bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Genocide and empire
Authors: Rossman Jeffrey J. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The concept of genocide is grounded in a long‐standing Western critique of colonialism and the defense of indigenous rights which has reached widespread acceptance in international covenants in the 20th century, including but not limited to the United Nations Genocide Convention. Genocide, the mass murder of indigenous peoples, and the forced assimilation of any survivors, involving the destruction of the culture or national character of the subordinate group and theft of its territory, has been widely practiced by imperial powers. Often, settlers were responsible for genocidal actions in the pursuit of territory, a process imperial powers at the center were unable to control. From time to time imperial rulers and officials were prompted to pursue genocidal policies in response to the actual or potential threat of rebellion. Subaltern genocide – subaltern actors seeking retribution through genocidal acts – has also been a feature and a legacy of imperial history.
British Empire: 6. Caribbean, 19th–20th centuries
Authors: Dunkley D. A. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Resistance by the black majority changed the course of the British Caribbean Empire in the 19th and 20th centuries, which resulted in the abolition of British slave trading and slavery, struggles to overcome post‐Emancipation oppressions, and ultimately, the acquisition of independence from Britain starting from 1962. Shaped by oppressions, but also by the agency of the oppressed, the standard of living of the masses in the colonized Caribbean gradually improved, but only alongside the declining prospects of Pax Britannia.
Spanish Empire: 2. From 1580
Authors: Gasch‐Tomás José L. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The history of the Spanish Empire from 1580 is the history of a monarchy being transformed into various nation‐states. From 1580 to 1700 the Spanish Empire was the composite monarchy of Europe
par excellence
. Spain's union with Portugal in 1580 marked the apogee of the Spanish Empire. During the 17th century, however, crisis and war drove the Spanish Empire to a secondary place in the international arena. The 18th century was a period of economic and political modernization of the empire, although its past splendor was never recovered. The wars of independence in Latin America fragmented it into several nation‐states, including Spain itself. In the 20th century, a few territories in northern Africa were the sole remnants of what was once a worldwide empire.
Western Satrap (Western Kshatrapa) Kingdom
Authors: Ghosh Suchandra 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

A significant power group which ruled in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Malwa during the early centuries
ce
is referred to as the Western Satraps or Western Kshatrapas. They were contemporary with the Satavahanas in the Deccan and partly with the Kushanas in the north. There were two important lines of Kshatrapa rulers – the Kshaharatas and Kardamakas. Their distinctive coinages are the most important source for reconstructing their history, along with a few inscriptions which include records of endowments and benefactions. The most famous rulers from the two dynasties are Nahapana, Chashtana, and Rudradaman I. The Kshatrapa rulers were engaged in prolonged conflict with their southern neighbor the Satavahanas. The main cause of the struggle was control over certain areas, particularly those which gave access to the western seaboard. After Rudradaman there were many succeeding rulers. They were supplanted in the Saurashtra‐Gujarat region by Chandragupta II around 415
ce,
whose silver coins proclaim the annexation of the Satrapal kingdom.
Ports in ancient and medieval empires
Authors: Hyslop Jonathan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Ancient and medieval empires gave an extraordinary impetus to the development of ports in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Alexandria under the Ptolemaic emperors represented a new level of harbor economy. Under the Roman Empire, a chain of port cities grew around the Mediterranean Sea, providing an unprecedented infrastructure for seaborne commerce. The rise of Islam linked the ports of the Mediterranean to Central Asian trade, and later the Mongol Empire opened up an overland connection between the ports of the Muslim world and China. By the 13th century a vast China‐centered trade network existed in the ports of the eastern Indian Ocean, and a system of seaborne commerce linked Indian and west Asian ports with Africa. Thus while the European empires of the 16th century did represent a breakthrough to a truly global economy, it is important to understand the remarkable achievements of earlier imperial port systems.
