bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Substantive versus Procedural Criminal Law
Authors: Nolan Daniel A. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
There are two very important, and very distinct, areas of criminal law: substantive law and procedural law. This entry introduces the reader to the basic differences between the two by exploring a few examples drawn from each. The basic difference between substantive law and procedural law is the question they answer. Substantive law answers the question “What?” It defines which behaviors are criminal and what prosecutors must prove to convict a defendant of a given crime. On the other hand, procedural law answers the question “How?” It sets limits on how police may conduct investigations and on how prosecutors may prove the substantive elements of the case.
Criminal Justice Process
Authors: Orrick David 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
“Criminal justice” is a multi‐faceted concept with several meanings. This entry focuses on that meaning where society's reaction to crime can be examined. It goes beyond that to highlight the distinctive features of this process in the second decade of the twenty‐first century. The dynamic nature of the process means that the relative importance of these features can change. Thus, details such as agency interaction and cooperation, bail, defense of the indigent, the death penalty, and the use of high technology in all aspects of the criminal justice process are emphasized.
Preliminary Hearing
Authors: Montemayor Carlos D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The preliminary hearing is an important procedure in the American court system. Many variations exist in the structure and practice of the preliminary hearing among the states and between jurisdictions in the United States. Despite these differences, the main purpose and objective of the preliminary hearing is essentially the same: It defines the role of the judge in determining if probable cause exists in support of the charges against the accused and to provide individuals with the constitutional provisions afforded them. The defendants are also formally read the charges against them and their legal rights prior to the outset of the criminal justice process. The aim of this entry is to provide a general overview of the preliminary hearing. In doing so, a brief summary of some of the major US Constitutional provisions is provided.
Plea‐bargaining
Authors: Block Lauren M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPlea‐bargaining entails a process of negotiation between the defendant and the prosecutor whereby the defendant agrees to forego a trial and plead guilty to criminal charges in exchange for a sentence, count, and/or charge reduction. Plea‐bargaining has become the dominant form of disposition in criminal courts in the United States; the vast majority of those accused of a felony offense are convicted as the result of a guilty plea. The extent of guilty pleas has increased over time, and several different theories may provide explanations for the phenomenon. In this entry, the roles played by prosecutors, defense attorneys, judges, and defendants in the plea‐bargaining process will be explained. Several criticisms of plea‐bargaining will also be discussed.
Reckless, Walter
Authors: Lux Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Walter Reckless was a prominent scholar and criminologist and is credited with being one of the first researchers to seek explanations for crime and criminal behavior beyond the individual. Reckless introduced containment theory to the field of criminology, describing the pushes and pulls toward crime. His effort resulted in an enduring theory that has been tested by many other researchers.
Survey Research
Authors: Sims Barbara , Cordner AnnMarie 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Survey research is one of the most commonly used methods of observation in the social sciences in general, and in the field of criminology in particular. Survey research is a method of observation in which information is obtained directly from the source by asking questions of subjects. Any study that relies on information collected through questioning participants falls under the classification of survey research. Thus, this approach includes research based on questionnaires, face‐to‐face interviews, telephone interviews, and web surveys, among others. Survey research is particularly good for learning about opinions, experiences, behaviors, and knowledge.
Positive Criminology
Authors: William Logan Matthew , Dulisse Brandon 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry introduces readers to the notion of positive criminology and some of the core theories in the discipline that adhere to this approach. Both classical and contemporary perspectives are examined, with a focus on the methodological contributions from a variety of disciplines—including sociology, psychology, and biology—in the social sciences. Implications and limitations of positive research in criminology are also discussed.
Bail Bondsmen
Authors: Cubellis Michelle A. , Peterson Bryce E. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry discusses the origin and evolution of bail bondsmen, the states in which they are still permitted to work for profit, and why they have continued to play an integral role in the functioning of the criminal court system. The link between bail bondsmen and bounty hunters is reviewed, and the authority of bail bondsmen and bounty hunters to apprehend defendants who have failed to appear in court is highlighted. Arguments for and against bail bondsmen are presented, with a focus placed on the reality that these individuals operate private businesses for profit. A discussion of the bail bondsmen in New York is provided as an example. The entry concludes with a review of regulations placed on bail bondsmen and issues that surround the profession.
Piracy in Colonial Era
Authors: Wodda Aimee 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry examines the most prominent and historically relevant occurrences of piracy in this particular time period, with a focus on the Americas. Several different types of pirate are discussed, and distinctions are drawn between the various pirating periods. A thorough overview of historical pirate social organization is presented, with a focus on pirate economy and the democratic structures in place aboard freebooting vessels, and the entry concludes with an assessment of how Colonial Era pirates were perceived and punished.
