bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Schools and Delinquency
Authors: Gottfredson Gary D. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis article examines the nature of delinquent and related problem behavior in schools. It suggests that public perceptions that the quality of many urban schools is low has the effect of exacerbating the concentration of populations of young people at elevated risk of both delinquent behavior and poor educational outcomes in some communities. It describes delinquency and related problem behaviors in schools and suggests that delinquents and dropouts are engaged in a variety of problem behaviors, and they are low achieving, poorly motivated, and uncommitted to school. It also discusses whether individual characteristics predispose young people to problem behavior and poor school achievement. Furthermore, the chapter reveals the implications of school demography for delinquency and educational outcomes. Finally, it presents an argument concerning whether or not schools should be concerned with preventing delinquency.
Gang Delinquency
Authors: Maxson Cheryl L. , Matsuda Kristy N. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractStreets gangs are a form of delinquent peer group. This article begins with describing the characteristics that distinguish gangs from other social groups. It draws from both law enforcement and research studies, relying primarily on information produced in the past two decades to discuss different approaches to defining gangs, including the conceptual and methodological difficulties of measuring gang membership and gang crime and delinquency. It also gives a brief history of gangs; further describing gang prevalence, joining, and group processes. Following this, it focuses on trends in gang crime, the individual offending patterns of gang members, and what is known about differential crime patterns in various types of gangs. It concludes with a discussion of current approaches to gang prevention, intervention, and control.
Social Learning Theory
Authors: Akers Ronald L. , Sellers Christine S. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractSocial learning theory refers to any behavioristic approach in social science that has a cognitive or behavioral focus. Social learning theory combines the differential association theory of criminal behavior with general behavioral learning principles and proposes that criminal and delinquent behavior is acquired, repeated, and changed by the same process as conforming behavior. This article presents a discussion of the concepts and propositions of the original social learning model as well as its later expansion, which includes the social structural context within which social learning occurs. It reviews empirical research on social learning theory to underscore its validity as an explanation of crime and delinquency. It also analyzes several criticisms of social learning theory and concludes with a description of a variety of programs based on principles of social learning theory.
Legal Socialization and Delinquency
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Rankin Lindsay E. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The current instrumental approach of legal authority focuses on the power of legal authorities and institutions to shape behavior by threatening to deliver negative sanctions for rule breaking. This article discusses public attitudes and considers how these views have led to an instrumental approach to motivating lawful behavior, as this strategy is costly and results in negative side effects. Following this, the article explores the alternatives that are possible. In this regard, it points to a series of findings that suggest the importance of focusing on values, an approach which has the goal of enhancing self-regulation. Finally, it states that policy changes related to rehabilitation face more resistance from the public and discusses the nature of the public opinion that policy makers must confront when seeking to make policy changes.
The Conundrum of Girls and Juvenile Justice Processing
Authors: Kempf‐Leonard Kimberly 
Published: February 2013

AbstractDue to the under-representation of females, public officials have paid less attention to understanding their offending or to developing and assessing prevention and intervention strategies for them. Attention to female offenders is now considered important because their numbers are growing in all spheres of criminal justice. This article explains what is currently known about girls and their juvenile justice experiences. It discusses the difficulty that exists in identifying gender bias because of the nature of juvenile justice processing. It then describes data sources about the offending patterns of girls and boys and examines how gender appears to affect juvenile justice processing. Following this, the article identifies difficulties for girls in access to treatment and services. It highlights deficiencies in knowledge about female-specific treatment. Finally, it gives recommendations for an integrated framework to assist in learning more about the problems girls face and ways to make their experiences with juvenile justice systems successful.
Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court
Authors: Feld Barry C. , Bishop Donna M. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractTransfer of juvenile offenders for adult prosecution provides the nexus between the deterministic, rehabilitative premises of juvenile justice and the free-will, punishment assumptions of criminal justice. This article analyzes the history, implementation, and consequences of changes in transfer laws over the past few decades. It places transfer decisions in a broader sentencing policy context, examining alternative transfer strategies, and reviews evaluations of their implementation. It also explores legislative approaches and the characteristics of youths transferred under each regime. Furthermore, it considers the sentencing policy goals of transfer and assays to what extent transfers of jurisdiction achieve goals of retribution, general deterrence, incapacitation, specific deterrence, or the recognition of youths' diminished criminal responsibility. Finally, the article presents a prescriptive conclusion about appropriate waiver policies for juvenile courts, suggesting a review of judges' waiver decisions by appellate courts and develop general sentencing principles to define a consistent boundary of adulthood.