Morocco: 2. Later empire (from the 16th century)
Authors: Boum Aomar 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

With the Marinids’ decline, the Turks, Portuguese, Spanish, and Wattasids competed for Morocco's political and economic control until the Sa‘dians formally became its new
sharifian
rulers in 1554. As the Ottomans strengthened their control over Algeria and the Europeans continued their maritime success, the Sa‘dians shifted their economic and political expansion to the Sudan. Their sub‐Saharan territorial conquest turned out to be one of the causes of their fall as trans‐Saharan trade routes became less secure after the social and political break‐up of the Songhai Empire. Internal political dissidence and economic woes hastened the emergence of ‘Alawites, who managed to protect Morocco from the Ottoman and European continued interest and to maintain political independence until the French managed to establish their colonial protection between 1912 and 1956.
Shibanid Empire
Authors: Kilic‐Schubel Nurten 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Shibanids, more accurately, the Abu'l‐Khayrid‐Shibanids, were a Turco‐Mongol Muslim dynasty of Chinggisid origin, who ruled the settled regions of southern Central Asia from 1500 until 1598. Replacing the non‐Chingissid Timurid rulers in these regions, they were direct descendants of Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan) (d.1227), tracing their lineage through Shiban, a son of Juchi, Chinggis Khan's eldest son, whose descendants formed the ruling family of the “Golden Horde.” The establishment of the Shibanid Empire in former Timurid territories signified the “restoration” of Chinggisid sovereignty and the formation of a new political culture which emphasized shared sovereignty and power distribution. While the dynasty itself was short lived, its underlying political framework and principles proved dynamic and durable, lasting into the early 19th century.
Russia: 4. Empire (1721–1917)
Authors: O'Rourke Shane 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Russian Empire was founded in 1721 and lasted until 1917. At its height in the mid‐19th century it was spread across three continents, stretching from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean, into Alaska and down into California. In 1913 the empire covered 13.5 million square kilometers. Within the empire, there existed hundreds of different ethnic groups with a bewildering variety of languages, religions, and customs. This diverse empire was united largely through loyalty to the dynasty. When the dynasty collapsed, the Russian Empire collapsed with it, although it would be revived in other guises.
Seljuk Empire, Great
Authors: Peacock A. C. S. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Seljuk Empire (c.1038–1194) was a Muslim state that dominated much of the Middle East and Central Asia – in particular modern Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkmenistan, and northern Afghanistan – in the 11th and 12th centuries
ce
. Known after their ancestor Seljuk, the dynasty was ethnically Turkish and had been brought to power by invasions of nomadic Turks from Central Asia who had recently converted to Islam. From the second half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Empire began to fragment into constituent parts ruled by branches of the dynasty in Anatolia, Syria, and southeastern Iran (Kirman). The rump empire in Iran, Iraq, and Central Asia is known as the Great Seljuk state to distinguish it from these smaller states to which it gave birth, but from the early 12th century the great Seljuk lands were themselves further divided between the Great Seljuk sultan based in Central Asia and eastern Iran, and his vassal the Seljuk sultan of Iraq. The Great Seljuk Empire collapsed in the mid‐12th century and its successor, the Seljuk sultanate of Iraq, finally disappeared in 1194.
Nationalism and imperialism
Authors: Farrell Sean 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Modern nations typically were born in imperial crucibles. The complex relationship between nationalism and imperialism has been a vital area of historical enquiry in recent decades. While these debates have often been contentious, this work has underlined the fact that nationalism and imperialism are not simply antagonistic forces. Using examples from the British, French, and Japanese empires, this brief essay surveys the associations between these two critical phenomena, focusing on the relationship between imperialism and the formation and evolution of national identity and the links between empire and the development of anti‐colonial nationalism. The legacy of these connections is illustrated by contemporary debates that dominate the so‐called post‐colonial world. For former metropole and colony alike, the blurred lines between empire and nation continue to resonate.
