bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
An Emergentist Approach to Syntax
Authors: O'Grady William 
Published: February 2013

AbstractSyntax constitutes a challenging area for emergentist research, since traditional grammar-based frameworks have reported significant success in their analysis of many important phenomena. This chapter considers a number of those phenomena from an emergentist perspective in order to show how they can be understood in terms of the interaction of lexical properties with a simple efficiency-driven processor, without reference to grammatical principles. It proposes ideas that rest on two key claims: (i) syntactic theory can and should be unified with the theory of sentence processing; and (ii) the mechanisms required to account for the traditional concerns of syntactic theory (e.g., the design of phrase structure, pronoun interpretation, control, agreement, contraction, scope, island constraints, and the like) are identical to the mechanisms which are independently required to account for how sentences are processed from ‘left to right’ in real time.
Functional Discourse Grammar
Authors: Hengeveld Kees , Mackenzie J. Lachlan 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter introduces Functional Discourse Grammar, a typologically based model of language structure, and is organized as follows. Section 15.2 provides a general outline of the model and its place as the grammatical component of a wide theory of verbal interaction. Section 15.3 situates the model within the field of grammatical theories at large. Section 15.4 discusses the four levels of linguistic organization (interpersonal, representational, morphosyntactic, and phonological) inside the grammar proper, giving examples of the potential of each. Section 15.5 gives an impression of how both the interaction of the grammar with surrounding components and the interaction between the various levels within the grammatical component can help explain a wide range of linguistic phenomena. Section 15.6 presents a detailed analysis of a worked example, while Section 15.7 discusses some further applications of FDG.
Probabilistic Linguistics
Authors: Bod Rens 
Published: February 2013

AbstractProbabilistic linguistics takes all linguistic evidence as positive evidence and lets statistics decide. It allows for accurate modelling of gradient phenomena in production and perception, and suggests that rule-like behaviour is no more than a side effect of maximizing probability. This chapter addressing the following issues: How far can probabilistic linguistics be stretched? What can data-oriented parsing (DOP) explain? How can probabilistic linguistics deal with language acquisition? What can Unsupervised DOP learn?
Linguistic Relativity
Authors: Pederson Eric 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter focuses on a body of research falling under the cover term linguistic relativity. More generally, linguistic relativity studies investigate possible effects of natural language on purportedly non-linguistic cognition. The chapter begins with a historical background of linguistic relativity. It then discusses the requirements for linguistic-relativity research, linguistic relativity and mainstream linguistics, language effect, language development, and domains of research.
The analysis of signed languages
Authors: Wilcox Sherman , Wilcox Phyllis Perrin 
Published: February 2013

AbstractSigned languages are natural human languages used by deaf people throughout the world as their native or primary language. The study of them provides insights into many of the long-standing questions pondered by linguists, such as the nature of duality patterning and the origin and evolution of the human language facility. The analysis of signed languages permits linguists and cognitive scientists to address important questions about the nature of grammaticalization, metaphor, iconicity, and metonymy.
Usage-Based Theory
Authors: Bybee Joan L. , Beckner Clay 
Published: February 2013

AbstractUsage-based theory takes language to be an embodied and social human behaviour and seeks explanations in that context. This theoretical perspective incorporates the basic insight that usage has an effect on linguistic structure. This chapter discusses the following: background of usage-based theory; domain-general processes; exemplars, networks, and constructions; the role of repetition; language acquisition and adult-based change; and language as a complex adaptive system.
Default Recovery Rates and Lgd in Credit Risk Modelling and Practice
Authors: Altman Edward I. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Three main variables affect the credit risk of a financial asset: (i) the probability of default (PD); (ii) the ‘loss given default’ (LGD), which is equal to one minus the recovery rate in the event of default (RR); and (iii) the exposure at default. While significant attention has been devoted by the credit risk literature to the estimation of the first component (PD), much less has been dedicated to the estimation of RR and to the relationship between PD and RR. This article, which presents a detailed review of the way credit risk models, developed during the last thirty years, have treated the recovery rate and, more specifically, its relationship with the probability of default of an obligor, is organized as follows. Sections 2, 3, and 4 review these three different approaches, together with their basic assumptions, advantages, drawbacks, and empirical performance. Section 5 examines credit value-at-risk models. Section 6 considers the more recent studies explicitly modelling and empirically investigating the relationship between PD and RR. Section 7 discusses Bank of International Settlement efforts to motivate banks to consider ‘downturn LGD’ in the specification of capital requirements under Basel II. Section 8 reviews the very recent efforts by the major rating agencies to provide explicit estimates of recovery given default. Section 9 revisits the issue of procyclicality and Section 10 presents some recent empirical evidence on recovery rates on both defaulted bonds and loans, and also on the relationship between default and recovery rates. Section 11 concludes.
