bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Methods for Retrospective Detection of Exposure to Toxic Scheduled Chemicals. Part
B
: Mass Spectrometric and Immunochemical Analysis of Covalent Adducts to Proteins and
DNA
Authors: Noort Daan , Black Robin M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
In this article, an overview of the methods that are currently available for retrospective detection of exposure to a number of chemical warfare agents (CWA), based on adducts formed with macromolecules such as proteins, is presented. These methods can be applied for various purposes, e.g. diagnosis and dosimetry of exposure of casualties, confirmation of nonexposure, verification of nonadherence to the Chemical Weapons Convention, health surveillance, and forensic purposes. The advantage of using protein adducts as biomarkers in comparison with free metabolites is that they are potentially much more long‐lived. The methods are predominantly based on LC/MS analysis of enzymatic digests of the (modified) proteins or on selective removal of the specific adduct moiety from the protein, followed by GC/MS or LC/MS. Several of the methods have been successfully applied to actual cases and were shown to be highly retrospective.
Mass Spectrometry for Peptide and Protein Analysis
Authors: Duncan Mark W. , Gibson David S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMass spectrometry is playing an increasingly important role in the characterization and quantification of peptides and proteins. In fact, more conventional approaches to characterization, including techniques such as Edman sequencing and amino acid (AA) analysis, have been largely displaced. Mass analysis — following either matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) or electrospray ionization (ESI) — offers rapid molecular mass determinations with high mass accuracy on subpicomole amounts of material and information can be obtained on the constituents of complex mixtures.The application of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) allows fragmentation of peptide ions, and of proteins with some enhancements too. The MS/MS spectra of peptides and proteins can interpreted de novo or matched against database entries to provide partial amino acid sequence information and peptide/protein identification. Both peptide‐centric (bottom‐up) and protein‐centric (top‐down) approaches to protein characterization have been adopted and are now routinely applied.Mass spectrometry has also been pivotal to the development and wide application of proteomics: i.e. the large‐scale identification of the proteins present in a complex biological sample. Proteomics is now routinely applied to characterize and quantify the constituents of complex biological tissues and fluids.This entry describes the available approaches to peptide and protein characterization based on mass spectrometry, the constantly evolving analytical methods for proteomics, and available strategies for protein quantification.
Detection of Explosives using Pulsed Laser Fragmentation andMIRSpectroscopy
Authors: Mordmueller Mario , Willer Ulrike , Schade Wolfgang 
Published: December 2012

AbstractWithin the past years, an increasing number of optical techniques for the detection of harmful substances has been investigated on account of the threat of terroristic attacks. Optical technologies have the capability to overcome the problems of extensive sample preparation and long measurement cycles that are known from widely used detection techniques such as mass spectrometry and gas chromatography. The threat of bombings has also produced interest in standoff techniques — in addition to checkpoint applications for screening of persons. Even in this field, optical technologies are well suited: to date, Raman spectroscopy and laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) seem to be the most promising technologies, but other optical methods are permanently developed. Particularly detection in the midinfrared (MIR) spectral region, providing selective fingerprints of molecules in the range from 3 to 11 µm, has experienced a renaissance with development of new laser sources, detectors, and spectroscopic techniques. In this paper, some comparatively new techniques for the detection of explosives in the MIR spectral range, relying on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) and photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS), are presented. Another emphasis is put on the indirect detection of explosives via characteristic decomposition products and their active generation with laser‐induced photodissociation techniques.
Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy in Laboratory and Process Analysis
Authors: Alcalà Manel , Blanco Marcelo , Menezes José C. , Felizardo Pedro M. , Garrido Ana , Pérez Dolores , Zamora Eduardo , Pasquini Celio , Romañach Rodolfo J. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractNear‐infrared (NIR) is a spectroscopic method based on the absorption of light in the wavelength region between 700 and 2500 nm due to vibrations of molecular functional groups in the sample. These spectral features arise from overtones and combinations of the fundamental molecular vibrations of these groups that occur in the infrared (IR) at longer wavelengths. NIR is rich with features arising predominantly from vibrations of C–H, O–H, and N–H.(1)NIR spectra are acquired by determining the absorbance,A, of light over a continuous range of wavelengths in spectrophotometers or at several specific wavelengths in fixed‐filter photometers.Absorbance is defined by the following equation:whereIis the signal intensity from the sample relative to the signal intensity from a reference,I0.The reference can be an empty transmission sample cell for liquids, or it can be a broadband spectral reflector, such as a white ceramic, for reflectance measurements of solids. Absorbance is usually linearly related to concentration, following Beer's Law (Equation):where ɛ represents the molar extinction coefficient,Cis the concentration of the species, andlis the optical pathlength of light through the sample.For a particular species and fixed experimental setup, ɛ andlare constants. Letting a constant,k = (ɛl)−1, then (Equation)A principal advantage of NIR over mid‐IR for process applications is the ability to use fiber optics to transmit light between the instrument and the sample over considerable distance with NIR. This permits the instrument, a potential source of ignition, to be placed in safe areas where flammable vapors exist. Only the fiber‐optic probe in contact with the sample and the optical fibers that connect to the instrument need be placed in the hazardous location. A disadvantage of NIR is the characteristics of the spectra, which are typically composed of broad, overlapping peaks in comparison to IR spectra. This often requires the use of sophisticated data analysis methods that place additional demands on vendors to provide stable NIR instruments and upon manufacturers and end‐users to have highly trained staff, often at the PhD level, for calibration model development, implementation, and maintenance.
Lanthanides: Alkoxides
Authors: Boyle Timothy J. , Steele Leigh Anna M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

