bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chronic Illness and Families
Authors: Latham Kenzie 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Chronic illness describes the experience of living with a chronic disease or condition. Chronic illness not only affects the individual with the chronic condition but his/her family as well. Equally, the family shapes the lived experience of an individual with chronic illness. The majority of research examining the experience of families coping with chronic illness focuses on families living with childhood chronic illness. In general, childhood illness places large demands on the family system. Similarly to childhood chronic illness, chronic illness among adults impacts the entire family.
Families in Middle Life
Authors: Alphonso Carla 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Middle life is a time of changing social roles and relationships. In industrial countries, families in middle life may face competing demands associated with raising children, caring for aging parents, maintaining a marriage, and employment. These families may be a part of the “sandwich generation,” with continued responsibilities and frequent interactions with both younger and older generations. Thus, these families, and wives in particular, may experience a double caregiving obligation. Families in middle life may have co‐resident children, some of whom may be “boomerang kids.” Work–family conflict and life balance may be concerns for the middle‐aged. These varying trends further may impact marital satisfaction. For many, grandparenting begins in middle adulthood. Middle adulthood is a time of generativity that often manifests itself in family relations of the middle‐aged.
Female Circumcision
Authors: Schubert Katie A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Female circumcision, or female genital mutilation, has become a global concern since the 1980s. This entry explores the types of female circumcision that are practiced as well as where the majority of circumcisions occur. The theories as to why female circumcision has continued as a custom will be addressed. The United States' response to the practice will also be explored, as will America's history with female circumcision.
Guest Worker Families inEurope
Authors: Bilecen Başak 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe large‐scale, state‐led movement of labor migrants in Europe has raised questions regarding their family life and integration into their host societies. Family reunification and family‐forming migration have heralded chain migration and increased labor migrant populations across western European countries. Most of the research on labor migration focuses on trends and dynamics of family formation, religion, intergenerational transmissions, care, gender, and transnational relations.
P
ortugal, Families in
Authors: Amaro Fausto , Neves Barbara Barbosa 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Portugal is a European country located on the Iberian Peninsula and has been a member of the European Union since 1986. Portugal is a semipresidential constitutional republic, a democratic state based on the rule of law. It has a population of 10.5 million (2012), 48 percent male and 52 percent female. As are most developed countries, in the early twenty‐first century Portugal is experiencing an aging population trend based on low birth, fertility, and mortality rates and high life expectancy rates. Most Portuguese families are nuclear or conjugal, followed by couples without children and single‐person families. The average number of people per family has been decreasing, from 4.2 in 1920 to 2.6 in 2011. After the 1974 revolution, which ended a long‐term dictatorship, the Portuguese Constitution expressed the principle of equal gender rights. Compared to other European countries, Portugal has a high rate of full‐time female employment, in part because low salaries created the need for dual‐earner households.
Iran, Families in
Authors: Chubin Fae 
Published: March 2016

AbstractIran has undergone major social, political, economic, and cultural changes since the early twentieth century, and these changes are likely to substantially transform key institutions, including family. Alongside Iran's complex mosaic of individual and family change (including a dramatic fall in fertility, and later marriage), certain societal aspects of family life have remained nearly constant (such as marriage with relatives, family support and control of individuals, and the taboo of sexual relations outside marriage). Family remains one of the most influential institutions in Iran, with every major decision or action of individuals in their life course being evaluated and discussed within the larger network of the family.
Noncustodial Parents
Authors: Nixon Elizabeth 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Noncustodial parents are parents who live apart from their children. The majority of noncustodial parents are fathers. Research on noncustodial parents has focused on frequency of noncustodial parent–child contact, the effect of noncustodial parent involvement on children's development, and factors that affect noncustodial parents' involvement. The quality of noncustodial parent–child relationships and the extent to which noncustodial parents are warm and responsive and monitor and set limits for their children influences children's well‐being. Factors that influence noncustodial parents' involvement with their children include the nature of the relationship between the parents, payment of child support, geographic distance between households, and parents' marital status.
Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems
Authors: Gerhardt Clara 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The circumplex model of marital and family systems is anchored in family systems theory. This model illustrates the reactions and adaptations of families to the stressors they experience developmentally. The model represents the interaction of dimensions of cohesion (emotional bonding) and flexibility (stability of a system). Importantly, a system is not fixed in a static point as families constantly adjust. The original circumplex model as it applies to family systems is attributed to the work of David H. Olson. Olson and coworkers also developed a program used in marriage and family counseling contexts called the PREPARE/ENRICH program. The family assessment tool that was developed in conjunction with the circumplex model is the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale.
