bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Open Source
Authors: Berdou Evangelia 
Published: September 2017

Open source software (OSS) refers to software that can be freely used and modified. It is developed collaboratively over the → Internet by teams of globally distributed and predominantly volunteer programmers without the need for centralized control and often without monetary reward (→ Network Organizations through Communication Technology; Virtual Communities). The OSS movement is a continuation of a long tradition of sharing and cooperation that started in the early days of the Internet.
Prevention and Communication
Authors: Lampert Claudia 
Published: September 2017

The main objective of prevention is to avoid diseases by reducing risks that may negatively affect health (→ Health Communication). The prevention approach complements the health promotion approach. While prevention intends to avoid disease and reduce risks, health promotion focuses on resources that sustain the opportunity of healthy living. Even though the two concepts are sometimes used synonymously, lately the prevention approach has been proffered as independent of the health promotion concept. Both prevention and health promotion aim at a modification of attitudes and behavior by specific communication strategies to raise the empowerment of individuals. The problem is that not all individuals are interested in health‐related topics per se. In most cases, information is sought when people are directly or indirectly (e.g., through a family member or friend) concerned with a disease.
Propaganda
Authors: Wilke Jürgen 
Published: September 2017

The term “propaganda” is of Latin origin, meaning spreading, extending, or propagating with the help of the laity. It was first used by the Catholic church to denominate its mission. In 1622, the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, a council of cardinals responsible for the spread of the Catholic faith, was established in Rome under Pope Gregory XV. During the Age of Enlightenment the term assumed a polemic connotation. In the course of the French Revolution “propaganda” lost its ecclesiastic meaning in favor of a political one. The term then stood for the proclamation of an ideological expansion program hitherto unknown. Propaganda was adapted in a positive sense by the European labor movement in the nineteenth century and consequently also became a central concept of communist ideology. Lenin adopted propaganda, agitation, and organization as core terms of his press theory. The term also gained ground in commerce and became partly a synonym for → advertising. While the latter term, however, referred to economic goods, propaganda took on a more psychological meaning. It was also taken on favorably in the twentieth century by the National Socialist (Nazi) movement in Germany and the fascist movement in Italy. This has always been typical of totalitarian and authoritarian states. As a consequence, the term aroused highly negative associations in western democracies and was replaced there by the term → Public Relations.
Real‐Time Ratings (
RTR
)
Authors: Fahr Andreas 
Published: September 2017

Real‐time rating (RTR) methods – also called “real‐time response” or “continuous response measurement” (CRM) – collect judgments or evaluation data from a subject during media exposure (→ Exposure to Communication Content; Audience Research). While questionnaires provide data about the outcome of a perception (e.g., television viewing), RTR focuses on the process of viewing. Besides the application to academic questions of reception research, it is widely used within the media industry for testing → Television programs or movies before they are aired or released. Applications range from commercial television or radio programs, → advertising research, to measuring judgment processes in presidential debates (→ Televised Debates). It can also be used for content analysis of television programs or speeches (e.g., measuring perceived degree of violence, dimensions of characters' behavior, interaction, etc.; → Content Analysis, Quantitative).
Realism in Film and Photography
Authors: van Leeuwen Theo 
Published: September 2017

From its very beginnings, photography was understood and experienced in terms of its capacity for realism. “It is not merely the likeness which is precious … but the sense of nearness involved in the thing … the fact of the very shadow of the person lying there fixed forever,” wrote Elizabeth Barret in 1843 (quoted in Sontag 1977, 183). Soon it would be used to record events and document many aspects of the world, not just in people's family albums, but also in science, medical training, police work, military reconnaissance, and many other spheres of activity. Yet photography also developed into an art form, with highly allegorical
tableaux vivants
that “combined the sensuous beauty of the fine print with the moral beauty of the fine image” (Mike Weaver, quoted in Wells 2000, 262). In the twentieth century both these aspects of photography would continue to develop: documentary photography and → photojournalism with masters such as Erich Salomon, Cartier‐Bresson, and Robert Frank; and photography as a form of modern art with, for instance, the formal, quasi‐abstract landscapes of Edward Weston and the nudes of Bill Brandt.
Reality TV
Authors: Andrejevic Mark 
Published: September 2017

