bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Payment for ecosystem services: the role of REDD + in primate conservation
Authors: Garcia-Ulloa John , Koh Lian Pin 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
Payments for ecosystem services have the potential to conserve primate habitat by paying landowners for the preservation or enhancement of ecosystem processes, such as carbon storage, water provision, or pollination. At present, payments to preserve the carbon stock in forests have received most attention because of their potential as a cost-effective climate change mitigation strategy. The potential of these initiatives for biodiversity conservation is also gaining recognition. In this chapter we provide an overview of payment for ecosystem services with a particular focus on Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation programmes (REDD+), the largest payment for ecosystem services initiative worldwide. The opportunities of REDD+ initiatives to boost biodiversity and primate conservation are discussed.
Essence and End in Aristotle
Authors: Rosen Jacob 
Published: August 2016

AbstractThis chapter attempts to clarify Aristotle’s claims that a thing’s formal cause is often one with, or the same as, its final cause. This claim has confused scholarly understanding regarding the teleology, essences, and causation in Aristotle’s thought. When Aristotle’s sameness claim is understood in a straightforward way, it is open to obvious counter-example. Furthermore, this sameness claim admits many interpretations, since there is more than one way of being a final cause and there is more than one way of being the same. Yet the sameness claim has had a great influence in the interpretation of Aristotle. Hence this chapter is motivated by the conviction that Aristotle’s concepts of formal cause and of final cause possess great and enduring philosophical interest, and that a certain kind of work will help us recover a clearer understanding of them.
Aristotle and the Cognitive Component of Emotions
Authors: Pearson Giles 
Published: August 2016

AbstractThis chapter provides arguments regarding Aristotle’s insights into the cognitive component of emotions. More specifically, it argues that Aristotle believed that a variety of psychological states can grasp the cognitive content involved in emotions. In order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of this view, the chapter presents a debate concerning whether Aristotle advocates a phantasia-based account of emotions, according to which emotions are some kind of perceptual construal or imagining, or whether he is instead best thought of as holding some kind of belief-based view. In fact, the chapter contends that both interpretations are in the wrong. Hence, the chapter advances its own view by first providing a sketch of some of the key points in the debate before reconsidering Aristotle’s view.
The Exchange Principle and the Wage-Work Bargain
Authors: Freedland Mark , Deakin Simon 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter evokes and examines the idea of ‘the wage-work bargain’ as a key aspect of the contract of employment and a central subject of the legal regulation of that contract. This is the counterpart of the exchange principle identified in the previous chapter. The chapter discusses whether we can identify the normative conceptions of fair exchange and of the stability of work and remuneration in the law of the contract of employment’s construction of the wage-work bargain. The implications are considered for the relationship between the three core structural principles identified in the previous chapter. It is finally considered whether ‘the contract of employment’ as constructed by common law and statute provides an adequate conceptual category for the encapsulation and regulation of the spectrum of personal work relations which ought to be regarded as within the sphere of employment.
The Contract of Employment and Collective Labour Law
Authors: Bogg Alan , Dukes Ruth 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter seeks to illustrate that the law of the contract of employment has been and continues to be shaped quite profoundly by collective bargaining practices and collective labour law. In doing so, it challenges directly the contrary proposition that the significance of collective bargaining to an analysis of the current law of the contract of employment lies only with the decline of the former (and consequent flowering of the latter). Reference is made at the outset to Kahn-Freund’s analysis of the law of contract of employment. Consideration is then given, in particular, to the significance of collective bargaining and collective labour law to the emergence of a standard employment relationship in the middle decades of the twentieth century, to the more recent proliferation of ‘flexible’ forms of contract, and to the repressive role of common-law doctrine in relation to individual strikers’ contracts of employment.
The Contract of Employment and Gendered Work
Authors: Fredman Sandra , Fudge Judy 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter emphasizes the extent to which the legal separation of unpaid domestic labour performed in the household from paid employment has shaped women’s paid work. It traces the legacy of this separation by considering the entitlement of paid domestic workers employed in private households to the statutory minimum wage. The legal treatment of paid care work in the recipient’s home is used to illustrate how atypical employment arrangements such as ‘zero-hours’ (casual) contracts have excluded women workers from a range of employment-related protections and benefits associated with the standard employment relationship. The chapter stresses the need to move beyond the contract of employment in order to cultivate gender equality in the labour market and to protect all workers against foreseeable work-related risks.
