bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Community Policing
Authors: Brown Ben 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Community policing is a general law enforcement philosophy and practice which centers on (i) quality relations between the police and the public and (ii) joint efforts between the police and the public to control crime and social disorder. During the early to mid‐twentieth century police administrators relied upon scientific managerial methods which focused on efficient and standardized police responses to the situations the police were called upon to handle. The police sought to control crime by means of routine patrol, rapid response to emergency calls, and specialized investigative units dedicated to serious felonies. When these methods proved ineffective against the rapid escalation of crime that began in the 1960s and continued throughout the next couple of decades, the police sought to develop a new approach. The end result was community policing.
Prison Riots
Authors: Palomares Ernestina 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The first prison riot in the United States was recorded in 1776. Prison riots are an unforeseen event that can be explained with various models and theories, such as the deprivation model and the state‐centered theory of revolutions model. Riots in the 1950s led to many changes in correctional policies and procedures. Researchers examining prison riots in Attica, Santa Fe, and Lucasville prisons uncovered an array of existing conditions and situations that contributed to the riots in these facilities.
Wrongful Convictions
Authors: Zalman Marvin 
Published: January 2014

AbstractWrongful conviction—the conviction of a factually innocent person—is becoming an important policy issue in criminal justice and criminology research. A wrongful conviction is deemed worse than a wrongful acquittal, also an error of justice, because it implicates the very governmental apparatus relied on to provide justice. They are very difficult to detect and no official records are kept. Estimates of wrongful felony convictions range from 0.005 to 0.03, or from about 5,000 to 30,000 (and 2,000 to 12,000 prison admissions) each year. Many factors, including eyewitness identification errors, false confessions, forensic error, perjury, ineffective defense lawyers, and prosecutorial misconduct regularly appear in false conviction cases, suggesting a causal influence, although scientific evidence of cause and effect is limited. Impediments to reform include inherent problems like cognitive bias and policy impediments like not videotaping confessions, conducting suggestive lineups, and underfunding indigent defense. Half the states provide compensation for wrongful convictions.
Police Use of Force
Authors: May Jeff D. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractAn integral part of modern law enforcement work is the requirement to seize and detain individuals. Police have authority to overcome resistance to their law enforcement efforts, but this authority has potential for abuse and has led to civil suits alleging the use of excessive force. Police use of force is a controversial topic. Despite concern about excessive and unnecessary uses of force, the research indicates that police officers only use force or threaten to use force in only about 1% of their contacts with citizens. Despite being a statistically rare event, police officer use of force continues to undermine the relationship between many police departments and the communities they serve. Community perception is as important as reality, and the statistics show that most people believe the force used against them is unreasonable. Excessive force claims are one of the most frequent civil claims filed against police departments. Many of these claims result in settlement awards or court judgments of more than $1 million. Liability concerns have caused many departments to adopt specific use of force policies to guide their officers. These policies can significantly impact street‐level encounters between the police and public.
Fifth Amendment
Authors: Gentes Eric A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe Fifth Amendment is one of the first 10 amendments to the US Constitution, collectively called the Bill of Rights, which went into effect on December 15, 1791 after Virginia became the 11th state to ratify it. The Fifth Amendment provides five distinct rights. This entry gives an historical and legal overview of the amendment that captures the imaginations of moviegoers, authors, and criminals perhaps more than any other.
Elderly Inmates
Authors: Chiotti Jennifer M. , Harris Judith A. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCrime is almost always associated with youthful offenders and arrest statistics confirm that crime declines significantly after late adolescence. However, despite the overwhelming data proclaiming age as one of the primary factors in crime, the rapidly increasing number of elderly inmates in American correctional institutions demands closer examination. Since there is not an elderly crime wave occurring in the United States, inquiry into the issues, problems, and reasons behind the constant influx of older inmates is necessary. Among the areas requiring scholarly scrutiny are sentencing policy ramifications, definitional debate, elderly‐inmate profile, health care concerns, and housing issues.
Suicide by Cop
Authors: White‐LEWIS Elvira M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Suicide by cop is a phenomenon noted in the last several years, which has had a significant impact on law enforcement and the community. Studies conducted on the subject over the past 25 years give examples of suicide by cop and the impact of this deadly force on the entire community. Future research suggest that further examination by law enforcement, including mandatory training, is required to attempt to curtail this growing violence which can impact the continued career of a law enforcement officer and indeed influence the future of the department.
Counterfeiting
Authors: Fenoff Roy , Spink John 
Published: January 2014

