bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Appellate Courts
Authors: Turner Jessica 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAppellate courts in the United States are important as they determine whether the law was interpreted and applied correctly by lower trial courts. The United States has a dual court system which means that there are both federal and state appellate court systems. The federal appellate court system consists of the United States Courts of Appeals and the United States Supreme Court. Most state appellate court systems consist of intermediate appellate courts and a state supreme court. Since the federal appellate court system and each state appellate court system developed independently, appellate courts vary widely. This entry will discuss the varying structures, procedures, and jurisdictions of federal and state appellate courts in the United States, and will also discuss methods of judicial appointment for each of these systems.
Juvenile Probation
Authors: Vidal Sarah , Woolard Jennifer 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJuvenile probation remains the most common disposition for juvenile offenders. It is a court‐imposed, community‐based sanction often characterized as a less restrictive and cost‐effective alternative to incarceration. The founding principle of probation posits that youthful offenders, through community‐based intervention, may become prosocial and productive members of the community. Since its first establishment in the mid 1800s, probation has expanded across the United States with all 50 states having their own juvenile probation process.
Forensic Evidence
Authors: Vandenberg Abby L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe term “forensic evidence” encompasses a wide array of physical items and verbal statements that aid judges and juries in rendering verdicts of guilt or innocence. Although forensic evidence receives much positive attention in the media, it is the subject of many popular misconceptions and has many limitations that are frequently overlooked. This entry will examine two of the most common types of forensic evidence—eyewitness testimony and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—highlight problems associated with each of these, and discuss safeguards that may be implemented to help preserve the integrity of forensic evidence.
Costs of Crime (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Elvey Kathryn , E. Clutter Jeffrey 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCrime has indirect and direct effects, not only on the victim but also on society. While using cost‐benefit analysis to measure the effects of crime has become an important policy‐making tool, there are many disagreements about how costs of crime should be measured. Outlined here is an explication of the measurement issues involved in examining the cost of crime.
Defenses to Criminal Liability
Authors: Hartley Richard D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDefenses to criminal liability are methods by which those accused of crimes can respond to charges made by the prosecution. A competent defense attorney should design a competent defense in an attempt to explain away the evidence the prosecution has brought against their client. Numerous defenses might be presented depending on such things as: the type of crime alleged, the evidence in the case, and/or other situational factors surrounding the offense. There are no well‐established ways in which to categorize the various defenses to criminal liability but they range from trying to exonerate the defendant from criminal responsibility altogether to trying to eliminate one or more of the elements of the crime. The success of any defense to criminal liability will rely on the attorney's ability to convince the judge or jury of its validity. Common defenses used in criminal cases include: alibi, automatism, coercion/duress, defense of property, entrapment, ignorance or mistake reverse order pf these two if alpha list is required necessity, and self‐defense.
Embezzlement
Authors: Walden Jeffrey S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractSimilar to other crimes, embezzlement is a hotly contested offense that appears to have garnered great attention from the inception of Edwin Sutherland's analysis and further analyzed by Donald Cressey. The occurrence of embezzlement can vary greatly from the taking of money from a place of employment, to the more grand schemes orchestrated within the highest levels of society, and often referred to as collective embezzlement. As with other crimes, scholars have examined the offense through various theoretical lenses varying from the general strain theory (GST) to the integrated theory of crime. While criminologists agree that embezzlement is prevalent within society, there is little data to substantiate the true scope of embezzlement. Even within the FBI's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) and the National Incident‐Based Reporting Systems (NIBRS), an accurate portrayal of the scope of embezzlement within society is largely unknown.
Mens Rea
Authors: Robertson Paul T. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Mens rea (Latin for “guilty mind”) is the mental element of crime. Absent in ancient common law, mens rea originated in English courts around the thirteenth century. Before the development of mens rea, an individual could be found guilty of a crime based solely on his or her physical conduct. Mens rea developed from the emerging notion that a person should not be found guilty of a crime if he or she had an innocent mindset. Mens rea, also called criminal intent, has become a required element of most criminal offenses. Mens rea is often characterized in terms of intent—general intent or specific intent—but it can also be characterized as fault or culpability.
