bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Teratogenesis
Authors: Vargesson Neil , Fraga Lucas 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Teratogenesis is a process that causes birth defects or malformations in an embryo or foetus. Teratology is the study of the causes and underlying mechanisms leading to birth defects or malformations. These may include disorders without any obvious structural malformations, such as intellectual disabilities. A teratogen is a substance (from outside the body) that causes birth defects or malformations. Examples of teratogens include medicinal drugs, such as thalidomide; environmental toxins, for example cadmium as well as environmental pollutants, including pesticides and endocrine‐disrupting compounds. Other causes of teratogenesis include viruses, for example rubella and Zika virus; physical compression
in utero
and poor diet. Animal models are used to study the mechanisms by which teratogens result in birth defects or malformations, and these studies can also give insights into normal development. The study and understanding of teratogenesis is also essential for making safer and more targeted therapeutic drugs.

Key Concepts

Teratogenesis is the production of birth defects or malformations by external agents.

Teratology is the study of the mechanisms that give rise to birth defects or malformations.

There are many factors that can result in teratogenesis, including medicinal and recreational drugs, viral and bacterial infections and poor maternal health.

Teratogenesis is studied in animal models, for example mouse, chicken and rabbit embryos.

Understanding whether a chemical compound has teratogenic side effects is essential to ensure drug safety.

Many teratogens (agents that cause teratogenesis) act between weeks 2 and 8 of embryonic development, a period also known as the ‘critical period’ of development when the majority of tissues and organs are forming and being patterned, for example the limbs.
Multidimensional Model of Human Macrophage Activation
Authors: Aschenbrenner Anna C , Schultze Joachim L 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Macrophages are extremely versatile cells, distributed throughout all tissues, involved in numerous functions, and equipped with many sensing receptors and effector molecules. They are critical during embryogenesis, key players in organ homeostasis and orchestrators during any kind of tissue insult, whether induced by the outside world or inside stress signals. Moreover, macrophages are involved in all major common diseases our societies are suffering from. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to understand how macrophage activation is regulated and orchestrated.
For a long time, macrophage activation was divided into either proinflammatory or anti‐inflammatory activation. In fact, previous experimental approaches favoured such dichotomous models of macrophage activation. However, with the advent of the generation of high‐throughput data, this view on macrophage activation has dramatically changed by realising the enormous plasticity of these cells. To describe such plasticity, and based on computational modelling of transcriptome data, we have introduced the multidimensional model of macrophage activation. This model showcases the capability of macrophages of integrating signals they derive from their microenvironment to signal input‐specific functional programmes. Collectively, this new model combines findings derived from macrophage ontogeny, tissue macrophage biology and inflammation research in diseases.

Key Concepts

Macrophages are one of the most versatile cell populations within multicellular organisms.

Macrophages exhibit enormous plasticity.

Macrophages integrate signals from their microenvironment, which results in signal input‐specific functional outcomes.

The multidimensional model of macrophage activation describes the input‐specific cellular programming of macrophages in response to stimulation.

This model opens new avenues to more specific targeting of macrophages in disease settings.

The paradigm shift from a bipolar to a multidimensional model of macrophage activation required large data and computational modelling, illustrating the power of systems immunology to understand immune cell phenotypes and function.
Fluorescence in Protein Science
Authors: Mei Giampiero 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Fluorescence spectroscopy is an optical technique used to study biological systems such as membranes, nucleic acids and proteins, thanks to its high sensitivity and noninvasive nature. In the case of proteins, fluorescence is currently used for analytical detection, to study ligand binding and complex formation and to observe the presence of intermediate species in folding pathways. Resonance energy transfer, lifetime and anisotropy measurements are quantitative applications of fluorescence spectroscopy that allow the characterisation of biological processes in which proteins play fundamental roles, including membrane binding, enzyme catalysis, signalling and the regulation of the function of nucleic acids. The development of new fluorophores, light sources and detectors has opened the possibility to perform such kinds of measurements
in vivo
, extending the fluorescence technology to cell microscopy.

Key Concepts

Protein intrinsic fluorescence arises mainly from aromatic amino acids and some cofactors.

The timescale of tryptophan lifetime is the same as protein conformational changes.

Fluorescence anisotropy decays provide information on protein dynamics.

