bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ultimate Curiosity
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter first describes the cognitive science of religion, a multidisciplinary field that draws from anthropology, cognitive science, and evolutionary psychology to study the nature of religious thoughts and actions. It then explains the meaning of the terms ‘ultimate curiosity’ and ‘slipstream’, and asks how slipstream effects might provide a way of thinking about human curiosity. It suggests that particular configurations of ‘ultimate curiosity’ seem to have produced a powerful motivational slipstream in which the consequences of ‘penultimate curiosity’ became ever more spectacular. The temptation to close the gap between them—to make religion answer scientific questions or vice versa—and the ‘chutes’ that result are part of this story that must be considered.
The Two Students
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In 2005 excavations in Alexandria uncovered a large complex of twenty lecture theatres from the fifth or sixth century ad. While there is to date no inscriptional proof, it seems almost certain that this was the site of a famous school where two men of different religions, one Christian, the other pagan, began their studies. This chapter focusses on the dispute between these two students, Simplicius the Cicilian and John Philoponus, which was not so much about the character of God as about the nature of the world. While each man’s thinking was grounded in their own religious viewpoint, both shared the assumption that the truths of religion and the truths discovered by reason and observation were part of a single seamless fabric. Hence their dispute was conducted not by pitting one claim to revelation against another, but through a series of closely reasoned philosophical arguments.
Against Aristotle
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Galileo’s campaign against Aristotelian ideas, which began during his time at the University of Pisa. Galileo cites Philoponus a number of times in his manuscript notes on motion, describing him as one of those forced ‘by the power of truth’ to realize the falsity of Aristotle’s views. In 1592, Galileo moved from Pisa to Padua where he was appointed professor of mathematics. During this time he was able to extend dramatically his attack on Aristotle’s picture of the world with the help of a new instrument of discovery, the telescope. When he directed this instrument up at the night sky, Galileo discovered evidence that the heavenly bodies were not the perfect and unchanging entities that Aristotle had supposed. Rather they showed every sign of being formed from the same kind of elements as the Earth.
Free Philosophizing
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Galileo’s support for Nicholas Copernicus’ idea that the Earth and the other planets all revolved around the Sun. His theologically informed intellectual optimism made him particularly anxious that the Church not condemn Copernicanism. In his Letter to Castelli, Galileo argued that there was no contradiction between science and Scripture. Holy writ was given to teach us the path to salvation but it was not necessary ‘to believe that the same God who has furnished us with senses, language and intellect would want to bypass their use and … the information we can obtain with them’. He then argued that the passage in the Book of Joshua, which describes God lengthening a day of battle by making the Sun stand still (which was used by opponents of the Copernican theory to show it contradicted Scripture), actually made better sense if Copernicus was right.
The Freedom of Intellect
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Galileo’s The Assayer, his contribution to a debate that began with the appearance in August 1618 of the first of three comets. These had been observed by the Jesuits of the Collegio Romano using their Galilean telescope. Orazio Grassi, the professor of mathematics at the college, published a report arguing that the comet was located between the Moon and the Sun, supporting this with arguments that included the suggestion that the more distant an object, the less it was magnified by a telescope. Galileo responded to this publication with The Assayer, which reads almost as a manifesto of his approach to natural philosophy. Although barred from directly advocating Copernicus’ system, Galileo sought to ‘teach a method which would inevitably transform all natural philosophy and thus sooner or later establish a true system of the universe and demolish Aristotelian physics’.
Simplicius Reborn
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Galileo’s Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which takes the form of a conversation conducted over the course of four days. A discussion between three men takes place in the Venetian palazzo of one of the three who is called Sagredo. Sagredo is an intelligent layman who is at first neutral in the debate between the other two. Galileo’s own arguments are put into the mouth of one of these two, Salviati, and a third character, Simplicius, described as a philosopher ‘whose greatest obstacle in apprehending the truth seemed to be the reputation he had acquired by his interpretations of Aristotle’. Galileo says that this character (who is recognizably modelled on two of Galileo’s opponents), ‘because of his excessive affection towards the commentaries of Simplicius, I have thought fit to leave ... under the name of the author he so much revered’.
Two Journeys
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the scientific expeditions of Charles Darwin and Sir John Herschel in the early 1830s. For both men, the journey on which they were about to embark would yield a harvest of observations that would occupy them for years to come. Although each had rejected the idea of taking holy orders, both men shared a scientific outlook which had at its heart an essentially religious idea. The younger of the two men and the first to depart was Charles Darwin, who set sail from Plymouth in late December 1831 as an unpaid naturalist accompanying a five-year hydrographical survey voyage. In November 1833, Sir John Herschel (the son of William) began what was to be a five-year astronomical survey of the southern hemisphere. For Darwin, Herschel was a scientific hero whose understanding of science influenced the formation and conclusions of his own most famous book.
