bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Braid, James (1795–1860)
Authors: Tisdale John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

James Braid (1795–1860) was a surgeon who coined the term
hypnotism
. Born in Scotland, he later moved to Manchester, England, where he witnessed demonstrations by the Swiss mesmerist Charles Lafontaine. Although skeptical of mesmerism, at one demonstration Braid suspected that a participant was not faking. He began a series of experiments on friends and family and discovered that he could induce the trance state by instructing them to stare at a fixed point, which caused paralysis of muscles in the eyelids. This focus on the eyes gave him reason to believe that the phenomenon was a kind of nervous sleep, as is reflected in the title of his most famous work,
Neurypnology
, an abbreviation of
neuro‐hypnology
. Through subsequent experiments, he realized that the fixation of attention is sufficient for induction. His use of the word
monoideism
reflects this theoretical change. However, the word
hypnotism
stuck.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Llera Sandra J. , Newman Michelle G. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractGeneralized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized as a disorder of excessive worry that is experienced as uncontrollable, chronic, and leading to significant impairments. Historically,GADhas been the least clearly defined of the anxiety disorders, which has led to problems with clinical conceptualization and diagnostic reliability. Much research has been conducted to clarify the nature, etiology, and maintaining mechanisms ofGAD. This entry reviews current conceptualizations ofGAD, including underlying genetic, environmental, interpersonal, cognitive, emotional, and neurobiological factors that may lead to or maintain pathological worry symptoms. Research suggests that emotional hyperreactivity and emotional contrast avoidance may reinforce worry patterns. Current treatments, including pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy, are also presented, and areas for future research are discussed.
Child Witnesses
Authors: Segovia Daisy A. , Crossman Angela 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe number of children appearing as witnesses or victims of crime is increasing at an alarming rate. Historically, child witnesses lacked credibility because it was feared that they were especially vulnerable to suggestion. Recent research shows, however, that children can be highly accurate witnesses, although their memory and event reporting skills improve and suggestibility decreases with age. Use of effective and developmentally appropriate interview protocols with child witnesses can improve the quality and credibility of their event reports. Witnessing or being a crime victim can be traumatic for child witnesses, as can participation in legal settings. Alternative testimonial procedures seem to reduce children's stress and facilitate more accurate testimony, protect defendants' rights, and help to achieve better long‐term outcomes for child witnesses.
Bentler,PeterM. (b. 1938)
Authors: Harlow Lisa L. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractPeter Martin Bentler (b. 1938) had his roots in clinical psychology, earning his doctorate in that field in 1964 at Stanford University. The nature and focus of his work have been multifaceted, embracing and informing the substantive fields of personality, health, sexual behavior, substance use, and developmental psychology, and then moving largely to quantitative psychology, particularly with respect to structural equation modeling.
Practice Directorate,
APA
Authors: Newman Russ 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The
APA
Practice Directorate is the organizational arm of the American Psychological Association (
APA
) that is responsible for advocating on behalf of practicing psychologists, assuring access by the public to psychological services, and recommending
APA
policy, standards, and guidelines for quality service delivery. The directorate has relied on state and federal advocacy, use of the courts and regulatory agencies, public education, and efforts to affect the health‐care marketplace to promote practitioner interests. Key advocacy initiatives have included recognizing psychologists in Medicare, independent practice in hospitals, stopping abusive mental health practices, advocating prescription privileges for psychologists, and achieving mental health parity.
Adjudicative Process
Authors: Klotzle Rebecca Gray 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The term adjudicative process refers to a means of resolving disputes when two or more adversaries cannot reach agreement on their own. In an adjudicative process, adversaries—through arguments and evidence—are given an opportunity to present their sides to an impartial third party. After hearing both parties, the third‐party judge makes a reasoned decision, which is binding on all parties.
Conduct Disorder
Authors: Tempel Ashley B. , Herschell Amy D. , Kolko David 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Conduct disorder is a disruptive behavioral disorder characterized by the ongoing violation of rules and basic rights of others. It is delineated into two subcategories, childhood‐onset type and adolescent‐onset type, which differ in associated features and developmental trajectories. Conduct‐related symptoms make up the majority of child referrals to mental health services. The prevalence of conduct disorder and the pervasive nature of symptoms seen across systems (e.g., education, mental health, and juvenile justice) require resources and can lead to large costs. Numerous environmental, family, and individual characteristics have been associated with conduct disorder; these include poverty, familial disruption, impulsivity, and juvenile delinquency. Theoretical models (e.g., the social learning model and the developmental propensity model) have been proposed to explain the development of conduct disorder and the presence of specific conduct‐related behaviors. Several behavioral parent‐training and multimodal family‐based treatment models are considered evidence‐based interventions for treating youth with conduct disorder.
Emotionally Focused Therapy (
EFT
)
Authors: Fitzgerald J. , Johnson S. M. , Thomas J. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Emotionally focused therapy (
EFT
) is an empirically based therapy for individuals, couples and families, which has been developed from humanistic‐experiential models of psychotherapy. In this approach, emotion is regarded as a source of meaning and direction and people are regarded as capable of self‐determination with an innate tendency to grow. Individuals, supported by an empathic relationship with the therapist, are helped to access deeper emotional experience and to explore blocks to engaging with problems in functional ways. Research suggests that
EFT
for individuals with depression may be as effective as cognitive behavioral therapy. Attachment theory has guided the development of
EFT
with couples, emphasizing the need for partners to be accessible and responsive to each other to build a secure emotional bond. The
EFT
couples therapist works with both intrapsychic and interpersonal processes to assist partners to change their interactional positions and to access and disclose deeper emotional experience and attachment needs.
Lie Detection
Authors: Mandelbaum Jason , Crossman Angela 
Published: January 2015