Developments in Contract of Employment Jurisprudence in Other Common-Law Jurisdictions
Authors: Riley Joellen 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter explores and amplifies the themes of this work by some comparative reflections from Australia, a common-law jurisdiction with roots in English law, but an idiosyncratic history of collective labour market regulation. Australian courts have developed the common law of the employment contract, in response to doctrinal developments in English law and under similar socio-economic conditions, but also within the peculiar context of Australia’s own political and industrial history. In Australia, a well-developed legislatively mandated system of industrial conciliation and arbitration (including unfair dismissal arbitration) administered by industrial tribunals exercising administrative but not judicial power, has given rise to a disjunction between statutory workplace law and the common law of the contract of employment. The common-law courts’ concern to maintain coherence between these separate forms of regulation has led to the maintenance of a strongly traditional form of employment contract law, largely indistinguishable from general commercial contract law.
Remedies for Breach and for Wrongful Dismissal
Authors: Barmes Lizzie 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter explores the detail of the remedial rules of the law of the contract of employment. It explains the limited potential for debt actions, how law and contracting practice interact to ensure that damages for dismissal breaches of contract are often very limited, additional restrictions on liability and remedies because of the Johnson line of authority and, finally, the difficulty for employees of securing injunctive relief. Remaining scope is, however, demonstrated for employment contract breach to attract either substantial compensation or effective specific enforcement, sometimes even in respect of dismissal. The divergent operation of employment contract law on remedies is shown to have produced doctrinal error, incoherence, and inequity, while possibilities are outlined for judges appropriately to reconstruct the law from within. The conclusion is drawn, nonetheless, that Parliamentary intervention would be necessary to render the law in this area more just and coherent.
The Contract of Employment in its International and European Law Setting
Authors: Merrett Louise 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter considers how the law concerning the contract of employment at work has met the challenges posed by transnational employment situations. In particular, when should English employment rights be available to workers whose employment is connected in some way with another country? These rights can be statutory or derived from the contract of employment itself. The complex relationship between the contract of employment and the legislative regulation of employment relations raises complex issues in the private international law context. The crucial touchstone currently applied in the context of jurisiction, choice of law and territorial scope is whether the employee is working in the UK. However, recent cases have raised the possibility of a more sophisticated notion of territoriality which takes into account wider factors relevant to the employment relationship. The appropriateness of this approach may well depend on the nature of the employment right concerned.
Introduction: Darwinian ecology
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
Darwin’s mechanistic explanation for the emergence and maintenance of biological diversity provides the conceptual basis for a self-consistent theory of ecology that relies on a coherent system of seven Darwinian principles. A universal population dynamic concept of fitness connects the principles through robust mathematical relations, enabling the formal treatment of alleles (selfish genes) and the individuals of clones or sexual species within the same logic. The central thesis of the theory is that the inevitable checks on the inherent capacity of life for exponential growth lead either to regulated, robust coexistence or to competitive exclusion among different variants. As fitness is constrained by inescapable trade-offs between its components, the ultimate competitive victory of a perfect organism (‘Darwinian demon’) is impossible and coexistence may follow. Besides basic concepts like dynamical system, state description, fitness, regulation, impact, and sensitivity, the crucial method of timescale separation is also explained and illustrated.
Population structure and exponential growth
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
Populations may be structured by various individual states like age, developmental stage, or conditions of location. The life histories of individuals can be described as series of stochastic transitions between these states using Markov chains in certain cases. The long-term growth rate of state-structured populations can be determined using the universal methodology of life-cycle graphs and the corresponding matrix population models. The dynamical theory of structured populations offers standard procedures for the prediction (sensitivity and elasticity analyses) or the retrospective explanation (life-table response experiment) of environmental effects on population dynamics and structure. An important theoretical message is that populations of arbitrarily complicated structure maintain asymptotic exponential growth in the absence of regulation. The abstract concepts of the theory—like dominant eigenvector, ergodicity, or reproductive value—are explained and illustrated both graphically and through numerical simulations, and their empirical or practical relevance shown through several examples.
