bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Architectural Dialogues Across the Eastern Mediterranean: Monumental Domed Sanctuaries in the Ottoman Empire and Renaissance Italy
Authors: Necipoğlu Gülru 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThis chapter aims to elucidate the connectedness of architectural cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean basin, with a particular focus on monumental domed churches and mosques in Italy and the Ottoman empire from the fifteenth through the sixteenth centuries, the era conventionally labeled the Renaissance. By the early sixteenth century, the eastern half of the sea effectively became the “Ottoman Mediterranean,” in contradistinction to its western part dominated by the Spanish Habsburgs. That is why in his “Book of Navigation” the Ottoman admiral Piri Reis (d,1553) called the Eastern Mediterranean the “Ottoman Sea” (Bahr‐i Rūm: Roman Sea) and its western counterpart the “Spanish Sea” (Bahr‐i İsbāniye). This division into two zones was noted by Fernand Braudel: “The story of the Mediterranean in the sixteenth century is in the first place a story of dramatic political growth, with the leviathans taking up their positions.” While Portugal and France were important players in the game, Braudel conceded that “the rise of empires in the Mediterranean means essentially that of the Ottoman Empire in the East and that of the Habsburg Empire in the West.”
The Classical Ideal in Portugal and the Portuguese World: From Lisbon to China
Authors: Senos Nuno 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

In his account of the life of Andrea Sansovino (circa 1467–1529), Giorgio Vasari explained that, having finished the Corbinelli altarpiece, the Italian sculptor was sent by Lorenzo de Medici to work for the king of Portugal in whose service he remained for nine years. That which was but a short sentence in the
torrentiniana
edition of his
Lives of the Artists
(1550) and enlarged with more detail in the
juntina
edition (1568) was the source of a complex and passionate discussion among historians of the art of Portugal for many years. There were two main issues at the basis of this discussion: the lack of surviving material evidence of nearly a decade of work by such an important artist, and the ultimate disbelief that a “peripheral” country such as Portugal could have entered the sphere of the Renaissance at such an early date (the 1490s) and through such distinguished hands.
The Architecture of the Early Modern Period: “Because Vitruvius did not Recommend Square Columns”: Europe, Latin America and the Globalization of the Renaissance
Authors: Cummins Thomas 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThere has never been as rapid, ordered, chaotic, original, repetitive, eclectic, imaginative, banal, precise, and massive a building campaign as was undertaken in America in the sixteenth century. From 1492 until 1600, the built landscape of pre‐Columbia America with all of its distinct traditions in forms and material was transformed to become a uniform whole, based on late medieval and Renaissance principles of an ordered civic life and Catholic piety. Even imperial Rome as it expanded its empire could not compete with the totality of the transformation of cultures encountered in so short a time and so vast a geographic space as were to become the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru. The great cities of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, and Cuzco, the Inca capital, were literally pulled apart and rebuilt using much of their material to become Renaissance cities filled with new buildings, new urban forms, and a cosmopolitan populace. In fact, the Spanish Renaissance's relation to Rome and its traces, most often visible as spolia in sixteenth‐century Spain, were keenly felt as Spanish towns and buildings were raised over the remains of the pre‐Columbian one. For example, the Yucatán colonial city, Mérida, was so named because when the Spaniards first came to the site they found so many buildings of stone and mortar that they were reminded of the Roman buildings of Mérida in Spain.
Northern Imaginative Antiquarianism: The Dismembered Column as Relic and Tool
Authors: Heuer Christopher P. 
Published: March 2017

AbstractFor many Northern Europeans, the overwhelming source about architecture – antique or modern ‐ was prints. German, Dutch, French, English, Swedish, Russian, and Czech translations of Serlio or Palladio all appeared before 1800. What such prints, in league with loose entablature engravings, often “systematized” was the idea that no purist canon of the classical orders existed, only signature, localized version of ornament. Unlike certain Italians, that is, the question besetting many northerners was not how to understand physical bits strewn around them; but to make sense of thebooksthat were flooding their cities. Such images functioned as – and changed the ideaof– architectural tools, often drawing upon a late‐medieval poetics of sacral fragmentation.
The Reception and Flowering of Classicism in the German Lands
Authors: Mallgrave Harry Francis 
Published: March 2017