This chapter discusses the many [Ln(OR)
3
] structural arrangements. It is important to note that this chapter discusses only a few of the many homoleptic, homocationic [Ln(OR)
3
] species and none of the heteroleptic or heterocationic species that are available. The existing work on [Ln(OR)

x

] should lay the groundwork for an understanding of the exciting and diverse structure types that are possible with this family of compounds.
Lanthanides: Alkyl Compounds
Authors: Cotton Simon A. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lanthanide alkyls are still an area where major discoveries remain to be made. These metals do not form simple molecular methyls; only two such compounds, LnMe
3
(Ln = Lu, Y), are known. These are believed to be oligomers and have to be made by an indirect route. Benzyls exist as octahedral solvates
fac
‐[Ln(CH
2
Ph)
3
(THF)
3
] (Ln = Sc, Y, La–Sm, Gd, Dy, Er, and Lu); their structure depends upon the size of the lanthanide concerned, as the compounds of the smaller metals (Sc, Y, Gd, Dy, Er, Lu) all feature three σ‐(h
1
)‐benzyl groups, and those of the largest metals all have three h
2
‐benzyls, with [Sm(CH
2
Ph)
3
(THF)
3
] having one h
2
‐benzyl and two h
1
‐benzyl groups. Five‐coordinate [Ln(CH
2
Ph)
3
(THF)
2
] (Ln = Sc, Lu) also exist. Trialkyls with the (trimethylsilyl)methyl group only exist for the smaller lanthanides, with five‐coordinate [Ln(CH
2
SiMe
3
)
3
(THF)
2
] (Ln = Sc, Tb, Er‐Lu) and six‐coordinate [Sm(CH
2
SiMe
3
)
3
(THF)
3
] known; yttrium forms both types. Using the very bulky bis(trimethylsilyl)methyl group leads to unsolvated three‐coordinate [Ln{CH(SiMe
3
)
2
}
3
] (Ln = Y, La, Ce, Sm, Lu); their trigonal pyramidal coordination geometries feature short Ln⋯CH
3
contacts. Lanthanide alkyls are intensely air‐ and moisture‐sensitive compounds which are employed as starting materials in various syntheses, including catalytic precursors.
Lanthanides: Cyclopentadienyl Compounds
Authors: Kresinski Roman A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCyclopentadienyl complexes were among the first organo— rare earth(III) species to be produced, and their study has burgeoned over the past half‐century due, in part, to improved handling techniques excluding oxygen and moisture. Their synthesis is commonly by means of direct replacement of smaller counterions using agents such as alkali metal cyclopentadienides. This reaction being sterically limiting, the introduction of cyclopentadienide ligands is generally sequential. The interactions between metal and ligand are dominated by electrostatics rather than covalent factors, and thus the predominant mode of bonding is with the metal ion sitting approximately on a planar ligand face, with all five C atoms interacting to approximately the same degree. Since rare earth ionic chemistry is generally electrostatically driven, other ligands may participate in the coordination sphere, according to the available remaining space. Coordination saturation seems to occur with three cyclopentadienyl ligands and two other commonly sized donor atoms such as S, even for the larger, early rare earths. Such ancillary ligands can frequently be accommodated flexibly and reversibly, the cyclopentadienyl ligands adjusting distance and orientation to compensate.For complexes containing three cyclopentadienyl ligands, reactivity is generally limited to such reversible accommodation of ancillary ligands, or removal of ring ligands by protic reagents. For complexes containing two cyclopentadienyl ligands, increased steric space opens up a rich chemistry. Binuclear bridging species become common, and reactions involving insertion or activation of small ligand species become more common: several catalytic cycles are mediated by biscyclopentadienyl rare earth species. Single cyclopentadienyl rare earth complexes are yet more complex in their behavior because of their increased steric openness: however, they do number among them some interesting compounds of hypervalent oxygen and chlorine.
Lanthanides: Shift Reagents
Authors: Geraldes Carlos F.G.C. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The presence of paramagnetic metal centers causes enhanced shift and relaxation effects on the resonances of NMR‐active nuclei of ligand molecules. In this chapter, we describe the basic theory and main applications of paramagnetic NMR shift effects of Ln
3+
ions as structural reporters of small flexible ligands and paramagnetic complexes and their supramolecular constructs. Their applications on the structure and dynamics of proteins are also discussed, with particular emphasis on the aspects relevant to the development of Gd
3+
‐based MRI contrast agents and powerful NMR shift reagents for
in vivo
MRS of alkali ions (e.g.,
23
Na
+
,
7
Li
+
).
Lanthanides: Oxide and Sulfide Nanomaterials
Authors: Tsuzuki Takuya 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRare earth oxides and sulfides have many properties useful for industrial applications. By decreasing the particle size, these properties can be combined with the unique attributes of nanoscale objects, such as high surface area, low light scattering power, and quantum confinement effects, to realize a wide range of new applications. The methods to synthesize nanoparticles of rare earth compounds have been developed rapidly since mid‐1980s. As a result, some rare earth oxides are now produced in a commercial scale, enabling practical applications of rare earth oxide nanoparticles in electronic and automotive industries. Applications of rare earth oxide and sulfide nanoparticles in other industries including biomedicals, renewable energy, environmental protection, pharmaceuticals, personal care, surface coatings, and plastics are also expected in the future.
Lanthanides: Resource Sustainability
