bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Economics and Well Spacing in Texas
Authors: Hubbard William E. 
Published: June 2014

During the last decade the known reserves of petroleum in the United Stateshave increased from about five billion to over thirteen billion barrels. Fromthe standpoint of public welfare the existence of these known reserves presentsan undeniably favorable picture, but viewed from the position of many aharassed operator the blessing has not always been considered an unmixedone.
Along with this increase in excess reserves, curtailment of production has comeinto being as a matter of necessity and the principle of proration as a matterof equity. As a practical matter it has been considered necessary to curtailthe production of old wells as well as that of new wells in a pool. The rightof new pools to produce has been recognized, and the allowable for them hascome partly from increased market demand and largely from the allowablesalready enjoyed by the developed pools. The natural result-a downward trend indaily per-well allowables-has been especially felt by Texas operators. Thistrend may be illustrated by Table 1, which comprises the five active areas inTexas, and from which may be noted the following:The average daily allowable per well has decreased about 53 per cent inthree years.Of the 184,000-bbl. increase in total allowable for the five areas, 29,000bbl. came from the increase in state demand and 165,000 from the combinedallowables of the remaining pools in the state.
Desalting Crude Oils
Authors: Egloff Gustav , Nelson Edwin F. , Maxutov C.D. , Wirth Charles 
Published: June 2014

The treatment of emulsified crude oils has been a problem for years in thepetroleum industry. Until comparatively recently various methods of settlingwith and without chemicals have been used with indifferent success. Since wellshave been acidized, emulsified crudes have been produced, which addconsiderably to the need for improved methods of treatment. The presence oflarge quantities of salts in the oils from acidized wells has presented severalnew problems to the industry. The use of hydrochloric acid in well treatmentshas caused the formation of sodium, magnesium, and calcium chlorides byinteraction with the dolomitic limestones. These salts dissolve readily in thewater normally present in the oil, and they. are therefore incorporated in theemulsified oil. The crystalline salts have also been found in the oil, prevented from settling by protective films such as asphalt, resins andpetrolatum. In some instances, free hydrochloric acid has been found. The saltsmay be present in crude oil in amounts ranging from a few pounds to over 1000lb. per 1000 bbl. of oil.
The transportation of these crude oils through pipe lines has led to erosiveand corrosive effects, which are a tremendous cost to the petroleum industry. During 1937, more than 1,200,000,000 bbl. of crude oil was transported throughpipe lines. Of this quantity approximately 10,000,000 bbl. was water, andconsiderably more than 50,000,000 lb. was salts. If the crude oils were treatedat the producing wells to remove the salts and water, an appreciable savingwould be possible. The treatment would not be difficult, since it has beenfound that these oils are more easily treated at the time they are producedthan after the aging and more stable emulsification that occur before theyreach the refinery. Since great costs are involved in the use of.these saltycrudes at the refinery, treated oils essentially free of salts would naturallycommand a premium.
The real added costs lie in refining salt-containing crude oils. Severecorrosion of refinery equipment in both topping and cracking installations hasappeared in many refineries.
T.P. 915
Surface and Interfacial Tensions of Oil-water Systems in Texas Oil Sands
Authors: Livingston H.K. 
Published: June 2014

The first person to investigate intensively the vast field of surfacephenomena and capillary effects was the eminent English scientist, LordRayleigh (1842–1919), who laid down most of the fundamentals of this subject.This work was greatly amplified by Irving Langmuir, who, in connection withresearch for the General Electric Co., spent 25 years on the study of thesurface chemistry of films, finally receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for1932 in recognition of his work. At present, William Harkins, of the Universityof Chicago, is the world's foremost authority on surface-tension measurementand his independent work, when combined with that of Langmuir, resulted in theorientation concept of solubility and surface activity, which is now animportant fundamental in chemistry. The theory laid down by these men was firstapplied to practical considerations regarding petroleum reservoirs by F. E.Bartell, of the University of Michigan, in connection with an AmericanPetroleum Institute research grant. The latest and most advanced application ofBartell's work is contained in an article published in 1935 by Allen Garrisonof Rice Institute, in which he relates Bartell's measurements to the ratio ofoil to water produced by wells and shows the types of petroleum reservoirswhere the effects studied by Bartell are significant. This article is intendedas a minor extension of such work.