AbstractAlthough humans have attempted to foil liars for thousands of years, lie detection rates remain relatively close to chance, even among presumed experts. Techniques have commonly relied on observation of nonverbal (e.g., microexpressions) and/or verbal cues (e.g., Statement Validity Assessment), and physiologically based responses, such as use of the polygraph. Other techniques, such as neuropsychological tests, can facilitate clinicians' efforts to detect malingering; however, the tests are not diagnostic of deception because, as with most lie‐detection techniques, their results are not unique or specific to deception. More modern techniques focus on brain‐based lie detection, but successful lie detection remains elusive. Most promising are techniques aimed at increasing the cognitive load for liars, creating enhanced cues to their deception and leading to higher rates of lie detection.
Pedophilia
Authors: Cantor James M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Pedophilia
refers to the strong, enduring sexual interest in or sexual preference for children. Pedophilia is distinct from the overt sexual abuse of children: there are pedophilic individuals who never sexually contact a child, and there exist people who have sexually contacted a child despite preferring adults as sexual partners. There is no known method of converting pedophiles into nonpedophiles. Multiple talk‐based therapies have been attempted, but without strong evidence of success. Physical castration and sex‐drive‐reducing medications (“chemical castration”) have also been applied to suppress (yet not eliminate) pedophilia. Researchers using
MRI
and other techniques have reported differences in brain structure between pedophilic and nonpedophilic individuals and have associated pedophilia with prenatal development but the causes of those differences remain unknown
Amenability to Treatment
Authors: MacDougall Emily , Salekin Randall T. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Amenability to treatment is a critical concept for psychology and psychiatry. To date, however, there have been very few specific efforts to define the term, and few studies have determined what factors predict amenability to treatment or have determined if indicators of an individual's level of amenability to treatment can be altered with intervention. This entry covers six specific issues regarding treatment amenability. First, we examine what is known about the definition of the term. Second, individual characteristics that predict amenability are explored, such as age, socioeconomic status, and mental disorders. Third, amenability to treatment is examined in terms of its legal definition. Fourth, we more specifically discuss treatment amenability of juveniles. Fifth, we cover the current assessment technology used to tap treatment amenability. Finally, we provide concluding comments and future directions for research on amenability that will help mental health professionals better understand the term in the coming years.
Scale Development
Authors: Selbo‐Bruns Alexandra , Floyd Frank J. , Haynes Stephen N. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Scale development is an iterative, multimethod, qualitative, and quantitative process of item generation, refinement, evaluation, and selection. The principles of content validation guide all stages of scale development, which include construct definition, item content generation, item development and evaluation, and psychometric testing. Following the definition of the domain and the facets of each targeted construct, item content may be generated through population and expert sampling. Items and scale elements are evaluated and refined through the use of both expert review and psychometric evidence about item performance, internal consistency, factor structure, and multiple dimensions of validity.
Recovered Memories
Authors: Meyersburg Cynthia A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe termrecovered memorydescribes multiple phenomena, including memories that were not retrieved for extended periods of time; memories that have been retrieved, but that the individual did not remember having recalled; and false memories. It is possible not to have recalled, or to forget having recalled, a memory for an extended period of time, but to remember it subsequently when presented with a retrieval cue. Some recovered memories, both actual and false, can lead to trauma symptoms. Heated debate over the validity of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse and satanic ritual abuse led to the so‐called “Memory Wars.” It is well established that one can use hypnosis and other suggestive techniques to lead individuals to develop false memories. Recovered memories can become important to identity. Individuals have reported a wide variety of recovered memories, such as for alien abductions and for past lives.
Unity of Science
Authors: Gold Ian 
Published: January 2015

