bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Trade and commerce
Authors: Thomson Erik 
Published: January 2016

AbstractEmpire, the use of military, political, or economic power to deprive or abridge people's control over their own governance, sovereignty, resources, and even bodies, is inextricably linked to trade or commerce, the exchange of goods within and across the borders of a state. Imperial efforts to control trade and commerce have ranged from the brutal conquest and outright expropriation of land, resources, and labor to the mutually beneficial acceptance of shared norms, values, and laws. Trade and commerce became particularly important in the creation of European empires during the Early Modern and Modern periods. Debates over the ends and methods to govern commerce in an imperial context have played a pivotal role in political thought and contributed to the emergence of economics as a discipline. As a consequence, empire's relation to commerce sometimes appears coterminous with empire itself, as the relations between trade and dominion help define one another.
Spanish Empire: 1. Origins and organization
Authors: Schwaller Robert C. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Spanish Empire (1492–1898) was the second European empire to engage in major overseas expansion in the Early Modern period. In the space of less than a century, the empire would grow from several small kingdoms to encompass huge swaths of Europe, most of the Americas, and parts of Africa and Asia. This growth was built upon earlier models of conquest and expansion. Dynastic politics played a large role helping to link the ruling dynasty of Castile and Aragon to some of the most powerful houses in Europe. Through these unions, the patrimonial holdings of Spanish monarchs joined that of the Habsburg dynasty. Yet, the rapid growth of the empire and its vast human and geographic diversity created significant problems of governance. Although new innovative solutions helped the kings of Spain govern their global empire, problems of defense and finance would perpetually loom large.
Settler empires
Authors: MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
A distinction is often made between empires of rule and empires of settlement. In the former, the dominant people established their authority through the presence of administrators supported by the military. They were usually temporary sojourners who returned at the end of their service. In the latter, settlers from the imperial society moved into the colony and imposed themselves as traders or landholders, often dispossessing indigenous people as they did so. Various forms of coercion were imposed on native peoples, generally to provide labor or even to be employed as mercenaries in the imperial army. The movement of slaves, particularly across the Atlantic and Indian oceans, constituted a form of forced settlement. White settlers, however, became restless with regard to the controls imposed upon them by the parent empire and such restlessness could lead to efforts to assert independence or at least the devolution of powers. This often resulted in the establishment of what were, in effect, subsidiary empires.
Egypt: 3. Early medieval (Tulunid to Fatimid)
Authors: MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThree characteristics of Egypt ensured that it would be fought over by a succession of empires in the ancient and medieval periods. The first was the great agricultural riches resulting from the Nile floods and the deposits of silts, providing opportunities for trade and taxation, thus ensuring support for major armies. The second was its strategic position as the pivot connecting the Mediterranean world with the Middle East and North Africa as well as routes to the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and the interior of northeast Africa. The third was its long tradition of attracting many different ethnicities to its cities. These attributes led to repeated efforts by local governors to break away and form an independent empire of their own. This period saw two brief attempts by the Tulunids and Iqshidids, but they were followed by the more significant extension of the empire of the Fatimids from the west.
Pallavas of Kanchi
Authors: Mishra Patit Paban 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The southeastern region of the Indian subcontinent witnessed a plethora of activity and development in ancient times. Empires rose and fell and their legacies have contributed greatly to the heritage of India, including the empire of the Pallavas, who extended their territory up to the Kaveri River during the course of their rule, based on Kanchi (Kancipura) in modern‐day Tamil Nadu, between the early 4th and late 9th centuries
ce
. Economic activities multiplied and agricultural as well as commercial expansion occurred. Hinduism was deeply entrenched in society, but other religions flourished. Evidence of a cultural efflorescence can be seen in the rock‐cut temples of the Pallavas near Mahabalipuram, which were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The Pallava Empire has left a deep imprint on the social and cultural landscape of South India.
Rashtrakuta Empire
Authors: Mishra Patit Paban 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Rashtrakutas dominated parts of western, central, and northern India between the 8th and 10th centuries
ce
. Under capable rulers, the realm of the Rashtrakutas at its peak extended from the Ganga River in the north to Cape Comorin in the south. For most of the time they emerged victorious from their confrontations with the Eastern Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pratiharas, and Palas. Well known in the Arab world, the rulers were patrons of art and architecture, and the splendid Kailasanatha temple was constructed by them. There was religious amity in the empire among followers of different faiths. There was a remarkable development of the Kannada language and a flourishing literature. Commercial activities proliferated. The Rashtrakuta Empire left a deep imprint on Indian history.
Persian Empire, early medieval (Saffarid to Buyid)
Authors: Morgan David O. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Less than a century after the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Iraq in 750, outlying parts of that empire began to fall away, becoming, in effect, independent political entities, while mostly still acknowledging the theoretical supremacy of the Caliph. In Persia, the most notable of such regimes were those of the Saffarids, the Samanids, the Ghaznavids, and finally the Buyids who succumbed to the arrival of the Seljuks in the 11th century.
