bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Persuasion and Resistance
Authors: Nabi Robin L. 
Published: September 2017

In → Persuasion research, the concept of resistance generally refers to → audiences withstanding attempts to change their beliefs, → attitudes, or behaviors. Resistance, however, can actually be conceptualized in multiple ways. For example, it can be thought of as simply an
outcome
of a persuasive attempt (i.e., no change in attitude in the face of a persuasive message). It might also be considered a
motivation
, or goal of the audience (e.g., to maintain or protect their initial beliefs). Resistance might also reflect the
process
through which persuasive attempts are thwarted (e.g., disagreement with a message position or denigration of a message source). Finally, resistance might be reflected by the qualities of either attitudes (e.g., attitude strength) or people (e.g., dogmatic personalities) that limit persuasive effect (see Knowles & Linn 2004).
Picture Magazines
Authors: Hardt Hanno 
Published: September 2017

The development of picture magazines is a twentieth‐century phenomenon, aided by print technologies that offered quality reproduction of photographs in large numbers and in a short time, like rotogravure, which had yielded high quality reproduction using a single plate for type and photo since 1910 (→ Magazine, History of). Earlier, photographs had been used for wood‐engraved illustrations in many magazines, including the
Leipziger Illustrirte
(Germany, 1843),
L'Illustration
(France, 1843
), Illustrated London News
(UK, 1842),
L'Illustracion
(Spain, 1849), th
e Saturday Evening
Post (USA, 1821)
, Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper
(USA, 1855),
Harper's Weekly
(USA, 1857), and the
Weekly Illustrated of India
(India, 1880). The
Canadian Illustrated News
(1869) featured a half‐tone on its first cover, only a few years after the
Illustrated London News
(1842) had been launched with 32 woodcuts on 16 pages.
Pluralistic Ignorance and Ideological Biases
Authors: Lichter S. Robert 
Published: September 2017

An ideology is a consistent set of related ideas about the nature and goals of society, such as liberalism, conservatism, or socialism. Ideological bias refers to the skewed thoughts and perceptions that such perspectives can produce. One such misperception is → pluralistic ignorance, an inaccurate perception of how a group member's own opinions relate to those of the larger group. The communications media are widely believed to produce biases in → public opinion, but the extent and direction of media content and effects are still contested by both scholars and political actors (→ Social Perception).
Politainment
Authors: Nieland Jörg‐Uwe 
Published: September 2017

Politainment refers to the blending of politics and entertainment into a new type of political communication. The portmanteau word is composed of “politics” and “entertainment,” analogously to the term → infotainment. As well as infotainment, which is used as a label for a specific television program type, the term “politainment” denotes, in a broader sense, the entangling of political actors, topics, and processes with the entertainment culture. According to Dörner (2001), two different, though interrelated forms (or levels) of politainment may be distinguished: entertaining politics and political entertainment. Both take advantage of the mass media's potential to attract wide audiences and to create celebrity (→ Celebrity Culture). Politainment may be seen as resulting from an increasing mediatization and professionalization of politics that characterize modern democracies (→ Mediatization of Politics; Political Consultant; Spin Doctor). Governments, parties, and politicians cope with these developments by adapting to the → media logic, particularly to the selection criteria and presentation formats of → Television (→ Television News; Television News, Visual Components of).
Politeness Theory
Authors: Jones Susanne M. 
Published: September 2017

Politeness theory is a sociolinguistic theory in the pragmatic tradition that was developed by Brown and Levinson, who extended Goffman's dramaturgical approach. Using Durkheim's work on social rituals, Goffman examined how people manage their public identities, which he labeled
face
. When in the presence of others, one's face is always on display and others will form impressions and respond to these impressions (→ Impression Management; Self‐Presentation). Face, then, becomes a situated social identity that is not owned, but rather resides in the flow of human interaction. To have one's face invalidated by others means to lose face; to have it sanctioned is to have face. Face must therefore be maintained and is subject to constant threats. The process by which people maintain face is called
facework
. Because people are mutually concerned with maintaining each other's face, facework becomes a necessary social ritual that provides the cooperative mechanism for interaction order as opposed to interaction chaos. Considerable research in interpersonal communication has used politeness theory and facework to examine the communicative strategies people use to enact, support, or challenge face.
Political Cognitions
Authors: Graber Doris A. , Holyk Gregory G. 
Published: September 2017

