bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Causal Learning
Authors: Cheng Patricia W. , Buehner Marc J. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThis chapter is an introduction to the psychology of causal inference using a computational perspective, with the focus on causal discovery. It explains the nature of the problem of causal discovery and illustrates the goal of the process with everyday and hypothetical examples. It reviews psychological research under two approaches to causal discovery, an associative approach and a causal approach that incorporates causal assumptions in the inference process. The latter approach provides a framework within which to answer different questions regarding causal inference coherently. The chapter ends with a consideration of causality as unfolding over time. We conclude with a sketch of future directions for the field.
Cognition and the Creation of Ideas
Authors: Smith Steven M. , Ward Thomas B. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe cognition that gives rise to creative thinking is not a singular process or operation; rather, it consists of many different cognitive structures and processes that can collaborate in a variety of ways to construct different types of creative products. Cognition that is often relevant to creativity includes remote association, conceptual combination, visualization, retrieving and mapping analogies, reasoning, insight problem solving, implicit and explicit cognition, abstraction, and mental models.
New Perspectives on Language and Thought
Authors: Gleitman Lila R. , Papafragou Anna 
Published: February 2013

AbstractIn this chapter we discuss the question of whether, how, where, and to what extent language plays a causally fundamental role in creating categories of thought, and in organizing and channeling thought that is already mentally present. In general, both logic and currently available evidence suggest a disclamatory view of strongest proposals (Benjamin Whorf 1956) according to which particulars of certain human languages are important progenitors of thought, such that elements of perception or conception would be permanently altered by learning one or another language. However, several credible lines of experimental and developmental evidence suggest significant influence of linguistic representation during online processing in many cognitive and perceptual domains: Insofar as languages differ in the short-term processing demands that they pose to listeners, interpretational outcomes and styles, including characteristic ambiguity resolution, may look quite different cross-linguistically as a function of concomitant population differences (e.g., age-group) and task demands.
Visuospatial Thinking
Authors: Hegarty Mary , Stull Andrew T. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractVisuospatial thinking includes thinking about space at the smaller scale of objects and at the larger scale of environments. It also includes situations in which we use visuospatial representations to think about nonspatial entities. At the scale of objects, this chapter reviews the types of representations and processes that underlie object recognition and categorization, the nature of visuospatial mental images of objects, and how these are processed in interactions with objects and in reasoning and problem solving. At the scale of environments, we examine the nature of environmental spatial representations and the processes that operate on these to keep us oriented in space, to reorient ourselves when we are lost, to learn the layout of new environments, and to plan routes through familiar environments. Finally, the chapter reviews how spatial representations are used metaphorically, to think about nonspatial entities, in language, reasoning, and graphics.
Scientific Thinking and Reasoning
Authors: Dunbar Kevin N. , Klahr David 
Published: February 2013

AbstractScientific thinking refers to both thinking about the content of science and the set of reasoning processes that permeate the field of science: induction, deduction, experimental design, causal reasoning, concept formation, hypothesis testing, and so on. Here we cover both the history of research on scientific thinking and the different approaches that have been used, highlighting common themes that have emerged over the past 50 years of research. Future research will focus on the collaborative aspects of scientific thinking, on effective methods for teaching science, and on the neural underpinnings of the scientific mind.
Medical Reasoning and Thinking
Authors: Patel Vimla L. , Arocha Jose F. , Zhang Jiajie 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe practice of medicine requires art as well as science. The latter argues for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying disease processes and use of scientific evidence in making patient care decisions. The study of medical reasoning and thinking underlies much of medical cognition and has been the focus of research in cognitive science and artificial intelligence in medicine. Expertise and medical knowledge organization, the directionality of reasoning, and the nature of medical errors are intricately tied to thinking and decision-making processes in medicine. With the recent advancement of technology in medicine, technology-mediated reasoning and reasoning support systems will be a focus for future research. This chapter discusses these issues within historical and current research perspectives.
Youth Music at the Yakama Nation Tribal School
Authors: Pitzer Robert 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article discusses the history of the Yakama Nation and the musical lives of four youths involved in the traditional music program offered by the Yakama Nation Tribal School (YNTS). YNTS, founded in 1980 and located in Toppenish, Washington, currently serves about 100 students in grades 7 through 12. It was originally founded as an alternative school to serve tribal youth experiencing difficulties in the public school system. However, over the past ten years the school has emphasized the teaching and preservation of Yakama culture. As a part of this focus, a program teaching native drumming and flute has been established in the past several years.
