bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mahdist State (Sudan)
Authors: Searcy Kim 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
This entry examines the Mahdist state, 1885–1898, to illustrate the link between religion and politics. The institutions of state, specifically the Mahdi's role in the formation of the state and its transformation from an Islamic revivalist movement to a state, are treated. The Mahdist period almost since its beginning has received a considerable amount of attention. This is perhaps due to positioning in time: it began as an insurrection just as Europe began its colonial penetration into Africa. In addition, the Mahdiyya was the rare indigenous movement that was militarily successful against a much more powerful foe.
Kimek Khaganate
Authors: Kovalev Roman K. , Mako Gerald 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Kimek state comprised a confederation of seven Turkic tribes that formed an empire sometime between the mid‐9th and the early 11th centuries. At its heyday, this realm stretched from the Altai Mountains to the Aral Sea, and thus it was one of the largest empires in history. It is possible that in the second half of the 9th century their ruler adopted the title khagan (qağan), thereby indicating that the Kimek state evolved into a khaganate (qağanate), or empire. The rise and stability of the Kimek Khaganate owed much to the role it played in connecting the northern branches of the east–west “Silk Roads” and the north–south “Fur Road.” The Kimeks possessed a multifaceted economy, some urban culture, and perhaps a written language. Despite some traces of Islam, Buddhism, and Manichaeism, the overwhelming majority of the Kimeks were pagan. The khaganate's fall was caused by nomadic migrations in the early 11th century.
Funan, Kingdom of
Authors: Jacobsen Trude 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The kingdom of “Funan,” as it was known to the Chinese from the 3rd to 7th centuries
ce
, comprised many semi‐autonomous kingdoms in southeastern mainland Southeast Asia. Inhabitants of Funan probably spoke a Malayo‐Polynesian language, as in neighboring Champa, and were heavily influenced both politically and culturally by South Asia. The kings of Funan were required to demonstrate their devotion to Shiva (Śiva) or Vishnu (Vișņu) in order to secure the loyalty of the elite, whose clients kings could then commandeer in the expansion and maintenance of empire across mainland Southeast Asia and into the Malay Peninsula.
Scotland, Darien, and imperial ambition
Authors: Hamilton Douglas 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
In 1698 a Scottish fleet set sail for Darien in Central America. The 1200 settlers aimed to create a colony that could control the trades of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In so doing it was supposed to confirm Scotland as a global power and raise revenues to alleviate economic distress at home. Its ultimate failure so weakened Scotland that it is sometimes cited as one of the explanations for acquiescence in the Act of Union of 1707.
Tributary systems
Authors: Hevia James L. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The tributary system is a term used by historians and social scientists to characterize premodern relations between empires and weaker states. The general assumption is that Western European countries transcended this political form with the inauguration of state‐to‐state relations following the Peace of Westphalia. Since the 1970s, the Chinese tributary system has come to stand for this form of “unequal” international relations. Seldom, however, have scholars applied it to the forms of relations that emerged in European empires in the 19th century, nor to American foreign relations after World War II. More recently, scholars of international relations have found the Chinese tribute system model useful in discussing asymmetrical relations of power and cultural elements that make up aspects of international relations.
Tuʻi Tonga Empire
Authors: Gunson Niel 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The idea that the small island kingdom of Tonga was an empire from around the 10th century
ce
until the coming of Europeans is a modern concept used by some prehistorians and nationalistic Tongans. Certainly there appeared to be maritime expansion during three epochs in Tongan history, but no enduring empire was established and those who went beyond the region of Tongan cultural, social, and trade exchange were raiders and independent settlers. This so‐called maritime empire in Tonga was not unique in either Polynesia or the Pacific.
