bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Public/Private Distinction
Authors: Miège Bernard , Salles Chloé 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
The distinction between public and private is one of the founding elements of the liberal‐democratic political thought and legal systems of many countries. As it has always been, it is the subject of many discussions, but these discussions now appear to be more pragmatic than they were before. Almost simultaneous interpenetration of public and private domains and an increase in resources available to individuals and organizations are promoting the disruption of what traditionally distinguished them. From an information and communication science point of view, this entry questions this distinction according to three perspectives, namely: the emergence of a social sphere; the importance of mediatization through the use of ICT tools; and the strong trends marking the public, societal, and political spheres, emphasizing the limits and the nonrelevance of the distinction itself.
Social Capital
Authors: Herreros Francisco 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThis essay defines social capital as resources embedded in social networks, in contrast to other definitions that stress values and beliefs as social capital. It also analyses the sources of social capital and its consequences for the wider society. Finally, it discusses the contentious role of trust in social capital, claiming that, although trust itself cannot be considered social capital, systems of mutual trust within social networks can indeed help agents to mobilize resources of social capital.
Discourse Ethics
Authors: Rehg William 
Published: November 2015

AbstractDiscourse ethics represents a recent innovation in neo‐Kantian moral theory that was first advanced by German critical theorists in the 1970s, most notably Jürgen Habermas and Karl‐Otto Apel. Also known as “communicative ethics,” discourse ethics distinguishes itself from parallel initiatives, such as that of John Rawls, by its insistence that valid moral norms must emerge from real dialogues that satisfy demanding conditions of reasonable argumentation. Discourse‐ethical considerations have informed research on deliberative democracy, cosmopolitanism, legal adjudication, and participatory policy studies in technology, environmental governance, urban planning, and management,inter alia.
European Public Sphere
Authors: Adam Silke 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical communication scholars have investigated whether a public sphere emerges that adapts to the new supra‐ and intergovernmental European reality in the course of European Union integration. Such European public sphere(s) might linkEUpolitics to citizens. The entry discusses not only how such Europeanized public sphere might affect the quality of democracy as well as the political process but also what a European public sphere could look like and how we might measure it. Our empirical knowledge on the existence or nonexistence of a European Public Sphere is summarized in five theses. The article concludes with future paths for research.
Liberalism
Authors: Giorgini Giovanni 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Liberalism is a political doctrine as well as a system of beliefs and values centered on a specific view of the human being conceived as free and rational and endowed by nature with certain rights; a political doctrine which is amenable to be translated into laws and institutions (the liberal state). This entry examines the conceptual and linguistic problems in defining liberalism; its historical origin in the wars of religion in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries; its philosophical and political tenets; and some of the key figures in its development.
Public Opinion Polls
Authors: Donsbach Wolfgang 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe entry describes the methodological and theoretical foundations as well as some societal and political issues around public opinion polls. After a brief historical account of the elements that have led to modern public opinion research, this entry addresses problems of validity and accuracy, particularly in the context of election polls. The author then describes citizens' relationship to the polls in terms of their cooperativeness and in terms of possible effects of published opinion polls on the electorate. The use of polls by politicians and governments is regarded under the notion ofresponsiveness. The entry concludes with a critical outlook on the future of opinion polls in democracies.
Political Communication Research in North America
Authors: Gingras Anne‐Marie 
Published: November 2015

AbstractModern political communication was born in North America in a context of two world wars and a cold war, the development of new technologies, and the emergence of the public relations industry. In the early 20th century, the dominant paradigm focused on persuasion and propaganda at a time when people were considered incompetent citizens. In the 1950s and 1960s, the most notable impact of the media appeared to be reinforcement and not persuasion. In the 1970s and the 1980s, the bulk of research tried to rebut the minimal effect theory of the media. The impact of the media remains an open question. Political communication research thrives in various disciplines and has expanded toward behavioral and cognitive studies as well as relationships between the political realm and the media, civil society and the media, and political economy and public policy in information and communication.
Mediatization
Authors: StröMbäck Jesper 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe mediatization of politics refers to a multidimensional and long‐term process through which the importance of media and their spillover effects on political processes, institutions, organizations, and actors have increased. Two key concepts within the theoretical framework of the mediatization of politics are political logic and media logic. While polity, policy, and politics shape political logic, media logic is shaped by professionalism, commercialism, and media technology. Media influence in the context of mediatization refers to all activities and processes that are influenced, altered, shaped, or structured by media and the perceived need of individuals, organizations, and social systems to communicate with or through media. Media influence is thus a broader concept, transcending but also including media effects.
Political Management
Authors: Johnson Dennis W. 
Published: November 2015