Puberty
Authors: Stockburger Stephanie J. , Omar Hatim A. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractPuberty is the transition between childhood and adulthood. A number of physical, cognitive, and emotional changes take place during this time. Both the physical and the cognitive changes proceed in a predictable manner. Physical changes are evaluated using sexual maturity rating, based on breast, pubic hair, and male genital growth. Cognitive and behavioral changes are classified into early, middle, and late adolescence. There is concern that puberty is occurring earlier than in years past. The role of endocrine‐disrupting chemicals is being investigated as a potential cause of earlier puberty. Puberty that occurs earlier or later than expected can have negative psychological consequences on the individual.
Menarche
Authors: Stockburger Stephanie J. , Omar Hatim A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Menarche is a female's first menstrual period and a landmark event for females during puberty. Historically, menarche has been thought of as a time when women were “unclean.” However, cultural acceptance and scientific knowledge of menarche have greatly increased. Menarche occurs as part of the typical progression of puberty caused by rises in luteinizing hormone, follicle‐stimulating hormone, and estrogen. The achievement of menstruation is associated with reproductive capability. Menarche that occurs earlier or later than expected should be evaluated by an experienced clinician and may signal a serious underlying problem. Researchers are evaluating whether menarche is occurring earlier than in years past. An area of concern is whether environmental chemicals are affecting the timing of puberty.
Teen Sexuality
Authors: Stockburger Stephanie J. , Omar Hatim A. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractSexuality is a complex phenomenon that involves interactions between one's biological sex, core gender identity, and gender role behavior. The development of one's sexuality begins in infancy and proceeds in a continuum throughout adulthood. For appropriate development of healthy adult sexuality, one must successfully and healthily complete each stage. During adolescence, many physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes are occurring and proceed in a predictable pattern. Throughout the course of puberty, one's body and mind grow from those of a child to those of an adult. Teens are at risk for pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and dating violence during this tumultuous time. Teens who identify as GLBT are at increased risk of violence, depression, and substance abuse.
Premarital Dating Relationships in
I
ran
Authors: Rahbari Ladan 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Premarital relationships are legally banned and culturally rejected in Iran. A very low percentage of Iranian families with high incomes and educational levels hold liberal views about dating. However, almost half of Iranian teenagers start dating at high school. Since the beginning of the twenty‐first century, cultural changes, alterations in perceptions of sexual identity, and increasing intercultural interactions due to technological transformations and the emergence of alternative methods of communication have generated a wave of virtual dating by the use of Internet. Cultural and religious taboos on sexual activity diminish the possibility of having vaginal sexual intercourse in dating relationships but alternative forms of sexual activity are practiced. Girls are vulnerable and prone to abuse by their partners in dating relationships due to lack of social support and a patriarchal ideology.
Cost of Raising Children
Authors: Bartek Jennifer 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The cost of raising a child is determined by many factors such as the age of the child and any other children, how many parents are in the household, where the family lives, and the family's annual income. These factors then determine the amount of money spent on housing, food, transportation, clothing, healthcare, child care and education, and miscellaneous expenses. When children grow older, the expenses of raising them increase. There are theories that have been used in determining the cost of raising a child, such as the life cycle theory and the theory of consumption.
I
taly, Families in
Authors: Santoro Monica 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Italian family is conspicuous for its long‐standing wide variety of family structures. The process of nuclearization was slow and only accomplished after World War II. In the European setting, as of the mid‐2010s Italy is one of the countries with the lowest marriage and fertility rates and with the highest percentage of young people aged 18–34 who still live at home. With regard to the emergence of new family forms, premarital cohabitation has only become widespread since the end of the 1990s, particularly among the young generations of the center‐north, and since the year 2000 extramarital births have risen in number. The fertility rate decline and increase in life expectancy have raised the issue of how families will cope with the demands of an aging family network and its increasing caregiving needs, where welfare policies aimed at the elderly and families are scarce.
Maternal Instinct
Authors: Plevinski Chelsea C. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Maternal instinct has been viewed in various ways. Some consider it a biological concept, involving neocortical stimulation, while others consider it a psychological or learned concept. It has been defined by some as a reaction to certain stimuli that are preprogrammed within us. It is also sometimes defined as an impulse or drive. Others argue that what is referred to as maternal “instinct” is the bond that can exist between a mother and a child, which is reflected in caring behaviour.
