bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Selected military geology programs in the Arctic, 1950–1970
Authors: DeGoes Louis , Neal James T. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The military environment of the post–World War II years was dominated by the principal threat of air and missile attacks over polar routes between North America and the former Soviet Union. The extremities of the arctic environment demanded unique adaptations to normal military operations, which provided military and engineering geologists an opportunity to exercise a broad range of technical applications. New knowledge and skills in ice physics and engineering, glaciology, arctic geomorphology, meteorology, oceanography, and permafrost engineering were all relevant, often requiring on-the-job learning. Such adaptability could be needed in the future and would once again challenge military geologists.
Hydrogeological assessments of United Nations bases in Bosnia Hercegovina
Authors: Nathanail C. Paul 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The need to ensure reliable and secure water supply at United Nations bases in Bosnia Hercegovina led to a hydrogeological and water supply reconnaissance (recce) of each base to determine the feasibility of constructing boreholes within the base perimeter. The recce was conducted under full security measures at a time when the armed conflict in central Bosnia was at its fiercest. Fieldwork was severely limited by the ongoing war. Facilities such as generators, vehicle repair yards, and latrines excluded certain areas within the perimeter wire and restricted where boreholes could be sited.
Despite the disruption to the infrastructure and government caused by several years of conflict, some site-specific information was obtained. All sites were assessed as having a good potential for ground water. Preliminary well designs were determined. These were accepted and well drillers were deployed to Vitez, Gornji Vakuf, and Tomislavgrad. Following the deployment of the drillers to Bosnia, the author was able to use his experience of the ground to advise during the well construction phase.
The author also provided advice on slope stability along parts of the main supply route (MSR) near Prozor and on the location of suitable borrow pits for material to maintain the surface of the MSR near Redoubt Camp.
The participation of the Royal Engineer Specialist Advice Team geologist in Operation Grapple continued the tradition of geological input into recent major British army operations such as those in the Falklands, the Gulf, and northern Iraq.
Military geology in support of nation assistance exercises in Central and South America
Authors: Knowles Robert B. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Engineer construction training exercises throughout Central and South America have provided U.S. soldiers with construction experience and aided the host nation by developing infrastructure. Roads, airfields, bridges, schools, hospitals, and water wells are constructed in remote areas with maximum use of local materials. Military geologists support construction by locating potential sources of aggregate, evaluating suitability of materials for road metal and fill, designing roadcuts, developing quarries, and evaluating geologic hazards that may affect the construction effort.
In northern Honduras, excavation problems in a karstic limestone of the Mesozoic Yojoa Group delayed completion of a mountain road. Clay-filled solution cavities disrupted the blasting operation, jeopardizing the completion of the project. Geologists recommended rerouting the road through a rippable schist. Although longer, the new road was completed on time.
In southern Honduras the lack of a suitable aggregate for a new airfield required a thorough geologic reconnaissance for new sources. Local ignimbrites were unsuitable due to their low compressive strength. Rhyolite and andesite from nearby volcanic erosional remnants were evaluated for their suitability. A quarry was subsequently developed and provided the aggregate needed to complete the project.
In the Oriente of Ecuador a scarcity of suitable construction materials and unstable slopes created difficult conditions for a road and bridge construction project. Roadcuts into alternating layers of shale and limestone of the Cretaceous Lower Napo Formation created unstable slope conditions. Military geologists recommended new sources of aggregate and advised engineers on slope stability. Local construction methods were adopted to overcome these conditions.
American geologists at war
Authors: Pittman Walter E. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
During World War I the combatants committed the total resources of their nations in this first great total war. This came to include geological expertise. The original use of geologists on the battlefield was to locate potable water supplies; later employments were an outgrowth of the stalemate on the battlefield. Mine warfare quickly developed as the belligerents tried to tunnel under the formidable trench systems. Geologists in uniform provided assistance for these efforts and came to be valued for their professional advice.
More uses were quickly found for geologists. Trafficability studies of terrain, predictions of stream and river heights, sources of construction materials, and location of water supplies were important missions. Later, as both sides learned to communicate through ground-loop telephony, ground-conductivity studies became important.
By the time the United States entered the war in 1917, mine warfare had been neutralized by countermining, and no further active mine operations were undertaken. The U.S. Army sent 10 geologists (three more were en route on November 11, 1918), a mining regiment, and a water supply regiment of engineers to support the American Expeditionary Force. Most geologic work was in terrain studies and in mapping, water supply, and soil trafficability studies. In the United States, other geologists worked to discover sources of scarce raw materials. American geologists generally were disappointed, however, at the contributions they were able to make to the war effort, whether in France or America.
