bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Item Response Theory, Approach to Test Construction
Authors: Lutz Megan E. , Embretson Susan E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Item response theory (IRT) has had a major impact on instrument design and analysis, both in academic and clinical settings. This entry provides an introduction to the common dichotomous and polytomous IRT models and motivates the use of IRT in the test design process by comparing it with the previously dominant classical test theory. This entry provides a brief introduction to IRT to provide a foundation for the reader to develop a functional instrument within the IRT framework.
Admissibility Standards
Authors: Klotzle Rebecca Gray 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Admissibility standards are the formal rules and court‐developed procedures that govern what evidence is considered during a trial or other courtroom proceeding. The general rule is that evidence should be admitted when it is relevant to the case at hand and consideration of the evidence tends to prove or disprove the truth of a disputed issue. Admissibility standards vary according to the type of evidence being presented, with the guidelines concerning the opinion testimony of expert witnesses being among the most complex. Before a proposed expert is permitted to testify before a jury, the trial judge holds a
Daubert
hearing in order to evaluate the reliability and relevance of the expert's credentials and ensure that the expert opinion is the product of sound scientific methodology.
Sexually Violent Predator Statutes
Authors: Jackson Rebecca 
Published: January 2015

AbstractSex offender civil commitment statutes (“sexually violent predator/sexually dangerous person” statutes) have been adopted in 21 U.S. jurisdictions since 1990. These statutes allow for the indefinite commitment of sexual offenders following a term of incarceration. This entry reviews the development of these laws, the clinical assessment of potential sexually violent predators, and significant legal challenges to their constitutionality.
Taxometrics
Authors: Ruscio John 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Taxometric analyses examine the relationships among a set of indicator variables to determine whether a latent construct is categorical or dimensional in nature. What makes the taxometric method unique is its reliance on consistency testing, checking for coherence among nonredundant lines of evidence obtained using a series of data analytic procedures. Historically, taxometric results were interpreted in a somewhat subjective manner by making reference to prototypical results based on idealized data sets that varied in several important ways. More recently, the generation and parallel analysis of categorical and dimensional comparison data provides an interpretive aid and affords an objective index of the relative fit of the two competing structural models. By examining the consistency of results obtained using multiple taxometric procedures, one can differentiate categorical and dimensional data with high accuracy after setting aside relatively few results as interpretationally ambiguous.
Content Overlap
Authors: Uliaszek Amanda A. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractThe issue of content overlap has the potential to influence the results of any psychological researcher examining the relationship between two related variables. Instances of content overlap can be split into two groups; the first involvesconstruct overlap, where an unclear boundary exists between two constructs, and the second involvesmeasurement overlap, where a measure is potentially contaminated with items that better assess a different construct. There are several methodological and statistical ways to further assess the nature of content overlap. These include thoughtful content analysis and an examination of inter‐item correlations. If content overlap exists, there are several methods available for researchers to employ. One set of methods involves the deletion of conceptually or empirically redundant items. These techniques should be used with caution, as they are based on subjective interpretations and item deletion comes with many methodological and theoretical pitfalls. The gold standard method involves the use of hierarchical factor models. In this method, the common and specific variance between the general construct and the potentially overlapping content is separated and then relationships can be examined.
Treatment Dissemination
Authors: Lau, Nancy , Ng, Mei Yi , Weisz John R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Recent efforts to identify “evidence‐based psychotherapies” (EBPs) have focused attention on strategies for treatment dissemination; that is, the movement of EBPs into everyday clinical care. Dissemination is complicated by a variety of patient, family, therapist, provider organization, and service system characteristics, including concerns by some that EBPs lack the flexibility needed to fit treatment to individual patient characteristics. The classic book
Diffusion of Innovations
, and psychotherapy‐specific perspectives such as the
deployment focused model
of intervention development and testing, offer strategies for addressing such dissemination challenges. Prospects for successful dissemination are illustrated by examples of EBP implementation at national, regional, and state levels, and by the rapid spread of specific intervention programs such as dialectical behavior therapy and the Triple‐P Positive Parenting Program. Important directions for the future include enriching dissemination models, strengthening methods for evaluating dissemination success, and designing and developing more user‐friendly EBPs that are well suited to dissemination.
DSM

‐

IV
Authors: Widiger Thomas A. , Crego Cristina 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The American Psychiatric Association's
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(

DSM

) provides the authoritative list of what are considered to be mental disorders and how to best diagnose them. The

DSM
‐5

is the current version of the diagnostic manual. This entry concerns an earlier version,

