bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Contrast Enhancement in Light Microscopy
Authors: Ernst Keller H. , Watkins Simon 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe optical microscope is a fundamental component of an image cytometry system. This unit covers the basic concepts of light microscopy, including Köhler illumination, resolution, contrast, and numerical aperture, and reviews the many types of instruments and techniques for contrast enhancement. Curr. Protoc. Cytom. 63:2.1.1‐2.1.9. © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Traffic Congestion Management
Authors: Rouphail Nagui M. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The present Chapter represents a survey of the impact of traffic congestion management strategies on vehicular emissions and, by extension, on air quality. The study finds that the congestion management programs that are aimed at reducing overall vehicle emissions on a corridor or network generally fall into two classes: (1) those intended to restrict the demand or travel intensity of the transportation system and (2) those aimed at improving the operational performance of the transportation system. Although the literature contains a wealth of information on such effects, there is no general consensus in the transportation and environmental community on which tools are appropriate for what types of analysis, especially those at the corridor and local intersection levels. These models represent the state of the practice for developing emission inventories and control strategies at the regional or state levels, as part of the required state implementation plans (SIP) under the 1990 Federal Clean Air Act. Emerging EPA emission estimation paradigms exemplified by the MOVES model will, in the future, enable the analyst to carry out multiscale level analyses that are sensitive to regional as well as local transportation improvements.
Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement
Authors: Groover Mikell P. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Dimensions are the linear or angular sizes of a component specified on the part drawing. Dimensions are important because they determine how well the components of a product fit together during assembly. The surfaces of a component are also important because they affect product performance, assembly fit, and aesthetic appeal that a potential customer might have for the product. This Chapter summarizes dimensions, tolerances, and surfaces‐three attributes specified by the product designer and determined by the manufacturing processes used to make the parts and products. Surface roughness values produced by the various manufacturing processes have been represented. Various conventional measuring instruments and gages have been discussed comprehensively which are used to evaluate dimensions such as length and diameter, as well as features such as angles, straightness, and roundness.
Force Measurement
Authors: Collins Patrick 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAn overview of force measurement is presented. After a brief historical survey, the principles and fundamental challenges of force measurement are outlined. Examples of commercially available force measurement transducers and techniques are then described in more detail, with emphasis placed on the wire/foil resistor strain gauge. Finally, force transducer calibration and measurement uncertainty is provided. A glossary of terms commonly used in force measurement is included.
Resistive Strain Measurement Devices
Authors: Tuttle Mark 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The measurement of strain is a fundamental necessity in many engineering disciplines and related industries. Methods of measurement can be roughly grouped into two major categories: those based on the behavior of light and those based on electronic devices. The present Chapter discusses strain within the framework of continuum mechanics. The study finds that strain is essentially a description of the deformations that have occurred at a point in a solid body. Many different factors have been noticed that may cause deformation. A normal strain corresponding to an increase in length is called a tensile strain and is algebraically positive. Conversely, a normal strain corresponding to a decrease in length is called a compressive strain and is algebraically negative. The description of the deformation that is the strain, can be rotated from one coordinate system to another using the strain transformation equations. All the practical implications have been discussed comprehensively. Nowadays, the most widely used strain measurement device is certainly the resistance metal strain gage and are based on a phenomenon known as the piezoresistive effect. Various perspectives for the techniques such as Wheatstone bridge and liquid metal strain gages have been discussed comprehensively.
Acoustical Measurements
Authors: Anderson Brian E. , Blotter Jonathan D. , Gee Kent L. , Sommerfeldt Scott D. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
This chapter provides the basics of acoustical measurement equipment and techniques. Standards and methods to measure the three basic acoustic quantities of sound pressure, sound power, and sound intensity are presented. Since microphones are fundamental to acoustic measurements, several types of microphones and their particular uses along with a detailed discussion of various calibration techniques are presented. Methods of fundamental acoustic measurements such as the measurement of sound isolation, room acoustics measurements, community and environmental noise measurements, and sound exposure measurements are also presented.
Temperature Measurement
Authors: Childs Peter R. N. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe requirement to measure temperature arises in process control, production, environmental observation, and laboratory research. The range of techniques available for measuring temperature is extensive. Many phenomena are dependent on temperature and this can be exploited in instrumentation. A given application may permit direct contact between a measuring device or system and the medium of interest. Alternatively remote observation of, for example, infrared radiation or fluorescence may be possible using an optical system. This chapter outlines various forms of invasive, semi‐invasive, and noninvasive temperature measurement devices and systems. In addition, this chapter describes the fundamental definitions of temperature and the issues that need to be considered in determining the temperature of a given medium, be it a solid body, surface, liquid, or gas.