Counterparty Risk in Credit Derivative Contracts
Authors: Gregory Jon 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article addresses the challenges posed by marginal default distribution models – for illustrative purposes it uses a straightforward Gaussian copula – and details counterparty risk corrections for credit default swaps (CDSs), index CDSs, and collateralised debt obligations. The static copula approach fixes the expected value of the product conditional on counterparty default, but not its distribution. As a consequence, only bounds for the value of the correction are provided, but in many cases these are tight enough to be useful. The article presents a number of numerical examples including a timely reminder that ‘risk-free’ super-senior tranches are particularly prone to counterparty risk.
The Person in Mesopotamian Thought
Authors: Foster Benjamin R. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article examines the conception of the person in Mesopotamian thought based on cuneiform evidence. It shows that cuneiform literature contain ample sources for the notions of person, of self, and of the individual and that the sense of self is amply documented in Mesopotamian sources despite the claims of some modern writers that ancient Mesopotamians could not have possessed it. It also discusses the Mesopotamian definitions of the human being.
Feasts For The Living, The Dead, and The Gods
Authors: Brunke Hagan 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines communal feasting in Mesopotamia during the late third millennium bc. Though there is admittedly a lack of archaeological evidence from this time, and an absence of procedural or prescriptive texts that would amount to recipes for specific dishes or protocols for specific feasts, much relevant information can be extracted from the administrative documents. This article describes banquets in honor of gods, kings, and the dead and catering for the workforce.
Cuneiform Writing in Neo-Babylonian Temple Communities
Authors: Jursa Michael 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article analyzes the uses of writing in the ambit of Babylonian temple households of the first millennium bc. It describes the social and economic background of Neo-Babylonian temple communities, focusing on the long sixth century the period between the emergence of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the fall of Assyria. It also discusses the structure, aim, and efficiency of temple bureaucracy and addresses the question of the priests' literacy and the use of writing for private record-keeping in priestly households.
Freedom in Ancient Near Eastern Societies
Authors: Dassow Eva von 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines freedom in ancient Near Eastern societies based on evidence from cuneiform writing. It explains that freedom, both the idea and the reality, has conventionally been denied to the ancient Near East. It attempts to formulate a theory of freedom in the ancient Near East drawing mainly from the second millennium and from regions where Mesopotamian cuneiform was employed. It shows how ideas of rights and liberty formed part of the conceptual architecture of ancient Near Eastern communities and argues that the autonomy and the liberty of individual members of the community are deeply engrained in Ancient Near Eastern culture.
Music, The Work of Professionals
Authors: Ziegler Nele 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article examines music and the work of professional musicians in ancient Mesopotamia. It explains that music was undoubtedly highly esteemed in ancient Mesopotamia given the numerous artifacts dating to the third to first millennium bc that show male and female musicians performing in the presence of the rulers of Mesopotamia or simply on their own. Cuneiform texts also indicate another equally important purpose of music which is to give pleasure.
Magic Rituals: Conceptualization and Performance
Authors: Schwemer Daniel 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article describes the conceptualization and performance of magic rituals in ancient Mesopotamia. It investigates the technical literature associated with this profession to understand better the activities of these scholars and practitioners and various institutions and segments of Mesopotamian society associated with magic rituals. The analysis reveals that the works of these professionals overlap with those of the exorcist, physician, and snake-charmers.
From Street Altar to Palace: Reading the Built Environment of Urban Babylonia
Authors: Baker Heather D. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article examines the built environment of urban Babylonia based on cuneiform evidence. It describes the experience of urban living from the point of view of the people who were the ordinary inhabitants of Babylon and the other cities of southern Mesopotamia, and contrasts their perspective with the high-level ideals projected by the ruler. It discusses the writings of the common people about the city.
The Production and Dissemination of Scholarly Knowledge
Authors: Robson Eleanor 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article analyzes cuneiform evidence concerning the production and dissemination of scholarly knowledge in ancient Mesopotamia. It investigates how new knowledge and creativity and mobility play out in the historical record and discusses knowledge dissemination through education. It explores how new compositions and genres came from, how and why they were replicated, and how and why did they eventually fall out of favour.