AbstractBoth the psychological sciences and the neurosciences aspire to provide explanations of mental phenomena. However, the conceptual framework of psychology differs in significant ways from that of neuroscience. The question of the unity of the sciences of the mind and its pathologies is whether mental phenomena will eventually be susceptible of explanation by a single theory, or whether both psychological and neural explanation will remain incompatible and ineliminable.
Bayes' Theorem
Authors: Cicchetti Dom 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThis entry presents a conceptual approach to Bayesian analysis from historical, definitional, theoretical, and application perspectives. The originator of this approach is the Reverend Thomas Bayes (1702–61), a British mathematician and Presbyterian minister. This article focuses upon informal and nonmathematical and more formal and mathematical definitions of Bayes' theorem, as well as a broad range of applications of the theorem that include: the layperson's understanding of how law enforcement works; young children's understanding of the basic concepts ofHIV/AIDS; female teenagers' understanding of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs); the diagnosis of clinical depression; the purported relationship between birth order andIQ; and the reliability of blind wine tasting. Finally, state‐of‐the‐art measures of reliability are discussed, as well as the mathematical relationship between measures of the reliability and accuracy of human judgment.
Statistical Power
Authors: Kraemer Helena Chmura 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The term “statistical power” is used in null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) to refer to the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis (thus providing support to the theory being tested) when the null hypothesis is false (i.e., the theory is true). Adequate power is having a large enough probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the theory is true and of clinical and/or practical significance. Consideration of power in designing NHST studies prevents the waste of time, resources, and sometimes reputations, that accompany failed studies, those that neither support nor clearly refute the theory being tested, leaving the state of knowledge where it was before the study was done.
Randomized Clinical Trials
Authors: Hollon Steven D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Randomized clinical trials are experiments in which patients are randomly assigned to treatments (to protect against selection bias) and other aspects of the design controlled (made comparable across the conditions). They provide the best means of determining whether a treatment works (has a causal effect) because they control for individual differences in prognosis and extraneous events unrelated to treatment. Randomized clinical trials also can (but need not) address questions of specificity (Do the effects rise above simply going into generic treatment?) and superiority (Is it better than its alternatives?). Randomized clinical trials also can address questions of moderation (For whom does the treatment work?) and mediation (How does it work?). Randomized clinical trials are not perfect (subsequent attrition can undermine initial randomization and inadequate representations of patients or procedures can undermine the generality of the results), but they are the most powerful tool available for determining whether and how a treatment works.
Bipolar I Disorder
Authors: Post Robert M. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Bipolar I disorder is a highly recurrent condition consisting of full‐blown manias that alternate with major depressions. Not only do acute episodes require treatment, but long‐term pharmacoprophylaxis with adjunctive psychoeducation and therapy are also fundamental. Treatment of acute mania typically involves both a mood stabilizer and an atypical antipsychotic; treatment of bipolar depression remains controversial, as antidepressants used traditionally for unipolar depression show little efficacy in bipolar disorder. Further, traditional antidepressants may be associated with both switches into mania and cycle acceleration. The major therapeutic goal remains the achievement and maintenance of remission, as inadequately treated illness tends to progress in frequency, severity, complexity of presentation, and ultimately treatment refractoriness. Long‐term prophylaxis often involves one or more mood stabilizers (lithium, lamotrigine, valproate, and carbamazepine), often in combination with an atypical antipsychotic and other adjunctive treatments.
M
ünsterberg,
H
ugo (1863–1916)
Authors: Bazar Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916), a German‐American psychologist, was an influential pioneer in applied psychology. His research ranged across a number of topics, including forensic, clinical, industrial, and educational psychology. In addition to academic publications, Münsterberg was a prominent voice in the popular press, serving as a psychological expert to the public on a vast array of topics. Münsterberg's final years became increasingly overshadowed by political controversy as a result of his defense of Germany's actions in spite of the outbreak of the First World War. Although one of the best known psychologists in the United States during his career, the mounting controversy surrounding his outspoken political views contributed to an overshadowing of his professional contributions to the discipline.
Neo‐Kraepelinians
Authors: Blashfield Roger K. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The neo‐Kraepelinians were a small group of research‐oriented psychiatrists at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, during the 1960s and 1970s who advocated strongly a biological approach to psychopathology. This group was opposed to the nonscientific, clinical orientation to psychiatry that was represented by psychoanalytic thought. An important stimulus for change in psychiatry occurred when this group formed a partnership with Robert Spitzer (b. 1928) to create the revolutionary

