bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Grotius, Hugo
Authors: Viner Steve 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHugo Grotius (1583–1645) (Huig de Groot), born in Delft, Holland on April 10, 1583, was a preeminent figure of the seventeenth century. He has been called the “father of international law” and the “father of modern natural law” (Vreeland 1917: 164–72; Schneewind 1998: 66). While titles can be controversial, Grotius made an enormous contribution to ushering in what is commonly referred to today as international law. With his great work of 1625,De Jure Belli ac Pacis(On the Law of War and Peace), Grotius became famous for invoking a natural law theory in defense of a set of moral rules, called natural laws, that govern the relations of states and their rulers (seeNatural Law). Grotius' natural law theory was a forerunner and influential in that it emphasized that persons by nature possess rights and liberties similar to states (seeRights), and it was only through the transfer of these natural rights that states received their authority and power (seeSocial Contract). Grotius' natural law theory then was one of the earliest and most influential to champion natural rights as an actual moral quality or power of persons and to make states subject to rational, moral principles derived from nature and the natural rights of persons. Regarding the title “father of international law,” scholars also have pointed out other formidable contenders, such as Francisco de Vitoria, Francisco Suárez, and Alberico Gentili. In addition, scholars disagree on how much these three influenced Grotius, as well as whether Grotius, who clearly relied upon them and numerous others, was mostly a compiler of their work (Vreeland 1917: 168–71; Lee 1930: 50–1; Tierney 1997: 316–42).
Testimony, Moral
Authors: O'Brien Dan 
Published: January 2013