Pandyan Empire
Authors: Dalziel Nigel R. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The early Pandyan kingdom of south India emerged from around 600
bce
to become one of the major Tamil kingdoms, alongside the Cheras and Cholas. Their rivalry was a spur to the Pandyan Empire, with its capital at Madurai, over a long duration. It passed through two periods of imperial dominance, between the 6th and 10th centuries
ce
, and under the later Pandyas, beginning with Sundara Pandya I (r.1216–1238), when they controlled much of south India before succumbing to the onslaught of the Delhi Sultanate from 1311. Its weakness was partly brought about by a civil war over the succession between the sons of Kulesakaran and partly by inadequate military technology. It was an important center of Tamil culture and (especially Hindu temple) architecture, which developed greatly during the periods of imperial dominance, assisted by the wealth that came with conquest as well as the long‐established maritime trade and the exploitation of the coastal pearl banks. Religion and state involvement in it were an important buttress to the Pandyan dynasty.
Japanese Empire
Authors: Cribb Robert 
Published: January 2016

AbstractEarly expansion by the Japanese state incorporated adjacent island regions fully into the national territory. From the middle of the 19th century, Japan began to see a colonial empire on the Western model as one of the attributes of state power and political modernity. Though in competition with Western powers, it was able to seize Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910) as colonies. Japanese colonial policy was generally more assimilationist and developmentalist than many Western colonial policies, but sharp policy changes, internal contradictions, and a willingness to resort to violence made Japanese policies appear capricious and insincere. After a brief attempt to create a colonial empire in Siberia, Japan focused its attention on China, expanding its control incrementally over two decades. It was unable to prevail, however, in full‐scale war against China from 1937, and its attempts to control the situation led it into catastrophic conflict with the United States, though it was briefly able to establish an empire encompassing most of Southeast Asia.
British Empire: 2. From 1914
Authors: Nasson Bill 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
World War I presented the British Empire with a major challenge, but it survived this global cataclysm largely intact. The interwar years brought mixed fortunes, for while the imperial order escaped decisive crises, its self‐governing white dominions gradually assumed more independent airs, while in African colonies and especially in India, there was simmering nationalist discontent. In addition, Britain's imperial interests were also coming under the gaze of a predatory Germany and Japan. Plunged into an early crisis of survival in World War II, for Britain its empire functioned as a source of strength for its war effort. Yet, although it contributed much, it brought heavy costs and liabilities. In 1945, its rulers even basked in the illusion that it could be revived for a new phase of life as a multi‐racial Commonwealth, following the eventual end of formal colonial rule. But too much had been damaged by the war for this vision to be realized. Britain's reach increasingly exceeded its grasp, and the growing tide of nationalist movements could not be stemmed. Its empire had effectively been dismantled by the 1970s.
French Empire: 5. Decolonization
Authors: Shipway Martin 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
French decolonization after 1945 is usually interpreted according to a narrative which emphasizes the newly liberated French Republic's sustained refusal to grant the same liberation to its colonies and to acknowledge worldwide decolonization; and which insists on the violence of the process. In order to understand the French end of empire more fully, we need to examine the motivations of French policy‐makers, including the impetus for imperial reform after 1945, which was often self‐serving but which nonetheless framed policy and conditioned the responses of colonized actors. The impact of reformist initiatives on post‐war policy and on eventual decolonization may be traced in three parallel developments: in Indochina, where France never regained sufficient initiative to implement reforms; in sub‐Saharan Africa, where reformist policies were taken in hand by African politicians and trades unionists able to turn Republican rhetoric to African advantage; and in Algeria, where postwar reform was largely stillborn, and was largely forgotten once the war started in November 1954.
British Empire: 9. Indian Ocean
Authors: Chowdhury Amitava 
Published: January 2016

AbstractBetween the 17th and the 20th centuries, Britain wove together a massive maritime empire in the Indian Ocean World. What was initially a commercial venture under the aegis of the English East India Company ultimately became an empire of conquest that was fiercely guarded and carefully policed. The empire, in its prime, spanned from the eastern coast of Africa in the west to Australia in the east, and in effect, the entire range of the oceanic rim in between. From the beginning, the British Indian Ocean Empire played a central role in Britain's global empire and served as one of the primary theaters for European imperial contests.
