bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Risk Approach for Distribution Pipeline Systems
Authors: Mihell James , Augustine Chad , Hasham Zaheed , Leewis Keith 
Published: December 2014

Unlike the circumstance associated with transmission pipelines, where variables that are attributes of risk are typically widely available in GIS systems or in other databases that are geo-referenced to linear assets, risk data for distribution systems are not typically linearly referenced to what is essentially a network system. Therefore the manner in which risk is calculated and displayed for distribution systems must differ significantly from the way these functions are performed on transmission pipelines. In distribution systems, failure (defined as the loss of containment) and the contributors to the likelihood of failure, is often highly correlated to system-specific circumstances, such as type of material used, installation era, and operating environment. These correlations between cause-and-effect as they relate to failure likelihood in distribution systems are not widely recognized on a universal basis, such as they might be in transmission pipeline environments, but are typically unique to each operating system.
Because system data for distribution networks is not typically available in a manner that can be linearly geo-referenced to pipeline coordinates the way it is for transmission systems, the convention of mapping risk to pipeline dynamic segments as a function of risk attributes that exist within those dynamic segments is not achievable for distribution systems the way that it is for transmission systems. Therefore, the most effective strategy for performing risk assessments in distribution systems is to create a database in which existing incident data can be correlated to system attributes, and then to use those correlations to create cause-and-effect relationships between system attributes and failure likelihood. Consequences are characterized in terms of the operating environment (e.g., wall-to-wall, residential, etc.), leak magnitude, type of facility (mains vs. service lines), and special mitigating or exacerbating factors, such as availability of excess flow valves, or the presence of inside meters.
A risk assessment methodology has been developed that accommodates the above constraints and that meets the stated objectives, and which is well-suited to the distribution system data infrastructure that is typical of most operators. Because the risk assessment approach leverages existing databases and incident reporting structures, it lends itself to automation, and re-evaluation on a regular basis. Reporting is facilitated by a ‘heat map’, which provides immediate insight as to the drivers of risk for each system sub-group having similar design, materials, and operating characteristics.
Real-Time Pig Tracking Using a Fibre Optic Pipeline Monitoring System
Authors: Espiner Richard , Pickburn Alastair 
Published: December 2014

The use of fibre optic based monitoring systems is becoming more common for new onshore pipelines. These systems are typically intended to provide leak detection and third party interference surveillance for long lengths of pipeline.
Between 2006 and 2008 BP and OneSubsea™ developed the optical technology that provides the basis for a fibre optic pipeline monitoring system (presented in IPC2008-64549). Subsequently BP installed the system on its Khazzan Extended Well Test (EWT) pipeline system in a remote location in Oman. In addition to the originally designed leak detection and third party surveillance capability, operating experience gained by OneSubsea on a variety of pipeline projects has demonstrated the ability of the system to track the movement of pipeline pigs. The monitoring system interface has been upgraded to integrate this additional functionality.
The paper describes the capabilities of the fibre optic monitoring system and through a case study illustrates the accuracy and operational benefits of the pig tracking capability.
Ductile Crack Extension Analysis for X80 Bending Deformation Using Damage-Based Model
Authors: Igi Satoshi , Ohata Mitsuru , Sakimoto Takahiro , Oi Kenji , Kondo Joe 
Published: December 2014

This paper presents experimental and analytical results focusing on the strain limit of X80 linepipe. Ductile crack growth behavior from a girth weld notch is simulated by FE analysis based on a proposed damage model and is compared with the experimental results. The simulation model for ductile crack growth accompanied by penetration through the wall thickness consists of two criteria. One is a criterion for ductile crack initiation from the notch-tip, which is described by the plastic strain at the notch tip, because the onset of ductile cracking can be expressed by constant plastic strain independent of the shape and size of the components and the loading mode. The other is a damage-based criterion for simulating ductile crack extension associated with damage evolution influenced by plastic strain in accordance with the stress triaxiality ahead of the extending crack tip.
The proposed simulation model is applicable to prediction of ductile crack growth behaviors from a circumferentially-notched girth welded pipe with high internal pressure, which is subjected to tensile loading or bending (post-buckling) deformation.
Environmental Permitting of British Columbia Oil and Gas Commission Regulated Pipelines: Lessons From the Trenches
Authors: de Jong Kristen L. , Blancher Patrick M. , Scoular Matthew G. 
Published: December 2014

