bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inca (Tawantinsuyu) Empire
Authors: Williams Patrick Ryan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Tawantinsuyu, the land of the four quarters, was the last and largest empire to arise in South America before the European conquest. The Inca, the founding ethnic group, created and managed a complex and ingenious social system and landscape infrastructure in the mountainous Andean realm. Incorporating the institutions of earlier Andean states, the Inca built an empire whose expansion was unparalleled in Andean history. Their strategies of incorporation and maintenance of imperial power were distinctive in many respects in world political history and challenge models of political and economic organization based solely on Western civilization. Tawantinsuyu's development was cut short by the European conquest less than 150 years after its imperial expansion began.
America, United States of: 2. Overseas empire
Authors: O'Brien Thomas F. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
This entry explores the development of America's empire from the territorial ambitions of the early republic to its emergence as a world power whose dominance is built as much on the far‐reaching influence of values such as competitiveness and consumerism as an economic and military power. The creation of that empire has been the product of the converging ambitions of politicians, business leaders, Christian missionaries, and a variety of other cultural and intellectual actors.
Soft power and empire
Authors: Holm Michael 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
“Soft power” refers to nations securing influence overseas by persuasion or attraction rather than by threats, military force, or economic sanctions. Historically, empires have varied in their use of and ability to rely on soft power. As a vehicle of influence it has most often been available to Great Powers driven by an inspiring political ideology, particularly when combined with an attractive culture, foreign investments, education, development aid, and non‐threatening diplomacy. Soft power was crucial to the 19th‐century British Empire. It also played a significant role for the United States, particularly after the end of World War II as the USA became the most powerful nation in the world. In recent years, Chinese foreign policy has also been driven by soft power principles as the People's Republic of China attempts to establish influence around the world.
Uyghur Khaganate
Authors: Kovalev Roman K. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Uyghur Khaganate (Uygur, Uyğur, or Uighur Khaganate/Qaganate) or Empire (744–840) was among the largest states created in medieval Eurasia: at its height in the early decades of the 9th century it stretched from western central Asia to Korea. Established by the Turkic‐speaking Uyghur pastoral nomads, it evolved into a rather complex pastoral nomadic state with many sedentary features, such as urbanism, agriculture, a number of written languages/alphabets, a form of currency, a fairly complex system of government, and a sophisticated religion (Manichaeism). Many of these sedentary elements entered the Uyghur state through Tang China and the central Asian Sogdians (Sogdians). To finance their empire, the Uyghurs used their close proximity and military leverage over the wealthy Tang state to obtain silks by various methods and dispatch them via Sogdian merchants westwards along the Silk Roads, one branch of which was controlled by the Uyghurs.
Marxism and imperialism
Authors: Fraser Ian 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The dialogue between Marxism and imperialism began with Marx's limited discussion of the topic in relation to colonialism. Thisdeveloped through subsequent classical Marxist theorists after Marx's death up to World War I, and then in the work of modern theorists in the globalized world of today. Marxism recognizes that the nature of imperialism varies in its different forms and theorizes its relationship to capitalist development.
French Empire: 8. Caribbean
Authors: Schmidt Nelly 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

From the 17th to the 21st century, France was one of the European powers committed to a policy of colonial expansion in the Caribbean. After a period of war, conquest, and expropriation of indigenous peoples, French exploitation of her territories in the Caribbean, including Guyana, was heavily based on slavery and the slave trade, strong coercive regulation, and a highly centralized administration. After two abolitions of slavery (1794 and 1848) a new colonial policy was implemented, involving sugar monoculture, construction of factories, relative assimilation of the civic rights of people to those of France, and a rigorous social control. The French colonies of the Caribbean become
départements
in 1946, thus escaping the decolonization process initiated by the Conference of San Francisco in 1945, and by the United Nations.