Robust coexistence and population regulation
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The larger the difference between competing varieties in their method of growth regulation the more robust their coexistence. Stable coexistence assumes frequency-dependent fitness with the advantage of the rare variant, which is empirically demonstrated for alleles, clones, and species. This principle is demonstrated in the implicit Lotka–Volterra model and in the explicit resource competition model of Tilman, and is generalized for arbitrary density-dependence. The generalized competitive exclusion principle states that a necessary condition for stable coexistence is that there be at least as many regulating factors as variants. Asymmetric competition for space through colonization-competition trade-offs, and for light via the trade-off between the vertical growth of trees and the reproductive potential also provides opportunities for coexistence. Trophic interactions may lead to complex population dynamics, as demonstrated by chemostat examples and the Rosenzweig–MacArthur model. Discussion of the conditions for coexistence in the food web context closes the chapter.
Latin as a source for the Romance languages
Authors: Clackson James 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter investigates to what extent phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features considered to be typical of Romance are anticipated in the Latin of different periods and registers (written, spoken, prestige/formal, low/colloquial, etc.). To this end, the chapter critically reviews documented diachronic, diatopic and social variation (both ‘from above’ and ‘from below’) in Latin phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, and orthography to identify and evaluate those authentic aspects of variation and change which are relevant for our understanding of Romance developments. Specific topics dealt with include: the chronological and spatial scope of Latin; the definition of, and relationship between, Classical and vulgar Latin; changes in the vowel system from Latin to Romance; the development of the future tense; a number of case studies in the lexicon.
Latin and Romance in the medieval period
Authors: Wright Roger 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter deals with the relationship between written and spoken language in the medieval period and how and when Latin became Romance. It illustrates how, from the late imperial period to the Middle Ages, a sociophilological approach can illuminate both (late/medieval) Latin and (early) Romance in the Medieval period and the processes (e.g., the Carolingian reforms) by which the vernaculars came to be perceived as distinct from Latin. It focuses on how texts were intended to be read; the reasons for writing some texts in a new way, including the emergence of standardized local orthographic traditions under the pressures for convergence and divergence. Specific topics dealt with include: Latin and Romance in the Middle Ages and writing Romance before written Romance was invented; ‘Vulgar’ Latin; reading aloud; written and spoken grammar; words; the Carolingian Reforms; glossaries and glosses; sociophilology and politics.
Friulian
Authors: Benincà Paola , Vanelli Laura 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external history, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of central-eastern, northern, and western Friulian dialects. Topics dealt with include: stressed and unstressed vowels; consonant system; inflectional morphology of nominal categories; personal pronouns; inflectional morphology of the verb: tense and mood; endings; word-formation processes: derivation and composition; syntax of main clauses and interrogative clauses; enclisis of subject clitics; Auxiliaries and past participle agreement.
The dialects of central Italy
Authors: Loporcaro Michele , Paciaroni Tania 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external history, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of the dialects of central Italy. Topics dealt with include: area mediana stricto sensu and the area perimediana; tonic and unstressed vowel systems; consonants; morphology of nominal group (articles, demonstratives, possessives, number, gender) and verbal groups (inflectional classes, number and person marking, tense, aspect, mood); syntax of nominal group (determiners, adjectives, possessives) and of verbal group (tense, aspect and mood usage; auxiliary selection and past participle agreement).
Galician and Portuguese
Authors: Dubert Francisco , Galves Charlotte 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external history, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Galician and Portuguese (including Brazilian Portuguese). Stressed and unstressed oral vowels; Stressed and unstressed oral falling diphthongs; Stressed and unstressed nasal vowels; Nasal falling diphthongs; Sandhi; Consonants; Fricatives, stops, and affricates; Liquids; Nasals; Syllable and phonotactics; Stress; Verb stress; Nouns and adjectives; Personal pronouns; Determiners; Articles; Possessives; Indefinites; Demonstratives; Relatives, interrogatives, and exclamatives; Verbs; Conjugations; Roots; Thematic vowel; Tense, aspect, mood; Number and person; Compound forms and periphrases; Adverbs; Prepositions; Agreement; Null arguments; Expression of nominal internal arguments; Dative marking on direct objects; Double object constructions; Fronting; strategies and structure of the left periphery; SE constructions; Pronominal syntax; Clitic-placement; Clitic climbing; Interpolation; Clitic doubling; Sentential negation; Finite and non-finite complementation; Comparatives; Interrogatives; Relatives; Cleft sentences; Tough sentences; Definite determiners and bare nouns.