Teotihuacan Empire
Authors: Robertson Ian G. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractTeotihuacan was a massive pre‐industrial city, founded c.150bcein highland Central Mexico. Rapidly emerging as the dominant political and economic force in the region, Teotihuacan became the capital of a powerful, influential state which at times expanded its domain to absorb and control neighboring and perhaps more distant places. The core of the city was destroyed by fire c.600ce, an event that marked the end of Teotihuacan as one of the pre‐eminent urban centers in the pre‐Hispanic New World.
Zünghar (Dzungar) Khanate
Authors: Elverskog Johan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Zünghars were the last great Inner Asian nomadic steppe empire. Developing out of the ruling noble houses of the Oirats in the mid‐ to late 17th century, the Zünghars – especially during the reigns of Galdan (r.1678–1697), Tsewang‐Rabtan (r.1694–1727), and Galdan‐Tsereng (r.1727–1745) – came to rule the area of contemporary Xinjiang and surrounding territory in what is now largely western China. Situated as they thus were between the Russian and Qing empires, as well as the Central Asian Muslim Khanates, the Zünghars came to play a pivotal role not only in the history of early modern Eurasia, but also in shaping the political boundaries of contemporary Asia.
Kongo, Kingdom of
Authors: Saidi Christine 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Kingdom of the Kongo was an important African empire from about 1350 to 1700, located in Southwest Africa approximately where the modern country of Angola is today. The Kongo state was formed on the lower Congo River, since this was an ideal place to control the busy trade along the river and demand tribute. The major social and political divisions of this empire were the
kanda
, the matrilineal lineages. The
kanda
s were very powerful and a person's identity, access to land, political office, and inheritance were determined by their mother's lineage. The Kongo had its own currency –
nzimbu
, cowrie shells – and its sophisticated economy was based on control of trade and manufacturing. Much like Europe of the same era, religion played a crucial role in establishing states in the region. After over 100 years of independence the Kongo became involved with the Portuguese, Christianity, and, later, the Atlantic slave trade.
Indo‐Scythian (Saka) Kingdom
Authors: Ghosh Suchandra 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Numismatic evidence forms the most important source for the reconstruction of the history of the Indo‐Scythian kingdom, created in the 1st century
bce
following the arrival of migrating Scythians or Sakas from Central Asia. Its kings followed a system of joint rule and the accepted numismatic sequence for them (following G. K. Jenkins) is Vonones/Spalahores, Vonones/Spalagadames, Spalyrises/Spalagadames, Spalirises, Spalirises/Azes I, Azes I, Azilises, and Azes II. Their kingdom extended from Arachosia (Afghanistan) to the region to the east of Jhelum, including Gandhara and Taxila, across the northwest and north‐central Indian subcontinent. Mathura for a brief period was within their control. The era beginning in 57/58
bce
was named after its most illustrious ruler, Azes I. They were supplanted by the Indo‐Parthians.
Dervish State (Somali)
Authors: Hoehne Markus V. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Between 1899 and 1920, the Dervishes under Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan challenged the external colonial forces, the British, the Ethiopians, and the Italians in the northern Somali Peninsula, and temporarily established a relatively effective Somali proto‐state. It was based on the Sayyid's charisma and supported by strong religious belief (legitimizing the war against “unbelievers”) and by the general contempt of foreign domination on the part of Somali pastoral nomads. The Dervish rule, however, was characterized by war and did not contribute to economic or social development of the region.
French Empire: 11. Pacific
Authors: Aldrich Robert 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
In the mid‐ and late 1800s, France acquired several colonies in the South Pacific: Tahiti and the other islands of French Polynesia, New Caledonia, and Wallis and Futuna, as well as an interest in the Anglo‐French condominium of the New Hebrides. The French transported convicts to New Caledonia from the 1860s to the 1890s, but its major resource was and remains nickel. The myths of paradise found and lost endured in Tahiti, which gained new importance for France from the 1960s to the 1990s as a site for nuclear tests. France reluctantly acceded to independence for the New Hebrides in 1980, but the other islands remain French territories; a violent conflict between pro‐ and anti‐independence groups troubled New Caledonia in the 1980s.
