bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Celebrity Journalists
Authors: Marshall David 
Published: September 2017

Celebrity journalists are news workers who become prominent or famous in their own right and thus objects of media attention. Journalists are a means of chronicling fame and infamy, and stars and leaders depend on journalism to maintain a public profile. Under economic pressures, media industries have tended to associate public personalities with their chroniclers. Repeated contact with the renowned has led journalists to become closely identified with those whose stories they report, resulting in their being elevated to celebrity status themselves and joining the A‐list of popular culture celebrities from film, television, and music (→ Popular Culture and the News Media).
Child Art
Authors: Pariser David 
Published: September 2017

The generic term
child art
often refers to graphic and even three‐dimensional work done by children. The term was first made popular by a leading art educator of the last century, Victor Lowenfeld (1947). It is occasionally used to refer to “real” artworks produced by “wunderkinder” such as Alexandra Nechita (Plagens 1996) who paints only in Picasso's Cubist style or Wang Yani (Winner 1993) who produced traditional Chinese brush paintings to global acclaim. Two aspects of child art have been studied: the aesthetic, i.e., how good, or expressive, or authentic the image created by the child is; and the developmental, i.e., how best to describe a child's acquisition of graphic fluency (Golomb 1993; Kindler & Darras 1997; Kindler et al. 2002; → Art as Communication; Media Use and Child Development; Media Use by Children; Visual Representation).
Classroom Instructional Technology
Authors: Lane Derek R. 
Published: September 2017

Classroom instructional technology (CIT) includes the pedagogical tools and methods that allow educators to communicate instructional messages that achieve instructional goals and facilitate learning outcomes at all educational levels in classrooms around the world (→ Learning and Communication; Pedagogy, Communication in). Over the past three decades, researchers have studied both the challenges and the opportunities associated with the potential of CIT to enhance effective delivery of instruction in the classroom. Researchers have also aimed to understand how pedagogical tools are used to enhance student learning. When integrated appropriately into the teaching and learning process, CIT functions to enhance knowledge sharing, student engagement and collaboration, and classroom interaction, and ultimately to support learning (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction). Studies also demonstrate, however, that CIT is least effective and can be detrimental to student learning when it is not intentionally integrated into a meaningful instructional strategy, and when it does not further a specific educational goal (Kadiyala & Crynes 2000).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Authors: Donsbach Wolfgang 
Published: September 2017

Cognitive dissonance is a theory developed in the late 1950s by US psychologist → Leon Festinger, which claims that people tend to avoid information and situations that are likely to increase a dissonance with their existing cognitions, such as beliefs, attitudes, or other value judgments. The author proposed the following basic hypotheses: “(1) The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance. (2) When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the dissonance” (Festinger 1957, 3). For him, “two elements are in a dissonant relationship if, considering these two alone, the obverse of one element would follow from the other” (Festinger 1957, 13).
Communication Networks
Authors: Monge Peter , Margolin Drew 
Published: September 2017

Communication and other → social networks have been the subject of considerable scholarship since the eighteenth century (Mattelart 2000), but the past two decades have produced unprecedented growth in network theorizing and research. Further, this interest in communication and information networks now spans the social sciences, including sociology, psychology, history, political science, organization science, and economics, as well as the physical and life sciences. As Castells (2000) has so comprehensively elucidated, we are now living in the age of the network society.
Communication Skills across the Life‐Span
Authors: Samter Wendy 
Published: September 2017

This entry focuses on communication skills associated with success in same‐sex friendship across the life‐span. The ability to maintain a variety of relationships throughout life is important to people's well‐being, of which friendship is among the most significant. Individuals who lack friends experience myriad adjustment problems including drug and alcohol abuse, academic failure, antisocial conduct, depression, loneliness, anxiety, and fatigue. The relationship between friendship and communication has been studied in a variety of ways. One particularly promising approach involves analysis of individuals' conceptions and expectations of friendship, as well as the daily activities in which they engage (Zarbatany et al. 1990). Understanding what people think of and do with their friends tells us something about the duties and obligations of being a friend, the standards to which friends are held, and the kinds of skills through which such duties and standards are met (→ Developmental Communication).
Conflict as Media Content
Authors: Cottle Simon 
Published: September 2017