AbstractCounterfeiting has historically been a problem that has received little attention in the law enforcement and academic communities, when compared to other types of crime. Nevertheless, recently, government and nongovernmental organizations have dedicated more resources in combating counterfeiting crimes by building partnerships, sharing information, and investing in academically‐based research programs. This entry provides a summary and general overview of the global problem of counterfeiting. It begins with a discussion of the three categories of counterfeiting: currency, documents, and products, and their impact on society. Next comes a brief outline of anti‐counterfeiting efforts, including the development of academic anti‐counterfeiting research programs and the role of agencies of the United States government in investigating and enforcing laws aimed at fighting this crime.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Kim Bitna , Byoun Soo‐Jung 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe traditional approach to summarizing knowledge is a “narrative review,” in which scholars survey the available research, choose the most essential or meaningful studies, critique and summarize each one, and interpretively synthesize their findings. While narrative reviews are useful for theoretical explication, they suffer from some notable weaknesses. Meta‐analysis is a statistical and systematic approach to reviewing research findings across multiple independent empirical quantitative research studies.
Farrington, David
Authors: Bolton Amanda 
Published: January 2014

AbstractDavid Philip Farrington is a Professor of Psychological Criminology at the Institute of Criminology at Cambridge University and a chartered forensic psychologist. Farrington is also an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). He is best known for his work in developmental and life‐course criminology. His research interests include longitudinal studies of criminal careers, risk‐focused prevention, and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions.
Short, James
Authors: D. Dooley Brendan 
Published: January 2014

AbstractJames F. Short is recognized for his substantial contributions to criminology and sociology. Short's insights, ranging from the etiology of gang violence to the inclusion of self‐report methodology, the introduction of the notion of risk, and the admonition to adhere to scientifically grounded research when generating policy solutions, have all produced tangible gains for sociological criminology.
Animals as Victims
Authors: Reyes Cassandra L. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
There is a seemingly ignored class of victims within society. These are the animal victims of interpersonal relationships, illegal animal fighting, and animal hoarding. This victimization occurs within the context of such situations as child abuse and neglect, and intimate partner violence. In addition, recent television shows have brought to the forefront the plight of animals in cases of illegal animal fighting and animal hoarding that are often related to other criminal offenses. In order to break the mold of conventional thinking, a focus must be placed on this form of victimization, which could provide an in‐depth view of co‐occurrences of human criminal behavior. This essay explores these relationships and provides a forum in which to study a nearly forgotten segment of societal victims.
Genetics and Crime
Authors: Reardon Lena M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The role of genetics in relation to crime has long been studied, but research findings continue to be debated. Though past researchers used less precise methods, they provided the foundation on which modern research is built. The study of how genetics are correlated with crime has created controversy amongst those who fear such connections might lead to eugenics and the racist ideas associated with past research, and the atrocities born of these. Modern researchers continue their work in the hopes of dispelling these fears and finding answers that will aid in understanding, and possibly curbing, criminal behavior. This entry focuses on the role of genetics in regard to inherited traits, physical appearance, personality, as well as twin and adoption studies, chromosomal abnormalities, neurotransmitters and hormones.
Routine Activities and Crime
Authors: Lee Joongyeup 
Published: January 2014

Abstract

Unlike other theories that concern backgrounds or characteristics of offenders (e.g., social learning theory, self‐control theory, social control theory, and social disorganization theory), routine activities theory argues that crime or victimization happens when the
opportunity
arises in the context of everyday life. Regardless of criminal motive that is more or less present for an average person, a vulnerable person who is present in a particular time and place may find no reachable help, rendering him/her an easy target for potential offenders.
Campus Crime
Authors: Sloan John J. , Fisher Bonnie S. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Although criminal acts ranging from theft to murder have been occurring at postsecondary institutions since their inception, only recently has campus crime been elevated to the level of a serious social problem. In response, research estimating the volume of campus crime or describing or explaining its causes and consequences has been undertaken; the US Congress passed legislation requiring colleges and universities to report their security policies and crime statistics; the US Department of Education changed procedures used to investigate and adjudicate complaints of student‐on‐student sexual harassment or sexual violence; and state courts have held postsecondary institutions liable for victimizations occurring on or near campus. Institutions have not only tried to upgrade campus security, but developed prevention efforts to educate students about the risks of victimization and in tactics relating to self‐defense and bystander intervention. Whether these efforts have been successful is an open question, but high levels of public concern about campus crime remain.
Disenfranchisement of Felons
Authors: Dawson‐Edwards Cherie 
Published: January 2014

