bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide (NT-pro-BNP) –based score can predict in-hospital mortality in patients with heart failure
Authors: Huang Ya-Ting , Tseng Yuan-Teng , Chu Tung-Wei , Chen John , Lai Min-Yu , Tang Woung-Ru , Shiao Chih-Chung 
Published: July 2016

AbstractSerum N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide (NT-pro-BNP) testing is recommended in the patients with heart failure (HF). We hypothesized that NT-pro-BNP, in combination with other clinical factors in terms of a novel NT-pro BNP-based score, may provide even better predictive power for in-hospital mortality among patients with HF. A retrospective study enrolled adult patients with hospitalization-requiring HF who fulfilled the predefined criteria during the period from January 2011 to December 2013. We proposed a novel scoring system consisting of several independent predictors including NT-pro-BNP for predicting in-hospital mortality, and then compared the prognosis-predictive power of the novel NT-pro BNP-based score with other prognosis-predictive scores. A total of 269 patients were enrolled in the current study. Factors such as “serum NT-pro-BNP level above 8100 mg/dl,” “age above 79 years,” “without taking angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blocker,” “without taking beta-blocker,” “without taking loop diuretics,” “with mechanical ventilator support,” “with non-invasive ventilator support,” “with vasopressors use,” and “experience of cardio-pulmonary resuscitation” were found as independent predictors. A novel NT-pro BNP-based score composed of these risk factors was proposed with excellent predictability for in-hospital mortality. The proposed novel NT-pro BNP-based score was extremely effective in predicting in-hospital mortality in HF patients.
High-quality III-nitride films on conductive, transparent (2̅01)-oriented β-Ga2O3 using a GaN buffer layer
Authors: Muhammed M. M. , Roldan M. A. , Yamashita Y. , Sahonta S.-L. , Ajia I. A. , Iizuka K. , Kuramata A. , Humphreys C. J. , Roqan I. S. 
Published: July 2016

AbstractWe demonstrate the high structural and optical properties of InxGa1−xN epilayers (0 ≤ x ≤ 23) grown on conductive and transparent ("Equation missing"01)-oriented β-Ga2O3 substrates using a low-temperature GaN buffer layer rather than AlN buffer layer, which enhances the quality and stability of the crystals compared to those grown on (100)-oriented β-Ga2O3. Raman maps show that the 2″ wafer is relaxed and uniform. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) reveals that the dislocation density reduces considerably (~4.8 × 107 cm−2) at the grain centers. High-resolution TEM analysis demonstrates that most dislocations emerge at an angle with respect to the c-axis, whereas dislocations of the opposite phase form a loop and annihilate each other. The dislocation behavior is due to irregular ("Equation missing"01) β-Ga2O3 surface at the interface and distorted buffer layer, followed by relaxed GaN epilayer. Photoluminescence results confirm high optical quality and time-resolved spectroscopy shows that the recombination is governed by bound excitons. We find that a low root-mean-square average (≤1.5 nm) of InxGa1−xN epilayers can be achieved with high optical quality of InxGa1−xN epilayers. We reveal that ("Equation missing"01)-oriented β-Ga2O3 substrate has a strong potential for use in large-scale high-quality vertical light emitting device design.
The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Authors: Churchill Robin 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) is the most important source of the international law of the sea. This chapter discusses the history and legal characteristics of the LOSC. It explains how the LOSC came into being; gives a brief overview of its provisions and considers their varying legal nature; explains which entities may and have become parties to the LOSC and considers the extent to which they are permitted to make reservations and declarations; outlines the relationship of the LOSC to other treaties and customary international law; explores the mechanisms for seeking to ensure compliance with the LOSC by its States parties; and finally discusses how the LOSC is kept under review and developed.
Baselines
Authors: Lathrop Coalter 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter sets out the international law of baselines and identifies past, present, and possible future problems in this area of the law of the sea. It begins by considering the so-called ‘normal baseline’, consisting of the low-water line along the coast, and asks whether this baseline is fixed or ambulatory. It examines specific categories of coastal features that make up the normal baseline, including human-made coastal defences, harbour works, low tide elevations, and reefs. It then turns to the various baselines formed by straight line segments, including lines closing mouths of rivers, bay closing lines, port closing lines, straight baselines (stricto sensu), and archipelagic baselines.