Juvenile Justice Cross-Nationally Considered
Authors: Tonry Michael , Chambers Colleen 
Published: February 2013

AbstractIn juvenile systems, countries vary considerably in how they define the jurisdiction of adult and juvenile courts and where they draw the lines between them. The starkest difference lies in the jurisdiction of the ages. This article provides an overview of current knowledge about national differences in juvenile justice systems. It describes formal structural differences between systems and provides brief depictions of systems representing importantly different models: the English juvenile court model with its heavy emphasis on crime reduction, the German youth criminal court model with its emphasis on social integration of young offenders, the Scandinavian non-juvenile-court model, and the New Zealand conferencing model. It reveals immediate outcomes in terms of the use of confinement and the frequency of transfers to adult courts. Finally, it makes an attempt to offer a number of observations about comparative advantages and disadvantages of different approaches.
Introduction
Authors: Wolf Stacy 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article provides an overview of the evolution of the American musicals covered in this book. It focuses on how the study of the American musical might proceed, either by historiography, history, media, identity, the various elements of performance (how a musical is put together), and by the audience (how the commercialism of the musical organizes its production and its reception). The self-reflexive structure means that some descriptions in the book mention the same musical in different analytical contexts, and some traverse the same historical moment from different interpretive perspectives. The studies focusing on a single musical relying on archival research to unearth details about the production process are also presented in the book. The book promotes scholarship supporting the study of musicals that is gradually attracting students, as more dissertations are written and books published on musicals each year.
Texts and Authors
Authors: Lovensheimer Jim 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Several experts share their views on the terms, “texts” and “authors”, with regard to the musical. David Savran, theater and cultural theorist, suggests that no form of western theater (with the possible exception of opera) uses as many different media to produce a totality that is always far more than the sum of its parts so the analysis requires an implicit or explicit theorization of multiple systems of signification. Bernhard Radloff reports that a structure is composed of elements of signification by which the greater or lesser unity of those elements makes itself manifest. Kier Elam mentions that the researcher in theater and drama is faced with two quite dissimilar types of textual material, which includes the one that are produced in the theater and another that is composed for the theater. These two potential focuses of semiotic attention are indicated as the theatrical or performance text and the written or dramatic text respectively. Various dramatic texts of the musical do not necessarily relate to each other in any kind of hierarchical system, as the proponents of the composer-dominant approach might have it, but instead produce a somewhat egalitarian intertextuality.
Evolution of Dance in the Golden Age of the American “Book Musical”
Authors: Gennaro Liza 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article provides a detailed description of the evolution of dance in the golden age of the American “book musical”. Choreographers, partnering with writers, composers, and lyricists, developed a collaborative creative approach in which dance, music, and spoken narrative combined to produce the “book musical”, an integrated form in which song and dance emerge seamlessly from spoken dialogue. The creation of dances for a “book musical” requires a method different from that of concert venues, where the initial formative impulse of a dance develops solely from the mind of the choreographer. The Golden Age began with Rodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! (1943), choreographed by Agnes de Mille, and ended with Bock and Harnick's Fiddler on the Roof (1964), directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. The techniques of a director, Ned Wayburn, of Golden Age, were rooted in American Delsarte, military drills, and the hierarchical systems of nineteenth-century ballet spectacles. His strategy for success was a methodically prescribed system for making dances that included six categories of musical theater dancing such as musical comedy technique, toe specialties, exhibition ballroom, acrobatic work, tapping and stepping, and modern Americanized ballet. The performers and dance directors, who were making significant efforts to invent performance acts that showcased unique talents and distinguished them from competitors, borrowed movement vocabularies from a wide range of dance styles.