Labor History and Violence
Authors: Root Carl 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAmerican labor history is fraught with instances of violence. This violence often occurred during disputes between labor and capital. Violence throughout this labor history is not limited to a specific industry or type of work, and workers and employers alike have been both perpetrators and victims of violence. Frequent violence marked the early years of labor in the United States. Recently, violence in labor disputes has decreased greatly and there are differing explanations for why this is the case.
Geographic Location
Authors: Maskaly Jon 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThere has long been an interest in the relationship between geographic location and crime. Research as far back as the 1800s has examined the relationship between the characteristics of certain geographic places and crime. Modern research in this vein has formed two distinct subfields of macro and micro places, each with its own theoretical explanations and associated research. This entry covers the basics of macro and micro geographic locations, as well as two special issues that must be considered when examining the relationship between geographic places and crime.
Peacemaking Criminology
Authors: Afflitto Frank M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry introduces the field of peacemaking criminology and its theoretical foundations. Based on a hybrid of origins, including traditional and modern philosophies of human social interaction, conflict resolution, and perspectives on the etiology and resolution of injustice and human suffering, peacemaking criminology is much more than a simple, novel approach to the amelioration of street crime. It is, in fact, a new direction in life, both individually and collectively.
Homeland Security
Authors: Robertson Jessica L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHomeland security is difficult to define because it means something different to each agency. The general idea behind homeland security is to protect the country not only from terrorist attacks, but also from natural disasters and other disasters that may arise. Homeland security places an emphasis on interagency communication to prevent a disaster, and, if need be, handle disaster response. Homeland security pervades all levels and agencies of the government.
Power Control Theory
Authors: Whiteley Kathryn M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPower control theory is credited to John Hagan and considered among the first criminological theories that sought to gauge power relations within a family system through patriarchy. In assessing the impact of patriarchy, a major focus rested in the patriarchal hierarchy within the employment setting and its relationship to gender inequalities. Hagan concurred with this notion in his earliest conceptualizations. However, Haganet al. (1987) expanded upon the theory and noted that positions of power within the work environment translate to power relations within the home. Hagan suggested that males are predominately employed outside the home; therefore, the mother is typically delegated responsibility for control of the children. In highly patriarchal families, the father focuses upon his outward duties and the mother upon the instrumental control of the children. Daughters are subjected to more supervision than sons. Power control theory advocated that boys are supervised less than girls and are encouraged to take more risks. This scenario lessens the perceived consequences of risk taking by males and in part accounts for the large gender gap in delinquency.
Feminist Theories of Criminal Behavior
Authors: Whiteley Kathryn M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Feminist criminology arose in the late 1960s alongside the second wave of feminism. Pioneering feminist criminologists, such as Frances Heidensohn, Dorie Klein, Freda Adler, and Carol Smart, argued that criminology was a study of the male criminal conducted by male criminologists. They further contended that theories of crime studied males and as such were incomplete without the analysis of criminality perpetrated by females. Accomplishments of feminist criminology include the theories of pathways to crime and battered woman syndrome, and the creation of a division of feminist criminology of the American Society of Criminology (along with the esteemed journal
Feminist Criminology
). But perhaps the single most important accomplishment of feminist criminology is that the female offender no longer stands as an afterthought in criminological research.
Human Trafficking (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Farrell Amy 
Published: January 2014

AbstractPublic concern about the trafficking of persons for exploitative labor or commercial sex has prompted government officials to pass legislation and policy makers to adopt policies to identify and restore victims and prosecute offenders. Despite the allocation of resources to address human trafficking, the scope of the problem remains unknown. This entry discusses the challenges of using existing data sources to measure a hidden crime such as human trafficking and identifies a number of the limitations of attempts to estimate the prevalence of the problem. A series of recommendations are provided to help improve the measurement of human trafficking.
Convict Leasing
Authors: Day George J. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDuring the aftermath of the Civil War, prison systems in southern states were plagued by deteriorating prisons, an increase in inmates, and a lack of funding to support rebuilding and maintaining an effective prison system. Southern states, as a result, began experimenting with leasing inmates to businesses and individuals as a means of reducing prison populations and costs. The convict leasing system, however, was plagued with abuse and mistreatment of inmates causing its popularity to decline in spite of profits and by the 1930s convict leasing ceased to be used in the United States.