Solar Energy Measurements
Authors: Muneer Tariq , Tham Yieng Wei 
Published: January 2013

AbstractSolar radiation and daylight are essential for life on earth. Solar radiation affects the earth's weather processes that determine the natural environment. Its presence at the earth's surface is necessary for the provision of food for mankind. Thus, it is important to be able to understand the physics of solar radiation and daylight and also to measure the latter with precision and repeatability. The understanding of the climatological study of radiation and collection of relevant data is comparatively new. Until 1960, there were only three stations in North–West Europe with irradiation records exceeding a 25‐year period. Similarly, daylight was not recorded on a continuous basis. Furthermore, until 1991, there were records of vertical irradiance and illuminance for very few locations around the world. However, in response to the call made by Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage (CIE), the year 1991 was declared the International Daylight Measurement Year, and this led to a worldwide effort to measure solar irradiance and illuminance. New calibration standards were thus revised, and quality control procedures for measured data were set in place.This chapter provides a historical review of the relevant research and development of solar metrology, instruments, their calibration and physical sensitivities, and quality control (QC) procedures and brings together all the recent modeling work related to solar irradiance that is much needed for the QC of large measured data sets.
Human Movement Measurements
Authors: Davoodi Rahman 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMaking movements and detecting and interpreting the movement of others are crucial for humans. Technological advancement is constantly providing new opportunities where human movement must be observed and interpreted accurately. The constantly expanding, areas of application for human motion measurement have motivated the development or adoption of a number of measurement technologies including optical, magnetic, and inertial motion measurement systems. These measurement systems have been used successfully in many applications, but they have limitations and their application has faced many challenges that are subjects of continued research. The study also emphasizes that by acquiring raw data about human movement, it is important to consider how the data are analyzed and presented. Depending on the application, the same human motion can be described in varying levels of detail and from different perspective. It has been noticed that none of the existing measurement systems satisfy all of the requirements, but they offer range of possibilities that must be carefully considered for a specific application.
Statistical Quality Control
Authors: Zohdi Magd E. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The present Chapter focuses on metric and English measuring systems used throughout the world. The metric system is universally used in most scientific applications, but it has some limitations. Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted in the part or the total variation allowed in a given dimension. Dimensions given close tolerances mean that the part must fit properly with some other part. Both must be given tolerances in keeping with the allowance desired, the manufacturing processes available, and the minimum cost of production and assembly that will maximize profit. The study represents all relevant steps of quality control that enable to sample the parts being produced in a mathematical manner and to determine whether the entire stream of production is acceptable, provided that the company is willing to allow up to a certain known number of defective parts. Statistical theory also gives the expected relationship among the control limits, the capability limits, and assumed tolerance limits for a machine that is capable of producing the product with this specified tolerance. The interrelationship of tolerances of assembled products and control charts for attributes have been discussed comprehensively. Various plans from defense department have been discussed which are based on the acceptance quality level concept.
Organizational Performance Measurement
Authors: Farris Jennifer A. , Van Aken, Eileen M. , Letens Geert 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe goal of this Chapter is to provide an overview of the purpose and content of PM systems, as well as to provide high‐level guidelines for their design, implementation, and use. Several types of organizational functions are supported through the PDSA cycle of decision‐making using the PM system. All the key components of a performance measurement system have been discussed comprehensively. The improvement system assessment tool (ISAT) has been found to be useful in guiding organizations through the process of auditing their PM systems to identify strengths and opportunities for improvement.
Tribology Measurements
Authors: Sahoo Prasanta 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related subjects and practices. Tribological studies are categorized into two groups: fundamental research for understanding of basic mechanisms of friction and wear; applied research for resolving specific industrial friction, and wear issues including lubrication. Surface coatings and treatments are provided to monitor friction and to control wear. The most effective way of friction and wear control is by using proper lubricants. Tribological measurements mainly include surface roughness, friction, wear, test environment, material characteristics, and lubricant characteristics. Wear particle analysis and industrial measurements also play an important role.
Surface Properties Measurement
Authors: Mulukutla Mrinalini , Harimkar Sandip P. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn the past few decades, significant efforts were directed toward development of surface engineering approaches for the economical processing of materials with enhanced appearance, improved performance/extended life in aggressive environment, and wider range of applicability. As a result, the number of surface engineered materials being used for varied applications has increased rapidly emphasizing the need for better means for the characterization of the surface properties of such materials. With the recent progress in surface characterization techniques, it is now possible to measure a range of surface properties (topography, microstructure, mechanical properties, and electrochemical behavior) at various length scales. In this chapter, surface properties of materials, their measurements methods, and various available standards for a broad range of materials are summarized. The topics presented in this chapter will be useful to materials engineers, quality engineers, and scientists working on characterization/measurement of surface properties.