AbstractWe often acquire beliefs on the say‐so of somebody else and in many cases it is plausible that we also acquire knowledge in this way – testimonial knowledge. I come to know that there has been good snowfall in the Alps this year by reading that this is so or by hearing someone's spoken testimony. It is widely accepted that empirical knowledge can be acquired in this way, but can moral knowledge?
Sophists
Authors: Santas Gerasimos 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
The Greek Sophists were self‐proclaimed experts who taught wealthy young men how to conduct themselves successfully in the affairs of their cities. They taught and practiced the art of rhetoric, much prized in ancient participatory democracies such as Athens, where civic leadership depended on the ability to persuade one's fellow citizens in the Assembly, the Council and the Jury Courts. In these institutions decisions were made by vote after speeches pro and con on substantial issues, such as forming alliances, building fortifications or temples, trying and punishing accused citizens, or going to war. Some Sophists also had substantial views about the nature of reality, knowledge, and value. Here we focus on the two most famous Sophists, Protagoras and Gorgias, and the implications of their views for ethics: Protagoras' most famous doctrine, that man is the measure of all things, and its implication that values are subjective and relative; and Gorgias' theory of rhetoric, its aims and methods, and the ethics of rhetoric.
Cloning
Authors: Harris John , Pacholczyk Anna 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe birth of Dolly the sheep, the first adult mammal to be successfully born as a result of somatic cell nuclear transfer, was announced in 1997 (Wilmut et al. 1997), triggering widespread concern, and in many quarters panic, over the ethics of cloning, particularly with reference to the cloning of humans. Many commentators called for a ban on cloning. This concern was echoed in a cascade of international documents proclaiming human reproductive cloning to be ethically unacceptable. In 1999 the World Health Organization stated that “cloning for the replication of human individuals is ethically unacceptable and contrary to human dignity and integrity.” In UNESCO's Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights a ban on “practices which are contrary to human dignity, such as reproductive cloning” is recommended. The Council of Europe's European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine prohibits human cloning in one of its additional protocols. Article 3 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union deals with the “right to the integrity of the person” and explicitly prohibits reproductive human cloning. How valid was this concern?
Twin Earth, Moral
Authors: Horgan Terrence , Timmons Mark 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe Moral Twin Earth (MTE) argument, inspired by Hilary Putnam's well‐known Twin Earth argument in connection with the semantics of natural‐kind terms such as “water,” was developed by Terrence Horgan and Mark Timmons in a series of articles (1991, 1992a, 1992b, 1996a, 1996b, 2000, 2009), which they have used as a basis for challenging versions of naturalist moral realism (seeNaturalism, Ethical; Realism, Moral; Semantics, Moral). Such realist views require a semantic construal of moral terms according to which (roughly) moral terms such as “right,” “wrong,” “good,” and “bad” (and the concepts they express) denote or refer to objective natural properties, and so, for example, moral judgments of the form “X is wrong” have objective truth conditions and are true just in case the item denoted by “X” has whatever natural property is denoted by the term “wrong” (or some word in another language that is translatable by the English term “wrong”). Such realist views are thus meant to be incompatible with versions of moral relativism.
Reasons: Holism and Atomism
Authors: McKeever Sean , Ridge Michael 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
Holism and atomism offer competing views about the context sensitivity of reasons. According to holism about reasons, as it is typically formulated, whether some consideration is a reason may depend upon the presence (or absence) of various background conditions. These background conditions, in turn, need not themselves be reasons, or even parts of reasons. According to atomism, by contrast, a consideration that is a reason in one setting will similarly be a reason in any other setting.
Rashdall, Hastings
Authors: Skelton Anthony 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHastings Rashdall (1858–1924) was educated at Oxford University, and he then taught at St. David's University College and Oxford, among other places. He produced seminal works in history and theology. His most important contribution to ethics is his articulation and defense of ideal utilitarianism, which he expressed inThe Theory of Good and Evil(1907) andEthics(1913).
TRIPS
Authors: Ashcroft Richard E. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTRIPS is the universally used acronym for the Agreement on Trade‐related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 1994. This is a binding legal instrument of the World Trade Organization (WTO) that legally obliges all its members to adopt and implement the TRIPS agreement, to bring its provisions into effect in domestic law, and to abide by judgments of the WTO's dispute resolution mechanism in respect of alleged breaches of its provisions (seeWorld Trade Organization).
Praxis
Authors: McBride William L. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractThe philosophical importance of this term is traceable in the first instance to Aristotle (seeAristotle), in the English translations of whose writings it is often rendered as “action.” He distinguishespraxisfrom two other concepts of comparable generality:poiesis, which means making or producing, andtheoria, contemplation. Ethics, for Aristotle, is the study of practical activity with a view to becoming good, and not for the sake of achieving theoretical knowledge. This contrast betweentheoriaandpraxis, theory and practice, has served as aleitmotifthroughout much of the history of Western philosophy.
Compensatory Justice
Authors: Boxill Bernard R. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFully compensating the victims of misfortune is making them no worse off than they would have been but for the misfortune (Nozick 1974: 57). Misfortunes may be the result of luck, accident, nature, or transgression and include losses, privation, pain, disability, malfunction, incapacity, deformity, disadvantage, bodily and mental injury and harm, and damage to or theft of property; the victims of misfortune include individuals and certain collectivities of individuals such as nations, states, races, universities, firms, and clubs.
Siting
Authors: Hansson Sven Ove 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Siting is the choice of a location for a human activity or construction. The object of siting can be some service facility or other positive resource for the neighborhood. Alternatively it can be an activity with negative impact on the immediate environment, such as a landfill or a power plant. Most discussions of siting have focused on the latter category, i.e., facilities that are perceived as negative by a large proportion of potential neighbors. There are two major classes of such facilities. In the first of these some
technology
is perceived to have negative local impact. Common examples are chemical industries, pipelines, nuclear power plants, wind farms, bioenergy plants, landfills, incinerators, railways, roads, and airports. The second class comprises facilities that bring in
people
whose presence is perceived as a threat. The siting of prisons, apartments for the mentally ill or retarded, rehabilitation centers for addicts, and housing for asylum seekers has often been met by local opposition.
Pufendorf, Samuel von
Authors: Seidler Michael J. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Samuel (Freiherr) von Pufendorf (1632–94) was ennobled (by Charles XI of Sweden) at the end of his life mainly for his historical works, yet he was as well or better known by then for his moral and political thought. He was the main German representative of so‐called modern natural law (Tuck 1987;
see
Natural Law), whose articulate, systematic elaboration of the genre also made it serviceable more broadly in many other national contexts. His works appeared in hundreds of editions and translations in the major European languages, both before and after his death, spawning multiple commentaries, refutations, and imitations; and his ideas shaped intellectual discourse, academic pedagogy, and even politics for over a century.
Enhancement, Biomedical
Authors: Douglas Thomas 
Published: January 2013

AbstractBiomedical technologies can increasingly be used not only to combat disease, but also to augment the capacities or traits of normal, healthy people – a practice commonly referred to as biomedical enhancement. Perhaps the best‐established examples of biomedical enhancement are cosmetic surgery and doping in sports. But most recent scientific attention and ethical debate focuses on extending lifespan, lifting mood, and augmenting cognitive capacities.
Torts
Authors: Zipursky Benjamin C. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract“Torts” is the word used to denote the subject covering the principles and rules governing lawsuits by one person alleging that another has wrongfully injured him or her and seeking compensation from the wrongdoer. Lawyers and courts for the past several hundred years have subdivided various bases that would justify such a demand, distinguishing different categories of legal wrongs, or torts. The oldest wrongs, dating back in the English legal system to the 1200s, fell under the category of “trespass with force and arms.” Included in this category were: a direct physical contact (not necessarily intentional) with someone's person or land, the holding of a person in confinement against his will, and the threatening of another with imminent violence. In ensuing centuries, English law recognized torts such as libel, slander, deceit, and assumpsit (breach of an undertaking) under the generic heading of “trespass on the case.” By the mid‐nineteenth century, as commerce, industry, and travel by rail, ship, and carriage expanded, injury‐causing accidents emerged as the most important source of tort litigation. In turn, courts began to treat all instances of accidentally caused personal injury (whether or not forcibly or directly caused) in terms of a new generic tort of “negligence.”
Value Realism
Authors: Oddie Graham 
Published: January 2013

