bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Borderland Blends
Authors: Calvillo Jonathan E. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter argues that one of the key resonance channels that shaped Hip Hop in Brown Los Angeles runs through the Borderlands. Brown Los Angeles, this chapter argues, is a Borderlands space, a liminal reality where resonances of past colonial histories collide with ongoing inequalities to forge adaptive cultural expressions. Life in Brown Los Angeles is tied to a larger Borderlands region, the expansive geographies that encompass and radiate from the US-Mexico border. Particular elements of Borderlands life, as presented in this chapter, resonated with Hip Hop early on. Pachuquismo, especially, was a subculture that sustained resonances between Hip Hop and Brown Los Angeles. The chapter follows the creative work of Raul Garcia, known as Jonny Chingas, as emblematic of how Borderlands pachuquismo interacted with Hip Hop to facilitate Hip Hop’s embrace within Brown Los Angeles.
Game Recognize Game
Authors: Calvillo Jonathan E. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the concept of mutual recognition as a form of resonance that was catalytic in shaping early sites of Hip Hop sociability in Los Angeles. In mutual recognition, two or more individuals recognize each other as potential collaborators within a shared creative field. As the expectations of what Hip Hop would be on the West Coast were barely coalescing, mutual recognition was critical in the formation of creative partnerships and artistic collaborations. The Radio Club was a critical site of mutual recognition that helped cement Hip Hop’s place in Los Angeles. The chapter documents the life of the Radio Club through the eyes of various creatives from Brown Los Angeles who participated at the club. Drawing especially from the story of Crase, a young New York graffiti artist who relocated to Los Angeles, the chapter spotlights the influential nature of the Radio Club.
Restoring the Legitimacy of the Security Council
Authors: Johnstone Ian 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter deals with the Security Council’s legitimacy deficit. It goes beyond the standard critique of the Council’s composition and lack of representativeness and delves deeper into the legitimacy and effectiveness of the Council’s processes and performance. Questions about its performance legitimacy can arise in two ways: when it acts irresponsibly, and when it fails to act at all. The chapter posits that the main reason the Security Council is facing a legitimacy crisis today is its failure to act in response to many threats to international peace and security. Accordingly, one way of addressing that crisis is by generating a greater sense of responsibility to act. The chapter offers a set of proposals—underpinned by the twin principles of participation and publicity—to improve the quality of the Security Council’s deliberations, including empowering elected members, engaging regional groups, opening informal processes, and magnifying audience effect through greater public scrutiny.
Tapping the Full Potential of the General Assembly
Authors: Khalil Mona Ali 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The UN General Assembly (UNGA) has untapped powers under Resolution 377 (V), also known as “Uniting for Peace”. When a veto prevents the UN Security Council (UNSC) from fulfilling its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, the UNGA can exercise its residual authority and authorize collective measures to respond to aggression and mass atrocity crimes.The tenth and eleventh emergency special sessions on the situations in Palestine and Ukraine demonstrate that the UNGA has yet to tap the full potential of that resolution. Unlike the UNSC, however, the UNGA can only provide a legal basis for action by states that are willing to act; it cannot impose binding obligations on states that do not. Nonetheless, when the UNSC is paralyzed, UNGA can authorize military assistance, deploy peacekeeping missions and recommend sanctions to give effect to the will of the international community in accordance with the UN Charter.
This Is a Chapter about Deception
Authors: Cox Courtney M. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter tells a cautionary methodological tale about interstitial theorizing using the example of “deception.” Interstitial concepts in private law serve different functions; one is to create domains that cut across the traditional silos of private law, like tort, property, and contract. Once a domain is created, jurists and scholars can then render the law consistent across it. “Deception” has as strong a claim as any to serving this function, and scholars have begun theorizing the so-called law of deception. But focusing on the wrong concept as creating such a domain can distort our understanding of the law, unnecessarily limiting its path. This chapter illustrates this danger. The chapter first offers a philosophical analysis of the pre-legal concept of “deception.” The chapter then uses that analysis to question whether the tort of deceit—the leading example of the so-called law of deception—is really about deception at all.
