bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Research Dissemination
Authors: Kerner Jon F. 
Published: September 2017

When considering how the lessons learned from science can be used by those audiences who might benefit from them, the term “research dissemination” (Lomas 1993) has been coined to focus on the active process by which information gleaned from science is actively communicated to those audiences who are thought to be most likely to benefit from this information. However, there is considerable confusion in terminology among those who focus on this important issue. Thus, “communication,” “diffusion,” and “dissemination” are often used interchangeably to describe the processes by which information from science is moved into the public or practice domains (→ Diffusion of Information and Innovation). Similarly when focused on the benefits of research dissemination processes, knowledge transfer, translational research, research translation, knowledge integration, and knowledge implementation are often presented as comparable outcomes from research dissemination.
Research Ethics
Authors: Plaisance Patrick Lee 
Published: September 2017

As the field of ethics addresses the philosophical foundations for standards of behavior and treatment of others when personal, social, and professional values conflict, social science researchers in general and communication researchers in particular are required to consider ethical implications of their work. Ethics is a process of deliberation that helps illuminate the dimensions and implications of our moral agency. It enables us to draw upon broad moral values to help question or justify a decision that will affect others. As professionals whose work both depends upon the willingness of others to cooperate and whose work can have direct or indirect bearing on the welfare of others, researchers are obligated to ensure their activities reflect commonly accepted ethical standards. Potential risks to subjects of research vary depending upon the nature of the questions explored and the methodologies used, but researchers are obligated as professionals to uphold fundamental values involving reduction of potential harm and respect due to all research participants as autonomous agents (→ Research Methods).
Response Sets
Authors: Mangold Roland 
Published: September 2017

In many social empirical studies subjects are provoked by situational conditions to exhibit reactive behavior patterns. From these reactions (e.g., marking point 5 on a seven‐point rating scale), the kind and the strength of the subjects' behavioral dispositions (e.g., beliefs, personality traits or states, emotional feelings) may be inferred. For reliable and valid conclusions to be drawn from collected data (→ Test Theory), the subjects' reactions should only depend on these inner states under study, and not be influenced by other factors that are irrelevant to the research topic. In other words, the methods chosen for the measurement of values in a study (→ Scales) should provide data that resembles the “real values” of these inner states as close as possible.
Reticence
Authors: Kelly Lynne 
Published: September 2017

Reticence is a communication problem with cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions and is due to the belief that one is better off remaining silent than risking appearing foolish (Keaten & Kelly 2000). Reticent individuals tend to avoid communication in social and public contexts, particularly novel situations that have the potential for negative evaluation. The publication of Gerald M. Phillips's first article on reticence in 1965 was groundbreaking in that it expanded scholarly interest in communication anxiety and avoidance problems beyond fear of public speaking (→ Speech Anxiety), spawning cognate constructs such as communication apprehension (McCroskey 1970) and launching a major new line of research (→ Communication Apprehension and Social Anxiety).
Rhetoric and Politics
Authors: Parry‐Giles Shawn J. 
Published: September 2017

The study of rhetoric and politics examines the role of → Persuasion in the political process. The study of rhetoric most commonly begins with readings from ancient Greece and Aristotle's handbook,
On rhetoric
. Classical scholars conceived of rhetoric as a practical art involving the performance of public oratory in the contexts of politics, law, and ceremonial occasions, separated from the philosophy of knowledge. As Isocrates' words expressed during the classical period: “Speech is responsible for nearly all of invention. It legislated in matters of justice and injustice, in beauty and baselessness… . With speech we fight our contentious matters, and we investigate the unknown” (
Antidosis
254–256, in Mirhady 2000; → Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman). While twentieth‐century rhetorical scholars continued to address the role of persuasion in the → Public Sphere, its study has more recently expanded beyond public oratory to include other persuasive texts, including advertisements, autobiographies, → cartoons, films, manifestoes, memorials, photographs, → Television and print news, and many other forms of → Discourse circulating in public spaces (→ Advertising; Cinema; Newspaper; Photography). Rhetoricians of today also recognize the epistemological contributions of rhetoric, which accentuate its role in creating knowledge and constituting perceptions of political reality (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality; Rhetoric and Epistemology).
Rhetoric, Vernacular
Authors: Hauser Gerard A. 
Published: September 2017

