bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Andean Community of Nations (CAN)
Authors: Porrata-Doria Rafael A 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The idea that the nations of Latin America should undertake political and economic integration is not recent (see also → Regional Co-operation and Organization: American States). For a number of reasons, including the lack of commonalities among the countries seeking political or economic integration, these efforts have tended to be unsuccessful. The consensus is that the modern attempts at Latin American economic integration were spearheaded by the development, import substitution and integration theories, and initiatives of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (‘ECLA’). Given the small size of most of the countries of Latin America, economic development as anticipated by ECLA would require economic integration on a regional scale.
Andean Community of Nations, Court of Justice
Authors: Porrata-Doria Rafael A 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Andean Community Court of Justice (‘Court’) is currently the principal mechanism of the → Andean Community of Nations (CAN) for the interpretation of the Cartagena Agreement and CAN law, and for the resolution of disputes involving or affecting the Community. The Cartagena Agreement did not originally provide for a court but instead provided first for the informal resolution of disputes involving the treaty by the Community’s Commission and, in the event that this process was unsuccessful, by arbitration under the Latin American Free Trade Association (‘LAFTA’) Dispute Settlement Protocol (7 ILM 747; see also → Latin American Integration Association [ALADI]).
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
Authors: Fuchs Christine 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The organization originated with the Pact of Mutual Cooperation which became known as the Baghdad Pact. The pact was concluded by Iraq and Turkey in Baghdad on 24 February 1955 with the purpose of establishing an alliance for collective self-defence (→ Alliances; → Self-Defence, Collective). The pact’s antecedent was the Saadabad Pact, a non-aggression pact (→ Non-Aggression Pacts) which was signed by Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan in July 1937 as a reaction to the Italo-Ethiopian crises of 1934–35. The United Kingdom (‘UK’), Pakistan and Iran became parties to the Baghdad Pact on 5 April 1955, on 23 September, and on 21 October of the same year respectively. The United States of America (‘US’) did not adhere to it, but demonstrated its approval of the pact through participation in the military, economic, and counter-subversion committees and by signing several bilateral agreements with Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. On 24 March 1959, however, Iraq withdrew from the pact following the anti-monarchy coup d’état of 14 August 1958 and the ensuing tensions between Iraq and the other parties to the pact. The pact’s headquarters were subsequently transferred from Baghdad to Ankara, Turkey and the alignment was renamed the Central Treaty Organization (‘CENTO’) on 19 August 1959.
Decolonization: Portuguese Territories
Authors: Fischer Matthias , Klatte Saskia 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Portugal being the first European country to entertain colonies was also the last one to leave them. When other countries were letting go of their colonies in the aftermath of World War II Portugal chose to cling to them even tighter. In contrast to the situation of other colonial powers (→ Decolonization: Belgian Territories; → Decolonization: Spanish Territories), Portugal did not release its colonies in a gradual manner; rather, → decolonization of Portuguese territories occurred as a sudden process. This was due to the fact that during the regime from 1926 to 1974 the maintenance of the so-called ‘overseas provinces’ (provícias ultramarinas) was considered a major goal. In the time of President General Salazar and his successor Caetano the country’s leading motto was: ‘Portugal uno e indivisível do Minho a Timor’ (‘Portugal one and undividable from Minho [province in Northern Portugal] to Timor’).
Delalić Case
Authors: Kees Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Between 1997 and 2003 the → International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) presided over the trial of four members of Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Croat military and paramilitary forces, who were charged with having committed violations of international humanitarian law directed against members of the Serb population at a prison camp in 1992. The accused Delalić, Delić, Landžo, and Mucić had different positions within the organization of the Čelebići camp, working as guards or commanders. The camp, located in south-west → Bosnia-Herzegovina, had been established by local Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Croat forces.
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
Authors: Berger Antje C , Hamady Omar Ould D 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS/Communauté Économique des États de l’Afrique de l’Ouest, CEDEAO) is a regional economic community (‘REC’) of 15 West African States founded in 1975 by the Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States (Treaty of Lagos). ECOWAS is one of the pillars of regional integration in Africa along with the other RECs, in particular the → Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the → Economic Community of Central African States (‘ECCAS’), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (‘IGAD’), the → Southern African Development Community (SADC), the → East African Community (EAC), the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (‘CEN-SAD’), and the → Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) (see also → Regional Co-operation and Organization: African States). The establishment of ECOWAS marked a breakthrough in regional integration in Africa as it embraced for the first time former French, British, and Portuguese colonies.
Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States
Authors: Douhan Alena 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States (‘CIS Economic Court’) is a regional international court. It was established in 1992, shortly after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, with the purpose of settling economic disputes between the newly independent States (Art. 5 Agreement on the Measures to Ensure an Accounting between Enterprises of CIS States of 12 May 1992). The Agreement on the Status of the CIS Economic Court was signed on 06 July 1992 (‘CIS EC Agreement’). In fact, it has been designed as a substitute for the USSR Supreme Economic Court. In accordance with Art. 32 Charter of the Commonwealth of Independent States (‘CIS Charter’) the CIS Economic Court became a CIS organ. The Court is located in Minsk, Belarus.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Authors: Mechlem Kerstin 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (‘FAO’), alongside the → World Food Programme (WFP) and the → International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), is one of the three Rome-based so-called ‘food agencies’. FAO was founded on 16 October 1945, eight days before the itself. The idea originated at the ‘United Nations Conference on Food and Agriculture of 18 May to 3 June 1943 at Hot Springs, Virginia, USA, an initiative of President Franklin D Roosevelt.
Haya de la Torre Cases
Authors: Hailbronner Kay , Pohlmann Monika 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Following an unsuccessful military rebellion in Peru on 3 October 1948, the American People’s Revolutionary Alliance (‘Alliance’), a political party, was banned and a decree was issued charging the Alliance with having organized and directed the military rebellion and ordering the prosecution of its leaders. Shortly thereafter, criminal proceedings were initiated in Peru against the Alliance’s leader, Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, and others in the Alliance for the crime of military rebellion. After three months in hiding, Haya de la Torre sought and obtained asylum in the Colombian Embassy in Lima on 3 January 1949 (→ Asylum, Diplomatic). Despite several months of diplomatic correspondence (→ Diplomatic Communications, Forms of), Colombia and Peru were unable to reach an agreement as to whether Colombia had the right to grant asylum and whether Haya de la Torre should be surrendered to the Peruvian authorities or granted a safe-conduct out of the country (→ Safe-Conduct and Safe Passage).
Conclusion
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter argues that, while Conservatives lost the 1945 general election, they ‘won’ the Second World War. It suggests that, compared to the revolutionary changes Conservatives feared in 1939 and 1940, changes to Britain’s economy, class system, Empire, and constitution were relatively mild. Moreover, it highlights how certain elements of British life, notably militarisation and the strengthened link between Church and State, were in fact welcomed by Conservatives. It argues that Conservative ‘success’ during the war was due to four main factors: the Party’s parliamentary advantage, the self-confidence provided by its particular interpretation of Dunkirk, continued support for the principles of liberal militarism, and Churchill’s success in limiting internal Party opposition.
The Wonder of Quantum Spin
Authors: Satija Indubala I. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Wonder of Quantum Spin is a confection of the history and the science of quantum spin covering two centuries of the golden era in mathematics and physics. First glimpses of spin appeared nearly 200 years ago in the study of rotations where spinors emerged as a new entity that changes sign after a 360 degree rotation, reminiscent of the Mobius geometry. A century later, quantum spin described by the spinor was discovered in physics. Among many other things, it led to the discovery of antimatter, raised the possibility of parity violation, and gave the first warning that protons and neutrons are not elementary. The MRI—one of the most important medical advances of the twentieth century—is an application of quantum spin to humanity. As we approach the centennial of the discovery of spin in Nature, the spin mystique prevails as we have no clue of what exactly spinning is. On the other hand, the theoretical framework underlying the spin determines why we exist, explains the mysteries of the 3000 years-old phenomena of magnetism, is behind the precision measurements of electron and muon spin magnetic moments displaying a mindboggling confrontation between theory and experiment that serves as an ambassador to quantum physics. Some of the other frontiers of physics that revolve around spin-1/2 include exotic states of matter known as topological insulators and the qubit—the quantum bits for tomorrow’s computers.
Introduction
Authors: Satija Indubala I. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The central theme of this chapter is to highlight the mathematical beauty that pervades the laws of Nature and the astonishing predicting power of the mathematics in designing the world in which we live. Here is a description of the mass, the charge, and the spin as the three main attributes of fundamental particles. Even though the mass is a complex beast attributed to the Higgs field, the spin is perhaps the most mysterious property of elementary particles. It was discovered in physics about hundred years ago, however, its shadow can be seen in Euler’s identity which is the gold standard of mathematical beauty. The discovery of quantum spin in physics about a century ago was perhaps one of the greatest milestones in the history of scientific discoveries of the last century.