Sex and empire
Authors: Aldrich Robert 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The empire offered many sexual opportunities for Europeans, for some a license to enjoy pleasures condemned in Europe, for others a chance to combat perceived vice and spread European precepts of morality. Venereal disease, prostitution and concubinage, and the birth of mixed‐race children preoccupied colonial authorities, while tropes of exotic and seductive women and men, and visions of depravity, became the stock‐in‐trade of writing and art. Colonial experiences challenged European sexual norms, and sex became a key arena for affirming or contesting standards of masculinity and femininity, racial exclusivity, and respectability. Colonialism left a legacy of new social and medical categorizations of sexuality, introduced different technologies of birth control and treatment of disease, and established law codes that regulated sexual behavior and sometimes survived decolonization.
Crimean Khanate
Authors: Davies Brian L. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Crimean Khanate (c. 1440–1783) was the most powerful of the new khanates spun off from the disintegrating Golden Horde. It came under Ottoman protection in the 1470s and played an important role in the balance of power among the Ottoman, Austrian Habsburg, and Russian Empires and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth down into the early 18th century. The captives taken in Eastern Europe by Crimean Tatar raiders became a major source of slave manpower for the Ottoman Empire.
Latin Empire (Constantinople)
Authors: Burkhardt Stefan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Latin Empire of Constantinople was created as a result of the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) and was one of the most astonishing empires of the Middle Ages. It was the only medieval attempt at establishing an empire with some sort of “master plan” (the
Partitio
). Although only short‐lived, it fundamentally influenced and changed relations between the Latin and Greek worlds. After the establishment of Latin rule, constantly changing coalitions of the Latin, Bulgarian, and Nicaean empires, fighting together or against each other, led to the empire's contraction until only the city of Constantinople was left in the hands of the Latin emperor.
Belgian Empire
Authors: Stanard Matthew G. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Belgium's colonial rule over the Belgian Congo lasted from 1908 to 1960, but the colony's roots are to be found in the earlier Leopoldian era of the Congo Free State (1885–1908). The violence of the Congo Free State has overshadowed the fact that Belgian empire lasted much longer than Leopold II's reign in central Africa and was different in profound ways. The reactions of Congolese peoples to Leopoldian and Belgian imperialism varied across the massive colony. Belgians achieved great things in certain fields, but their policy of isolation, paternalism, and strict controls did not prevent independence nor did it prepare the Democratic Republic of the Congo for self‐rule.
Globalization and empire
Authors: Everill Bronwen 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Although globalization is a relatively new concept in the social sciences, historians have identified a strong historical lineage of globalization in the history of empire. The themes of globalization – migration, economic exchange, cultural convergence – all derive from the history of the expansion of European empires from the 16th century. Globalization has had an important impact on the historiography of empires, imperial expansion, and global history. However, historians have also debated the relevance and usefulness of the concept of globalization for the study of the past.
Foreign interventionism
Authors: Everill Bronwen 
Published: January 2016

AbstractForeign intervention in sovereign territories has been associated with imperialism, humanitarianism, and trade. Annexation of territories through wars was not new to the empires of the modern period, but the foreign interventions associated with the anti‐slave trade movement and with “gunboat diplomacy” carved out a new kind of informal empire. Multinational interventions became the norm as a result of imperial rivalries and a desire to maintain a global balance of imperial power. Decolonization did not lead to an end to foreign intervention, with the Cold War and its aftermath providing continuing justifications for intervening.
Crusader States (Eastern Mediterranean)
Authors: Nicholson Helen J. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe crusader states were set up in Syria and Palestine during the conquests of the First Crusade (1096–1099) and centered on the cities of Antioch, Edessa, Jerusalem, and Tripoli. The crusaders also conquered other states in the eastern Mediterranean: Greece and the Byzantine Empire and the island of Cyprus. In these states the Europeans, known as “Franks,” formed a minority with preferential rights. However, there was also positive interaction between the European settlers and the indigenous peoples, with cross‐cultural exchange and sharing of religious sites. Although these states stimulated the expansion of European trade, they were a significant drain on the resources of western Christendom. The states of mainland Syria and Palestine fell to the Mamluks of Egypt in the late 13th century, but Cyprus and Greece later became part of the Venetian Empire.