Reality TV became an increasingly prevalent global entertainment → Genre in the 1990s and early 2000s. The popularity of reality shows with producers is due in large part to the fact that they represent a cheap, flexible form of programming that is easily customizable to different audiences and lends itself to forms of interaction and participation associated with new communication technologies (→ Interactivity, Concept of; Digitization and Media Convergence). As an entertainment genre that relies on the unscripted interactions of people who are not professional actors, reality TV develops and discards formats at a rapid rate, parasitizing the permutations available in everyday life – including everything from romance to warfare – for raw material. Reality‐based formats can be differentiated from → news and other informational or documentary programming insofar as their focus is not on bringing the public realm of politics into the private sphere, but on publicizing the private and intimate (→ Television News; Tabloidization). The emphasis is not on matters of public interest for the purpose of democratic participation, but on therapy and social experimentation for the purpose of diversion (→ Enjoyment/Entertainment Seeking; Media Democracy). Reality formats make their claim to reality on the basis of their lack of scriptwriters and professional actors, but they are, for the most part, highly edited portrayals of patently contrived situations.
Rhetoric in the Middle East
Authors: Frank David A. 
Published: September 2017

An overview of rhetoric in the Middle East should begin with the recognition that the terms “rhetoric” and the “Middle East” are not neutral, as they reflect the ideological and cultural values of the Occident. There is a general consensus that the notion of rhetoric, coined by Plato in the fourth century
bce
to define the art of public → Discourse and oratory practiced in ancient Greece and the western tradition, should be challenged for its Hellenocentrism. Western scholars of rhetoric have moved beyond the belief that those outside the constellations of Occidental thought lack a “rhetorical consciousness.” The ancient Africans, Egyptians, Hebrews, and Chinese reflected on the role of symbols and argument (→ Rhetoric in Africa; Rhetoric in East Asia: China and Japan; Rhetorical Studies). Western rhetoric owes a deep dept to the Arab world, which preserved and translated the classical rhetorical texts of Greece and Rome during the Islamic world's renaissance in the ninth and tenth centuries
ce
, a period in which Athens yielded to Baghdad as the center of humanistic scholarship. Between 711 and 1492, the art of rhetoric flourished in Spain during the period known as
La Convinencia
(“the coexistence”) as Muslims, Jews, and Christians lived in a cosmopolitan community (→ Rhetoric in Western Europe: Spain). The discourse of and in the modern Middle East is a tangle of religious, national, and sectarian myths and arguments, often prompted by traumas (e.g., the crusades, Muslim expansion, the rise of the Ottoman empire, colonialism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, 9/11, etc.) that are the result of conflict between the west and the Middle East.
Rhetoric and Philosophy
Authors: Gaines Robert N. 
Published: September 2017

Interactions between rhetoric and philosophy have always been marked by concerns (and sometimes controversy) about the scope, status, and interdependence of the two disciplines. The reason is that while both disciplines are concerned with → Discourse, their aims are different. Philosophy is chiefly concerned with discourse as a medium to express and test knowledge, whereas rhetoric is chiefly concerned with discourse as a medium of influence on minds of individuals and collectives. As a historical matter, contacts between rhetoric and philosophy have differed according to intellectual and cultural circumstances within the ancient, medieval, renaissance, modern, and contemporary eras.
Rhetoric, Pre‐Socratic
Authors: Enos Richard Leo 
Published: September 2017