AbstractValue realism, roughly speaking, is the thesis that value claims (such asfriendship is goodandburning baby's feet for fun is bad) can be literally true or false; that some such claims are indeed true; that their truth is notsimplya matter of any individual's subjective attitudes or even of the attitudes of some larger collective; and that facts about value enjoy a certain metaphysical independence from other matters of fact. As this first rough characterization might suggest, realism about value is a matter of degree. While the robust value antirealist will reject all four claims, there are a variety of realist positions from weak objective idealist views, to mind‐independent naturalist views, and finally robustly non‐naturalist views of value.
Prudence
Authors: Bykvist Krister 
Published: January 2013

AbstractTo be prudent, in a general sense of the term, is to show foresight in your deliberations and take into account the effects your actions will have on the future. In this general sense, you can be prudent about the future finances of your business, or your children's future well‐being. However, to be prudent is often understood, more narrowly, as being concerned with one'sownfuture well‐being. Indeed, in the philosophical discussion it is often understood, more demandingly, as being concerned with one's own well‐being while attaching no intrinsic significance to thetimingof a certain benefit or harm in one's life, whether it is in the past, present, or the future. But do we really have reason to be prudent in this more demanding sense?
Commitment
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Everyday discourse suggests that commitments are a central feature of human lives. Many refuse invitations citing prior commitments. Some are said to fear commitment. Others are praised for taking their commitments seriously. Not surprisingly, commitment is frequently referred to in the human sciences and in those branches of philosophy concerned with human action, including ethics. Authors often fail to explain what they mean by “commitment” and there is no one explicit account of commitment to which everyone clearly refers. This discussion construes one's commitments as
facts about one's normative situation
– about what one has reason to do (
see
Normativity). One's normative situation can be affected by many factors. One factor is the exercise of one's will, as when one decides not to make a certain phone call, agrees to marry someone, or resolves to live an honorable life. In such cases one can be said to have produced a
commitment of the will
. This discussion focuses on such commitments. It distinguishes between personal commitments such as that arising from a person's decision, and joint commitments, which can be argued to be the outcome of the making of agreements and promises, among other interpersonal transactions. If some such proposal is correct and if, as some believe, those rules of conduct we call moral have their source in an agreement or something similar, then we cannot understand morality without understanding commitment (
see
Contractualism).
Plato
Authors: Bobonich Chris 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

Plato (427–347
BCE
) was born to a rich and aristocratic Athenian family. In his youth, Plato associated with Socrates who, although he intensively investigated a wide range of ethical topics, wrote nothing. Plato is the first Western philosopher to write systematically on ethics and is, with his student Aristotle (
see
Aristotle), the founder of virtue ethics (
see
Virtue Ethics).
Feminist Bioethics
Authors: Dodds Susan 
Published: January 2013

AbstractFeminist bioethics is an area of applied philosophy that explores ethical issues arising from healthcare, medical technology, or health policy from a feminist perspective. It is a subfield of both bioethics (seeBioethics) and feminist ethics (seeFeminist Ethics), and extends into sociology, law and history, and philosophy of science and medicine. Feminist bioethics was originally identified with works relating to the ethics of abortion (seeAbortion) and ethical issues surrounding reproduction technology (seeBirth Control; Embryo Research; Reproductive Technology; Surrogacy). The scope of feminist bioethics has extended into bioethics and health policy more generally because of its feminist concern to challenge oppression, subordination, and disadvantage as they relate to healthcare, health policy, and biotechnology (seeBiotechnology; Discrimination; Healthcare Resources, Distribution of; Sexual Equality).
Life, Value of
Authors: MacLean Douglas 
Published: January 2013

AbstractPeter Singer has famously written, “People often say that life is sacred. They almost never mean what they say” (1993: 83). If by life we meanalllife, and if calling life sacred implies that it is always wrong intentionally to destroy a living individual, then Singer is surely correct. For taking life to be sacred in this sense would mean that it is wrong to kill a chicken or a flea and wrong to pull up a carrot to eat. Nevertheless, many people believe that at least human life has special or sacred value, although it is far from clear what this means or why human life should be singled out in this way.
Mill, John Stuart
Authors: Ryan Alan 
Published: January 2013