International Criminal Law
Authors: Ellis Mark S. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis entry provides a comprehensive review of one of the most dynamic and prolific areas of law to develop over the past 30 years. International criminal law provides guidance through norms and principles for the international community to legally prosecute individuals, even if national governments attempt to avoid prosecuting their own nationals for international crimes. It is a principle of law that repudiates impunity and embraces accountability. The essay covers international and domestic war crimes tribunals, the ICJ, universal jurisdiction, treaties (e.g., Geneva Conventions, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment), international customary law, immunity, and command responsibility, amongst other salient international criminal law principles.
Homicide, Criminal (Manslaughter)
Authors: McAloon David 
Published: January 2014

AbstractManslaughter is a common law crime that, along with murder and negligent homicide, comprises the spectrum of homicide crimes in the United States. Manslaughter is divided into two types: involuntary and voluntary. While murder requires a higher level of intent, involuntary manslaughter charges can follow from either reckless or grossly negligent behavior. Some jurisdictions have also attached criminal liability for simple negligence that results in death. Voluntary manslaughter charges come when a person who would otherwise be charged with murder has a legally recognized justification or excuse that lessens the punishment.
Homicide, Criminal (Murder)
Authors: McAloon David , Spencer Samantha 
Published: January 2014

AbstractMurder is a common law crime that courts interpret differently throughout the United States. Much of the disparity stems from what it means to kill with “malice aforethought.” Without one accepted definition, legislatures have introduced various degrees of murder with different levels of punishment. Reformers have also attempted to define more carefully the appropriate mens rea for murder, while allowing for enhanced punishment based on aggravating factors.
Watch and Ward System
Authors: Parks Kyle L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
In the history of policing the Watch and Ward system was the first organized attempt at policing the masses. The Watch and Ward was codified in the Statutes of Winchester in 1285. The system was used for the next 600 years and was taken to the English colonies by those who settled in cities such as New York and Boston. By the time the system had reached the court of Henry VIII it had become well established in London and had taken on a ceremonial role in addition to its traditional role of keeping the peace. The system was eventually replaced in the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829, which paved the way for the modern police system developed by Sir Robert Peel, who is cited as the father of modern policing in the West.
Arson
Authors: May Colin A. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Arson, the crime of intentionally setting a fire that causes significant damage, injury, or death, is difficult to investigate and prosecute due to the complex and highly technical nature of proving the fire was intentionally set. Skilled investigators use a wide variety of tools to investigate arsons and a team of support personnel, including forensic accountants, insurance personnel, chemists, even psychologists, to assist in solving this crime.
Attempt and Incomplete Offenses
Authors: Broussard D. Barret 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThis essay describes the law of attempt as it stands today in the United States. It describes the requirements for liability in attempt—the mental state and required action. It gives an overview of specific intent as the required mental state. The essay then provides an outline of the different tests courts use to determine whether a defendant has attempted a crime or was simply preparing to do so. It also discusses the various limits of attempt law, including abandonment and impossibility.
Police History, United States
Authors: Chism Kimberly 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe history of the police in the United States can be separated into four eras: the Political Era, the Reform Era, the Community Problem‐Solving Era, and the Homeland Security Era. The police began as the night watch in colonial America and evolved to become paramilitary and professional. Influential events that shaped the current police include the implementation of Sir Robert Peel's police design in the United States, emphasis on professionalism and education of the police as championed by August Vollmer and O. W. Wilson, and police use of technology (such as the automobile and two‐way radio). The evolvement of American police was also shaped in part by the social and political environment occurring at particular points in US history. Riots, unrest, and labor strikes often resulted in violence that involved the police. The police attempted to address the rift with the public by implementing community‐friendly programs in the twentieth century.
Witnesses, Examination of
Authors: Moore Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractIn civil and criminal trials, both parties to the case examine witnesses through direct and cross‐examination. The applicable rules of evidence dictate the specific procedures for questioning a witness and admitting evidence. The Sixth Amendment's Confrontation Clause also contains special protections for criminal defendants at trial. Specifically, it provides the general right to confront one's accuser face‐to‐face as well as the opportunity to cross‐examine opposing witnesses.
Larceny (Theft)
Authors: Chanbonpin Kim D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry on larceny (theft) provides an overview of the crime, from its origins in the common law of England to modern statutory crimes in common law countries across the world. The entry begins by providing a definition of the term “larceny” and then proceeds to explain each of the crime's constituent elements: taking, carrying away, tangible personal property, from another's possession, with the specific intent to steal. This entry also describes the related crimes of embezzlement and false pretenses and provides useful distinctions between the three.