The rhetorical tradition began with, and has remained linked to, the public discourse of official forums. Aristotle named these deliberative, forensic, and epideictic rhetoric (→ Rhetoric, Greek). Although these first appeared as genres and later included additional forms of address, such as the sermon and the essay, the distinctive focus of rhetorical theory and criticism into the mid‐twentieth century remained on speaking and writing. With some notable exceptions, these genres were typically delivered in an official site, such as a legislative chamber, or by a person who was in a position of power, such as the leader of a movement. They are captured by the category of “public address.” From the mid‐1960s this category was challenged on a number of fronts, such as its inability to account for protest rhetoric, the rhetoric of new media, or that of marginalized groups, which became subjects of inquiry among rhetoricians (→ Rhetoric and Social Protest). In the mid‐1990s, this challenge was extended theoretically and critically to reconsider excluded voices without access to official sites, voices that are not in positions of leadership, or whose modes of expression do not take the form of public address or formal essay, by considering them as they were manifested in vernacular exchanges, orvernacular rhetoric.
Right to Know
Authors: Mendel Toby 
Published: September 2017

In 1990, only 13 countries had laws recognizing a right to access information held by public bodies, which has variously been called the right to know and → freedom of information, among other things. As of the time of writing, the number is approaching 70 countries, and many of the new constitutions adopted since 1990 recognize access to information as a fundamental human right. Numerous intergovernmental bodies, particularly financial institutions like the World Bank, have also adopted policies on the disclosure of information. This explosion in legal and policy recognition has been accompanied by a similar growth in authoritative international statements on the importance of access to information, the key focus of this entry.
Rituals in Popular Communication
Authors: Rothenbuhler Eric W. 
Published: September 2017

Rituals and ritualization can be found in all aspects of contemporary social life: religion, education, politics, →
Popular Culture
, work life, family life, friendship, consumption, and leisure. Formal ceremonies such as religious observances, weddings, funerals, or oaths of office are familiar; the rest of social life is also punctuated by small bits of ritual and ceremoniousness, which we often overlook. From the rules of politeness to military codes of honor, from the celebration of birthdays and holidays to presidential inaugurals, from the conduct of board meetings and superior–subordinate communication to the conduct of a symphony orchestra concert, from dinner parties to Super Bowl parties, to the groups of television viewers gathered for news of disaster and crisis, the distinctive moments of life are marked by ritual.
Rogers, Everett
Authors: Singhal Arvind 
Published: September 2017

When Everett M. Rogers passed away on October 21, 2004, his ashes were returned to the family's Pinehurst Farm in Carroll, Iowa, where he was born on March 6, 1931. In a career spanning 47 years, he wrote 36 books, some 325 peer‐reviewed journal articles and book chapters, and over 100 research reports. His prolific writing and clear prose have left an indelible mark on our understanding of the role that communication plays in social change (→ Planned Social Change through Communication).
Secular Social Change
Authors: Finnegan John R. 
Published: September 2017

The concept of secular social change in → Health Communication studies emanates from the findings of quasi‐experimental community and group randomized trials of health promotion campaigns (→ Health Campaigns, Communication in; Prevention and Communication). Specifically, many longitudinally designed intervention studies have discovered that outcome variables of interest (e.g., knowledge, beliefs, behaviors) often show changes over time trending in the same direction both in the intervention groups – where the campaigns have been introduced – and in the “control” communities or groups, though often stronger in the former than the latter (Finnegan & Viswanath 2002).
Segmentation of the Advertising Audience
Authors: De Pelsmacker Patrick 
Published: September 2017

Organizations communicate core messages (position themselves) to different types of audiences (target groups) that they select out of a list of possible → audience segments or profiles, defined according to a number of segmentation criteria (→ Audience Segmentation). On the basis of this segmentation, audience profile selection, and positioning decision, organizations will define communication objectives and messages and build a communication plan.
Sex and Pornography as Media Content: Feminist Perspectives
Authors: Arthurs Jane 
Published: September 2017

The ubiquity of sexualized images and narratives across all media forms signals the importance of this topic for research and analysis. In mainstream communications research in the US it has been located in the → “Media Effects” tradition, where the emphasis has been on the moral risks of explicit sexual content to “family values” (Gunter 2002). This research uses content analysis, which relies on attaching predefined codings of → meaning to large datasets of, mainly, television content, to measure the number of sexual incidents portrayed, and the kind of values they promote (→ Content Analysis, Quantitative). Often funded by pressure groups such as the Kaiser Family Foundation, the aim of this research is to influence media policy on censorship and controls over children's access to sexual content. The worry is that young people will be influenced to engage in premature sexual activity outside of marriage without heed to the attendant risks. In feminist scholarship, on the other hand, there has been a different agenda. Here the initial emphasis was on the ideological reproduction of patriarchal power relations through the cultural preoccupation with women's sexuality. Most feminist research uses qualitative analysis of a few exemplary texts, to reveal the ideological work that they perform, such as the degree to which textual pleasure is predicated on women's subjection to male control (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative).
Social Behavior, Media Effects on
Authors: Rubin Alan M. 
Published: September 2017