Minstrelsy and Theatrical Miscegenation
Authors: Riis Thomas L. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
American minstrelsy or blackface minstrelsy arose in the early nineteenth century as a form of mass entertainment. American minstrelsy was the most influential and long-lived musical-theatrical development in the antebellum period with effects that can be observed in the present. Each form of popular entertainment created in the United States since the early nineteenth century has been touched by it. American minstrelsy was banned or suppressed for its virulent racial stereotyping during the second half of the twentieth century but its elements resurfaced in environments where underclass theatrical expression could come out and be expressed safely in the same venues that encouraged ragtime, jazz, rock-and-roll, and hip-hop. The minstrel show, which by 1844 began adhering to consistent formats and advertising itself as a full night's entertainment, comprised a variety of interwoven elements that include jokes, dances, patter, topical skits, eccentric instruments, sentimental and comic songs, and mimicry of familiar and prominent persons. Folk theatricals or seasonal holiday celebrations with ancient roots also employed blackface performance in unscripted but widely practiced rituals of chaos, such as Mardi Gras or Carnival, where all is topsy-turvy. Blackface minstrelsy grew and changed with a protean character that defies full explanation. It did far more than borrow surface racial features or allow it to be limited to a single signifier.
The Filmed Musical
Authors: Knapp Raymond , Morris Mitchell 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article focuses on the specific historical contributions of filmed musicals and examines selected areas of intersection between stage and screen. The four significant domains of filmed musicals are mise-en-scène covering all aspects of the “look” within the film's frame that include setting, whether specially constructed or found in the everyday world, and lighting, both artificial and natural. Another domain is cinematography that involves three things such as photographic qualities of the shot such as color, hue, speed, perspective, framing, or the way that the borders of the particular image focus viewer attention, particularizing the image, and duration, or “take” that is the length of the camera's view of a specific scene before cutting to another. Another domain is editing that depends on qualities of the mise-en-scène and cinematography. The narrative sound film typically maintains the illusion of reality through deploying its combination of images and sounds so as to seem natural to audiences, whether by directly simulating experienced reality or by following familiar conventions of cinematic storytelling. Musicals adjust the default aesthetic of cinematic realism at nearly every turn, because in musical numbers characters appear to sing and dance their feelings in open violation of the restrained acting fostered by cinematic realism.
The Television Musical
Authors: Stilwell Robynn J. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Three different versions of Cinderella, which are studied here, offer an opportunity to examine the specificity of a musical made for television and the medium as it changes over the years between. The first version was performed live in a complex soundstage set. The live-ness and the integral set meant that the performance was closest to a theatrical production. The acting style is theatrical and slightly restrained to the small scale of the television screen, particularly the small screen of the 1950s. The 1965 version was shot on soundstages, with much simpler and more spacious sets. The 1957 version has a rococo design aesthetic and the 1965 version is a combination of the modern and the medieval. The Disney version is strongly centered on the voice. The role of the Prince in this version is considerably more “generic adolescent” than the Prince of the 1965 version. The structural bonding between Cinderella and the Prince is used efficiently in the 1997 version, where the leads meet through Richard Rodgers's “The Sweetest Sound”, interpolated from No Strings. The relationship between the Prince and Cinderella is focused in this version but more attention is given to other characters, particularly the fairy godmother, the stepmother, and the major-domo of the castle. The romance between Cinderella and the Prince in this version seems more youthful.
Musical Theater Directors
Authors: Grossman Barbara Wallace 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The role of directors in the American musicals has evolved significantly over the years. The vision of directors shapes an entire production, which ensures the success of the theater. The partnership of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II led to significant musical development. Rodgers and Hammerstein placed new emphasis on a well-crafted book as the basis for a unified, artistic whole. Dance had always been an essential part of musicals but emerged as a key element in dramatic storytelling with the work of Agnes de Mille, who brought ballet to Rodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! and Carousel (1945). Some experts viewed the ascendance of the director-choreographer negatively, claiming that this “hybrid type” exercised undue influence on both script and score and always privileged dance over text. Whether director-producer, director-playwright, director-dramaturg, director-designer, or simply director, he or she was now the artistic leader of a production, no matter how collaborative the art form was. Arthur Laurents suggests that the look of the musical now is the director's look. He chooses the designers, he conveys his vision, he guides, and he edits. When the duties are divided between a director and a choreographer, then the choreographer is in charge if there is a lot of music. The musical numbers tend to be the most memorable parts of a production so the contribution of a director, as opposed to a director-choreographer, may be difficult for the average theatergoer to appreciate unless the director is also associated with some other tangible element such as the book.