Child Brides
Authors: Wang Cheng‐Tong Lir , Bolzendahl Catherine 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The term “child bride” refers to a girl under the age of 18 who is involved in a formal marriage or informal union. Child marriage with young girls is prevalent in several developing regions of the world, and the practice is regarded as a violation of human rights. The practice is related to adverse health, social, and economic consequences. Many intervention programs have been pursued to curb the practice, albeit with uncertain effectiveness. Girls' access to education, alongside socioeconomic development, is believed to be the most important means to end the practice.
Gender and Health
Authors: Mixson‐Perez Nicole 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The role of gender is a key focus of researchers studying a number of social, economic, political, and cultural factors on overall health, well‐being, healthcare, access to healthcare, treatment of illness and disease, and rates of particular diseases and health conditions. The ways in which men and women and individuals of other gender groups experience and are impacted by various factors tied to health can give us great insight into gender differences in areas such as health status and other health outcomes. The multidisciplinary literature demonstrates analyses ranging from the social sciences to public health that examine gender inequalities and their relationships to health factors from multiple theoretical and methodological perspectives, emphasizing both biological and social characteristics.
Cenogamy
Authors: Foster John D. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Cenogamy, sometimes referred to as group marriage, is a type of marital union commonly associated with the most primitive human societies. Theorists have posited that such unions were necessary for these societies to survive. However, cenogamy is such a rare form of marriage that some analysts argue it has never truly existed, at least not for an extended period of time. Due to its instability, cenogamy is both rare and temporary.
Companionate Marriage
Authors: Hunt Andrea N. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Companionate marriage refers to marriages based on affection, friendship, and sexual gratification. In the development of forms of marriage in the west, companionate marriages represent a shift away from institutional marriages, which were based on economic terms. The ideals of companionate marriage influenced conceptions of childhood and created new childrearing patterns with more emphasis on nurturing and love. Companionate marriage later gave way to individualized marriages, which further challenged the notion of separate spheres, or the breadwinner–homemaker model, within families.
Life Course Perspective
Authors: Fobes Catherine , McCullen Megan M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The life course perspective is a theoretical approach to understanding how social factors shape individual and familial lives from birth to death. It emerged in the mid‐twentieth century and emphasizes the interrelationships between age, cohort, and historical and social contexts in the trajectory of an individual's life. Over the duration of one's life, earlier transitions and turning points shape later life outcomes, accumulating advantages and disadvantages over the life course. As societies have entered the age of the postnuclear family, scholars have recognized how social marginalization and a variety of family structures play a major role in understanding the life course. The life course perspective has been particularly useful for linking lives and families to the institutional, historical, social, and economic contexts in which they are situated.
D
efense of
M
arriage
A
ct (
DOMA
)
Authors: Jackson Joseph S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract

The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was enacted by the US Congress in 1996, in response to concerns that Hawaii and other states might recognize same‐sex marriage. The act contains two substantive provisions. Section 2 provides that no state is required to recognize or treat as valid a same‐sex marriage entered into in any other state. Section 3 provides that, for purposes of federal law, only marriages between one man and one woman are recognized and treated as valid. However, this provision was declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in
United States v. Windsor
(2013). Many states have enacted laws and constitutional provisions similarly providing that only marriages between one man and one woman shall be recognized and treated as valid in that state. In
Obergefell v. Hodges
(2015), the US Supreme Court held that these provisions violate the Fourteenth Amendment, that states must allow same‐sex marriage, and that states must recognize same‐sex marriages performed in other states. Thus, DOMA is no longer valid in any respect.
Reproduction
Authors: Franzese Alexis T. , McCurdy Amy L. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractPopularized during the 1950s, the notion of the “traditional” nuclear family consisting of a heterosexual married couple and their biological children was considered the ideal. Accordingly, reproduction has historically signifiedbiologicalfamily expansion. As the late twentieth century and the early twenty‐first have seen the rise of alternative family forms, the chances of children being born and raised in nontraditional family forms have increased. In parallel have arisen alternative methods of reproduction (e.g., adoption and the use of reproductive technologies), which may be defined by nonbiological means. Within this context, alternative forms of family‐building give parents greater freedom in their reproductive decisions. Conversely, development of alternative contraceptive methods has increased choices when individuals seek to prevent pregnancy. All of the mentioned biomedical advances facilitate greater autonomy in the reproductive arena. Alternative household structures discussed include single‐parent families, families composed of LGBT members, families built through adoption, “blended” families created by divorces and remarriages, and families constituted by unmarried cohabitating couples.
