bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Data Mining
Authors: Murray Gregg R. , Scime Anthony 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThis essay introduces data mining as an analytical technique for novice to professional social and behavioral scientists. It presents data mining, which is also known as, among other things,data analyticsandpredictive analytics, as an effective tool for researchers who are interested in the analysis of “big data” as well as small, unique data sets. It addresses foundational elements of data mining such as how to avoid “data dredging” and the importance of theory as embodied in researcher domain expertise. It also briefly defines and describes classification analysis, association rules, and clustering, which are the major methodologies among a large number of methodologies that constitute data mining. This essay identifies analytical problems and data for which the techniques are best suited. It goes on to highlight a number of cutting‐edge studies that relied on data mining techniques in disciplines such as criminal justice, education, health sciences, linguistics, political science, and sociology. This essay concludes with a review of key considerations for future research to include discussions of the burgeoning of new analytical techniques and new data sets and sources, the importance and protection of data‐source privacy, and the ethical obligation researchers have to exploit to their fullest extent the costly data on social and behavioral issues collected by scientists and society.
Demography and Cultural Evolution
Authors: Shennan Stephen 
Published: May 2015

Abstract

Trying to explain the increase in cultural complexity over the long term of human history has long been an interest of anthropology and of historical social sciences more generally. In recent years, interest has grown rapidly in the idea that a key factor in accounting for it might be the size of the human population itself and the extent of interaction between people, because of the effect these have on the innovation rates in populations and on the success with which innovations are transmitted. An important driver of this growth of interest has been the emergence of the new interdisciplinary field of cultural evolution, which makes extensive use of mathematical techniques, especially methods derived from population genetics. The result has been the development of a range of analytical and computer simulation models that make various predictions about the way in which population size influences cultural change, and in particular the growth of cumulative culture, including the processes that have led from the very simple forms of culture possessed by other great apes to those characteristic of
Homo sapiens
. The aim of this review is to distinguish them, so that future work can focus on evaluating their strengths and weaknesses and the circumstances in which they are useful.
Deterrence
Authors: Apel Robert , Nagin Daniel S. 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
This essay reviews the evidence on the deterrent effect of police and imprisonment. Studies of changes in police presences, whether achieved by changes in police numbers or in their strategic deployment, consistently find evidence of deterrent effects. Studies of the deterrent effect of increases in already long prison sentences find at most a modest deterrent effect. Three high priority areas for future research are identified: developing and testing an integrated model of the effects of the threat and experience of punishment, measuring perceptions of sanction regimes, developing and estimating the deterrent effect of shorter prison sentences, and identifying high deterrence policies.
Normal Negative Emotions and Mental Disorders
Authors: Horwitz Allan V. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThe basic goal of psychiatric diagnosis is to distinguish genuine mental dysfunctions from normal, albeit distressing, emotions. This task is especially difficult because, unlike other medical specialties, psychiatry does not have biological markers that can validate diagnoses of mental disorders. Therefore, diagnostic criteria have an outsized role in psychiatry compared to other medical fields. Until the development of the DSM‐III in 1980, psychiatric diagnoses were general, continuous, and causal. In contrast, the diagnostic system that emerged in the DSM‐III and that has remained basically intact until the present has been specific, categorical, and a causal. This type of classification, however, is prone to mistake contextually appropriate symptoms as indicators of mental disorders. Cutting‐edge research incorporates the context in which symptoms emerge and persist to separate normal, distressing emotions from mental illnesses. It also develops alternatives to the DSM's categorical diagnoses. Other valuable studies try to differentiate conditions that stem from evolutionarily normal genes that no longer fit modern environments rather than from genetic or psychological dysfunctions within individuals. Going forward, research must attempt to use biological, psychological, and social factors to develop definitions that adequately distinguish normal responses to stressful environments, evolutionary mismatches, and mental disorders. It will also try to find biomarkers that can set appropriate boundaries between natural and pathological conditions. Finally, it will consider the best ways to optimize the balance between under‐ and over‐diagnosing mental illnesses.
Distributive Politics: Federal Outlays
Authors: Gordon Sanford C. , Kang Woo Chang 
Published: May 2015