AbstractHistorians have traditionally discussed the reception of classical ideas in the German‐speaking areas of northern Europe in two ways: first the relatively slow acceptance of these ideas in relation to other countries such as Spain and France, and second the dependence of the German‐speaking north on the successive development of baroque tendencies in the south. Given the vast cultural divide between the building traditions of Germanic and Latin cultures, the dissemination of classical ideas to the north is more complex than generally portrayed. Even with the smaller scale of building activities in the fragmented and less‐wealthy northern states, the acceptance of classical ideas in the north paralleled that of France and Spain, particularly when taking into account both practice and theory. Second, the German north enjoyed its own early baroque phase, that is, until the interruption of the religious and political conflicts of the seventeenth century. With the return to economic prosperity, however, the German‐speaking areas of the north enjoyed a unique phase of baroque development.
Ornament in Architecture
Authors: Bédard Jean‐François 
Published: March 2017

AbstractAcademic authors such as Jacques‐François Blondel saw a clear division between ornament and architecture. Blondel understood ornament as sculptural decoration distinct from a building's essential forms that included the orders and their moldings. Previous writers had a different point of view, one in which ornament played a vital role in buildings. Vitruvius designated asornamentumthe three parts of the entablature, an essential component of trabeated buildings. Alberti understood ornament as the phenomenal manifestation of a building's geometric design. For eighteenth‐century rationalists, however, ornament was by nature excessive and needed to be regulated. They believed that ornaments should stem fromimitation, the doctrine according to which architectural forms originated in wooden construction. For these, they maintained, the architects of antiquity provided the best models. They also advocated thatdecorumshould guide architects in the handling of ornament, much as orators calibrated their vocabulary according to the purpose and audience of their speeches. Other authors, on the contrary, celebrated the auxiliary nature of ornament as a platform for unconstrained invention. Piranesi for instance claimed that designers should eschew the rationality of imitation and the strictures of decorum: like the designers of grotesques, he believed architects should forgo tectonic considerations and incorporate to their creations forms unknown to the Greco‐Roman tradition. Liberated from their historical underpinnings and their social purpose, ornaments became at the end of the century the exemplars of free beauty on which Kant grounded his aesthetic theory.
Castle Howard, Its Landscape, and Its Garden Structures (1699–circa 1745)
Authors: Levine Neil 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Designed by John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor for Charles Howard, the third Earl of Carlisle, Castle Howard was built beginning in 1699. The house itself, a baroque palace following a Palladian plan, was completed in 1712. The vast landscape garden with outbuildings, a very early example of picturesque design, was finished over the next three decades. Revolutionary in concept as compared with the house, the garden, with its three main structures—the Temple of Four Winds, Mausoleum, and Pyramid—replaces the classical method of rhetorical representation of the house with a new subjective, narrative form of historical reference related to the client's ambitions for his estate.
Basilica of Superga (1716–1731)
Authors: Jöchner Cornelia 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThe Basilica of Superga designed by Filippo Juvarra is one of the great royal votive churches of the early modern period. Stylistically classified by previous researchers as an example of either classical architecture (Kauffmann) or an eclectic late style (Wittkower), a contemporary spatial analysis focuses on the church's conceptual design and concludes that Juvarra's late baroque style constituted a conscious, distinctive architectural style (Jöchner) culminating in a striking design for the Superga. Pivotal for the interior are the two “visual axes” (Hager): the unusually tall vertical axis for its day extending up into the rotunda and echoing older churches in northern Italy (e.g. the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna and San Siro di Pavia), and the pronounced spatial depth of the choir for a centrally‐planned building. The Superga's unified architecture still reflects Vitruvian principles rather than being a collection of individual elements as suggested by analysing the ground plan alone. Instead, in Juvarra's illustrative architecture, the two main axes unite to form a striking spatio‐visual composition of a royal votive church encouraging its active use. The relief adorning the high altar clearly shows the original inspiration for the basilica's construction, while the elevation of the House of Savoy to kingly status resulting from Victor Amadeus's victory is symbolized near the top of the dome. Seen thus, the Superga extends rather than contradicts the idea of a centrally planned building developed during the Renaissance. The alignment of the church extending from its interior symbolically maps out the geopolitical coordinates of the House of Savoy's territory. Instead of reflecting stereometric concepts of classicism, the Superga's interior and exterior are clearly rooted in early modern spatio‐visual concepts.
Experiencing Architectural Space
Authors: de Jong Sigrid 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThis chapter examines a range of original texts in which architectural experience has a crucial role. In these texts buildings are no longer described from the perspective of the architect, but from that of the viewer's experience. This important move in perspective was theorized in architectural writings of the second half of the eighteenth century. These writings range from analyses of perceiving a building, to giving tools for how to design with the future experience of the viewer already in mind. The focus is on actual accounts of looking at buildings and architectural experiences by Laugier, Soufflot, Le Roy, Reveley, Soane, or Boullée. These accounts were produced after 1740, when some major developments in architectural thought were fueled by granting a key role to experience. This chapter thus traces the growing prominence of the experience of buildings in architectural thought, the different ways in which such experiences were conceptualized, and the new ideas they present that open up toward nineteenth‐century thought on the subject. It traces the growing importance of the movements of the spectator in these texts, and most of all the implications of these movements for the way architecture was viewed: that a growing awareness of the essentially spatial character of architecture was connected to the awareness of a moving viewer.
Festival Architecture as Well‐Ordered Entertainment
Authors: Monin Éric 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
At times controversial due to the colossal cost of their organization, festivals and public festivities, which reached their peak in the Age of Enlightenment, served as a testing ground for new artistic experiences that reflected the King's power. Instruments of celebration and outdoor performances, this type of event provided an opportunity to explore often complex symbolic programs on a grand scale, allowing authors like Claude‐François Ménestrier to illustrate their ingenuity at inventing themes adapted to all festival situations, with corresponding inscriptions, mottos, and emblems. Our focus, however, is less on the political issues, or the symbolic and stylistic considerations underlying the development of these great official events, and more on how the festivals were created and their material construction and installation in the city, designed for townspeople who were both the witnesses and the spectators of the colossal events. Here architecture, and more specifically its image, at times formed the subject but was above all an instrument that transformed the townscape and temporarily shook up the cities that were in the throes of major change.
Karlskirche (1716–1737)
Authors: Schürmann Anja 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