Muscat and Zanzibar, Sultanate of
Authors: Hoffman Valerie J. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Sultanate of Muscat and Zanzibar grew initially from Oman's struggle with Portugal in the 17th century for dominance over trade in the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, and then from the desire to assert control over Omani settlements in East Africa. In 1832, Sayyid Sa‘id ibn Sulṭan transferred the capital of the Omani Empire from Muscat to Zanzibar. Although Sayyid Sa‘id and his successors in Zanzibar appointed governors along the coast and had agents as far inland as the Congo, actual territorial control was weak. In 1856 the empire was divided between two of Sa‘id's sons, one ruling in Oman and the other in Zanzibar, a division that was formalized in 1861, marking the effective end of the sultanate. European colonialism dramatically reduced the domains of the Zanzibar sultanate in the last quarter of the 19th century, though a member of the Bu Sa‘idi family remained on the throne in Zanzibar until January 1964. The Bu Sa‘idi dynasty continues to reign in the Sultanate of Oman.
Ghana, Empire of
Authors: MacDonald Kevin C. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Empire of Ghana (as described by Moslem chroniclers) or Wagadu (as referred to in oral tradition) evolved in the African Sahel between c.400 and 1150
ce
. Its territorial definition and the location of its capitals remain debated, but it was undoubtedly the most important of West African polities at the region's encounter with the Islamic world in the 9th century. Ghana's commerce was centered on the gold trade between the River Niger and North Africa, but its origins lay within ancient, local networks of agro‐pastoral exchange and sociopolitical complexity stretching back into the 1st millennium
bce
.
Decline of empires
Authors: Reynolds Michael A. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The theme of imperial decline is one that has exerted appeal across time and cultures to intellectuals and broader audiences alike. A number of reasons explain its perennial popularity, ranging from the ostensibly self‐evident importance of the decay of large polities to wonder and
schadenfreude
at the spectacle of the fall of the high and mighty. In part because of its hoary and nearly universal appeal, the study of the decline of empires is hobbled by several conceptual and methodological problems. Defining and identifying decline is neither simple nor straightforward. One difficulty is confusion over what is meant by empire. Another lies in the definition and measurement of power, which requires making comparisons across both time and space. The application of rigorous methods, however, cannot itself guarantee a clear‐cut or definitive account of imperial decline. Perceptions of decline ultimately depend as much on the observer as on the observed.
North Sea (Anglo‐Scandinavian) Empire
Authors: Shepard Jonathan 
Published: January 2016

AbstractCnut gained control of England in 1016ceonly after prolonged campaigning, following Viking‐style raids instigated by his father, Sven. Even then, Cnut faced challenges from fellow Vikings and from across the Channel, where the duke of Normandy harbored two sons of the last Anglo‐Saxon king, Ethelred II. Cnut nonetheless managed to establish himself as keeper of Christian peace and law with the aid of English churchmen. By 1030, he enjoyed deference, if not service, from most potentates in the British Isles and also held sway over the Norwegians and his fellow Danes. However, he died in 1035, his sons survived him by only a few years, and his dominions fragmented. There was, though, a rationale to Cnut's attempt at a “sea‐empire”: sociocultural and commercial ties interlinked his dominions, and ships were now of sufficient capacity to transport heavy cargos, or substantial numbers of warriors.
Byzantine Empire: 2. 650–1204
Authors: Shepard Jonathan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
In the mid‐7th century the Roman Empire underwent defeat from desert‐dwelling Arabs. Having lost their wealthiest provinces, emperors tried fiscal and strategic expedients, but the Muslims kept up pressure. The piety, generalship, and concern for justice of Leo III and Constantine V proved a winning combination and laid foundations for the medieval – Byzantine – empire. Constantinople exercised centripetal force on provincials and “barbarians” alike, substantiating emperors’ claims to “Roman” and “universal” authority, and facilitating diplomacy. Mid‐10th‐century Byzantium's stance became expansionist, culminating in reconquest of Northern Syria and the subjugation of Bulgaria. However, mounting prosperity and enlarged armed forces posed fiscal‐administrative problems. Although, in the mid‐11th century, Byzantine Soft Power was at its height, new predators appeared, and the Turcomans overran most of Asia Minor. Alexios I Komnenos restored order and his descendants pursued similar policies, while exploiting rivalries between other powers. However, the Komnenian clique's mode of operating ultimately eroded “the common good,” and prompted tax evasion by provincials. Byzantium's position astride communication routes was no longer the asset it had once been amidst less sophisticated, traders and powers. Neither was the image of wealth long projected by its diplomacy. Outsiders’ expectations of its resources could work to Byzantium's disadvantage. In 1204 Constantinople fell victim to the Fourth Crusade.