Selection of Metals for Structural Design
Authors: Donachie Matthew J. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMetals are a unique class of elements that provide special properties that are not available in naturally occurring materials. The objective of this chapter is to create a sufficient knowledge of alloys so that selection of them for specific designs will be appropriate. The primary intent will be to cover alloy selection for structural purpose that is, where the alloy must support its weight and, probably, the additional loads of a design. The study also provides sufficient information for the selector to work with designers to create successful components as well as to evaluate the capability of alloy providers and manufacturers to meet the required end uses of the design. Further mechanical, physical, and environmental property behavior that can influence alloy selection have also been described.
Bridge Transducers
Authors: Walter Patrick L. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Bridge transducers depend on a measurand to directly modify some electrical or magnetic property of a conductive element. For example, the thermal coefficient of impedance can result in a change in impedance of a conductive element proportional to temperature. Most bridge transducers, however, depend on the displacement of a flexure to vary the impedance of a conductive element, resulting in an electrical signal proportional to the measurand. Advantage is taken of either the strain pattern on the surface of the flexure or the motion of this surface. Among the gamut of flexure elements associated with bridge transducers are cantilever beams, Bourdon tubes, and clamped diaphragms. Strain gages are used to measure the strain pattern on the surface of the flexure in bridge transducers. It has been noticed that small strains result in small impedance changes in resistive strain gage elements. Electromechanical transducers use a Wheatstone bridge circuit to detect a small change in impedance to a high degree of accuracy. The resistance bridge balance methods have been discussed and it has been found that there are two main types of zero balancing methods which are those that manipulate one arm of a transducer bridge to bring its output to the desired condition and those that manipulate two adjacent arms of the transducer bridge. To obtain measurements of the highest possible quality, one must accurately and carefully calibrate the entire measurement system and various methods such as static calibration, dynamic calibration, and electrical substitution techniques have been illustrated. Finally, all the relevant aspects of resistance bridge transducer measurement system and AC impedance bridge transducers have been summarized comprehensively.
Measurements
Authors: Hixson E. L. , Ripperger E. A. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractMeasurement is the process by which a quantitative comparison is made between a standard and a measurand. The four independent standards that have been defined are length, time, mass, and temperature. Interlaboratory standards in factories and laboratories are sent to NIST for comparison with the working standards. These interlaboratory standards are the ones usually available to engineers. Standards for the other three basic quantities have also been adopted by NIST, and accurate measuring devices for those quantities should be calibrated against those standards. The concepts of impedance and error analysis have also been described comprehensively with relevant examples.
Microwave‐Promoted Copper‐Free Sonogashira–Hagihara Couplings of Aryl Imidazolylsulfonates in Water
Authors: Cívicos José F. , Alonso Diego A. , Nájera Carmen 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAryl imidazol‐1‐ylsulfonates have been efficiently cross‐coupled with aryl‐, alkyl‐, and silylacetylenes in neat water under copper‐free conditions at 110 °C assisted by microwave irradiation. Using 0.5 mol% of an oxime palladacycle as precatalyst, 2‐dicyclohexylphosphino‐2′,6′‐dimethoxybiphenyl (SPhos, 2 mol%) as ligand, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) as additive, and triethylamine (TEA) as base, a wide array of disubstituted alkynes has been prepared in good to high yields in only 30 min.
