bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prediction of Interfacial Tensions between Demixed Ternary Mixtures
Authors: Grunert Tommy , Rudolph Hendryk , Enders Sabine 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The interfacial tension between demixed liquids has a large impact on the mass transfer over the phase boundary. In this paper a special version of the density-gradient theory for ternary systems, where the grand thermodynamic potential is calculated using the Koningsveld–Kleintjens model, is suggested. This approach allows the prediction of the interfacial tensions of practical important ternary systems based on information of the binary subsystems. In order to verify this idea two ternary systems showing only one miscibility gap, namely water + butan-1-ol + ethanol and water + acetone + toluene, were selected. The predicted interfacial tensions were very close to the experimental data taken from the literature and to own experimental data obtained by spinning drop measurements. Both systems differ in the enrichment behavior. Whereas ethanol will be enriched in the interface to a small amount, the enrichment of acetone is much more pronounced.
Predator release from invertebrate generalists does not explain geometrid moth (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) outbreaks at high altitudes
Authors: Schott Tino , Kapari Lauri , Hagen Snorre B. , Vindstad Ole Petter L. , Jepsen Jane U. , Ims Rolf A. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractOutbreaks of geometrid defoliators in subarctic birch forest in Fennoscandia often occur at high altitude in a distinct zone along the tree line. At the same time, moth larvae may not have an impact on the forest at lower altitude. Directly adjacent outbreak and nonoutbreak areas offer unique opportunities for studying the underlying mechanisms of outbreaks. Within two altitudinal gradients in coastal northern Norway, we investigated whether altitudinal outbreaks might be caused by release from pupal predation by ground-dwelling invertebrates such as harvestmen (Opiliones), spiders (Araneae), rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae), carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae), and other beetles (Coleoptera). We predicted a consistently higher abundance of such generalist predators at low versus high altitudes. Our results did not support this prediction. There was no consistent altitudinal variation in the abundance of predators that could be related to zonal moth outbreaks in the birch forest slopes. In addition, none of the predator groups investigated showed any numerical response to a distinct outbreak of winter moth that took place during the course of the study. Consequently, localised moth outbreaks at the altitudinal tree line in northern Norway cannot be explained by the release from pupal predation by the predator groups examined here.
Phenomenology, Moral
Authors: Kriegel Uriah 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

In the philosophy of mind, the study of mental life has tended to focus on three central aspects of mental states: their representational content, their functional role, and their phenomenal character. The representational content of a mental state is what the state represents, what it is about; its functional role is the role it plays within the functional organization of the subject's overall psychology; its phenomenal character is the experiential or subjective quality that goes with what it is like, from the inside, to be in it. The study of this third aspect of mental life is known as
phenomenology
. Thus, moral phenomenology is the study of the experiential dimension of our moral inner life – of the phenomenal character of moral mental states.
Species, the Value of
Authors: Rolston Holmes 
Published: January 2013