European expansionism
Authors: Saha Jonathan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
There have been two bursts of European expansionism in world history. The first was in the Early Modern period, beginning with the maritime explorations of the late 15th century. The second was in the late 19th century and coincided with industrialization. Although the latter expansion in some respects built on the imperial and quasi‐imperial ties that had been established centuries earlier, the economic basis, social relations, and cultural forms of the two bursts were distinct. To understand the forces that drove a small group of European states to expand their global reach, as well as to explain their varying degrees of success, we must look beyond Europe itself and situate these states in a global framework.
Postcolonialism
Authors: Ray Sugata 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Locating the genealogies of postcolonialism in 20th‐century anti‐colonial thinking, the entry delineates an array of intellectual practices that have coalesced around the sign of this concept‐term. Along with outlining some of the key theoretical frameworks that have engendered postcolonial thought, the essay also pays attention to creative texts such as contemporary performance art to chart a tentative history and historiography of postcolonial theory and praxis.
Aceh, Sultanate of
Authors: Khan Sher Banu A. L. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Aceh Sultanate (c.1528–1903) was one of the major Muslim Sultanates in the Malay Archipelago besides Johor, Makassar, and Banten. Seen as the successor of the Melaka Sultanate when it fell to the Portuguese in 1511, Aceh became the major economic and cultural center linking traders and Muslim scholars from the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia. Aceh's main exports were pepper, tin, gold, and elephants. Accounts by Dutch officials and private merchant‐travelers describe a thriving and cosmopolitan entrepôt, with numerous traders and craftsmen including the English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese, Chinese, Malabarese, Bengalese, Gujeratis, Javanese, Malays, and Makassarese. Aceh remained resilient in the face of Western encroachments and was the last Muslim bastion, submitting to the Dutch only after a fierce 30‐year war which made Aceh famous for its women warriors such as Cut Nyak Dinh.
Egypt: 5. Empire (Mehmed Ali dynasty)
Authors: Fahmy Khaled 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
This entry covers the history of the 19th‐century Egyptian Empire in the Sudan, Arabia, Yemen, Syria, Crete, and parts of southern Anatolia. By placing this imperial expansion in the context of the Ottoman Empire, the entry argues that this expansion was triggered by Mehmed Ali's dynastic ambitions. It also discusses the economic causes of the Egyptian Empire as well as its consequences both on Egypt and on the conquered territories.
French Empire: 7. Asia
Authors: Ha Marie‐Paule 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
France's imperial venture in the Far East was launched during the early phase of its second colonial empire, reaching its apex under the Third Republic. In the second half of the 19th century, France acquired Cochinchina, Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos, which together constituted French Indochina. The initial motivation behind French conquest of Indochina was the opening up of the Chinese market for French industry and capital and the desire to contest British supremacy in the Far East. France established its presence in China by first setting up a Religious Protectorate, paving the way to the subsequent carving out of a zone of French influence in South China and the acquisition of the leased territory of the bay of Guangzhouwan. The French empire in Asia unraveled with the Japanese occupation of Indochina during World War II and its defeat by the Viet Minh at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
Silla, Kingdom of
Authors: Mohan Pankaj 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Silla, one of the Three Korean Kingdoms, emerged in the early Christian centuries and continued until the early 10th century. Silla played the most important role in Korean history, primarily because of its conquest of the other two Kingdoms, Baekje and Goguryeo, which facilitated the ideological and political unity of the Korean people. The early political and social structure of Silla was built on the foundation of such institutions as Hwabaek (Council of Nobles), which decided the important affairs of the state on the principle of unanimity, and Golpum (Bone‐rank), which determined people's eligibility for certain official ranks on the basis of their birth. Silla accepted Buddhism as the official ideology of the state in the 6th century and in subsequent centuries produced not only great Buddhist thinkers such as Wonhyo and Euisang but also great works of Buddhist architecture and sculpture. The State of Silla disintegrated into Three Later Kingdoms and was finally absorbed by the new state of Goryeo that emerged in the former Goguryeo territory.