There are many projects proposed to transport oil and gas resources to British Columbia’s (BC’s) west coast. BC has multiple major pipeline transmission systems (e.g., Trans Mountain pipeline, Spectra Energy and Pacific Northern Gas), and at least six major oil and gas pipelines are planned for construction over the next decade [1]. Large pipeline projects like these that span hundreds of kilometres can involve multiple jurisdictions (federal, provincial or joint) and require considerable regulatory planning. Once a pipeline project is approved through an environmental assessment (EA) process, it must still undergo rigorous environmental review as part of regulatory permitting.
This paper provides an overview of oil and gas environmental regulatory processes in BC, with a focus on the role and process of the BC Oil and Gas Commission (BC OGC) as it pertains to environmental permitting requirements (i.e., legislation and regulation) for pipeline projects. Current regulatory application and review processes have been developed for small projects. This creates several unique considerations for major pipeline project applications. Among these is how best to coordinate the permit applications required for environmental management and protection of the diverse resource features of interest to BC regulatory agencies (e.g., culturally modified trees, riparian management areas, wildlife tree retention areas and old growth management areas).
This paper also highlights the need for an integrated multidisciplinary approach and discusses lessons learned related to strategic planning of permit applications. We provide examples of how collaboration among the proponent’s teams and multiple consultant teams is necessary to develop effective regulatory strategies and obtain timely approvals.
Characterization of Topside Mechanical Damage
Authors: Wang Rick Yahua , Kania Richard , Arumugam Udayasankar , Gao Ming 
Published: December 2014

Mechanical damage, such as gouge, is the damage to the pipe surface caused by external forces and is usually caused by third-party damage during construction and excavation. This normally results in a highly deformed, work hardened surface layer with possible metal removal. In many cases, dents are coincident with gouges. Industry standards and regulators treat this type of mechanical damage as critical and require immediate investigation. Therefore, from a pipeline operator perspective, distinguishing between plain dent and dent with gouge is a great challenge for topside dents because quite often they are caused by un-authorized third party activity and contain gouge.
In a previous study[1,2], the present authors developed an approach that combines dent strain-severity criterion with MFL signal recognition to identify dent with gouge and crack. In this paper, an extension of the previous study to topside dents is presented. The enhanced approach for distinguishing between plain dents and dent with gouge/crack for topside dents is summarized. Case studies are given to demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach for identify topside dent with gouge.
Probabilistic Modeling of Crack Threats and the Effects of Mitigation
Authors: Nielsen Andrew , Mallet-Paret Julie , Griffin Kathy 
Published: December 2014

In order to understand the probability of failure (PoF) of any system, we must first quantify the uncertainties in the system we are modeling. Common industry practice is to assess potential pipeline defects deterministically and account for uncertainty by taking conservative estimates or adding margins of safety to each parameter. This creates very conservative values for use in integrity management. Instead, probabilistic modeling enables sources of uncertainty, such as measurement accuracy, and their influence on PoF to be quantified and independently accounted for.
Assessing threats probabilistically allows for ease of integration of likelihood with consequence for risk modeling and enables a quantitative comparison of crack, corrosion, deformation and other potential threats.
Enbridge is developing probabilistic models to obtain PoF results and an overall line condition for crack threats on its crude oil transmission pipelines. These results will enable Enbridge to quantify the effects of its integrity programs, and allow for a comparison with other potential mitigations such as hydro-testing and pressure reductions.
Enbridge’s probabilistic modeling methodology includes the selection and justification of model parameters, analysis methods, inputs, and uncertainties. This includes but is not limited to a selection of a failure model, failure criteria, pipe properties, feature sizing, and operating conditions. The selected input distributions are then sampled using a Monte Carlo method in order to calculate mean burst pressure and the resulting PoF.
Brittle Fracture Arrest in High Charpy Energy Steels: Comparisons With Some Existing Data
Authors: Wilkowski G. , Shim D-J. , Hioe Y. , Kalyanam S. , Uddin M. 
Published: December 2014

Current line-pipe steels have significantly higher Charpy upper-shelf energy than older steels. Many newer line-pipe steels have Charpy upper-shelf energy in the 300 to 500J range, while older line-pipe steels (pre-1970) had values between 30 and 60J. With this increased Charpy energy comes two different and important aspects of how to predict the brittle fracture arrestability for these new line-pipe steels.
The first aspect of concern is that the very high Charpy energy in modern line-pipe steels frequently produces invalid results in the standard pressed-notch DWTT specimen. Various modified DWTT specimens have been used in an attempt to address the deficiencies seen in the PN-DWTT procedure. In examining fracture surfaces of various modified DWTT samples, it has been found that using the steady-state fracture regions with similitude to pipe burst test (regions with constant shear lips) rather than the entire API fracture area, results collapse to one shear area versus temperature curve for all the various DWTT specimens tested. Results for several different materials will be shown. The difficulty with this fracture surface evaluation is that frequently the standard pressed-notch DWTT only gives valid transitional fracture data up to about 20-percent shear area, and then suddenly goes to 100-percent shear area.
The second aspect is that with the much higher Charpy energy, the pipe does not need as much shear area to arrest a brittle fracture. Some analyses of past pipe burst tests have been recently shown and some additional cases will be presented. This new brittle fracture arrest criterion means that one does not necessarily have to specify 85-percent shear area in the DWTT all the time, but the shear area needed for brittle fracture arrest depends on the pipeline design conditions (diameter, hoop stress) and the Charpy upper-shelf energy of the steel. Sensitivity studies and examples will be shown.
Effect of Chemistry on the Fracture Toughness of Low Carbon X70 Girth Weld Heat Affected Zone
Authors: Rashid M. , Collins L. E. , Bian Y. 
Published: December 2014