AbstractPolitical managementis the term used to embrace the study of applied politics. Political science, political communication, and political marketing are also fields that study politics, but they do so from defined and evolving theoretical frames of reference. Political management is a more descriptive and applicative field, still evolving its theoretical underpinnings (Dulio, 2004). The first academic program to use the termpolitical managementwas George Washington University in the United States, with its Graduate School of Political Management (GSPM); its faculty were designated as professors of political management. The GSPM political management program was established in 1986 in New York in 1986 and its founding dean was F. Christopher Arterton. The GSPM relocated to Washington, D.C., in 1993 and became an integral part of George Washington University in 1995.
Partisanship
Authors: Eilders Christiane 
Published: November 2015

AbstractIn political communication the concept of partisanship refers to the open support of a political party or political goal by or in the media as well as the selection and use of media offerings on the basis of preferences. In media content partisanship mostly entails formally stated endorsements of a political party or candidate in election campaigns as well as editorials that clearly take sides on political issues. If the norm of separation of fact and opinion is violated, however, partisanship might also pertain to news provision as such. It manifests itself through both the selective emphasis on particular political actors and issues, and through a favorable coverage of actors, events, and positions at the expense of others. Partisanship is frequently associated with poor media performance because it collides with the regime of objectivity in journalism. Under conditions of easy access to a multitude of partisan opinions, such as via the Internet, partisanship in media use fosters the emergence of echo chambers. Yet, partisanship also contributes to diversity and provides orientation to media users.
Media Effects Theory
Authors: Borah Porismita 
Published: November 2015