Surveillance, correlation, and transmission functions are basic to the role of mass media in society.
Surveillance
means locating and disseminating → news and → Information.
Correlation
deals with interpreting and editorializing about this information (→ Commentary).
Transmission
is the socialization of norms, → attitudes, and values between groups and generations (Lasswell 1948). Socialization research, for example, has compared the effectiveness of different agencies of socialization, such as the family, peers, teachers, and the media, for fostering information gain or molding attitudes about groups and society (→ Socialization by the Media).
Social Identity Theory
Authors: Reid Scott A. , Giles Howard 
Published: September 2017

Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner 1979) was originally developed to explain prejudice and discrimination, and the circumstances under which societies would move from relatively cooperative and harmonious arrangements to overt conflict. The theory has since expanded enormously, and has become the basis for a general social identity approach to social psychological and communicative phenomena. This includes, but is not limited to, ethnolinguistic identity theory (Giles & Johnson 1981), → communication accommodation theory (Giles & Coupland 1991), and self‐categorization theory (Turner 1987). This expansion has occurred through empirical and theoretical advances that have elaborated the core idea of the theory to explain a wide range of other phenomena. Notable examples include the use of the social identity approach as a basis for understanding language expansion and language death, bilingualism and multilingualism, communicative shifts in accent and language along micro‐ and macro‐social dimensions, language attitudes, social influence and → Persuasion, stereotyping, and most recently, media selection and perception.
Social Movement Media, Transnational
Authors: Wilkins Karin Gwinn 
Published: September 2017

Transnational social movements engage in communication processes as well as the creation of media products in their strategic work toward social change. Media attention to these efforts as well becomes part of the ongoing struggle to promote social justice, political opportunities, and economic equality. The bridging of social movement interests across national boundaries signals the importance of issues beyond narrowly defined territories along with the coordinated efforts of actors across political boundaries (→ Transnational Civil Society; Social Movements and Communication).
Statistics, Explanatory
Authors: Scheufele Bertram 
Published: September 2017

Explanatory statistics is also called inferential statistics or statistical induction and deals with inferences about the population from the characteristics of a random sample, i.e., with making (probability) statements about usually unknown parameters of a population. For instance, when taking a random sample (e.g., n = 1,000) of television viewers from the population of all TV viewers (e.g., N = 1,000,000), we want to know if the average time of TV viewing in the sample (e.g., 184 minutes/weekday) comes close to the average time in the population from which the sample was taken (→ Statistics, Descriptive; Sampling, Random; Generalizability).
Structuralism in Visual Communication
Authors: Abraham Linus 
Published: September 2017

As a body of work structuralism assumes that social life and meaning are organized by a set of deep structures that frame understanding and perceptions of reality. Social meaning is the product of systematic conceptual structures through which we apprehend reality (→ Structuralism). Structuralism traces its existence to the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who set out his principles on language in hisCourse in general linguistics(published 1959, after his death). Saussure's interest was in the study of language as a system, and he made a distinction betweenlangue(the formal structures of language) andparole(the way language is employed in varied and individuated ways in actual speech). His argument was that while the individual instances of use (parole) may vary, underlying all of them is a formal set of consistent codes and conventions of language (→ Code; Language and Social Interaction).
Tabloid Press
Authors: Grabe Maria Elizabeth 
Published: September 2017

Tabloid means compact size. In reference to the press it describes smaller sized newspapers. Yet in contemporary journalism the term tabloid refers to both → newspapers and Television and carries a strong normative evaluation of news work (→ Television News). In many respects, the term tabloid has become removed from its original meaning and attached itself to the idea of sensational news coverage (→ Scandalization in the News; Sensationalism). Slogans like “if it bleeds it leads” and “bodybag journalism” refer to emphases on death and destruction and are commonly used in reference to tabloid news. An assessment of public debate among media critics and academics about this journalistic style reveals sweeping declarations about its corruptive influence on journalism. Periods of public outrage about tabloid news have become a frequent ritual in many countries around the world. At the heart of this debate are two popular concerns: tabloid journalism violates notions of social decency, and it displaces socially significant stories.
Tailoring, Communication and
Authors: Campbell Marci K. 
Published: September 2017

Tailored messages are formal individual messages in which the content and/or style of the materials have been created based on data specific to the individual. Tailoring is distinguished from targeting, in that targeting refers to audience segmentation and development of group‐specific messages, whereas tailoring involves individual‐specific assessment and feedback driven by that assessment. Individual computerized tailoring for health promotion typically combines health behavior change theory (→ Health Communication; Health Behavior Change, Transtheoretical Model of), communication theory, social →
Marketing
principles, and computer‐based programs and algorithms, in order to produce personally relevant health messages for each project participant. Information obtained from each individual is accessed and assembled using specially created software to generate customized messages for each person that are designed to promote healthy behavior changes (Campbell et al.

