bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A TEST OF SOME ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION*
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. , Kulkarni Sharadchandra 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTProgramers try to construct programs which are carefully sequenced and provide the learner with immediate knowledge of results. The present research has implications for these program construction practices and their underlying rationale.Ss were randomly assigned to Group R, the regular version of the program, Group O, the program with knowledge of results omitted, and Group I, the program with the order of some frames inverted. Chemistry and mathematics programs were used with a total of 223 students in three schools.In no school did the groups differ in time taken to learn. In one school Group O made significantly more errors in going through the program than did Groups R and I, but in the other two schools there were no group differences in errors. In two of the schools Groups O and I did significantly better on the posttest than did Group R, but in the third school there were no group differences on the posttest. In one school Groups O and I had significantly more favorable attitudes toward programed instruction than did Group R, but this was not true in the other two schools.Our general conclusions are:

A mismatch between program and students may occur when a program is too redundant for students of a particular ability level to provide sufficient challenge to them. Such mismatches may be revealed by a comparison of R, O, and I conditions with regard to posttest achievement and attitude toward programed instruction.
Ability and motivational characteristics of the students, administrative variables, and subject matter variables may be at least as important as the programing variables (sequencing and knowledge of results) that we manipulated.
A program is a set of carefully sequenced materials which build upon each other to effectively guide the student toward achieving well‐defined objectives (see Holland, 1960a; Glaser, 1960; Skinner, 1960; Stolurow, 1961). A program consists of a series of frames, each of which requires the student to answer a question and tells him what the correct answer is (provides knowledge of results). This research attempts to see how (a) carefully sequencing the frames of a program and (b) providing knowledge of results with each frame contribute to the program's effectiveness. The basic experimental design involved giving comparable groups of students one of three versions of a program:This design was used with auto‐instructional programs in two different areas, mathematics and chemistry.
RESPONSE SET SCORES AS PREDICTORS OF PERFORMANCE
Authors: Frederiksen Norman 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA Work Preference Schedule (WPS), containing items concerned with preferences for a variety of job attributes, was administered to federal government employees in connection with routine personnel procedures. Answer sheets were obtained and rescored to yield scores which would presumably reflect social desirability and extremity response sets. Statistical study of the scores showed that response sets could be reliably measured and that attractive and unattractive items should be studied separately.Correlations of set scores with biographical data and with scores from inventories and tests were computed, including scores from a situational test, the Bureau of Business In‐Basket Test. It was judged that the only correlations that were capable of reasonably unambiguous interpretation were those between in‐basket scores and desirability set scores obtained from unattractive items. The results show that those who try to put themselves in a good light in responding to the WPS are likely to follow leads suggested by their superior in the in‐basket situation and to show generally good performance both in terms of quantity and quality. Some underlying motivational variable such as anxiety or need for recognition may account for both the desirability response bias and the characteristics of the in‐basket performance.
BAYESIAN INDIFFERENCE PROCEDURES: REFINEMENTS AND EXTENSIONS
Authors: Novick Melvin R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis report is a technical supplement to the University of North Carolina, Institute of Statistics, Mimeo Series Report No. 345, which dealt with the specification of indifference distributions for a wide range of statistical models and within the context of a Bayesian logical probability model. In this paper a more refined approach to indifference procedures is presented and applied to Bernoulli and Poisson models. It is also shown that the proposed procedure yields invariant specifications under certain transformations of the scale of measurement of the random variable. The null‐distribution of the correlation coefficient corresponding to the structuring of a regression model is presented.
PERFORMANCE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE ACQUISITION OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL ADVANTAGE IN COMPETITION1
Authors: Myers Albert E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this experiment was to investigate psychological advantages in competitive encounters. Twenty Ss participated in fourman tournaments using shuffleboard bowling machines. By remote control, the experimenter was able to manipulate the scores. A 2 × 2 factorial design controlled for the mean performance (high vs. low) and the variability (high vs. low) of each S. It was found that the low mean Ss gained a psychological advantage in this situation which was characterized by a pessimistic outlook and poor strategy selection on the part of their opponents.
ITEM ANALYSIS AND TEST RELIABILITY
Authors: Myers Charles T. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study compares four different item‐analysis procedures with respect to their effectiveness in identifying items which would make up reliable and valid tests. The four procedures were: (1) the item‐test biserial correlation, (2) the item‐test covariance divided by the test standard deviation (or the item reliability index), (3) the “standard length” of the item, and (4) the ratio of the item validity index to the item reliability index. These procedures were applied to a 32‐item, multiple‐choice test with an essay test criterion. Results for a 300‐case item‐analysis sample and for three 100‐case cross‐validation samples are presented which show each of the four procedures to be about equally effective.