Reform Jewish Songleading and the Flexible Practices of Jewish-American Youth
Authors: Cohen Judah M. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines children’s musical cultures by focusing on the practice of songleading at American Reform Jewish youth summer camps. Songleading and its associated musical knowledge allow individuals to transition from childhood into positions of increasing authority. Many songleaders eventually assume positions of communal leadership in Reform Judaism, including several who trained to become ordained clergy. However, the transition to mastery did not always mean a transition away from childhood and into adulthood. Rather, the practice of songleading adapted to maintain a dual relationship with both youth experiences and the spiritual practices of ever-older peer groups. Even as the repertoire expended into the adult world, songleaders of all ages continually returned to camps for alumni weekends, songleading conventions, and religious and communal inspiration.
The Musical Socialization of Children and Adolescents in Brazil in Their Everyday Lives
Authors: Kleber Magali , Souza Jusamara 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the musical socialization of children and adolescents in Brazil. Children and adolescents were observed and interviewed in environments such as the non-governmental organizations Projeto Villa Lobinhos and Meninos do Morumbi, and at Escola de Porto Alegre, a school that helps homeless children and adolescents. Music education was a positive factor that changed individuals and groups socially.
Musical Childhoods across Three Generations, from Puerto Rico to the USA
Authors: Berríos-Miranda Marisol 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article explores the musical childhoods of three generations—represented by the author’s mother, herself, and her children—and moving from the community of Santurce, Puerto Rico, where the author was born, to Seattle, Washington, where her children grew up. She says that the continuities between these generations have helped her survive and prosper as an immigrant to the mainland U.S. Music became a source of cultural security, a marker of identity, and a mode of interaction that helped her know where and with whom she belonged. Reflecting on her musical childhood has also helped her understand some of the more broadly human dimensions of musical experience, such as the social conversation and negotiation that occur in the act of dancing.
The Musical Worlds of Aboriginal Children at Burrulula and Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia
Authors: Mackinlay Elizabeth 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the musical lives and experiences of Aboriginal children in Australia. It focuses on the Yanyuwa and Garrwa children living in the remote community at Burrulula in the south-west Gulf of Carpentaria, and urban Aboriginal children in Darwin. One of the biggest challenges faced by the children is the conflict of trying to be Aboriginal in a non-Aboriginal mainstream society. This tension is reflected in their musical choices, activities, and understandings. The children also struggle with the same questions relating to their identity as Indigenous Australians: should they be “shame” to be Aboriginal or should they be proud? Should they listen to Aboriginal music because that’s who they are? Or should they listen to the music that has meaning for them in their lives as children?
The Interweaving Threads of Music in the Whariki of Early Childhood Cultures in Aotearoa/New Zealand
Authors: Bodkin-Allen Sally 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the musical experiences provided by early childhood education in Aotearoa/New Zealand. It focuses on four early childhood education environments: kindergartens, childcare centers, a’oga amata (Samoan immersion centers), and te kōhanga reo (Māori immersion centers). Kindergartens and childcare centers emphasize specific values of Pakeha culture, kōhanga with Māori, and a’oga amata with Samoan, even while all follow the early childhood curriculum, Te Whāriki. Pop songs and music from the mass media are present all centers devoted to the education of young children. Connections to nationhood are evident through the singing of songs which feature the Māori language and reflect Aotearoa/New Zealand’s bicultural status.
Balancing Change and Tradition in the Musical Lives of Children in Hong Kong
Authors: Chen-Hafteck Lily 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the influence of culture, environment, and education on the musical lives of Hong Kong Chinese children. It shows that the musical expression and creativity of children feature a combination of tradition and change, and Chinese and Western attitudes and culture. Children express delight and heartfelt enthusiasm for the fun and sheer pleasure that music brings to them. They believe that music helps them achieve a balanced and healthy development.
Tradition and Change in the Musical Culture of South Korean Children
Authors: Kim Young-Youn 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article explores the musical experiences of children in South Korea. It describes Korean social settings and educational priorities, the scope of children’s daily lives, and their musical involvements and environments. South Korea children have access to various music styles, and are exposed to rich musical environments in their developmental years. Music is a mandatory subject in South Korean schools, and parents support children’s music learning in their early years of schooling. However, by adolescence the attention to music wanes as families shift their attention to children’s studies to prepare them for successful college entrance examinations. Children find music in various places, be it at home, in shopping centers and public spaces, or community venues, and technologies are critical to their listening pleasure.