Prostitution
Authors: Vasquez Amanda L. , Wodda Aimee 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry provides a thorough overview of the various types of act that fall under the umbrella term “prostitution”; it describes various forms of solicitation and the individuals engaged in these exchanges; and it offers descriptive statistics. The criminal justice response to prostitution is examined, with a focus on the strengths and weaknesses of arguments surrounding criminalization, decriminalization, and legalization. The summary concludes with a review of the global context of sex trafficking.
Corporate Criminal Liability
Authors: Pitts Chip 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

This overview of corporate criminal liability discusses the origins and history of the doctrine in civil and common law countries, the standard elements for vicarious criminal corporate liability on
respondeat superior
principles (of an agent acting within scope of authority to benefit the corporation), the current global trend toward an expansion of this form of liability, several specific notable recent cases in the US, Europe, and China, points of intersection with Alien Tort Statute jurisprudence, policy arguments supporting and opposing such liability, and more recent moves toward direct, fault‐based and not merely vicarious liability, as global and regional recognition of such liability has expanded in conjunction with the growth of corporate power and ability to engage in harmful criminal conduct globally.
NIBRS
Authors: Cobbs Rochelle E. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The National Incident‐Based Reporting System (NIBRS) was introduced in the 1980s by the Department of Justice as a measure to improve and expand the United States' crime data collection system. Its purpose was to make up for the flaws observed in the Uniform Crime Report (UCR). Under the NIBRS 46 crime types, under 22 offense categories, are recorded on the computerized record systems. The NIBRS is popular among criminologists because its data are comprehensive, including information about offenses, victims, offenders, and arrestees that were lacking in the UCR. Furthermore, all crime incidents reported to the police were recorded whether the suspects were arrested or not. The NIBRS is also helpful in the study of hate crimes as it records the bias motivations of offenders.
Believing in a Purpose of Events: Cross‐Cultural Evidence of Confusions in Core Knowledge
Authors: Barber Justin 
Published: January 2014

SummaryWe examined beliefs in the purpose of events in the American population. Previously, separate researchers surveyed these beliefs in the Finnish population. Their methodology was used to assess the beliefs in a dissimilar demographic. Four hypotheses were tested using questionnaire responses (N = 429; 301 women; Mage = 20.46) and analyzed with structural equation modeling. As hypothesized, a positive correlation was found between beliefs in the purpose of events and paranormal beliefs. Confusions of core biological, physical, and psychological knowledge predicted the belief variables—as hypothesized, although model fit was mediocre. Core knowledge confusions were also hypothesized to predict religiousness and purposeful‐event beliefs. A close‐fitting model displayed weak predictive power and was interpreted as insufficient support for the third hypothesis. Lastly, we hypothesized and found that participants rated events they experienced as more purposeful than events that they did not experience. We provide insight for the findings and make suggestions for future studies. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The Weapon Focus Effect in Target‐Present and Target‐Absent Line‐Ups: The Roles of Threat, Novelty, and Timing
Authors: Erickson William Blake , Lampinen James Michael , Leding Juliana K. 
Published: January 2014

SummaryWhen an eyewitness suffers an impairment of memory for a perpetrator because the criminal used a weapon during the crime, this impairment is called the weapon focus effect. The literature is split on how this arises: Some implicate the narrowing of attentional cues to the weapon because the arousal of the victim increases, whereas others claim that the weapon is a novel object in most everyday contexts, and novel objects demand more attention than contextually appropriate ones. The current study employed a simulated crime paradigm featuring a normal, novel, or threatening object. Timing of the object's presentation was manipulated such that it was visible before, after, or during the time when the culprit's face was visible. Target‐present and target‐absent line‐ups as well as retrospective questions were administered. Both the novel object and the weapon resulted in increased mistaken identifications in target‐absent line‐ups. Structural equation modeling suggested that object novelty mediated this effect. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Iridium(I)‐Catalyzed Direct CH Bond Alkylation of the C‐7 Position of Indolines with Alkenes
Authors: Pan Shiguang , Ryu Naoto , Shibata Takanori 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA cationic iridium‐catalyzed C‐7 alkylation of N‐substituted indoline derivatives with various alkenes has been developed. A variety of 7‐alkylindolines were obtained in moderate to high yields. This protocol relies on the use of the carbonyl group on the nitrogen atom of indoline as a directing group and it is potentially applicable to the large‐scale synthesis of 7‐alkylindoles.magnified image
Concise Synthesis of 3D π‐Extended Polyphenylene Cylinders
Authors: Golling Florian E. , Quernheim Martin , Wagner Manfred , Nishiuchi Tomohiko , Müllen Klaus 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe synthesis of structurally well‐defined, monodisperse carbon nanotube (CNT) sidewall segments poses a challenge in materials science. The synthesis of polyphenylene cylinders that comprise typical benzene connectivity to resemble precursors of [9,9] and [15,15] CNTs is now reported, and the products were characterized by X‐ray crystallography. To investigate the oxidative cyclodehydrogenation of ring‐strained molecules as a final step towards a bottom‐up synthesis of CNT sidewall segments, phenylene‐extended cyclic p‐hexaphenylbenzene trimers ([3]CHPB) were prepared, and NMR studies revealed a strain‐induced 1,2‐phenyl shift. It was further shown that an increase in ring size leads to selectively dehydrogenated macrocycles. Larger homologues are envisioned to give smooth condensation reactions toward graphenic sidewalls and should be used in the future as seeds for CNT formation.
