bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ottoman Empire
Authors: Özok‐Gündoğan Nilay 
Published: August 2015

AbstractThe Ottoman Empire was one of the world's longest enduring empires, ruling over three continents for more than six centuries from the late medieval era to the early 20th century. What we know as the Middle East today was almost entirely ruled by the Ottoman Empire until the creation of a nation‐state system in the region in the aftermath of World War I. With the conquest of Constantinople in the mid‐15th century, the Ottomans inherited the remnants of the Byzantine legacy to become one of the superpowers of the early modern world. For most of the empire's history, Ottoman governance of its diverse ethno‐religious groups was characterized by flexibility, adaptability, and constant negotiation, accounting for the longevity and durability of this gigantic territorial entity.
Mycobacterium
Authors: Magee John G. , Ward Alan C. 
Published: August 2015

My.co.bac.te'ri.um. Gr. n.mukêsa fungus; L. neut. n.bacterium, a small rod; N.L. neut. n.Mycobacteriuma fungus rodlet.Actinobacteria / Actinobacteria / Corynebacteriales / Mycobacteriaceae / MycobacteriumAerobic to microaerophilic,slightly curved or straight rods(0.2–0.6 × 1.0–10 µm),which are acid–alcohol‐fast at some stage of growth. Most species are difficult to stain by Gram's method, but are usually considered Gram‐stain‐positive. Branching may sometimes occur and a filamentous or mycelium‐like growth may appear which, on slight disturbance, becomes fragmented into rods or coccoid elements.Cells are nonmotile and asporogenous;conidia or capsules are not produced;there are no grossly visible aerial hyphae.Colonies may be white‐ to cream‐colored;some strains produce yellow‐ or orange‐pigmented colonies with or without light stimulation.Whole‐organism hydrolysates are rich inmeso‐diaminopimelic acid,arabinose,and galactose.The peptidoglycan is of the A1γ type.Muramic acid moieties areN‐glycolated.Cells and cell walls are rich in lipids.These include waxes which have characteristic,chloroform‐soluble,mycolic acids with long(60–90 carbon atoms)branched chains.The fatty acid esters released on pyrolysis MS of mycolic acid esters have 22–26 carbon atoms.Cells contain diphosphatidylglycerol,phosphatidylethanolamine,phosphatidylinositol,and phospatidylinositol mannosides as predominant polar lipids,straight‐chain saturated,unsaturated,and 10‐methyloctadecanoic(tuberculostearic)fatty acids as major fatty acid components,and dihydrogenated menaquinones with nine isoprene units as the predominant isoprenolog. The genus includes obligate parasites, saprophytes, and opportunistic forms.DNA G+C content(mol%): 57–73 (Tm; HPLC; whole‐genome sequencing).Type species:Mycobacterium tuberculosis(Zopf 1883) Lehmann and Neumann 1896, 363AL.
Acaricomes
Authors: Busse Hans‐Jürgen 
Published: August 2015

A.ca.ri.co'mes. N.L. masc. pl. n.acarithe mites; L. masc. n.comescompanion; N.L. masc. n.Acaricomescompanion of mites.Actinobacteria / Actinobacteria / Micrococcales / Micrococcaceae / AcaricomesGram‐stain‐positive, aerobic, non‐endospore‐forming rods. A rod–coccus life cycle is absent. Mesophilic. The pH optimum for growth is pH 6.0–8.0. Catalase‐positive, oxidase‐negative. Thepeptidoglycan typeisA3αL‐Lys–L‐Ala3. Thepredominant menaquinoneis dihydrogenatedmenaquinone MK‐10(H2); in addition, methylmenaquinoneMMK‐10(H2) is detectable. Themain fatty acidsdetermined areC15:0anteiso and C17:0anteiso. The majorpolar lipidsarephosphatidylglycerol, diphosphatidylglycerol, andphosphatidylinositol.DNA G+C content(mol%): 57.7 (HPLC).Type species:Acaricomes phytoseiuliPukall, Schumann, Schütte, Gols and Dicke 2006, 465VP.
Kocuria
Authors: Stackebrandt Erko , Schumann Peter 
Published: August 2015