Addition of alloying elements can alter the properties of high-strength linepipe steel. Particularly the addition of Chromium and Molybdenum acts to suppress ferrite nucleation and promote the formation of acicular bainite microstructures and thereby increase the tensile properties of modern linepipe steel. While chemistry is a factor, welding parameters can also be influential and affect the HAZ toughness. The present work compares the effect of C, Cr, and Mo on the girth weld HAZ fracture toughness of X70 in identical welds.
Three pipes of size 48″ OD × 0.528″ WT with different combinations of C, Cr, and Mo were produced. Identical welding procedures were employed to produce two girth welds so that a low-C, Cr pipe (CE = 0.238) was joined to a high-C, Cr pipe (CE = 0.268) which in turn was joined to a low-C, Mo pipe (CE = 0.224). By evaluating the HAZ properties on either side of a weld, it was possible to accurately assess chemistry affects on HAZ properties.
These girth welds were subjected to different testing for the evaluation of girth weld HAZ impact and fracture toughness. These included all-weld metal and pipe body tensile testing, micro hardness testing of HAZ, microstructure analysis, Charpy V-notch testing of weld metal and HAZ, and CTOD testing of weld metal and HAZ at −5 °C and −20 °C. In addition, to investigate the transformation behaviour, Gleeble simulations of coarse-grain heat affected zone (CG-HAZ) were conducted using skelp samples, which were taken from the same coils as the pipe samples.
The results demonstrated that among the low and high carbon equivalent (CE) alloys, materials with low CE values showed better toughness properties. While among the low CE materials, the material with high Mo performed better in terms of toughness. No clear effect of weld position around the pipe circumference on the CTOD values was observed.
Evaluation of EMAT Tool Performance and Reliability
Authors: Kania Richard , Rosca Gabriela , Tandon Samarth , Gao Ming , Krishnamurthy Ravi 
Published: December 2014

From 2009–2013, 13 pipeline segments with an aggregated length of more than 1,300km were inspected with newer versions of EMAT tools for SCC and crack-like defects, and validated with more than 200 excavations. The EMAT tool performance is evaluated in terms of detection, identification, false calls, and sizing. The evaluation showed significant improvement in tool performance compared to previous years where older generations of tools were used. The performance was validated with confirmatory hydrotests. The reliability of using EMAT tools as the alternative to hydrotesting over a range of steel grades and vintage, coating types were assessed incorporating performance parameters like detection, identification, and sizing tolerance, with assessment methodologies. Based on the available historic data of hydrotesting, the reliability of EMAT ILI was compared to that of hydrotesting.
In this paper, the approach used for the evaluation of EMAT tool performance is presented first. The results and findings are then summarized. Hydrotest and EMAT reliability methodologies and results are presented next. EMAT application to gas pipeline SCC integrity management as an alternative to hydrotesting is discussed.
Parameters Affecting Dent Strain Using 3D Laser Scan Profile
Authors: Arumugam Udayasankar , Tinacos Katina , Gao Ming , Wang Rick , Kania Richard 
Published: December 2014

Today’s in-ditch laser scan inspection technology provides pipeline operators with relatively accurate 3D dent profile data. Some of the benefits of using laser scan data are to accurately calculate dent strain and quantify its severity. However, there are some concerns regarding the scan parameters used such as; scanner resolution settings, scan coverage over the dent, and its surrounding area as well as repeatability and reliability of scanned dent data that could affect the accuracy of the calculated dent strains. Therefore, it is important to understand how these parameters affect the accuracy of calculated dent strains, which could lead to either over- or under-estimating equivalent strains and result in unnecessary repairs or leaving critical dents in the pipeline without mitigation. The benefit of this study is to help the pipeline operators to reduce in-ditch dent inspection time without compromising on the accuracy of dent geometry and its strain.
In this paper the effect of different scan resolutions on the calculated strain is studied first. Then, using high resolution, the effect of scan coverage on the dent strain is studied. In particular, the difference in the calculated strain among 60°, 90°, 180°, 360° scans coverage circumferentially. The repeatability of dent scan with two different resolutions is then evaluated with two real life dent samples. Finally, the findings from this study are summarized. This serves as the basis for developing an optimal procedure for dent laser scanning with acceptable level of scan parameters for a reliable strain assessment. The benefits and limitations of 3D laser scanning technology from this study are also presented.
Evaluation of New In-Ditch Methods for Measurement and Assessment of External Corrosion
Authors: Cazenave Pablo , Tiñacos Katina , Gao Ming , Kania Richard , Wang Rick 
Published: December 2014