AbstractFelony disenfranchisement, one of the collateral consequences of felony convictions, generally refers to convicted felons' loss of right to vote. Discussed is the existing literature on criminal disenfranchisement in the US, the distribution of enfranchisement throughout US history, state laws that permanently disenfranchise felons, and the rationales for upholding current felon voting restrictions.
Hate Crime (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Kim Bitna , Dickinson Ashley 
Published: January 2014

AbstractHate crime is defined as an illegal act against a person, institution, or property that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender's bias against the victim's perceived group membership. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, the federal government and states have collected data on hate crime occurrences. However, for a number of reasons, including existing differences in group coverage between federal and state laws and across states, the true rate of hate crime is reported differently across sources and overall it remains unknown.
Battered Woman Syndrome
Authors: Couture Amanda , Ammar Nawal 
Published: January 2014

AbstractBattered woman syndrome concept was introduced in the 1970s by Lenore Walker to elucidate battered women's experiences and behaviors. Although not technically a legal defense, battered woman syndrome has been used in the criminal justice system. One of its well‐known uses is in self‐defense cases of battered women who have killed their abusive partners. This entry discusses the two main theories used to support battered woman syndrome, namely the cycle theory and learned helplessness. The ways in which battered woman syndrome has been used within the criminal justice system is discussed. Furthermore, early landmark cases used in courts for battered woman syndrome are examined. Finally, this entry provides an overview of battered woman syndrome's beneficial and damaging legal applications as well as some of the major criticisms directed at its use generally.
Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories of Crime
Authors: Bennett Katherine , Brickley Taylor 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The term “symbolic interaction” was coined in 1936 by Herbert Blumer to represent the unique qualities of interactions that take place between individuals. Social reality is an interpretation according to each individual based on the process of continuing interactions, thus allowing for multiple realities. This school of thought, originally developed by George Herbert Mead, provides a foundation for labeling theory in criminology. The labeling process of “making the criminal” began to be fully explored in the 1950s and 1960s, with work by Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker, Edwin Schur, and others. While social scientists tended to distance themselves from labeling theory in the early 1970s, the labeling concept was not abandoned altogether. Labeling is considered as one part of a larger social process, exemplified in John Braithwaite's reintegrative shaming theory. Ross Matsueda has used a reflective appraisal approach to explain how labeling can influence subsequent deviance. One of the most contemporary developments in labeling theory can be found in Robert Sampson and John Laub's theory of age‐graded informal social control. Results from the most current research on labeling theory appear to be trending toward support for the theory.
Qualitative Research
Authors: Morris Sherill V. C. , Rockett Jennifer , Oko Elechi O. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractQualitative Research is a form of enquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences and marketing research. The qualitative researchers' aim is to get an in‐depth understanding of human behaviors and the reasons that govern such behaviors through the use of a variety of approaches. The qualitative method therefore investigates the why and how of behaviors, not merely the what, where and when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often used rather than larger ones.
Post Conviction Review
Authors: Machen Michael J. , O'Donnell Swan Suzanne M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Separate from the right of a defendant to challenge a conviction by direct appeal, most states have some form of post conviction review. This is most often available due to legislative action in one form or another. These laws provide a procedure for criminal defendants to collaterally attack their conviction or sentence by raising specific challenges that were not considered by the trial or appellate court. This entry provides an overview of the post conviction review process.
Durkheim, Emile
Authors: Wehr Kevin 
Published: January 2014