Ko.cu'ri.a. N.L. fem. n. Kocuria, named after Miroslav Kocur, a Slovakian microbiologist for his pioneering studies on Gram‐stain‐positive cocci.Actinobacteria / Actinobacteria / Micrococcales / Micrococcaceae / KocuriaCells coccoid. Gram‐stain‐positive. Nonencapsulated. Endospores not formed. Nonmotile. Chemo‐organotrophic; metabolism is strictly respiratory.Aerobic; strains of one species are slightly facultatively anaerobic. Catalase‐positive. Nonhalophilic. Mesophilic.The peptidoglycan type is A3α (l‐Lys–l‐Ala3–4). Mycolic acids and teichoic acids are absent.Menaquinones are hydrogenated; the predominant menaquinones are MK‐7(H2),MK‐8, or MK‐9(H2), either alone or in combination. Polar lipids include diphosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylglycerol; phosphatidylinositol is present in one species.The major fatty acid is C15:0anteiso.DNA G+C content(mol%): 66–75.Type species:Kocuria rosea(Flügge 1886) Stackebrandt, Koch, Gvozdiak and Schumann 1995, 690 (Micrococcus roseusFlügge 1886 183AL).
Promicromonospora
Authors: Schumann Peter , Stackebrandt Erko 
Published: August 2015

Pro.mi.cro.mo.no.spo'ra. Gr. pref.probefore, primitive; Gr. adj.mikrossmall; Gr. adj.monossingle, solitary; Gr. fem. n.sporaa seed, and in microbiology a spore; N.L. fem. n.Promicromonosporathe genus name was coined to reflect the combination of traits then thought to be characteristic of the actinomycete form‐genera “Proactinomyces” (the tendency of the mycelium to fragment) andMicromonospora(the formation of single spores on the substrate mycelium).Actinobacteria / Actinobacteria / Micrococcales / Promicromonosporaceae / PromicromonosporaBranchingseptatehyphae(0.5–1.0 μm in diameter) growing on the surface of and penetrating into the agar, whichbreak up into fragmentsof various size and shape. Fragmentation results innonmotile, Y‐ or V‐shaped, rodlike, coccoid, chlamydospore‐like, and other spore‐shaped elements. All of them may give rise to new mycelia.Growth pasty to leathery. Aerial hyphae in different strains may vary in abundance (sometimes discernible only microscopically). These are straight to curved, sometimes sparsely branched, usually fragmented into rodlike or elongated coccoid elements.Gram‐stain‐positive, non‐acid‐fast, catalase‐positive. Aerobic. Chemo‐organotrophic. Glucose metabolized oxidatively, rarely also fermentatively.Mesophilic. Peptidoglycan type A4α, variation l‐Lys←L‐Ala←D‐Glu. Mycolic acids and wall teichoic acids are lacking. Branching fatty acids of the iso‐ and anteiso‐types (C15:0iso and C15:0anteiso) predominate. Diagnostic phospholipids are represented by phosphatidylglycerol and an unidentified glucosamine‐containing phospholipid. MajormenaquinoneisMK‐9(H4). Mainly found in soils. The genusPromicromonosporais the type genus of the familyPromicromonosporaceaeof the orderMicrococcales, classActinobacteria.DNA G+C content(mol%): 70–75 (Tm).Type species:Promicromonospora citreaKrasil'nikov, Kalakoutskii and Kirillova 1961, 107AL.
Nocardioides
Authors: Evtushenko Lyudmila I. , Krausova Valentina I. , Yoon Jung‐Hoon 
Published: August 2015