Bunyoro‐Kitara, Kingdom of
Authors: Doyle Shane 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Bunyoro‐Kitara today is a relatively small East African kingdom situated in western Uganda, which claims to be the true heir to the ancient, much larger empire of Kitara. Kitara's origins, credited to local deities, provided its successors with significant ritual power, while its great extent shaped subsequent regional competition. Bunyoro's violent incorporation by the British Empire caused Kitara to become a term used to emphasize the perceived injustice of the kingdom's subjugation and dissection. Bunyoro‐Kitara's attempts to restore its former greatness contributed to the destabilization of Uganda after independence and the abolition of Uganda's kingdoms. Their restoration in 1993 as cultural entities has been at best a limited success.
Wari (Huari) culture
Authors: Isbell William H. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Wari was the first empire to emerge among the Central Andean civilizations of South America, during the Middle Horizon (MH, 650–1000
ce
). In comparative archaeological terms Wari belongs to the early Bronze Age, and like all pre‐Hispanic Andean cultures it is completely prehistoric, with no writing to assist interpretations. Wari began imperialistic expansion through interaction with Peru's South Coast Nasca culture, but later adopted a new religion from Tiwanaku, the other great capital city of the Andean MH world. Wari's political and economic infrastructure, along with its religious innovations, are thought to have foreshadowed Inca imperial organization 500 years later.
Russia: 5. Soviet (
USSR
)
Authors: Weeks Theodore R. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The USSR was both a continuation of the Russian Empire and a radical new experiment in nation–empire relations. In principle the USSR vehemently rejected imperialism and declared itself a free union of socialist nationalities. In reality the USSR favored Russian language and culture, in particular after the 1930s, for both practical and ideological reasons. While it is not correct to claim that Soviet rule aimed at total acculturation (“cultural genocide”) of non‐Russians, it is true that the favoring of Russian as an “all‐union” “second native language” also meant that the importance of other languages took second place.
British Empire: 8. India, from 1858
Authors: Roy Tirthankar 
Published: January 2016

AbstractTwo tendencies characterize best the time when the British Raj ruled over India. One of these was globalization. In this context, globalization would mean a great expansion in world trade, the emergence of a trade specialization that turned the tropical world into exporter of primary products, and international migration of capital and labor on a bigger scale than before. British India was pivotal to this world economy, and the empire tried to keep India that way. The second tendency was the growing pressure upon the Raj for Indian representation in running the state. Organized action on this issue began in the 1880s, met with little response from the imperialists, and took off from World War I.
British Empire: 7. India, to 1858
Authors: Roy Tirthankar 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The entry describes the foundation of the British Empire in South Asia by the East India Company. It shows how, induced by the character of the state, there emerged a distinct set of institutions, an Indo‐European society, and new spheres of commercial and intellectual exchange in the 19th century. By 1857, these developments had split the imperial domain into two worlds. Landed interests resisted British power in northern India during the mutiny, whereas in the cosmopolitan port cities, manufacturers and service workers who had gained from the incipient globalization stayed loyal. The mutiny, nevertheless, ended the Company's empire.
Angevin (Plantagenet) Empire
Authors: Power Daniel 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Angevin Empire was a collection of territories ruled by the Angevin or Plantagenet dynasty, originally counts of Anjou in western France, but from 1154 also kings of England. Under Count Geoffrey V (d.1151) and his son King Henry II of England (1154–1189), the dynasty's lands expanded through marriage and conquest to include England, Ireland, and most of western France, including Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Brittany, Poitou, and Gascony. At its height the “empire” dominated Western European politics, but it eventually collapsed in 1202–1204 under pressure from the king of France, Philip Augustus, who was lord of the Angevins for their continental lands. The “empire” was culturally and politically fragmented, as each of its provinces retained its own laws and traditions, and its history was scarred by numerous baronial revolts as well as quarrels within the ruling dynasty; but some unity was provided by the Angevin court and by the cadre of officials who governed these disparate territories.