AbstractEmile Durkheim (1858–1917) was a French sociologist and early pioneer of criminology. His writings continue to be widely read and remain influential in many disciplines within the fields of social sciences, especially criminology and sociology. Scholars working in the Durkheimian tradition agree that crime serves the integrating function of maintaining social solidarity and his concept of anomie often is used in more recent theoretical perspectives such as strain theory.
Victims of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking
Authors: J. Schauer Edward , Oko Elechi O. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
It is estimated that between 100,000 and 300,000 American children and youth are sexually exploited annually for commercial purposes. A significant proportion of the child victims of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) are runaways, street youths who engage in survival sex. Many victims of DMST have been sexually exploited either at home or elsewhere. It is estimated that the average age at which a girl is recruited into prostitution by traffickers is 12 to 14 years. The majority of the people who engage in the sexual exploitation of minors are men between the ages of 20 and 65. Child pornography and juvenile prostitution are examples of the sexual exploitation of children. Victims of DMST and offenders reflect all strata of American society. This entry examines the problem of DMST and the effectiveness of the laws which protect children from sexual exploitation.
Ness, Eliot
Authors: Calder James D. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Eliot Ness's rise and success in American law enforcement achieved legendary status. A treasury agent in the days of Prohibition, Ness became public safety director in Cleveland, Ohio, worked for the federal government in World War II, pursued a mayoral position in Cleveland, transitioned to the private sector, and had passed into virtual obscurity by the time of his early death in 1957.
Victim Compensation Programs
Authors: Kauffman Barbara , Samuels Holly 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Victim compensation programs are a type of government‐funded program that help mitigate the financial burden that crime victims face as a direct result of a violent crime. The premise behind victim compensation programs is to compensate crime victims for certain financial losses incurred as a direct result of being an innocent victim of a crime. Crime victim compensation is the reimbursement of financial losses to a crime victim or someone on his or her behalf. A crime victim is a person directly or proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense in violation of federal or state law. An individual may recover from financial losses suffered as a direct result of being a victim of a crime by seeking reimbursement through victim compensation programs.
Misdemeanor Courts
Authors: Koski Connie M. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
The American court system consists of both trial and appellate courts. Misdemeanor courts are trial courts situated at the lowest level of the state court hierarchy. Commonly known as courts of limited and original jurisdiction, misdemeanor courts vary in structure from state to state, and all but a few states have one or more of these lower level courts. Typically, judges assigned to these courts are responsible for deciding issues of fact and the application of law for defendants charged with offenses punishable by less than one year of imprisonment. Most also oversee the pretrial stages of felony cases. The heavy volume of cases handled annually by those who work in the misdemeanor courts is exponentially higher than the volume handled in other state courts. Although the workhorse of the state court system, misdemeanor courts have been the subject of criticism, controversy, and ongoing reform efforts.
Pretrial Detention
Authors: Bubolz Bryan F. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe criminal justice system that operates in the United States is centered on the principle that a criminal defendant is innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. While many individuals are presumed innocent prior to case disposition, some lose their freedom prior to that stage of case processing because they are detained pretrial. Defendants are detained pretrial when a judge believes they pose a significant risk to the safety of the community or thinks they are likely to flee before trial. Other extralegal factors may also be considered when making pretrial release decisions, including the defendant's race, gender, age, and social class. The use of pretrial detention is highly controversial and has more recently been used on enemy combatants and material witnesses in an effort to fight terrorism. Defendants who are detained pretrial may suffer numerous physical, psychological, financial, and legal consequences. This entry examines these possibilities.
Municipal Law Enforcement
Authors: Barrows Julie S. 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
Law enforcement in America occurs mainly at the local, or municipal, level of government. Stemming from the British policing experience, in the mid 1800s, American policing developed in large, New England cities and quickly spread across the United States. The roles and functions of municipal law enforcement have changed over time, from being predominantly reactive police forces to include more proactive policing strategies, as a result of technological innovations and increasing globalization. Such changes create challenges for local police agencies to incorporate crime analysis techniques and specialized units or task forces to combat particular crime types, and to collaborate with county, state, and federal law enforcement agencies.
Historical Research Methods
Authors: Pisciotta Alexander W. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractThe American criminal justice system is a product of history. Police, courts, laws, punishment, and corrections and juvenile justice institutions, as well as most forms of crime, have long and strong historical roots; thus, historical research is an important aspect of criminological research. The craft of doing historiography is described as a six‐step process: (1) topic selection, (2) research questions, (3) central themes, (4) data sources, (5) theoretical frameworks, and (6) organization and writing.
Wilson, O. W.
Authors: Cohen Galia , Taylor Robert W. 
Published: January 2014

AbstractOrlando Winfield Wilson (May 15, 1900–October 18, 1972), also known as O. W. Wilson, was the most prominent policing leader and scholar of the twentieth century. His writings on policing and police administration, and his work as Police Superintendent of the Chicago Police Department, dominated the law enforcement field from the 1940s through the early 1970s.
Federal Prosecutors
Authors: Westfall E. A. “Penny” 
Published: January 2014

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the US Department of Justice (DOJ) and examines the duties of federal prosecutors. The US Attorney General, a member of the president's cabinet, oversees the work of three different types of federal prosecutors employed by the DOJ—those who work for the Office of the Solicitor General, those who work for the Criminal Division, and US attorneys who serve specific federal districts. The entry discusses the responsibilities for each of these federal prosecutors.