DSM‐III

. The change associated with the

DSM‐III

transformed both psychiatry and the other mental health fields.
Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder
Authors: Samuel Douglas B. , Griffin Sarah A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (
OCPD
) is a mental disorder characterized by rigidity, perfectionism, and a preoccupation with rules, details, and order. It has a lengthy history that traces back to the beginnings of psychology and has appeared in every edition of the

DSM

.
OCPD
occurs in approximately 2% of the adult population and is even more common within clinical samples. A distinctive aspect of
OCPD
, relative to most mental disorders, is that it has an inconsistent relationship with psychosocial functioning. Although
OCPD
can interfere significantly with social and romantic relationships, it has also been shown to relate positively with educational attainment, career success, and wealth.
Evidence‐Based Practice in Psychology
Authors: Buscemi Joanna , Spring Bonnie 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Evidence‐based behavioral practice (
EBBP
) entails making decisions about how to promote positive psychosocial outcomes by integrating the best available evidence, clinical expertise, and multicultural considerations, and tailoring treatment to clients' characteristics and preferences. The overarching goal of
EBBP
is to take steps toward bridging the gap between research and practice. The transdisciplinary National Institutes of Health Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Evidence‐Based Behavioral Practice Council developed a shared model of
EBBP
and corresponding competencies, which aspire to facilitate interprofessional collaborations by developing a common language and methodology, promoting more efficient, higher quality healthcare. Attitudes, knowledge, and skills required for competent evidence‐based interprofessional practice are described and an interdisciplinary five‐step
EBBP
process is presented.
Foster Care
Authors: Yampolskaya Svetlana 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The focus of this entry is foster care. Foster care is a component of the child welfare system that arranges time‐limited out‐of‐home placements for children whose parents or caregivers are unable, or unfit, to provide adequate care. This entry reviews the history and goals of foster care, reasons for child removal and entering foster care, custody issues, and the types of foster care placement. Challenges in the present foster care system and the directions in its redesign are also discussed.
Reduction versus Emergence
Authors: Ellis Ralph D. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Recent developments in cognitive theory, and particularly new work on consciousness, suggest that the old dichotomy of “emergence
versus
reduction” is now an oversimplification. Instead, we now have a variety of theories that include various degrees of nonreductive physicalism, based largely on the implications of neural plasticity from brain research, and the theory of self‐organization coming from theoretical chemistry, biology, and chaos theory. These new trends allow for new ontologies of mind and consciousness that are neither “reductive” in the sense of reduction to push–pull linear causal mechanisms, nor are they necessarily “emergent” in a sense that could entail a counter‐scientific metaphysical dualism.
Professional School Movement
Authors: Stricker George , Lally Stephen J. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe first professional school in psychology was established at Adelphi University, and the firstPsyDprogram at the University of Illinois. Over the years, the professional school model has grown to the point that it now graduates about half the doctorates in clinical psychology annually. The practitioner model at these programs now vies with the scientist–practitioner model, although there are questions as to how well the scientist–practitioner has been implemented. The National Council of Schools of Professional Psychology represents these schools. Professional schools have been criticized, some would say unfairly, for having a lower quality student and causing the internship crisis, and some would say more fairly for the high student debt amassed by their graduates.
Foa,EdnaB. (b. 1937)
Authors: Coles Meredith E. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractEdna B. Foa (b. 1937) has made seminal contributions to the understanding and treatment of anxiety disorders. Dr. Foa's empirical work and theoretical contributions have advanced the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder, postraumatic stress disorder, and, most recently, social phobia. In addition, Dr. Foa has worked tirelessly to disseminate empirically supported treatments to patients throughout the world. Finally, Dr. Foa's efforts have advanced the scientific and clinical work of the many students, interns, and postdoctoral fellows with whom she has worked.
Organic versus Functional
Authors: Lewis Benjamin R. , Kious Brent 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The terms
organic
and
functional
have a complex history as they relate to the fields of mental health and the rest of medicine. This chapter examines current use of these terms (which is largely domain dependent) with an eye on the historical and philosophical contexts for the distinction. Although there is some practical utility to the distinction insofar as the designation of appropriate medical services is concerned, the implied division also poses philosophical and ethical problems: the former, because of its the inevitable connections to Cartesian dualism; and the latter, in the possible stigmatization and marginalization of what is deemed “functional.”