Baekje (Paekje) Kingdom
Authors: Mohan Pankaj 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Baekje, one of the Three Ancient Korean Kingdoms, made the transition from tribal state to centralized state as a result of its absorption of people from Liaodong in north China who introduced advanced technology and literati culture. In subsequent centuries Baekje forged a close cultural collaboration with Yamato Japan that facilitated the growth of Sinicization and an efflorescence of Buddhist civilization in that state. Baekje fell to the joint Silla‐Tang forces in 660
ce
and, although the people of Baekje launched a spirited resurrection movement, it was crushed in 663. Numerous Baekje emigrants who crossed to Japan after the loss of their land continued to influence and shape the cultural and religious development of Japan.
Goguryeo Kingdom
Authors: Mohan Pankaj 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Goguryeo played an extremely important role in the cultural world of Northeast Asia because of its significance as the first state there to emerge as a monarchical state on the Chinese model, and because of its dissemination of Chinese ideas and institutions to the southern part of Korea and Japan between the 4th and 7th centuries. Initially Goguryeo was tied to the Xuantu commandery, established by Han China, but gradually they not only succeeded in driving out Chinese colonists from the Korean peninsula but also engaged in relentless struggle against Chinese domination in the northeast. Soon after acceptance of Buddhism and Confucianism in 372
ce
Goguryeo systematized its state structure. The state reached the acme of territorial expansion during the reign of King Gwanggaeto (Expander of Domain) in the 4th century, but in the following centuries its political development was constrained by internal feud. Finally, it fell to the joint Silla‐Tang forces in 668.
Teutonic Order, State of the
Authors: Stevens Matthew Frank 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The State of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic comprised the territories of Prussia and Livonia including (from 1347) the former Danish Duchy of Estonia, acquired through the conquest and Christianization of Prussia, and the annexation and purchase of Livonia and Estonia. The Teutonic Order was a Christian order of warrior monks dedicated to St. Mary, led by an elected Grandmaster, who framed governance as an element of an ongoing crusade against non‐believers (including Orthodox Christians). The Order's financial and military resources were augmented by a network of revenue‐generating estates in Christian Europe and the regular arrival of new crusaders. The Order declined following the Christianization of neighboring peoples, the redirection of European crusading efforts elsewhere, and the rise of Protestantism.
British Empire: 11. North America (Canada), from 1783
Authors: Messamore Barbara J. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
By incremental changes, Canada evolved from separate British North American colonies of diverse origins into a unified but not homogeneous nation. Confederation in 1867 was only one phase in this process. Canada's history has been one of evolution, not revolution, as it has developed within the British Empire and Commonwealth into an autonomous and multicultural country, for the most part peacefully.
Portuguese Empire: 4. Asia
Authors: Flores Jorge 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The entry aims to identify the main features of the Portuguese Asian empire and to discuss briefly the major transformations of the empire from 1500 to 2000. This peculiar imperial structure was one of considerable longevity and, varying with epoch and region, managed to exert a sizeable influence over diverse Asian cultural zones. The Portuguese Asian empire began with the creation of the
Estado da Índia
in 1505, a few years after the arrival of Vasco da Gama to Calicut (1498), and formally ceased to exist almost five centuries later. From a broad and loose maritime network stretching from coastal Eastern Africa to the South China Sea in the middle of the 16th century, Portuguese Asia became a “residual empire” made of scattered, fragile pockets in the latter half of the 20th century; some were officially designated as “Overseas Provinces” (
Províncias Ultramarinas
), while others were neglected sites of historical memory.
Policing and colonial control
Authors: Thomas Martin 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Police and policing were the intimate face of colonial control. For rural populations and frontier dwellers especially, the intermittent presence of police, whether local or not, represented colonial legal, fiscal, and social impositions in action. Colonial police, of which there were many forces throughout the European overseas empires, had numerous characteristics in common. Most were paramilitary. All were hybrid in composition, the vertical structures of a security force mediated, in practice, by reliance on local auxiliaries or recruitment of rank‐and‐file personnel from other colonies. Their changing role holds a mirror to the wider fate of empires, from expansion and consolidation to eventual decolonization.