Pre‐Socratic rhetoric is an overarching concept that captures not only the traits of Hellenic rhetoric that were demonstrated by the sophists who immediately preceded Socrates, but also the antecedent forces that shaped sophistic views on thought and its relationship to expression. The dialogues of Plato and the development of the Socratic movement have often been considered the seminal events in recognizing rhetoric as a formal discipline or
technê
(→ Rhetoric, Greek). Yet, the dramatic date of these dialogues – particularly such dialogues as Plato's
Gorgias
and his later
Phaedrus
– reveal that sophists were already established and teaching rhetoric within and throughout Hellenic culture well before Plato (apparently) abstracted and coined “rhetoric” as a discipline worthy of scrutiny. Gorgias, a sophist who was clearly older than Plato's mentor and primary dialogue‐character, Socrates, professed to be an established teacher of rhetoric, claiming a pedagogical ancestry dating back to his fellow Sicilians Corax and Tisias. Of course, the debates over the “founding” of rhetoric, whether abstracted as a discipline or long practiced as a craft, continue even today. Yet, what is clear is that several forces were at work prior to the sophists and Plato, which contributed greatly to rhetoric's evolution into a discipline, regardless of when historians of rhetoric wish to select the moment when rhetoric became recognized as an area of study.
Rhetoric in the South Pacific
Authors: Thomas Susan 
Published: September 2017

Since the “new rhetorical” movement of the 1960s, the definition of rhetoric has expanded to encompass a variety of theories and movements, technologies and innovations, thereby raising the question of how rhetoric is understood and employed in the twenty‐first century (→ Rhetorics: New Rhetorics). While its rich connection with composition studies has increased the profile, popularity, and applications of rhetoric in North America, the emphasis on composition or academic writing as a mainstay of tertiary education is not nearly so widespread in the South Pacific. As a result, the term “rhetoric” is regarded dubiously.
Rhetoric and Technology
Authors: Warnick Barbara 
Published: September 2017

Rhetoric as the study of forms of self‐expression has many meanings depending on the context in which it is used. For theorists and practitioners of public speech, it is concerned primarily with the study of persuasion (→ Rhetoric, Argument, and Persuasion). For those interested in cultivation of effective expression, rhetoric concerns the use of style and development of polished writing and speaking (→ Style and Rhetoric). Rhetoric has been the subject of scholarly theory and analysis in education since at least the fourth century
bce
, when Aristotle developed his theories of artistic proof and stylistic expression in
On rhetoric
(Aristotle 1991; → Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetorical Studies).
Rhetoric in Western Europe: Germany
Authors: Till Dietmar 
Published: September 2017

During the early modern period, in Germany rhetoric was taught at grammar schools (
Gymnasien
), both Protestant and Jesuit, and at Protestant universities. Rhetorical theory provided a basis for writing, especially in Latin, serving as a means of communication for scholars throughout Europe. It influenced the theory of poetics as well as art, each of which relied heavily on rhetorical theory (→ Rhetoric and Poetics).
Rhetorical Theory of Public Relations
Authors: Ihlen Øyvind 
Published: September 2017

Rhetorical theory can help public relations to account for the symbolic aspects of communication, which arguably are the heart of → Public Relations activity. Although some fleeting mentions were made of the term in the early public relations literature, it is often said that the rhetorical approach originated around 1980, when Robert L. Heath proposed rhetoric to be the essence of an organization's relationship to its environment (Heath 1980; → Rhetorics: New Rhetorics; Rhetorical Studies; Organization–Public Relationships). Heath has since argued consistently that rhetoric affords public relations with the possibility for an ethical and pragmatic practice: “the good organization communicating well” (Heath 2001, 39; → Public Relations Ethics). Rhetoric assists organizations to achieve legitimacy as well as specific goals. It helps to focus the different interpretations, the zones of meaning, of stakeholders and, ideally, to co‐define and co‐create these (→ Stakeholder Theory). Concurrence is the aim, and the clash of different viewpoints strengthens the public opinion process.
Right to Communicate
Authors: Omachonu John 
Published: September 2017

