bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Malayic languages
Authors: McDonnell Bradley , Wu Jiang , Mckinnon Timothy , Adelaar Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses the phonological and morpho-syntactic variety among the Malayic languages. While these languages form a well-defined and close-knit genetic subgroup, they also show an enormous typological diversity even within the context of Malayo-Polynesian languages in general. Such diversity can be observed at almost all levels of the grammar, and it is often in direct contrast with the relative transparency of corresponding levels in standard forms of Malay. There is also remarkable variation in the morphological complexity. While many varieties such as Salako and Banjar preserved original affixes to a large extent, vehicular Malay and the Kelantan and Ulu Terengganu varieties have rather reduced morphological inventories. At the level of syntax, voice shows variation, and the systems fall on a cline: on one end, varieties such as Besemah have a grammaticalized symmetrical voice system, and on the other, varieties such as Ternate Malay lack a grammaticalized voice system altogether. The typological features of Kerinci are particularly unusual.
Balinese, Sasak, and Sumbawa
Authors: Shiohara Asako , Arka I Wayan 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of Balinese, Sasak, and Sumbawa, a closely related group of languages within Malayo-Polynesian. The chapter includes information on the dialectal variation, phonology, morphology, and morphosyntax of the three languages and Balinese speech levels. The languages share typological features such as postposed possessors, no alienable/inalienable distinction, negators in pre-predicate position, and V-initial or SVX, rather than V-second of V-final, constituent order. They exhibit considerable differences in the transitive structure. Whereas Balinese exhibits clear symmetrical voice morphosyntax and sporadic person marking, Sumbawa lacks a voice system but pervasive person indexing on verbs. Sasak dialects show properties between the two. The varying degrees of attrition and disappearance of AV voice morphology in certain dialects of Sasak and a total loss of it in Sumbawa indicates that Lombok and Sumbawa are transitional zones towards a full-fledged subject (S/A) person marking/indexing system as typically found in the Austronesian languages of Sumba in eastern Indonesia.
Languages of Sulawesi
Authors: van den Berg René , Mead David 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter is the first attempt at a comprehensive linguistic survey of Sulawesi, the strangely- shaped island in the centre of Indonesia. Sulawesi is home to 111 languages, belonging to various subgroups, including the large Celebic group. Some of these languages are spoken by more than a million people and have their own written tradition (e.g., Bugis), while others are endangered and undocumented. Sulawesi has a long research history, with several substantial grammars written by Dutch missionary linguists in the colonial era. Phonologically, the languages of Sulawesi are not particularly striking, with the exception of the presence of prenasalised consonants, implosives, and a range of morphophonemic processes. Morpho-syntactically, however, the languages of Sulawesi display a remarkable typological diversity, especially in the areas of voice and transitivity (ranging from four symmetrical voices to no voice opposition), case marking on nouns, TAM marking and person-marking on the verb (some showing Philippine-type with little person-marking, others ergative-absolutive or nominative-accusative systems). This variation is illustrated on six representative languages. The languages of Sulawesi are also quite varied in their pronoun systems (ranging from two to five pronoun sets), and several have complex systems of deixis and directionals.
Languages of Flores and its satellites
Authors: Nagaya Naonori 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a typological overview of the Austronesian languages of Flores and its satellites, namely, the Malayo-Polynesian languages of the islands of Flores, Palu’e, Komodo, the Solor Archipelago, the Alor Archipelago, Sumba, Sabu, and Sumbawa. The linguistic features examined in this paper are phonology, morphological profile, word classes, word order, grammatical relations and voice, tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality, and serial verb/multi-predicate constructions. The chapter shows that the languages of Flores and its satellites show considerable diversity.
Languages of Timor and southern Maluku
Authors: Schapper Antoinette , Zobel Erik 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a typological overview of the Malayo-Polynesian languages spoken in the region extending south from the Kei and Aru Islands, through the Tanimbar and Southwest Moluccan Islands, to Timor and the island of Rote. Using the limited extant materials, the chapter takes a comparative look at what are some of the smallest and least known languages of Island Southeast Asia, outlining key elements of their phonology, morphology, noun phrases, grammatical relations, negative expressions, and serial verb constructions. Particular attention is given to typologically unusual patterns that have been described for these languages, including isolating word structure, synchronic metathesis with morphosyntactic functions, reduplication marking relative clauses and syntactic dependency more broadly, agreement on numerals, and split-S alignment of verbal agreement affixes. Despite some broad typological similarities, the chapter underlines the many divisions that are present in the languages. In the north of the region, Kei has several typological features that diverge from other languages in southern Maluku. Southwest Maluku languages have a divided profile, patterning in some respects like Timor languages and in other respects like Tanimbar languages and to a lesser extent Aru languages. There is also a clear typological split in Timor, with central-eastern Timor languages showing several patterns in common with one another that are typically absent in western Timor and nearby islands.
