bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
SIMULTANEOUS FACTOR ANALYSIS IN SEVERAL POPULATIONS*
Authors: Jöreskog K. G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper is concerned with the study of similarities and differences in factor structures between different groups. A common situation is when a battery of tests has been administered to samples of examinees from several populations.A very general model is presented, in which any parameter in the factor analysis models (factor loadings, factor variances, factor covariances, and unique variances) for the different groups may be assigned an arbitrary value or constrained to be equal to some other parameter. Given such a specification, the model is estimated by the maximum likelihood method yielding a large sample χ2 of goodness of fit. By computing several solutions under different specifications one can test various hypotheses.The method is capable of dealing with any degree of invariance, from the one extreme, where nothing is invariant, to the other extreme, where everything is invariant. Neither the number of tests nor the number of common factors need to be the same for all groups, but to be at all interesting, it is assumed that there is a common core of tests in each battery that is the same or at least content‐wise comparable.
DATA TRANSFORMATION IN TWO‐WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Authors: Schlesselman James J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTOne purpose of data transformation is to better satisfy the fundamental assumptions of statistical analysis by linear models: (a) additivity, (b) homogeneity of variance, and (c) normality. If the original data do not satisfy (a)‐(c), a nonlinear transformation may improve approximation to these ideal conditions.This paper considers estimation of the parameter λ of the family of power transformationsfor data conforming to a replicated two‐way crossed classification. The transformation family y(λ)defined bythough having the advantage of being continuous through λ = 0, is shown to yield likelihood procedures which are scale invariant only if the design matrix allows for removal of an additive constant. Several alternative definitions for (ii) are given which yield both scale invariant likelihood procedures and continuity through λ = 0. By using (ii) in the case of a linear regression through the origin, numerical examples show how point estimates of λ can be shifted and how confidence intervals on λ can be shrunk and stretched almost arbitrarily, simply by rescaling the original observations.Two procedures for choosing a transformation for data from a replicated two‐way crossed classification are compared by empirical sampling. The statistic Lmax(λ), proposed by Box and Cox (1964), is based upon the likelihood of the transformed observations. The statistic Z(λ), proposed in this paper, is a linear combination of test statistics for removable nonadditivity and variance trending with mean. The null distribution of Z(λ) is approximately N(0,l).Two cases of empirical sampling from a 3 × 4 crossed classification with four replications were studied. In samples from the truncated Gaussian distribution, the coefficient of variation was roughly 0.23. In samples from the truncated Cauchy distribution, the coefficient of variation was roughly 0.91. The points of truncation depended upon the cell population means. The scale for the Cauchy distribution with location 0 was chosen so that the 95% points matched those of N(0,l).In Gaussian Samples:The 5% test based on Lmax(λ) was extremely conservative, the actual size being more like 0.3%.The estimated size of the nominal 5% test based on Z(λ) was 4.4%In Cauchy Samples:The 5% test based on Lmax(λ) was very non‐conservative. The estimated size was 15%.The estimated size of the nominal 5% test based on Z(λ) was 5.6%.A procedure for choosing a weighting for the components of Z(λ) based upon the sample data is also derived and investigated. Sampling shows that it works well for the two cases studied. This procedure should also work well in practice.
A CLASS OF TESTS FOR MULTIVARIATE NORMALITY BASED ON LINEAR FUNCTIONS OF ORDER STATISTICS
Authors: Aitkin Murray A. 
Published: August 2014

SUMMARYA class of tests for normality using the ratio of two estimates of the Standard deviation is generalized to provide a class of tests for multivariate normality using a characterization of the multivariate normal. The powers of some of the tests are examined numerically and compared with the power of a recent similar test.
RANGE RESTRICTION ASSUMPTIONS ASSUMING QUADRATIC CONDITIONAL VARIANCES
Authors: Boldt Robert F. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper is concerned with range restriction corrections where (a) the regressions of variables subject to selection on explicit selection variables are linear, and (b) the variance‐covariance matrix of errors of prediction is a quadratic function of the regression estimates. Assumption (b) seems warranted in some data and replaces the homoscedasticity assumption often used in range restriction problems. Computations for range restriction corrections which use assumption (b) are presented. These computations also apply when homoscedasticity applies.