No.car.di.o.i'des. N.L. fem. n.Nocardianame of a genus; L. suff. ‐oides(from Gr. suff. ‐eidesfrom Gr. n.eidos, that which is seen, form, shape, figure) ressembling, similar; N.L. masc. n.Nocardioides Nocardia‐like, referring to the similarity of life cycles of the type species of this genus andNocardia.Actinobacteria / Actinobacteria / Propionibacteriales / Nocardioidaceae / NocardioidesAbundantly branched vegetative hyphae or irregular rodsmay be formed in young cultures. The morphogenetic cycle is usually observable, withdifferent organisms showing more or less complex succession of morphological stages. The morphogenetic cycle usually starts with the coccoid cells or short rods which may simply germinate into rods or longer filaments, show elementary branching or form extensively branched hyphae on and below the surface of agar media, and may give rise toaerial mycelium. The latter consists of irregular, sparsely branching or unbranched hyphae and may totally or partially cover the primary mycelium, or be discernible only microscopically. Both thevegetative and aerial hyphae and the rod‐shaped cells undergo various degrees of fragmentation(division via septa formation). Fragmentation finally results in the next generation of short rod‐like and coccoid cells. No endospores are formed.Rod‐shaped bacteria may be motile. Gram‐stain‐positivetype of cell wall. Non‐acid‐fast. The colony color is mainlywhitish, creamy, or yellowof different tint and intensity and rarelyorange. Diffusible pigments are not usually produced. Colonies not covered by aerial mycelium aremostly pasty, withsmooth to wrinkled surface. Chemo‐organotrophic, with an oxidative type of metabolism. Predominantly catalase‐positive. The level of oxidase activity varies among species. Grows under aerobic conditions on standard laboratory media, including chemically defined (synthetic) media or media with low nutrient concentrations. Certain vitamins or other growth factors may be required. Utilizes a wide range of carbon and nitrogen sources, including unusual organic compounds and toxic environmental pollutants. Mostly mesophilic and neutrophilic; some grow at initial pH values of 5–5.5 and/or 11–12. Mostly non‐halophilic, but salt‐requiring organisms occasionally occur.DNA G+C content(mol%): 67.5 (Tm)–74.8 (HPLC).Type species:Nocardioides albusPrauser 1976, 61AL.
Friedmanniella
Authors: Schumann Peter , Pukall Rüdiger 
Published: August 2015

Fri.ed.man.ni.el'la. N.L. fem. dim. n.Friedmanniellanamed after E. Imre Friedmann (1921–2007), an American microbiologist, in recognition of his contributions to Antarctic microbiology.Actinobacteria / Actinobacteria / Propionibacteriales / Propionibacteriaceae / FriedmanniellaSpherical to ellipsoidal cellsthat occur mostly in more or less regular packets which develop through cell division in three perpendicular planes. The packets aggregate, forming clusters.Gram‐stain‐positive. Nonmotile. Nonsporeforming. Nonacid‐fast.Strictly aerobic. Oxidase‐negative. Catalase‐positive. Chemo‐organotrophic. Only a few carbohydrates, organic acids, and other carbon sources are metabolized. Thepeptidoglycan typeisA3γ' containingLL‐diaminopimelic acid, glycine in position 1 of the peptide subunit, and a single glycine residue as interpeptide bridge. The majormenaquinoneisMK‐9(H4), and the mainfatty acidsare 12‐ and 13‐methyltetradecanoic acid (C15:0anteiso and C15:0iso). Mycolic acids are absent. Thephospholipid patternincludesphosphatidylglycerol, diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylinositol, and one unknown phospholipid.DNA G+C content(mol%): 69–74.Type species:Friedmanniella antarcticaSchumann, Prauser, Rainey, Stackebrandt and Hirsch 1997, 282VP.
Form‐Chamaesiphon
Authors: Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. , Waterbury John B. , Rippka Rosmarie 
Published: August 2015

Cha.mae.si' phon
. Gr. adv.
chamai
dwarf; Gr. masc. n.
siphon
tube; M.L. masc. n.
Chamaesiphon
microbial tube.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection I / Incertae Sedis / Form‐Chamaesiphon
Unicellular cyanobacteria that reproduce exclusively by successive unequal binary fission (budding) at the apical pole of ovoid, club‐shaped, or pyriform cells. The small spherical buds are produced in succession at one pole of the mother cell. This mode of reproduction confers an intrinsic heteropolarity on the cell.

