bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sport Identities
Authors: Weiss Otmar 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
“Who am I?” is the question that defines identity. In modern society, the answer is becoming increasingly important. The area of sport is no exception, but there is in sport a distinct feature that sets it apart from other areas of life – unity of action and representation. This entry analyzes this special dimension of sport identities in the context of recent studies. Sport has a special potential for identity formation, which leads more and more people to develop a sport identity in addition to their family identity, religious identity, and so on. Involvement in sport serves to fulfill the basic human need for social recognition or identity reinforcement.
I
nternet Surveys
Authors: Petersen James C. , Farrell Dan 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Internet surveys, while a rather recent development, have taken advantage of earlier work on self‐administered surveys and computer‐assisted interviewing. They have great flexibility in presenting questionnaires and can make use of color, sound, graphics, videos, and animation. The speed with which Internet surveys can be conducted and their low cost have made this approach to surveys very attractive to commercial survey organizations and pollsters and, increasingly, to scholars. For academics, the inability to draw probability samples of the general public, coverage issues, and the self‐selection of survey participants have been especially problematic. Weighting to adjust for undercoverage or overcoverage, conducting mixed mode surveys, and creating probability‐based Web panels are among the approaches used to deal with the limitations of Internet surveys.
Online Research Methods
Authors: Petersen James C. , Farrell Dan 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Many new opportunities for social researchers have developed as a result of the rapid expansion of global access to the Internet and the growth of online activities including social networking, blogs, surveys, gaming, and online communities. The ability to conveniently collect large amounts of data at low cost makes online research very attractive. Some forms of online data provide opportunities for unobtrusive research. A limitation of much online data, however, is that variables needed for theory‐driven research may be absent. Online research poses challenges to our existing approaches to obtaining informed consent and providing confidentiality, and raises additional concerns over privacy and the use of deception. Social researchers have demonstrated the ability to analyze data from social media sites, carry out ethnographic studies of virtual worlds, execute online experiments, conduct focus groups, and use the Internet to conduct surveys.
War Crimes
Authors: Murphy Ray 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
War crimes come under the general umbrella of international humanitarian law (IHL), and may be defined as the branch of international law limiting the use of violence in armed conflicts. War crimes constitute serious violations of treaty or customary rules of IHL. The primary aim of IHL is to establish limits to the means and methods of armed conflict, and to protect noncombatants, whether they are wounded, sick, or captured soldiers or civilians. Although war crimes are usually committed by military personnel, they may also be perpetrated by civilians, and all categories of persons may be held criminally liable for violations of the rules of war. A war crime must have a sufficient link to an armed conflict and be closely related to the hostilities taking place.
Nonviolence
Authors: Brewer John David 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Nonviolence is a catchall term to describe many types of behaviour, conduct, and attitude, all of which share, however, the principled commitment to least harm, noninjury, and nonviolence in the pursuit of personal and sociopolitical goals. It is mostly the method of the weak, but is an effective response to oppression, injustice, and unfairness when powerlessness or moral values prevent the recourse to violence.
Ferguson,Adam (1723–1816)
Authors: Smith Craig 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAdam Ferguson (1723–1816) was a leading member of the Scottish Enlightenment and a close friend of Adam Smith and David Hume. His most famous book,An Essay on the History of Civil Society(1767), is widely recognized as one of the foundational texts of the sociological tradition and has proved influential on social theorists as diverse as Hegel, Marx, and F.A. Hayek. Ferguson's contribution to the development of sociology lay in his stress on the importance of empirically grounded theory focused on social‐level explanation, his recognition of natural sociability and the importance of socialization, and his focus on the significance of unintended consequences for the evolution of civil society. His analysis of the negative effects of the division of labor prefigured later arguments about alienation, and his analysis of warfare and social cohesion anticipated conflict sociology.
Embodied Knowledge
Authors: Moore Lisa Jean , Mathias Jeffrey 
Published: September 2017

AbstractEmbodied knowledge is forms of knowledge about the world that acknowledge and embrace knowledge's point of origin: the body. Embodiment is the quality of having a body and perceiving and being in the world through the body. “The body” refers to the locus of identity and social structure, the integral link between individuals and broader historical and social processes. However, bodies are not merely or only texts or performances, but rather are material: flesh and bone, histories and entanglements, suffering and illness, capabilities and desires, life and death. As social objects imbued with a kind of thingness, bodies are enacted in and through social relations while also retaining a corporeal agenda of their own. Embodied knowledge thus necessarily and deliberately exists at the meeting point of social structures and materiality, between power and lived experience.