Malagasy
Authors: Howe Penelope 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on typologically interesting features of Malagasy (Madagascar) that have been investigated in recent work, highlighting topics needing further investigation. The language is often noted for its morphosyntactic conservatism, but this claim is based primarily on Official Malagasy and overlooks significant innovations in the Malagasy dialects. The chapter employs dialectal data to highlight these ongoing changes in an overview of phonology, word structure and stress, nouns and pronouns, simple clause structure, voice system, and aspect. Particular attention is given to tonogenesis in Central dialects, which has largely replaced the voicing contrast in the oral obstruent series; pivot-initial order as an alternative to predicate-initial order in Northern Malagasy basic clauses; the way the Malagasy voice system has paradigmatically become less systematic in spite of its morphological similarity to Philippine-type systems; evidence that the circumstantial form creates verbal nouns rather than a voice form but is becoming integrated into the voice system due to its ability to function like and substitute for other voice forms; and the relationship of non-active and active voice forms to measures of semantic transitivity.
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Case
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In 1933, the Agreement between the Imperial Government of Persia and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company Limited (‘1933 Agreement’) was concluded, which defined the terms and duration of certain oil concessions in Iran. This agreement was later ratified by the Iranian Majlis, the Iranian Parliament. In 1951, the Iranian Majlis and Senate passed the → nationalization law related to the oil industry, which extended to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (‘Oil Company’) (→ Concessions; → Property, Right to, International Protection). The United Kingdom (‘UK’) decided to adopt the cause of the Oil Company and brought the matter before the → International Court of Justice (ICJ) by its application of 26 May 1951 (→ Diplomatic Protection). As jurisdictional basis, the UK invoked the 1932 Iranian Declaration under the Optional Clause (‘Iranian Declaration’) of the Statute of the ICJ (‘ICJ Statute’) (→ International Court of Justice, Optional Clause; Anglo-Iranian Case [Preliminary Objection] 103).
ANZUS Pact (1951)
Authors: Holz Wilfried 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Security Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America (‘ANZUS’) is a collective self-defence agreement under Art. 51UN Charter originally limited to the Pacific area (→ Collective Security). The ANZUS Treaty was concluded on 1 September 1951 in San Francisco, United States of America (‘US’), between Australia, New Zealand, and the US, and entered into force on 29 April 1952.
Arab Free Trade Area Agreement (1997)
Authors: Bälz Kilian 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Arab Free Trade Area Agreement (‘AFTAA’) was adopted by the Economic and Social Council of the → League of Arab States (LAS) on 19 February 1997 and entered into force on 1 January 1998 (→ Free Trade Areas). The AFTAA initially had 17 Member States: Egypt, → United Arab Emirates (‘UAE’), Bahrain, Jordan, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, → Sudan, Syria, Iraq, Oman, → Palestine, Qatar, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, and Yemen. Algeria joined as the 18th Member State in 2009. The AFTAA is an attempt of the LAS at enhancing Arab regional economic integration (→ Economic Integration, Comparative Analysis). Pursuant to Art. 2 Pact of the League of Arab States, the LAS shall inter alia promote ‘cooperation of the member States’ in ‘[e]conomic and financial matters, including trade, customs, currency, agriculture and industry’ (→ Regional Co-operation). In view hereof, joint economic action has been on the agenda of the LAS for many decades, without however producing any significant results.
Berlin West Africa Conference (1884–85)
Authors: Anghie Antony 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The intensifying competition between European States intent on acquiring territory in Africa in the late 19th century resulted in increasing friction within Europe (→ Colonialism). The Berlin West Africa Conference 1884–1885 (‘Conference’) was convened by Chancellor Bismarck of Germany for the purpose of addressing the political, diplomatic, and legal issues that resulted from this Scramble for Africa, a scramble which involved not only States but various powerful commercial interests such as the British East Africa Company (→ Conferences and Congresses, International). The Conference was held between November 1884 and February 1885. The States who attended the Conference were France, England, Portugal, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, SwedenNorway, Spain and Italy, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire. No African States were present at the Conference that was to have such a profound and enduring impact on the African continent and its peoples. The greatest beneficiary of the Conference, King Leopold II of Belgium was absent, but his interests were furthered by Henry Morton Stanley, the noted explorer, who attended the Conference as a member of the American delegation.