The Concept of Personality in Private Law
Authors: Miller Paul B. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the concept of personality in private law. That we have such a concept is easily missed. We live in a time in which entrenched legal nominalism and moral anti-realism have generated fragmentary conceptions of personality. Some examine the concept in a reductionist way, equating legal personhood with possession of requisites of agency, or by tethering it to ascriptions of legal status. Others suggest that “legal personality” consists merely in different ascriptions made of different objects whom lawmakers have declared “persons.” In the chapter, I challenge all of this. I claim that the concept of personality in common law is reasonably coherent, its development having been disciplined by recourse to a focal exemplar (cognitively mature and intact natural persons). Furthermore, I argue that the concept consists in three irreducible facets—legal agency (and its requisites), the ascription of legal entitlements and burdens, and legal statuses.
Berlin Congress (1878)
Authors: Van den Bogaert Sina 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Berlin Congress was held in Berlin from 13 June to 13 July 1878. It was attended by AustriaHungary, the British Empire, the German Empire, France, Italy, the Russian Empire (→ Russia), and the Ottoman Empire, and also by delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. It was solicited by Austria-Hungary and Britain with the aim of countering the Russian advance in the southeastern region of Europe, and hosted by Chancellor von Bismarck. The Berlin Congress resulted in the Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East ([signed 13 July 1878]; ‘Treaty of Berlin’), which is considered to be one of the three major peace agreements (→ peace treaties) in the period after the → Vienna Congress (1815) (Baumgart IX), the remaining two being the → Paris Peace Treaty (1856) and the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 (→ Versailles Peace Treaty [1919]; → Neuilly Peace Treaty [1919]; → St Germain Peace Treaty [1919]; → Trianon Peace Treaty [1920]; → Lausanne Peace Treaty [1923]; see also → History of International Law, 1815 to World War I).
Central American Court of Justice (1907–18)
Authors: Riquelme Cortado Rosa 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Central American Court of Justice (Corte de Justicia Centroamericana; ‘Court of Cartago’) was the first international court with jurisdiction over sovereign States, permanent function and compulsory authority and was also the first which allowed individuals access to its jurisdiction (→ Individuals in International Law; → International Courts and Tribunals, Standing). The court had distant predecessors in the creation of a regional power, exercised by a Supreme Court of Justice, established in the successive Central American federalist attempts in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (→ Central America). The first and most significant for covering the five Central American republics (they had in fact been a single administrative unit while under Spanish rule) was established in the 1824 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America, signed by representatives of the States of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.
Climate Protection Agreements
Authors: Minnerop Petra 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In the second half of the 20th century, scientists warned that anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) will not be readily absorbed by the oceans. A few years later, the CO2 concentration in the earth’s atmosphere could be measured and an annual rise (→ Atmosphere, International Protection) reported. The potential of these changes was underlined by evidence suggesting a particular sensitivity of the global climate system to small changes (→ Climate, International Protection). In the 1980s, scientists started to use new methods to prove how changes in the CO2 concentration influence the occurrence of ice-ages and weather events. Drillings into the Greenland and Antarctic ice caps revealed not only that levels of CO2 were 50% less during ice-ages than at the warmer times, but also that levels of CO2 went up in close relation to the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere. In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (‘IPCC’) was created with the mandate to assess scientific evidence in relation to climate change.
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON/CMEA)
Authors: Sonnevend Pál 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was founded in January 1949 in Moscow, whereas the exact date of its creation is unknown. The organization used in all its official correspondence, as well as in its international contacts the abbreviation ‘CMEA’. This entry uses the official abbreviation, instead of the more commonly used term ‘Comecon’. There have been multiple motivations behind the formation of this organization by Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and the Soviet Union. One of the reasons was to react to the → Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program) and the establishment of the → Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) from which the Soviet Union sought to keep away its allies. With the creation of the CMEA the Soviet Union also aimed at securing its needs in raw materials and capital goods. It is also argued that the Western embargo imposed in 1948 on the Soviet Union had a role to play.
Debt-for-Nature Swaps
Authors: Magraw Daniel B , Menck Figueroa Grace 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Debt-for-nature swaps, invented in the mid-1980s, involve creative alternative funding mechanisms to finance → sustainable development projects in lowincome countries. Although various financial arrangements may be used, a debt-for-nature swap (‘DNS’) basically leverages the debt of a low-income country to obtain a commitment from that country to protect nature and possibly to help finance that protection; sovereign debt is forgiven in return for the environmental commitment, and the savings in debt servicing are invested in environmental conservation and protection. The following discussion consists of three parts. First, debt-for-nature swaps are framed in the macro-context of environmental protection and international development finance. Second, the mechanics of debt-for-nature swaps are explained with reference to specific types of swaps and examples involving various countries. Finally, the limitations and prospects of debt-for-nature swaps are explored.