Boer War and Great Power relations
Authors: Lowry Donal 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Anglo‐Boer War of 1899–1902 was quintessentially an imperial war, a conflict between the most powerful empire of the age and independent white‐run states on its periphery which had, in effect, established a local mini‐empire that threatened (from the British point of view) the stability of the region. Moreover, it was thought that the command of key gold reserves by the Transvaal might threaten both the financial supremacy of the City of London and the international currency system. Beyond this, the war aroused diplomatic anxieties in all the rival empires of the United Kingdom, including Germany, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Italy, the United States, and to a lesser extent, Russia and Austro‐Hungary – because of the potential effects of the war on the balance of power, worries about the fall‐out upon relationships with Britain, and not least because of the fears of the various governments in respect of passionate public opinion, often in favor of the Boers, within their own states.
Dutch Empire: 3. America and the Caribbean
Authors: MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractEmerging as latecomers in the race for empire in the Americas, the Dutch created a scattered seaborne empire forged in intermittent war and created as a by‐product of rebellion against Habsburg Spain. The Dutch were experienced traders and fishermen with a significant maritime tradition in the fisheries and commerce of northwest Europe and the Baltic, which provided them with capital required for overseas activities. In the first few decades of the 17th century, they used their naval power to acquire territory in North and South America as well as islands in the Caribbean. Dutch demographics dictated that they could never transplant and sustain a sufficiently large settler population to support extensive landholdings, while concerns over the considerable financial outlays needed to ensure defense and governance for a settler population militated against a large Dutch colonial presence. Instead they concentrated on commerce and on their more important territories in Asia. The English, Portuguese, and French reduced the Dutch to their Caribbean possessions, more of which were lost in 1815. Nevertheless, the Dutch have retained a presence there into modern times.
Delhi Sultanate
Authors: Dalziel Nigel R. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Delhi Sultanate emerged following the invasion of northern India by Muhammad Ghori of Afghanistan between 1175 and 1206. One of his military slaves, Qutb al‐Din Aibak, was created the first sultan of Delhi and was the founder of the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290). It was followed by other Turkic dynasties – the Khalji (1290–1320), Tughlaq (1320–1414), and Sayyid (1414–1451) – and the Afghan Lodi dynasty (from 1451), which gave way to the invading Mughals in 1526. ‘Ala’ ud‐Din Khalji is notable for his economic reforms, for his expansionism, and particularly for repelling Mongol attacks, but many rulers were inadequate and weak in the face of a powerful aristocracy and a majority Hindu population over whom Muslims formed a distinct, often oppressive, ruling caste. Foreign threats were also significant, from both the Mongols and the Timurids, and led to massive dislocation and disruption. Political instability resulting from a culture of personal government was compounded by the problems of governing a huge empire with inadequate communications and strong regional governors. Hindu–Muslim co‐existence always remained fragile but produced some cultural fusion, including “Indo‐Muslim” architectural development.
Vijayanagara Empire
Authors: Bridges Elizabeth J. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1664ce) ruled in South India from the early 14th to mid‐17th centuries. At the peak of its power, the Vijayanagara Empire dominated the South Indian landscape, comprising a majority of the territory of modern‐day Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, as well parts of Kerala. Vijayanagara was ruled by four dynasties: Sangama (1336–1485), Saluva (1485–1505), Tuluva (1505–1565), and Aravidu (1565–1664). The empire was founded and flourished at its eponymous first capital in Karnataka, and also occupied two later capitals at Penukonda and Chandragiri, in Andhra Pradesh. Vijayanagara economic prosperity was supported by agricultural intensification, organized taxation, and domestic and international trade. Elite patronage supported an elaborate courtly culture, including religious and secular architecture, sculpture and painting, literary and musical works, and shared modes of dress and communication. As Vijayanagara waned, it was supplanted by successor states and early European colonial powers.
Russia: 3. Tsardom of Muscovy (1547–1721)
Authors: Monahan Erika 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
From 1547 to 1721 the Slavic princes of the Pontic steppe consolidated their princedom into a state that conquered or incorporated surrounding principalities and emerged as a powerful land empire. In this period the principality of Muscovy endured virtual state collapse in the Time of Troubles (1598–1613), yet succeeded in extending authority through a system of administrative eclecticism or “separate deals” with its constituents, integrating into the expanding world economy, and beginning to modernize such that it emerged as one of the most powerful European empires in the 18th and 19th centuries. By the time of Peter the Great, Russia had already expanded into the Far East and Central Asia, developing important trade links. Under Peter, the empire also turned westwards, both literally and culturally.
Aristocracies and kingship
Authors: Engels David 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe foundation, rise, and fall of states, empires, and even “high cultures” can be mainly described as a result of the interactions between central powers and elite particularisms, the first often assuming the guise of monarchic absolutism, the latter of a hereditary aristocracy. This entry first proposes an overview of terminological and methodological questions and then presents some selected case studies (Ancient Egypt, pre‐imperial China, Classical Greece, Republican and imperial Rome, medieval and modern Europe) before finally outlining some overall structural analogies.