On the border between the first and fourth districts of Vienna, facing toward the Emperor's palace, the Hofburg, the
Karlskirche
, commissioned by Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740) to his royal architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656–1723) as a votive church to give thanks for surviving the plague, was built between 1716 and 1737. Competing models for the
Karlskirche
had been submitted by Ferdinando Galli‐Bibbiena (1657–1743) and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt (1668–1745). Construction began in 1716 under the supervision of Anton Erhard Martinelli (1684–1747), but around 1722 Fischer handed the supervision of the construction site, a project financed by the whole House of Hapsburg with Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and Hungary due to the high costs, to his son Joseph Emanuel (1693–1742) and because of the church's elaborate interior décor, construction was not finished before 1737, after Fischer's death. In 1737 the building was formally dedicated and presented by the Emperor to a branch of the Knights of Malta, the Order of the Cross with the Red Star, which still today oversees the church until this day. The building has survived largely undamaged and the iconographical program remains today as originally intended.
Hôtel Amelot (1717)
Authors: Schmidt Freek 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Germain Boffrand (1667–1754), who is often regarded the greatest French architect of the first half of the eighteenth century, designed the Hôtel de Montmorency as a speculator on the rue Saint‐Dominique. From the seventeenth century, the lavish houses of eminent or rich people in Paris increasingly became known as
hôtels
. The
hôtel
was renamed Amelot after the owner who bought and completed it in 1717. The building is a relatively compact nobleman's townhouse with an ingenious elevation matching the original plan and distribution. The concave shape is a rather unusual feature for the façade of a
hôtel
. The garden façade is less formal, reflecting the private nature of this area. The plan of the ground floor is at once simple in its organization and intricate in its detailing; every room has its own specific shape in which regularity and symmetry are observed in the placement of windows, fireplaces, and doorways. Every room would have been appropriately decorated, respecting its use and position in the hierarchy in the distribution.
Chiswick House (1726–1732)
Authors: Arciszewska Barbara 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Lord Burlington's Chiswick House (1726–32) has been cast as the epitome of Anglo‐Palladianism and the nexus of narratives associating the Palladian revival with aristocratic and thoroughly British national “style.” This iron‐cast image of Chiswick conceals, however, a set of cultural concerns that destabilize the prevailing interpretations of the building, highlighting numerous issues spanning classical tradition and bourgeoning modernity in Britain as well as on the Continent.
Interiors and Patronage
Authors: Martin Meredith 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThis chapter surveys major developments regarding the creation and use of interiors in eighteenth‐century Europe, focusing on four geographic regions—France, Germany, Italy, and England—and three principal design styles: Rococo, Neoclassicism, and chinoiserie. Interiors were a privileged site of innovation for both architects and patrons in eighteenth‐century Europe. Changing social, political, and economic structures had a major impact on the design of interiors and generated a new class of patrons who were eager to use architectural space to display their status to others. At the same time, evolving notions of privacy and interiority encouraged eighteenth‐century patrons to think differently about how they lived or interacted with the world around them, and to favor the creation of comfortable, intimate environments where they could cultivate new forms of self. Architects responded eagerly to these new client demands, and they relished the freedom they were given in interiors to indulge their most forward‐thinking schemes. Interiors were also discussed at length in architectural literature, novels, and travel guides and were represented in ornament prints that spread across Europe, contributing to the international exchange of styles and ideas.
Female Architectural Patronage in France
Authors: Ollagnier Claire 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThough the presence of women on the architectural scene has been recognized, it remains poorly understood in all its facets. Yet from queen—or king's mistress—to actress, noblewoman to petit bourgeois, women have played a key role in both architectural patronage and the evolution of tastes and ways of life. In France, female patronage provides a means not only of understanding the role played by women under the Ancien Régime, but also of examining the various criteria that determined how dwellings were laid out. Yet, to this day art historians have not yet studied the importance and influence of women in the modern world of domestic architecture.
Residenz Würzburg (1729–1744)
Authors: Schmidt Freek 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