In its modern use, freedom of speech means the freedom of communicating in a variety of formats, including but not limited to the spoken word (→ Freedom of Communication). The right to communicate may vary from one medium to another, and when scholars and jurists discuss free speech, they focus on a broader freedom to communicate, rather than on the narrow right to speak orally. Therefore, “freedom of speech,” “freedom of expression,” “freedom of the press,” and “freedom of information” are often used interchangeably (even though each is distinctive; → Freedom of the Press, Concept of; Freedom of Information).
Risk Perceptions
Authors: Lipkus Isaac M. 
Published: September 2017

One definition of risk communication is “communication with individuals (not necessarily face‐to‐face) that addresses knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, and behavior related to risk” (Edwards & Bastian 2001, 147). In the public health arena, we often hear about the dangers of poor lifestyle habits (e.g., smoking, drinking, not exercising, failure to vaccinate or screen for cancer) or how to engage in preventive health behaviors (e.g., taking aspirin to prevent heart disease). Often, the media, health providers, and even our family and friends craft persuasive communications designed to inform us about our risk of disease or other bad outcomes. The basic idea behind these messages, and consistent with many theoretical models of behavior change, is that increasing a person's sense that something bad can happen to them, that is, perceived risk, will motivate behavior change to either prevent or diminish the threat. Thus, perceptions of risk entail not only the perceived probabilities of an event occurring – or not – but the negative consequences as well; negative consequences can encompass the physical, social, psychological, and economic realms (→ Health Communication; Persuasion; Persuasion and Resistance).
Sesame Street
Authors: Bryant J. Alison 
Published: September 2017

Sesame Street is an educational children's television series for preschoolers that teaches a broad range of curricula, from letter and numbers to socio‐emotional and coping skills (→ Educational Media; Educational Media Content). The series is the longest running US children's television show, having first aired in 1969, and has won over 100 Emmys, more than any other television program. It is often heralded as the hallmark of → entertainment education programming because of its broad spectrum popularity, its stringent research process, and its international impact.
Sign
Authors: Steinman Clay 
Published: September 2017

The sign, in terms first articulated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), the Swiss linguist, has come to serve as the basic unit of approaches to communication that focus on meaning‐making relations rather than on the effectiveness of senders' communication of intended messages to designated receivers (→ Linguistics; Meaning). Semiotic approaches have been taken up by general communication studies, → cultural studies, post‐1960s literary studies, and other fields. For Saussure and for those who analyze culture in his wake, communication involves not messages but signs, material forms that when articulated and then encountered engender meanings bounded by cultural schemata (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). The study of signs, then, is at its core social: What conventions determine how signs are made? What conventions determine their readings?
Sleeper Effect
Authors: Schenk Michael 
Published: September 2017

“Sleeper effect” describes a phenomenon in which messages from sources with originally low credibility cause opinion change over time. The credibility of a source as perceived by receivers of its message constitutes a central issue in the theory of persuasion, in particular with regard to its impact on attitude change (→ Attitudes). A highly credible communicator (e.g., by virtue of trust, expertise, or reliability) commands an increased probability that the receivers of a message will accept and absorb the persuasive intent of the communication (→ Persuasion). However, the effect of credibility varies during the course of persuasive effects over time. In general, the impact of a persuasive message peaks immediately after exposition and declines over time (→ Credibility Effects). The sleeper effect describes a contrary phenomenon for messages from low‐credibility sources. Here, the immediate effect is overruled by the long‐term effect: The sleeper effect is thus defined as the absolute increase in attitude change over time for receivers of a low‐credibility message (Hovland et al.