AsiaBarometer
Authors: Inoguchi Takashi 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
AsiaBarometer is a large‐scale, comprehensive, and comparative quality of life survey on Asia based on nationwide random sampling and face‐to‐face interviewing. It covers 29 Asian societies and three western societies adjacent to Asia. Among the substantive findings are that there are five types of Asian societies and three key dimensions of Asian social capital, and that happiness is related to wealth, religion, and community.
Low Culture and High Culture
Authors: Hanquinet Laurie 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe distinction between low culture and high culture has been one of the major sociological issues over the last century in Europe, the United States, and other parts of the world. Discussions on this topic over the years have reflected different positions on the existence and the nature of cultural hierarchies. This entry discusses the emergence of the distinction between low culture and high culture, and the related adjectives of “lowbrow” and “highbrow”; the links between low, mass, and popular cultures; class‐based approaches to taste and cultural forms; the rise of omnivorousness; and new developments in the study of cultural classifications. It shows that the ongoing sociological debate mirrors much wider social implications in terms of the definition of culture, the symbolic value it gives to the supporters and detractors of its different forms, and the ways in which it organizes society.
Brand Communities
Authors: Cova Bernard 
Published: September 2017

AbstractA brand community is a coconsuming group of people who have a common interest in a specific brand and create a parallel social universe, nongeographically bound, that abounds with its own myths, values, rituals, vocabulary, and hierarchy. Brand enthusiasts play a dynamic role by cocreating experiences for themselves, for brand communities, and for organizations. Such brand volunteers are committed to providing unpaid work for the exclusive benefit of the brand they love. On a sociological level, brand communities herald new forms of collectives emerging in contemporary society: rather than communities creating symbols, they form around symbols.
Communitarianism
Authors: Etzioni Amitai 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe essence of communitarianism is that there are social definitions of good, and not merely those chosen by individuals, and that community is essential to human well‐being. All societies need to balance individual rights and social responsibilities. A major sector, often overlooked in the debate between the advocates of the private sector and the public (governmental) one, is the civil society. It encompasses millions of families, residential, ethnic, and professional communities, places of worship, and not‐for‐profit corporations.
Conspicuous Leisure
Authors: Scott David 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Conspicuous leisure refers to those behaviors, pursued during nonwork time, that provide tangible evidence of status. The term was coined by Thorstein Veblen in his classic book,
The Theory of the Leisure Class
. Veblen argued that humans are hardwired to seek favorable comparisons with others, and conspicuous leisure is one way in which people display status. Conspicuous leisure was a hallmark of members of the leisure class who regarded work and toil as debasing. Examples of conspicuous leisure include knowledge of dead languages, music, manners, proprieties of dress, games and sports, and fancy‐bred animals.
Community of Fate
Authors: Baehr Peter 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Although class cleavage and power struggles divide societies into opposing interests, a society of any longevity also possesses a common stock of cultural resources – language, traditions, and collective memories of belonging and past suffering – that enable it to cohere as a distinctive collective entity. Community of fate draws on this fact to depict the bases of enduring social recognition, the ability of states to coerce citizens to fight and face the prospect of death for their political community, and the success or failure of mass emergency response. This entry traces the history of the community of fate in sociological thinking, and identifies its modern scientific and propagandist applications.
Social Closure
Authors: Baehr Peter 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
A concept that originated with Max Weber, social closure depicts multiple sources of social privilege, strategies of social exclusion, and counterstrategies of usurpation. Social closure broadly belongs to theories of social conflict and stratification. Its originality consists in demonstrating that the ownership of means of production (as in Marxist theory) is only one basis of structured and purposive inequality.
Public Sociology
Authors: Nyden Philip W. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Michael Burawoy popularized the term “public sociology.” He defines it as bringing sociology to publics outside the academy, and promoting dialogue about issues critical to all sectors of society. His 2004 American Sociological Association presidential speech was a call to sociologists for increased engagement with broader audiences. Burawoy was not inventing a new kind of sociology, but, rather, underscoring a long tradition of community‐engaged and policy research going back decades. There are two undercurrents in public sociology. The first is about how sociological research gets into the hands of the public outside of the discipline. The second is about how sociological knowledge is produced. “Traditional” public sociologists may communicate but not necessarily interact with publics, for example, through research reports, op‐ed pieces, or expert testimony. “Organic” public sociologists work in concert with local communities, organizations, and social movements in coproducing knowledge.
