their use. The modern law on weapons is a combination of disarmament and humanitarian law. There are three techniques for prohibiting weapons and making their use a criminal offence: simply listing prohibited weapons; listing such weapons and asking states to enact penal legislation for their prohibition; or making the use of such weapons an international crime. With regard to possible future changes, it must be said that international humanitarian law is not the only way to achieve decent regulation of weapons. Arms control, non-proliferation, and disarmament instruments should be used to achieve a more suitable result. The choice of instruments available is also important. The indeterminacy and lacunae of customary international law makes it ill-suited for disarmament. Treaties are necessary for international humanitarian law, that is, for prohibiting the use of specific weapons. However, one should also rely on soft law for managing non-proliferation regimes and even arms control.
Carl Stumpf: A reluctant revolutionary
Authors: Trippett David 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
If historical events are to mark the boundaries of a life lived, one could be forgiven for suspecting that Carl Stumpf (1848–1936) might have been a political revolutionary: born during the months of revolutionary uprisings across Europe, he died a few months after Hitler's troops occupied the Rhineland in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Yet, as a scientist, his convictions carried no muscular force; still less any political conviction. His sphere was intellectual. Though, as this chapter shows, this would prove no less influential in charting the course of the disciplines of psychology and (ethno)musicology, than the events that framed his life would serve to alter the course of European history.
“Two-Thousand Years of Stasis”
Authors: Gelman Susan A. , Rhodes Marjorie 
Published: September 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines how psychological essentialism poses a set of conceptual obstacles to a full grasp of evolutionary theory for ordinary (non-expert) children and adults. Specifically, this chapter describes five essentialist assumptions that are common in everyday thought and are inconsistent with evolutionary theory, including: assumption of category stability and immutability, assumption that category boundaries are strict and impermeable, failure to understand within-category variability, by either denying its existence or treating it as ‘noise’, treating causes as inhering in individuals rather than resulting from population-level forces, and viewing categories as progressing toward an ideal state. Some of these obstacles impede acceptance of evolutionary theory; others impede understanding evolutionary theory. The chapter concludes with speculations about implications for science education.
Teleological Minds
Authors: Kelemen Deborah 
Published: September 2012

AbstractNatural selection is the process responsible for the functional adaptation of biological organisms. Despite its basic and applied scientific relevance, it remains one of the most widely misunderstood concepts of contemporary science. In this chapter, the conceptual underpinnings of some of these misunderstandings are explored and it is argued that many of them have their roots in cognitive biases that are observable in preschoolers and elementary school children. Central among these is the teleological tendency to explain phenomena by reference to function. The chapter presents developmental work exploring this tendency and also reviews recent findings concerning the possible origins of the bias. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of this and other developmental research for early evolutionary education.
The Promise and Challenges of Introducing Tree Thinking into Evolution Education
Authors: Catley Kefyn M. , Novick Laura R. , Funk Daniel J. 
Published: September 2012

Abstract
Engaging in tree thinking (using phylogenetic diagrams to interpret and infer historical processes) is a prerequisite for understanding macroevolution. Tree thinking has become increasingly important in biology, with important ramifications for applied fields such as genomics, conservation, epidemiology, and pharmacology. Focusing on what is currently known about cognitive and perceptual constraints on students' tree-thinking skills the chapter reports on the effectiveness of business-as-usual instructional units on tree-thinking concepts in two upper-level classes for Biology majors and discussing how this knowledge can be used to inform curriculum development. The chapter argues for a paradigm shift in the way evolution is taught — from a strong focus on natural selection to a model that visualizes evolution as a broad hierarchical continuum which integrates both micro and macro processes with critical scientific reasoning skills.