Fluorescence energy transfer is used to measure distances of the order of protein size.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy is a valid tool for investigating protein dynamics
in vivo
.
Public Sphere
Authors: Mele Vincenzo 
Published: December 2017

The public sphere is that realm of social life where individuals can freely discuss societal questions and thereby shape public opinion. It constitutes an intermediate area between the state and civil society, in its narrowest sense, that is, where social relations are regulated by the market. It encompasses different levels – from a spatial concept that indicates the social sites where social actors exchange meanings, to the philosophical concept of “public use of reason,” which characterizes the essence of enlightenment. The boundary between public and private, together with the relative weight of each in contemporary society, is highly contentious and depends on several economic, political, cultural, and technological factors. The recent advent of “virtual space” has raised the question of to what extent the Internet can provide the foundation for a new public sphere.
Mobile Communication
Authors: Bialski Paula 
Published: December 2017

Mobile communication here is defined as the ability to communicate with others when on the move using communicative devices that connect wirelessly to public communication networks, which can be supported by an electric, cellular, or radio infrastructure. Such technologies can include mobile phones (also called cellular phones or cell phones), as well as, more recently, other Internet‐based devices such as smartphones, laptops, and iPads. In order to understand mobile communication, an understanding of the sociotechnical context is needed – both the history of the device that mediates such communication and the social impacts of such communication devices on human interaction.
Underclass
Authors: Kerbo Harold 
Published: December 2017

The concept of an “underclass” is an attempt to put a name on the very poor within the United States and describe supposed common characteristics among people at the bottom of the class structure. Thus, along with the upper class, middle class, and working class, there is an underclass, often characterized much as Marx described with his concept of thelumpenproletariat. The term “underclass” was popularized in the second half of the twentieth century in a book by Ken Auletta (1983) which attempted to analyze what needed to be changed among this group to raise them out of poverty and how this could be done. This label of underclass, however, attempts to describe a category of people – we can call them the poor – that have even more diverse characteristics than those who are classified as upper, middle, and working class.
Isomerization and Hydrogenation of Alkenes
Authors: Paulson Erik R. , Grotjahn Douglas B. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Alkene isomerization and hydrogenation both using H
2
and sacrificial hydrogen donors are important reactions in synthetic chemistry. These reactions are normally catalyzed by second‐ or third‐row transition metals, but there has been significant recent interest in the development of first‐row systems. The different mechanisms for both alkene isomerization and hydrogenation are discussed along with strategies for catalyst modification to improve selectivity.
Stearoyl‐CoADesaturase
Authors: Shen Jiemin , Zhou Ming 
Published: December 2017

AbstractMammailan stearyol‐CoA desaturase (SCD) is a membrane embedded protein that introduces a double bond into a saturated fatty acid. Humans have two homologs (SCD1 and 5) and mice have four (SCD1–4). The functions of SCD have been studied for over 40 years, and recently crystal structures of human and mouse SCD1 have been reported. Here we review the structure and function of SCD.
Introduction to Aqueous Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis
Authors: Ounkham Whalmany L. , Frost Brian J. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractAqueous‐phase organometallic chemistry is an important yet still underexplored area of chemistry and catalysis. An important aspect of organometallic chemistry in water is the potential to utilize the benefits of homogeneous catalysis (selectivity, activity, etc.) and couple that with the benefits of heterogeneous catalysis (ease of separation). Organometallic complexes can be made soluble in water through the use of various water‐soluble ligands. An overview of the unique characteristics of water with respect to organometallic complexes and reactivity are discussed including pH effects, hydrogen bonding, salt effects, and metal‐carbon bond stability. An introduction to the various types of ligands utilized in water‐soluble organometallic chemistry is provided. The most prevalent water‐soluble ligands are phosphines designed with polar or hydrophilic functional groups. Amines, ammonium salts, functionalized NHCs, and derivatives of cyclopentadiene or arenes are some of the other ligands that have been utilized in aqueous‐phase organometallic chemistry and catalysis. Water also makes a good ligand for some water‐soluble organometallic complexes and the reactivity of coordinated water can play a significant role in reactivity and/or catalysis. An introduction to the behavior of metal hydride ligands in aqueous environments is also presented. Finally, selected catalytic reactions carried out in aqueous media are discussed including hydrogenation, hydration, CC bond forming reactions, oxidation, hydroformylation, and olefin metathesis.
Broom, Leonard (1911–2009)
Authors: Broom Dorothy H. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Leonard Broom (1911–2009) became a distinguished professor of sociology in a career spanning nearly 70 years in several departments of sociology in the United States and Australia. A lifelong interest in stratification, differentiation, and inequality was shaped by disciplinary skills in anthropology and social demography as well as sociology.
Chambliss, William J. (1933–2014)
Authors: Calavita Kitty 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

William Chambliss was a leading force in conflict theory, criminology, and the sociology of law. His dialectical theory of law creation, law enforcement, and state crime placed class conflict and other political–economic contradictions at the center of analysis. His most cited works include “A Sociological Analysis of the Law of Vagrancy”; “The Saints and the Roughnecks”;
On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents
; and
Power, Politics, and Crime
.
Horowitz, Irving Louis (1929–2012)
Authors: Schneiderman Howard G. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