THE VALIDITY OF A MEASURE OF “ACADEMIC MOTIVATION” FOR FORECASTING FRESHMAN ACHIEVEMENT AT SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES1
Authors: Wilson Kenneth M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSeven liberal arts colleges participated in exploratory studies designed to determine the predictive value vis‐à‐vis freshman grades of scores from a 208‐item, self‐report inventory (the Personal Values Inventory or PVI), developed by George E. Schlesser and John A. Finger to yield scores that are relatively independent of traditional measures of scholastic aptitude but at the same time related to academic performance in schools and colleges.Scores from several PVI scales, particularly that labelled Persistence, were moderately correlated with Freshman Average Grade in every college. The PVI scale‐scores studied were relatively independent of SAT scores.Predictions of Freshman Average Grade based on a battery which included PVI scale‐scores along with four academic predictors (SAT‐V, SAT‐M, class rank, and the average of CEEB Achievement scores) were more closely related to Freshman Grades than predictions based only on the four academic predictors.
CHILDREN'S ATTENTION TO STIMULUS COMPONENTS WITH VARIATION IN RELATIVE SALIENCE OF COMPONENTS AND DEGREE OF STIMULUS INTEGRATION1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Green Roberta Z. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA total of 400 children at ages 5, 9 and 12 years were given a component selection task with stimuli varying in both color and shape. Component salience was manipulated (across subjects) in two steps, in an effort to redirect attention from the normally dominant shape component toward color: the standard shapes and colors from earlier studies were compared with standard shapes in fluorescent colors, and the latter materials in turn were compared with nonsense shapes in fluorescent colors. For each salience condition, the color was either contained within the shape (integrated stimuli) or served as a background for the shape (nonintegrated stimuli). While fluorescence of color had little effect, the replacement of standard geometric forms with nonsense figures caused a shift in attention toward color and away from shape. This attentional shift became more marked between ages 5 and 9 years; with age, children apparently withdraw attention from the normally dominant feature to an increasing degree, while they adopt another component as the primary cue for stimulus identification. Integration of components did not influence the pattern of salience effects but generally increased attention to color. Comparison of the component selection task with a dimension‐preference matching test showed that only the former measure was sensitive to the effects of component salience on attention.
FLEXIBILITY OF CHILDREN'S ATTENTION: INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING DEPLOYMENT OF ATTENTION IN A COMPONENT SELECTION TASK1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Taweel Suzanne S. , Green Roberta Z. , Flaugher Jan 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe effects of instructions on children's component selection were examined in three experiments. In Experiment 1, 5‐ and 8‐year‐old children were given: (a) instructions to attend to the dominant stimulus component (shape), (b) instructions to attend to the nondominant or secondary feature (color), or (c) no instructions regarding the components of the stimuli. Both age groups showed an ability to vary their attention to the secondary feature in accord with the instructions. However, the 8‐year‐olds showed greater flexibility in that they employed a type of attentional trading–withdrawing attention from the dominant shape component in exchange for increased attention to color. Experiment 2 replicated conditions (b) and (c) above with 5‐, 9‐ and 12‐year‐olds and also included a condition requiring attention to both stimulus components. Again, only children beyond age 5 tended to withdraw attention from the dominant shape component as they increased attention to color. Instructions to attend to both features proved relatively unsuccessful with 5‐ and 9‐year‐olds and were accommodated with only moderate success by 12‐year‐olds. In Experiment 3 the latter instructions, applied to stimuli with spatially separated components, were accommodated quite successfully by 9‐year‐olds, although not by 6‐year‐olds. Active attention to two components is apparently within the capabilities of 9‐year‐old children when the components are spatially separated and can readily be viewed as independent entities. However, purposeful attention to two integrated features is believed to require additional analytic abilities which do not develop until a later age.