Discovery of Inhibitors of Shiga Toxin Type 2 by On‐Plate Generation and Screening of a Focused Compound Library
Authors: Dasgupta Somnath , Kitov Pavel I. , Sadowska Joanna M. , Bundle David R. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA new microtiter‐plate‐based method for the rapid generation and evaluation of focused compound libraries was developed and applied to screening ligand analogues for the E. coli Shiga‐like toxin Stx2a. The method is general, it mitigates the masking of intrinsic affinity gains by multivalency and enables the discovery of potential hits when starting from ligands that exhibit extremely low affinity with proteins that depend on multivalency for their function.
Chemoselective Catalytic Conjugate Addition of Alcohols over Amines
Authors: Uesugi Shuhei , Li Zhao , Yazaki Ryo , Ohshima Takashi 
Published: January 2014

AbstractA highly chemoselective conjugate addition of alcohols in the presence of amines is described. The cooperative nature of the catalyst enabled chemoselective activation of alcohols over amines, allowing the conjugate addition to soft Lewis basic α,β‐unsaturated nitriles. Divergent transformation of the nitrile functionality highlights the utility of the present catalysis.
Large Hexagonal Bi‐ and Trilayer Graphene Single Crystals with Varied Interlayer Rotations
Authors: Yan Zheng , Liu Yuanyue , Ju Long , Peng Zhiwei , Lin Jian , Wang Gunuk , Zhou Haiqing , Xiang Changsheng , Samuel E. L. G. , Kittrell Carter , Artyukhov Vasilii I. , Wang Feng , Yakobson Boris I. , Tour James M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBi‐ and trilayer graphene have attracted intensive interest due to their rich electronic and optical properties, which are dependent on interlayer rotations. However, the synthesis of high‐quality large‐size bi‐ and trilayer graphene single crystals still remains a challenge. Here, the synthesis of 100 μm pyramid‐like hexagonal bi‐ and trilayer graphene single‐crystal domains on Cu foils using chemical vapor deposition is reported. The as‐produced graphene domains show almost exclusively either 0° or 30° interlayer rotations. Raman spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier‐transformed infrared spectroscopy were used to demonstrate that bilayer graphene domains with 0° interlayer stacking angles were Bernal stacked. Based on first‐principle calculations, it is proposed that rotations originate from the graphene nucleation at the Cu step, which explains the origin of the interlayer rotations and agrees well with the experimental observations.
A Photocleavable Masked Nuclear‐Receptor Ligand Enables Temporal Control of C. elegans Development
Authors: Judkins Joshua C. , Mahanti Parag , Hoffman Jacob B. , Yim Isaiah , Antebi Adam , Schroeder Frank C. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe development and lifespan of C. elegans are controlled by the nuclear hormone receptor DAF‐12, an important model for the vertebrate vitamin D and liver X receptors. As with its mammalian homologues, DAF‐12 function is regulated by bile acid‐like steroidal ligands; however, tools for investigating their biosynthesis and function in vivo are lacking. A flexible synthesis for DAF‐12 ligands and masked ligand derivatives that enable precise temporal control of DAF‐12 function was developed. For ligand masking, photocleavable amides of 5‐methoxy‐N‐methyl‐2‐nitroaniline (MMNA) were introduced. MMNA‐masked ligands are bioavailable and after incorporation into the worm, brief UV irradiation can be used to trigger the expression of DAF‐12 target genes and initiate development from dauer larvae into adults. The in vivo release of DAF‐12 ligands and other small‐molecule signals by using photocleavable MMNA‐masked ligands will enable functional studies with precise spatial and temporal resolution.
The Prodrug Platin‐A: Simultaneous Release of Cisplatin and Aspirin
Authors: Pathak Rakesh K. , Marrache Sean , Choi Joshua H. , Berding Trenton B. , Dhar Shanta 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCancer‐associated inflammation induces tumor progression to the metastatic stage, thus indicating that a chemo‐anti‐inflammatory strategy is of interest for the management of aggressive cancers. The platinum(IV) prodrug Platin‐A was designed to release cisplatin and aspirin to ameliorate the nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity caused by cisplatin. Platin‐A exhibited anticancer and anti‐inflammatory properties which are better than a combination of cisplatin and aspirin. These findings highlight the advantages of combining anti‐inflammatory treatment with chemotherapy when both the drugs are delivered in the form of a single prodrug.