AbstractWhen animals, birds, and plants vanish from the landscape, this raises public concern. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, reporting a multinational consensus of hundreds of experts, concluded: “Over the past few hundred years, humans have increased species extinction rates by as much as 1,000 times background rates that were typical over Earth's history” (2005a: 3). The US Congress, deploring the lack of “adequate concern [for] and conservation [of]” species, passed the Endangered Species Act (1973: §2(a)(1) ). A quite effective international convention from the same year is CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; CITES 1973). Loss of species seems intuitively bad, but why? What values are attached to species?
Plea Bargaining
Authors: Lippke Richard L. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Plea bargaining is the name given to the negotiated settlement of criminal charges (
see
Criminal Law). In countries such as the United States, it is the dominant procedure for resolving such charges, with upwards of 90 percent of cases adjudicated in this fashion (
see
Criminal Justice Ethics). In plea bargaining, criminal defendants agree to waive their legal right to a trial for leniency from prosecutors or the courts. This leniency takes various forms, but usually consists in sentence or charge reductions which lessen the overall amount of punishment (
see
Punishment) assigned to defendants who plead guilty. Defendants are also rewarded with charge or sentence discounts for cooperating with the authorities in testifying or otherwise providing evidence against their criminal cohorts.
Ethics of Belief
Authors: McCormick Miriam 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe broad question asked under the heading “Ethics of Belief” is: What ought one believe? An ethics of belief attempts to uncover the norms that guide belief formation and maintenance. The dominant view among contemporary philosophers is that evidential norms do; I should always follow my evidence and only believe when the evidence is sufficient to support my belief. This view is called “evidentialism,” although, as we shall see, this term gets applied to a number of views that can be distinguished from one another. Evidentialists often cite David Hume (1999: 110) as their historic exemplar who said “a wise man … proportions his beliefs to the evidence” and thus argued against the reasonableness of believing in miracles (seeHume, David; Wisdom). Those who argue that there can be good practical reasons for believing, independent of one's evidence, can turn for inspiration to Blaise Pascal (1966: 124), who argued that the best reason to form a belief in God was a practical one, namely the possibility of avoiding eternal suffering (seeReasons; Reasons for Action, Morality and; Faith).
Personhood, Criteria of
Authors: Shoemaker David 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn modern philosophy, the concept of personhood is thoroughly moralized. Specifically, the term “person” has been taken to refer to entities with either certain moral capacities or a certain moral status. Consequently, investigation into the nature of the concept has been motivated and informed by interest in a wide variety of moral issues, including moral responsibility, the nature of moral obligation and value, freedom of the will (seefree will), abortion (seeabortion), animal rights (seeanimal rights), and advance directives (seeadvance directives). Given this variety of motivations, it is unsurprising that a number of different criteria of personhood have emerged. What follows is a selective survey and discussion of them.
Hutcheson, Francis
Authors: Dorsey Dale 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFrancis Hutcheson (1694–1746) was an important sentimentalist moral philosopher and a central figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. That he was such a major figure is due mostly to his influence on other notable Scottish thinkers of the time: David Hume (with whom he corresponded;seeHume, David), Adam Smith (for whom he served as teacher;seeSmith, Adam), and Thomas Reid (for whom Hutcheson's writings were a central inspiration;seeReid, Thomas). Though his family was Scottish, Hutcheson was Nortzhern Irish by birth, and did not take up a position in Scotland (at the University of Glasgow) until 1730, only after his most important works,Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue(1725) and hisEssay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections, with Illustrations on the Moral Sense(1728), had seen the light of day. A third major work,A System of Moral Philosophy, was never completed during Hutcheson's lifetime, and was published posthumously in 1755.
Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: Altman Andrew 
Published: January 2013

AbstractUnder international law, the term “crimes against humanity” refers to certain heinous wrongs perpetrated as part of a widespread or systematic attack on a civilian population (seeInternational Criminal Justice). The wrongs include murder, enslavement, torture, rape, forcible transfer, persecution aimed at certain kinds of groups, and “other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health” (Rome Statute2002: Art. 7).
Wang Yangming
Authors: Ivanhoe Philip J. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractWang Yangming (1472–1529) is best known for his teachings regarding the nature of the self, moral action, and self‐cultivation. In order to understand his views on these ethical matters, one needs to understand a bit about his metaphysical beliefs, which for the most part were shared by all neo‐Confucian thinkers.
Fact–Value Distinction
Authors: Elgin Catherine Z. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe fact–value distinction is grounded in an apparent contrast. Facts constitute reality. They are what they are regardless of what anyone thinks about them or wants them to be. Our relation to facts is cognitive: Judgments of fact are objective; they both can and should be responsive to reasons. Values are considerations that bear on choiceworthiness. They are personal. Our relation to them is conative: They directly inform the will. Together, judgments about facts and assessments of value rationalize action. Because Jim wants a drink and believes that the glass contains water, he drinks from the glass. His wanting consists in his considering the slaking of his thirst valuable; his belief concerns what will in fact slake his thirst. His action would be irrational if the two factors did not work together.
Usury
Authors: Sandberg Joakim 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Usury originally and simply meant the practice of charging interest on loans. This practice was forcefully condemned and generally banned in both Ancient and Medieval times. Indeed, prohibitions against interest can be found in the traditions of all the major religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity – compare, for instance, the commandments of the Hindu lawmaker Vasishtha, and the biblical story of how Jesus cast the moneylenders out of the temple (Matthew 21:12). As interest started to become socially acceptable, however, usury came to mean the charging of (legally or morally) excessive or exorbitant rates of interest, and this is also how it is commonly used today. Thus, although many people now may regard as usurious so‐called payday loans – which sometimes come with up to 1,000 percent interest – we do not generally regard as usurious the normal bank practice of charging for loans at regulated interest rates. Modern Islam still contains a general prohibition against interest, however, and many countries still have at least partial usury laws – most often setting an upper limit on acceptable interest rates.
Torture
Authors: Bufacchi Vittorio 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe idea of “torture” plays a strategic role in our ethical reasoning, being often identified as the limit case of savage human behavior, unspeakable agony, and even political injustice. That torture holds this place in our collective imagination finds affirmation in the everyday use of the term “torture” as a figure of speech, when certain personal experiences are too readily labelled as a form of torture, as in the case of a visit to the dentist or a university exam. Less figuratively, the term “torture” can be used to bestow the most intransigent condemnation of a certain act – for example, when (rightly or wrongly) rape is equated to torture (McGlynn 2008;seeRape).
Victimless Crimes
Authors: Bergelson Vera 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe term “victimless crime” refers to behavior that is proscribed by law but does not violate the rights of any particular person. The term is used mainly in Anglo‐American political and criminal justice literature and is of fairly recent origin. It entered the academic and public discourse in the 1950s, with the birth of victimology, a branch of criminology focusing on the victims and the interaction between victims and perpetrators.
Religion, Freedom of
Authors: Trigg Roger 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Religious freedom is part of the more general issue of the role of human freedom, with the latter as the absolute precondition of morality. Without it, genuine moral responsibility seems impossible. In the eighteenth‐century Enlightenment, the idea of the importance of freedom, and individual autonomy, went hand in hand with an emphasis on the role of reason. Freedom and reason were regarded as inseparable. This was a continuation of ideas which had flourished in the seventeenth century at the start of modern science, and of the stress by John Locke (
see
Locke, John) on the role of consent (
see
Consent) by citizens to government. Without the freedom to believe what one chose, as a basis for such consent, the latter would appear meaningless.
Overcriminalization
Authors: Husak Douglas 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The title of this essay invites evaluative judgment. No one believes that
over
criminalization can be sound policy. The contested issues are: (1) What
is
overcriminalization and how is it measured? (2) Why is overcriminalization undesirable? (3) Why might a country overcriminalize? (4) What are some viable means to cope with the problem when it occurs?
Palliative Care
Authors: ten Have Henk 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Palliation has always been a goal of medicine. Medical efforts are usually focused on eliminating the causes of disease (cure) or on preventing illness. However, for centuries, effective therapeutic interventions were rare and knowledge about the etiology of diseases inaccurate or fragmented, so that medicine has, for most of its history, tried to control the symptoms of the disease and to alleviate the complaints and suffering of the patient (
see
Suffering).
Evaluative vs. Deontic Concepts
Authors: Tappolet Christine 
Published: January 2013