Pseudo-Spin-1/2 Models and Topological States of Matter
Authors: Satija Indubala I. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter is a gateway to the exploration of the exotic states of matter—the topological insulators and superconductors within the framework of spin-1/2 models. The chapter introduces topological concepts and describes how topology manages to sneak into the description of the macroscopic states in view of energy gap underlying the spectral properties. Discussion includes models for quantum Hall, quantum spin Hall, and topological superconductors and the underlying topological invariant along with the central role played by the edge modes. Here is a description of Majorana fermions and zero Majorana modes exhibiting exotic properties, appearing as quasiparticles in condensed matter systems. Topics covered also include the ten-fold classification of topological states based on time reversal and particle-hole symmetries and the role of Clifford algebra in this classification.
Structural Injustice and the Two Faces of Vulnerability
Authors: Schiff Jade 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In Chapter 7, ‘Structural Injustice and the Two Faces of Vulnerability’, Jade Schiff addresses vulnerability as a central problem of structural injustice. She identifies two dimensions of vulnerability: ‘precarity’ (the condition of having relatively weak social, economic and political supports) and ‘fragility’ (the condition of struggling to adapt to changes in social, political and economic environments)—both of which are social. Schiff argues that we ought to transform society from one that systematically makes many populations vulnerable into one in which ameliorating vulnerability is among its most important goals. Schiff is particularly interested in the ways in which structural injustice establishes entrenched relations of privilege and privation between dominating groups who are relatively insulated from vulnerability and oppressed groups who are relatively exposed to it. Schiff argues that, if we understand distribution as the circulation of relations, then we can understand the unequal distribution of vulnerability as a problem of structural injustice. Privilege is also relational and is also circulated. Crises expose the contingency of relations of vulnerability and privilege. In these moments of crisis, the vulnerability of the privileged is exposed and they seek to displace their humiliation onto subordinated populations. Exposing the ideology of precarity and fragility is necessary for the vulnerable to push for structural change but, as Schiff warns, will generate reactionary counter-movements by dominant groups intent on securing their threatened privilege.
Regulation of Public Life II
Authors: Nicholls Colin , Bacarese Alan , Maton James , Scott Rachel , Hatchard John 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter sets out the reforms in the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, relating to the setting up of the Supreme Court, and the independence of the judiciary; judicial appointments, accountability, discipline and removal of judges, and the provisions in the revised Guide to Judicial Conduct published in 2020. The Civil Service Code and the Civil Service Management Code, including business appointments and the relationship with lobbyists. Codes of conduct in local government, including the police and prison services and the accountability of Non-Departmental Public Bodies.
Outlier Aesthetics
Authors: Lopes Dominic McIver 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Ideological beauty ideals are weaponized aesthetics because they stem from and compound social injustice around disability. They figure in concepts of the default or majority body, and they function to licence and normalize treatment of disabled people as incompetent. A case study of tactile images that can be made and used by blind people is presented. The case illustrates how some aesthetic injustice stems from and contributes to weaponized aesthetics. In particular, it illustrates how a failure to acknowledge the aesthetic competence of blind people in tactile imaging subverts an interest in the value diversity of aesthetic cultures.
Adoption, Personal Status, and Jewish Law
Authors: Broyde Michael J. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
There are two basic models of adoption found in legal systems. One framework has a full legal category of adoption, by which children become—as a matter of law—as if they were born to the adoptive parents and the original biological relationship is severed; this is the modern American model. The second construct has no legal category of adoption at all and denies that children legally become as if they were born to the adoptive parents. The Jewish tradition (like Islamic law and the ancient common law) is in this second construct and instead views such situations as a form of raising the children of another, or long-term foster care. The differences between these two approaches are quite dramatic. This article will focus on Jewish law, and will allow the reader to see how Jewish law—with no legal category of adoption—addresses situations where children need a new home and allows a contrast with the modern American law.
Christian Perspectives on Prenatal Diagnosis
Authors: Peterson-Iyer Karen 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
With the development of ever-more precise technologies of prenatal testing and diagnosis, the experience of pregnancy has become increasingly complex for pregnant persons and couples. Ethical responses have tended toward either a single-minded promotion of individual autonomy (and free choice) on the one hand, or a decidedly traditionalist rejection of prenatal diagnosis and selective abortion on the other. Navigating between these poles, Christian ethics, at its best, dictates a broader moral analysis, one that does honor personal freedom, but in the context of a more robust understanding of the human person. By examining several interconnected Christian theological themes—human dignity, the relief of suffering, a posture of radical hospitality, the meaning of parenthood, the common good, freedom as co-creation, and the fundamental goodness of nature—this chapter forges a moral path that both honors and pushes beyond an emphasis on individual autonomy in order to offer a more nuanced Christian perspective on prenatal diagnosis.