China, imperial: 1. Qin dynasty, 221–207bce
Authors: Pines Yuri 
Published: January 2016

AbstractQin was the first imperial polity in China's history and despite its brevity its influence remained palpable throughout the imperial millennia. It annexed its rivals by military means, but the unification of “All‐under‐Heaven” was legitimated long before it happened by competing thinkers of the preceding Warring States period. Qin relied on a highly centralized and impressively effective bureaucratic organization, which allowed it to fully utilize human and material resources of the realm. However, its excessive mobilization of the populace backfired, causing huge popular uprisings and the dynasty's swift collapse.
Poland, medieval (Piast dynasty)
Authors: Urbańczyk Przemysław 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Mieszko I entered onto the Central European geopolitical stage in 963 and soon became a major player there. The state he established was reinforced and enlarged by his son Boleslaw (Bolesław) Chrobry. After an internal political crisis in 1032–1038 the kingdom was restored, though as a smaller territory, by Kazimierz Odnowiciel whose grandson Boleslaw III turned Poland into a federation of semi‐independent principalities. This decision substantially weakened the status of the numerous members of the Piast dynasty who were often dependent on the support of German, Bohemian, and Hungarian rulers. The kingdom was reunited in 1320 by Wladyslaw Lokietek, who concentrated on fighting the Teutonic Knights settled on the lower Vistula. His son Kazimierz Wielki turned Polish geopolitical strategy toward the east at the expense of territorial losses in the west. He reinforced the central power and modernized his state but left no male inheritor. Thus, in 1370, after more than four centuries, the first Polish dynasty became extinct.
Ethiopian Empire
Authors: Rubinkowska‐Anioł Hanna 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Ethiopian Empire was located in the Horn of Africa with its center situated on the Ethiopian Plateau. It existed as a continuation of the Kingdom of Aksum, which declined around the 10th century
ce
. The last emperor, Hayle Sillasie (or Haile Selassie) I, was deposed as a result of the 1974 revolution. Ethiopian political culture evolved on the basis of links with the Mediterranean and Red Sea basins. Over the centuries, the Ethiopian Empire experienced periods of both strong and dispersed political authority; also, the extent of the lands under the emperors' control changed, as did the ethnic components of the empire. However, the empire preserved its political unity and culture with a strong basis in Christianity and a belief in being heirs of King Solomon of Israel and the African Queen of Sheba.
Burundi, Kingdom of
Authors: Schuylenbergh Patricia Van 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The renewal and reinterpretation of documentary sources, drawn primarily from oral traditions, have provided new approaches to the history of the Kingdom of Burundi. The kingdom grew out of the Ganwa dynasty, which unified small central kingdoms under a patrilineal monarchic regime; initially of limited territorial scope, its successors expanded it while at the same time buttressing its power. The distribution of the kingdom's lands among princes of the blood stressed the fragmentation of the space, however, and led to regional rivalries that continued during occupation by first the Germans, then the Belgians. The establishment during the colonial period of a secular constitutional sovereign undermined the prestige of the monarchy, while territorial reorganization encouraged the development of new elites supported by successive foreign administrations.
Khitan (Liao) Empire
Authors: Rossabi Morris 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Liao dynasty (907–1125) of China and the Western Liao (1124–1211), its successor, were founded by the Khitan, a proto‐Mongol people who were originally nomadic pastoralists residing in modern Inner Mongolia, Mongolia, Manchuria, and perhaps as far north as Lake Baikal. Mentioned in Chinese sources as early as the 4th centuryce, the Khitan, like other pastoral nomads, depended largely on their animals for survival. This reliance on animals in regions plagued by high winds and considerable snow and ice made them vulnerable to their capricious environment. A devastating winter could lead to the deaths of many of their animals. In those circumstances, China often provided a safety net by permitting the pastoral nomads to trade for such necessities as grain and craft articles and such luxuries as silk and tea. On the other hand, when China was disunited, its northern pastoral neighbors would, on occasion, capitalize on its weakness to annex Chinese territories.