Enculturational Discontinuities in the Musical Experience of the Wagogo Children of Central Tanzania
Authors: Mapana Kedmon 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the musical enculturation process among the Wagogo people in Tanzania in order to understand their informal learning of culture (and musical culture). A framework is then proposed for the development of a music curriculum that removes enculturational discontinuities and helps sustain cultural identity. It is argued that enculturation is a natural process that need not be dismissed and discontinued as mandatory schooling moves children from their homes and families and into a formal learning environment. The songs, rhythms, and movements that children learn at home constitute are part of their deepest cultural roots. This music must be nurtured through a school curriculum that continues to build upon the local experiences of children’s early years.
Economics, Class, and Musical Apprenticeship in South Asia’s Brass Band Communities
Authors: Booth Gregory D. 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the place and meaning of music in the lives of two young men, Pappu (b. 1986) and Imran (b. 1994), living with their family in Northern India. The study is based on ethnographic research in the world of Indian wedding bands and bandsmen, which began in 1988. It shows professional musicianship and an engagement in this music trade has negative implications for children in this community. Although the boys have grown up in an intensely musical environment and have inherited a level of respect and enjoyment for classical and light classical music from their father, they are coming to the realization that music is an economically uncertain source of income.
A Historical Look at Three Recordings of Children’s Musicking in New York City
Authors: Roberts J. Christopher 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article explores children’s musical cultures in New York City as seen through three recordings released by the Folkways record label in the middle of the twentieth century: 1, 2, 3, and a Zing Zing Zing (1953); Songs for Children from New York City (1978); and Street and Gangland Rhythms: Beats and Improvisations of Six Boys in Trouble (1959). The first two albums featured songs of children playing. The third album featured songs and music performed by six 11- and 12-year old African-American boys, most of whom were members of New York City street gangs.
Whose Songs in Their Heads?
Authors: Wiggins Trevor 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
This article examines the musical experiences of children in Nandom, northern Ghana. Children use music to structure and order their world, sometimes not understood by the adult world. The differences involve the extra-musical meanings loaded onto the music; the significance of one music over another that indicates allegiance to traditional Dagara culture, to Ghanaian culture, to the Christian church, or to membership of a global popular music audience, with a particular focus on the perceived wealth of the USA. The radio station and the church also play a crucial role as the providers of alternative cultural materials.
Confronting Language, Representation, and Belief: A Limited Defense of Mental Continuity
Authors: Andrews Kristin , Radenovic Ljiljana 
Published: February 2013

AbstractAccording to the mental continuity claim (MCC), human mental faculties are physical and beneficial to human survival, so they must have evolved gradually from ancestral forms and we should expect to see their precursors across species. Materialism of mind coupled with Darwin's evolutionary theory leads directly to such claims and even today arguments for animal mental properties are often presented with the MCC as a premise. However, the MCC has been often challenged among contemporary scholars. It is usually argued that only humans use language and that language as such has no precursors in the animal kingdom. Moreover, language is quite often understood as a necessary tool for having representations and forming beliefs. As a consequence, by lacking language animals could not have developed representational systems or beliefs. In response to these worries, we aim to mount a limited defense of the MCC as an empirical hypothesis. First, we will provide a short historical overview of the origins of the MCC and examine some of the motives behind traditional arguments for and against it. Second, we will focus on one particular question, namely, whether language as such is necessary for having beliefs. Our goal is to show that there is little reason to think language is necessary for belief. In doing so, we will challenge a view of belief that is widely accepted by those working in animal cognition, namely, representational belief, and we will argue that if belief is nonrepresentational, then different research questions and methods are required. We will conclude with an argument that to study the evolution of belief across species, it is essential to begin the study of subjects in their social and ecological environment rather than in contexts that are not ecologically valid along the social and ecological dimensions. Thus, rather than serving as a premise in an argument in favor of animal minds, the MCC can only be defended by empirical investigation, but importantly, empirical investigation of the right sort.