Compounding
Authors: Forza Francesca , Scalise Sergio 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter surveys some of the most important issues in Romance compounding. It covers distinctions between compound types; relationship between compounding, juxtaposition, reduplication, and univerbation and issues of transparency and opacity; patterns of productivity; phonetic and phonological effects of compounding. Specific topics dealt with include: heads; Latin and Romance compounds; overview of compounding in Spanish, Catalan, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Sardinian; reduplication; morphological processes of iteration.
Diglossia
Authors: Kabatek Johannes 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is to survey some of the principal issues relevant to diglossic language situations in Romance, providing a critical review of some of the principal diglossic situations found in the many bi- and multilingual parts of the Romània; the relevance and application to the Romance situation of distinctions such as diglossia with bilingualism, diglossia without bilingualism, and bilingualism without diglossia; the vitality, position, and status of Romance dialects; the distinction between diglossia and dilalia; language contact, code-switching and the rise of interlects; the effects of, and reaction to, standardization. Specific topics dealt within include: the history of Romance languages and varieties in Europe; the history of Romance languages and varieties beyond Europe; current dynamics in Romance variation and diglossia; the impact of globalization: Universalism and particularism; levelling; the revival of languages; creating bilingualism; hybrids and their function; the future of research on diglossia in Romance.
Standardization
Authors: Pountain Christopher J. 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter surveys some of the principal issues involved in the processes of standardization which have affected Romance. It covers the emergence of standardized local orthographic traditions; the effects of standardization on phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical variation among different sections of the speech community; the role of academies; competing national and regional standards; dialect mixing; normative forces, and reactions to, standardization; written versus spoken language. Specific topics dealt with include: choice of a basis for the standard; identification with a geographical variant; literary standards; eclectic standards; polynomic standards; language names; the nature of codification; elaboration; support; acceptance; the challenge of change and diaspora.
Functional categories
Authors: Ledgeway Adam 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is critically to address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues in the syntax of Romance functional categories, including the emergence of articles, pronominal clitics, auxiliaries, and complementizers; recurrent grammaticalization pathways; the interaction of inflection and periphrasis (including typological distinctions between syntheticity and analyticity, configurationality and non-configurationality, dependent-marking and head-marking); parallels and differences in the range of functional categories available to the nominal (DP), sentential (IP), and clausal (CP) domains; positions and co-occurrence possibilities. Specific topics dealt with include: rise of analyticity; rise of configurationality; Romance functional categories; nominal group (articles; other determiners); verbal group (Romance auxiliaries; Romance synthetic future(-in-the-past); clitic pronouns); the sentence; grammaticalized word orders.
Object clitics
Authors: Roberts Ian 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is to critically address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance objects clitics. The chapter covers such areas as distribution, licensing, and co-occurrence of different classes of object clitic; distribution of proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis; clitic climbing; object doubling and compatibility with different classes of object; interpolation structures. Specific topics dealt with include: licensing object-clitic positions; person-case constraints; distribution of object clitics in non-finite clauses; infinitives; past participles; gerunds; proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis; European Portuguese and Galician; enclisis patterns in old Romance: The Tobler-Mussafia Law; mesoclisis in old Romance; clitic climbing; clitic climbing and restructuring; clitic climbing in causatives; clitic-climbing and auxiliaries; clitic doubling.
Split intransitivity
Authors: Bentley Delia 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is critically to address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues in split intransitivity within the Romance context, covering such areas as conservation and loss of classical and late Latin patterns of split intransitivity; the effects and reflexes of Romance split intransitivity in relation to sentential word order, inde-cliticization, absolute participle constructions, finite verb agreement, distribution of bare plural nominals, relative pronoun alternations, resultatives, adjectival adverb agreement, impersonal passive; syntactic, semantic, and lexical mismatches; gradience; stability and areal tendencies in the expansion/shrinking of overt reflexes of split intransitivity. Specific topics dealt with include: the advancement of active/inactive alignment; split intransitivity and the north-south divide; further split intransitivity diagnostics in Romance.
Copular and existential constructions
Authors: Bentley Delia , Ciconte Francesco Maria 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is critically to address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues in Romance copular and existential constructions, covering such areas as the range of Romance copulas and their semantico-syntactic distribution; canonical vs inverse copular sentences; relationship between locative and existential copular predications; variation in existential copulas and their constraints on the nature of the pivot; subject markedness; sources, nature, and distribution of locative adverbials; definiteness effects; variation in verb agreement with locative or pivot. Specific topics dealt with include: copular constructions (attributive, locative, and possessive), inverse copular constructions, and existential constructions.