Conflicts are endemic to the known social world and can be defined straightforwardly as struggles between opposing interests and outlooks. How the media report and represent conflicts have been questions throughout the history of media and communications research. From early studies of propaganda in World War I to the latest research into the media's role in propagating, post‐9/11, the US‐led “global war on terror,” media researchers have analyzed and theorized the multiple roles, dimensions, determinants, and impacts of media conflict reporting. In addition to studies of war reporting, countless others have examined, for example, how minority groups and protesters have been labeled and stereotyped in the media and how new social movements and cultural identities seek media access and symbolic recognition; how moral panics, public crises, and political scandals are performed and conditioned on the media stage (→ Scandalization in the News); how some conflicts become forgotten or hidden in dominant news agendas and how in others the media become involved in forwarding peace processes; how natural disasters and humanitarian emergencies are signaled around the world and how global risks, such as the fallout from nuclear accidents, migrating health pandemics, or climate change, become periodically symbolized and dramatized, discussed and debated (→ Agenda Building; Cottle 2006; in press).
Corporate Design
Authors: Jevnaker Birgit H. 
Published: September 2017

Corporate design is an umbrella term for all of a company's design‐oriented approaches to creating and projecting products/services, messages, brands, and other business or cultural propositions to external or internal audiences. Corporate design points to a potentially value creating, integrating business function. It deals with many design matters, embracing much more than the company logo (→ Corporate Communication).
Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Bartlett Jennifer L. 
Published: September 2017

The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) comprises stakeholder expectations of the social, ethical, legal, and economic impacts of an organization. These expectations and the perceptions stakeholders have of an organization's corporate social responsibility are central outcomes of business planning, management and operations, → Marketing, → advertising, → corporate communication, and → public relations. Organizations seek to be perceived to be meeting their obligations to society, thereby gaining and maintaining a license to operate. Legitimacy is a major driver of corporate social responsibility (Sethi 1979). Increasing their attractiveness to potential and existing employees, investors and investment fund managers, and consumers is another motivation for organizations to adopt CSR principles. As such, CSR forms a central charter for public relations in communicating and creating mutual understanding, managing potential conflicts, and to achieving organizational legitimacy (→ Corporate Reputation; Organizational Image).
Co‐Viewing
Authors: McDonald Daniel G. 
Published: September 2017

Co‐viewing is the viewing of media content in groups. Typically, the co‐viewing group is a dyad, but the term can also refer to groups of three or more. Most of the research has been conducted in regard to television viewing, but the concept has been a part of communication research since the investigation of silent motion pictures in the early 1900s (→ Exposure to Film). Generally, studies of co‐viewing fall into
three areas
: co‐viewing configurations (who views with whom and with what frequency), co‐viewing as a socialization aspect of the family decision‐making process (who controls the TV and decides what to watch), and – making up the bulk of current research on co‐viewing – parent–child co‐viewing as a mediation process (→ Audience).
Cultural Topoi in Public Relations
Authors: Leichty Greg B. 
Published: September 2017

A topos is a line of argument that can be adapted to a variety of subjects and audiences. Since Aristotle's time, communicators have used lists of topoi to generate arguments relevant to their persuasive tasks (→ Argumentative Discourse; Persuasion). In addition to introducing the cultural topoi perspective, this entry describes a set of topoi that are widely used: cultural premises about the social world and how human relationships should be organized (see Leichty & Warner 2001 for a detailed description).
Cultural Discourse Analysis
Authors: Carbaugh Donal 
Published: September 2017

Cultural → discourse analysis (CuDA) is a theory and methodology for the study of communication. The approach treats communication as a socially situated practice which involves a rich semantic web of presumed or taken‐for‐granted knowledge. As such, social practices are heard to include for participants an implicit commentary which typically goes beyond the current topic of explicit concern. An understanding of both the practice and the commentary activated through it is at the heart of CuDA. As a theory, it treats communication as formative of social life and as culturally meaningful. As a methodology, it is based upon five distinctive modes of analysis (Carbaugh 1996, 2005; Scollo 2011; → Cultural Patterns and Communication; Interpersonal Communication; Language and Social Interaction; Research Methods).
Discourse, Cognitive Approaches to
Authors: Sanders Robert E. 
Published: September 2017

Most Language and Social Interaction (LSI) researchers would agree that their findings about the social functionality of details of language use and social interaction have potential value for cognitive science. Schegloff (2006) cites evidence that people have cognitive capabilities for managing, detecting, and processing the socially consequential details of expressive acts whose complexity exceeds what cognitive science has recognized to date (→ Information Processing; Cognition).
Discourse Markers
Authors: Maschler Yael 
Published: September 2017