Method
The experimental work of this investigation involved determination of theviscosity of crude oil, specific gravity and surface tension of the crude oiland of connate water occurring with those oils, and interfacial tension betweenthe oil and the water, which occurred together. Because the volume of oil inmany of the samples was small, it was necessary to use the Ostwald pipette fordetermining viscosities, rather than the more familiar Saybolt universalviscosimeter.
T.P. 1001
Recent Advances in Knowledge of the Colloidal Properties of Clay Suspensions and Gels
Authors: Reed Charles E. 
Published: June 2014

With the increasing importance of clay in drilling operations which demandmore precise and exacting control over its behavior, there has come therealization that most of our present methods of control over many of itsimportant properties still represent more of an art than a science. Such asituation with respect to a material of such industrial significance isunfortunate, and naturally many investigations have been conducted to improveour knowledge. In general, these investigations have revealed the complexnature of clay behavior and while sometimes they may not have seemed tocontribute directly to a solution of the field operator's problems they havebeen of inestimable importance in bringing to light the broad fundamentalscientific principles upon which must be based any effective working theorycorrelating the known facts of clay behavior and predicting profitable newlines of attack for its improvement.

Major Facts Concerning Behavior of Clays
In the study of clays, as in that of most other colloidal materials, it hasbeen impossible to make progress by the study of isolated facts. On the otherhand, analysis of large groups of facts, many of which seem at first completelyunrelated, can lead to a deeper insight into the structure of clays and themechanism of their behavior. It will be well to list the major facts on whichthe analysis here presented is based, starting with those that have emergedrepeatedly from past investigations and which thereby constitute an impregnablefoundation upon which must rest any comprehensive theory of claybehavior:Clays consist of hydrated aluminosilicates of extremely fine and variableparticle size.Suspended in water, clays exhibit variable degrees of swelltng, dependingupon their origin and upon the chemical and colloidal nature of any othersubstances present. The magnitude of the swelling is a direct indication of theextent to which the clay has become dispersed.
T.P. 871
Intensive Weighting of Petroleum Drilling Muds with Galena
Authors: Gross Henry Emmitt 
Published: June 2014

Recently, areas of abnormal rock pressure have been drilled on the Gulf Coast of the United States. These pressures may be caused by the recent andpronounced raising of some of the structures without loss of the formationpressure that existed when the reservoir was developing and the producing sandmuch more deeply buried. It is possible also that a permeable fissure mayconnect a shallow accumulation of gas with the gas cap of a much deeperreservoir of oil, gas and water. The pressures are so great that dependence onblowout-prevention equipment alone is hazardous to life and property.Fortunately, wells with excessive casinghead pressures, such as the StanolindOates No. 1 of the South Houston field, an 8700-ft. gas well with 6000 lb. persq. in., and the near-by Stanolind Candelari No.1, and 8100-ft. gas well with5000 lb. per sq. in., have not blown out and cratered. A case is on record ofdrill pipe i.n a well in Harris County, Texas, (Oates No.1) rotating for 8 hr.through blowout-prevention rams holding a back pressure of 2900 lb. per sq. in.at the casinghead after the mud was altered by salt-water intrusion. Suchconditions warrant the use of extremely heavy muds having low viscosity, madefrom galena (PbS) or specially prepared mixtures of hematite (Fe20s) and galenasuspended by bentonite.
In some Gulf Coast wells, sodium silicate mixed with concentrated brine is usedto drill through heaving shale formations. Such a fluid inhibits heavingremarkably, but it is expensive and? costs as much as $10 per barrel. Baritehas been used to weight this mixture. However, this mineral too rapidlyincreased an already excessive viscosity and it was thought that galena mightbe better for weighting such drilling fluid. The operator was anxious to trythe latter, but none was available in the district.
T.P. 918
Mud Technique in Iran
Authors: Strong M.W. 
Published: June 2014

The technique of handling drilling muds varies somewhat, partly because of personal factors but mainly because of differences in formation, the type ofproblems, and the general drilling conditions in different localities.
The much greater depths to which bore holes are now carried have made necessarycloser attention to and great modifications of all aspects of drilling-mudtechnique. Increased depth means smaller hole, smaller drill pipe, smallerclearances, higher pumping pressures, higher differential pressures betweenshows and the mud column, less accurate control of the weight of the mudcolumn, delayed receipt of formation data, and poorer samples. It means longerdelays and greater hazards in rectifying mistakes or dealing with accidentaloccurrences. Equipment on a larger scale is necessary and more pains must betaken with layout. Lastly, the budget costs of raw materials have risen to highfigures and economy of time and of direct monetary expenditure have come tomean much more than formerly.
A mud laboratory is now part of the essential establishment of a modern oilfield and to it current problems can be submitted for the most thoroughinvestigation. The detailed chemical properties of all materials purchased orquarried have to be investigated. Detailed data on the physical properties haveto be ascertained and research on improvement of material and its mostefficient use has to be carried out.
In this paper will be discussed the main mud problems of Iran, some of whichare peculiar to local conditions while others are of the general type common toall workers in this subject.
T.P. 1005
Seismograph Prospecting for Oil
Authors: English Walter A. , Tracy Willard H. , Nomann Arthur , Ittner Frank , Kelly P.C. 
Published: June 2014