The Banking Sector in Zambia
Authors: Fundanga Caleb M. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter defines the banking sector in Zambia. It looks at the history of banking in the country. Banking in the colonial period through to independence and post-independence developments are examined. The chapter further looks at private and state sector participation in the banking sector. The chapter then looks at the role of the Central Bank (Bank of Zambia) in the regulation and growth of the banking sector. The chapter examines the size of the sector in terms of its contribution to the GDP, the competitiveness of the sector, and the role that private banks continue to play in the economy, in particular with regard to financial inclusion in general and contribution to meeting the development objectives of the government in particular.
The Education Sector
Authors: Chama-Chiliba Chitalu Miriam , Funjika Patricia , Simunchembu Kangalu Besnart , Nsokolo Denny 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the major changes, challenges, and achievements of the education sector in Zambia, post-independence to 2021 from an economic development perspective. The chapter shows that while access to education at all levels has improved, the quality of education is still lagging. General education has been characterized by an increase in enrolments and infrastructure developments, leading to universal access to primary school education, and gender disparities have reduced, particularly at the primary school level. However, most of the children in the school system are performing below par and not achieving desired competencies. The proliferation of private and public universities has increased enrolments, but access to tertiary education remains low, and skills mismatch persists, resulting in challenges in translating educational attainment to productivity and economic development. The chapter concludes that concerted efforts to improve the quality of education relevant to the Zambian economy, focusing on its intended outcomes, are crucial for sustaining economic progress.
Learning from the Land
Authors: Amundsen-Meyer Lindsay , Ayoungman Vivian 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Archaeology as a discipline relies heavily on experiential learning within the landscape and through interaction with material culture. This fits well with Indigenous pedagogies, which are largely oral and rely on land-based learning and storytelling as teaching tools. Harnessing these synergies, the authors ran a pilot archaeological training program on the Siksika First Nation in 2020, a partnership between Old Sun Community College and the University of Calgary. The goal of this program was to engage Siksika students with a culturally meaningful curriculum to foster interest in heritage and to teach skills needed for successful employment in archaeology, increasing the capacity of this Indigenous community to study its own history. This chapter will explore the teaching pedagogy and describe the unique teaching and learning experiences created by this integrated approach, which allowed students to make connections between Siksika cultural knowledge and the archaeological record.
Researching Closed Fields
Authors: Badr Hanan 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Communication studies cannot afford to dismiss studying closed contexts. Acknowledging the problematic ethical and safety dilemmas, this chapter critically explores the nuanced ways of doing field research in closed media contexts. Drawing on the concept of “closed contexts,” the chapter discusses the balance between safety and meaningful knowledge. Situating the debate within the critical research paradigm that calls to de-Westernize communication studies, the chapter details differences and dilemmas of investigating closed research realities and argues that a categorical dismissal is not productive for communication studies. Conducting meaningful scholarship under constrained conditions, inaccessible terrains, and invisible phenomena in disruptive settings raises a series of questions. The chapter raises awareness and calls for self-reflexive practices. Putting three suggestions forward, the chapter calls for nuanced research that transforms excellence criteria; pushes for cross-disciplinary fertilization between communication studies and area studies; and invites diasporic scholars, with their unique epistemic position, to take a stronger role in knowledge production.
Pedagogies of Resistance
Authors: Sartoretto Paola 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Brazil’s history is marked by struggles between a White elite that has maintained political and economic power and marginalized groups who struggle for rights and material resources. This chapter discusses how communication has been strategically deployed for political resistance among different marginalized groups facing hostile political scenarios, from dictatorship in the 1970s, through the intensification of neoliberalism in the 1980s and 1990s, to the emergence of extreme right actors that culminated in the election of Jair Bolsonaro in 2018. In the face of hostile political scenarios, marginalized communities have succeeded in mobilizing collectively. Social movements have recognized communication as a strategic aspect of mobilization, consciously appropriating technologies and engaging in media politics. This has resulted in accumulated knowledge that has been circulated among social movements in constant dialogue with academia. Members of social movements in Brazil have become not only political actors in their own fields but also media activists.