Robbery
Authors: Chanbonpin Kim D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractRobbery is a crime of violence against the person, and this entry provides a definition of the crime, focusing on the elements that distinguish robbery from larceny—the taking from the person or presence of another, and accomplishing the taking by means of force or fear. This entry utilizes several references to hypothetical examples and case law to illustrate doctrinal points.
Grand Jury
Authors: Toprani Steven M. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe grand jury is a body of not less than 12 and not more than 23 persons (in US federal courts) selected, organized, sworn to oath, and charged by the court to inquire into criminal offenses and matters of social importance in its jurisdiction, that operates in secrecy and is supervised by a judge. Grand juries are also empowered to indict or otherwise approve indictments charging individuals with criminal offenses.
Social Process Theories
Authors: Huck Jennifer L. , Morris Camie 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Social process theories are a grouping of criminological theories that aid the explanation of why people engage in criminal behaviors. The social process theories include differential association, social learning theory, social control theory, and labeling theory. Each of these theories has a specific explanation for why individuals engage in criminal acts, but they all hold that socialization is the key to understanding crime.
Sherman, Lawrence
Authors: Leeper Piquero Nicole 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Lawrence W. Sherman is recognized nationally and worldwide for his contributions to experimental studies in policing, domestic violence, and crime prevention. His prolific and insightful additions to the academic literature and his active role in policy making have received numerous accolades and awards. Sherman's contributions to policing and theoretical criminology are widely recognized as having an instrumental influence on how law enforcement agencies currently operate.
Braithwaite, John
Authors: Leeper Piquero Nicole , Clipper Stephen 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJohn Braithwaite is a preeminent international criminologist whose scholarship transcends academic disciplines and reaches well into fields of practice. He is an Australian Research Council Federation Fellow and Founder of RegNet (the Regulatory Institutions Network) at the Australian National University. His research spans a wide range of topics including: criminological theory and the development of his theory of reintegrative shaming; restorative justice; business regulatory theory and reform including the prevention and control of corporate and white collar crime; empirical research on intellectual property, nursing homes, occupational health and safety, pharmaceuticals, and tax avoidance; and most recently peacebuilding.
Judge, Role of
Authors: Bohn Lance 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Judges play many different roles in the American court system, often depending upon the various venues at the federal, state, and local levels. The role of the judge in all of these jurisdictions is always that of the “trier of law” and the impartial party or decision maker in the courtroom. Judges may also undertake the role of the “trier of fact,” depending upon whether there is a jury trial (which then assumes the role of the trier of fact) or a bench trial. This entry provides a general overview of the many important roles of the judge in the criminal justice system.
Internships
Authors: Hartman Jennifer L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry defines and operationalizes what undergraduate students and their supervisors can expect from social science internship placements. In particular, this entry will be useful for Criminal Justice and Criminology interns as an underlying guide to what experiential learning is all about. Further, this entry will provide some insight on how students and their supervisors can gain useful knowledge during their professional placement.
Prosecutor
Authors: Perselay Seidman Cathie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe prosecutor represents the government in all criminal prosecutions. It is the only office in the criminal justice system that has the power and discretion to begin a criminal prosecution. Prosecutors are ethically obliged, as officers of the court, to ensure the defendant receives due process according to the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution. They evaluate and screen cases to determine whether or not to prosecute; thus, they have wide discretion in the criminal justice system.
Judicial Selection at the State Level
Authors: Brennan Pauline K. , Epinger Ebonie M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
A person may become a state‐level judge in one of three ways—via a gubernatorial or legislative appointment, as a result of a popular election, or through a merit system. This entry provides an overview of all three of these methods, and explains why selection and appointment procedures have changed over time. The entry also explores whether any one method may be “better” than the others. Findings from empirical research studies are used throughout to inform the discussion.
Lynching
Authors: Jackson Robin D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Lynching in the United States is characterized as the brutal and racially motivated execution of African Americans in the South following the Civil War. Recent research suggests, however, that lynching in the United States was geographically widespread and that lynching victims came from all racial backgrounds. Motivations for lynching ranged from the need to ensure justice was met to political terrorism. Lynching continued well into the twentieth century and only began to decline when the US legal system was better able to punish criminals, including lynching participants, and when the use of capital punishment became widespread.