Authors: Atwood David A. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRare earth elements have unique electronic, optical, luminescent, and magnetic properties that make them critically important in a broad range of products and applications. For example, rare earth elements are used as catalysts, in manufacturing, medicine, ceramics, and glasses. They are fundamentally important in the generation of clean energy and carbon‐free means of transportation. Projected growth rates of rare earth element demands will, for some elements, exceed production capabilities within several decades. Moreover, rare earth elements are currently mined, concentrated, and used in such an unsustainable manner that these critically important elements are unavailable for future generations. Making rare earth resources sustainable requires not only a careful economic assessment but also a determination of environmental and societal impacts. New chemical and engineering technologies are required to achieve this goal, beginning with the recycling and reuse of existing products. Ultimately, products and applications should be designed so that rare earth elements can be immediately and economically reused.
Age‐Appropriate Instruction and Assessment for School‐Age Learners
Authors: Muñoz Carmen 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe recent trend toward teaching foreign languages in primary and pre‐primary school has enriched the education of young populations in many parts of the world while at the same time it has brought about new challenges for teachers, schools, and educational systems. Mainly, the inclusion of young learners in the foreign language teaching agenda has made evident the importance of age‐related differences among learners and has emphasized the relevance of research results for the provision of age‐appropriate instruction and assessment.
Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Robinson Peter 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLike height, intelligence quotient (IQ), or working‐memory capacity, aptitude is measurable, and differs in degree between learners in any population. Unlike height, aptitude cannot be directly observed, but must be inferred from performance on psychological tests designed to measure it. Higher aptitude for second or foreign‐language learning predicts more successful adaptation to instructed, or naturalistic exposure to the second language (L2), as measured by demonstrably faster progress in learning, and in higher levels of ultimate attainment in proficiency at the end of a course of instruction, or following a period of naturalistic exposure to the L2. Aptitude is therefore atheoretical construct(see Jordan, 2004), operationalized in the form of a test, which aims to predictphenomenathat characterize second language acquisition (SLA) (such as incidental learning, metalinguistic awareness, fossilization, and others), and the extent to which successful SLA occurs as a result. Although little was known about these SLA phenomena during the period when aptitude tests were first developed (the 1930s to the 1950s), recent attempts to conceptualize and measure aptitude are addressing the extent to which tests of aptitude predict them— including for example, the extent of successful incidental L2 learning (Robinson, 2005a), metalinguistic awareness of the L2 (Roehr, 2008), and the influence of each on levels of ultimate L2 attainment (Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2008). Some of these issues are described below, following a discussion of early developed conceptualizations, and measurement of aptitude for language learning.
Assessment of Integrated Skills
Authors: Plakans Lia 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAssessment of integrated skills refers to the use of test tasks that combine two or more language skills to simulate authentic language‐use situations. In such assessment, task demands aim to overlap and synthesize combinations of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Although possibly more common in classroom assessments, such tasks are now included in large‐scale tests, for example:
Assessment of Business and Professional Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Lockwood Jane 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe use of English in international worksites and across business and professions has grown rapidly since the 1980s. Multinational companies doing business worldwide need to communicate and negotiate with each other; global professionals need to build knowledge together across linguistic and cultural boundaries; governments and NGOs need to keep the peace and help build developing countries; and immigrants with professional and occupational aspirations and qualifications need to find work in their new homelands. These situations predominantly use English as their lingua franca (Graddol, 2006). English‐language competency has become a global core skill and a highly valued commodity in today's world of work. Therefore developing and measuring business and professional language competence is understandably in high demand.
Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Leow Ronald P. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe role attention plays in the learning process has almost always been assumed since the earliest studies in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Any exposure, be it aural or written, manipulated or authentic, to the foreign or second language (L2) is arguably premised on the role of attention on the part of the learner. The SLA field up to the mid‐1990s had generally assumed that experimental conditions (instruction or exposure, be it explicit, that is, with awareness, or implicit, that is, without awareness) elicited the required attention paid to the targeted item(s) in the L2 input. This premise is evidenced in the type of research design employed in the studies, which was the classical pretest—experimental condition—posttest design, without any concurrent or online data on learners' actual attention paid to the targeted items in the input.
Baker, Colin
Authors: Lewis W. Gwyn 
Published: December 2012

