bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Investor–State Disputes and the Development of International Law
Authors: Wordsworth Sam , Veeder Marie 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
In negotiating the Washington Treaty referring the Alabama claims to arbitration, Great Britain’s negotiators understood that the arbitration tribunal was to assess the legal basis and dimension of American claims for the depredations of Confederate cruisers such as the Alabama, whereas the United States claimed that, in addition to such direct damages, the tribunal was also entitled to assess indirect damages for the prolongation of the Civil War. The difference in the enormity of the resultant claims (US$14 million versus US$10 billion in gold) was immense. In a wonderful act of arbitral imagination, the arbitral tribunal was able to keep the arbitration on track but sidestep the American claims for indirect damages.
The Transparency of International Arbitration
Authors: Wordsworth Sam , Veeder Marie 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Much has been written about the confidentiality and the privacy of arbitration proceedings but, until recently, almost nothing has been said about the secrecy of court proceedings relating to either a confidential arbitration or a confidential award. Such secrecy is the historical landmark of absolute tyranny; and its despotic attractions remain self-evident. This chapter examines the limitations on the confidentiality of the arbitral process and of arbitral awards once they are challenged in court proceedings, and also highlights the need for a spectrum that recognizes the fact that different arbitrations may give rise to quite different demands in terms of confidentiality.
Case Studies: Presidential Government Formation in Asia Compared
Authors: Lee Don S. 
Published: July 2024

AbstractThis chapter provides key background on the four presidential democracies in Asia, namely South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Indonesia, concerning the president’s relationship with the four political institutions—the legislature, the ruling party, the party system, and the bureaucracy—and the dynamics of presidential government formation surrounding this relationship. The chapter uses unique information from in-depth interviews with more than forty key members of top political elites, including vice presidents, prime ministers, and ministers from important policy areas, such as foreign affairs, defense, and finance, as well as from archival research undertaken during year-long fieldwork in these countries. This chapter also introduces original data on three decades of presidential government formation and more than 1500 ministerial appointments from the four cases, between their respective years of democratization and 2018, that will be statistically analyzed in the subsequent chapters.
Conclusion
Authors: Lee Don S. 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter reviews the key findings of the book, discusses the implications of the findings for scholarship and policy, and suggests directions for future research. This book seeks to provide a comprehensive, comparative, and empirically supported understanding of presidential government formation in new democratic settings. Yet, the book’s arguments and the findings presented to substantiate them unavoidably have limitations, and more research needs to be conducted to expand the book’s analysis. This book is a new endeavor to illuminate presidential leadership strategy in addressing key competing goals in government and to explore how the president’s ability to achieve these goals in given institutional circumstances shapes government formation. Therefore, this book takes a significant step toward greater understanding of the role of cabinet appointments in the governance of presidential democracies in Asia and beyond.
Evolutionary thinking
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter explains the essential concepts needed to understand the process of evolution and the history it has produced: natural selection; inclusive fitness and the gene’s-eye-view as tools to understand cooperation and conflict; what adaptations are and how to recognize them; the importance of large numbers; neutral evolution and the mechanisms that produce neutrality; mechanisms that cause random change, their consequences, and how those are used; the evolution of development and the developmental origins of health and disease; phylogenetics and the comparative method. These concepts are deployed later in the book to help explain, for example, how pathogens and cancer evolve, why our bodies are imperfect and vulnerable, and why we grow old and die.
Mismatch, the Transition to Modernity, and the diseases of civilization
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses why and how we became mismatched to the modern environment and the consequences of that mismatch for health and disease. Biological change lags cultural change with both ecological (demographic) and evolutionary consequences. The Demographic Transition reduced birth and death rates, leading to increased lifespan and populations with more older people. That increased the importance of the expression late in life of the pleiotropic effects of genes selected to improve reproductive performance early in life. Changes in the developmental environment promoted increases in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Reductions in breastfeeding and increases in cesarean sections promoted increases in obesity and asthma. Abundant food, changes in diet, and less exercise promoted cardiovascular disease. Less exposure to parasitic worms caused increases in asthma, allergies, and autoimmune disease. Evolution does not act quickly enough to adjust our biology to these new environments, and the environments will keep changing. Biology must continue to lag culture.
