bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mars
Authors: Scopacasa Rafael 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA major Italian deity, Mars (OscanMamers/Mamars, EtruscanMaris) was associated with warfare, agriculture, and animal husbandry. Together with Jupiter and Quirinus, Mars formed a central triad in Roman and Italic religion, and was regarded as the protector of Roman territory. He became identified with the Greek Ares, also a war god. The main priests of Mars in Rome were theflamen Martialisand the Salii, and sacrifices offered to him usually consisted of thesuovetaurilia, the joint sacrifice of a bull, ram, and boar. The names “Mars” and “Mamers” can be traced back to the proto‐Indo‐European rootmar‐, which is also present in the Sanskrit wordmarikis(“beam of light, radiant”).
Meditrinalia
Authors: Holland Lora L. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Meditrinalia was a Latin wine festival celebrated on October 11, attested in Latin literature and on some Roman calendars (fasti). It is associated with a goddess, Meditrina (FestusGloss. Lat. 110), but we have no evidence for her cult in the archaeological record. It is the last wine festival of the year, after the Vinalia Priora on April 23 and the Vinalia Rustica on August 19.
Necromancy
Authors: Hanesworth Pauline 
Published: December 2012

AbstractNecromancy is a form of divination based upon communication with the dead. Conducted at tombs (Aesch.Pers. 598–708), on battlefields (Heliod.Aeth. 6.12–15), in homes (PGMIV.1928–2005), or at oracles of the dead (Hdt. 5.92), necromancy seems to operate throughout the ancient world on both the private and state level.
Parentalia
Authors: Dolansky Fanny 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlso referred to asdies Parentalesanddies ferales(“days for the commemoration of the dead” and “days of the dead,” Ov.Fast. 2.548, 2.34), the Parentalia spanned nine days (February 13 to 21) devoted to honoring deceased kin, and was the first of two festivals for the family dead.
Priapus
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAlthough our sources derive him from Orneai (subject to Argos) in Greece (Strabo 13.1.12: 587; Paus. 9.31.2) and Lampsakos on the Hellespont in Greek Asia Minor (Paus.ibid.), Priapus does not appear in early Greek literature or mythology. His fame rests instead on numerous surviving statuettes and figurines as well as on later obscene poems both in Greek (especially in thePalatine Anthology) and in Latin (especially thePriapea).
Religion, Minoan and Mycenaean
Authors: Rutherford Ian 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBefore the decipherment of Linear B, the religions of Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece were seen as a continuum (Nilsson 1950). Today, the two are usually seen as distinct, although there seems to have been influence between them both before and after the presumed Mycenaean invasion of Crete at the start of Late Minoan III (1470?).
Sacrilegium
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The Latin word
sacrilegium
, whence English “sacrilege,” denoted the crime that we might call temple robbery. As its etymology implies, to commit sacrilege is to steal what belongs to a god (i.e., what is
sacer
) from the god's temple or dwelling place (Quint.
Inst
. 7.3.10).
Salus
Authors: Stone Shelley C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractA deified virtue (literally, “well‐being”) that personified the security and welfare of the Roman people. Her temple on the Quirinal Hill was dedicated by C. Iunius Bubulcus on March 5, 302BCE(Livy 10.1.9; Cic.Sest. 63.131).
Temples, Roman
Authors: Kaiser Alan 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Roman temples were just one part of an entire sacred precinct in which worshippers performed rituals for the benefit of themselves, those around them, their cities, and the state. Temples housed cult statues and offerings to the god, as well as equipment used in rituals. The Romans learned much about temple building from the Etruscans and Greeks, but they adapted what they learned to make a uniquely Roman style of temple.
Tyche
Authors: Smith Amy C. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe wordtyche(pluraltychai) denotes an ancient Greek concept encompassing many aspects of fortune – chance, fate, luck, occurrence, even achievement, success, and wealth – both good and bad. As a personification of that concept, the goddess Tyche came to symbolize the fate and fortune of rulers and through them their cities; she thus emerged as the preeminent city goddess throughout the Hellenistic and Roman worlds. Her name is etymologically related to the verbtynchanein(“to hit, meet with, be favored with, happen accidentally”). The connection between the noun and verb is so close that it is difficult to distinguish in Greek literature between the deity and the abstraction.
Beneventum
Authors: Bispham Edward 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAt the junction of the Sabato and Calore rivers, originally in the territory of the Samnite Hirpini, the site of Beneventum lay at the intersection of routes between the Tyrrhenian, the Apennines, and between Rome and southern Italy (the latter becoming the Viae Appia and Traiana).
Commius
Authors: Nice Alex 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Commius (ca. 90‐ca. 30
BCE
) was a Gallic chieftain who played an important role in Caesar's invasions of Britain and the revolt of Vercingetorix. He was appointed king of the Atrebates by Julius Caesar. In 55
BCE
he was dispatched to encourage the British tribes to seek the protection of Rome (Caes.
B Gall
. 4.21).
Dura‐Europos
Authors: Kaizer Ted 
Published: December 2012

