bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How Not to End a Saga, Unless...: Chapters 146–59
Authors: Miller William Ian 
Published: August 2014

Abstract
This chapter discusses the author’s difficulty in bringing closure to the saga. Can it really be the case that the Hildigunn we know would let herself be married to one of the killer’s of her husband? The problem of the Clontarf episode and several proposed explanations for why the saga ends as it does are considered. Does the episode represent the author’s palinode, a pious retraction of his earlier skepticism regarding miracles, of his making the pre-Christian period rather less politically and legally dysfunctional than the post-Conversion polity? Finally, are these chapters really his proof that his saga is the only true saga of the Burning, as he has Kari hunt down any tellers of variant versions? Kari’s pilgrimage to Rome is contrasted to Flosi’s, the latter penitent, the former a signal that, as far as he is concerned, the feud is now over.
Introduction
Authors: Miller William Ian 
Published: August 2014

Abstract
The introduction includes some general comments on Iceland and saga writing and on 'Njáls saga's' place in the history of saga writing. It discusses basic historical and social background, the division of the country into quarters, the local administrative unit known as the hreppr, as well as an overview of Thing organization, chieftains and chieftaincies, and some matters of legal procedure. There is discussion of the word ‘thing’. A plot summary is provided as an aid to the reader who does not have the saga before him, for the plot is complex and the cast of characters who matter is large. It contains basic remarks on saga style, depiction of characters’ psychology and their motives for action.
Conclusion
Authors: Okita Kiyokazu 
Published: August 2014

Abstract
The final section summarizes the previous four chapters and ties them back to the issues discussed in introduction. This book contributes to genealogical study in South Asian culture by examining the idea of tradition or sampradāya in the early modern period. This focus on the early modern period in turn shows that in the realm of Vedānta too there was a lively production of Sanskrit texts, as pointed out by the Sanskrit Knowledge Systems Project. One of the unique featires of Vedānta in this period was its focus on the Purāṇas, as demonstrated in the works of Madhva, Śrīdhara, Jīva, and of Baladeva. Therefore this study shows a deep influence of Purāṇic texts on Vedānta, which has not received much attention to date. Finally, this work contributes to the establishment of Hindu theology as a legitimate intellectual category. The writings of the Gauḍīya authors evidently fit well with three definitions of theology.
The Printed Page
Authors: Luna Paul , Ould Martyn 
Published: August 2014

Abstract
The chapter considers the visual character of the Press's books: their typography and layout; the use of illustration, especially in engraving; and the development of an ‘Oxford page’. The various types used for printing Latin, English, Greek, and other languages are catalogued and their origins traced. The chapter discusses different methods of illustration and makes a case study of the Oxford Almanack — describing its publication, distribution, and particularly its engravings. The chapter also addresses the complex requirements of combining text and illustration in mathematical and anatomical texts and in typesetting pages with multiple languages, such as dictionaries and commentaries on scriptural or classical texts. In general, margins grew more generous, chapter titles and sub-headings merited more space and title page typography was streamlined; changes to the Oxford printed page from the late sixteenth through the late eighteenth century exemplify larger developments in English and European typography.
Understanding Vision
Authors: Zhaoping Li 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis book explains computational principles and models of biological visual processing, in particular, of primate vision. Vision scientists unfamiliar with mathematical details should be able to conceptually follow the theoretical principles and their relationship with physiological, anatomical, and psychological observations, without going through the more mathematical pages. For readers with a physical science background, especially those from machine vision, this book serves as an analytical introduction to biological vision. It can be used as a textbook or a reference book in a vision course, or a computational neuroscience course, for graduate students or advanced undergraduate students. It is also suitable for self-learning by motivated readers. For readers with a focused interest in just one of the topics in the book, it is feasible to read just the chapter on this topic without having read or fully comprehended the other chapters. In particular, Chapter 2 is a brief overview of experimental observations on biological vision, Chapter 3 is on encoding of visual inputs, Chapter 5 is on visual attentional selection driven by sensory inputs, and Chapter 6 is on visual perception or decoding. There are many examples throughout the book to illustrate the application of computational principles to experimental observations.
Approach and scope
Authors: Zhaoping Li 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis book’s approach to understand vision is by linking neural substrates in the brain with visual perceptual behavior through the use of theory and models. This chapter proposes to view vision as containing three roughly successive stages: visual input encoding, visual information selection by attention, and visual recognition or perception by visual decoding. In contrast to traditional views, which decompose vision to low-level, mid-level, and high-level processes, the proposed three-stage view makes explicit the separate tasks in vision and highlights the role of vision selection, which admits a tiny fraction of visual input information through the attentional bottleneck for visual decoding. This chapter previews the topics in each of the three stages that will be covered in the rest of the book, noting that we have the least understanding about the visual decoding stage.
Visual recognition as decoding
Authors: Zhaoping Li 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis chapter gives an account of the experimental and computational investigations in visual perception or recognition. The perceptions, including illusions, are viewed as the outcomes of inferring or decoding properties of visual scenes from the neural responses to the visual inputs. Emphasis is on understanding perception at both physiological and behavioral levels through the use of computational principles. Maximum-likelihood decoding and Bayesian decoding approaches are introduced. Examples are provided to use these approaches to understand, e.g., contrast detection, color discrimination, motion direction perception, depth illusion, and influences of context and prior experience in visual perception. Limits in the visual decoding performance, due to inefficiency in utilizing the visual input information, likely caused by the attentional bottleneck, are highlighted. Likely neural architectures to implement decoding are discussed.
Molecular Evolution
Authors: Yang Ziheng 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis book summarizes the statistical models and computational algorithms for comparative analysis of genetic sequence data in the fields of molecular evolution, molecular phylogenetics, and statistical phylogeography. The book presents and explains the models of nucleotide, amino acid, and codon substitution, and their use in calculating pairwise sequence distances and in reconstruction of phylogenetic trees. All major methods for phylogeny reconstruction are covered in detail, including neighbour joining, maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods. Using motivating examples, the book includes a comprehensive introduction to Bayesian computation using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC). Advanced topics include estimation of species divergence times using the molecular clock, detection of molecular adaptation, simulation of molecular evolution, as well as species tree estimation and species delimitation using genomic sequence data.
The Evolution of Sex Determination
Authors: Beukeboom Leo W. , Perrin Nicolas 
Published: August 2014