A system perspective on health and disease
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a general overview of a systems science approach to address complex problems. Basic notions of systems science, such as system states, state variables, stability, robustness, and resilience are introduced and discussed in the context of organismal physiology. The concept of hemostasis, as viewed from first principles, is a system’s property to maintain stability of selected state variables. Their values are monitored by homeostatic sensors, such as endocrine cells, and deviations from set points are corrected by homeostatic effectors, which include different tissues and organs, depending on the homeostatic variable. Physiological adaptation and rheostasis are alternatives to homeostasis, whereby the internal state adapts to the external environment by changing organismal settings, such as metabolic demands. Health and diseases are distinct states of the organism and transitions between these states characterize acute and chronic diseases. Upon transition from a healthy to a disease state, secondary problems can arise as complications of the initial disease. These transitions are non-random and, in their totality, can be conceptualized as disease graphs. These graphs have tree structure, rooted at a healthy state, with each layer of branching corresponding to diseases caused by complications of the preceding branch points.
What is an ill person?
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the evolutionary origins of the vulnerabilities that permit aging, cancer, and metastasis; the history that generated human genetic diversity in disease and drug response; the evolutionary forces that shaped the human life history; the concepts needed to understand plastic responses to environmental differences; and notable aspects of the human life history, including oocytic atresia, selective spontaneous abortions, and menopause. The sick person that a doctor tries to treat has an evolutionary history that has produced vulnerabilities, some with known origins, and genes whose variation has consequences for disease risk and drug response. That person also has a developmental history in which early life events have influenced the risks of late life disease. The evolutionary privileging of the reproductive success of genes over the survival of individuals has produced vulnerabilities that make us susceptible to disease and aging.
What is a disease?
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses approaches to define disease states and offers a disease classification system that is based on evolutionary causalities. Any disease can be viewed as a deviation from a normal physiological state. However, not any conceivable deviation produces a disease: some deviations are incompatible with life, others are well tolerated, and still others are efficiently prevented by built-in constraints of the system. While risks for all diseases are dictated by the gene—environment interactions, the relative contributions of genetics and environment vary with purely genetic diseases and purely environmental diseases being at the extremes of a spectrum. Most diseases fall into two broad categories, depending on whether they are drivers of extrinsic or intrinsic mortality in humans’ evolutionary history. The natural recovery without medical intervention is possible for the former but not for the latter, because defense mechanisms only evolved for protection from the factors of extrinsic mortality. Finally, many diseases in the first category are due to the costs of defenses—a problem that is often amplified by the mismatch of evolutionary history and modern environments.
Aging
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter explains the evolution of aging. Aging is the decrease with age in intrinsic ability to survive and reproduce. Organisms that reproduce asymmetrically should age; those that reproduce symmetrically should not. It appears that all organisms reproduce asymmetrically. Aging evolves because older organisms contribute fewer genes to the next generation than younger organisms. This has two consequences: deleterious genes that are expressed only at later ages can accumulate in the population (mutation accumulation), and genes whose positive effects on reproductive performance early in life more than compensate for their negative effects on survival late in life (antagonistic pleiotropy) are selected. The body is disposable from the gene’s point of view because the amount of maintenance needed to maximize lifetime reproductive success is less than the amount needed to produce indefinite survival. Ten types of mechanisms have been identified that mediate aging, the most important of which is genomic instability. Aging appears to be unavoidable in almost all organisms, but some coelenterates may be an exception because they can remodel their tissues with stem cell lineages that continually replace old, damaged cells with intact, young ones. Humans could probably not evolve to live much longer, but there are ways to extend their health span.
Pathogens I
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the diversity of pathogens, their life cycles, genetics, and emergence. The thousands of pathogens that infect humans include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and helminths. They can be transmitted directly (in aerosols or by contact), in the water and soil, and by vectors, most importantly by arthropods—mosquitos, ticks, and lice. In the host some live within cells, others extracellularly. Various viruses and bacteria differ in the organization of their genomes in ways that affect their evolutionary potential. In bacteria the frequency and extent of horizontal gene transfer determine the rate at which genes for virulence and resistance are shared. Diseases have always emerged into human populations, but their rate of emergence has been increasing. Molecular phylogenetics allows more precises estimates of when and where diseases emerged, including plague, influenza, HIV, and SARS-CoV-2. The evolution of an emerging disease can now be tracked almost in real time with high-throughput sequencing.