Vietnamese (Dai Viet) Empire
Authors: Lockhart Bruce M. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe name “Vietnam” collectively designates a series of polities occupying various parts of the territory of present‐day Vietnam, beginning with the end of Chinese rule in the 10th century and ending with French colonization in the late 1800s. While the earliest polities were not “imperial” in any sense of the word, over time Vietnam (usually called “Dai Viet,” “Great Viet”) evolved into a fairly centralized state modeled on imperial China which copied many of the latter's institutions and structures. It also expanded southward at the expense of neighboring peoples, although much of this process actually took place when there were effectively two separate Vietnams instead of a single Dai Viet. For most of the pre‐colonial period the Vietnamese represented a “regional superpower” in mainland Southeast Asia.
Khazar Khaganate
Authors: Golden Peter B. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Khazar Khaganate, or Qaganate (mid‐7th century to c.969), a successor state of the Western Türk Khaganate, constituted one of the largest polities of medieval Eurasia, extending from the Middle Volga region to the North Caucasus and Crimea and from the Don–Dnieper zone to the borders of Khwarazm. In a series of wars in the 8th century, it halted the Arab advance beyond the North Caucasus and subsequently became one of the major links in trans‐Eurasian trade and in the commerce of the forest zone with Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate. Rulers of a polyethnic and multi‐religious empire, the Khazar elite and core tribes converted to Judaism in the first half of the 9th century. By the 10th century, weakened by declining revenues and threats from the Pechenegs and Rus’, Khazaria fell to combined Rus’ and Oghuz attacks in 965 and 968/969.
Italian Empire
Authors: Ferris Kate 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The construction of the Italian nation and its modern empire went hand in hand. Following unification (1859–1871), Italian politicians turned their attention to carving out an African, and later Mediterranean, empire. In doing so, they intended to “make Italians” as well as to “civilize “Africans. Early defeats, especially that at Adwa (Ethiopia) in 1896, prompted national introspection and “shame” as well as calls for vengeance. The Italian imperial project spanned a half‐century of liberal and fascist rule from 1885 to 1947, reaching its height – from the colonizers' perspective – with Mussolini's 1935–1936 conquest of Ethiopia. The campaigns to conquer territory in East Africa (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia) and Libya met sustained resistance against which the Italian army deployed “terror and extermination” methods including summary execution, concentration camps, and the illegal practices of aerial bombardment of civilians and use of chemical weapons, which has only recently been acknowledged officially and in historiography.
Anti‐imperialism and anti‐colonialism
Authors: Hilfrich Fabian 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Anti‐imperialism and anti‐colonialism denote opposition to empire. Whereas the latter has been mostly understood as opposition to formal colonial rule in a narrow sense, the former has come to be defined ever more expansively. Particularly in the 20th century, anti‐imperialists resisted formal and informal means of control by stronger over weaker nations. Such resistance to empire emerged both in the colonies themselves and in the ruling metropolises, but a sustained transnational anti‐imperialist movement never emerged because both metropolitan and colonial anti‐imperialists pursued separate agendas in their own respective communities.
Tibetan Empire
Authors: Beckwith Christopher I. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe early Tibetans belonged to the Central Eurasian Culture Complex and had a feudal hierarchical society focused on thebtsanpo(“emperor”). By around 600cethey had built a large state that included much of the southern and eastern parts of the Tibetan Plateau, and by the mid‐7th century were a world power. For two centuries they contested control of Central Asia with the Tang Chinese, the Turks, and the Arabs. At their height in the late 8th century they ruled over a vast territory stretching from the Ordos to Afghanistan and from the southern Tian Shan (T'ien Shan) to the lower Himalayas. They adopted Buddhism from their neighbors and developed a literate Buddhist civilization. The empire collapsed at the same time as most of the other empires of the early Middle Ages, for the same economic reasons.