The mol
%
G
+
C of the DNA is
: 47.
Form‐ Dactylococcopsis
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Castenholz Richard W. , Herdman Michael 
Published: August 2015

Dac.ty.lo.coc.cop' sis
. Gr. n.
dactylos
finger; Gr. n.
kokkos
grain or kernel; Gr. fem. n.
opsis
appearance; M.L. fem. n.
Dactylococcopsis
appearing as finger‐shaped grain.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection I / Incertae Sedis / Form‐ Dactylococcopsis
Unicellular cyanobacteria that are fusiform in shape. The cells are 4–8 × 35–80 µm. Dividing or paired cells may be up to 135 µm long. A well‐defined sheath is absent; gas vacuoles present along cell margins, but are most abundant at the mature (pointed) ends of the cell. The only axenic isolate (PCC 8305) is halophilic and halotolerant.
Form‐ Gloeobacter
Authors: Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. , Rippka Rosmarie 
Published: August 2015

Gloe.o.bac' ter
. Gr. adj.
gloios
sticky; Gr. n.
bakterion
(dim. of
baktron
) small rod; M.L. n.
Gloeobacter
sticky bacterium.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection I / Incertae Sedis / Form‐ Gloeobacter
Unicellular cyanobacteria that possess oval‐ to rod‐shaped cells that divide by transverse binary fission in a single plane. Cells occur in irregular aggregates held together by sheath material. Intracellular photosynthetic thylakoids are lacking; the light‐harvesting and photosynthetic apparatus is associated with the cytoplasmic membrane.

The mol
%
G
+
C of the DNA is
: 64.

Type species
:
Gloeobacter violaceus
Rippka, Waterbury and Cohen‐Bazire 1974.
Form‐ Gloeothece
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Castenholz Richard W. , Waterbury John B. , Herdman Michael 
Published: August 2015

Gloe.o.the' ce
. Gr. adj.
gloios
sticky; Gr. fem. n.
theke
case, envelope; M.L. fem. n.
Gloeothece
gelatinous sheath.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection I / Incertae Sedis / Form‐ Gloeothece
Unicellular rod‐shaped cyanobacteria that divide by transverse binary fission in a single plane, the cells being united into aggregates by well defined, often laminated, sheath layers.

The mol
%
G
+
C of the DNA is
: 40–43.
Form‐ Synechocystis
Authors: Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. , Iteman Isabelle , Rippka Rosmarie 
Published: August 2015

Syn
.
e
.
cho
.
cys
'
tis
. Gr. n.
synechia
continuity; Gr. n.
kystis
bladder or bag; M.L. fem. n.
Synechocystis
contiguous bladder‐like cells.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection I / Incertae Sedis / Form‐Synechocystis
Cyanobacteria of this provisional form‐genus are unicellular strains that possess spherical cells 2–6 µm in diameter and reproduce by binary fission in two or three successive planes at right angles. Cells typically occur singly or in pairs in culture; but in nature (and rarely in culture) may occur in aggregates held together by amorphous slime material; well‐defined sheath layers are never produced. Gas vacuoles are absent.

The mol
%
G
+
C of the DNA is
: 35–48.
Subsection
II
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Waterbury John B. , Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. 
Published: August 2015

Cyanobacteria / Subsection II / Incertae Sedis / Subsection II
Cyanobacteria assigned to this Subsection reproduce either exclusively, or at some stages of their life cycle, by the formation of small, spherical cells (baeocytes). These reproductive cells arise from multiple fissions of a parental cell (“vegetative” cell) and are released after rupture of its fibrous outer wall layer. The number of baeocytes released from a parental cell ranges from 4 to over 1000. Enlargement of vegetative cells is accompanied by progressive thickening of the fibrous outer wall layer. Members of some genera divide exclusively by multiple fission. In others, the baeocytes give rise to cell aggregates or pseudofilaments which reproduce by binary fission (“vegetative division”). Subsequently, some or all of the cells composing the aggregates undergo multiple fission and release new baeocytes.
Form‐ Cyanocystis
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Waterbury John B. , Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. 
Published: August 2015