DSM‐IV

. The primary decisions and features of

DSM‐IV

will be discussed herein.
Persistent Depressive Disorders: Dysthymia and Chronic Major Depressive Disorder
Authors: Cristancho Mario A. , Thase Michael E. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Chronic forms of depression are considered formal affective disorders and are conceptualized as the presence of persistent dysphoric mood and a protracted duration of illness. Dysthymia and chronic major depression are persistent depressive disorders recognized by

DSM
‐5

. Chronic forms of depression are prevalent and have the potential for significant functional and occupational impairment. Persistent depressive disorders should be promptly recognized and treated. The use of psychopharmacologic agents alone or in combination with psychotherapy has shown to be effective in the treatment of these conditions.
T
ourette's Disorder
Authors: Masselink Brian W. , Singer Harvey S. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Tourette syndrome (TS), also referred to as Tourette's disorder, is a clinical diagnosis of chronic motor and phonic tics with a fluctuating symptomatic course. It has a complex genetic and neurobiological basis and a prevalence of around 1%, with higher rates among boys and in special education classrooms. This entry describes the presentation of tics (the cardinal feature of TS); the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of TS; and frequently comorbid psychopathologies such as obsessive–compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, personality disorders, and cognitive dysfunction. Effective management of TS requires an understanding of the impact of tics, a comprehensive assessment of comorbidities, and the identification of areas of greatest impairment.
Instrumentalism and Intervening Variables
Authors: Kostko Aaron 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
The scientific legitimacy of explanatory variables in psychology was a central debate among behavioral theorists beginning in the 1930s. In 1948, MacCorquodale and Meehl proposed a useful distinction between intervening variables and hypothetical constructs. Hypothetical constructs entail the existence of unobservable entities or processes, whereas intervening variables are merely convenient labels used to describe the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses and do not imply the existence of any unobservable entity or process. Philosophical issues associated with each type of variable are discussed.
Specific Phobia
Authors: Muris Peter 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
A specific phobia is an anxiety disorder that is characterized by excessive, unreasonable fear related to a clearly discernible, circumscribed stimulus or situation. The fear response observed in a phobic individual consists of subjective distress, physiological arousal, and avoidance behavior, but may vary in expression from one phobia to another. Specific phobias have a multifaceted origin, in which genetic and environmental factors (conditioning and other learning experiences) are involved. The effective treatment of this disorder always involves some kind of exposure, preferably in vivo, as this appears to yield the most optimal effects.
Clinical versus Statistical Prediction
Authors: Grove William M. , Menton William H. , Huber Joseph C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
In clinical decision making, clinical (i.e., impressionistic) or statistical (i.e., mechanical) methods may be employed in making specific predictions. Since these methods will not always produce the same results, clinicians must implicitly or explicitly choose, when faced with any predictive task, whether to use their informal clinical judgment or a formal statistical process. Paul Meehl (1920–2003) notably explored this issue, comparing the relative strengths of the two methods and examining a modest sample of comparative studies. He concluded that statistical prediction tends to be more accurate and less costly than clinical prediction, and should therefore always be preferred by the clinician when it is available. These conclusions were controversial, sparking decades of debate and further research. Follow‐up studies have generally provided strong support for Meehl's original findings, suggesting that statistical prediction is equal or greater in accuracy to clinical prediction across a range of qualitatively diverse domains.
Mechanisms of Action in Psychotherapy
Authors: Alavi Sanam Bamshad , Sanderson William C. 
Published: January 2015