Fulani Empire (Sokoto)
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
This entry discusses the rise and expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate in western Sudan. The Islamic religious scholar Usman (Uthman) dan Fodio led a revival movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that ultimately overwhelmed the local Hausa aristocracies, replacing them with new Fulani dynasties committed to Usman's vision of a society governed by the principles of a purified Islam. The state came to be the largest on the African continent, stretching over 1000 miles from east to west. Later religiously motivated empire‐builders explicitly followed the example set by Usman dan Fodio and his caliphate, leading some scholars to speak of a “Sokoto model of jihad.” These developments contributed a great deal to the long‐term Islamization of the region. The Sokoto Caliphate remained the most important state in the region until its conquest in the early 20th century by the British, who built their system of “Indirect Rule” on the caliphate's foundations.
War, weaponry, and empire: 1. Ancient
Authors: Serrati John 
Published: January 2016

AbstractArmed forces in the ancient world evolved through various reorganizations which were designed to lead to greater levels of efficiency. Various Greek states, the Macedonians, and finally Rome proved successful because of their ability to muster and marshal personnel into coordinated military units with defined command structures. Over time, they also mastered logistics, came to utilize command and control strategies, and introduced standardized training. Such structures allowed these states to project their power over long distances and eventually to establish either mega‐states or lasting empires. Nevertheless, no ancient imperial state truly embraced technology and scientific innovation, and thus none were able to bring about the weaponry necessary to create a truly lasting advantage over their more numerous foes.
Old Babylonian period
Authors: Doumanis Nick 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Old Babylonian period refers to Mesopotamia in the first half of the second millenniumbce, or more specifically, the years 2000 to 1595bce. In political terms the era was characterized by the revival of city‐states that followed the demise of the Ur III Empire, although the latter half of the period (c.1810–1595) witnessed a revival of empires. Of particular note were the conquests of Shamshi‐Adad and Hammurabi. Although many prefer to describe their empires as territorial states, these rulers subjugated previously sovereign polities and appear to have been driven by imperial ideology. Indeed, the latter half of this era contributed to a longer‐term, albeit protracted, trend in Mesopotamian history from the city‐state as the dominant political form toward more expansive, imperial state forms.
Türk Khaganate
Authors: Stark Sören 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Khaganate (or Qaghanate) of the Türk, centered in the Central Eurasian steppes, was one of the hegemonic powers in Eurasia during the second half of the 6th and the first part of the 7th centuries
ce
, exerting suzerainty over large parts of the Eurasian continent. The constituent hallmark of the empire of the Türk was the principle of collective sovereignty, vesting legitimate rule over the Türkic realm in the Ashinas lineage. This tradition – like other ideological as well as structural key features of their polity – the Türk inherited from their various predecessors in the steppes, notably the Xiongnu and the Rouran. Türk rule had a long‐lasting impact on imperial ideologies and structures of governance in Eurasia down to the time of the Mongol Empire. Like the
pax Mongolica
in the 13th century, the unification of territories under Türk rule, from Manchuria in the east to Crimea in the west, resulted in a considerable increase of trans‐cultural economic and diplomatic exchanges across Eurasia.
Cartography and empire
Authors: Seed Patricia , MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Cartography and empires are inseparably intertwined. Since empires necessarily involve a combination of spatial awareness, conceptualization of the known world, as well as the supposed location and identity of the specific culture, mapping has always been an essential requirement of imperial organization for military and administrative reasons, as well as for resource exploitation. Such mapping began in the ancient empires of the Mediterranean region. The Islamic world and the empires of Asia also set about accumulating geographical knowledge that could be transferred into maps, locating their cultures and power in respect of rival polities and trading networks of the wider world. Mapping techniques took a great leap forward with the voyages of European discovery in the Renaissance era, particularly with regard to oceanic navigation and coastal survey. Land‐surveying techniques and the scientific accumulation of geographical information developed considerably between the 18th and 20th centuries producing modern styles of maps, vital tools of imperial rule.
Türgesh Khaganate
Authors: Stark Sören 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Türgesh – one of the 10 “tribes” of the On Oq federation of the Western Türk – succeeded the Western Ashinas‐Türk as an imperial power in the Western Central Asian steppes. Although the Türgesh Empire was relatively short‐lived – it thrived for only about 20 years under their energetic khagan Sulu – it played an important role in the concert of great powers during the first half of the 8th century, largely on a par with Tang China, the Umayyad Caliphate, Tibet, and the Eastern Türks. The Türgesh are particularly known for having posed a serious threat to Umayyad rule in Mawarannahr and Eastern Khorasan/Tokharestan, inflicting several major defeats on Muslim armies in the 720s and 730sce. After the death of Sulu the Türgesh Empire quickly disintegrated, giving way to the immigrating Qarluq as the new dominant power in the steppes north of the Tianshan.