Using language – “languaging” (Becker 1988) – is possible at two levels of discourse. Generally, when we use language, we look through it at a world we believe to exist beyond language. However, we can also use language for
metalanguaging
, i.e., in order to look through it at the process of using language itself (→ Linguistics; Conversation Analysis). Discourse markers can be viewed as linguistic elements employed for metalanguaging – languaging about the interaction, as opposed to languaging about the extralingual world. In other words, rather than referring to the world perceived by speakers to exist
beyond
language, discourse markers refer to the text itself, to the interaction among its speakers, or to the cognitive processes taking place in their minds during verbalization (Maschler 1994).
E‐Government
Authors: Margetts Helen 
Published: September 2017

E‐government may be defined as the use by government of information and communication technologies, internally and to interact with citizens, firms, nongovernmental organizations, and other governments (→ Information and Communication Technology, Development of). E‐government in practice, therefore, consists of both complex networks of information systems within government organizations and a huge range of websites with which citizens can communicate, interact, and transact.
Election Campaign Communication
Authors: Semetko Holli A. 
Published: September 2017

Election campaigns are among the most important events in the lives of democracies and societies in transition. Campaigns often constitute the high points in public debate about political issues (→ Political Discourse). Election campaign communication takes different forms in different national and regional contexts. It is shaped by both party and media systems and by the regulatory environment governing the campaign process (→ Political Communication Systems). Election communication is also influenced by the balance of party and media forces in shaping the news agenda, and that balance has been tipped by the increasing role played by citizens and interest groups in generating messages and news about parties, leaders, and issues.
Electronic Mail
Authors: Hassan Robert 
Published: September 2017

Since the 1970s, electronic mail (email) has changed from being a rudimentary method of text‐based communication between a very few computer users in military research establishments, universities, and commercial telecommunications labs, to become a highly sophisticated and widespread media form. The growth of email has helped underpin not only the rise of the → Internet as a primary communicative technology of the early twenty‐first century, but has also been an important contributor to the ongoing expansion of the “network society” more generally (Castells 2000). Today, email has become a basic means of communication in the everyday life of hundreds of millions of people in the developed and developing economies of the world, linking and expanding their social, cultural, political, and economic realms in ways that continue to be unforeseen and innovative; bringing new issues, problems, and opportunities to the processes of institutions and to individual lives, which are increasingly shaped by digital technologies.
Emotions, Media Effects on
Authors: Wirth Werner 
Published: September 2017

Emotions are commonly understood as a complex of interactive entities encompassing subjective and objective factors and consisting of affective, cognitive, conative, and physiological components. The affective component includes the subjective experience of situations, which is connected to feelings of arousal (→ Excitation and Arousal), pleasure, or dissatisfaction (→ emotion). The cognitive component refers to how situations relevant to emotions are perceived and evaluated (→ Cognition). The conative component is related to expressive behavior, including facial and vocal expression and gestures (→ Facial Expressions; Gestures and Kinesics; Paralanguage). Also, emotions embed action tendencies such as approach (e.g., anger) or avoidance (e.g., anxiety; → Appraisal Theory). Finally, the physiological component encompasses peripheral reactions of the body that are mediated by the autonomous nervous system (physiological arousal).
Excitation and Arousal
Authors: Bente Gary , Eschenburg Felix 
Published: September 2017

Common sense holds that exposure to media content can be associated with different levels of excitement and arousal (→ Exposure to Communication Content). The specific case of a thrilling movie well describes the type of stimuli that come to our mind when using the terms arousal and excitation in everyday language. From a psychological point of view, arousal is conceptualized in more general terms, as a state of alertness and physical excitation elicited by external or internal stimuli, which challenge an adaptive response of the organism. The modern world is complex and rich in stimuli. It is in many respects different from the environment of our early ancestors, which required the organism to be physically prepared for immediate action, e.g., when possible threats entered the field of perception.
Excitation Transfer Theory
Authors: Zillmann Dolf 
Published: September 2017

The theory of excitation transfer addresses sequential dependencies in emotional reactivity. Specifically, it predicts an enhancement of emotional reactions to immediately present emotion‐arousing situations by portions of excitation that are left over from preceding related or unrelated emotion‐arousing situations (→ emotion; Excitation and Arousal). The theory operationalizes excitation primarily as dominance of sympathetic activity in the autonomic nervous system and treats this activity as the main determinant of the intensity of emotional behavior and experience (Zillmann 1983, 1996). Excitation transfer theory was initially advanced and tested to explain emotional reactivity in immediate social interactions. It equally applies, however, to emotional reactivity evoked by exposure to communication. Excitation transfer may be created by emotions from message exposure and affect emotions in social interactions, be created by emotions from social interactions and affect emotions from message exposure, and be both created by and affect emotions from message exposure (Zillmann 2006).
Extended Parallel Process Model
Authors: Witte Kim 
Published: September 2017