Synthesis and evaluation of two new FI‐Ti catalysts for living polymerization of ethylene
Authors: Guo Song , Jie Suyun , Fan Hong , Weng Jianxiu , Liu Weifeng , Li Bo‐Geng 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTwo new FI complexes, bis[N‐(3‐allylsalicylidene)‐pentafluoroanilinato]titanium(IV) dichloride (AFI) and bis[N‐(3‐propylsalicylidene)‐pentafluoroanilinato]titanium(IV) dichloride (PFI) were designed and synthesized as catalysts for living polymerization of ethylene. The two complexes were characterized by elemental analysis, spectroscopy and X‐ray single diffraction. The catalysts were evaluated in ethylene polymerization under atmospheric pressure. It was found that both catalysts exhibited high activity and good livingness. The effects of temperature and dMAO/Ti molar ratio on the polymerization behavior of AFI were studied in detail. Elevating temperature increased self‐immobilization of the AFI catalyst, which broadened the polymer molecular weight distribution. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
The preparation and crystallization of long chain branching polylactide made by melt radicals reaction
Authors: You Jinxiu , Lou Lijuan , Yu Wei , Zhou Chixing 
Published: January 2013

AbstractLong chain branching (LCB) of polylactic acid (PLA) was successfully prepared by melt radicals reaction with pentaerythritol triacrylate (PETA) and bis (1‐methyl‐1‐phenylethyl) peroxide (DCP). The topological structure of the LCB was investigated by rheology and branch‐on‐branch (BOB) model was used to estimate the exact chain structures of the products, where comb‐like LCB structures were generated due to the complex coupling between different macro‐radicals. LCB structure was found to affect the crystallization of PLA products. In the temperature range of 110–130°C, the crystallization rate parameter (k) was improved sharply and the half crystallization time was decreased significantly after the grafting of PETA, which was ascribed to the enhanced hydrogen bonding in PETA‐grafted long chain branching PLA. By comparing with the LCB PLA made from chain extension using multifunctional monomer, it shows that the crystallization becomes slower in a highly branched material with extremely long relaxation time if the effect of hydrogen bonding is similar. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Elaboration and thermal analysis of nanocomposites based on poly(methyl methacrylate‐co‐4‐vinylpyridine) and Maghnia bentonite
Authors: Ouaad Kamal , Djadoun Saïd 
Published: January 2013

AbstractNanocomposites based on an organically modified bentonite, from Maghnia Algeria (OBT) and a copolymer of methyl methacrylate with 4‐vinylpyridine (PMM4VP) synthesized in dioxan at room temperature using a neutral Ni(II)α‐benzoinoxime complex as a single component initiator, were elaborated via solution intercalation method and characterized by several techniques. X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy investigations indicate that mainly exfoliated and intercalated PMM4VP/OBT nanocomposites were elaborated and that the degree of exfoliation decreases with an increase of the OBT loading. Thermal analyses of these nanocomposites compared with their virgin copolymer confirmed a significant improvement of their thermal stability as evidenced by an increase of 28°C in their onset degradation temperatures. In addition, differential scanning calorimetry displayed an increase in the range of 12–18°C in their glass transition temperatures relative to their virgin copolymer. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Attention‐dependent modulation of neural activity in primary sensorimotor cortex
Authors: Milnik Annette , Nowak Isabella , Müller Notger G. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAlthough motor tasks at most times do not require much attention, there are findings that attention can alter neuronal activity not only in higher motor areas but also within the primary sensorimotor cortex. However, these findings are equivocal as attention effects were investigated only in either the dominant or the nondominant hand; attention was operationalized either as concentration (i.e., attention directed to motor task) or as distraction (i.e., attention directed away from motor task), the complexity of motor tasks varied and almost no left‐handers were studied. Therefore, in this study, both right‐ and left‐handers were investigated with an externally paced button press task in which subjects typed with the index finger of the dominant, nondominant, or both hands. We introduced four different attention levels: attention‐modulation‐free, distraction (counting backward), concentration on the moving finger, and divided concentration during bimanual movement. We found that distraction reduced neuronal activity in both contra‐ and ipsilateral primary sensorimotor cortex when the nondominant hand was tapping in both handedness groups. At the same time, distraction activated the dorsal frontoparietal attention network and deactivated the ventral default network. We conclude that difficulty and training status of both the motor and cognitive task, as well as usage of the dominant versus the nondominant hand, are crucial for the presence and magnitude of attention effects on sensorimotor cortex activity. In the case of a very simple button press task, attention modulation is seen for the nondominant hand under distraction and in both handedness groups.
Expanding the Genetic Code in Xenopus laevis Oocytes
Authors: Ye Shixin , Riou Morgane , Carvalho Stéphanie , Paoletti Pierre 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHeterologous expression of ligand‐gated ion channels (LGICs) in Xenopus laevis oocytes combined with site‐directed mutagenesis has been demonstrated to be a powerful approach to study structure–function relationships. In particular, introducing unnatural amino acids (UAAs) has enabled modifications that are not found in natural proteins. However, the current strategy relies on the technically demanding in vitro synthesis of aminoacylated suppressor tRNA. We report here a general method that circumvents this limitation by utilizing orthogonal aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetase (aaRS)/suppressor tRNACUA pairs to genetically encode UAAs in Xenopus oocytes. We show that UAAs inserted in the N‐terminal domain of N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate receptors (NMDARs) serve as photo‐crosslinkers that lock the receptor in a discrete conformational state in response to UV photo treatment. Our method should be generally applicable to studies of other LGICs in Xenopus oocytes.