“Political cognitions” refers to the ability of human beings to acquire and possess → political knowledge through perception, reasoning, or intuition. Citizens' cognitions about politics come mainly from information supplied by the mass media – television, newspapers, magazines, or the Internet – because most political happenings are beyond the day‐to‐day experiences of citizens. Dependence on mass media has consequences for peoples' cognitions about politics and makes it important to investigate what kinds of information mass media produce.
Political Communication Culture
Authors: Pfetsch Barbara 
Published: September 2017

How does the way people think about politics influence the way and the means by which politics is communicated? And how does the communication of politics impact on political orientations and symbols? These questions are at the core of political communication culture, which refers to the forms of expression and the attitudinal milieu in which politics and media interact. The study of the interaction of media and politics with regard to the cultural roots of political communication was introduced by Gurevitch and Blumler (1977). Their aim was to identify and to analyze key dimensions along which political culture impacts on the processes and outcomes of political communication. Political culture refers to the → meanings attributed to politics. The study of political communication cultures has turned out to be most fruitful as a comparative framework. The investigation of political communication cultures across countries, social segments, or time may provide us with a better understanding of the processes of encoding and decoding political messages, the vocabulary of politics, the culture of journalism, the interrelationships between media and politics, and the relations between citizens and political elites (→ Political Communication).
Political Communication Systems
Authors: Pfetsch Barbara 
Published: September 2017

Looking at political communication phenomena in a systems framework is a common approach in this field of study. The term “system,” in its general meaning, denotes a multitude of component parts, depending on each other, and functioning as a whole (→ Systems Theory). The nature of the political communication system is thought of as a structure of producing, processing, and communicating political messages. As Blumler and Gurevitch (1977) point out, adapting the systems approach to political communication processes implies the assumption that variation in one of its component parts would be associated with variation in other components.
Political Cynicism
Authors: de Vreese Claes H. 
Published: September 2017

Political cynicism is recognized as an important political sentiment. However, there is little agreement about the nature, measurement, and consequences of political cynicism.Webster's Dictionarydefines a cynic as “one who believes that human conduct is motivated wholly by self‐interest. A person who expects nothing but the worst of human conduct and motives.” Cappella and Jamieson (1997, 166) definedpoliticalcynicism as “mistrust generalized from particular leaders or political groups to the political process as a whole – a process perceived to corrupt the persons who participate in it and that draws corrupt persons as participants.” Cynicism has been defined as oppositional to → political efficacy (e.g., Niemi et al. 1991) and as inversely related to trust in different social, economic, and political institutions.
Political Economy of the Media
Authors: Mosco Vincent 
Published: September 2017

Political economy is the study of the social relations, particularly the power relations, that mutually constitute the production, distribution, and consumption of resources, including communication resources (→ Media Economics). This formulation has a certain practical value because it calls attention to how the communication business operates, for example, how communications products move through a chain of producers such as a → Hollywood film studio, to wholesalers, retailers, and, finally consumers, whose purchases, rentals, and attention are fed back into new processes of production.
Political Journalists
Authors: Hanitzsch Thomas 
Published: September 2017

Political journalists, viewed through the lens of the editorial organization, are those who report on political affairs or work on the
political desk
. This perspective foregrounds organizational factors in news production, particularly the division of labor in the editorial process. Typical Anglo‐American newsrooms make a functional distinction between news gatherers (reporters) and news processors (editors), but in continental Europe many news cultures have implemented divisions among subject‐related editorial departments (such as politics, business, or sports), where journalists function as professional all‐rounders with tasks involving reporting, editing, and commenting (→ News Routines; Political News).
Political Knowledge
Authors: Eveland William P. , Hively Myiah Hutchens 
Published: September 2017

One of the foundational assumptions of democratic theory is that the public must be sufficiently informed about public matters in order to be capable of fulfilling their roles in making collective decisions. The centrality of an informed public in democratic theory has made the study of political knowledge integral to the study of political communication. Much of the research on political knowledge addresses one of two main questions: Is the public sufficiently politically knowledgeable to sustain an effective democracy? and: What role does communication play in the creation and maintenance of an informed citizenry? (→ Deliberativeness in Political Communication; Public; Public Opinion; Public Sphere). But to begin, it is important to define political knowledge.
Political Marketing
Authors: Maarek Philippe J. 
Published: September 2017