Posts and telegraphs, imperial
Authors: Bonea Amelia 
Published: January 2016

AbstractPosts and telegraphs have often been described as the nerves and arteries of the British Empire. They facilitated the movement of information and goods, providing frequent, regular, and fast communication with some of the most remote corners of the empire by the end of the 19th century. They were indispensable in the conduct of war, administration, and commerce, while also contributing to the circulation of print media, the maintenance of family ties, and the cultivation of imperial sentiment. Imperial communications were textured by geography, technological change, and political and economic circumstances. The postal system represented the foundation on which future networks of communication, such as those enabled by telegraphy, telephony, and the Internet, were organized. But the posts and the telegraphs occupied separate niches in imperial communications. Their simultaneous use in various domains of activity during the 19th century demonstrates how old technologies continued to function alongside new ones.
Propaganda and empire
Authors: Potter Simon J. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Many different agencies issued propaganda about the modern British Empire, seeking to promote enthusiasm for imperial unity or expansion, to secure particular public or private interests, and to generate prestige or profits. Companies selling goods from colonial sources used images of empire for advertising. Political lobby groups sought to mobilize opinion for imperial purposes. Dominion governments advertised to attract investors and settlers. During World War I and World War II, the British government produced much imperial propaganda. In the interwar years, semi‐state organizations like the Empire Marketing Board and the British Broadcasting Corporation took the lead. Decolonization, counterinsurgency, and the Cold War subsequently created significant imperial propaganda requirements. Definitive proof about how effective such propaganda was remains hard to come by.
Botany and empire
Authors: McCracken Donal 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Plants may not have any ideology, but empires were intricately linked to plants: their exploitation for agricultural, horticultural, and afforestation purposes; their transport across the globe, to and from the metropolitan power and between colonies; and their scientific exploration. And to support such enterprises, modern empires developed networks of botanical institutions such as botanic gardens, botanical departments, botanic stations, forestry departments, and herbariums to investigate the scientific and horticultural nature of species. Empire also resulted in periodic plant crazes in Europe, with nursery firms publishing hand‐illustrated botanical magazines to popularize the species which had been introduced through the state botanical institutions such as the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew.
Egypt: 1. Ancient (New Kingdom)
Authors: Spalinger Anthony 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The empire period of New Kingdom Egypt encompasses a distinctly new phase in Egyptian history. Between about 1575 and 1100
bce
(Dynasties XVIII–XX), the Egyptian state founded two separate zones of control (Figure 1). To the south in Nubia the territory was organized into zones (Wawat and Kush) whereas in western Asia Palestine, southern Syria and portions of coastal Lebanon became highly influenced by Egypt. The nature of the administration established in both regions differed considerably. In Nubia the land was directly regulated by a viceroy and his subordinates. In addition, the pharaohs established many temples. To the north, on the other hand, the local rulers of the numerous city‐states were left in power so long as they remained loyal to the Egyptian king. By and large, Nubia was extensively exploited economically whereas Egypt's Asiatic territories were run far less profitably, with the emphasis placed upon adherence to the empire.
Bactrian or Graeco‐Bactrian Kingdom
Authors: Mairs Rachel 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

From the period after the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century
bce
until around the turn of the Common Era, a series of small, Greek‐ruled kingdoms existed in the region from Bactria, in Central Asia, through into northwestern India. Although few contemporary accounts remain, the history of these kingdoms, their culture, and relations with their neighbors can be reconstructed from a combination of ancient historical and archaeological sources.