Canevaro Claim Arbitration
Authors: Benedek Wolfgang 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In 1875 the Peruvian firm José Canevaro & Sons became a creditor of the Peruvian government, which, in 1880, issued government bonds (libramientos) to the firm. Only part of the sum had been paid when, in 1889, the Peruvian government refunded the domestic debt by issuing new bonds, thereby causing a major devaluation of the Canevaro bonds (→ Debts). The firm, however, insisted on full payment. The bonds later passed to the three brothers, Napoleon, Carlos, and Raphael Canevaro by endorsement and by inheritance. Claiming to be Italian nationals (→ Nationality), they asked Italy for → diplomatic protection, which they were accorded. On 25 April 1910, Peru and Italy agreed in a protocol to submit the issue to → arbitration (→ Compromis; see also → Ottoman Debt Arbitration).
Central American Integration System (SICA)
Authors: Riquelme Cortado Rosa 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Central American Integration System (Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana; ‘SICA’) is the regional organization of the Central American isthmus, established by the Tegucigalpa Protocol to the Charter of the Organization of Central American States, which was signed 13 December 1991 and entered into force on 23 July 1992. To date, the members of SICA include the Republics of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, as well as Belize, which joined in 2000 (→ Regional Cooperation and Organization: American States). The institutional predecessor of SICA was the Organizationof Central American States(Organización de Estados Centroamericanos; ‘ODECA’), which was established amongst the Republics of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua by Art. 22 Charter of the Organization of Central American States (‘San Salvador Charter I’) on 14 December 1951.
Chilean Copper, Nationalization, Review by Courts of Third States
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Copper had been mined in the Republic of Chile (‘Chile’) since the time of the Incas and Spanish colonials, and in the 1870s Chile was the world’s leading producer of copper. Thereafter Chile’s production of copper declined sharply, as its open-pit mines were becoming exhausted. In the second decade of the 20th century, two major American companies, Kennecott Copper Corporation (‘Kennecott’) and Anaconda Copper Company (‘Anaconda’), came to Chile to introduce newly developed technology that made it possible to mine low-grade underground copper ores in large volume. The companies did not receive → concessions; their investments simply took the form of land purchases plus introduction of the necessary equipment. Copper soon regained its position as Chile’s major export, and Chile regained its position as the world’s leading supplier of copper, with about 22% of world consumption. But as the production emanated from two huge mines owned and operated by foreign companies, writers and politicians spoke throughout the 20th century of ‘denationalization’ of their principal industry.
Colonialism
Authors: Axel Kämmerer Jörn 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Whereas colonization, a form of → conquest usually involving alien dominance and subjugation, has been known to all historic eras, colonialism, at least in its narrower and frequently implied meaning, reaches beyond the mere taking of foreign land and peoples. Generally speaking, it refers to a concerted practice of, in most cases, European States dividing up other inhabited parts of the world amongst themselves. While Spain and Portugal, in the 15th century, took the lead by starting to partition much of the Americas and parts of East Asia, and other powers such as Britain, France, and the Netherlands subsequently followed the pattern, it was in the 19th century when European colonization proliferated and started to acquire features of an ideology, of which the ending ‘-ism’ is characteristic. Imperialism, which colonialism coincides with and is akin to, is marked by a belief in the anthropological, cultural, and political superiority of the European powers and their people, which is sometimes masked as an educative mission.
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
Authors: Killander Magnus 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In October 1965 ministers of the independent States of Eastern and Southern Africa met in Lusaka, Zambia, under the auspices of the Economic Commission for Africa (‘ECA’) of the → United Nations. An interim council of ministers was established to negotiate a treaty for the establishment of an economic community of Eastern and Southern African States (→ Economic Integration, Comparative Analysis; → Economic Organizations and Groups, International). The project was however put on hold as attention focused on the → East African Community (‘EAC’). With the collapse of the latter in 1977 there was a renewed interest in the ECA initiative. In March 1978, a declaration of intent to create a preferential trade area in Eastern and Southern Africa was signed by 12 States. In December 1981 heads of State and representatives of Comoros, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Somalia, Uganda, and Zambia signed the Treaty for the Establishment of the Preferential Trade Area (‘PTA’) for Eastern and Southern Africa (‘PTA Treaty’). The PTA Treaty entered into force in September 1982 when it had been ratified by seven States (→ International Law, Regional Developments: Africa).
Decolonization: French Territories
Authors: Moïse Mbengue Makane 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In the 19th and the 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was one of the largest in the world, behind the British and the Spanish colonial empires (see also → Decolonization: British Territories; → Decolonization: Spanish Territories). At the end of World War II, the French colonial empire mainly comprised the three Indochinese possessions, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos; the three North African protectorates and colonies, Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (→ Protectorates and Protected States); numerous colonies in the two colonial unions of French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa; Madagascar; Reunion and the Comoro Islands: as well as the two C-mandates and later trust territories, Togo and Cameroon (former German colonies) (→ Mandates; → United Nations Trusteeship System); and the two A-mandates, Syria and Lebanon (former Turkish territories of the Ottoman Empire).