Introduction
The four papers making up this symposium have been prepared especially forthose who have no knowledge of seismograph prospecting. To many peoplemathematics is a formidable subject, and many are discouraged from studyingseismograph prospecting under the mistaken assumption that the mathematicalrequirements are severe. In the papers presented here there is not a singlemathematical equation. We believe that considerable competence in dealing withsome of the most important problems of this work can be attained without anymathematical training whatever. At the present time, there is a real need forinterpretation of results by persons thoroughly competent to bring geologicexperience and imagination to bear on data that are subject to multipleinterpretation from a strictly physical viewpoint.
Likewise, those charged with the responsibility of planning seismographexploration campaigns would do well to become familiar with as much as possibleof the technical aspects of the work. They would then be in better position tojudge of its success in individual cases. It has often been said that theseismograph is a new structure-finding tool for the geologists to use. Using atool and using its product are two different things. One does not use anautomatic screw-threading machine when he buys a box of screws at the hardwarestore.
T.P. 1059
Significance of the Critical Phenomena in Oil and Gas Production
Authors: Katz D.L. , Singleterry C.C. 
Published: June 2014

The critical phenomena have been studied during the past century but ourknowledge of the critical temperatures and pressures of complex hydrocarbonmixtures still is very limited. The critical temperatures and pressures of puresubstances have been examined in large numbers, and in great detail. Noexperimental determinations of the critical phenomena have been reported onsuch complex hydrocarbon systems as a reservoir fluid.
The critical temperature is defined by Taylor as follows: "there is sometemperature for each gas above which the gas cannot be liquefied. Thistemperature is called the critical temperature." The critical pressure of apure substance is the vapor pressure at the critical temperature. It should benoted that these definitions refer to a given substance in the pure state anddo not mean that the pure substance cannot be liquefied in the presence of asecond constituent.
The normal procedure for obtaining the critical temperature of a substance isto heat it in a glass tube 1.20 under pressure until the meniscus between theliquid and vapor phase disappears, although other methods, especially formixtures, have been used. However, when considering oil and gas reservoirs, itis more enlightening to. consider a critical phenomenon that occurs when amixture of oil and gas are compressed at a reservoir temperature until themeniscus disappears because the two phases become equal in composition. Thisconception, along with erroneous applications of the definition of the criticalphenomena of a pure substance to that pure substance when it is part of acomplex mixture, has caused confusion even among persons familiar with theclassical theories.
T.P. 971
Flow of Oil-water Mixtures through Unconsolidated Sands
Authors: Leverett M.C. 
Published: June 2014

The behavior of mixtures of immiscible liquids in porous solids is ofrapidly increasing interest to those engaged in the production of petroleum. The operation of artificial water-floods and the control of natural onesimmediately raise questions concerning the fundamental nature of suchprocesses. Moreover, it is now recognized that often water occurs dispersed throughout the rock from which the oil issues into the well, 1 and thus tendsto move toward the well simultaneously with the oil. The work reported here isa laboratory investigation of the simultaneous, steady-state flow of oil andwater through the same column of unconsolidated sand. It is thus directlyrelated to the situation in which water occurs in oil-producing sands j it mayhave less direct implications for the displacement of oil from sands by water.However, it is to be clearly understood that the experiments to be describedwere performed primarily to obtain information of a more or less fundamentalnature, and are not an attempt to reproduce, on laboratory scale, any part ofan oil field.
The dynamic behavior of a system in which oil and water are flowingsimultaneously through sand is best described in terms of its "effectivepermeability" to either phase. For incompressible fluids flowing through asystem of uniform cross section, the effective permeabilities to the twophases, in darcys, may be defined by the equations.
In order to put the results obtained on a comparable basis for different sands, the effective permeabilities will be stated as fractions of the normalpermeability of the sand; i.e., fractions of its permeability to a homogeneousfluid.
T.P. 1003
Flow of Gas-liquid Mixtures through Consolidated Sand
Authors: Botset Holbrook G. 
Published: June 2014

Experiments performed in this laboratory on the flow of gas-liquid mixturesthrough unconsolidated sands have been described and discussed in an earlierpaper. In these earlier experiments a definite relationship was found betweenthe liquid saturation of a sand and its permeability to the liquid or gasphase. Furthermore, the nature of the sand, the permeabilities of the sandsover a range between 17 and 260 darcies, appeared to have a negligible effectupon the saturation-permeability relation. Likewise experiments indicated thatthe viscosity of the liquid, or the substitution of an immiscible liquid forthe gas phase, had only a very slight effect on the permeability-saturationrelation. This conclusion has since been definitely confirmed by theexperiments of M. C. Leverett on the flow of oil and water throughunconsolidated sands. The sands used by Leverett were of very low permeability(between 6.8 and 1.04 darcies), while the oil-water viscosity ratio variedbetween 90 and 0.057.
Since the sands that constitute petroleum reservoirs are largely consolidated, although of widely varying degrees of consolidation, it was desirable to extendthe experiments on gas-liquid mixtures to consolidated sand. In the study ofconsolidated sands additional variables are involved, but for the initialexperiments the only new variable to be introduced was the cementingmaterial.