AbstractThe Macedonian colony of Europos was founded in the early Hellenistic period on a plateau overlooking the Middle Euphrates, at a site known as Dura, meaning “fortress. ” Though both names were used simultaneously – as is clear from inscriptions and papyri, and especially from Isidorus of Charax, who refers to it as “a city of Nikanor, a foundation of the Macedonians, called Europos by the Hellenes” (Parthian Stations1) – the common appellation “Dura‐Europos” is a modern construction.
Eboracum (York)
Authors: Ottaway Patrick 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Eboracum
(York) lies in northeastern England at a point where the River Ouse cuts a ridge of high ground, which was used in prehistoric times as a route across the low lying Vale of York. Strategic considerations led to the foundation of a legionary fortress ca. 71
CE
by
Legio IX Hispana
, engaged in the conquest of the region. York became the base of
Legio VI Victrix
ca. 122
CE
, after which early timber buildings and the fortress defenses were reconstructed in stone. The south‐western defences featured a remarkable series of polygonal corner and interval towers projecting from the line of the wall. The emperor Septimius Severus made York his campaign base in 208
CE
and died in the city in 211.
Gallia Cisalpina/Italia Transpadana
Authors: Haeussler Ralph 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCisalpine Gaul is a region of North Italy surrounded by the Alps in the north and west, the Adria in the east, and Luca in the south; in the first centuryBCE, the river Rubicon separated Cisalpine Gaul from the rest of Italy (Plut.Caes. 20; 32; Plin.HN3.20).
Isauria
Authors: Elton Hugh 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIsauria was a region in the Taurus Mountains of southern Asia Minor. In the fourth centuryBCE, the term applied to the inland area (also described as southern Lykaonia) around the city of Isaura (Isaura Vetus; modern Bozkir). By the third centuryCE, Isauria was a Roman province extending from the Mediterranean coast up to the borders of Lykaonia.
Lugdunum (Lyons)
Authors: Thorne James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lugdunum (“Stronghold of the god Lug”), a Roman colony established near a Celtic settlement soon after Caesar's Gallic War, became the capital of the province of Lugdunensis, and then of the Three Gauls as a whole. Located at the confluence of the Rhône and Saône, it flourished early on, but lost status to other centers after the end of the second century
CE
.
Macedonia
Authors: Hatzopoulos M. B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractMacedonia (in GreekMakedonia) is the country inhabited by the Macedonians (Macedones), who not only gave their name to the country, but also formed it by bringing together regions, in which physical geography did not promote unity. At the end of a process, which lasted from the foundation of the kingdom at the beginning of the seventh centuryBCEuntil its abolition by the Romans in 167BCE, the term Macedonia, in a geographical sense, designated all the lands between the Pindus chain to the west and the plain of Philippi to the east, and between Mount Olympos to the south and a line close to the border of present‐day Greece to the north. The cradle of Macedonian power was the Old Kingdom, around the great alluvial plain of Emathia, formed by the rivers Haliakmon, Loudias, and Axios, and the smaller plain of Pieria, with its surrounding mountains: Olympos, the Pierian mountains, Bermion, and Barnous. To the west, Upper Macedonia was composed of high plateaux: from the south to the north, Elimeia, Orestis, Lynkos and, even further west, Tymphaia and Parauaia, which had originally constituted small independent kingdoms. For about two centuries, the Axios River formed the eastern border of the kingdom. The conquest and absorption into Macedonia of the New Territories to the east of this river, which were shared between colonies from the Greek city‐states along the coasts and the “indigenous” tribes of the interior, including the Crestonians, Mygdonians, Bottiaeans, Odomantes, Bisaltes, and Edonians, was a long process that started at the beginning of the fifth centuryBCEand had barely finished on the eve of the Roman conquest.
Mediterranean, Roman
Authors: Schulz Raimund 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBeing located on the banks of the Tiber River some 25 km off the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, early Rome was an integral part of the western Mediterranean trade world. Already by the seventh centuryBCEGreek, Phoenician, and Etruscan naval merchants were satisfying the Latin aristocrats' demand for luxury goods, in return acquiring raw materials (metals, wood, wool), livestock, and slaves from Latium. The Etruscan kings further encouraged this trade through their building policy at the Tiber ford, although they themselves engaged in piracy and trade on the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus, Lucius
Authors: Gibson Alisdair 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus (ca. 1
BCE
–42
CE
,
PIR
2
A1140) was the natural son of M. Furius Camillus (
PIR
F574, ca. 26
BCE
–37
CE
), the consul of 8
CE
, and descendant of Camillus who captured Veii ca. 393
BCE
(Plut.
Cam
; Livy 5); the brother of M.
Cannae, battle of
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The battle of Cannae was fought on August 2, 216
BCE
, in northern Apulia. Dissatisfied with the “delaying tactics” (harassing the enemy but avoiding battle) of Fabius Maximus in 217, the Roman Senate authorized the levying of armies twice the normal size under the command of both consuls in 216, Terentius Varro and Aemilius Paullus. The ensuing disaster was blamed by later generations on Varro, unfairly. On a broad plain beside the river Aufidus (Ofanto), Hannibal, with forty thousand African, Spanish, and north Italian Gallic infantry and ten thousand Numidian and Gallic cavalry, confronted the Roman super‐army of eight enlarged legions and allied units. This totaled at least seventy thousand infantry and six thousand cavalry on the field, while some ten thousand garrisoned their camp.
Comitatenses
Authors: Whately Conor 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Comitatenses
, originally from
comitatus
, the companions of the emperor, were the soldiers who accompanied the emperor; it later meant the regional mobile field armies of the Late Empire, usually based in the interior and under senior generals, consisting of both cavalry and infantry. Although there is a tendency to see the
comitatenses
as a creation of Constantine I on the evidence of Zosimus (Zos. 2.34.1; cf. Aur. Vict.
Caes
. 41.12; John Lydus
Mag
. 2.10, 3.31; Jones 1964: 97), it should be understood as the end product of a long process which began in the second century
CE
.
Constantius II
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