The High Seas
Authors: Guilfoyle Douglas 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter discusses the legal regime of the high seas. It first considers the law governing the high seas as a used space: its geographic extent and the core ‘freedoms’ all States enjoy there. It then considers the legal structures underpinning or qualifying those considerations of space and usage: how the law of the sea allocates regulatory authority over high seas activities, the meaning of the high seas being reserved for ‘peaceful purposes’, and the interaction of the high seas with other maritime zones. Next, it looks at the law of the high seas as regards shipping, including the duties of flag States, the law applicable to stateless vessels, and the vexed question of jurisdiction regarding collisions. The chapter concludes by examining questions of the ‘policing’ of the high seas (including the contemporary problems posed by maritime piracy, irregular migration, and weapons smuggling) and the current major challenges for the relevant legal regime.
The Law of the Sea Convention Institutions
Authors: Harrison James 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the institutional framework in place to oversee the implementation and development of the law of the sea regime. In particular, it focuses on the institutions established by the Convention, including the meeting of the States Parties, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, and the International Seabed Authority. It firsts considers the drafting history of the institutional framework established by the Convention. It then explores some of the ambiguities surrounding the mandates of these institutions and how the subsequent practice of States has approached these issues. The institutional framework for overseeing the development of the Convention includes not only these institutions, but also a range of other autonomous institutions with a mandate related to maritime affairs. The chapter explores the interrelationship between the Convention institutions and other international bodies, asking whether there is a coherent institutional framework in this field of law.
Integrated Oceans Management
Authors: Scott Karen 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Integrated oceans management (IOM) is an attempt to respond to the deficiencies of a zonal/sectoral, fragmented approach to oceans governance and has been widely endorsed at national, regional, and global levels. This chapter explores IOM as a concept and assesses the extent to which it has been implemented at all levels of oceans governance. It identifies the key components of IOM, their relationship to one-another, and their role in supporting an integrated approach to oceans management. It assesses the applicability of IOM — both actual and potential — to areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). The chapter concludes with observations regarding the future development of IOM and its role in driving forward a new frontier in marine environmental protection and oceans governance more generally.
Marine Living Resources
Authors: Matz-Lück Nele , Fuchs Johannes 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter discusses the international legal framework of contemporary management and conservation of marine living resources (MLR), its shortcomings, challenges, and possible future progress. It defines the concept of MLR, explains its relevance, and then discusses the applicable general principles to their management. It analyzes the legal frameworks of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law on the Sea (LOSC) and the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement (FSA). It then considers specific challenges such as the regulation of fishing methods, compliance and enforcement of legal rules, and the management of marine mammals. It discusses two emerging approaches to MLR conservation and concludes with remarks on potential development for sustainably managing MLR.
Navigational Rights and Freedoms
Authors: Tanaka Yoshifumi 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter discusses navigational rights and freedom of navigation under the 1982 UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC). These include the right of innocent passage through; navigational rights through international straits; navigational rights in the archipelagic waters; navigational rights in the exclusive economic zone; and navigational rights on the high seas.
Maritime Security
Authors: Klein Natalie 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter assesses maritime security under the 1982 UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC). It discusses critical issues in contemporary maritime security, highlighting ongoing boundary disputes, transnational crime, and intelligence gathering. It considers the question of what the future may hold for maritime security. It suggests that maritime security will likely remain of fundamental concern and continue to influence legal developments, but perhaps only to the extent that national interests can be asserted and accepted as shared interests.
Conserving Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction
Authors: Warner Robin 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter explores key normative features of the legal and institutional framework for areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) and their applicability to the conservation of marine biodiversity. It considers gaps and disconnects in that framework and global and regional initiatives to develop the legal and institutional framework for conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in ABNJ. It suggests that the biodiversity conservation elements of any multilateral agreement adopted under the umbrella of the UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) should be designed to implement the spirit and intent of Part XII provisions of the LOSC, rather than radically changing the basic principles and inherent balance of the law of the sea.
Threatened Species and Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems
Authors: Goodwin Edward 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines ‘threatened species’ and ‘vulnerable marine ecosystems’ (VME) in the law of the sea. It teases out the broad-spectrum responses of international law that tackle principal anthropogenic threats, including the want of jurisdiction over marine resources, unsustainable fisheries, pollution, and habitat conservation. It then extracts rules from within environmental treaties designed to catch emergency cases, where individual species are close to extinction or sites are being degraded and disturbed.