By founding Transaction Publishers, a major social science publishing house, and by founding and editing
Society
, a major social science journal, for 50 years Irving Louis Horowitz was a key figure in American sociology. In a five‐decade career, Horowitz wrote and published dozens of notable volumes, and many hundreds of articles on especially important topics in political sociology, social theory, policy studies, and the sociology of knowledge, among others. Horowitz gained prominence early in his career for highlighting and making available works of the recently deceased C. Wright Mills, exemplified in the edited 1964 volume in honor of Mills,
The New Sociology
. In 1985, Horowitz wrote a well‐received biography of Mills,
C. Wright Mills: An American Utopian
. Horowitz's critique of sociology itself, in his book,
The Decomposition of Sociology
, published in 1993, set off a vigorous debate over the state of the discipline that still has impact and relevance today.
Selznick, Philip (1919–2010)
Authors: Přibáň Jiří 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Philip Selznick (1919–2010) was professor of sociology and law at the University of California, Berkeley. He was a major figure in general sociology, social and political theory, sociology of organization, and law in the second half of the twentieth century. Selznick is considered a founder of the institutional approach in organization theory. He also contributed to specific disciplines of social, legal, and moral philosophy, industrial sociology, public administration, and management theory.
Williams,RobinM.,Jr. (1914–2006)
Authors: Moen Phyllis , Dempster‐McClain Donna 
Published: December 2017

AbstractRobin M. Williams Jr. (1914–2006) tracked some of the most challenging social issues of contemporary society. He devoted his career and writing to studies of intergroup tensions, race relations, war and peace, ethnic conflict, and altruism and cooperation. Born in 1914 he earned a BS (1933) from North Carolina State, MS (1935) from NC State and University of North Carolina and MA (1939) and PhD (1943) from Harvard. He began his long and scholarly career in rural sociology, and then served as an army researcher during World War II, faculty member and professor emeritus at Cornell University (1946–2006) and faculty member at University of California, Irvine (1990–2006).
Food and Nonfood
Authors: Kravchenko Sergey A. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Food as biocultural nutrition has deep roots in the development of society and its culture, being a social form that is generally indigenously produced and comparatively rich in distinctive substantive content. The consequences of globalization, McDonaldization, industrialization, and detraditionalization led to the emergence of transnational network enterprises producing flows of “borderless” foods, mainly with genetically changed bionatural substances, so there appeared “nonfood” as a part of “nothing” that refers to a social form that is generally centrally conceived, controlled, and comparatively devoid of substantive content and culinary traditions. However, such factors as glocalization, deMcDonaldization, routines of home food, facilitate the production of food patterns with evident substantive content, and in everyday life people in fact deal with a continuum from food that relates to humanized and ecologically pure products to nonfood connected with dehumanized and genetically modified ones.
Social Mobility
Authors: Schaefer Richard T. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Social mobility is the movement from one position in a society's stratification system to another. Open stratification system and closed stratification system describe the degree of social mobility in a society. The belief in an open system with the possibility of anyone getting ahead is widespread in the United States. Social mobility is measured in changes in income or occupational prestige. Data show a degree of stickiness in both the bottom and top quintiles, or fifths, of the income distribution with a significant proportion staying within the income group though out their lives. Sociologists have long documented the fact that the class system is even more rigid for African Americans and women than others.
Bianchi, Suzanne (1952–2013)
Authors: Cohen Philip N. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Suzanne M. Bianchi was a professor of sociology and a demographer, working at the US Census Bureau and on the faculty of the University of Maryland and the University of California, Los Angeles. She specialized in research on women and gender, work and family, and the gender division of labor, employing time‐use surveys among other demographic methods. She was a pioneer in the application of demographic perspectives to the problems of modern family life.
Peer‐to‐Peer
Authors: Bauwens Michel , Kostakis Vasilis 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
For technologically oriented people, peer‐to‐peer (P2P) refers to a distributed form of networking computers, without passing through centralized servers, for different kinds of cooperative endeavors, such as file sharing and music distribution. However, this interpretation is arguably limited in scope. From a broader perspective, P2P can be viewed as a template of human relationships which is springing up throughout the various social fields and follows the same distributed logic. Thus, in general, P2P is the relational dynamic in distributed networks.
Great Recession
Authors: Redbird Beth 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThe Great Recession, 2007–2009, was a historically unique period of economic decline. The United States lost 7.2 million jobs and long term unemployment hit an all‐time high. Youth, men, Hispanics, African Americans, and those with only a high school diploma were most at risk of unemployment. The effect on immigrant workers was more nuanced. In addition, the wealthy and the middle class experienced deep declines in net worth, largely resulting from diminished housing and stock values. During this period, poverty also increased, though taxes and transfer programs partially offset the difficulty experienced by households that experienced income loss. Interestingly, despite increased public interest in inequality, American polls reveal no increase in public support for government social programs.
Selfie
Authors: Burns Anne 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThe selfie is a photograph that is taken by the subject depicted, typically using a smart phone with a front‐facing camera, which is then shared with others on social media or via a mobile messaging app. Selfies have become a prevalent feature of online identity work, and exemplify contemporary debates about photographic practice regarding aesthetics, the affordances of digital technologies, and the use of images as communication.
Anglo‐Conformity
Authors: Travis Toni‐Michelle C. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
When immigrants came to the United States, they were confronted by those who sought to force them to conform to American values. The two routes to assimilation were Anglo‐conformity and the melting pot. Anglo‐conformity was part of an Americanization process whereby immigrants were expected to adopt and emulate the values of white Anglo‐Saxon Protestants (WASPs).
Consumption, Cathedrals of
Authors: Ryan J. Michael 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
George Ritzer has critiqued and built upon Marx's definition of the means of consumption to develop his own definition as “the settings or structures that enable us to consume all sorts of things.” These “new means of consumption” (a term used interchangeably with “cathedrals of consumption” by Ritzer) are more generally related to a wider field of goods and services and tied to production, distribution, advertising, marketing, sales, individual taste, style, and fashion. They are concerned not just with shopping but also relate to the consumer's relationship with entertainment and consumption‐oriented settings such as theme parks, casinos, and cruise lines, and other settings including athletic stadiums, universities, hospitals, and museums, the latter of which are surprisingly coming to resemble the more obvious new means of consumption.
Consumption, Landscapes of
Authors: Ryan J. Michael 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