Breaking the Seals
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes the opening of the sealed packets sent by William Henry Fox Talbot, Dr Julius Oppert, Dr Edward Hincks, and Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, and the comparison of their respective translations of the same ancient text. When the seals were broken and the manuscripts compared, three of the translations were more or less identical, ‘while it appeared to be merely owing to Dr Oppert’s very imperfect acquaintance with the English language that a difficulty was found in bringing his version into unison with the others’. The committee concluded that there was a ‘sufficient variety of words to test … the extent of the knowledge claimed by the translators of the sound of the words, and of the language to which the words are supposed to belong’. They noted that ‘the two principle scholars in the field’, Rawlinson and Hincks, often agreed word for word.
By the Waters of Babylon
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The story of the exile and the seemingly miraculous return of the Jewish people to their homeland was the apparent context for the writing and editing of a large percentage of the Old Testament. The Book of Kings and the Book of Chronicles both end with descriptions of the fall of Jerusalem and the forced transport of its people to Babylon. But had these events actually happened? While late-nineteenth-century evangelicals were committed to reading every word of Scripture as literal truth, late-nineteenth-century sceptics were equally committed to reading it as wholly mythological. This chapter shows that the archaeological traces of the Babylonian captivity were dug up in reverse order.
Bose-Einstein Condensation and Superfluidity
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis volume introduces the basic concepts of Bose–Einstein condensation and superfluidity. It makes special reference to the physics of ultracold atomic gases; an area in which enormous experimental and theoretical progress has been achieved in the last twenty years. Various theoretical approaches to describing the physics of interacting bosons and of interacting Fermi gases, giving rise to bosonic pairs and hence to condensation, are discussed in detail, both in uniform and harmonically trapped configurations. Special focus is given to the comparison between theory and experiment, concerning various equilibrium, dynamic, thermodynamic, and superfluid properties of these novel systems. The volume also includes discussions of ultracold gases in dimensions, quantum mixtures, and long-range dipolar interactions.
Coherence, Interference, and the Josephson Effect
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter discusses several phenomena related to the coherence of trapped Bose–Einstein condensates. These include the long-range behaviour of the one-body density matrix and the interference fringes exhibited by two expanding condensates overlapping in space. Interference patterns in the momentum distribution are also discussed. A special section is devoted to the Josephson oscillations in the double-well potential, including the plasma oscillation and self-trapping phenomena. The procedures required to quantize the Josephson Hamiltonian, the phenomena of decoherence and fluctuations of the phase, and the derivation of the Bose–Hubbard model in the problem of the double well, are also discussed.
Spin-polarized Fermi Gases
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter discusses the magnetic properties of interacting Fermi gases. It considers the transition to the ferromagnetic phase (itinerant ferromagnetism) of a repulsive Fermi gas as a consequence of the Stoner instability. The dependence of the magnetic susceptibility on the relevant interaction coupling constant is explicitly discussed. The chapter then investigates the competition between superfluidity and ferromagnetism and the nature of the Clogston–Chandrasekhar transition, both in uniform and harmonically trapped Fermi gases, with special focus on the behaviour at unitarity, where systematic experimental data are available. It finally addresses the problem of the polaron in highly polarized configurations and the transition from the polaron to molecular binding along the BCS–BEC crossover.
Quantum Gases in Cigar and One-dimensional Regimes
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter discusses the behaviour of one-dimensional quantum gases. It discusses both the so-called cigar configurations, where the system is locally three-dimensional despite its one-dimensional-like geometrical shape, and the deep one-dimensional regime where the motion is frozen in the radial direction. The cigar configuration is well suited to investigating the novel features exhibited by quantized vortices and solitons. In the deep one-dimensional regime Bose gases exhibits a very different behaviour with respect to usual three-dimensional BECs as a consequence of the quantum and thermal fluctuations of the phase. The Lieb–Liniger transition between the one-dimensional mean-field and the Tonks–Girardeau regimes is discussed, and important features concerning the frequency of the collective oscillations and the superfluid behaviour are pointed out. Finally, the chapter discusses some key features exhibited by one-dimensional Fermi gases.