Seleucid Empire
Authors: Ceccarelli Paola 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Seleucids conquered and then controlled for c.200 years (312–64bce) a territory that was remarkably vast and diverse, culturally, linguistically, and ethnically. Theirs was a personal monarchy, based on the king's individual charisma and on military success. However, through their colonial foundations; the establishment (or takeover) of a complex administrative network, aimed not only at the extraction of surplus by means of taxation but also at provision of services; the creation of a unified Seleucid era; a centralized ruler cult; and flexible dealing with the various groups (communities, cities, dynasts, temple states) that composed the empire, the Seleucids managed to root themselves in the landscape they had conquered, intertwining various cultural traditions: local, Macedonian, Greek, and Achaemenid.
Austro‐Hungarian Empire (1867–1918)
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Austria‐Hungary came into being as the result of a compromise between the Habsburg dynasty and the German Austrians, on the one side, and the Magyar political elite in Hungary, on the other. Together, up to the end of World War I, they determined its fortunes, keeping the other sizable nationalities, notably the Slavs (Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Serbs) and the Romanians, subordinate to the two “peoples of state.” Despite differences between the two partners in Dualism and recurring crises over franchise reform and the nationality problem, the empire remained a significant force in European international relations. Its collapse was by no means inevitable. Rather, it dissolved in 1918 under the extreme pressures of World War I.
Egypt: 4. Late medieval (including Syria: Ayyubid, Mamluk)
Authors: Amitai Reuven 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
For a period of some 350 years, Egypt and Syria were ruled by the Ayyubid and Mamluk states. The Ayyubid state (starting in 1171, and continuing to 1250 in Egypt and 1260 in Syria), ruled by a family of Kurdish origin, was more a federation than a unified polity. The Mamluk Sultanate, whose political–military elite were mostly slave soldiers of Turkish and Caucasian provenance, was a relatively more centralized affair, with Cairo clearly controlling the Syrian provinces. It was a period of wars with external enemies, mainly the Franks (Crusaders) and Mongols, but also one of great cultural vitality, financed by a prosperous agricultural economy and a robust international trade.
British Empire: 1. 1707–1914
Authors: McCreery Cindy 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
At its peak in the 19th century, the British Empire was the largest empire not only on Earth, but in human history, encompassing one fourth of the land area of the globe and one fifth of its inhabitants. This entry examines the First Empire in 18th‐century North America, the Second Empire in India, and the various accessions and developments up to World War I. It discusses the white settler colonies, later known as Dominions, as well as other models of colonial rule. It considers how experience of administering one area of empire, Ireland, shaped British policy in another, as well as the role of informal empire. The entry explores the attitudes toward empire of a wide range of people, from elite civil servants to working‐class and subject peoples. In this way, the British Empire 1707–1914 can be understood as a complex phenomenon which provoked both delight and despair.
Danish Empire
Authors: Kjærgaard Thorkild 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The entry deals with the rise and fall of the Danish (1380–1814: Danish‐Norwegian) Empire from the end of the Viking period (c.1100) to the 21st century. The Danish(‐Norwegian) Empire operated on two main stages: the Baltic Sea, the inland sea of the Nordic region, and the North Atlantic between Norway, Greenland, Iceland, and the archipelagos north of Scotland. Another stage of secondary importance on which the empire operated was in the tropical world from 1618 to 1917. The Danish(‐Norwegian) Empire kept growing until the first quarter of the 16th century. The climax in glory and power was reached in the period 1397–1520 when the empire was one of the biggest and most influential political entities of the day in Europe. Its nadir was reached in 1814 when Denmark – Europe's smallest independent state – stood alone with a geographically enormous, but indefensible and valueless, empire stretching from Greenland in the high north over the Caribbean and West Africa to India.