Cy.a.no.cyst' is
. Gr. f. n.
cyanos
blue‐green color; Gr. n.
cystis
bladder, bag; M.L. fem. n. blue‐green bladder.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection II / Genera Reproducing by Multiple Fissions Only, or in Combination with Limited (1–3) Binary Fissions / Form‐ Cyanocystis
Unicellular cyanobacteria that have apical‐basal polarity (i.e., ovoid to pyriform in shape), and that reproduce only by multiple fission (i.e., do not exhibit binary fission). Baeocytes are immotile, possessing an outer fibrous wall layer at the time of release from the parental cell.
Form‐ Myxosarcina
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Iteman Isabelle , Waterbury John B. , Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. 
Published: August 2015

Myx.o.sar' ci.na
. Gr. fem. n.
myxa
slime, mucus; L. n.
sarcina
bundle or package; M.L. fem. n.
Myxosarcina
slime bundle or packet of cells in slime.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection II / Genera in Which Extensive Vegetative Binary Fission Precedes Multiple Fission / Form‐ Myxosarcina
Cyanobacteria that undergo repeated binary fission in three planes to form more or less cubical aggregates of cells. Multiple fission occurs simultaneously in most vegetative cells, resulting in the liberation of a restricted number (about four per vegetative cell) of baeocytes that lack an outer fibrous wall layer and are often capable of gliding motility. The baeocytes enlarge symmetrically into spherical vegetative cells that, just prior to the onset of binary fission, attain a size that is characteristic and constant for any given strain.
Form‐Anabaena
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Castenholz Richard W. , Iteman Isabelle , Herdman Michael 
Published: August 2015

A.na.bae' na. Gr. adj.anaup again; Gr. v.bainoto walk, to step; M.L. fem. n.Anabaenato step up again, repeating line of units (cells).Cyanobacteria / Subsection IV / Subsection IV.I / Form‐AnabaenaTrichomes straight or slightly sinuous, vegetative cells spherical, cylindrical, or barrel shaped, and separated by conspicuous constrictions at the crosswalls. Heterocysts predominantly intercalary, though terminal heterocysts may also occur. Akinetes located, singly or in groups (2–3), adjacent to heterocysts or occurring in chains, initiated distant from heterocysts. A firm sheath is absent, but mucilage production may be abundant. False branching generally not observed. Reproduction by random trichome fragmentation. Hormogonia, distinct in morphology from the parental trichomes, not produced.
Form‐Aphanizomenon
Authors: Rippka Rosmarie , Castenholz Richard W. , Iteman Isabelle , Herdman Michael 
Published: August 2015

A.pha.ni.zo' me.non
. Gr. v.
aphanizo
to disappear; Gr. neut. pass. part.
aphanizomenon
; M.L. neut. n.
Aphanizomenon
obscure thing.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection IV / Subsection IV.I / Form‐ Aphanizomenon
Trichomes are straight and generally exhibit a slight attenuation in size toward their termini; a firm sheath is never produced. Intercalary vegetative cells are cylindrical, significantly longer than wide, and contain abundant gas vesicle clusters. The terminal cells are rounded to subconical and generally lack gas vesicles. Constrictions between individual cells are relatively shallow. Heterocysts differentiate exclusively in intercalary positions. Akinetes, singly or in pairs, are formed adjacent to, or distant from, heterocysts. Structurally distinct hormogonia are not produced.
Form‐Nostoc
Authors: Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. , Rippka Rosmarie 
Published: August 2015

Nos'toc. M.L. n.Nostocorigin uncertain, supposedly invented by Paracelsus from the old English wordNosthryl(nostril) and the corresponding German wordNasenloch=Nostoch.Cyanobacteria / Subsection IV / Subsection IV.I / Form‐ Nostoc
Scytonema
Authors: Castenholz Richard W. , Herdman Michael , Rippka Rosmarie 
Published: August 2015