Decolonization: Spanish Territories
Authors: María Vernet Paula 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Spanish colonial empire comprised territories in America, Africa, and the Pacific. Upon discovery of the New World, Spain encouraged travel and exploration, and commissioned military officers to rule over the conquered territories of the Americas on behalf of the Spanish Crown (→ Colonialism; → Territory, Discovery). At that time, Spanish → conquest over America was legitimized by evangelization of non-Christians; the Pope ratified the discovery of the territories by issuing bulls, thus preventing other Christian princes from taking possession of them. The territory colonized by Spain in America was vast; it included most of present-day → Central America, most of South America, Mexico, and south-western United States of America. The Spanish Crown had to divide its territories in order to exercise adequate political and administrative control, thus creating viceroyalties and general captaincies. Spain exercised control over these colonies for more than three centuries until most territories seceded from the empire and became newly independent States.
Delagoa Bay Railway Arbitration
Authors: Hernández Gleider I 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Delagoa Bay Railway Arbitration was conducted between the United States and Great Britain as joint claimants against Portugal as defendant. The → arbitration exclusively concerned the question of what → compensation was due from Portugal for its rescission of a railway concession and seizure of a railroad. The arbitration was a part of a wider series of disputes between Portugal and other colonial powers, notably Great Britain, and later South Africa, for control over the south-east African coast. Delagoa Bay—or Lorenço Marquès, now Maputo—was an area which had been under Portuguese influence since the 1580s, but acquired heightened strategic importance following the so-called ‘Scramble for Africa’ at the end of the 19th century, and its sovereignty was contested in an arbitration finally settled in favour of Portugal (see → Delagoa Bay Arbitration).
Havana Club Case
Authors: Riffel Christian 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Although the WTO ruling in United States — Section 211 Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1998 (‘Havana Club’) concerns several provisions of the → Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (1994) (‘TRIPS Agreement’), the ruling stands out because it delineates the material scope of application of that Agreement. From the vantage point of the panel decision, it even amounts to an expansion of its scope. The panel tried to limit the scope of the TRIPS Agreement to the intellectual property rights mentioned in the section titles of Part II thereof. The Appellate Body, however, reversed this finding and clarified that the subject matters incorporated into the TRIPS Agreement by virtue of the general reference norm in Art. 2.1 form part of that Agreement.
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
Authors: Bennouna Mohamed 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Non-Aligned Movement (‘NAM’) was founded in Belgrade in 1961 at a conference of → Heads of State, representing 25 predominantly Asian and African States. The NAM is neither a new alliance nor an international organization, but a grouping of States mostly formed as a result of the → decolonization process. Its members were determined not to adopt the logic of the → Cold War (1947–91), nor to embrace the division of the world, which as of 1947/48 was split in two blocs of nuclear weapon States, the clash of which could lead to catastrophic consequences for the entire planet. The explosion at the end of World War II of two atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki had demonstrated the scale of destruction caused by the use of → nuclear weapons and warfare.
Protectorates and Protected States
Authors: Trilsch Mirja 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Both the term ‘protectorate’ and the term ‘protected State’ refer to a relatively powerful State’s promise to protect a weaker State from external aggression or internal disturbance, in return for which the protected entity yields certain powers to the protector. Typically, the legal basis for a regime of protection is a treaty by which the protecting State acquires full control over the external affairs of another State or territory, while the latter continues to have command over its internal affairs. The dependant entity is not annexed (→ Annexation) or formally incorporated into the territory of the protector (→ Territory, Acquisition). However, the protected entity will typically be prevented from communicating with third States without the consent of the protector.
Regional Co-operation and Organization: African States
Authors: Killander Magnus 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Apart from regulation of the use of the → Congo River and the → Niger River dating back to the scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, there was little co-operation between the colonial powers in Africa (see also → Berlin West Africa Conference [1884–85]). One instance of such co-operation was the establishment in 1935 of the African Postal Union and the African Telecommunications Union which were established through agreements between the colonial governments of 15 African territories covering most of the continent.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
Authors: Khan Rahmatullah 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Seven South Asian States, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka set up the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (‘SAARC’) in 1985. Afghanistan joined the organization in April 2007. An estimate made before the Afghanistan entry placed the combined population of the SAARC region at 1.4 billion. That constitutes 21% of the global population. That massive bulk of multicultural humanity inhabits a meagre 3% of the world’s landmass. The skewed demographic condition, and many other factors, leaves 43% of the region’s population living below the poverty line.