AbstractSexual reproduction is a fundamental aspect of life. It is defined by the occurrence of meiosis and the fusion of two gametes of different sexes or mating types. Genetic mechanisms for the determination and differentiation of the two sexes are diverse and evolutionary labile. This book synthesizes the contemporary literature on patterns and processes of sex determination evolution. The first chapter introduces definitions and concepts of sexual reproduction. Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive classification of sex-determination systems and describes the diversity of sexual cycles across eukaryote lineages, from excavates to mammals. Subsequent chapters detail the molecular mechanisms and quantitative genetics of sex determination (Chapters 3 and 4), examine the processes of sex-chromosome evolution (Chapter 5), and discuss life-history consequences of sex-determination systems (Chapter 6). The final chapter addresses the evolutionary processes responsible for the diversity and turnover in sex determination (Chapter 7). The book provides an overview of different sex-determination systems and details of its molecular regulation in fungi, plants, and animals, many of which are covered in separate text boxes and figures. It is argued that sex determination and primary sex differentiation cannot be regarded as separate processes and that the traditional dichotomous view of genotypic (GSD) and environmental (ESD) sex determination is no longer accurate. Ample documentation is provided about how sex determination affects, and is affected by, various forms of sexual conflict, sexual selection, and speciation. The book makes clear that sex-determination evolution will remain a highly dynamic field of research in the future.
The evolution of sex chromosomes
Authors: Beukeboom Leo W. , Perrin Nicolas 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThe chromosomes carrying the genes that determine sexes or mating types often show strong heteromorphy. This chapter discusses the evolutionary trajectories of sex chromosomes, from the initial acquisition of a sex-determining gene, to the linkage of sexually antagonistic genes, and the suppression of recombination. The ensuing degeneration of non-recombining regions may occur in several steps, as testified by evolutionary strata. This process may end in the loss of the degenerated chromosome and its replacement by a proto sex chromosome evolving from an autosomal pair. The several genomic processes stemming from sex linkage and recombination arrest differ between the haploid (U or V), homogametic (X or Z) and heterogametic (Y or W) chromosomes, resulting in specific and divergent evolutionary fates. Several mechanisms (such as gene conversion and retention of X-Y recombination) may oppose the degeneration, whereas various forms of dosage compensation may accommodate it. Although strongly heteromorphic in some lineages, sex chromosomes have remained homomorphic in others, which requires further study.
Four decades of estimating heritabilities in wild vertebrate populations: improved methods, more data, better estimates?
Authors: Postma Erik 
Published: August 2014