The third son of Constantine I (the elder of two sons born to his second wife Fausta, sister of Maxentius and daughter of Maximian), born in Illyricum August 7, 317
CE
, reigned as Augustus in the East from September 9, 337 to 353, and over the whole empire from 353 till his death, November 3, 361.
Diadumenianus (Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus Augustus)
Authors: Lusnia Susann S. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Diadumenianus (208–18
CE
;
PIR
2
O 107) was the son of Macrinus (Marcus Opellius Macrinus Augustus), the Praetorian Prefect who became emperor after orchestrating the murder of the emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) in 217. Only nine years old, Diadumenianus was nevertheless named Caesar by his father, and, according to Dio (78.17.1), the Senate gave him patrician rank and the title
Princeps iuventutis
. In 218, when Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias spurred the Roman troops in Syria to revolt by presenting Soaemias' son Elagabalus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) as the son of Caracalla, Macrinus declared his son co‐Augustus (Cass. Dio 78.31; Lovenjak 2004). As the conflict in Syria intensified, Macrinus sent Diadumenianus to Artabanus, the king of Parthia. Claudius Pollio, however, captured the boy at Zeugma; he was slain at Antioch and his body kept unburied so that Elagabalus could view it (Cass. Dio 78.39–40.1). Both Diadumenianus and his father were subjected to
Damnatio Memoriae
.
Florian (Marcus Annius Florianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Born perhaps ca. 220 in a Danubian province, Florian (
PLRE
I.367 Florianus 6;