).
Social Exchange
Authors: Roloff Michael E. 
Published: September 2017

Human survival is based on the ability to exchange resources, and as a result of evolution, the human brain has adapted so as to facilitate exchange (Cosmides & Tooby 2005). Communication is a tool by which individuals can negotiate an exchange (→ Negotiation and Bargaining) as well as provide resources (Roloff 1981). Appropriately, communication scholars have used social exchange theories to guide their research. Interpersonal researchers have applied these frameworks to a variety of relational processes (→ Disclosure in Interpersonal Communication; Interpersonal Conflict; Relationship Development; Relational Maintenance). Organizational researchers have found the frameworks useful for investigating → supervisor–subordinate relationships, as well as other aspects of the workplace (Cropanzano & Mitchell 2005).
Standards of News
Authors: Dicken‐Garcia Hazel 
Published: September 2017

News standards connote normative qualities, such as accuracy and decency (→ Ethics in Journalism), but the term specifically means the way information is gathered, made into news reports, and presented (Dicken‐Garcia 1989). For example
, objectivity
encompasses six standards: verified facts, fairness, non‐bias, independence, non‐interpretation, and neutrality (Ward 2004). Journalists develop standards to gain credibility in society, and standards change across space and time. For example, US news standards changed as the press shifted from partisan (→ Partisan Press) to event‐centered to commercial during nineteenth‐century industrialization. Accuracy and balance, of little concern to partisan journalists, became more important with the shift from producer to consumer society (→ Professionalization of Journalism).
Storytelling and Narration
Authors: Katriel Tamar 
Published: September 2017

Communication research has long recognized the centrality of storytelling in the construction of identities, relationships, and communities. Fisher (

) went so far as to propose the metaphor of man as “homo narrans,” pointing to the narrativization of experience as a fundamental human cognitive strategy and social practice (→ Rhetoric and Narrativity). Narratives are made up of sequentially organized verbal and/or other types of signs (visual, musical, kinesthetic) that depict a temporal transition from one state of affairs to another (Ricoeur 1988). Using one or more modalities, they create a plot that incorporates the narrated events within a sense‐making scheme. Thus, narratives interweave events, circumstantial elements, and emotions by imbuing them with a sense of meaning and order in terms of temporal coherence, causal links, and value orientations. Current research into narration as a socio‐culturally situated activity is a multidisciplinary enterprise, spanning literary studies, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and linguistics. It encompasses both face‐to‐face and technologically mediated communicative encounters, as well as the poetics and politics of high‐profile narrations and everyday storytelling performances. While some scholars view the term “narrative” as an overarching category designating any explanatory system (such as science), reserving the term “story” to refer to one of its sub‐genres, most studies of narration as a discursive activity embedded in social interaction use these terms interchangeably, as will be done here.
Suspension of Disbelief
Authors: Böcking Saskia 
Published: September 2017

In general, suspension of disbelief is understood to be an audience's tolerance of the fictionality of media content (→ Fiction). The phrase means that the audience accepts limitations in the presented story, sacrificing → Realism, and occasionally logic and believability, as well as the media content's aesthetic quality for the sake of enjoyment. Originally, the term traces back to the British Romantic and literary critic Samuel T. Coleridge (1772–1834), who used it to describe the necessity for readers of poetry to accept the fictive world proposed in literary work. Although Coleridge proposed suspension of disbelief as a stance a user has to adopt willingly – he speaks of the “willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith” (Coleridge

, 169) – in later publications the “willing” is often omitted. Only recently, suspension of disbelief has also been connected with the usage of electronic media such as → virtual realities and movies, or, more generally, of narratives (→ Presence; Cinema; Transportation Theory; Storytelling and Narration).
Symbolic Interaction
Authors: Sandstrom Kent 
Published: September 2017

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that emphasizes the centrality of meaning, interaction, and human agency in social life. This theory emerged out of the American philosophical tradition of → pragmatism, an approach developed in the late nineteenth century by Charles Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Challenging the assumptions of classical rationalism, these scholars saw “reality” as dynamic and pluralistic, viewed people as actors rather than reactors, tied human meanings to social acts and perspectives, and regarded knowledge as a key resource for addressing problems and improving the social world.