Too Much History
Authors: Lesaffer Randall 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the evolution of the jus ad bellum from the use of war as a sanction to the sanctioning of war. It provides an overview of the doctrine of just war in the Middle Ages before turning to the concepts of just and legal war in the early modern period. It considers how, during that period and the 19th century, the argument of self-defence came to play a prominent role in the justification of war, leading to a contamination of the concepts of just and legal war. It explains why the concept of legal war was abolished by the international community of states and looks at major treaties and state practice relating to war and self-defence of the interwar years leading to the formation of an international customary rule against aggression. It analyses the transfer of the natural right of self-defence to the domain of positive international law.
Law of Nations or Perpetual Peace? Two Early International Theories on the Use of Force
Authors: Archibugi Daniele , Croce Mariano , Salvatore Andrea 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter considers the law of nations (LN) and the perpetual peace projects (PPP), two intellectual traditions giving rise to an international theory aimed at regulating or abolishing the use of armed force. It examines the role of the LN and the PPP in the emergence of modern international law and of international organizations and peace movements, and how they influenced and were influenced by the rise of the modern European states. It charts the history of both traditions and the emergence of the state as the main player in internal and international politics before concluding with a discussion on the use of armed force concerning four main cases which were the subjects of considerable debate within both the LN and the PPP: war among states, the right to resist or to fight a revolution against an oppressive regime, humanitarian intervention, and the use of force against stateless indigenous populations.
The Collective Security System and the Enforcement of International Law
Authors: d'Aspremont Jean 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the extent to which the collective security system contributes to the enforcement of international law. The discussion begins by revisiting the theoretical debates about the role of enforcement in the current understanding of international law, with particular reference to John Austin’s imperatival handicap of international law. The chapter then considers how the move towards a centralized collective security system dismantled the position of self-help as a primary tool for the enforcement of international law. It also analyses the varying enforcement functions that have been conferred by international lawyers on the enforcement of international law, United Nations law, and peace, or the enforcement of the vague concept of justice conveyed by the UN Charter. Finally, it offers some epistemological observations on the place of enforcement in the ethos of the epistemic community of international law.
Self-Defence, Protection of Humanitarian Values, and the Doctrine of Impartiality and Neutrality in Enforcement Mandates
Authors: Tsagourias Nicholas 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter begins by examining the scope of the principles of consent, neutrality/impartiality, and minimum use of force as they apply to modern United Nations peacekeeping operations. It then asks how the use of force can be used to protect humanitarian values assigned to peacekeeping operations, and how such use of force interacts with the principles of neutrality and of impartiality. The chapter also discusses the implications of ‘the responsibility to protect’ and the ‘protection of civilians’ for the competence to use force. The chapter concludes by identifying a number of difficulties encounted by peacekeeping missions in attaining humanitarian values.
The Crime of Aggression at the International Criminal Court
Authors: Murphy Sean D. 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the International Criminal Court’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression. The discussion provides background to the crime of aggression and the resulting criminal accountability of the guilty party, paying particular attention to UN General Assembly’s adoption in 1974 of a resolution addressing aggression by states rather than the crimes of individuals and is designed as guidance for the Security Council when considering whether an act is one of ‘aggression’. The chapter examines the amendments to the ICC Rome Statute defining ‘act of aggression’ and ‘crime of aggression’ adopted at the ICC Review Conference in Kampala, Uganda, in 2010. It also discusses the uncertainties and ambiguities in the process for activating ICC jurisdiction over the crime of aggression. It considers the possible institutional effects of such jurisdiction on the UN Security Council and the ICC itself, as well as its long-term consequences for the jus ad bellum.
Self-Defence and Collective Security
Authors: Wood Sir Michael 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the distinction between self-defence and collective security, the two principal exceptions to the prohibition of the use of force in international law. The exercise of the right of self-defence, which includes collective self-defence, is recognized by Article 51 of the UN Charter, while collective security measures are authorized by the UN Security Council under Chapter VII of the Charter. Drawing on an article by Derek Bowett published in 1994, the chapter considers the academic debate and confusion in 1990–1 concerning the distinction between self-defence and collective security. In particular, it looks at the controversy regarding the legal basis of the use of force over Korea in 1950. It also outlines six differences identified by Bowett with regard to collective self-defence and collective measures under Chapter VII.