FACULTY PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS
Authors: Davis Junius A. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe steps leading to the development of a Student Rating Form, an instrument for use by faculty in systematically describing college students, are outlined in this first of a series of reports concerned with faculty characterizations of students. The treatment is primarily historical, providing a basis for subsequent technical reports of analyses of faculty definition of desirable student traits. Data presented include a thematic analysis of free verbal descriptions by faculty of students, and the results of a factor analysis (suggesting 16 factors) of variables contributed by an early version of the Student Rating Form.
CHOICE‐SEQUENCE PATTERNS IN BINARY‐CHOICE “LEARNING” BY RETARDATES1,2
Authors: Gerjuoy Herbert , Gerjuoy Irma R. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSixty‐seven middle‐grade and 53 high‐grade retardates were assigned to either control or experimental binary‐choice‐task groups. Control subjects were invariably reinforced, regardless of choice. Various response patterns were differentially reinforced for experimental subjects. Single alternation was overwhelmingly preferred, and there was little choice‐sequence pattern variability. These results were attributed to a lowered tendency in retardates to avoid long sequences of alternation responses.
NONINTELLECTIVE CORRELATES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT1
Authors: Skager Rodney , Terwilliger James 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThe research reported here represents an attempt to isolate biographical and attitudinal correlates of achievement after controlling for aptitude. Two biographical inventories pertaining to academic aspirations and plans, extracurricular activities and jobs, pressures and values in the home and peer group, and self‐initiated efforts to achieve various personal goals were administered to approximately 750 college preparatory eleventh grade students in seven northeastern public secondary schools. The responses to the inventories were correlated with a residual grade average reflecting academic achievement independent of aptitude as measured by the PSAT.The results are generally consistent with the findings of previous investigations. Attributes found to be positively related to our criterion of achievement include: high academic aspirations, plans to continue education beyond four years of college, a home and peer environment which encourages academic goals and general intellectual pursuits, and self‐initiated efforts to achieve goals of an intellectual nature.Caution should be exercised in attempting to generalize specific relationships to students in school settings different from that characterizing the schools used in the present research. Replications of the present study in such schools would provide interesting empirical comparisons.
EFFECTS OF COACHING ON THE COLLEGE BOARD ENGLISH COMPOSITION TEST
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTCoaching may increase students' scores on an achievement test without increasing, or increasing only temporarily, skills in the area being tested. This study deals with the immediate and longer term effects of coaching on the CEEB English Composition Test.Students at each of six cooperating high schools were randomly assigned to coached and non‐coached conditions. Following the coaching sessions, all students took the English Composition Test.The immediate effects varied from essentially no mean difference in test scores between coached and non‐coached students at one school to a mean difference of 73 points favoring the coached students at another school. In general the coaching increment was not confined to the specific item types coached for. The coached groups achieved their superiority by getting fewer items wrong.When coached and non‐coached students were retested ten months later, it was found that the coaching increment had disappeared. Estimates of growth and practice effects from test‐retest data of the non‐coached students varied from a mean of 15 points at one school to a mean of 94 points at another.It was concluded that the candidate who receives coaching may indeed have an advantage over the candidate who does not. But the variability from school to school both of coaching effects and of score gains due to “growth” indicate that the specifics of the teaching situation are quite important.
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF ACCOMPLISHMENTS AS MEASURES OF CREATIVITY1
Authors: Skager Rodney W. , Schultz Charles B. , Klein Stephen P. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTIn studying creativity, criterion measures based on biographical information can be scored for the number of accomplishments (Quantity) or for level of a single most outstanding accomplishment (Quality). The meaningfulness of the distinction between the two scores is dependent upon their intercorrelation and whether the measures show differential correlations with other variables. The Independent Activities Questionnaire (IAQ), composed of items describing achievements of a creative type, was developed for use as a criterion instrument in research on creativity.Examination of the correlates of Quality and Quantity scores calculated from the responses of a sample of entering college freshmen indicated that (1) Quality and Quantity scores are significantly correlated, but that (2) Quality was more related to a measure of academic aptitude, and (3) Quantity was more related to a measure of intellectual stimulation in the home.