AbstractWith regard to psychotherapy,mechanisms of actionrefer to the processes by which psychotherapeutic change occurs. Since there are many approaches to psychotherapy (e.g., psychodynamic, interpersonal, cognitive behavioral), specifying the mechanisms of change is a complicated endeavor. The most comprehensive approach to identifying mechanisms of change in psychotherapy is to consider bothnonspecific factors(i.e., those mechanisms that are common among different schools of psychotherapy) andspecific factors(i.e., those mechanisms that are unique to one or more approaches to psychotherapy). In light of the research evidence, this entry discusses the specific and nonspecific factors that have been proposed to be responsible for change that occurs in the psychotherapeutic process.
Applied Behavior Analysis
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Piazza Cathleen C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Applied behavior analysis (
ABA
) is the clinical or applied branch of the field of behavior analysis. Its focus is the prediction and control of socially important behavior using technologically precise procedures that conform to the basic processes and principles of the experimental analysis of behavior. The goal is to produce effective and generalizable changes in behavior. Behavior analysts define
behavior
broadly to include anything an individual does while interacting with the environment, including observable behavior (e.g., running and playing tennis) and private events (e.g., thinking and imagining).
ABA
focuses on objective measurement and analysis of the environmental variables of which problem and appropriate behaviors are functions (i.e., functional analysis). Applied behavior analysts use this functional approach to develop effective treatments for a wide variety of socially important behaviors (e.g., autism and feeding problems).
Educational Psychology
Authors: Perez Tony , Bergey Bradley W. , Dai Ting , Cromley Jennifer G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Educational psychology is an interdisciplinary field that uses psychological principles to understand and improve learning in and out of schools and across the lifespan, with a focus on typically developing learners. The field bridges basic and applied research, and most research considers a combination of cognitive (how people learn) and/or motivational (what energizes people to learn) variables. The field uses a range of research designs, from large‐scale international longitudinal questionnaire studies, to classroom experiments, laboratory studies, interviews, and mixed‐methods research. Clinical psychologists working with clients who present with learning or motivational difficulties at school might benefit from educational psychology findings in these areas. The entry concludes with some common theoretical constructs employed within both educational and clinical psychology, such as self‐efficacy and self‐determination theory.
Vulnerable Populations in Research
Authors: McCauley Kay 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Researching vulnerable populations presents many challenges to researchers. However, it is important that research includes vulnerable people, such as those with mental illness, the dying, prisoners, and children. It is not uncommon to involve multiple sites in research to achieve an adequate sample size and ensure greater reliability and validity. Attaining ethical approval across multiple sites can be time‐consuming and necessitates a commitment to networking with other individuals, researcher teams, and organizations. Guidelines are available to assist new researchers through the process of multicentered ethical approval. This protracted process is an issue for national and international researchers, and is currently being addressed to some degree by the introduction of streamlined approaches by many human research ethics committees. Still researchers are faced by the complexity of multicentered ethical approval process. Consideration must be given to the need for a multicentered research approach and the development of streamlined processes within.
Ethnocultural Psychotherapy
Authors: Nelson Tamara , Cardemil Esteban V. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Ethnocultural psychotherapy refers to any form of psychotherapy that takes into consideration the multiplicity of sociocultural contexts that affect the psychotherapy process. Some of these contexts include race/ethnicity and culture, national origin, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation, and ability/disability; although most of the existing research has focused on race/ethnicity and culture. Ethnocultural psychotherapy presumes that culture influences how people conceptualize and experience mental illness, seek help, and respond to treatment. Further, psychotherapy posits that culture influences the assumptions clinicians hold about their work, their role in therapy, their clients, and their overall clinical practice. Therefore, ethnocultural psychotherapy approaches maintain that it is critical to consider culture throughout the therapeutic process, particularly when working with individuals from particular sociocultural backgrounds. This entry provides an overview of the different conceptualizations of ethnocultural psychotherapy and makes recommendations to help psychotherapists more effectively attend to culture.
Practice Research Networks
Authors: Youn Soo Jeong , McAleavey Andrew A. , Castonguay Louis G. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Practice research networks (
PRNs
) are infrastructures that allow for the collaboration of researchers and clinicians in conducting clinically meaningful and scientifically rigorous research. Despite the variety of
PRNs
, they can be broadly grouped into three clusters: (a)
PRNs
sponsored by professional organizations, such as American Psychiatric Association or American Psychological Association; (b) specific disorders
PRNS
, which conduct studies focused on particular clinical problems such as substance abuse, disruptive behavioral problems in children, child maltreatment, eating disorders and autism; and (c) common clinical settings
PRNs
, which are based in specific clinical environments, such as counseling centers.
Analysis of Covariance
Authors: Verona Edelyn , Miller Gregory A. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

Analysis of covariance (
ANCOVA
) is a statistical strategy helpful in evaluating the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
ANCOVA
can be employed to clarify relationships, including confounds, even when independent variables are correlated.
ANCOVA
is also subject to misunderstanding, misuse, and underuse. With proper use, it can be applied in a wide variety of contexts to improve statistical power and clarify relationships.
Adaptive Sampling Designs
Authors: Huston Carolyn 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Some studies involving rare or stigmatized populations, such as sex trade workers or drug addicts, can be difficult to sample using conventional sampling designs. Individuals belonging to such populations are sometimes not on census lists, or they are difficult to contact. To study such hard‐to‐reach populations, adaptive sampling designs have been developed. They allow researchers to develop sampling designs based on the spatial distribution or the social network structure of such populations. Such designs are considered adaptive because the selection of new members to bring to the survey depends on information collected on members already present in the sample. Although corrected estimation approaches exist, they can be difficult to calculate. Despite this challenge, such designs can be an important tool, enabling researchers to increase the sample size for a hard‐to‐reach target population.
Juvenile Court
Authors: Iselin Anne‐Marie R. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
From its inception, the juvenile court sought to maintain community safety while redirecting delinquent youth toward positive adult adjustment. At different points in its development, the juvenile court has prioritized one of these objectives over the other. The current juvenile court is heavily guided by scientific evidence as demonstrated in key Supreme Court decisions, and the rise in evidence‐based assessment and treatment practices.
DSM‐III