George Ritzer has built upon his notion of cathedrals of consumption to describe what he terms “landscapes of consumption,” or “geographic areas that encompass two, or more, cathedrals of consumption.” This definition can be extended to define landscapes of consumption as
locales that encompass two or more cathedrals of consumption that allow, encourage, and even compel people to consume
. The prototypical example of this would be the Las Vegas strip – an area where multiple cathedrals of consumption exist side by side in the same geographical setting and entice consumers not only through their individual appeal, but also through the techniques made possible by their synergistic proximity.
Dangerousness
Authors: Tsoukala Anastassia 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Dangerousness is a multifaceted and often ideologically loaded concept that lies at the heart of crime control policies that aim at protecting society by managing both offenders and potentially dangerous individuals and groups through various predictive methods, be they clinical or technical. In its initial framing, the term refers to a deterministic view of criminal behavior. Its introduction in modern and contemporary crime control policies has implied expanded control of deviant behavior and subsequent jeopardizing of civil rights and liberties.
Dialectical Materialism
Authors: Beamish Rob 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Dialectical materialism became the dominant philosophy of Marxism during the Second International (1889–1917) and, in a different form, the official, formulaic philosophy of all communist parties during Joseph Stalin's dictatorship (1929–1953). Marx never used the term dialectical materialism. Nor did he write a comprehensive statement of ontology creating the opportunity to “finish” his incomplete project even though Marx had resisted attempts to convert his “materialist conception” into a totalizing philosophy. Marx's materialism centered on the labor process as the mediating activity between humankind and nature and the real departure point for understanding social formations and social change. To bring coherence to “Marxism,” Engels used
Anti‐Dühring
to link his work on nature with Marx's work to produce a single, comprehensive ontology. Seeking the credibility of “science,” other Second International Marxists sought to develop Engels' “dialectical materialism” further. Soviet theorist Georgi Plekhanov and Lenin pursued their own Engelsian‐inspired materialist philosophy which Stalin, as Lenin's heir, instituted as the official philosophy of Marxism–Leninism. Dialectical materialism (Diamat) brought together a simplistic notion of Hegel's dialectic with a crude materialism to constitute a single, allegedly coherent science that applied to all material, biological, historical, social, and political phenomena.
H
egel,
G.W.F
. (1770–1831)
Authors: Beamish Rob 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Seeking to overcome the barriers to absolute knowledge that Descartes and Kant erected, Hegel's
Phenomenology of Spirit
,
Science of Logic
, and
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
made him Prussia's foremost post‐Kantian, idealist philosopher. Sociologists' interest in Hegel stems from the posthumous 1930s publications of Karl Marx's 1840s manuscripts, Alexander Kojève's late 1930s lectures, and Herbert Marcuse's, Karl Löwith's, and Georg Lukács's analyses of Hegel's work.