Berossos between Tradition and Innovation
Authors: Breucker Geert De 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article aims to contribute to the study of Babylonian traditions in Berossos' time and to reveal how a native Babylonian conceived the history of his culture at that period. It examines how Babylonian and Greek culture converged and shows that Berossos unified Babylonian historical traditions and Greek scholarship and transformed native traditions according to Greek forms and concepts. It also describes Berossos' portrait of Babylonian history and its wider cultural context.
Middleton And Caroline Theatre
Authors: Munro Lucy 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article explores some of the various ways in which the plays of Middleton and his collaborators were assimilated into Caroline theatrical culture. In doing so, it has sought less to argue that one play was a ‘source’ for another and more to examine the place of Middleton's work within a broader network of intertextual relationships. Like the plays of other Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists, Middleton's work might be adopted wholesale as a narrative source, but playwrights might also respond to him in a more selective fashion, replaying a particular piece of dramaturgy or a stage image from an earlier play, reworking a narrative or character-related trope, or incorporating fleeting allusions to earlier works within dialogue. Old and new plays were engaged in a mutually informing dialogue.
Waste
Authors: Goldstein Joshua 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
In 2006, Cheung Yan became the first female to be dubbed the wealthiest person in the People's Republic of China. Formally known within her company, Nine Dragons Paper, as ‘the Chairlady’, she became a momentary darling of the financial press under titles such as ‘The Queen of Rubbish’, with an estimated worth of around US$10 billion in 2007. The meteoric rise and fall of Nine Dragons is emblematic of a post-Cold War globalization in which, if consumption is king, then trash is queen. This article sets the centrality of post-consumer waste in today's circuits of global trade in some historical perspective, focusing on modern China. It discusses waste before the nineteenth century, waste disposal and sanitation in the nineteenth century, and municipal solid waste management. The article also considers domestic and international economic forces that have conspired to make China the world's scrap magnet and magnate, including market reforms, rapid urbanization, consumerism, limited resources, and enormous industrial demand.
Legal Vocabulary
Authors: Mattila Heikki E. S. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractLegal language is based on ordinary language. Hence, the grammar and most of the vocabulary of legal language are identical to those of ordinary language. On the other hand, legal language is one of the languages for special purposes, as a result of which it has certain characteristics that differ from ordinary language, for example, on the level of syntax and style. Legal language is characterized especially by the use of technical terms, the nature and number of which vary according to the branch of law. This article deals with technical terms of the law from different angles, taking into account various legal cultures and linguistic zones. It discusses the relation between legal vocabulary and legal concepts, polysemy and synonymy in legal terminology, reasons why legal terms are difficult to understand, how legal terms are formed, and legal dictionaries and term banks.
The Grammar And Structure Of Legal Texts
Authors: Hiltunen Risto 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThat legal texts are generally considered difficult to read and understand stems from the law's societal functions of control and regulation. In order to provide a firm foundation for legal decision-making processes, which have to be systematic and just, the text of the law needs to be clear, explicit, and precise. It is only to be expected that such strict conditions will impose equally strict requirements on the design of the language of legal texts. Legal syntax is distinctly idiosyncratic in terms of both the structure and arrangement of the principal sentence elements. When we look at legal language above the level of the sentence, we are concerned with the level of discourse. This article addresses the language of legal texts with special reference to their grammar and structure, focusing on written legal texts as materializations of the language of the legal code, a term that is here used to refer to the law as embraced in legal statutes. As far as legal language is concerned, the article considers acts of the British Parliament.
Contract Formation as a Speech Act
Authors: Schane Sanford 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAccording to conventional contract law, the formation of a valid agreement ordinarily involves an offer, an acceptance, and consideration. The former two elements typically take place through spoken or written language: an offeror proposes to do something in exchange for something of value to be given by an offeree. The latter may then accept the offer, reject it, or make a counteroffer. What is it that makes this particular verbal exchange so special, and how does it differ from other acts of speech which may also entail legal consequences, such as issuing a threat, offering a bribe, defaming someone, or perjuring oneself? This article addresses this question using speech-act theory, a linguistic approach to meaning advocated by two language philosophers, John Austin (1962) and John Searle (1969). It presents Searle's requirements (called felicity conditions) that commissive illocutions must satisfy in order to be well-formed speech acts. The article also discusses contract formation by focusing on promise versus offer and commitment versus obligation.