The microbiota in health and disease
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the microbiota—the micro-organisms that inhabit the human body—their diversity, how their composition is influenced by ecology, how they arrive in the body after birth, and how they influence the development of the host immune system. The microbiota function both as an organ within our body and as a potential source of pathogens. The disruption of the microbiota can produce disease. The gut microbiota induce gut-associated lymphoid tissue, influence the central and enteric nervous systems, and interact with the liver and lungs. The body manages the gut microbiota via immune system effects on gut mucus and the appendix. The microbiota produce metabolites with roles in digestion, defense, communication, and drug metabolism. The disruption of the gut microbiota can contribute to conditions that include diabetes, atherosclerosis, malnutrition, inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, and neurological disease. The skin microbiota have important roles in skin homeostasis and immune response, in defense against infections, and in wound healing. The vagina harbors a diverse and normally harmless microbiota, some of which can become pathogenic in the bladder and uterus. Whether the uterus and placenta have a microbiota is controversial.
Cancer
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses why we are vulnerable to cancer and how every cancer evolves. Both approaches yield insights into potential and actual therapies. We are vulnerable because we are multicellular organisms with stem cells for repair that have many of the characteristics of cancer cells; because the large number of cell divisions that occur in growth and development allow many somatic mutations to accumulate; because all cells contain all genes, and some cells express genetic support for movement and invasion. Very large animals have evolved mechanisms that reduce cancer risk; understanding how they have done so yields clues for therapy. Like pathogens, cancer cells evolve to suppress and evade immune defenses. Every cancer is a case of clonal evolution whose history can be inferred with molecular phylogenetics. Cancers evolve resistance to chemotherapy just as bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics, and strategies for managing that resistance evolution are proceeding along similar lines.
Reproductive medicine
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the innovations involved in the evolution of placental female reproduction, placental morphology, the evolution of implantation, the association between degree of invasiveness and risk of metastasis, and the contribution of placental morphology to the risk of pre-eclampsia. It covers parent–offspring conflict, genomic imprinting, and their consequences for the health of mother and infant. The female placental reproductive tract has evolved a set of quality control mechanisms that include oocytic atresia, sperm selection, and selective spontaneous abortion. They reduce the costs of time and effort invested in defective offspring. The hypotheses for the evolution of menstruation are discussed; a leading candidate is quality control. Hypotheses for the evolution of menopause include the Grandmother Hypothesis and the possibility that it is a byproduct of efficient quality control earlier in life.
Mental health disorders
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Medzhitov Ruslan 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses evolutionary explanations of mental disorders. The null hypothesis is that a person with a mental disorder is in the tail of a distribution of states whose central region contains people with normal function. Other hypotheses are that mental disorders are exaggerations or disruptions of adaptations, that they are disruptions of homeostasis produced by mismatch, and that they are exaggerations of normal defense responses. Disorders that may be explained by these hypotheses include anxiety, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and depression. The smoke detector principle may explain phobias and panic attacks. Drug addiction may be explained by the hijacking of the innate reward system by compounds not encountered in our evolutionary history. This chapter explores the hypothesis that autism and schizophrenia lie on opposite ends of a single spectrum on which the position of an individual is influenced both by copy number variation and by parent–parent conflict over infant growth mediated by genomic imprinting. Evidence supports some contribution of those mechanisms to both disorders.
James Baldwin's "Sonny's Blues"
Authors: Jenks Tom 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
A close reading of the form and essence of Baldwin’s famous short story and of its inspiration rooted in Baldwin’s experience of racial injustice in America, his youth in Harlem, his witnessing of the effects of heroin addiction on a generation of his peers, his experience and understanding of the consolations and limits of religious practice, his transcendent embodiment of jazz as an element in the story, and, overall, the profound, world-wide influence the story has had in transforming perspectives on race and in creating greater sympathy and human harmony across the more than a half century in which the story has been read by many millions of people and been standard assigned reading in secondary and higher education classrooms.