and

DSM‐III

‐
R
Authors: Sprock June 
Published: January 2015

Abstract

The
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, third edition
(

DSM‐III

) (American Psychiatric Association, 1980) is considered the first of the modern
DSM
s. The
DSM‐III
represented a paradigm shift from the etiologically based classification of previous editions of the manual to a descriptive approach that emphasized observable behaviors and reported symptoms, and provided specific operational definitions of diagnoses to improve reliability. The
DSM‐III
also introduced a multiaxial diagnostic format, new diagnostic categories, new names for existing diagnoses, and significant reorganization of diagnostic groups. The revisions were substantial, and shortly after its publication it was recognized that modifications were necessary to address concerns with the new classification. A task force was formed, and a revised edition of the
DSM‐III
(
DSM‐III‐R
) was published in 1987 (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). The revolutionary new approach introduced in the
DSM‐III
provided the basis for the
DSM‐IV
and
DSM‐IV‐text‐revision
(
DSM‐IV‐TR
), as well as the current classification of mental disorders, the
DSM‐5
.
Clinical Geropsychology
Authors: Feng Michelle C. , Davison Gerald C. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Clinical geropsychology is a growing specialty field that focuses on the psychological aspects of aging, specifically the assessment and treatment of psychological disorders in older adults. Ageist assumptions about older adults being incapable of psychological change or its not being worth the time and effort to work towards such change have been replaced by a more optimistic view of the senior years and of the capacity for growth and continuing contributions to society. There is a growing body of evidence that certain forms of psychological intervention can help older people cope with depression, anxiety, substance abuse, chronic illness, caregiving, and cognitive impairment. Educational and professional issues include evaluation of competency as well as the position of this new specialization in the workforce.
Paraphilias
Authors: Thibaut Florence 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Paraphilias are deviant sexual behaviors that cause significant distress or impairment in functioning. Some paraphiliac behaviors may lead to sex offenses. The diagnosis of paraphilia must be carefully established. In order to control paraphiliac fantasies and behaviors, as well as the level of distress of the paraphiliac individual, a comprehensive treatment plan may include psychotherapy, in most cases cognitive behavioral therapy, in association with pharmacological treatment if necessary. The treatment will depend on the type and intensity of paraphiliac sexual fantasies and the risk of sexual violence. Paraphilias characterized by intense and frequent deviant sexual desire and arousal highly predispose individuals to severe paraphiliac behavior (such as pedophilia or serial rapes). In such cases, hormonal intervention may be needed.
World War
I
and Clinical Psychology
Authors: Bazar Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
World War I served as a critical period in the development of the discipline of psychology. Psychologists' contributions to the war effort, particularly through the development and administration of intelligence, vocational, and personality tests to Army recruits and soldiers, resulted in widespread recognition of the specialized expertise and applied usefulness of psychology. In the years immediately following the end of World War I, psychologists were found in increasingly diversified work environments, including business, education, and medicine.
Scientific Reductionism
Authors: Thornton Tim 
Published: January 2015

AbstractReductionism has been an influential view of the nature and aims of science, and the relations between different scientific theories, since the early part of the twentieth century. It holds that higher level theories should be explained using the terms of lower level theories that describe more basic entities. Reductionism faces principled challenges in the context of clinical psychology, however, both in reducing mental phenomena to more basic biological processes and in reducing facts about illness to more basic value‐free biological facts.
Schizoaffective Disorder
Authors: Tsuang Ming T. , Iguchi Lisa , Stone William S. 
Published: January 2015

Abstract
Schizoaffective disorder is a serious and complex condition that includes symptoms of both schizophrenia and mood disorders. The complexity of schizoaffective disorder poses diagnostic challenges, but systematic study has yielded evidence regarding important clinical features, epidemiology, classification issues, and implications for treatment.