CORRELATES OF HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
Authors: Dermen Diran 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTAn attempt was made to relate hypnotic susceptibility to: an inventory of subjective nonhypnotic personal experiences; attitudes and opinions toward, and interest in hypnosis; environmental and social perceptions; five Guilford‐Martin personality scales; and measures of response styles. The questionnaires were administered to 203 male and 233 female college students. The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A was later administered to 80 male and 97 female volunteers from the above sample. Those few variables correlating significantly with hypnotizability in either or both samples, were: (a) Rhathymia; (b) previous hypnotic experience; (c) the number of different hypnotic situations for which S expressed willingness to volunteer; and (d) self‐predictions of susceptibility. Results in the present study, considered with the results of other studies, lead to the conclusion that hypnotic susceptibility is not related to available personality inventories or measures of “social and environmental perceptions,” and probably not related to measures of subjective nonhypnotic personal experiences. A S's previous hypnotic experience, attitude toward hypnosis, and expectations regarding his own hypnotizability do appear to be related to his susceptibility. A fresh approach to the area is needed. One such approach would be the determination of the dimensions of hypnotic depth and susceptibility, and the relationships between these factors and outside variables.
ACCURACY IN THE JUDGMENT OF CONSISTENCY1
Authors: Myers Albert E. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwo studies are reported which investigated the ability of people to make accurate judgments of variability in performance. In one study, a laboratory experiment in which performance was manipulated by the experimenter, it was found that significant accuracy did exist even though it was clouded by the tendency to judge Ss with high mean scores as more consistent. In the other study, persons participating in a real‐life bowling league were asked to make judgments of consistency about the players on their team. There was no trace of any appropriate sensitivity to differences in variability. The halo effect involving the judged consistency of the high average players was, however, quite strong. The importance of these findings for mathematical models of decision making is briefly discussed.
SECULAR TRENDS IN AN ADJECTIVE CHECKLIST1,2
Authors: Hofstee Willem K. B. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTSecular trends in tests were redefined as effects of systematic changes in response to test items resulting from experience with similar items, rather than from learning outside the testing situation. In the present study, two such trends were investigated in a list of 180 trait‐descriptive adjectives: a trend for items to be responded to more desirably as the list continues, and a trend for items to be responded to more or less desirably depending upon the desirability of the preceding item. The method consisted of comparing item popularities, as found in the original format, with the popularities of the same items presented in forced‐choice format: if item popularities had been biased through the operation of secular trends in the original list, such bias should to some extent be detectable in the responses to the forced‐choice format. The results showed no evidence for the first trend; with respect to the second, it was clearly demonstrated that items in the original list were responded to more desirably as the preceding item was more desirable. The importance of controlling and studying secular trends was discussed.
BINARY‐CHOICE SEQUENCES OF RETARDATES, NORMAL CHILDREN, AND COLLEGE STUDENTS UNDER RANDOM‐ AND PATTERN‐SET INSTRUCTIONS1
Authors: Gerjuoy Irma R. , Gerjuoy Herbert 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTTwenty successive free binary choices (between A and B) were elicited without reinforcement from adolescent educable mental retardates, from normal fourth‐ and fifth‐grade children, and from college students under one of two sets of instructions: instructions to respond randomly and instructions to respond with a simple pattern of successive choices.There was a preference for A rather than B as the first response. For all treatment combinations, the number of alternations over the entire set of 20 items was above chance; consistent with previous findings, however, the college students alternated less than the others. Although the instructional variable had no significant effects on retardate behavior, random‐set instructions elicited very few cyclic sequences of choices from normal children and college students. College students who gave cyclic sequences generally gave longer cycles than did Ss in the other two populations; most of the children who gave cyclic sequences alternated; and some of the retardates who gave cyclic sequences alternated and some perseverated.These results imply that the tendency to alternate above chance that has been noted in binary‐choice tasks is due to something more than preconceptions about the nature of random sequences. There is a general tendency to alternate that is at least as strong under pattern‐set as under random‐set instructions; the latter instructions appear to be interpreted as instructions to behave unpredictably.
BAYESIAN ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS: FIXED EFFECTS
Authors: Bohrer Robert 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTBayesian analysis is a method of making inferences concerning a given process which allows prior beliefs and data concerning the statistical structure of the process to be combined with the results of present trials of the process into a posterior credibility distribution on the parameters characterizing the process. Credibility interval statements from this distribution are often of interest. In this paper, a technique for stating some such intervals for a normal regression model is developed.Section 1 of this paper briefly presents an approach to Bayesian inference, due to Novick and Hall, which provides a technique for quantifying prior beliefs.Section 2 reviews the distribution theory necessary for Bayesian analysis of processes which are of the normal, linear fixed effects model type and presents a method of deriving Bayesian credibility intervals based on this distribution theory.Section 3 demonstrates the application of these methods to three sets of data.