Delagoa Bay Arbitration
Authors: Holm-Hadulla Moritz 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Delagoa Bay—now Maputo Bay—an inlet of the Indian Ocean situated at the south-east coast of Mozambique near the South African border, was discovered by Antonio de Campo, one of Vasco da Gama’s companions, in the first decade of the 16th century (see also → Bays and Gulfs). After its discovery, the bay was visited by the Portuguese from time to time. The Dutch East India Company established a temporary settlement in the area of the bay in 1721 but abandoned it again in 1730 (→ Territory, Abandonment). Later on, the Portuguese began to build trading stations in the region that were protected by small forts. Regardless of the Portuguese settlement, in 1823 William Fitzwilliam Owen, Captain of the British Royal Navy, concluded → treaties of → cession with native chiefs (→ Indigenous Peoples, Treaties with). Hereupon, dispute arose between Great Britain and Portugal as regards the title to territory related to the southern area of the bay.
Development, International Law of
Authors: Mahiou Ahmed 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The expression ‘international law of development’ (or ‘international development law’) is attributed to the economist A Philip who, in 1965, on the eve of the first meeting of the → United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), appealed to industrialized countries to take action to establish such law. From that point onward, the expression gained increasing acceptance in legal doctrine (see also → International Legal Theory and Doctrine). If the term has encountered a certain reticence on the part of Anglo-Saxon jurists, who have a tendency not to employ it very much, it has enjoyed growing success among other jurists, notably those working in French, who have played a major role in shaping the debate on the subject, giving rise to a school of international development law of which Virally has been the main proponent.
Diego Garcia (British Indian Ocean Territory)
Authors: Afsah Ebrahim 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Diego Garcia is the largest of six atolls in the Chagos Archipelago comprising 55 uninhabited tropical → islands (jointly 60km2) covering a very large maritime area (54,340km2), further enlarged by the 200 nm → exclusive economic zone covering rich fishing grounds (636,600km2). The average elevation of the islands does not exceed two meters, vegetation is very lush, with a hot, humid climate, and large amounts of precipitation. The main island houses an important United States military base. The islands were known to the native population of Mauritius but were not settled. They were ‘discovered’ by Portuguese seafarers in the early 16th century but deemed too remote for colonial acquisition. Along with the → annexation of Mauritius, the islands were claimed by France in the 18th century, leading in 1776 to the creation of a leper colony, and in 1782 to the establishment of coconut-oil plantations with imported African slave labour (→ Slavery).
Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC)
Authors: Kembayev Zhenis 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
After the implementation of the Treaty on Economic Union (1993)—adopted in the framework of the → Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and aimed at the progressive establishment of a free trade area, a customs union, a common market, and subsequently a monetary union encompassing all CIS countries—proved itself to be a failure, in the second half of the 1990s efforts were made to pursue advanced integration projects at least among those CIS countries which were willing to integrate their economies into an economic union even if only among themselves.
Food, Right to, International Protection
Authors: Mechlem Kerstin 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The right to food, despite being recognized in numerous binding and non-binding legal instruments since the → Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) (‘UDHR’), is among the least realized → human rights as the persistently high figures on hunger and malnutrition show. Eight hundred and fifty-two million people were undernourished world-wide in 2000–02: 81 million in → developing countries, 28 million in countries in transition, and 9 million in industrialized countries (FAO [2005] para. 7). Two billion more suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, the so-called ‘hidden hunger’, with its devastating effects on mental and physical capacity, health, and life expectancy.
Hamdan Case
Authors: Miller Russell A 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The US Supreme Court’s lengthy and divided decision in Hamdan v Rumsfeld (2006; ‘Hamdan’) has broad significance because, with this decision, the Supreme Court intervened to impose limits on the authority of the US President in the exercise of his war powers. Thus, Hamdan belongs to the meagre line of Supreme Court cases addressing presidential war powers dating back to the US Civil War (Prize Cases [1863]; Ex parte Milligan [1866]), World War II (Ex parte Quirin [1942]; In re Yamashita [1946]) and the → Korean War (1950–53) (Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co v Sawyer [1952]). More specifically, Hamdan represents one of the peaks of the Supreme Court’s engagement with the assorted security policies, both domestic and international, undertaken by US President George W Bush in the aftermath of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US (→ Terrorism). In this context, Hamdan was preceded by Rumsfeld v Padilla (2004), Rasul v Bush (2004) and Hamdi v Rumsfeld (2004). Hamdan was followed by Boumediene v Bush (2008).