AbstractEthical thought is articulated around normative concepts (seenormativity). Standard examples of normative concepts aregood,reason,right,ought, andobligatory. Theorists often treat the normative as an undifferentiated domain. Even so, it is common to distinguish between two kinds of normative concepts: evaluative or axiological concepts (from the Latinvaloresor the Greekaxios, both meaning that which has worth), such asgood, and deontic concepts (from the Greekdeon, meaning that which is binding), such asought. The basic idea behind the distinction, which is a generalization of the traditional opposition between value and duty, is that there is a difference between terms that are used to assess the worth of things and to express states such as approval or disapproval, on the one hand, and terms that are used to tell us what to do and not to do, on the other.
Mysticism and Ethics
Authors: Wainwright William J. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The relation between mysticism and ethics is contentious. Albert Schweitzer, Arthur Danto, and others have argued that mystical consciousness and morality are incompatible. The dominant view is expressed by Steven T. Katz, however: “it is difficult to find any major mystical figures, or mystical traditions, that can be said to preach moral indifference; and certainly none preach immorality” (1992: 254). But the issue is not so straightforward.
Normativity
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAs the term is typically used in ethics today,normativethinking is the kind of thinking that is concerned with what peopleoughtto think or do, or havereasonto think or do. The first two sections of this essay will clarify what exactly the domain of the “normative” includes and what it does not. The rest of the essay surveys the philosophical issues that surround normativity.
Wisdom
Authors: Tiberius Valerie 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The kind of wisdom that is of concern in ethics is
practical wisdom
. Practical wisdom is the virtue that enables a person to deliberate and choose well. It is distinguished from theoretical wisdom (a virtue that might be credited to a good scientist), which has to do with knowledge of the world. Practical wisdom includes knowledge or understanding of the right goals (or “ends”) in human life and the reasoning abilities that allow the wise person to apply this knowledge to come to a decision about what to do (
see
Practical Reasoning). On most views it also requires having appropriate emotional responses and possessing the capacity to conform one's actions to the results of reasoning. It is, therefore, a very demanding and wide‐ranging virtue. Practical wisdom (henceforth “wisdom”) is closely associated with a good life; the wise person is supposed to make choices that promote her flourishing (
see
Eudaimonism; Happiness). The fact that wise people are wise about
living
is what makes wisdom so difficult to find and also what makes it so sought after in advisors, leaders, and friends.
Ought
Authors: Finlay Stephen 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe word “ought” figures centrally in many different philosophical issues. Considered the normative or action‐guiding wordpar excellence(seeNormativity), it appears in many of the most central questions of ethics (e.g., how ought one to act, and what kind of person ought one to be?), of political philosophy (e.g., what kind of government ought we to have?), of decision theory (e.g., how ought one to choose under conditions of uncertainty?), and of epistemology (e.g., what ought we to believe, and why?). An entire branch of logic (seeDeontic Logic) is frequently understood as concerned with the formal relationships of “ought” sentences. Consequently, defining or clarifying the meaning of “ought” is one of the central problems of metaethics as the study of the foundations of ethics.
Negligence
Authors: Smith Holly M. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