Geology and military operations, 1800–1960
Authors: Kiersch George A. , Underwood James R. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The first recorded use of terrain analysis was in 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, and in most major military operations since that time, geologic counsel and assessment have played important roles. Intelligent use of the terrain of the battlefield, movement of supplies and personnel, and the procurement of adequate supplies of water and of construction materials all have relied on an understanding and application of geologic principles.
During the 19th century, as the value of geologic insight came to be recognized, books on military geology appeared as did basic courses in geology at military academies in the United States and abroad. Beginning in World War I, vital geologic data were placed on increasingly sophisticated specialized terrain maps and used both tactically and strategically. Successful military mining beneath enemy fortifications in World War I required an understanding of subsurface geology, including hydrogeology. And in the 1940s and 1950s, geologic principles were applied on an unprecedented scale to the construction of massive underground installations. Moreover, in the 1950s, these principles, applied in a massive research effort, resulted in the ability to distinguish the release of energy by an underground nuclear test from that produced by a natural seismic event.
As weapons and defenses against them continue to evolve, geoscience and geoscientists will play an increasingly important role in military planning and operations in diverse and challenging environments worldwide.
Military Geology Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey from 1945 to 1972
Authors: Terman Maurice J. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
After World War II, the Military Geology Unit of the U.S. Geological Survey was transformed into the Military Geology Branch, which recruited about 150 younger scientists over time to continue the compilation of terrain intelligence on a global scale. Source materials were the scientific journals, books, maps, and photographs available in the Washington area, and most topics were presented on maps accompanied by succinct tables and short narrative texts. The following principal administrative units and research programs evolved: (1) Strategic Studies Section (1945–1972; funded by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and later by the Defense Intelligence Agency) was the major production unit. Its principal responsibility was to contribute to the comprehensive small-scale National Intelligence Surveys Program. Another significant section effort included the Pacific Engineer Intelligence Program, which involved the compilation in Washington of seven series of 1:250,000-scale thematic maps for most of Southeast Asia. (2) Pacific Field Program (1945–1962; Corps of Engineers) was a research and mapping program in areas formerly occupied by Japan. (3) Alaska Terrain and Permafrost Section (1947–1965; Corps of Engineers and U.S. Geological Survey) conducted field studies on surficial geology and permafrost phenomena in Alaska and other Arctic areas and compiled reports with maps and engineering interpretations, most at a 1:250,000 scale of Alaska. (4) European Field Program, principally undertaken by the U.S.G.S. Team (Europe) (1953–1964; U.S. Army Europe), published a series of 24 1:250,000-scale maps of military engineering geology for western Germany and 131 1:100,000-scale maps of cross-country movement for all of Germany, and the team served as a consultant. (5) Austere Landing-Site Program (1956–1970; U.S. Air Force) compiled large-scale studies on arid lands, both inside and outside the United States and on Arctic ice-free land. (6) Special Intelligence Element (established 1959; Corps of Engineers and Defense Intelligence Agency) continues to serve as geoscientific consultants to the special intelligence community. (7) Nuclear-Test Detection Program (principally 1962–1972; Advanced Research Projects Agency) compiled studies assisting in the interpretation of global seismic signals, particularly the five-volume 1:5,000,000-scale Atlas of Asia and Eastern Europe.
Quantifying terrain fabric in digital elevation models
Authors: Guth Peter L. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Eigenvector analysis of a topographic landform reveals a directional fabric consisting of surface roughness or slope, organization or fabric strength, and preferred orientation. This analysis uses a digital elevation model (DEM) to compute slope and aspect at all points in a region and uses those values to define the normal surface. Standard techniques contour the distributions, extract eigenvectors and eigenvalues from the matrix of the sum of cross products of the directional cosines, and compute eigenvalue ratios. The terrain fabric at a point depends on the size of the region used for the computation and reveals different scales over which directional fabrics operate. With large-scale DEMs, the directional fabric varies in a systematic manner and proves relatively insensitive to the horizontal resolution of the DEM or its quality and creation method. Quantitative measurement of terrain fabric belongs in all studies of terrain analysis and geomorphometry.