AbstractColin Ronald Baker, widely acknowledged as one of the most perceptive leading international scholars in the field of bilingualism and bilingual education, was born on October 1, 1949 to a monolingual English family in Danbury, Essex, southeast England. Having attended the local primary school in Danbury and King Edward VI Grammar School in Chelmsford, he crossed the border to Wales to receive his higher education at Bangor, a university that specializes in bilingualism and which is situated in a city in the heartland of Welsh‐speaking Wales where the indigenous population is fluently bilingual in English and Welsh. He graduated with First Class Honors in Educational Studies before obtaining his PhD in Social Psychology. One of his influential tutors at Bangor was W. R. Jones, who had a worldwide reputation for research and writing on bilingualism and intelligence, language attitudes, and the effectiveness of bilingual education, and so the seeds were sown for Baker's distinguished career in this particular field.
Belcher, Diane
Authors: Hirvela Alan 
Published: December 2012

AbstractSince the mid‐1990s it has been impossible to think of work in the domain of language for specific purposes (LSP) without also thinking of Diane Belcher. This has been particularly true in the case of English for specific purposes (ESP), where Diane's voice has resonated strongly, clearly, and persuasively as a scholar and journal editor. In each of these roles she has had a major impact on the development of ESP theory and pedagogy. In particular, she has been a master at synthesizing and interpreting key work in the field and then extracting from it new perspectives and insights that extend the boundaries of the field and challenge how we think about ESP. This has also meant being a leader and a risk‐taker, someone willing to question the status quo, to formulate intriguing and valuable new ideas, and to advocate for people not properly represented in ESP.
Bhatia, Vijay
Authors: Lung Jane 
Published: December 2012

AbstractVijay Kumar Bhatia is known internationally as one of the leading researchers and theorists on the subject of genres and is a renowned international author in the field of English for specific purposes. He is best known for his work in critical genre analysis of professional discourse. Over the past 44 years his specialities have grown to include discourse and critical genre analysis, legal analysis, as well as ESP and professional communication (theory and practice). He is a professor in the Department of English at the City University of Hong Kong and the founding president of the Asia‐Pacific Association of LSP and Professional Communication; he is also an adjunct professor at the Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
Bilingual Education and Immigration
Authors: Edwards Viv 
Published: December 2012

Abstract“Globalization”—or economic activity across national frontiers—is a relatively new term, usually applied to more recent population movements. The process to which it refers, however, started in the late 19th century, slowed in the period from the start of World War I, and has been gaining speed ever since, assisted by increasingly sophisticated communications and transport technologies (Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency [ESCWA], 2008). From the 1960s, migration began to involve a wider range of sending and receiving countries (Spellman, 2002); since the late 1990s, the nature and extent of this migration have undergone further rapid changes. This new migration has been characterized by “super‐diversity” or “the diversification of diversity” (Vertovec, 2006).
Brain Activity During Second Language Processing (ERP)
Authors: Davidson D. J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
The electroencephalogram (EEG) offers a unique view of second language (L2) processing because it is one of the few noninvasive techniques available within cognitive neuroscience to directly examine brain function during key events that take place during language comprehension. An EEG recording is a record of large‐scale electrical activity of the brain over time, usually recorded with an electrode attached to the skin on the scalp. Primarily because it offers good time resolution, and because it is somewhat better suited to receptive language processing rather than production, researchers have used EEG to address questions about the functional organization of second language (L2) comprehension and learning. The time resolution of EEG enables it to capture the rapidly changing electrical response to individual words, morphemes, or speech sounds. Because of this, experiments are often conducted to examine first and/or second language performance using tasks that require listeners (or readers) to comprehend relatively short‐duration material such as syllables, words, or sentences. The average response is then used, for example, to better understand when or how L1 and L2 language processing differ in the first few moments after the onset of a word, and also how these responses change over time during learning.