The goal of the extended parallel process model (EPPM) is to provide guidance on how to manage fear generated from communications about a threat. Fear is a powerful motivator, and the key to a successful communication about a threat is to channel this fear into a direction that promotes adaptive, self‐protective actions, and prevents maladaptive, inhibiting, or self‐defeating actions (→ Information Processing).
Gaze in Interaction
Authors: Mirivel Julien C. 
Published: September 2017

When communicators interact with one another, they necessarily gaze (or look) at each other or gaze separately or together at objects, artifacts, or events in the perceptual world. Gazing, scholars in language and social interaction have shown (→ Language and Social Interaction), is a fundamental mechanism through which people manage, coordinate, and choreograph their communicative activities. Gaze‐in‐interaction, then, is the term of choice to refer to these multiple activities, including the ways in which people use gaze as a resource for accomplishing specific interactional goals.
Grounded Theory
Authors: Scheufele Bertram 
Published: September 2017

In its original sense “grounded theory” stands for a methodology, research program, and method of qualitative research. In a narrower but also more practical sense the term describes a qualitative technique of text analysis comparable to qualitative content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative) and → discourse analysis. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss introduced grounded theory as a general research program for developing substantial (specific) or formal (general) theory by starting without (too) many assumptions and working immediately with the “data” (mostly text material) – this is what the term “grounded” refers to (→ Qualitative Methodology).
Health Disparities, Communication in
Authors: Freimuth Vicki S. 
Published: September 2017

Eliminating health disparities is one of the most pressing global health issues. In the United States, health disparities have been examined primarily as differences in groups based on racial, class, and ethnic classifications. Globally, the issue focuses on the differences between developing and developed nations in health status and access to state of the art treatments. Harshly put, wherever in the world you live, if you are poor and a minority, you live sicker and die sooner (→ Health Communication).
Infographics
Authors: Cabianca David 
Published: September 2017

An infographic (or information graphic) is a visual explanation – for example, a chart, map, or diagram – that aids in the comprehension of text‐based content. The infographic designer does not merely illustrate given information, but must actively interpret given content in order to present it in a manner that effectively visually communicates to the viewer. A designer does this by progressing through a number of steps, each time further processing and refining information (→ Design; Graphic Design).
Information Processing: Self‐Concept
Authors: Edwards Renee 
Published: September 2017

Self‐concept plays an important role in → information processing by facilitating the processing of self‐relevant information, enhancing retrieval of relevant information, and influencing interpretations of information. As the more comprehensive construct, “self” includes identity, relationships, roles, personality (→ Personality and Exposure to Communication; Personality Development and Communication), and the physical body, as well as notions of agency and consciousness. “Self‐concept” refers to one's personal identity or the body of knowledge that an individual holds about himself or herself, including self‐esteem or self‐evaluation. Varying attributes and conceptions of the self can explain differing responses in social situations.
Interactional Sociolinguistics
Authors: Bailey Benjamin 
Published: September 2017

Interactional sociolinguistics is concerned with how speakers signal and interpret meaning in social interaction. The term and the perspective are grounded in the work of John Gumperz (1982a, 1982b), who blended insights and tools from anthropology, linguistics, pragmatics, and conversation analysis into an interpretive framework for analyzing such meanings. Interactional sociolinguistics attempts to bridge the gulf between empirical communicative forms – e.g., words, prosody, register shifts – and what speakers and listeners take themselves to be doing with these forms. Methodologically, it relies on close → Discourse Analysis of audio‐ or video‐recorded interaction. Such methodology is central to uncovering meaning‐making processes because many conventions for signaling and interpreting meaning in talk are fleeting, unconscious, and culturally variable.
Intereffication Approach in Public Relations
Authors: Wehmeier Stefan 
Published: September 2017

The intereffication model focuses on the relationship between → Public Relations (PR) and → Journalism (Bentele et al. 1997). It was designed in a research project in 1996–1997 that focused on the PR activities of two East German cities, Leipzig and Halle. Unlike the
determination hypothesis
, the intereffication model stresses the interconnectedness of PR and journalism (→ Determination Theory in Public Relations). The authors describe the model as a complex relationship of mutual influence, mutual orientation, and mutual dependence. Intereffication means that neither PR nor journalism would be able to function properly without the existence of the other (Latin
efficare
= to make possible). The authors invented the word intereffication in order to create a neutral term, one free of the connotations associated with more metaphorical terms like symbiosis and Siamese twins.