Ifat, Sultanate of
Authors: Hassen Mohammed 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Ifat was the second sultanate to be formed in the region of Shawa, in what is currently central Ethiopia. It was Umar Walasma who founded the Walasma dynasty (1280–1520s), which spearheaded Muslim resistance to the expanding Christian kingdom. From the very beginning Ifat was the victim of its own contradictory policies. On the one hand, Ifat was the greatest beneficiary of the lucrative trade of central and southern Ethiopia. Important caravan routes in southern and eastern Ethiopia converged on Ifat, whose capital was the major center of trade in the region. Ifat's commercial prosperity attracted the attention of the powerful Christian king, Amda‐siyon, who was determined to annex Ifat and other Muslim states to his rapidly expanding kingdom. On the other hand, the leaders of Ifat adopted aggressive policies toward the neighboring Christian kingdom, thus providing an excuse for Amda‐Siyon to invade Ifat in 1329 and annex it in 1332. Although Muslim resistance in Ifat developed between 1363 and 1374, one of its leaders took the dramatic action of shifting the center of Muslim resistance to the eastern region of Ethiopia. This entry briefly explores Ifat's resistance to Christian domination.
Confucianism
Authors: Chu Hung‐lam 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Confucianism is a body of humanistic learning and thought, a code of conduct and a way of life primarily based on the teachings of Confucius (551–479
bce
) but enriched by great teachers and scholars like Mencius and Xunzi in pre‐Christian times and Zhu Xi in the 12th century. Its main concern is the proper functioning of human relationships and the exercise of good government to ensure that these relationships function appropriately. It stresses man's responsibility to himself and to society and envisions a world of peace and harmony. It emphasizes learning and practice of virtues like filial piety, brotherly love, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, faithfulness, sincerity, and dutifulness for the perfection of oneself and for public service. It was imperial China's state ideology, which also influenced the minds and institutions of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Its adaptive and accommodative philosophy suggests it can transform itself to the service of the modern world.
Archaeology and empire
Authors: Horning Audrey , Mrozowski Stephen 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The history of archaeology is inextricably bound up with empire, while the history of empire rests firmly upon the foundations of archaeology. In this mutual entanglement lies a key challenge for the present in seeking understandings of empire, its social legacies, and the expression and future implications of neo‐imperial formulations in today's world. Focusing on the development of archaeology from the 16th century to the present, we consider the relationship between colonialism and imperialism, the changing theoretical constructs that underpin archaeological practice, and the contemporary role of archaeology in neo‐imperial politics. The role of archaeology in the development of ethnocentric theories of cultural evolution and its current role in challenging those same formulations are examined, with examples drawn from the imperial histories of Africa, the Americas, Mesopotamia, Australasia, and India.
Deccan sultanates
Authors: Fischel Roy S. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Deccan sultanates were Muslim‐ruled sultanates in Central India, comprising Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golkonda, and the short‐lived Berar and Bidar. Emerging out of the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in the 1480s, the Deccan sultanates incorporated varied Muslim (Foreigners, Deccanis) and non‐Muslim (Brahmins,
nayaka
s,
desai
s, Marathas) elites. During the 16th century, the sultanates expanded their territories, fostered both Islamic and local characteristics, and employed multiple languages (Persian, Dakhni, and the vernaculars Kannada, Marathi, and Telugu) and political idioms simultaneously to accommodate various elements of local society. In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire increased its influence in the Deccan, conquering Ahmadnagar in 1636. The Marathas broke away from Bijapur in the 1650s, further destabilizing the political order by pursuing their independent agenda. Under these growing pressures, Bijapur and Golkonda collapsed and their territories were annexed by the Mughals in 1686–1687.