Political marketing arose when, in the middle of the twentieth century, the methods developed by commercial marketing specialists were adopted for political campaigning. Political marketing replaced unilateral → propaganda exactly as commercial → advertising has become a plain subsidiary of commercial → Marketing. Political marketing is considered as one of the most demanding applications of political communication research. It stands at the crossroads of several distinct fields of social sciences engaging in the study or practice of deliberate and purposive communication to reach set goals (Maarek 1995, 2007; → Political Communication; Public Relations; Strategic Communication).
Political News
Authors: Schulz Winfried 
Published: September 2017

Political news was published in leaflets and early → Newspapers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, shortly after the advent of printing (→ Printing, History of). However, only the cheap, mass circulation press in the nineteenth century and, most notably, → Radio and → Television about a century later made political news available to a general audience (→ Media History). Today, regular newscasts on many radio and television programs, 24‐hour news networks, and a multitude of websites on the Internet make political news continuously available and pervasive in society (→ Internet News; Newscast, 24‐Hour). The deployment of global news logistics – → foreign correspondents, → news agencies, and news pools around the world – as well as advances in cable, satellite, and other transmission technologies, have brought about an enormous expansion of the political news supply.
Political Personality in Media Democracy
Authors: Schütz Astrid 
Published: September 2017

With the advent of → Television the public appearance of political processes has changed fundamentally. Television makes visual impressions of political events easily available and provides politicians with the opportunity to project an → Image of themselves to the general public (→ Media Democracy). This is assumed to have been contributing to a personalization of politics in general, and particularly to the change from issue‐centered to candidate‐centered election campaigning (→ Personalization of Campaigning). When the political parties and the mass media focus on the leading politicians, their public images become important factors in shaping and changing political opinions (→ Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs, Media Effects on; Candidate Image). As people lend themselves more readily to a mediated presentation of politics, the personality of political representatives plays an important role in citizens' thinking and behavior (→ Political Cognitions).
Political Socialization through the Media
Authors: Shah Dhavan V. 
Published: September 2017

There is a great deal of controversy concerning the effects of mass communication on political socialization, in terms of both its size and direction (→ Media Effects). Political socialization can be understood as the processes through which democratic societies instill the proper norms among their members to maintain social institutions and practices. Most research on this topic focuses on how individuals engage in political development and learn basic civic skills, with family, schooling, peer groups, and media serving as the major factors involved in this dynamic. Early studies focused on adolescence as a critical period for political socialization, though this has given way to lifelong learning models, attention to generational differences, and consideration of civic modes of participation alongside the political (Sears & Levy 2003; Sapiro 2004).
Popular Communication
Authors: Merskin Debra 
Published: September 2017

Popular communication is an interdisciplinary, multi‐theoretical, multi‐methodological philosophy of media and audiences. It has evolved as a nonhierarchical perspective that emphasizes the value of objects, behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs associated with everyday life. Gunn and Brummett (2004, 705) ask provocative questions about popular communication that capture the difficulty of defining the term: “Whose child is it, and who invented it? What sort of side dish did it contribute to the feast?” In many ways, the term defies definition because of the resistance to categorization inherent in a postmodern vision, which values all products of human endeavor (→ Postmodernism and Communication). Popular communication research is often critical of systems of power. A philosophy behind popular communication research is a “skepticism toward dominant institutions (including the university), ideologies, and social relations and an implicit commitment to a more democratic, egalitarian, and humane social order” (McChesney 1994, 340).
Popular Communication and Social Class
Authors: Drew Rob 
Published: September 2017

During the Industrial Revolution, the English word “class” morphed from a general term for a division or group to a specific term for a position of rank within a social system based on economic wealth. Around the same time, the word “popular” began to be applied to communication and culture with meanings ranging from “liked by many people” to “created by many people.” Thus, social class and “the popular” simultaneously arose as objects of intellectual interest. Indeed, the very question of what counts as →
Popular Culture
or → popular communication has always led to questions of class. In the late eighteenth century, when J. G. Herder coined the term “popular culture,” he had in mind the peasant culture that, for him, represented a more authentic alternative to Europe's elite, classical culture (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Popular Culture
Authors: Merskin Debra 
Published: September 2017

“Culture” is “one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language” according to Williams (1976, 87; → Culture: Definitions and Concepts). Originally used to describe the process of tending, culture evolved as metaphor, as noun, and as a reference to a physical object. Today, culture is regarded as a unifying system, a worldview, a civilization, and as a psychology encompassing behavior, attitudes, and values as well as the symbolic structure of these activities (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication). Music is one of the most globally ubiquitous forms of culture. Four elements are typically included in definitions of culture: institutions, norms, values, and artifacts. “Popular” is a term used to express favorability, high regard, and appreciation by the general → Public, as in the popular vote or to distinguish the popular from the academic press. Thus, “culture” used in this sense is political rather than aesthetic (→ Political Communication Culture). Storey (1996) points out that culture is not a narrow sense of aesthetic nor only an intellectual product but rather a domain of contestation, reflection, resistance, and reconstruction.
Pornography Use across the Life‐Span
Authors: Peter Jochen 
Published: September 2017