AbstractMedia effects include theories that explain how the mass media influence the attitudes and perceptions of audience members. First, this entry touches on the history of media effects. Second, it gives an overview of the main theories in this area. Finally, using three of the most recent theories within media effects, namely framing effects, agenda‐setting, and priming, the entry explains media effects theory and the psychological mechanisms involved in these three theories.
Politainment
Authors: Riegert Kristina , Collins Sue 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe term politainment refers to the intertwining of politics and entertainment, and encompasses two processes: (1) political entertainment—how the entertainment industry exploits political topics in various entertainment formats; and (2) entertaining politics—how political actors capitalize on their celebrity (staging photo‐ops, party convention spectacle, talk‐show appearances, etc.) in order to enhance their images and to promote certain issues. When broadly defined, politainment moves beyond its association with infotainment to consider popular culture as a potential space for political insight and activity, and to acknowledge entertainment formats as sources of political knowledge, value orientation, and civic engagement. As a growing body of international scholarship attests, new hybrid media formats increasingly engage “political reality” across genres, conventional and new, in new television formats such as political satire and realityTV, fictionalized realism (in film, television, telenovelas, and interactive video games), and new variations of the celebrity media event genre. Such research recognizes that pleasures found in popular cultural formats of everyday life can also be ways of cultivating audiences' conscious motivations for political participation.
Cultural Studies
Authors: Thomas Tanja , Kruse Merle‐Marie 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
For more than five decades, cultural studies has developed theoretical, conceptual, and methodological approaches in order to engage with the political relevance of culture, namely with questions of power, of subordination and resistance, hegemony, and subalternity. Focusing on aspects connected to “the politics of culture or the culture of politics” (Stuart Hall), cultural studies' key contribution to the research area of political communication is its interest in a rearticulation both of “the political” as well as of “communication,” which has produced a markedly different and expanded model of political communication. Within the ongoing debate among cultural studies scholars, repoliticization is a keyword. It is, for example, part of the debate on the institutionalization of cultural studies and its political relevance, the debate on cultural studies bridging theoretical knowledge production and political/pedagogic practices, and the debate about the political relevance of cultural studies' research agendas. Consequently, cultural studies offers a wide variety of theoretical and practical approaches that are worth taking into account when researching “the political” in political communication. As such, cultural studies has become a vital and vitalizing paradigm for rethinking “the political.”
Persuasion, Political
Authors: Richey Sean 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This entry gives an overview of the long‐standing literature on political persuasion. It examines the traditional research as well as newer ways to test persuasion, focusing on sender, medium, and receiver. It posits that the minimal effects paradigm from media studies is the best way to conceive of the broad concept of political persuasion. It considers several styles of communication media.
Political Efficacy
Authors: Yıldırım Kerem 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
This entry traces the historical development of the concept political efficacy to early voting behavior research and follows the increasing level of conceptual precision over time. Then, describes operationalization of the concept as well as some likely limitations related to it. Special attention is paid to the relationship of political efficacy to government responsiveness and media use. Lastly, directions for future research are highlighted, focusing on the impact of the Internet, social media, and institutionalism.
Strategic communication
Authors: Conrad Charles , Terry Andrea 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe first decade of the 21st century has witnessed an explosion of interest in strategic communication, broadly defined as the purposeful use of symbols to achieve individual, organizational, and/or political goals. Strategic communication has long been a central topic in the academic disciplines of marketing, advertising, journalism, and public relations, and to the professions associated with these fields. By the 1980s it also had become a major focus in management, sociology, and political science, as connections were forged between it and processes of managerial decision‐making, developing and exercising political influence, and creating, transforming, and legitimizing preferred social structures and cultural assumptions. The purpose of this entry is to briefly outline developments in strategic communication as it relates to communication theory and practice, organizational theory and practice, and polity‐level theory and practice, and to suggest areas of further integration.
State/Statehood
Authors: Peruzzotti Enrique 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe concept of the modern state is the product of complex historical processes that gave birth to a novel form of institutionalization of political power characterized by the existence of a single and legally regulated structure of political sovereignty that has supreme jurisdiction over a territory and its population. This article traces such development, analyzing the different state configurations that preceded the formation of contemporary democratic states as well as the challenges confronted by nation‐states in contemporary times.
Popularization of Politics
Authors: Street John 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe popularization of politics refers to many processes, rather than one, but in essence it highlights the way in which politics is invested with the styles and platforms of popular culture. It can be seen as a product of neoliberalism and the mediatization of politics, although it also predates both. Political movements have traditionally sought to present themselves as “popular” in both cultural and political terms for many centuries. The popularization of politics can also be associated with the rise of so‐called “celebrity politics”. This article suggests that the idea best be understood against the background of the “unpopularity of politics” and the “mediatization of politics,” and as differentiated by genres of “popularization.”
Political Communication Research
Authors: Soha Michael , Meyrowitz Joshua 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Political communication, both as a field of study and in practice, is changing rapidly in the digital age. In the face of major transformations in communication technology, such as the transition from a system dominated by mass media to networked, digital media, tenets of political communication research are ripe for reexamination. This article summarizes the past trajectory and development of political communication as a research subject, with the goal of exploring areas where research could expand further to address recent changes in patterns of communication. Five core perspectives that have been dominant in political communication research are outlined and discussed, along with new challenges for the field in the digital era. Within the context of the shifting paradigm from mass to networked communication, key emergent issues and areas of political communication research are examined including: digital news and information flows, anti‐institutional politics, online publics and fragmentation of the public sphere, shifting relationships between political actors and constituents, changing perceptions of leaders through social media, the blurring of entertainment and politics in viral and other media, and the emergence of a global networked public arena.
Revolution
Authors: Pasquino Gianfranco 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Revolutions are fundamental changes, mostly irreversible and entailing violence, that profoundly transform the political, the social, and the economic spheres of society. All revolutions have been the product of political frustrations felt by several large sectors of society after a period of rising expectations that could no longer be satisfied. Also major unachieved reforms lead to revolutionary situations where a sort of fever will affect society. Revolutions entail a violent clash of challengers attacking the state. Revolutionary attempts are successful when the ruling elite loses its cohesion and when the armed forces are divided and decide not to fight back. There have been six victorious revolutions: the American (1776), the French (1789), the Mexican (1910), the Soviet (1917), the Chinese (1949), and the Cuban (1959). They have all institutionalized themselves and have led to strong state authorities. None of them has been reversed. The sheer passing of time prevents a return to the previous regime. The collapse of the Soviet Union has not reinstated the defeated social classes, but has opened the way to a new form of authoritarianism. If cohesion of the challengers is the most important condition for a revolutionary outcome, our times, characterized by pluralism of all kinds and by failed states exposed to the attacks of violent, often ethnic gangs, do not seem to be conducive to revolutionary occurrences.
Cinema, Political
Authors: Farinotti Luisella 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe essay analyses the conjunction between cinema and politics, describing its correlation with the great historical processes of the 20th century. The reconstruction of the main experiences of political cinema—the Soviet avant‐garde; regime cinema under Nazism and Fascism; the democratic reeducation intent carried out through cinema in the postwar era; the militant cinema of the 1970s—is accompanied by analysis of the theoretical debate which follows and often leads the cinematic practice. The political intent of cinema cannot be measured so much, or exclusively, by the contents of a film, as by the representational machine: Cinema itself is interpreted as an ideological apparatus, and its strength has to be evaluated by its ability to shape and to create an image of power.
Anarchism
Authors: Pasquino Gianfranco 
Published: November 2015