AbstractWe provide an interpretive review of theoretical and empirical research on the distribution of federal outlays in the United States and their political antecedents. We argue that the foundational scholarly research on the subject to date can be classified to a great extent according to the perspectives it takes respecting legislative organization, political parties, and the executive branch. After reviewing theoretical and empirical research in these areas, we discuss some cutting‐edge research in this area of research. One of the most exciting trends in the study of distributive politics is a much greater focus on issues of causal identification in empirical tests of theories concerning the allocation of federal resources. Finally, we describe five questions that we believe ought to motivate future research in this area. These questions concern the relationship between entitlement and discretionary spending; how to integrate research on distributive politics with research on political business cycles; how best to measure executive discretion in specific assistance programs; how to understand the relationship between spending in an area and support for that spending; and how to capture the mechanism relating spending and electoral benefits.
Close Friendships among Contemporary People
Authors: Brashears Matthew E. , Brashears Laura Aufderheide 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
Do contemporary people have fewer friends than they used to? In this entry, we examine the research on strong tie networks, or networks containing people especially important to us, in order to provide a partial answer. We begin with a review of the methods employed to collect data on social network connections. We then summarize the literature on the size of Americans' social networks as well as change in this size over time. Finally, we conclude with an analysis of where the study of strong networks needs to go and some suggestions for getting it there. Overall, the research suggests that while strong networks have changed over the past 30–40 years, and may be smaller overall, people are no more isolated than they were in the past.
Domestic Institutions and International Conflict
Authors: Chiozza Giacomo 
Published: May 2015

AbstractFrom the democratic peace to the current wave of research on political leaders, the study of the connection between domestic politics and international conflict has been one of the most dynamic areas of study in International Relations in the past 25 years. This essay takes stock of the past 25 years of research on how domestic politics underpins the dynamics of war and peace in the international arena. It reviews the foundational arguments envisioned by Kant in 1795 and later grounded in the scientific canon by Russett and Oneal. The essay then argues that research that evaluates how political leaders make decisions under different institutional arrangements is likely to be one of the most fruitful lines of research in International Relations in the years to come. It illustrates this claim with a review of two alternative perspectives on leaders and international conflict.
Domestic Politics of Trade Policy
Authors: Aklin Michaël , Arias Eric , Deniz Emine , Peter Rosendorff B. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractDomestic politics shape international trade policy, but exactly how and why remains an open question. We explore the cutting‐edge literature that focuses on how agents' interests are formed, whose interests are organized, and how those interests interact with each other via domestic political institutions to generate both trade policy and international cooperation over trade more broadly. In turn, trade policies operate as a feedback loop. International cooperation generates information via international organizations, treaties, and more informal regimes, which affects the domestic politics conflict in substantive ways. We explore each of these topics and suggest future research paths.
Economics of Privacy and User‐Generated Content
Authors: Tucker Catherine 
Published: May 2015

AbstractThe Internet has allowed an unprecedented expansion of the data firms can collect and the amount of content users can upload. Understanding the forces that shape the demand and supply of this content is critical for understanding the likely evolution of the Internet. We review foundational and cutting‐edge research on the economics of privacy and user‐generated content (UGC), and sketch out issues for future research.
Economics of Renewable Energy Production
Authors: Nemet Gregory F. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractRenewable energy (RE) includes a diverse set of technologies that produce useful energy from nondepleting resources, emit little pollution, and involve no fuel costs. While RE comprises only about an eighth of world energy supply, it is growing quickly and could become a much larger share without approaching resource supply constraints. Valuation of the costs and benefits of RE has improved as studies have become more comprehensive in scope and more precise. Still valuation remains complicated and subject to wide bands of uncertainty for several reasons: heterogeneity among RE technologies; accounting for externalities, such as pollution, that are not always traded in markets; and benefits that depend on counterfactuals that vary substantially by time and location. Costs have to account for intermittency, which depends on many factors such as how thin a reserve margin to maintain, as well as technology dynamics, which over the long term may reduce costs. Experience with substantial shares of RE generation in real commercial settings has provided data and opportunities to analyze the integration of RE with the surrounding energy market. A key research challenge is to use this fuller accounting of costs and benefits to produce general insights about energy markets, without being limited by the technological, location, and temporal idiosyncrasies, which so far appear dominant. Future research questions revolve around whether costs are increasing or decreasing in deployment and include considerations of resource availability, temporal correlation in production across space and technologies, technological change in RE and complementary technologies, and emergent properties at large scale.
Education for Mobility or Status Reproduction?
Authors: Lacy Karyn 
Published: May 2015