New technologies for in-ditch non-destructive evaluation were lately developed and are becoming of mainstream use in the evaluation of external corrosion features for both In-Line-Inspection performance evaluation and pipeline integrity assessment. However, doubt was cast about the reliability and repeatability of these new technologies (hardware and processing software) when compared with those used in the traditional external-corrosion in-ditch measurement and the reliability of the pipeline integrity assessment calculations (PBurst) embedded in their software when compared with industry-wide accepted calculation methods. Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to evaluate the variation and repeatability of the measurements produced by these new technologies in corrosion feature profiling and associated PBurst calculations.
Two new 3D scanning systems were used for the evaluation of two pipe samples removed from service which contain complex external corrosion features in laboratory. The reliability of the 3D scanning system in measuring corrosion profiles was evaluated against traditional profile gage data. In addition, the associated burst pressures reported by the systems were compared with results obtained using industry-widely used calculation methods. Also, consistencies, errors and gaps in results were identified. In this paper, the approach used for this study is described first, the evaluation results are then presented and finally the findings and their implications are discussed.
Pipeline Response to Slope Movement and Evaluation of Pipeline Strain Demand
Authors: Fredj Abdelfettah , Dinovitzer Aaron 
Published: December 2014

Pipelines installed on active slopes can be exposed to slope failure mechanisms. The soil movement can introduce substantial axial and bending strains on buried pipeline, and possibly damage. The techniques to predict pipeline displacements, loads, stress or strains are not well described in design standards or codes of practice. The practice of using finite element analysis of soil-pipe interaction has developed in recent years and is proving to be a useful tool in evaluating the pipeline behavior in response to slope movement.
A description of advanced pipe soil interaction modeling tools and their validation against full scale trails has been previously presented. This paper describes the ongoing work involved in a study investigating the mechanical behavior of buried pipelines interacting with active slope movement and evaluation of pipeline strain demand. Detailed pipe-soil interaction analyses were completed with a 3D continuum SPH (Smooth Particle Hydrodynamic) model to examine the pipeline behavior and evaluate the pipeline strain demand in relation to key parameters. This includes the effect of soil movement mechanism, pipeline geometry (D/t), material grade, pipeline burial depth and soil conditions and properties.
Sample results of the application of the validated 3D continuum modeling process will be presented. The strain demand determined from the analyses were compared with calculated CSA-Z662 strain limit design, local FEA analyses and BS 7910. These results are being used to develop generalized trends in pipeline response to slope movements.
Use of Field-Owned Risk Registers as a Means of Improving Employee Awareness of Risk and Operational Safety
Authors: Weichel Megan 
Published: December 2014

As pipeline operators strive for safe and robust operations, the desire for improved risk awareness and operational safety, or process safety, culture continues to grow. The need for improvements related to operational safety has been felt for years throughout the oil and gas industry, but in recent years, it has also come to the forefront of the minds of pipeline operators. While most operators do not “process” anything, the principles of effective operational safety management are being stressed in pipeline incident investigations and communications from regulators.
While many organizations have found ways to improve occupational safety concerns, operational safety has remained overwhelming. It is often easier for an employee to envision the consequence that could result if he or she is splashed with a chemical; however, even an experienced operator may have a hard time imagining how what seems like a minor integrity event could escalate to a major incident.
Two critical building blocks in developing awareness of risk and operational safety are 1) ownership of risks, and 2) the ability to speak one common risk language. By giving field personnel the opportunity to maintain registers of the risks that are important to them, not necessarily the largest risks, both of these building blocks can be developed concurrently.
This paper outlines how the use of field-owned risk registers can help companies of all sizes, heritages, and cultures to improve methods for hazard identification, risk analysis, and risk control. As field personnel learn the language of risk, become familiar with ways to analyze potential consequences, and begin to understand how likely it is that an operational upset or incorrect operation could result in a major incident, personnel who otherwise might not participate in these types of activities begin to take interest. The paper provides insight into how, if implemented correctly, these risk registers can introduce risk management at all levels of the organization and provide a sense of ownership in the field regarding risk and operational safety, while still improving integrity, personal safety, and environmental protection.