PIR
2

A 649;
RE
Annius 46) was Roman emperor from about June 276 for between eighty and eighty‐eight days; his reign exemplifies the lack of political stability in the empire at this time.
Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Galerius (Caesar 293–305, Augustus 305–311
RE
2;
PLRE
1.574–5), originally named Maximums, of agrarian stock (his nickname was Armentarius, “herdsman”), was born in the 250s in what would become the province of Dacia Ripensis at a place forty miles west of the Danube city of Bononia; he later renamed his native town Romuliana (it is now Gamzigrad) after his mother Romula, a barbarian who had fled across the Danube into the empire (his father, name unknown, was Roman).
Gordian I (Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Senior Augustus)
Authors: Harl Kenneth W. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGordian I (Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Senior Augustus), Roman emperor for twenty‐two days in 238CE, was born in ca. 157, advanced to be one of the most distinguished senior senators, boasting lineage from the Gracchi and the family of the emperor Antoninus Pius.
Iulius Vindex, Gaius
Authors: Gallia Anderw B. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGaius Iulius Vindex (ca. 35–68CE;PIR2I 628;RE534) was a Roman senator of praetorian rank who, as governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in 68, instigated the rebellion that led to the downfall of the emperor Nero.
Octavius Tidius Tossianus Lucius Iavolenus Priscus, Gaius
Authors: Thornton Daniel James 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Iavolenus was a Roman dignitary and jurist (
iuridicus
) of the first and second centuries
CE
, whose remarkable career and scholarly efforts are copiously attested in epigraphical (
CIL
III 2864; III 9960; VIII 23165; XVI 36) and jurisprudential evidence.
Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus, Lucius
Authors: Lusnia Susann S. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractBorn in Lepcis Magna on April 11, 145CE, and educated in Lepcis, Athens, and Rome, Lucius Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by his troops on April 9, 193 at Carnuntum on the Danube frontier in Pannonia a few weeks after the murder of Pertinax.
Trajan Decius (Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

AbstractRoman emperor from 249 to 251CE, Trajan Decius (PIR2M 0520; cf.PIR2D 28;RE Messius9), born ca. 190 at Budalia near Sirmium in Lower Pannonia, was from an old senatorial family.
Maxentius (Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Maxentius (
RE
1;
PLRE
1.571), Roman emperor from October 28, 306 to October 28, 312, and best known as Constantine I's opponent at the Milvian Bridge, was born ca. 285, son of Maximian and Eutropia.
Honorius
Authors: Nakamura Byron J. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Flavius Honorius (Western Roman emperor 395–423
CE
), the son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flavia Flaccilla, was born in 385. His reign was ineffectual and symptomatic of the weakening and ultimate collapse of the Roman west. After Theodosius' death in 395, the ten‐year old Honorius had been given the emperorship of Rome's western provinces, while his brother Arcadius ruled the east. Stilicho, a Romanized Vandal and Honorius' chief general (
magister militum
), all but ruled as regent during the young emperor's early years.
Carmina
Authors: Stroup Sarah Culpepper 
Published: December 2012

AbstractCarmina–the plural form of the Latin nouncarmen–are rooted in some of Rome's earliest religious, ritualistic, legal, and magical texts. As the wordcarmenevolved in its usage, however, it also evolved in its social and literary importance. A term that first designated primarily ritual utterances, chants, and spells came to be used of virtually every sort of poetic production that would mark the social, intellectual, and literary life of Rome in the Late Republican and early imperial periods.
Castor and Pollux
Authors: Poulsen Birte 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Castor and Pollux, or
Castores
, is the Latin designation for the Greek Dioscuri (Kastor and Polydeukes). The heroes Castor and Pollux were the tutelary gods of the Roman
equites
, and they were considered a symbol of successful Roman military campaigns (CP I, 49–51). As the symbol of victorious Rome, Castor and Pollux were used in the imperial propaganda to promote the heirs of the Principate, the
principes iuventutis
, first and foremost by Augustus (CP I, 51–2). Their importance is also reflected by the fact that their images were placed on the reverse of the first issues of the Roman denarius in 211
BCE
. Castor and Pollux were represented as two young men shown either on horseback or standing beside their horses. They are usually naked except for a cloak, and they usually carry spears as well as a
pileus
on their heads. Above their foreheads a star is often placed.
Comitiaandconcilia
Authors: Sandberg Kaj 
Published: December 2012

AbstractIt is clear that popular sovereignty was the ideological foundation of the “constitution” of republican Rome (Cic.Har.resp. 11). Exactly to what extent the ordinary citizenry was a true actor in the political system, usually seen as dominated by the senatorial aristocracy, is a matter for debate. Yet, whatever stance one takes, it is an unarguable fact that formal popular participation was indispensable for the operation of the republican system. None but the people were entitled to bestow magistracies, make law, and pass judgment on capital crimes.
Manlius Capitolinus, Marcus
Authors: Samotta Iris 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