Throughout the years, intense legal, political, and academic discussions have centered upon the use of pornography and its implications (→ Pornography, Media Law on; Sex and Pornography as Media Content: Feminist Perspectives). Currently, these discussions have been revived because the → Internet provides not only adults but also adolescents and children with free and anonymous access to pornography (→ Sex and Pornography Online). The easy availability of pornographic material for all age groups has raised questions about the extent to which people of different age groups are exposed to such material.
Postcolonial Theory
Authors: Kumar Shanti 
Published: September 2017

The emergence of postcolonial theory as an academic tradition, particularly in the United States, can be traced to the late 1970s with the publication of Edward Said's bookOrientalism(1978). According to Said, Orientalism is a powerful body of knowledge – power/knowledge in Michel Foucault's sense (→ Structuralism) – produced by texts and institutional practices of western colonialism beginning with Napoleon's conquest of Egypt in 1798. Said finds three key elements in Orientalism: first, the power/knowledge of colonial institutions and texts to understand, control, and manipulate the “Orient” (or the east); second, the representation of “Oriental” societies as an unchanging cultural essence; and third, the fabrication of the “Orient” as an ahistorical space waiting to be transformed by historical progress and social development.
Postdevelopment
Authors: Pieterse Jan Nederveen 
Published: September 2017

Along with “anti‐development,” postdevelopment is a radical reaction to the dilemmas of development. Perplexity and extreme dissatisfaction with business‐as‐usual and conventional development rhetoric and practice are keynotes of this perspective. This perspective emerges out of frustration with the seeming inability of development intervention to improve the lives of those in need. As a critical response to the development industry, this approach raises concerns with the imposition of science as power, cultural imperialism, and environmental destruction (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories; Sustainable Development).
Poster
Authors: Müller Marion G. 
Published: September 2017

Posters are visual means of communicating messages to large public audiences (→
Visual Communication
). A poster is a printed mass media product (→ Printing, History of). Although → graffiti and murals are predecessors of posters, they do not qualify as posters, since one of the defining criteria for a poster is its mass reproducibility. While graffiti and murals exist only as single objects, attached to a specific place, posters are movable objects produced in large quantities to cover a wide geographical area.
Power, Dominance, and Social Interaction
Authors: Berger Charles R. 
Published: September 2017

When individuals engage in social interaction, regardless of the relationship they have with each other and the context within which it occurs (→ Classroom Power; Power in Intergroup Settings), power and dominance are fundamental dimensions that both shape and are shaped by communication (→ Power and Discourse). Studies of how people think about and judge their social relationships have consistently demonstrated the importance of a dominance dimension. People use this dimension to judge and experience their social relationships and the communication that occurs within them (Berger 1994; Ng & Bradac 1993). Judgments concerning who is dominant or submissive or who is “in control” easily come to mind, whether the judgments are made during or after a specific interaction episode or in an ongoing relationship consisting of multiple episodes.
Printer‐Editors
Authors: Ward Stephen J. A. 
Published: September 2017

Printers acted as editors from the origin of printing in eastern and western society. But Gutenberg's press in the mid‐fifteenth century gave birth to journalistic printer‐editors who published news regularly and informed a wide public (→ Journalism, History of). These early journalists used book production techniques to generate broadsheets, pamphlets, mercuries, intelligencers, gazettes, and newsbooks (Boyce et al. 1978). Under the eye of monarchs and their censors (→ Censorship), they disseminated reports on war, discoveries, and omens, and campaigned for or against political and religious movements across Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as part of an emerging western print culture (Eisenstein 1979).
Professionalization of Journalism
Authors: Anderson Chris 
Published: September 2017

The professionalization of journalism refers to the process by which a category of workers engaged in reporting and commentary in the public media on current events and ideas achieves the status of the occupational professional. Key issues in understanding the professionalization of journalism center on the difficulties in defining “professionalization” itself; the historical differences between US and non‐American trajectories of professionalization; the relationship between journalistic objectivity (→ Objectivity in Reporting) and professionalism, especially in the American case; and the current economic, technological, and political challenges to the professional status of → Journalism.