Experimental Procedure
A comparatively limited assortment of sandstones was available for theselection of the experimental material. Of these, the Nichols buff sandstoneappeared to be most suitable. It gives no visual evidence of any beddingplanes, it has a firm structure, permitting easy handling, and its permeabilityis about 0.5 darcy. Its only disadvantage is the fact that It contains anappreciable amount of ferric oxide which, for experiments involving water, willhydrate and reduce the permeability.
T.P. 1111
Effect of Temperature on Plastering Properties and Viscosity of Rotary Drilling Muds
Authors: Byck H.T. 
Published: June 2014

The plastering properties of six representative California drilling mudswere studied over a temperature range of 700 to 1750 F. at several mud weights, using a high-pressure circulating filter press with full size consolidatedcores. In all tests, with untreated as well as with chemically treated muds, the filtration rates at elevated temperature were higher than at lowtemperatures and in nearly every case this increased filtration rate wasnotably larger than could be attributed alone to the decreased viscosity ofwater-the flowing medium-at elevated temperatures.
It is concluded that no existing method will permit even an approximatedetermination of the filtration rate at high temperature from data at roomtemperature. It is necessary to measure filtration at the temperature actuallyanticipated in the well, or to make a sufficient number of tests at variouslower temperatures so that a small extrapolation of these data to theanticipated well temperature may be applied. Such tests should be carried outon the mud as actually used in the well.
The viscosity of each of the muds was determined over the same temperaturerange. While no relationship was observed between mud viscosity and plasteringproperties, it was found that chemical treatment of the muds for viscosityreduction shifted the temperature of minimum viscosity to appreciably highervalues than for untreated muds.

Importance of Plastering Properties
A survey of the literature on rotary drilling muds clearly shows the growingrealization of theDDDD importance of plastering properties, not only from thepoint of view of the successful completion of the mechanical operation ofdrilling the well but also from the point of view of minimum impairment of thenatural flow possibilities of a given well.
T.P. 1116
A New Method of Constructing Subsurface Models
Authors: Bravinder Kenneth M. , Sheldon Dean H. , Koogle Jonathan E. 
Published: June 2014

The solution of subsurface geological problems requires an analysis ofvertical and horizontal dimensional relationships. For many, the ability tovisualize structures in three dimensions is not easily acquired, and for areaswhere the structural conditions are complicated by faulting the need arises forillustrative models. This has led to the many forms of peg models, in which theusual course of construction includes a peg for the well bore, and thesuspension of strings from peg to peg to illustrate the formation correlationbetween wells, thus developing the usual folds and flexures. Such models provedunsatisfactory for the analysis of fault problems. Consideration was then givento the use of transparent materials.
A model of the Dominguez oil field was constructed in 1935, which consisted ofa series of glass panels from well to well on which the formations were shownin color. This model, though serving its purpose at the time, proved to beimpractical from the standpoints of cost, breakage hazard, and extremedifficulty in maintenance. The cost of materials was estimated to beapproximately $300, and the construction required the services of one man for aperiod of from 10 to 12 months. Maintenance after actual construction was anadditional expense.Consideration was then given to the use of celluloid, andafter some experimental work it was found that the advantages in its use were:a short construction time,ease of handling the material,sectionsare easily reworked,low cost.

Construction
It would be of little value to recount here the difficulties encountered in thebuilding of the first celluloid model. The conclusions drawn, however, suggestthe following procedure for those who contemplate the construction of such amodel:Determination of the Scale.-Accurate geological interpretation requires theuse of the same scale horizontally and vertically. It should be emphasized thatthe limited size of the celluloid sheets (20 by 48 in. maximum dimensions), thearea to be studied, the maximum depths to be plotted, and area of possiblefuture development are the controlling factors in adopting a scale to beused.Construction of the Base.-A satisfactory base may be constructed by usingtwo pieces of three-ply wood separated by strips of I by 2-in. material. Thistype of construction prevents warping of the base. The size of the base isdetermined by the dimensions of the area to be studied plus 5 in. on all sides.A map of the same scale as that adopted for the model, indicating the lines ofsection to be used, should be fastened to the base.
T.P. 1271