AbstractEveryone is familiar with the popular phrase, “education levels the playing field.” However, does public schooling really provide opportunities for everyone who is willing to work hard to succeed? This essay examines the scholarly debate that has emerged around this long‐standing maxim. At one end of the continuum, scholars draw on the experiences of white ethnic immigrants to make the claim that education is the ticket to upward mobility for students from poor families. However, critics point to the experiences of marginalized blacks, and increasingly, Latinos, to reject this claim. At the other end of the continuum, scholars depart from traditional debates about racial disparitiesper se, shifting their focus to an understudied disparity—the growing gap in achievement between middle‐class students and poor students. These scholars point to an important new trend in class inequality, one that has gained momentum in recent years, namely, the rising significance of the acquisition of cultural capital as a necessary prerequisite for upward mobility. Analysis of this trend is a promising step in the right direction for scholars concerned with helping disadvantaged students to climb out of poverty.
Effortful Control
Authors: Spinrad Tracy L. , Eisenberg Nancy 
Published: May 2015

AbstractEffortful control, defined as the ability to voluntary inhibit a dominant response and to activate a subdominant response, is believed to play an important role in children's development. In this essay, we distinguish between effortful control and aspects of control that are involuntary (i.e., reactive). The development of effortful control is summarized, and research on its relations to children's positive social behaviors and maladjustment is reviewed. Key areas for future work are also discussed, with an emphasis on interventions designed to promote self‐regulation.
Electoral Authoritarianism
Authors: Schedler Andreas 
Published: May 2015

AbstractElectoral authoritarian regimes practice authoritarianism behind the institutional facades of representative democracy. They hold regular multiparty elections at the national level, yet violate liberal‐democratic minimum standards in systematic and profound ways. Since the end of the Cold War, they have turned into the most common form of nondemocratic rule in the world. Responding to the empirical expansion of nondemocratic multiparty elections, the study of “electoral authoritarian” regimes has taken center stage in comparative political science. This essay reviews the conceptual and empirical foundations of this flourishing new field of comparative politics, summarizes cutting‐edge research on regime trajectories and internal regime dynamics, and lays out substantive issues and methodological desiderata for future research.
Emergence of Stratification in Small Groups
Authors: Askin Noah , Bothner Matthew S. , Lee Wonjae 
Published: May 2015

AbstractStratification within small groups is virtually inevitable. Understanding the precise mechanisms by which it occurs and the nature of its consequences is an important sociological endeavor. Individuals' preexisting qualities, as well as advantages emerging from intra‐group interactions, affect the flows of respect and deference accruing to each member of a group. Differences in these flows in turn create a hierarchy. In this essay, we first discuss foundational research on the causes and consequences of stratification before turning to more current trends. We focus on the ways in which status, the primary determinant of one's location in a group's hierarchy, is created and maintained or lost. We discuss the Matthew Effect—a process by which high‐status group members receive disproportionate credit for their contributions, and also more easily maintain their status. We also address the circumstances and activities that can curb the Matthew Effect. We then move to current research, which centers on two main concepts. First, we consider peer effects, discussing the various means by which an individual's closest peers shape his or her status; second, we take a broader perspective by examining small groups as open systems. This section considers how a group's external environment, including other nearby groups, affects the level and stability of within‐group stratification. We emphasize key issues and implications for future research on these topics.
Emerging Evidence of Addiction in Problematic Eating Behavior
Authors: Gearhardt Ashley , Murray Susan , Avena Nicole M. 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
Obesity continues to be a pressing global health crisis with few nonsurgical means of long‐term successful treatment. In addition, in the last year, binge eating disorder (BED), which shares several behavioral characteristics with traditional substance use disorders, has been recognized in the DSM‐V as a distinct eating disorder diagnosis. In light of such trends, an emerging and controversial hypothesis is that an addictive response to certain types of foods may be contributing to eating‐related problems. If certain individuals are experiencing an addiction to highly palatable foods, the treatment and prevention of problematic eating may need to be altered in such circumstances. Further, if certain food (or ingredients in food) are identified as having an addictive potential, policy approaches employed to reduce the public health impact of other types of addictive substances (e.g., reducing advertising to minors, taxation) may be of use in the obesity epidemic. In the following piece, we will review the research linking addiction and eating, but most importantly, we will identify directions for future research in this relatively new field of study.
Museum Anthropology
Authors: Greene Candace S. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractMuseum anthropology is a vigorous and growing perspective within anthropology. It applies insights from cultural anthropology to the assessment of how museums represent cultures, and increasingly looks to museum collections as the material record of cultures over time. It is a theoretical approach, distinct from technical aspects of museum operation, such as collections care and exhibit production, although in best practice, each informs the other. Degree programs in Museum Studies may include training in either theoretical museum anthropology or operational aspects, although more programs focus on the later aspect and are not specific to the discipline of anthropology.
Emerging Trends in Social Network Analysis of Terrorism and Counterterrorism
Authors: Knoke David 
Published: May 2015