SKILL AND MOTIVATION AS SEPARABLE COMPONENTS OF PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTA music learning experiment was performed, illustrating the possibility of isolating certain components of performance (labeled Skill and Motivation) by using separate measurement situations for each. Straightforward application of Hullian theory–which considers that component factors of performance interact prior to overt behavior and are not thus separable in measurement situations–to the experiment's data led to a self‐contradiction. It was shown, further, that Hull's theory could be considered consistent with the present data only when certain assumptions of dubious plausibility were made.
PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT AND THE ETHICS OF ASSESSMENT1
Authors: Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTRecent controversies about the adequacy of psychological testing may not only indicate poor public relations between psychologists and society, but may also derive from value conflicts within psychology itself about the proper role of assessment. Current concern among testers to institute further self‐regulation to conform with recent pressures from social critics may be a mistaken emphasis; a more important concern is the development of policies to guide practice in those cases where alternative uses of tests are in conflict. Since policy‐making in areas of value conflict may produce an undesirable impact on the atmosphere of the regulated domain, some provision should also be made for the continuing reappraisal of policy decisions.
BEHAVIOR CHANGE MEDIATED BY CHANGE IN BELIEF: THE ROLE OF COMMITMENT PRIOR TO THE INFLUENCE ATTEMPT1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWhen a persuasive communication causes a change in belief, will behavior relevant to the belief also change? Past experiments have shown both successes and failures in obtaining such behavior change. The present study offers a reconciliation for these differences in findings by showing that the pattern of belief change with no behavior change occurred only in Ss who, before a communication, committed themselves to a position opposing it. Without this commitment, Ss showed no immunity against the effects of the communication on behavior. Some theoretical implications of this finding were discussed briefly.
AFFECT AND EXPECTATION1
Authors: Rosenhan David , Messick Samuel 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTFour groups of Ss were exposed to a probability learning situation in which they guessed which of two stimuli would next appear. One set of stimuli contained angry and smiling faces, while the other or neutral set contained big and little kangaroos. When the input ratio was 70 per cent angry faces to 30 per cent smiling faces, Ss markedly underestimated the dominant input. When the ratio was reversed (70 per cent smiling, 30 per cent angry), expectancies for the dominant stimulus approximated objective input. Thus, relative preferences for the stimuli appeared to dictate expectations. Expectancy curves for the relatively neutral kangaroos fell between the curves for the affective stimuli.Considerable interindividual variability was found for affective expectancies. These individual differences were tentatively associated with personality differences.
LEARNING THEORY: SOME REVISED BASIC LAWS AND CONCEPTS OF PERFORMANCE, REWARD, AND PUNISHMENT1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis paper has attempted to outline the basis for a new theory of learning. One important feature of the theory has to do with those respects in which it is not new–it has incorporated some ideas contained in presently competing theories into a formulation that offers the possibility of unifying these rivals. In addition, new suggestions concerning the analysis of performance, the interpretation of punishment and the role of information feedback in learning have been offered. Data from three experiments described in the paper have both supported predictions based on the new theory and have indicated difficulties in previous interpretations of learning. These three experiments also demonstrated that the new theory has the desirable feature of lending itself readily to experimentation on human subjects.
DIFFICULTY AND OTHER CORRELATES OF CRITICALNESS RESPONSE STYLE AT THE ITEM LEVEL1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTThis study examined the relationship between the difficulty of items on an achievement‐type test of report writing and (a) the items' correlations with the test's criticalness response style score, and (b) the items' correlations with the test's content score. Item readability and item format variables were also analyzed. The major findings were that (a) the items' difficulty was related to their correlations with the content score and unrelated to the items' correlations with the response style score; (b) the items' location in the test was generally related to their correlations with the response style score, and unrelated to the other variables; and (c) the readability indexes were not related to the three basic item variables.
BEHAVIOR CHANGE MEDIATED BY CHANGE IN BELIEF1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G. 
Published: August 2014

ABSTRACTWhen a persuasive communication causes a change in belief, will behavior relevant to the belief also change? The few studies directly relevant to this problem have failed to obtain such behavior change. The first three studies in the present series show definite success in obtaining behavior change mediated by belief change. The fourth experiment offers a reconciliation for these contradictory findings by showing that the pattern of (temporary) belief change with no behavior change occurred only in subjects who, before the communication, committed themselves to a position opposing it. The potential theoretical and practical significance of this last finding was briefly discussed.