In 1719 Johann Philips Franz von Schönborn became prince‐bishop of Würzburg (Franconia), part of the Habsburg empire, and decided to replace the small
schloss
by a new and relocated residence, for which the court architect Balthasar Neumann (1687–1753) drafted the first designs. The ideas for a new residence and its situation were discussed at length between the prince and his relatives, and he offered the services of his architect, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. For further advice Neumann went to Paris in 1723 to consult two of the most distinguished architects of the time, Robert de Cotte and Germain Boffrand, who were experienced in the design and planning of palaces for the pinnacle of European courts and added their creative architectural expertise to accommodate the princely aims. The interior decorations were carried out by famous stuccoworkers like Antonio Bossi, while Giovanni Battista Tiepolo created the large stucco painting for the
Treppenhaus
, one of the largest and most impressive structures of eighteenth‐century architecture.
Radcliffe Camera (1739–1749)
Authors: Hart Vaughan 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
John Radcliffe, physician to William III and Mary II, let it be known around 1712 that he intended to build a library for the Natural Sciences in Oxford. When he died in 1714 his will of 8 December left £40,000 for that purpose. The Radcliffe Camera was eventually built between 1739 and 1749 to a design by James Gibbs, although its origins firmly lay in earlier schemes by Nicholas Hawksmoor.
Schloß Sanssouci (1743–1745)
Authors: Bédard Jean‐François 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

A summer retreat more than a genuine palace, Schloß Sanssouci's unique layout owes as much to the idiosyncratic personality of its patron and designer, Frederick II, king of Prussia, as it does to the eighteenth‐century French architectural type of the
maison de plaisance
(pleasure retreat). Prototypical enlightened ruler and keen Francophile, Frederick, known as Frederick the Great, combined military prowess with a discerning interest in philosophy, classical letters, and the arts. He not only corresponded with and hosted such preeminent minds of the time as Voltaire but was also himself an accomplished musician and composer, a notable art collector, even a skilled architect. At Sanssouci, he adapted the French model of the
pavillon à l'italienne
—a single‐story garden pavilion—to an original program, part guesthouse, part intellectual retreat.
Strawberry Hill (1749–1790)
Authors: Snodin Michael 
Published: March 2017

AbstractStrawberry Hill, built between 1749 and 1790, was the lifetime project of Horace Walpole, the author, collector, historian, and commentator. It was a summer villa that evoked a particular vision of both national and family history, and became nationally and internationally famous. Although Strawberry Hill gave its name to the style of the early Gothic revival, it was not the first such Gothic building. It was, however, the first revival house to be consistently Gothic both inside and out and the first to have asymmetrical planning and massing that gave the impression of a house built over many years. It also pioneered the use of correct Gothic detailing in the form of architectural quotations from medieval originals, and was the first scheme to combine a naturalistic garden with a picturesque house.
Albergo dei Poveri (1751)
Authors: Thomas Robin L. 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The Albergo dei Poveri in Naples was one of the largest hospices for the poor constructed in Europe. It was built as a massive demonstration of royal charity, offering urban mendicants food and shelter along with training in a trade and religious instruction. Designed by Ferdinando Fuga, who shepherded the project through three different planning stages, it became a model of rigorous architectural order, and featured an innovative five‐nave church at its core.
Royal Palace Caserta (1751)
Authors: Thomas Robin L. 
Published: March 2017

AbstractBuilding the royal palace at Caserta, one of Europe's largest, was part of the Bourbon king of Naples' political and economic revival of his kingdom. Designed by Luigi Vanvitelli with input from the sovereign, it was built around four courtyards. At the building's core Vanvitelli planned a magnificent staircase and royal chapel. The garden axis extended through the center of the building and toward Naples, providing an organizing fulcrum for the surrounding area.