Abstract
After over four decades of attempting to disentangle the role of genetic and the various sources of environmental variation in natural populations, what has been learned about the absolute and relative role of genes and the environment in shaping phenotypic variation? This chapter explores how new methodological developments, and the application of the animal model in particular, have changed and shaped quantitative genetic studies of natural populations. In particular, this chapter assesses i) whether the estimates of absolute and relative amounts of genetic and environmental variation, as well as their accuracy, are affected by the method employed (e.g. parent–offspring regression vs animal model), ii) whether they have changed over time, and iii) if they have, what are the causes of these changes. A literature search was performed to find studies that estimated heritabilities, with the search limited to estimates based on individual-based data on free-living vertebrate populations. This resulted in a database containing over 1600 heritability estimates, for a wide range of species and traits, and estimated using a variety of methods. Using these data, this chapter goes on to show how heritabilities are being estimated for an increasing number of traits, and that these heritabilities have become more accurate and probably less biased over time, but that heritability estimates for individual traits have changed remarkably little. The implications of these findings for the understanding of the generation and maintenance of the ubiquitous amounts of variation present are discussed, and suggestions for future research are made.
Dominance genetic variance and inbreeding in natural populations
Authors: Wolak Matthew E. , Keller Lukas F. 
Published: August 2014

AbstractIt is assumed that dominance genetic variance contributes little to the prediction of evolutionary change in polygenic traits. This is based on the assumption that populations are large, panmictic, and randomly mating. However, the ecological contexts of most wild populations studied to date violate one, if not several, of these assumptions, and the widespread occurrence of inbreeding and inbreeding depression of phenotypic traits and fitness suggests dominance genetic effects are ubiquitous. This chapter reviews what genetic dominance represents at the level of a single locus and how this contributes to phenotypic variation and discusses how to estimate dominance variance with emphasis on the complications arising in wild populations and with inbreeding. Next, empirical estimates of dominance variance are reviewed. Since no estimates exist of dominance variance in the wild (except for humans), laboratory and agricultural populations are examined, and it is shown that dominance variance is a major contributor to phenotypic variation and in some cases contributes as much as additive genetic variance. This chapter also discusses how inbreeding and dominance affect predictions of evolutionary change, and ends with a review of some of the empirical questions for which genetic dominance is an important quantity in its own right. In this chapter, it is argued that dominance variance has been ignored for too long, may hamper the ability to predict evolutionary change, can be a major contributor to phenotypic variance, is interesting to study in its own right, and provides many avenues of research to be addressed by empirical study.
Cross-pollination of plants and animals: wild quantitative genetics and plant evolutionary genetics
Authors: Stinchcombe John R. 
Published: August 2014

Abstract
Evolutionary quantitative genetics, as applied to natural populations, sits at an interesting cross-road. Studies of long-lived, mobile animals have given us a first glimpse of the expression of genetic variation, natural selection, and evolution in free-living organisms. A parallel and largely non-overlapping evolutionary literature focuses on plants, which ‘sit still and wait to be counted’ to use John Harper’s phrase. These studies, which are almost exclusively single-generation experiments or common garden studies using a quantitative genetic mating design, have revealed abundant evidence for local adaptation, genotype × environment interactions for traits and fitness, and ecological context dependence of selection. Consequently, researchers are in the curious position where the life-histories of focal organisms have potentially constrained understanding: the insights into and potential role of local adaptation and genotype × environment interactions are difficult to apply to long-lived organisms not amenable to experimental manipulation. Similarly, the benefits of long-term monitoring, studying evolution in the wild, and characterising the natural expression of genetic variation in the field have been difficult to apply to short-lived plants, mainly due to the problems posed by seed banks and the difficulty of determining parentage in populations where individuals may have hundreds to thousands of offspring. This chapter explores the conceptual, analytical, and biological insights that might be obtained by applying lessons and techniques of experimental studies in plant evolutionary ecology to studies of wild vertebrate populations, and vice-versa.
Quantitative genetics of wild populations of arthropods
Authors: Zajitschek Felix , Bonduriansky Russell 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis chapter discusses how genetic variation in fitness-related traits can be assessed in wild populations of arthropods and how the state of this research has developed in the recent past, including the use of genomic data. Understanding genetic variation in fitness within natural populations of invertebrates is of considerable theoretical importance, yet pure field estimates of quantitative genetic parameters of invertebrate species are almost non-existent. The reasons why many insect species are established model species for lab studies are identical to the problems researchers face in their attempts to study them in their natural habitat: they are small, short-lived and often can have a large number of offspring. There is a large literature on field-lab estimates (using data from laboratory reared offspring of field-derived parents), but this approach is not ideal in a number of ways. This chapter suggests potential ways to ameliorate these problems, and discusses some examples of suitable model systems. Systems such as these, and new approaches to tracking individuals and estimating relatedness, will ultimately enable researchers to estimate quantitative genetic parameters for natural populations of invertebrates. Such studies will allow for comparison with the enormous literature on captive invertebrate populations, as well as extend knowledge of the quantitative genetics of natural populations to a much broader range of biological diversity.
Epigenetic processes and genetic architecture in character origination and evolution
Authors: Badyaev Alexander V. , Walsh J. Bruce 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThe complexity of biological systems often prevents the construction of deterministic framework for the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes in development and evolution. The void is filled by the field of epigenetics that studies properties of emergent, self-regulatory, and compensatory interactions that arise above the level of the gene, but are not directly predictable from the intrinsic properties of either phenotype or genotype. Although these interactions are ubiquitous in the development and functioning of phenotypes, their imprint on the evolution of genetic architecture is unclear. This chapter particularly addresses the contribution of epigenetic developmental dynamics to the maintenance of multivariate genetic variation in complex traits that are subject to strong natural selection. The chapter brings together geometric and developmental perspectives to understanding the evolution of genetic architecture that reconciles precise adaptation, evolutionary diversification, and environmentally contingent developmental variation.
Introduction
Authors: Lohndal Terje 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis chapter outlines the core assumptions of the book. It starts out by introducing the particular version of the Minimalist Program assumed in this book. This is followed by a discussion of different approaches to argument structure. These are called the lexicalist approach and the constructivist approach. This background is especially useful in order to situate the discussion in Chapter 2 in a broader context. Towards the end of the chapter, some general issues relating to the syntax–semantics interface are discussed, before a roadmap is provided.
The Size of a Verb
Authors: Lohndal Terje 
Published: August 2014