Climate Change
Authors: Riedy Chris 
Published: September 2017

AbstractIn the period since the Industrial Revolution, human emissions of greenhouse gases from fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and agricultural practices have led to global warming and climate change. Observed and anticipated changes in the climate include higher temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, changes in the frequency and distribution of weather events such as droughts, storms, floods and heat waves, sea level rise and consequent impacts on human and natural systems. Many scientists argue that the impacts of climate change will be devastating for natural and human systems, and that climate change poses an existential threat to human civilization. However, action to respond to climate change has been slow. Climate change draws attention to the relationship between science and society, challenges global governance institutions, and triggers new social movements. Engagement with climate change by social scientists is prompting conceptual renewal in areas such as social practice theory, and transition and transformation studies.
F
ei
H
siaotung (1910–2005)
Authors: So Alvin Y. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Fei Hsiaotung was China's pre‐eminent sociologist and anthropologist. As a world‐renowned researcher, he was noted for his studies of rural China, the Chinese peasant economy, and China's ethnic groups, and was often labeled as the “plaintiff for the Chinese peasants.” His works on these subjects were instrumental in laying a solid foundation for the development of sociological and anthropological studies in China.
Postcarbon Sociology
Authors: Kharlamov Nikita A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Postcarbon sociology, a concept introduced by John Urry, is a social science that takes into account the constitutive role of resources in social life and, specifically, the way in which modernity has been constituted through dependence on fossil fuels, especially oil. It also involves developing scenarios of possible future societies in the context of peak oil and other catastrophic events. Postcarbon sociology is part of a broader reorientation of social sciences toward the materiality of the social world.
Migration and Health
Authors: VanLandingham Mark , Zhang Mengxi 
Published: September 2017

AbstractDemographers and other social scientists have investigated a wide range of impacts that migration has upon sending and receiving communities, families, and the migrants themselves, but there has been little systematic investigation of migration's impacts on health. In this entry we explore the potential pathways through which migration can affect health outcomes; discuss four major dimensions of health for which migration's impacts have been investigated; and conclude with some major challenges facing researchers who seek to study the relationships between migration and health.
Laboratory Experiments
Authors: Webster, Murray , Sell Jane 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry defines laboratory experiments, describes their historical context, and contrasts them with other research designs. Small groups and group processes research traditions have produced the bulk of experimental research in sociology. Useful experiments are appropriate to the research questions, test explicit theories, and provide clear data. Ethical considerations include care for participants' welfare, minimizing deception, fully explaining important aspects of the experiment afterward, and answering any questions. The entry offers guides to good design, including careful operationalization of concepts, strong instantiation, clear instructions, random assignment to conditions, and pretesting.
Chi Square Test
Authors: Delorme Nicolas 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The chi square test is a nonparametrical statistical test used to determine whether there is a significant difference between observed frequencies and expected frequencies in one or more categories. The aim is to assess whether the difference between the observed and the expected frequencies is due to sampling variation or represents a real difference. Karl Pearson's chi square tests are used to assess three type of comparison: tests of goodness of fit, tests of independence, and tests of homogeneity. The difference between these three types of comparison lies in the situations for which each type should be used.
Development
Authors: Barbera Filippo 
Published: September 2017

AbstractIn sociology, the concept of development has two main strands, social change and progress, both derived from the social and intellectual contexts that shaped the discipline between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They mutually account for the reflexive nature of sociology, linking sociological knowledge to the core features of society. The problem of development has dealt with a wide series of topics, empirical phenomena, and analytical dimensions; its conceptualization has gone through important changes over time and its measurement is controversial. The sociological analysis of development relies on different conceptions of the phenomena, supports several level of analysis, and suggests alternative measurement solutions. This plurality does not preclude important convergences that explain development results and processes. Facing today's challenges, the concept of development confirms its reflexive nature in linking sociological knowledge to the key features of society.
L
yotard,
J
ean‐
F
rançois (1924–1998)
Authors: Taylor Victor E. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Jean‐François Lyotard's contributions to the study of transdisciplinary postmodernism were shaped by his intellectual engagement with and critique of Enlightenment philosophy, especially Immanuel Kant's aesthetics. His refinement of postmodernism, as a major philosophical concept, also included substantial research in the areas of politics and ethics.