AbstractA key issue in tracking transnational terror trends is the utility of social network analysis, both as a theoretical perspective and as a methodological toolkit, for understanding and assessing terror organizations, and for developing counterterror policies and practices to detect and disrupt terror attacks. Foundational efforts were case studies of particular groups or operations, culling data from newspaper reports and court trial documents, then creating matrix files for analysis with social network computer programs. Mathematicians, game theorists, and computer scientists are dramatically expanding research beyond foundational case studies of terrorist networks. Much of their work centers on devising strategies for counterterror organizations to destabilize clandestine organizations. They develop elegant and precise mathematical models and computer algorithms, then systematically change parameters to assess capabilities of detecting and disrupting terrorist activities under varying conditions. Key issues for future network research include: conducting rigorous comparative analyses of four historical waves of modern terrorism for clues about the present and future waves; building more comprehensive, cohesive, and integrated theoretical models capable of explaining the formation, structure, and consequences of terrorist networks; developing new methods of measuring network relations among terrorists; performing more laboratory experiments as an alternative to collecting inaccessible and dangerous field observation data; and creating large, high‐quality relational datasets to test social network theories of terrorism.
Emotion and Decision Making
Authors: Huntsinger Jeff R. , Ray Cara 
Published: May 2015

Abstract
The topic of emotion and decision making is an old one. Classic Western philosophical perspectives generally considered emotion a contaminating influence on cognition, one that needed to be suppressed, ignored, or ideally brought in line with reason. Recent psychological research shows that, contrary to such pessimistic perspectives, emotion plays a largely functional and adaptive role in regulating cognition and decision making. We first outline how affect regulates cognition using the affect‐as‐information account as a guiding framework. We next discuss foundational research on the role of emotion in regulating cognition and decision making consistent with this account. Finally, we end with a discussion of new research developments and open research questions.
Emotion and Intergroup Relations
Authors: Mackie Diane M. , Maitner Angela T. , Smith Eliot R. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractWhen the social identities people develop as members of groups become salient, people perceive the world in terms of the costs and benefits to that salient group membership. This means that events that have no implications for the individual him or herself can be perceived as harmful, beneficial, offensive, complimentary, unfair, or just, for example, depending on the consequences those events have for the group. As a result, perceptions of intergroup events, anticipated intergroup interactions, or ongoing structural intergroup relations elicit group‐based emotions—emotions that individuals feel as members of their groups. These emotions influence individuals' perceptions, interpretations, and actions toward their ingroup, relevant outgroups, and any other objects and events that are relevant to group membership. Thus, emotions play a critical role in intergroup relations, energizing desires to cooperate or compete, to retaliate or make peace. Focusing on the role of such emotions has contributed to an understanding of the social nature of emotion, as well as to the antecedents of intergroup conflict and the necessary conditions for its resolution. That understanding will be promoted by further clarification of the nature of social identity, the process of identification, the anticipation of emotions in others, and the time course of emotions, both in general and in the context of group membership in particular.
Emotion Regulation
Authors: Zarolia Paree , McRae Kateri , Gross James J. 
Published: May 2015

AbstractEmotion regulation refers to the processes by which we influence which emotions we have, when we have them, how we experience them, and how we express them. The study of emotion regulation has become an increasingly popular and fruitful area of research in the past few decades. In the following chapter, we summarize past research, highlight current findings, and suggest some potential future directions for the study of emotion regulation. We review foundational research highlighting the process model of emotion regulation and research comparing distinct emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression. Then, we highlight new conceptualizations of emotion regulation that question the assumption that emotion regulation is inherently adaptive, that examine the effect of culture on emotion regulation, examine the contexts that lead to successful emotion regulation towards a variety of emotion goals. Finally we discuss promising future directions for the study of emotion regulation.