Episodic Memory and Planning
Authors: Raby Caroline R. , Clayton Nicola S. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractEpisodic memory in humans is the recall of a specific event in the past, which the rememberer has the sense of having personally experienced. Semantic memory is knowledge of the past without the accompanying phenomenological experience. Most life events are remembered episodically for a short time, but some memories are retained episodically long term. The episodic memory system and personal future planning are closely related, and we refer to this as the episodic cognitive system. Key uses of episodic memory are in maintaining a sense of self-continuity, successful social interaction, and using information from past events to direct future behavior. Most, but not all, researchers believe that the episodic cognitive system emerged later in evolution than the semantic cognitive system. There is some evidence that some mammals and birds have some aspects of episodic memory and future thinking, but much more data is needed and on a greater variety of species. It is possible that animals have “event memory,” an evolutionary forerunner of human episodic cognitive abilities that allow them to act on specific past events and take actions for the future but that do not necessarily comprise the experience of mental time travel or of autonoesis.
The Ecology and Evolution of Social Behavior and Cognition in Primates
Authors: Boesch Christophe 
Published: February 2013

AbstractThe social lives of animals present them with a constant yet varying series of challenges that they must solve daily if they want to survive and reproduce. An evolutionary approach to the evolution of social behavior and cognition predicts the convergent emergence of similar patterns and abilities in animal species facing similar challenges, as well as the emergence of a large diversity of behavioral and cognitive abilities within species facing different socio-ecological challenges. In primates, evidence supporting these predictions contradicts a Cartesian approach that many psychologists have adopted favoring captive studies and minimizing the role of experience and ecology. Social grouping is largely the result of a balance between increased predation protection, which is higher in larger groups, and decreased intragroup feeding competition, which is less intense in smaller groups. However, within such optimally sized groups, a great deal of flexibility in how social life can be organized is still possible. Cooperation, altruism, and reciprocity are observed with different levels of prevalence by individuals living in different ecological niches. In many monkeys and chimpanzees, we see that ecological factors play a decisive role in favoring the evolution of cooperation and altruism. The underlying cognitive abilities required to master them will develop according to how important the abilities are for the survival of the individuals. Different aspects of the ecological niche select for different abilities, which prevents a simple model of the evolution of social behavior and cognition. As a rule, the captive environment, a habitat that is particularly unchallenging and safe, selects for less demanding social cognitive development in many primate species, including humans. If we want to gain a better understanding of the evolution of social behavior and cognition, more research should be directed toward primates that face different types and levels of ecological challenges.
The Evolution of a Cooperative Social Mind
Authors: Cheney Dorothy L. , Seyfarth Robert M. 
Published: February 2013

AbstractIt has long been hypothesized that the demands of establishing and maintaining social relationships in complex societies place strong selective pressures on cognition and intelligence. What has been less clear until recently is whether these relationships, and the skills they require, confer any reproductive benefits, and whether such benefits vary across individuals. During the last few years, much progress has been made in resolving some of these questions. There is now evidence from a variety of species that animals are motivated to establish close, long-term bonds with specific partners, and that these bonds enhance offspring survival and longevity. The cognitive and emotional mechanisms underlying cooperation, however, are still not understood. It remains unclear, for example, whether animals keep track of favors given and received, and whether they rely on memory of past cooperative acts when anticipating future ones. Although most investigations with captive primates have indicated that cooperation is seldom contingency based, several experiments conducted under more natural conditions suggest that animals do take into account recent interactions when supporting others. Moreover, although interactions within dyads are often unbalanced over short periods of time, pairs with strong bonds have strongly reciprocal interactions over extended time periods. These results suggest that the apparent rarity of contingent cooperation in animals may not stem from cognitive constraints. Instead, animals may tolerate short-term inequities in favors given and received, because most cooperation occurs among long-term reciprocating partners.
When Things Go Wrong: On Mediation, Arbitration, Corrective Actions, and Disciplinary Sanctions
Authors: Koene Casper 
Published: February 2013

Abstract
Sometimes, psychologists’ conduct may lead to discomfort. Sometimes, expectations about their interventions and professional evaluations might have been inadequate. But things can go wrong, too. Errors are made. Unethical conduct will occur. Psychologists need to face this. Individual psychologists need to be open to look critically into their own behavior and thus to be loyal in having their professional conduct scrutinized. In this chapter, the different modalities of dealing with possible infringements of ethics are described. Coming to a settlement with the complainant as a result of a mediation process might be a preferable option to restore the relationship. However, in criticizing the psychologist's professional conduct in retrospect, the imposition of sanctions by the professional association or a legal disciplinary board may be unavoidable.
Yet, to take corrective actions (e.g., requiring additional training) might be more constructive to improve the ethical quality of future professional conduct.