AbstractMost linguists learn at some point that verbs have arguments. This chapter questions this view and concludes that it is wrong. It is argued that verbs do not have adicities beyond a single event variable, in accordance with the Neo-Davidsonian approach to formal semantics that this book adopts. The chapter focuses on Kratzer’s (1996) argument that the Agent but not the Theme is severed from the verb’s lexical representation, and it outlines Schein’s (1993) argument that the Agent must be severed from the verb. Then a section on the Theme follows, including data involving, among others, reciprocals, adjectival passives, and focus. Then a lengthy discussion of verbal adicity follows, concluding that such variability argues in favor of verbs not having any thematic arguments.
Specifiers and Phrase Structure
Authors: Lohndal Terje 
Published: August 2014

AbstractSpecifiers have occupied a central role in the history of generative grammar. The goal of the present chapter is to argue that specifiers qua specifiers do not play a role as the target of various grammatical operations. This book argues that we should maintain the distinction between heads and phrases, but that a head bears the same relation to a complement as it does to a specifier. In various cases where specifiers have been argued to be important, the chapter shows that other mechanisms might be at work (e.g., Agree instead of spec–head licensing) or that the issue at hand is not really related to specifiers qua specifiers (e.g., the subject requirement, extraction from phrases in specific position).
Semantic Competence and Compositionality
Authors: Lohndal Terje 
Published: August 2014

AbstractThis chapter discusses some broader issues that arise from the specific perspective developed in this book. In particular the relationship between grammatical and conceptual meaning is considered in detail. Following Bouchard (1995) in part, the chapter argues that a lot of what are typically taken to be facts about argument structure really are facts about conceptual structure. Furthermore, based on Dowty (2007), it is argued that compositionality is not something that can be defined a priori, and that its content comes from our conception of what sorts of object meanings can and cannot be, and consequently what kind of operations can and cannot be used in order to yield meanings that human beings employ.
Future tense, prospective aspect, and irrealis mood as part of the situation perspective: Insights from Basque, Turkish, and Papuan
Authors: Jendraschek Gerd 
Published: August 2014

AbstractBeginning with three descriptive case studies from Turkish, Basque, and the Papuan language Iatmul, the chapter identifys structural means to express future time reference in these languages, and the morphosyntactic characteristics, polysemy, and, diachrony of the relevant morphemes and constructions are described. Markers often glossed as ‘future’ are more appropriately labelled ‘prospective’ or ‘irrealis’, while the distinction between prospective aspect and future tense also depends on the extent to which a prospective construction is grammaticalized. While a present prospective can develop into a future, past prospectives tend to take over the function of counterfactual conditionals in the past. Aspect, tense, and mood should therefore be defined as prototype categories within the macro-category ‘situation perspective’. Diachronic shift and synchronic overlap between the micro-categories are a consequence of their being connected by grammaticalization scales. All TAM marking contributes to the situation perspective; while aspect is the closest perspective, epistemic modality is the most distant.