Aesthetically Relevant Properties
Authors: Nanay Bence 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter introduces the concept of ‘aesthetically relevant properties’—properties that are such that attending to them makes an aesthetic difference—and argues that it is a more useful concept for a number of debates in aesthetics than that of ‘aesthetic properties’. The aim then is to encourage a turn from the concept of ‘aesthetic properties’—properties like being beautiful and being graceful—towards that of ‘aesthetically relevant properties’. A detailed case study of how this could be done is given in a specific debate about whether aesthetic properties are perceived—one of the most important debates about aesthetic properties. It is pointed out that while there is no principled way of answering this question about aesthetic properties, if we shift this debate to be about aesthetically relevant properties, we can make real progress in understanding the relation between perception and the domain of aesthetics
Acoelomorpha
Authors: Hejnol Andreas 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The nervous system architecture of the Acoelomorpha is very diverse, ranging from a simple basiepidermal nerve plexus over basiepidermal condensations into neurite bundles and—in more derived lineages—an internalization of brain and cords below the muscle sheet. Characteristic for this animal taxon is the lack of a stomatogastric nervous system. The chapter describes details in the different organizations of nemertodermatid and acoel nervous systems and compares them with those of other taxa. It describes a step-wise internalization of the nervous system during evolution.
Annelida: Myzostomida
Authors: Helm Conrad , Bleidorn Christoph 
Published: March 2016

AbstractMyzostomida comprise a taxon of mainly soft-bodied, flattened, oval, and disc-like marine protostomes. They are usually associated with echinoderms. Most myzostomids exhibit five pairs of uniramous parapodia comprising aciculae and hooked setae, but a distinct head, pygidium, or signs of external segmentation are lacking. In Myzostoma cirriferum, development comprises four free-swimming trochophora-like larval stages and juvenile development, including segment formation, takes place on its echinoderm host. The position of the group within Metazoa is under discussion, but recent phylogenomic data strongly support a close relationship with annelids or even a grouping of Myzostomida within the errant Annelida. The nervous system of myzostomids exhibits a circum-oral ring, nerves within the axial sucking pharynx, a prominent ventral nerve mass, and peripheral nerves leading towards the parapodia and lateral organs. The myzostomid brain is located dorso-laterally within the pharynx (introvert). The stomatogastric nerves originate in the region of the terminal nerve ring, located apically in the pharynx and run towards the posterior into the pharynx. The ventral nerve mass represents a ventrally oriented ring-shaped neuropil each consisting of two longitudinal nerve cords. The neuroanatomical data available for Myzostomida indicate a segmented ancestry of Myzostomida, and it supports recent molecular and morphological analyses that reveal myzostomids as part of the Annelida, such as the annelid-like nervous system comprising a dorsal anterior ganglion, presence of distinct circumoesophageal connectives, longitudinal nerves connected via twelve commissures, serial clusters of somata, and paired lateral nerves that run from the longitudinal nerves towards the body margin.
Phoronida
Authors: Temereva Elena 
Published: March 2016

AbstractPhoronids are marine invertebrates with biphasic life cycles. Development of the nervous system starts at the stage of late gastrula on the animal pole of the embryo, which acquires several 5HT-like immunoreactive (-lir) cells in the epidermis of the apical plate. With time, the apical organ—a larval brain—is formed here. It consists of numerous 5HT-lir and FMRF-lir perikarya, which then give rise to the postoral neurite bundle. The development and organization of the nervous system in phoronid larvae has more in common with the deuterostomian than with the protostomian nervous system. During metamorphosis the apical organ is consumed by the juvenile, whereas the postoral neurite bundle retains and gives rise to the definitive tentacular nerve ring. The juvenile inherits from the larva the complex structure of the lophophore nervous system: the regular alternation of the intertentacular and abfrontal neurite bundles. In adult phoronids, the nervous system is represented by the intraepithelial nerve plexus, which is thickened in several areas and forms here the dorsal ganglion and tentacular nerve. All phoronids have two (right and left) or one (only left) giant nerve fibres, which start from the dorsal ganglion and pass along the left and right sides of the trunk. Each tentacle is innervated by six longitudinal neurite bundles connected to the tentacular nerve ring. All nerve elements have a similar cytological organization and stratified structure that is related to the cellular layers. Simplification of the definitive nervous system in comparison with complex larval nervous system may correlate with a sessile life style of adult phoronids.