Native
A
merican Families
Authors: Olmer Steven D. , Brown Kristina S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Native American family has faced many difficulties since the beginning of the development of Euro‐American culture, including the forced removal of children from families during the 1960s by the US government. As a result of the pressure to accept capitalistic traditions, many Native American families have been forced to adapt despite their typically interdependent heritage. As of 2010 there were 5.2 million individuals within the United States who identify as having American Indian or Alaskan Native origin. In the same year there were 565 federally recognized tribes throughout the United States to which these individuals belonged. Native Americans have been identified as the most impoverished ethnic group in the United States, which has resulted in many families seeking employment off the reservations, putting strain on the traditional values of tribes and influencing the current roles and obligations of many Native American families.
Polygyny
Authors: Blume Amelia , Abrutyn Seth 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Polygyny is the practice of one man marrying multiple women. While it is not the most commonly practiced marital union, it is practiced to some extent in at least 75 percent of societies worldwide. There are numerous theories about the causes and functions of polygyny. Sociobiological explanations focus on men's sexual desires and reproduction, while explanations based on behavioral ecology turn to the environmental factors that shape marital choices. Economic explanations have suggested that men gain more wealth through the acquisition of more wives, due to female sustenance contributions. However, the evidence surrounding economic theories proves to be weak. Demographic explanations explain polygyny through imbalanced sex ratios that are the result of high male mortality. Looking beyond the causes of polygynous unions, research also focuses on the lived experiences of those involved in such marriages, especially women's quality of life.
Sati
Authors: McKendry‐Smith Emily 
Published: March 2016

AbstractSati (or suttee) refers to the practice of a widow's immolation on her husband's funeral pyre. This practice has typically been associated with India but has also historically been found in Bali, Java, and Nepal. Although sati is extremely rare in contemporary India, public and scholarly attention on the topic was renewed in 1987 with the sati of Roop Kanwar. While some claim that sati is an Indian tradition, others contend that the practice increased under British colonization and has been adopted as a symbol by social and political groups. Research also considers possible economic motivations behind sati, including both those of the deceased husband's family and those of the broader community or village.
Wife Capture
Authors: McKendry‐Smith Emily , Jenkins Tiffany 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Wife capture (also referred to as capture marriage, bride kidnapping, bride theft, and bride abduction) refers to the process where a man, possibly with the assistance of relatives or friends, forcibly kidnaps a prospective bride. This may occur with the bride's collusion, as a form of elopement, but is also perpetrated without the woman's consent. While the specific process varies among different cultures, women typically initially resist capture but often choose to remain in the marriage once their virginity has been lost.
Gambia, Families in
Authors: Ebere Charles 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe family is an important unit of social life in the Gambia. It is male dominant in nature and is sustained mainly through the extended family system. The patriarchal structure of the family and family's influence and role in the fabric of society are gradually changing to ways that are inconsistent with its traditional role. The broader sociopolitical and economic environments provide the contexts for understanding these changes in the Gambia.
Structural Functional Theory
Authors: Kitchen Deeb Paul 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Structural functional theory is a sociological paradigm that was once dominant within the discipline of sociology. As of the early twenty‐first century, it is most relevant in the study of families, where its influence is still guiding and shaping scholarship and inquiry. As a theory, it explains institutions, practices, and social structures by focusing on how they help address societal needs. The most influential functionalist scholars were G. P. Murdock and Talcott Parsons, who reached the height of their influence in the middle of the twentieth century. As a theoretical framework, functionalism has been criticized for universalizing and normalizing social structures that can be seen as problematic or oppressive.
Caregiving, Child
Authors: Aransiola Joshua O. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Caregiving roles are assumed to be primarily the responsibilities of the adult members of a society. Since the early 2000s, some researchers have begun to understand the intricacies surrounding family conditions that lead to children taking over these adult roles and their positive as well as negative effects on such children. Despite these studies, this category of child caregivers remains hidden to policymakers. There are no reliable statistics and limited government interventions on caregiving children across the globe. The adverse effects of caregiving roles for children are particularly numerous and are inimical to the physical and mental development of children.