Pro-Democratic Intervention
Authors: Wippman David 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the debates concerning pro-democratic intervention and its implications for the use of force in international relations. It begins by looking at the disagreement over the nature of governmental legitimacy before turning to the legal bases of pro-democratic intervention such as UN Security Council-authorized interventions and interventions by contemporaneous invitation of sitting or recently ousted officials. Interventions by regional organizations and interventions combining two or more of these forms are also discussed. In addition, the chapter considers consent, either by an ousted government or through the use of treaties by regional and sub-regional organizations to authorize military intervention in advance under specified circumstances. Finally, it analyses post-Charter treaties of guarantee and pro-democratic intervention pacts in Africa.
The Use of Force Against Pirates
Authors: Guilfoyle Douglas 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the use of force against piracy in the context of international law, with particular reference to the pirates off Somalia. It discusses the counter-piracy activities by multinational military forces under the applicable public international law of the sea and as law enforcement operations. It also considers the issues raised by the use of force by private merchant vessels in self-defence, including the use of privately contracted armed security personnel. The chapter reviews the relevant UN Security Council resolutions and the legal regime applicable at sea and ashore within Somalia itself. It also analyses the Council’s authorization of states to use ‘all necessary means to repress acts of piracy and armed robbery’ within Somalia’s territorial sea.
The Changing Environment and Emerging Resource Conflicts
Authors: Pertile Marco 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the role of natural resources such as water, hydrocarbons, and diamonds in international armed conflicts within the framework of international law, as well as the legal regulation of the jus ad bellum aspects of the issue. After outlining some of the international rules relevant to the relationship between natural resources and conflicts, the chapter considers the rules pertaining to the jus ad bellum and assesses the interstate aspects of resource conflicts, paying particular attention to the legal framework for the use of force in international relations. It then looks at the role of sovereignty in the allocation of natural resources among states, the interaction between jus ad bellum and jus in bello with respect to the exploitation of natural resources in occupied territories, , and the effect on transactions in natural resources of the duty of non-recognition of unlawful territorial situations. Finally, it describes the initiatives of the United Nations in addressing the issue of natural resources and their relation to interstate conflicts.
Remotely Piloted Warfare as a Challenge to the Jus Ad Bellum
Authors: Paust Jordan 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the use of remotely piloted and other robotics during war and outside the context of war during permissible measures of self-defence and their implications for the jus ad bellum, interpretation of Articles 2(4) and 51 of the UN Charter, and applications of underlying general principles. It discusses the phenomenon of ‘remotely piloted warfare’ as it applies to the use of force by state and non-state actors with respect to self-defence, collective self-defence, self-determination assistance, regional action, and enforcement action authorized by the Security Council. It then considers the use of remotely piloted attacks, self-defence, and warfare in relation to compliance with the principles of reasonable necessity, distinction in targeting, and proportionality. In particular, the chapter looks at the use of weaponized drones and the possible challenges they present to compliance with basic legal principles that limit violence, and some current applications and issues regarding compliance.
Jus Cogens and the Use of Armed Force
Authors: de Hoogh Andre 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the concept of jus cogens in relation to the use of armed force. It first considers whether the prohibition of the use of armed force possesses the status of a peremptory norm before looking into the jus cogens restrictions associated with the peremptory prohibition of the use of armed force or aggression, together with its relationship to accepted or claimed exceptions. The chapter then focuses on the circumstances precluding wrongfulness countermeasures, consent and necessity, as they relate to the peremptory prohibition. Finally, it discusses jus cogens demands for forcible action arising from peremptory norms, such as armed intervention to stop genocide.
Consequences for Third States as a Result of an Unlawful Use of Force
Authors: Palchetti Paolo 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter explores some of the problems concerning the role of third states in situations of unlawful use of force by a state against another state. It first draws a distinction between states directly involved in conflict either as the instigator or as the victim of an unlawful armed intervention, and ‘third states’. It then considers the rules that define the legal position of third states in situations arising from an unlawful use of force, as well as the responses that such states are entitled or obliged to take when dealing with such situations. In particular, the chapter examines the rules on state responsibility and their impact on and interaction with the other rules dealing with the position of third states. It also describes the scope of applicability of the law of neutrality, collective self-defence, enforcement of erga omnes obligations, and centralized versus decentralized responses by third states.