Scy.to.ne' ma
. Gr. n.
skytos
leather; Gr. n.
nema
thread; M.L. neut. n.
Scytonema
leather thread.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection IV / Subsection IV.I / Form‐Scytonema
The mature trichomes are immotile, heavily ensheathed, and form numerous false branches that exhibit upright aerial mode of growth. Constrictions between the disk‐shaped to cylindrical cells are shallow. Heterocysts generally occupy intercalary positions, although some false branches may carry at their base a terminal heterocyst. Hormogonia are less ensheathed, exhibit no or only slow motility, and differ little in cell morphology from the mature filaments. Akinetes are not produced.
Form‐ Tolypothrix
Authors: Herdman Michael , Castenholz Richard W. , Rippka Rosmarie 
Published: August 2015

To.ly.po' thrix
.Gr. n.
tolypa
bundle, tangle; Gr. fem. n.
thrix
hair; M.L. fem. n.
Tolypothrix
bundle/tangle of hairs.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection IV / Subsection IV.II / Form‐Tolypothrix
Mature trichomes exhibit a low degree of tapering, the ratio of the width of basal to apical cells not exceeding 1.5. False branches are frequent, often subtending a “basal” heterocyst. Hormogonia, generally motile and often containing gas vesicle clusters dispersed throughout the cells, give rise to young trichomes that differentiate a single terminal heterocyst. All are freshwater or soil inhabitants. Akinetes are lacking.
Form‐Fischerella
Authors: Hoffmann Lucien , Castenholz Richard W. 
Published: August 2015

Fisch.er.el' la
. M.L. fem. n.
Fischerella
Fischer, probably named for B. Fischer, botanical bacteriologist, 1852–1915.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection V / Incertae Sedis / Form‐Fischerella
The true branches of these organisms are uniseriate and composed of cells, particularly those distal from the base, that are generally longer than broad. The axis (primary trichome) from which they arise is also mainly uniseriate, but may become multiseriate in part, with divisions in more than one plane. The axis in these regions, however, is seldom more than 2–3 cells in thickness. In addition, the cells of the axes become enlarged, often semispherical in shape. The older cells of a main axis may become separated from each other by sheath material and may act as akinetes (Martin and Wyatt, 1974). Most of the widened cells of the axial trichome, however, display a true filamentous nature, with only a peptidoglycan septum separating cells (Nierzwicki et al., 1982; Balkwill et al., 1984). The main axis forms when a hormogonium comes to rest, cells enlarge, and cell divisions that are parallel to the long axis or diagonal (oblique) begin; some of the resulting cells elongate to form branches (secondary trichomes) (Balkwill et al., 1984; Nierzwicki‐Bauer et al., 1984) (Figure 1). Extracellular sheaths are absent.
Form‐Iyengariella
Authors: Hoffmann Lucien 
Published: August 2015

I.yen.gar.iel' la
. M.L. fem. n.
Iyengariella
Iyengar, named after M.O.P. Iyengar, Indian phycologist.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection V / Incertae Sedis / Form‐Iyengariella
Besides true and pseudodichotomous branchings, false branchings are also found; false branches occur after trichome breakage as a result of the formation of a necridium. True dichotomous branches originate from the longitudinal division of the apical cell and pseudodichotomous true branches originate from the oblique division of an intercalary cell. Filaments taper, the trichomes ending in long whips of the rivulariacean type. Heterocysts and akinetes are absent. Reproduction is through hormogonia‐ formation.
Form‐Nostochopsis
Authors: Hoffmann Lucien 
Published: August 2015

Nost' och.op' sis
. Old English n.
Nost' hryl
nostril; German n.
Nasen'loch;
Gr. n. opsis appearance, hence resemblance; M.L. fem. n.
Nostochopsis
(cyanobacterium) resembling
Nostoc
Vaucher, “excrement from the nostrils of some rheumatick planet” (Paracelsus 1493–1541) referring to the rapid appearance of
Nostoc commune
colonies after thundershowers.

Cyanobacteria / Subsection V / Incertae Sedis / Form‐Nostochopsis
The uniseriate trichomes form lateral T‐branchings of two types, one long and many celled, the other one of limited growth (1–3 cells) with a heterocyst at the end; besides these pedicellate heterocysts, heterocysts are intercalary or lateral and sessile. A culture of this genus has been established (Weber et al., 1996), but has not been studied taxonomically.