Will we survive
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The summer of 1940 is traditionally associated with the rise of the Left and the transformation of the conflict into a ‘People’s War’ following the creation of Winston Churchill’s all-party Government. By contrast, this chapter explores the Conservative interpretation for the failure of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France and the subsequent ‘miracle of Dunkirk’. It demonstrates how Conservatives blamed a lack of martial virtues for the BEFs reverses and praised elite military leadership as opposed to ordinary civilians for their rescue. It then turns to the work of a group of Conservatives, led by R. A. Butler, who sought to use this crisis to create a new kind of Christian State. The chapter concludes by demonstrating how, despite their failures, the British State nevertheless became more entwined in the religious life of its people and how a system of warrior welfare was developed during the war.
With whom shall we fight
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter examines the political impact of Germany’s attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the subsequent debate over whether Britain should open a ‘second front’ to aid its new ally. Focussing on the main agitator for a ‘second front’, the newspaper owner and Conservative peer Lord Beaverbrook, it argues that Beaverbrook’s support for the Soviet Union reflected the press baron’s consistent realist approach to international relations in general and the USSR in particular. Placing Beaverbrook’s activities in the context of growing fears over American influence in the post-war world, it argues that he saw in a close relationship with the USSR an antidote to American imperialism which threatened the future unity of the British Empire. The chapter concludes by highlighting the wider phenomenon of Conservative anti-Americanism.
Epilogue
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter examines Conservative reactions to the 1945 general election, the transformation of post-war Britain, and the death of wartime Conservatism. It examines letters written to Winston Churchill in 1945, the development of an aggressive-defensive mindset among the Party’s middle-class supporters, and the rise of anti-Socialist campaign groups, such as the Vermin Club and the British Housewives League. It tracks the fortunes of the four different Conservative traditions analysed in the book: Ruralist, Individualist, Constructive Imperialist, Industrial Paternalist and Tory Progressive during the period of the Cold War. It concludes that, while the Conservative Party since Margaret Thatcher has continued to hark back to the Second World War, the Conservatism of that period, and the Britain that Conservatives sought to protect, was long dead.
Pure, Avoidable, and Deliberate Structural Injustice
Authors: McKeown Maeve 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In Chapter 4, ‘Pure, Avoidable, and Deliberate Structural Injustice’, Maeve McKeown argues that current theories of structural injustice are confused because they misunderstand the relationship between structure and agency. The dominant way of thinking about structural injustice relies on the claim that structure and agency are fully integrated in such a way that when agents act they reproduce social structures—a view that comes from Anthony Giddens’s ‘structuration theory’. McKeown suggests that this approach impedes an analysis of power relations and possibilities for structural change. McKeown argues instead for a definition of structural injustice based on ‘critical realism’—the view that structure and agency are separate while both impacting on each other. This reveals existing power relations and can explain the role of agency in precipitating structural change—subordinated agents within structures can challenge power alignments or create alternative or countering alignments. McKeown develops a typology of structural injustice consisting of three distinct forms: ‘pure’—the structural injustice is unintended, unforeseeable and there are no agents with the capacity to remedy it; ‘avoidable’—the unjust outcomes of structural processes are foreseeable, and there are powerful agents with the capacity to remedy the injustice, but they fail to do so; ‘deliberate’—powerful agents actively perpetuate the injustice because they benefit from it. McKeown concludes by suggesting that such a typology of structural injustice clarifies the role of powerful agents in perpetuating structural injustice; it explains how injustices can be put right and it helps to pinpoint responsibility for structural change.
Elite, Especially Semi-Elite
Authors: Levy Daniel C. 
Published: September 2024

AbstractThe many facets of US exceptionalism in global PHE reach their zenith when it comes to the world class heights of elite PHE. Only South Korea has rough parity between private and public in elite higher education, whereas the US remains alone for private superiority, which has even expanded. Throughout most of the world, however, countries’ leading PHE does not approach global academic heights. It is instead semi-elite globally, however elite at home. Depending upon region and country, semi-elite PHE (sometimes overlapping venerable religious PHE) increasingly competes with historically superior public higher education academically, though generally with distinctive offsetting strengths (e.g., in employment ties) and weaknesses (e.g., in basic research). Semi-elite PHE is characteristically quite intertwined with business (national and international) and political-economic privatization, hostile to statism.