Unsurfaced road investigation and management plan, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri
Authors: Isaacson Jon B. , Hurst A. Elaina , Miller Danny L. , Albertson Paul E. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Unsurfaced roads, common throughout both private and public sectors, are the source of engineering, economic, and ecological concerns. The U.S. Army currently maintains a large number of unsurfaced roads on its training and testing installations. These road networks must be maintained in a safe and serviceable condition to sustain training and testing requirements. Fort Leonard Wood’s (FLW) road network was examined to identify present problems and future engineer training requirements so that a proper maintenance plan could be recommended. Standard U.S. Army methods were used. A road management system was developed using a dynamic digital database of road conditions linked to the FLW Geographic Information System (GIS). The field data, the extent of road distresses and severity level measurements, were used to determine the unsurfaced road condition index (URCI). A repair budget was estimated for road segments with a URCI value below an established threshold. GIS analyses correlated URCI values to physical and operational conditions. Well-graded soils with a low plastic index were correlated to high URCI values. Operations data were examined to identify types of use, requested maintenance, and the resulting road condition. URCI values were higher for frequently traveled and maintained roads. Continuation of current reductions in maintenance will result in higher repair costs and possible road closures. Road rehabilitation to accommodate future traffic volume and increased vehicle loads will require proper selection of geometric design parameters, aggregate type, gradation, and layer thickness.
Geology without borders
Authors: Dunbar Joseph B. , Wakeley Lillian D. , Miller S. Paul , Swartzel Stanley M. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Research by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at numerous military facilities has shown that a regional geologic approach is the key to cost-effective risk assessment and environmental remediation. This approach addresses the needs of the facility by placing it directly in the larger framework of the land, water, and the people off post who comprise potential contaminant receptors. Application of a regional geologic framework to a large military facility requires extensive research and focused study to establish the overall picture.
A regional geologic and geomorphic model was developed for the Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG), located in the headwaters of Chesapeake Bay near Aberdeen, Maryland, USA. Regional geologic information and interpretation of data from over 2000 geologic and water well borings indicate that APG is situated upon Pleistocene terraces of the ancestral Susquehanna River, which unconformably overlie Cretaceous unconsolidated sediments. Pleistocene terraces represent estuarine and fluvial filling of an earlier manifestation of Chesapeake Bay during interglacial periods of high sea level during the past 1.5 m.y. During episodes of low sea level, corresponding to glacial maxima, the Susquehanna River downcut into Pleistocene and Cretaceous deposits. The remnants of at least three and possibly four separate filling cycles, ranging from middle Wisconsin to early Pleistocene in age (youngest to oldest), are present at APG. The geologic and geomorphic model of APG is being used to define aquifer limits and to assess the movement of groundwater for potential impacts to public drinking water supplies on the Aberdeen Peninsula and to Chesapeake Bay.
Terrain evaluation for peacekeeping with examples from Bosnia Herzegovina
Authors: Nathanail C. Paul 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Geology has influenced military commanders and the outcome of military operations since ancient times. Terrain evaluation was developed in the 1960s and has benefited greatly from recent developments in GIS (geographic information systems). Peacekeeping operations are increasingly becoming a component of armed forces workload. Geologic support based on terrain evaluation principles was provided to the UN and NATO during peacekeeping and humanitarian relief operations in Bosnia Herzegovina. This included assessments of slope stability, seismic hazard, flood risk, groundwater potential, and construction materials.
The role of the geologist advising military commanders during peace support operations essentially becomes a hybrid of those roles of military geologists and conventional civilian engineering geologists. As ever, training in the engineering operations of the “client” is essential to delivering a successful product—usually defined as an approximate answer within a very limited time frame rather than a “good” answer late.
A three-phase program of investigation for site selection and development
Authors: Caggiano J.A. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The selection of a site and the development of geologic and seismic design parameters may be facilitated through the use of a three-phase program of investigation. This program is cost effective and expedites management decisions that benefit from current relevant geologic information. A resource review and regional reconnaissance during Phase I serve to eliminate areas of low potential, to focus on favorable areas, and to identify possible problems that may require further study. Preliminary estimates of certain design parameters during Phase I may be used to initiate contract negotiations with a plant supplier. Candidate sites and associated problems can then be examined through analysis of large-scale maps and imagery, preliminary geologic mapping, and subsurface investigation during Phase II. Phase II may lead to preparation of an Early Site Review Report (ESRR) for submission to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). A Phase III investigation leading to the preparation of a Preliminary Safety AnalysisrReport (PSAR) can be performed concurrently or sequentially on any or all candidate sites recommended at the conclusion of Phase III.
This approach is illustrated with examples from Spain and Iran showing how such a program assists in selection and study of possible sites.