Acting
Authors: Clum John M. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article points out various aspects of acting in a musical theater. The acting was not always a primary concern in the history of musical theater. Stars of musical comedy were either singers or comedians who could sing competently or who couldn't sing at all. Traditional musical comedy was a hybrid performed by specialists. The chorus was split into singers and dancers. Serious actors usually avoided the musical entirely since there was enough serious drama on Broadway to keep them busy. Operetta, extremely popular in the 1920s, was built on stock characters that include the exotic romantic leading soprano and baritone, the comic mezzo and bass, the wistful tenor, and the perky soubrette. These same characters appeared again and again in different settings and costumes. Acting was definitely secondary to quasi-operatic singing. A singing star such as Ethel Merman was expected to sing and wisecrack with the comics, which she did in a succession of musicals in the 1930s and early 1940s.
Box Office
Authors: Adler Steven 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article examines the influence of the box office on the making of musicals. The key players in the box-office arena are producers, attorneys, critics, general managers, and investors. Producers evaluate a theater's location, stage size, sightlines, ambience, and seating capacity to determine where to house a production. Producers must consider theater rents, union-negotiated salaries, royalties, equipment, advertising, insurance, utilities, and development expenses for earlier versions of the show, and weekly operating expenses, when considering whether to proceed with a production. Muscular box-office receipts and small capitalization result in rapid recoupment. The relationship between commercial producers and not-for-profit theaters is a relatively new but vitally important factor in the box-office arena. Producing wisdom, composed of equal parts experience and intuition, is essential in determining the future of new work. Spring Awakening played at the Off Broadway, not-for-profit Atlantic Theater Company in spring 2006. Off Broadway, a designation that applies to a range of not-for-profit and commercial theaters throughout Manhattan, is a less expensive choice and with a maximum of 499 seats and being a lower remunerative venue than Broadway, theaters can seat as many as 2,000. Good ideas may succeed in one venue but fail in another. Many new musicals that earn significant audience reaction elsewhere fail on Broadway, where different expectations and audience demographics create a more challenging environment.
Audiences and Critics
Authors: Dvoskin Michelle 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article explains the role of audience and critics in the musicals. The published critics are the individuals who make their living experiencing and responding to musicals, alongside other forms of performance. These are most often writers with some knowledge about and interest in the form, and throughout the musical's history they have been influential in regard to both audiences' attitudes and size. Audience reaction served as feedback for the artistic team, who would then often make adjustments to the show to maximize its audience appeal. The musical theater audiences are part of a communal experience with other audience members and the performers, and are involved in a reciprocal relationship which can change the quality and success of a performance. Most audiences are aware of their influence and manage their responses accordingly. Critics, adversarial or supportive, have been essential collaborators throughout musical theater's history. New media platforms have created increasing opportunities for criticism that can both add to the historical archive and influence an ever-wider body of potential audience members. The advent of online media has increased opportunities for less official, but often no less astute, criticism such as blogs, which allow for more specialized criticism that explicitly takes up particular points of view. The immensely popular social networking site facebook also offers opportunities for recreational criticism.
Performance, Authenticity, and the Reflexive Idealism of the American Musical
Authors: Knapp Raymond 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
The article focuses on advancement in the authenticity or idealism through artificial modes of performance offered up in musicals. Musicology became established as a discipline during the nineteenth century in part as an outgrowth of German Idealism and German nationalism, which gave a direction and purpose to the young discipline. The authenticity comes out directly from the historically based valorization of subjective musical expression, and links up to both a related valorization of folk music as authentic within nationalist discourses and a strong latter-day emphasis on the recapturing of origins, whether in source studies, sketch studies, editions, or performance practice. The interpretation and re-creation influences every facet of putting on a musical, combining to create a complex layering of performances at every stage. The humor in American musicals tends to suggest that negative forces need not be taken seriously, or at least should not be allowed the final say, an attitude that emerged as a particularly American form of idealism. The reflexive idealism of the American musical has a specifically musical basis, relating to its comic tone and deriving from European musical comedy in the eighteenth century, borrowing in particular the sanguine assurances of tonality, the sustaining musical achievement of the eighteenth century. A musical may thus bring dramatic emphasis to bear on idealist potentials, arguing through plotting and musical numbers that ideals are more valuable than their potential for realization, and this matters beyond the realities that prevent their fulfillment.