Abstract
Anarchism is a set of principles regarding the relationships, on one hand, between power and men and women and, on the other, within the community of men and women. Anarchism is characterized by the rejection of all forms of power and by the search for justice. Though there is no anarchist blueprint, justice is the goal to be obtained in societies organized in a federalist, communal, decentralized, and cooperative way. Violence, “the propaganda of the deed,” can be directed against the (oppressive) rulers, but education is the best means to achieve a just society. Quite important for about one century, 1840–1940, anarchism survives in fragments to be found in all shades of libertarian thought and in some antiglobal fringes.
α‐Cyanation of Aromatic Tertiary Amines using Ferricyanide as a Non‐Toxic Cyanide Source
Authors: Nauth Alexander M. , Otto Nicola , Opatz Till 
Published: November 2015

AbstractThe reaction of aromatic tertiary amines with potassium ferricyanide directly provides the useful α‐amino nitriles. The inexpensive iron complex functions both as an oxidant and as a cyanide source. The presence of molecular oxygen speeds up the reaction which can be performed in aqueous tert‐butanol or even in ethanol‐based mixtures like Tequila. While amine cyanations usually employ highly toxic cyanide sources, potassium ferricyanide is even less toxic than table salt. No expensive metal complexes are required as catalysts and the co‐product of the cyanation, Prussian blue, has no known toxicity and is rather used as an antidote.magnified image
The Applications of (Para)formaldehyde in Metal‐Catalyzed Organic Synthesis
Authors: Li Wanfang , Wu Xiao‐Feng 
Published: November 2015

AbstractParaformaldehyde (PFA), with the chemical formula CxHyOz, an infinite solid form of formaldehyde, is a very useful reagent in classical organic reactions. Numerous applications have been explored both in the chemical industry and organic chemistry research laboratories. In this general review, we have summarized the main achievements in the use of paraformaldehyde in organic reactions with transition metals as the catalysts. In these methodologies, paraformaldehyde has been applied as methylene blocks, hydroxymethylation reagents, CO source, syngas surrogate, hydrogen donor or acceptor, formylation and methylation reagents. Additionally, in order to make this review systematic, recent reported organocatalyzed transformations of paraformaldehyde have been included as well.magnified image
Asymmetrische Brønsted‐Säure‐katalysierte Synthese von Triarylmethanen – Aufbau von Communesin‐ und Spiroindolin‐Gerüsten
Authors: Liao Hsuan‐Hung , Chatupheeraphat Adisak , Hsiao Chien‐Chi , Atodiresei Iuliana , Rueping Magnus 
Published: November 2015

AbstractAza‐ortho‐Chinonmethide ermöglichen eine effiziente asymmetrische Synthese Naturstoff‐inspirierter Indolgerüste mit quartärem Stereozentrum. Mit diesem Ansatz konnten diverse Communesin‐ und Spiroindolin‐Gerüste unter milden Reaktionsbedingungen mit hohen Enantioselektivitäten erzeugt werden, wobei Regiodivergenz durch Variation des Substitutionsmusters erzielt werden kann.
Microbial cellulose as a support for photocatalytic oxidation of toluene using TiO2 nanoparticles
Authors: Rezaee Abbas , Pourtagi Golamhossin , Hossini Hooshyar , Loloi Mahshid 
Published: November 2015

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of toluene degradation using impregnated microbial cellulose (MC) with titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (MC/TiO2). The effects of the initial toluene concentration and ultraviolet (UV) source on the degradation efficiency of toluene have been evaluated. The experimental results showed that the rate of toluene degradation decreased with an increasing of the inlet toluene concentration. After 40 min reaction time, the decomposition rate (%) of toluene decreased from 72.3% to 36.02% for experiments conducted at 100 and 500 ppm, respectively. The degradation efficiency of toluene decreased with application of UVA source instead of UVC source. The toluene degradation efficiency (%) reached to 87.79% and 76.87% for UVC and UVA irradiation, respectively. At initial toluene concentration of 100 mg/L, toluene degradation efficiency for photocatalysis and photolysis processes were 70.2% and 10.65%, respectively; indicating that the photocatalytic degradation efficiency is significantly higher than that of photolytic degradation efficiency. Furthermore, photocatalytic degradation kinetics of toluene was studied and the rates of degradation were found to conform to pseudo‐second‐order kinetic. As shown in the present study, impregnation of TiO2 nanoparticles on MC/TiO2 significantly increases toluene removal for short exposure time. It can be concluded that the MC acted as a local toluene concentrator by adsorbing pollutants from the air stream, and thereby diffusing them to the TiO2 nanoparticles for photodegradation. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 43051.