AbstractAlthough J. S. Mill (1806–73) was the most important British philosopher of the mid‐nineteenth century, he was not a professional philosopher. His successor as the leading utilitarian ethicist of Victorian England was Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900), who was Knightbridge Professor in the University of Cambridge (seeSidgwick, Henry). Mill never attended university; he worked for the East India Company until its dissolution in 1858, and was prominent as an economist, a political commentator, a Member of Parliament, and a polemical writer on progress, democracy, socialism, the decline of religion, and the emancipation of women.
Religion and Global Ethics
Authors: Schweiker William 
Published: January 2013

AbstractReligion can be a destructive as well as a positive force in the world. Religious disagreements often breed distrust, hatred, and violence. However, the religions also promote peace, advocate for human rights, and offer relief to those in need. The effects of religion are nowhere more apparent that in the global arena (seeGlobalization). We need to understand, and ultimately shape, the actions of religious adherents in order to ensure that religious convictions are more positive than negative in our global times. The contribution of religion to global ethics and, conversely, the importance of global ethics for religious practice is the topic of this essay. Insofar as global ethics conceives of the scope of moral responsibility to include present and future life not limited by specific relations or communities, then several questions come to the fore (seeResponsibility). What do the religions think are substantial obligations to distant and future others? What is the content of those obligations? How demanding are they and how are they justified, religiously and ethically? How well do the religions fulfill ethical responsibilities?
Birth Control
Authors: Bennett Rebecca 
Published: January 2013

Abstract

“Birth control” is a term that covers a number of different drugs, devices, and procedures that aim to allow individuals to control their fertility and prevent unwanted pregnancies and births. As such this term covers all contraceptives, including barrier methods such as the male and female condom and the diaphragm and drugs taken to prevent conception (the contraceptive pill and longer‐acting drugs administered as implants or injections). Sterilization, another form of birth control, is a medical procedure that aims to prevent pregnancy occurring either by closing the fallopian tubes (in women) or by cutting and closing the vas deferens (in men). Other birth control methods aim to end or prevent gestation rather than prevent conception. These methods include intrauterine devices, the morning‐after pill, and abortion (
see
Abortion).
Economics and Ethics
Authors: Brennan Geoffrey , Moseley Daniel D. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
At first glance, the disciplines of ethics and economics seem to be two ships passing in the night – or if not “passing,” then perhaps on collision course. One might wonder whether, if the ships did actually collide, many in either discipline would notice or even care. But what seems indisputable is that economics and ethics relate (where they do) under a cloak of darkness. They pass, or collide, mostly “at night”! Our aim here is to bring their relations into the light of common day.
Human Rights and Religion
Authors: Twiss Sumner B. 
Published: January 2013

AbstractHuman rights and religious traditions have had a long history of interaction, ranging from the medieval period to contemporary times. Since both are deeply implicated in not only violent conflict but also efforts to establish a more peaceful and just world, it is important to gain a synoptic understanding, both conceptually and in practical terms, of their interaction. The basic terms for this essay – “religion” and “human rights” – are themselves contested, and it is therefore necessary to assign them working definitions before examining some of the complexities of their relationship.
Twentieth‐Century Continental Ethics
Authors: Schroeder William R. 
Published: January 2013

Abstract
There have been at least four major movements in twentieth‐century Continental ethics: value realism; intersubjectivity theories; personal transformation theories; and “anti‐morality, creative‐response theories.” Value realism emerged from phenomenological investigations of the experience of value; it highlights the relationships among emotions and value. Its central figures include Brentano, Scheler, and Hartmann. Intersubjectivity theories are rooted in theories of recognition in Fichte and Hegel; they suggest that an entirely new ethical dimension emerges from the interweave of human reciprocity. Major exponents include Buber, Levinas, and Habermas. Personal transformation theories elaborate and refine self‐realization approaches that are central to Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche; they ground ethics in the analysis of the human condition. Paradigm contributors include Sartre and Foucault. Finally, anti‐morality theories develop Nietzsche's harsh critique of morality – narrowly conceived, while creative response theories attempt to ground ethics in fidelity to specific, developing, significant events. Exemplary figures include Bergson and Badiou. All four movements provide grounds for ethics that differ from traditional emphases on consequences and/or duties. Below I explore some reasons for this tradition's rejection of those standard approaches.
Coercion
Authors: Lamond Grant 
Published: January 2013

AbstractCoercion is thought to be morally and politically important for three main reasons. The first is that to have been coerced into doing something can form the basis for a claim that one is not responsible for the consequences of that action (seeResponsibility). The second is that coercing others means forcing or making them do something against their wills, and thus interferes with their freedom or Liberty (seeLiberty). To coerce another requires some justification for doing so. Finally, the ability to coerce others is an important form of social Power (seePower).