; Kreuter et al.

). Providing individualized messages means the information can be tailored so that it is particularly relevant, interesting, culturally appropriate, and credible to the message recipient (Skinner et al.

).
Teacher Communication Concern
Authors: Feezel Jerry D. 
Published: September 2017

Teacher communication concern (hereafter abbreviated TCC) is a concept and research line that developed from attempts to describe specific behaviors of teachers that could influence student learning. Initially conceived as three factors of worry or anxiety about self (confidence and competence as teacher), task (mastering the specific skills), and impact (affecting learning), it is an area that is part of the general category of instructional communication (→ Communication Education, Goals of), which is the interaction of teacher and student talk in classrooms (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction).
Teacher Communication Style
Authors: Nussbaum Jon F. , Lara Ladori 
Published: September 2017

Education scholars interested in the communication that transpires within the classroom have often mentioned the importance of studying the teacher as a pivotal source of that communication (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction). After searching the literature, Norton (

) wrote that very few studies had specifically investigated teacher communication style as it relates to teacher effectiveness, though many of the exciting investigations did allude to the various components or sub‐constructs that entail stylistic aspects. To fill this void within the literature, Norton (

) utilized his conceptualization of → communicator style to investigate teacher effectiveness as a function of the way a teacher communicates within the classroom (Norton

).
TeleSur
Authors: Sotillo Omar Hernández 
Published: September 2017

TeleSur was a → Television initiative launched in July 2005 and spearheaded by the government of Venezuela, in cooperation with three other Latin American states – Argentina, Cuba, and Uruguay (→ Argentina: Media System; Cuba: Media System; International Television). The channel was presented by its promoters as “the new television of the south,” with a geopolitical emphasis on the global south reflected in the way they write its very name:
teleSUR
. While there were some undeniably innovative aspects to this project, its central objectives corresponded to old and traditionally unfulfilled political aspirations for Latin American regional integration on the one hand, and for providing alternatives to the hegemonic ideologies of cultural imperialism on the other (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories). This orientation was clearly reflected in one of the channel's slogans, often seen on the screen in promotional spots between programs: “Seeing each other we get to know each other, knowing each other we get to respect each other, respecting each other we learn to love each other, and loving each other is the first step toward integration.”
Television for Development
Authors: Mody Bella 
Published: September 2017

During their colonial occupation, many parts of Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean were underdeveloped; forced labor was used in mines, fields, and plantations to supply the factories of Europe. Television has been part of state‐led reconstruction attempts for national development since the 1970s, albeit with no explicit policies. After the pressure to privatize and deregulate media in the 1980s, TV for development has increasingly consisted of advertiser‐supported → entertainment education.
Television News
Authors: Conway Mike 
Published: September 2017

Almost from the moment Vladimir Zworykin, John Logie Baird, Philo Farnsworth, and others started improving German inventor Paul Nipkow's “spinning disc television” idea in the early twentieth century, the debate began concerning journalism's role on the small screen. Communication researchers, sociologists, and others scholars were slow to take the medium seriously as an information source, even while people around the world turned to television as their primary source of news. Television news became one of the most popular sources for information in the last four decades of the twentieth century, especially in Europe and the US. By the start of the twenty‐first century, satellite technology helped spread news channels in the Middle East, Asia, and other regions of the world, allowing non‐western perspectives on world issues to gain a wider audience (→ Satellite Television; CNN; Arab Satellite TV News).
Ubiquitous Computing
Authors: Burgelman Jean‐Claude , Punie Yves 
Published: September 2017

Ubiquitous computing refers to a twenty‐first‐century era of computing in which networking and computing technologies become so small, fast, interconnected, and cheap that they can be seamlessly embedded into the environment and everyday objects. It implies that computing will become ubiquitous. User‐friendly services are expected to be available anytime and anywhere and only when demanded by users. This implies that computing will become intelligent because it will need to understand human behavior in context. The term “ubiquitous computing” was coined by Mark Weiser (1952–1999), chief scientist at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in California, in a seminal paper published in 1991 (→ Human–Computer Interaction; Information Society; Technology and Communication).