Alien and Sedition
Authors: Jortner Adam 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines anti-Semitism and the struggle for civil rights under the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jews began as natural allies of George Washington and the Federalist party, but as the Federalists dabbled in anti-Semitism, Jews switched and joined Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans. Federalists unleased the Alien and Sedition Acts to restrict Irish, French, and Black citizenship and voting. These efforts were accompanied by anti-Semitic images and essays. With Jefferson’s victory in 1800, Jewish rights became secure despite Jefferson’s dislike of Jewish religion. As political protections for Jews became confirmed in the early nineteenth century, Christians found new religious ways to think about their fellow Jewish citizens. The chapter shows that Christians advocated citizenship for non-Christians because they saw political power emanating from the people. Struggles remained, however, as demonstrated in the political crisis over Jacob Henry’s election as a Jew in 1809 and the appointment and dismissal of Mordecai Manuel Noah as a diplomat in 1815.
Listening to Infrastructure
Authors: Fahmy Ziad 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Around the turn of the twentieth century, transportation infrastructure, especially related to the sounds of urban streets and the vehicles traveling on them, became an important site of loud sound in Egyptian cities. Transformations in the materiality of roads themselves, the construction of electric tramways, and the rise of automobiles all changed the acoustics of urban space, adding to the sonic intensities of Cairo and Alexandria. In response, new laws were implemented as a way of dealing with what was perceived as incessant “noise,” taking particular aim at lower-class Egyptians. Public discourse about sound and noise in this period was infused with class anxieties, civilizational shaming, and judgmental dualities concerning changing definitions of taste, class, and modernity, all within a context of new developments in roads, modes of transportation, and local auditory culture.
Listening to Korea
Authors: Hannah Chang Hyun Kyong 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines a range of sonic descriptions in the writings of North American Protestant missionaries in late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century Korea. These descriptions in the missionary archive point to listening practices firmly embedded in Western imperial and North American evangelical epistemologies. Instances of missionaries’ listening to the “natives” reveal two different conceptualizations of Koreans’ vocal practice. Many missionaries conceptualized it as an object of conversion and linked authentic Christian faith to the supposed universality of North American culture. Other missionaries conceptualized it as an object of folkloristic analysis, projecting essentialist ideas about Korean alterity to what they heard. This chapter argues that both forms of listening, despite their oppositional outlooks, were conditioned by an ingrained practice of listening that assumed Korean vocalization as an audible site of interiority.
Repetition
Authors: Tymoczko Dmitri 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter introduces a new theory of repetition that unifies a wide range of procedures from the Renaissance to the present day. The theory emphasizes combinations of basic musical symmetries, including octave displacements permutation, and transposition; these can be used to form repeating contrapuntal patterns, sequences, rounds, transposing rounds, purely melodic sequences, structured arpeggiations, and a range of contrary-motion patterns. The unified framework allows us to appreciate the many forms of repetition woven into baroque and classical syntax. The chapter also considers approximate or near-sequences, proposing that sequences can sometimes function as analytical templates. Instead of analyzing music by removing unimportant notes, we reduce irregular structures to more regular models.
Musical Unease
Authors: Oyallon-Koloski Jenny 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
Jacques Demy’s final feature Trois places pour le 26 (1988) is a notable exception to the career-long financial challenges he experienced trying to make dance-driven musical cinema. With the material conditions secured to carefully design all aspects of production, Demy creates a backstage musical that flips the conventions of the subgenre in complex and discomposing ways. Demy also worked closely with American choreographer Michael Peters and their cast—particularly Mathilda May, Françoise Fabian, and Yves Montand—to make the cinematic choreography crucial to our understanding of character development and central to the subtle ways that the film challenges show musical conventions. By the late 1980s, dance culture in France had expanded, thanks to the emigration of American jazz dancers and government initiatives to financially support the art form, leading to more experimental contemporary movement forms (danse contemporaine) that would inspire Demy and the French filmmakers his work influenced.
Imperfect Bodies
Authors: Oyallon-Koloski Jenny 
Published: July 2024

Abstract
This chapter emphasizes how directors Olivier Ducastel and Jacques Martineau deliberately sought to foreground the political symbolism of their choreographic choices in Jeanne et le garçon formidable (1998). Their film, which centers on an HIV positive character, makes the dancing body crucial to the narrative’s double emphasis on romance and the cultural erasure of the AIDS epidemic during this period, combining fictional and documentary modes of filmmaking. Choreographer Sylvie Giron uses danse contemporaine and its emphasis on pedestrian vocabulary to blend the movements of the professional corps of dancers and the lead actors (Mathieu Demy and Virginie Ledoyen), who were amateur dancers. Dance functions as an essential element in Jeanne et le garçon formidable, drawing attention to the resilience of the human body as well as its impermanence.