The degree of an agent's blameworthiness for unjustified wrong‐doing varies with the mental attitude the agent has at the time of the action: other things being equal, the highest degree of blameworthiness attaches to
purposeful
wrong‐doing (the agent intends to commit the wrong), but progressively decreases if the agent acts
knowingly
(the agent believes the action is wrong), acts
recklessly
(the agent believes there is a substantial risk of serious wrong), or acts
negligently
(
see
Blame; Risk). In all these cases except negligence the agent is aware that the act is or risks being wrong. Most cases of negligence, however, do not involve conscious advertence to the risk of wrong; the agent's “mental attitude” is
lack
of awareness. For this reason the common assumption that negligent wrongful action is blameworthy has puzzled many commentators, and sometimes been rejected.
War
Authors: Lazar Seth 
Published: January 2013

AbstractSince at least the first recorded instance of human‐on‐human conflict, in Wadi Halfa, Sudan, between 14,000 and 12,000 years ago (Reader 1998: 142–3), human beings have fought with, and killed one another. Also, probably since that first conflict over diminishing resources, we have sought to explain and justify some of this killing. Each culture, each historical and religious tradition, has its own history of debate about war's morality (seeJust War Theory, History of). Christian just war theory traces its roots to the early Church fathers, medieval scholastics, and the eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century jurists. The Qur'ān offers Muslims guidance on when and how to fight; while Hindus derive insights from the Mahabharata and the Laws of Manu, among other places. Other traditions have their own key texts and insights. In recent years, thinking about war's morality has slipped its religious moorings, and drifted towards more secular, universalist foundations. Foremost among these is the conviction that profound moral reasons protect all human beings equally against lethal attacks, no matter how they otherwise differ (seeKilling). To justify killing, we must explain how these weighty reasons can either be overridden, or defeated by some other consideration. Although other terms might be used, this is most commonly expressed in the conviction that all people have fundamental human rights against being killed, such that we can only justify killing them if they have somehow lost that right, or it has been overridden by some even weightier set of moral reasons (seeRights). Since killing is the business of war, if warfare is to be justified, we must explain how our enemies lose their rights against attack, or how those rights are overridden by our positive reasons for fighting. On this justificatory project hangs the viability of an ethics of war: if it fails, we must reject warfare, and endorse pacifism (seePacifism).
Predatory Pricing
Authors: Snyder Jeremy 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Predatory pricing consists of selling goods or services at unusually low prices. Typically these prices are unreasonably low by the standards of the local market, usually to the point where they are unprofitable to the seller. The intent of the predatory seller is to force competitors out of the market and to achieve monopoly pricing power within that market. Predatory pricing is frequently cited as an unethical practice within business and marketing ethics texts (Brenkert 2008; Desjardins 2008;
see
Business Ethics) and is condemned by the American Marketing Association's
Code of Ethics
(AMA 2004).
Police Ethics
Authors: Miller Seumas 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe term “police ethics” typically refers to an area of academic inquiry within philosophical ethics concerned with ethical issues that arise for police officers and police organizations (Heffernan and Stroup 1985; Delattre 1994; Kleinig 1996a; Miller and Blackler 2005). Let me describe some of the main ethical or moral (I use the terms interchangeably here to avoid unnecessary complication) issues that arise in policing.
Charity
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: January 2013

AbstractIn the tradition of Western ethical thought, “charity” refers to two ideas. Although now distinguishable, they are historically connected. The first is an attitude: the attitude of selfless love which is treated in the Christian tradition as the most fundamental of the virtues. The second is a kind of action: the action of rendering material assistance to those who need it. Derivative from this second idea is the current use of “a charity” to refer to an organization through which such assistance is coordinated.
Promises
Authors: Owens David 
Published: January 2013

AbstractWhen a writer wishes to give an example of something we are obliged to do, likely as not they cite something we have promised to do. Promising is a standard source of obligation (seeDuty and Obligation). Promissory obligation is also widely regarded as a peculiarly difficult or problematic form of obligation, as posing questions which other forms of obligation do not. We find ourselves obliged to do many things but promissory obligations are our own creation. Or so it seems. And the idea of a freely created obligation has puzzled many thinkers. When did this puzzlement begin?