Legal Interpretation And The Philosophy Of Language
Authors: Bix Brian H. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractLaw is guidance through language, whether the language of statutes, judicial decisions, constitutional provisions, contracts, or wills. It is therefore not surprising that lawyers, judges, and legal commentators have sought whatever assistance they could find from other fields which deal with the meaning and interpretation of words: including literary theory, linguistics, and semiotics. Assistance has also been sought from philosophy of language, and the various philosophical writers on the deeper understanding of truth, meaning, and reference. However, at the end of the day, it is not clear that any of these searches have taught the legal profession useful new knowledge or methods of knowing. This article offers an overview of some of the attempts to use philosophy of language to alter or resolve questions of legal interpretation. It first considers the determinacy and indeterminacy of law, and then looks at H. L. A. Hart and the ‘open texture’ of language. The article also discusses intentionalism, originalism, textualism, and plain meaning with respect to interpretation of the U.S. Constitution, and concludes by outlining the links between politics, law, and philosophy.
The Caution in England and Wales
Authors: Rock Frances 
Published: February 2013

Abstract‘You do not have to say anything. But it may harm your defense if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in Court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.’ This is the police caution, presented by police officers in England and Wales when individuals are arrested, and immediately before they are interviewed. A similar wording is recited if they are charged. On entering custody, suspects will also be offered access to a written version of the wording, along with information on other rights, most importantly the right to legal advice. This article examines three aspects of cautioning – its official wording, its explanation in context, and its upshots during the extended legal process – and also discusses the issues surrounding non-native speakers when encountering cautions and warnings. It then outlines the standard wording of the police caution, including its comprehensibility and comprehension. The article concludes by considering the caution's administration, as well as its influence on speech, silence, and their interpretation.
Interrogation Through Pragmatic Implication: Sticking to the Letter of the Law While Violating its Intent
Authors: Davis Deborah , Leo Richard A. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThroughout American history, police-induced false confessions have been among the leading causes of wrongful conviction. The law in the United States has evolved over time to protect suspects from police coercion and to discourage the use of physical violence, explicit threats, or promises of leniency contingent upon confession. However, police have adapted and developed pre-interrogation and interrogation procedures that are specifically designed to convey the forbidden messages indirectly, through the process of pragmatic implication. They deliberately use indirect implication both to negate Miranda warnings and to convey the forbidden explicit promises or threats contingent on the suspect's choice of confession or continued denial. These indirect strategies of implication violate the intent of the law while adhering to its literal content. This article reviews common police interrogation tactics, with particular emphasis on those conveying implicit messages beyond their literal content. It shows that most such implied messages are conveyed indirectly by the interrogator and understood by the suspect through conversational implicatures based on the presumption of relevance.
Courtroom Discourse in Japan's New Judicial Order
Authors: Okawara Mami Hiraike 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe implementation of the saiban-in (lay judge) system in 2009 has opened the way, not only to lay participation, but also to some participation by linguists in Japanese courtrooms. This article, which explores how differences between lay and professional views are mingled in the judicial deliberations, first explains the saiban-in (lay judge) system and then introduces some studies of court proceedings in Japan. It also examines how the intent to murder is determined in Japanese courts, and, finally, focuses on a discourse connective and analyzes the discussion on the degrees of murder during the deliberation stage in a mock trial. The article shows that lay people do not understand an important legal concept – mihitsu no koi – which means ‘willful negligence’. Furthermore, in determining a defendant's state of mind, lay people tend to look for motives, while the legal system asks them to examine circumstantial evidence instead. The result is a complicated negotiation between the professional and lay judges in which the professional judges play more of a role of educator than of an equal colleague.
The Psycholinguistic Basis Of Distinctiveness in Trademark Law
Authors: Hotta Syugo , Fujita Masahiro 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article examines distinctiveness in a trademark from a psycholinguistic perspective. The proposed analysis adopts well-known linguistic concepts and principles, such as markedness and Grice's Conversational Maxims, in scrutinizing the linguistic aspects of a mark. It first shows how the proposed linguistic analysis works to identify the source of distinctiveness in a trademark and then tests the proposed analysis with a reaction time experiment in which participants are visually exposed to stimulus words that differ in their phonological, morphological, and semantic structures. The analysis aims to contribute not only to linguistics but also to trademark practice, in that it will provide more consistent and empirically grounded standards for the analysis of linguistic aspects of trademarks. Linguistics provides our tacit knowledge with a mechanism that enables us to access, understand, and present it. When research grounded in the disciplines of linguistics and cognitive science enables this tacit knowledge to manifest itself before a court, that knowledge becomes scientific evidence.