Temperature‐Responsive Microgel Films as Reversible Carbon Dioxide Absorbents in Wet Environment
Authors: Yue Mengchen , Hoshino Yu , Ohshiro Yukinori , Imamura Kazushi , Miura Yoshiko 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHydrogel films composed of temperature‐responsive microgel particles (GPs) containing amine groups work as stimuli‐responsive carbon dioxide absorbent with a high capacity of approximately 1.7 mmol g−1. Although the dried films did not show significant absorption, the reversible absorption capacity dramatically increased by adding a small amount of water (1 mL g−1). The absorption capacity was independent of the amount of added water beyond 1 mL g−1, demonstrating that the GP films can readily be used under wet conditions. The amount of CO2 absorbed by the GP films was proportional to their thickness up to 200–300 μm (maximum capacity of about 2 L m−2). Furthermore, the films consisting of GPs showed faster and greater absorption and desorption of CO2 than that of monolithic hydrogel films. These results indicated the importance of a fast stimulus response rate of the films that are composed of GPs in order to achieve long‐range and fast diffusion of bicarbonate ions. Our study revealed the potential of stimuli‐responsive GP films as energy‐efficient absorbents to sequester CO2 from high‐humidity exhaust gases.
Carbon nanotubes inhibit the free‐radical cross‐linking of siloxane polymers
Authors: Li Zhuo , Moon Kyoung‐sik , Lin Ziyin , Yao Yagang , Wilkins Stewart , Wong C. P. 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTCarbon nanotubes (CNTs) are found to inhibit the free‐radical cross‐linking of vinyl‐terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) by trapping the free radicals in a CNT/PDMS composite. The cross‐linking density values measured by swelling test, equilibrium stress‐strain test, glass‐transition temperature and Raman spectroscopy all decrease with the addition of CNTs. The inhibition effect is shown to be more significant with increased functionality and curvature in the CNTs used. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40355.
Adaptability of a hydrophobically associating polyacrylamide/mixed‐surfactant combination flooding system to the Shengli Chengdao oilfield
Authors: Zhang Xin‐Min , Guo Yong‐Jun , Liu Jian‐Xin , Zhu Yang‐Wen , Hu Jun , Feng Ru‐Sen , Fu Chun‐Yan 
Published: January 2014

ABSTRACTWe investigated the performance of a combination flooding system composed of hydrophobically associating polyacrylamide (HAPAM) and a mixed surfactant [fatty acid disulfonate anionic gemini surfactant (DMES) plus the nonionic surfactant Triton X‐100 (TX‐100)] under the reservoir conditions of the Shengli Chengdao oilfield. With 1800 mg/L HAPAM and 300–3000 mg/L mixed surfactant, the surfactant–polymer (SP) flooding system reached an ultralow oil–water interfacial tension, and the viscosity of the system was greater than 40 mPa s. After the solution was aged for 120 days, its viscosity was still more than 40 mPa s; this indicated a good aging stability. The core flooding experiments with different porous media permeabilities showed that the SP flooding system created a higher resistance factor and residual resistance factor. In addition, the indoor flooding experiments indicated that the SP combination flooding system increased the enhanced oil recovery by more than 30% over that of the original oil in place compared with the water flooding system. Therefore, it was feasible to use an SP flooding system in the Chengdao oilfield. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40390.
Modeling transit technology selection in a linear transportation corridor
Authors: Chen Ya‐Juan , Li Zhi‐Chun , Lam William H. K. 
Published: January 2014

SummaryThis paper proposes an analytical model for investigating transit technology selection problem from a perspective of transit authority. Given a transit technology alternative (e.g., metro, light rail transit, or bus rapid transit), the proposed model aims to maximize the social welfare of the transit system by determining the optimal combination of transit line length, number of stations, station location (or spacing), headway, and fare. In the proposed model, the effects of passenger demand elasticity and capacity constraint are explicitly considered. The properties of the model are examined analytically, and a heuristic solution procedure for determining the model solution is presented. By comparing the optimized social welfare for different transit technology alternatives, the optimal transit technology solution can be obtained together with critical population density. On the basis of a simple population growth rate formula, optimal investment timing of a new transit technology can be estimated. The proposed methodology is illustrated in several Chinese cities. Insightful findings are reported on the interrelation among transit technology selection, population density, transit investment cost, and transit line parameter design as well as the comparison between social welfare maximization and profit maximization regimes. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.