Application of microfacies analysis to the identification of stratigraphic marker beds in the Tertiary strata of northern Puerto Rico
Authors: Osborne Robert H. , Junge Walter R. , Seiglie George A. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
Microfacies analysis is a mature and sophisticated set of procedures for solving a variety of stratigraphic problems. One of the most important of these problems is the identification and definition of surfaces for stratigraphic correlation. There is virtually no end to the list of potential correlative surfaces that can be defined by microfacies analysis, particularly when used in conjunction with available mathematical techniques for the quantification of geologic data. Such procedures are particularly useful in stratigraphic units characterized by complex fades relationships, such as reef-associated paleoenviron-ments. The utility of microfacies analysis in evaluating potential sites for nuclear power plants and other engineered structures is exemplified by studies performed in conjunction with the NORCO-NP-1 nuclear power plant site in northern Puerto Rico. The definition of three microfacies (Globigerinidea, Nummulites cojimarensis, and A mphistegina spp., in ascending order) within the Quebradillas Limestone (Tertiary) at the NORCO-NP-1 nuclear power plant site demonstrated that two surfaces along which important natural gamma ray peaks occur are strati-graphically controlled rather than being controlled by dislocation surfaces, unconformities, jointing, or karstification. This was accomplished by showing that the surfaces defined by the gamma ray peaks are parallel or subparallel to two deposi-tional surfaces, the base and top of the N. cojimarensis microfacies, within the apparently massive carbonates of the Quebradillas Limestone.
Trenching as an exploratory method
Authors: Hatheway Allen W. , Beach Leighton F. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The critical nature of siting nuclear power plants has led to increased emphasis on exploratory trenching. Trenching is the most definitive of all subsurface exploratory methods; it permits inspection of a continuous geologic section by both geologists and regulatory authorities and makes possible the preparation of a graphic log that delineates both obvious and subtle geologic features. About one of every two nuclear plant licensing efforts utilizes exploratory trenching. Many geologic hazards, such as "capable" faults, can be detected from trench exposures; they may otherwise remain undetected.
Trenches must be judiciously located, survey-controlled, excavated safely and adequately shored, logged in detail, and properly diagnosed. Useful techniques of trench logging include thorough cleaning of the trench walls, teamwork between geologist and recorder, logging against a carefully surveyed baseline and vertical reference grid, and panoramic photography. Soils, including paleosols, and glacial and glaciofluvial deposits present some of the most difficult media to log.
Trench logs must be thoroughly interpreted and correlated so that they document the geologic conditions governing suitability of the site. Age-determination techniques utilized in exploratory trenching include petrographic analyses, quartz inclusion studies, clay mineralogic analyses, and radiometric methods.
Seismicity of the central United States
Authors: Nuttli Otto W. 
Published: May 2013

Abstract
The combination of moderate seismic activity, sparsity of seismograph stations and relatively low density of population makes it difficult to assign quantitative seismicity values to most of the central United States. In the New Madrid seismic zone, where the level of seismic activity is higher and the number of seismograph stations is more adequate, one can delineate the active fault zone and determine a magnitude-recurrence relation. These capabilities will be extended to other seismic zones as arrays of seismographs are installed for recording microearthquakes, which will give information on fault delineation, focal mechanism, and magnitude frequency. Only after such information is available will we be able to make positive statements relating seismic activity to specific geologic features.
The seismicity data suggest that earthquakes that occur outside the recognized seismic zones or major structural features will have a maximum body-wave magnitude mb of 5.5 and that this maximum value will occur only infrequently. Experience shows that if these relatively minor earthquakes are only a few kilometres deep they may have an epicentral intensity at least as large as VII (observed for an earthquake of mb = 3.8), but their magnitude and area of perceptibility will be small. With the exception of the New Madrid seismic zone and possibly the Wabash Valley seismic zone, a conservatively reasonable value for the maximum body-wave magnitude to be expected in the major seismic and structural zones of the central United States is 6.5. For the New Madrid seismic zone an earthquake of body-wave magnitude equivalent to that of a great earthquake (mb = 7.5) can be expected, on the basis of what has already been experienced in 1811-1812.
Because of low anelastic attenuation, the earthquakes in the central United States are felt and cause damage over much wider areas than earthquakes of comparable magnitude in the western United States. Further consequences are that the ground shaking has a longer duration and that the ground-motion spectrum shifts at the larger distances to lower frequencies, which results in relatively low ground acceleration for relatively large ground displacements and a greater effect on high-rise than low-rise structures.