M. Manlius T. f. A. n. Capitolinus (the
cognomen
refers to the Capitol of Rome (
see
Capitol) as his place of residence), Roman patrician (
see
Patricians) and consul in 392
BCE
, won the battle at the Algidus mountain (today
Artemisio
) against the Oscan Samnite tribe of the Aequians (
Aequi
).
Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus)
Authors: Santangelo Federico 
Published: December 2012

AbstractGnaeus Pompeius (106–48BCE, usually known in English as Pompey) served during the Social War under his father Cn. Pompeius Strabo (cos. 89BCE) in Picenum and, after Strabo's sudden death in 87, he inherited his estates and connections there.
Flamininus, Lucius Quinctius
Authors: Fronda Michael P. 
Published: December 2012

AbstractLucius Quinctius Flamininus (ca. 228–170BCE) was a Roman general who achieved both fame and infamy in the decades after the Second Punic War. He was born to a prominent patrician family; his brother was the famous general and statesman Titus Quinctius Flamininus (ca. 228–174). Lucius was probably Titus' younger brother, though this is difficult to reconcile with a notice that a L. Quinctius was made augur in 213 (Livy 25.2.2). Either L. Quinctius Flamininus obtained this priesthood at a young age or the notice refers to another individual. He was elected curule aedile (201) and praetor (199), and then served (198–4) as his brother's legate, commanding the Roman fleet, during the campaigns against Philip Vand Nabis.
Verres, Gaius
Authors: Covino Ralph 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Gaius Verres (ca. 115–43
BCE
) was one of the Late Roman Republic's most notorious magistrates. He is known chiefly through the corpus of speeches published by the orator Cicero, stemming from a legal action against him brought on behalf of the cities and people of Sicily before the standing extortion court. The impact of the published speeches has so polluted the tradition against Verres that the true extent of his crimes may never be known (see, e.g., Juv.
Sat
. 3 on his later reputation).
Hamilcar Barca
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Carthage's most famous leader, except for his son Hannibal, Hamilcar (ca. 285–229/8
BCE
) commanded what was left of Carthaginian forces in Sicily during the last years of the First Punic War, from 247 to 241, where his guerrilla‐like attacks on the Romans earned him the nickname Barca (“lightning”), although he could not prevent ultimate defeat at sea.
Accounting, Greece and Rome
Authors: Cuomo Serafina 
Published: December 2012

Abstract
Accounting has two main aspects: ascertaining through calculation either quantities of money, goods, or people, and making that information available. For instance, accounting in ancient Athens consisted not only in calculating how many ships the allies of Athens provided in the common war effort against the Persians, but also in carving that information on stone slabs and displaying them in the Athenian Agora.
Aesculapius
Authors: Oberhelman Steven M. 
Published: December 2012

Abstract

Aesculapius is the Roman name for the Greek healing god Asklepios. Like his father Apollo, who was introduced as Apollo Medicus into Rome after a plague in 433
BCE
, Aesculapius arrived in Rome during a time of extended pestilence. After three years of plague, in 293
BCE
the Sibylline Books were consulted; it was determined that the plague would cease only when Asklepios was brought from Epidauros.
Optics and catoptrics
Authors: Smith A. Mark 
Published: December 2012

AbstractFrom its inception in Greek Antiquity until around 1600CE, the science of optics was primarily concerned with the analysis of sight rather than light. By at least the time of Aristotle, that analysis had found mathematical footing in the visual‐ray theory. As articulated in Euclid'sOptics(ca. 300BCE), this theory assumes that the eye radiates individual rays out through the pupil to form a cone with its base outside the eye and its vertex at a point inside it.
Celsus, Aulus Cornelius, physician
Authors: Langslow David 
Published: December 2012

AbstractAuthor (fl.probably under Tiberius, r. 14–37CE) of an encyclopedia (Artes, in the tradition of VARRO'sDisciplinae), covering at least four subjects in twenty‐six books (agriculture, five books; medicine, eight; rhetoric, seven; philosophy, six; plus probably warfare, and possibly jurisprudence), of which, apart from a few fragments/testimonia, only the eight books on medicine survive.