INFANTS' SOCIAL RESPONSES TO SOCIAL EVENTS
Authors: Brooks Jeanne , Lewis Michael 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTInfants respond differentially, and at times with fear‐like behavior, to unfamiliar persons. This study was designed to see how infants discriminate among strangers. Since it has been shown that infants respond differently to children and adults, the physical characteristics of persons used to make such differentiations were of interest. Facial configuration and height were systematically varied as five different strangers–a male and a female child, a male and a female adult, and a small adult female the same height as the children (midget)–each approached 40 different infants. The infants responded as if there were three classes of persons–adults, children, and small adults. Infants as young as seven months of age reacted to the size‐facial configuration discrepancy of the small adult condition.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN CHILD SPEECH: McCARTHY REVISITED
Authors: Cherry Louise J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper critically reviews empirical studies of sex differences in preschool children's spontaneous speech at the levels of phonology, syntax/grammar, semantics, and conversational usage. A discussion of McCarthy's 1930 study includes consideration of methodological issues of data collection and analysis as well as the results of the study. It is suggested that further research include longitudinal study of the stability of early sex‐typed vocalization/verbalization patterns in infants and study of the relationship of sex role learning to sex‐differentiated communicative behaviors.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION IN CROSS‐CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Witkin H. A. , Berry J. W. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTCross‐cultural studies of psychological differentiation are reviewed with the objectives of: examining the applicability, across cultures, of the main propositions of differentiation theory and the generality of its intracultural supporting data; identifying extensions of the theory, and of its empirical base, suggested by the cross‐cultural findings; and delineating problems in the existing data and useful lines of further cross‐cultural inquiry. The evidence on self‐consistency, age changes and stability indicates that these aspects of differentiation show patterns in other cultures essentially similar to those observed in the original American studies. Numerous cross‐cultural studies have sought the sources of individual and group differences in differentiation in family practices, in cultural influences and in ecological pressures. The evidence from these studies suggests that less differentiated functioning, including a more field‐dependent perceptual mode, is associated with insistence upon adherence to adult authority, female salience and the absence of strong male role models in the family; “tight” organization and stress upon conformity in society; and sedentary agricultural and pastoral ecological settings. In contrast, more differentiated functioning, including relative field independence, are associated with encouragement of autonomy in the family, “loose” social structure and mobile hunting ecological settings. The small sex differences in field‐dependence‐independence, beginning in adolescence, repeatedly observed in Western studies are not universally evident in the non‐Western data. Sex differences appear to be common in samples at the sedentary agricultural end of the ecological spectrum and less evident in mobile hunting samples. Sex differences also seem to be more prevalent in “tight” than in “loose” social settings.
CHILDREN'S INCIDENTAL LEARNING WITH VARIATION IN AMOUNT OF STIMULUS EXPOSURE AND METHOD OF ASSESSMENT1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Alderman Linda B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTChildren aged 9 and 12 years performed a task requiring attention to the “relevant” component of two‐component stimuli, after which they were given a test measuring either of two types of incidental learning: (a) recognition of the other, “incidental” component of each stimulus, or (b) association between the incidental and relevant components. In each of two experiments the principal variables were: (a) exposure time per trial of the initial, or central task (6 vs. 12 seconds), and (b) number of trials of the central task (8 vs. 16). Doubling the exposure time per trial improved central task performance to a greater degree at age 12 than age 9 but increased incidental learning only at age 9. Adolescents apparently redirect their attention from incidental to relevant stimulus information during the period of stimulus inspection on each trial. Doubling the number of trials, however, had little overall effect at either age level, indicating no developmental difference in the way children alter their manner of attention deployment across trials. Recognition and association measures of incidental learning did not produce markedly different patterns of results. A 4‐minute filled interval prior to the recognition test in Experiment 1 had little effect on the recognition scores.
THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF SCHOOLING AND READING COMPETENCE
Authors: Young Kan‐Hua , Jamison Dean T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this paper is to ascertain what economic benefits would accrue to compensatory education programs that were effective in raising the schooling and literacy levels of individuals after they left school. To do this we use a generalized earnings function format to examine the effects of schooling and literacy on individual earnings. The literacy measure was obtained for a 1972 probability sample of the U.S. population, and was administered with a background questionnaire.Empirical results were first obtained from simple earnings functions. These results were compared with results obtained from a more elaborate conceptual framework incorporating a labor market model and an educational achievement model. The results of the models based on this more refined framework were then used to evaluate the economic benefits of schooling and compensatory reading education in terms of both annual earnings and discounted lifetime earnings. Methodologically, in both labor market and educational achievement analyses, both recursive and simultaneous models have been examined. However, in both situations, problems of identification were encountered in implementing the simultaneous equation approach, and our final results are based on recursive models that appear to provide reasonable results.
A FREE‐RESPONSE DESCRIPTION APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF PERSON‐SITUATION INTERACTION12
Authors: Pervin Lawrence A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA report on the utilization of a free‐response description approach to address the following question: In what ways does an individual remain stable and in what ways vary as a function of which situational characteristics? Each of four subjects generated a list of situations in his current life which he then rated on lists of situation traits, feelings, and behaviors which also were generated by the individual subject. For each subject the data were factor analyzed to determine groups of situations which were distinctive in terms of the feelings and behaviors associated with them. It was suggested that the personality of each individual could be understood in terms of the pattern of stability and change, in feelings and behaviors, in relation to defined groups of situations. It was also suggested that the approach utilized might serve as the basis for the future development of a taxonomy of situations and behaviors in situations.
THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS ON STUDENT RATINGS OF INSTRUCTION
Authors: Centra John A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTDo students evaluate instruction differently depending on their understanding of the intended use of the results? Rating theory and results from related research led to the prediction that ratings would be more lenient when students were informed that the results would be used for tenure, salary, or promotion purposes, than when told that the results would be used only by the instructor for improvement. Data were collected in 16 classes in spring 1974, and from 25 classes the following fall semester. Every other student in each class received alternate directions. In general, the differences due to the different directions were not especially large or consistent.
GROUP COMPARISONS FOR THE TEST OF STANDARD WRITTEN ENGLISH
Authors: Breland Hunter M. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTGroup comparisons for male, female, majority, and minority students were conducted for the Test of Standard Written English (TSWE). Data for two academic years and from 18 different institutions were analyzed by pooling data across institutions within each of the academic years. Analyses of data from the first academic year focused on relationships between TSWE scores and grades. Analyses of the second academic year focused on relationships between TSWE scores and scores on graded writing samples. No important group differences in traditional correlational analyses for either grade or essay prediction were observed. No important group differences were observed in either correlational analyses or regression analyses of the second year essay data. Analyses of correct and incorrect placement decisions (hits and misses) at specific TSWE cut‐off scores revealed no noteworthy group differences whether outcomes were based on English course grades or on freshman year writing performance. Whether grades or essays were used as the outcome, the proportion of incorrect decisions (misses) was less for minority students than for any of the groups. For all groups, the TSWE appeared to predict freshman year writing performance as well as or better than pre‐course writing samples, high school English grades, or high school rank in class.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION: CURRENT STATUS
Authors: Witkin Herman A. , Goodenough Donald R. , Oltman Philip K. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe status of the differentiation hypothesis, derived from differentiation theory, is examined in light of the evidence that has accumulated since the hypothesis was proposed a decade and a half ago. Assuming that greater or less differentiation is an organismic attribute, the hypothesis postulates that behaviors reflecting extent of differentiation are likely to be interrelated, making for self‐consistency in individual functioning across domains. The newer evidence has on the whole confirmed the linkages among the behaviors examined in the earlier research that was done to test the differentiation hypothesis. The differentiation hypothesis has also proven useful in generating predictions about linkages to behaviors in new domains (cognitive restructuring, interpersonal competencies and cerebral lateralization); these predictions have been tested and generally confirmed. The differentiation construct appears able to account for phenomena that cannot be accommodated by other lower‐order constructs, such as field dependence‐independence. On all these grounds the differentiation construct continues to serve a useful function. Whereas the differentiation hypothesis has dealt only with the interrelatedness among components of a cluster of behaviors subsumed under differentiation, the newer evidence carries suggestions for a hierarchical ordering of these components and for the nature of causal connections among them.
AN EXPLORATION OF SPEAKING PROFICIENCY MEASURES IN THE TOEFL CONTEXT
Authors: Clark John L. D. , Swinton Spencer S. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis report describes a three‐year study involving the initial development and experimental administration of a variety of test formats and item types aimed at measuring the English speaking proficiency of TOEFL candidates or other non‐native speakers of English on a direct basis, i.e., through the evaluation of actual speech production on the part of the examinee.Although practical constraints of the TOEFL program ruled out of consideration, for operational purposes, face‐to‐face testing procedures of the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) type, a variety of “semi‐direct” testing formats (involving test stimuli delivered by tape recording and accompanying booklet, with examinee speech tape recorded for evaluation) were developed as part of the study. These were administered to undergraduate and graduate level non‐native English speaking students on a small‐scale clinical basis and, following revisions, to a fairly large (N = 155) examinee group. An FSI‐type interview was also administered to all study participants as an external criterion measure of speaking proficiency.Correlational and scalar analyses were used to identify subsets of item formats and individual items having satisfactory correlations with the FSI criterion interview and also meeting relevant linguistic and administrative requirements. These were grouped into a prototype “Test of Spoken English” (TSE) that was found to increase predictability of total FSI variance by approximately 8% when added to score data provided by the regular (paper‐and‐pencil) TOEFL. Further modifications in TSE content and follow‐up administration with larger and more heterogeneous candidate groups are expected to increase this value.Two additional related studies are currently under way, involving pilot test administration at regular TOEFL sites and use‐validation of the TSE as a measure of the “classroom communication” effectiveness of non‐native English speaking teaching assistants in U.S. academic settings.