Xiphosura
Authors: Battelle Barbara A. , Sombke Andy , Harzsch Steffen 
Published: March 2016

AbstractXiphosura are an early branching sister taxa to Arachnida, which together comprise the group Euchelicerata. Because they appear to have retained many plesiomorphic features, xiphosurans are seen as a proxy of the (Eu)chelicerate ancestor. Xiphosurans probably acquired many new characteristics during the course of their evolution; nevertheless, the structure of the xiphosuran nervous system can inform discussions of the phylogenetic relationships among arthropods and the plesiomorphic characteristics of Euarthropoda. Of the four extant species of Xiphosura, Limulus polyphemus Linnaeus, 1758, the American horseshoe crab, is the most extensively studied. The architecture of its central nervous system has been studied for more than a century, and because it has been a favourite preparation for vision scientists, there is an extensive literature detailing the structure and function of its visual system, including projections to the brain from the animal’s lateral compound eyes, median ocelli, and ventral larval eyes. Furthermore, the distribution of biogenic amines and peptides in its central nervous system and peripheral visual system have been explored. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of the L. polyphemus nervous system, focusing on the two most extensively studied subsystems of the brain, the visual system and the corpora pedunculata (mushroom bodies). The chapter describes the visual organs, their projections to the central nervous system, the sources and effects of efferent projections to the eyes, and the distribution and hypothesized functions of extraocular photoreceptors. The chapter also reviews current knowledge of the architecture and synaptic chemistry of the corpora pedunculata and compare it to that of insects.
Scorpiones
Authors: Wolf Harald 
Published: March 2016

AbstractScorpions are the oldest known terrestrial metazoans and thus an ancient and lastingly successful arthropod group. Some 1600 extant species inhabit a broad range of habitats, despite highly conserved body morphology. The first sets of appendages are the chelicers, identifying scorpions as Chelicerata; the second set are the pedipalps bearing the characteristic pincers, followed by four pairs of walking legs. The pectines are derived ventral posterior appendages for mechanical and chemical substrate probing; further chemosensors are on legs and mouthparts. A ‘tail’ with stinger is another typical scorpion characteristic. Mechanosensors are numerous on body and appendages, ranging from hair sensilla (trichobothria) to slit-sense organs. They allow high sensitivity to substrate- and air-borne vibrations, air currents, and can fulfil proprioceptive functions. Eyes are not well developed in these nocturnal animals; they also serve circadian entrainment. The scorpion central nervous system conforms to the basic pattern of the arthropod ventral nerve cord. The protocerebrum is fused with the following ten neuromeres, including deuto- and tritocerebrum of chelicers and pedipalps, into one circumoesophageal ganglion mass. Seven unfused ganglia supply posterior metasoma and ‘tail’ segments. Unfused ganglia and neuromeres of the circumoesophageal ganglion apparently conform to the basic structure of the arthropod segmental ganglion, with the respective tracts, commissures, neuropils, and soma groups. This includes immunocytochemically characterized neuron groups (5HT, GABA etc.) and inhibitory motoneurons. An intriguing characteristic is an about five- to ten-fold larger number of nerve cells supplying a given structure, from leg muscle to sensory hair, compared to most other arthropods.
Research Spotlight—Adult Neurogenesis In The Decapod Crustacean Brain: The Immune System Supplies Neural Progenitors
Authors: Sandeman David C. , Benton Jeannie L. , Beltz Barbara S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
It is firmly established that new neurons are born and integrated into the central nervous systems of both invertebrate and vertebrate organisms, throughout their adult lives. The identity and source of neuron progenitors, however, is still a matter of much debate. Freshwater crayfish represent a useful model for the study of persistent neurogenesis in long-lived animals and have provided some remarkable insights. All decapod crustaceans so far examined possess a pair of unique structures, the neurogenic niches, within their brains. In crayfish, it has been shown that cells from the niches divide and both daughters migrate along streams to neuron cell clusters in the olfactory centres where they differentiate, express appropriate transmitters, and become anatomically integrated into local circuits. In spite of providing a continual supply of cells, the niche is never depleted of precursors, implying the presence of a source from which the niche is replenished. A variety of techniques, including pulse chase labelling of cells with mitotic markers and adoptive transfer experiments in which labelled haemocytes from donor crayfish were transferred to the vascular systems of recipient crayfish, have been used in the investigation of the crayfish niche. Together these studies show that the immune system in crayfish produces cells that are transformed into precursors that generate adult-born neurons. The innate immune system in these animals, and perhaps in other organisms, is therefore a critical contributor in terms of providing neural progenitors and regulating the process of persistent neurogenesis.