Neighborhoods
Authors: Castrignanò Marco , Landi Alessandra 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
A centerpiece of sociological analysis, neighborhoods play a fundamental role in social life since they represent one of the smallest forms of social organization outside the family. Despite the variety of definitions over time, the concept of neighborhood always has a territorial basis and refers to the social relations that develop on that territorial basis. Studies on neighborhood have increased significantly since the mid‐1990s, often focusing on neighborhood effect as a key variable in the study of social phenomena such as poverty, deviance, and social exclusion. The Chicago School has always been an important reference for scholars interested in studies of the neighborhood, and recently Chicago‐style inquiry has been revived and updated by Robert Sampson in the neighborhood approach, which proposes an ecological perspective focused on the analysis of the sociospatial organization of the neighborhood. The concept of collective efficacy plays a major role in Sampson's approach.
Race and Greek Life
Authors: Cox Jonathan M. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractWhen it comes to race and Greek life, the research overwhelmingly addresses black Greek‐letter organizations (GLOs), and even this is relatively paltry when compared to the overall literature on white organizations. Because of historical exclusionary practices, racial and ethnic minorities have largely created and maintained their own identity‐based fraternities and sororities, despite white GLOs opening up to people of color in recent decades. Little research currently addresses race in meaningful ways for white GLOs, in particular ignoring how these groups often perpetuate racial segregation. Most research on black, Latino, and Asian American GLOs is very limited in scope and breadth. Future research needs to address this dearth, as well as to seek to explore new and existing issues of race within GLOs, such as growing multicultural organizations.
Crime, Race
Authors: Hansen Laura L. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
There are key controversies associated with the correlations between race and crime. Commonly overlooked are the variables of poverty, poor school performance, and family disorganization. Any discussion of race has to include an examination of the history of racism, colonialism, and expansionism. Additionally, public perceptions and opinions should be discussed to include topics of community self‐efficacy, law enforcement responses, including racial profiling, and the rise of zero tolerance policies in public schools leading to the “school to prison” pipeline. Theories to consider are labeling theory and Merton's strain theory, along with Durkheim's discourse of mechanical versus organic society.
Race and Physical Health
Authors: Cummings Jason L. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractOn the heels of technological advances, improvements in preventive medicine and broader access to healthcare, Americans are living longer and are generally healthier today than ever before. Despite such progress, however, racial and ethnic differentials in health persist and, in some cases, have actually increased. A major challenge that confronts health scholars and policy‐makers today is gauging the scope of racial/ethnic disparities in health and illness, and understanding the unique social, behavioral, and institutional factors that shape them. Compared to whites, African Americans experience higher mortality, shorter life expectancies, worse self‐reported health, and greater prevalence of a range of chronic illnesses and conditions including diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. Many of these disparities in health are related to black–white differences in socioeconomic status, residential disadvantage, racism/discrimination, individual behaviors, and institutional barriers in healthcare.
Queer Criminology
Authors: Tomsen Stephen 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Queer criminology entails the application of “queer” perspectives to critique definitions and practices of criminality, criminalization, and punishment, in relation to sexual and gender nonconformity. In the 1990s this approach began with a focus on violence and hate crime, the decriminalization of antihomosexual laws, and the development of liberal legal rights and protections. Since the early 2000s, the subdiscipline has expanded with new research on a range of topic areas including global criminal justice discrimination against LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) people, and a broader stress on minority inclusion.
AIDS
, Sociology of
Authors: Kippax Susan 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Until biomedicine develops an effective vaccine for HIV, the world will continue to depend on the people most affected to reduce the risk of HIV transmission to themselves and others and, if living with HIV, to be treated. Though not a cure, anti‐retroviral therapy has dramatically reduced the number of AIDS deaths. HIV prevalence has increased, in part due to this reduction in the number of deaths, while HIV incidence, though declining, remains high. HIV is transmitted by social practices—sexual and drug injection practices—which are shaped by culture. Evidence from many countries has demonstrated that transforming these practices to reduce HIV transmission is dependent on the collective actions of people, as members of communities and networks, enabled and supported by governments and international bodies and donors. A social public health in which biomedical and social scientists work together is essential to combat HIV.