bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Use of Nonlinear Constitutive Equations to Evaluate Draw Resistance and Filter Ventilation
Authors: Eitzinger B , Ederer G 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This study investigates by nonlinear constitutive equations the influence of tipping paper, cigarette paper, filter, and tobacco rod on the degree of filter ventilation and draw resistance. Starting from the laws of conservation, the path to the theory of fluid dynamics in porous media and Darcy's law is reviewed and, as an extension to Darcy's law, two different nonlinear pressure drop-flow relations are proposed. It is proven that these relations are valid constitutive equations and the partial differential equations for the stationary flow in an unlit cigarette covering anisotropic, inhomogeneous and nonlinear behaviour are derived. From these equations a system of ordinary differential equations for the one-dimensional flow in the cigarette is derived by averaging pressure and velocity over the cross section of the cigarette. By further integration, the concept of an electrical analog is reached and discussed in the light of nonlinear pressure drop-flow relations. By numerical calculations based on the system of ordinary differential equations, it is shown that the influence of nonlinearities cannot be neglected because variations in the degree of filter ventilation can reach up to 20% of its nominal value.
A Mathematical Scheme for Calculating Flows and Pressure Drops in Lit and Unlit Cigarettes
Authors: Dwyer RW , Chen P , Wasyk RD 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
A computational methodology is presented for evaluating the flows and pressure drops in both lit and unlit cigarettes. The flows and pressure drops across rows of tipping-paper perforations are considered explicitly, as are the locations and relative sizes of the ventilation holes. The flows and pressure drops across air-permeable cigarette papers are included. The influence of plugwrappermeabilities on filter ventilation is developed. Lit cigarettes are mimicked by adding a “coal” pressure drop to the upstream end of the cigarette. The computational scheme is used to predict the effects of tobacco-rod length, puff volume, and vent blocking on cigarette ventilation and pressure drop. A derivation of the pressure-drop and flow equations for a cigarette with an upstream pressure drop is included in an appendix.
Determination of the Transfer Efficiency of d-Nicotine to Mainstream Smoke
Authors: Perfetti TA , Gordon BM , Coleman III WM , Morgan WT 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Experiments were conducted to independently determine the mainstream smoke transfer efficiency of d-nicotine and l-nicotine. Two types of cigarettes (University of Kentucky 2R1 reference cigarette and a cigarette prepared from reconstituted sheet material, TS1) were employed in the study. A chiral-gas chromatography-selected ion monitoring-mass selective detection analysis was used to separate and determine d- and l-nicotine. The two types of cigarettes were injected with varying levels of d- or l-nicotine (0-20 mg). The tobacco was removed from the nicotine-injected cigarettes and analyzed for total nicotine and d- and l-nicotine. The cigarettes were smoked under FTC (Federal Trade Commission) conditions, and the Cambridge pad extracts were analyzed for total nicotine and d- and l-nicotine. The total nicotine transfer efficiency and the transfer efficiencies of d- and l-nicotine were determined. Nicotine transfer efficiency is dependent on the type of tobacco employed in a blend and the configuration of the cigarette. As a result, the total nicotine transfer efficiency for the 2R1 cigarettes was different than for the TS1 cigarettes. Likewise, the independently measured transfer efficiencies for d- and l-nicotine were different between the two cigarettes. The transfer efficiencies of d- and l-nicotine were not found to be different within a cigarette type. The average transfer efficiency for d-nicotine in a 2R1 cigarette was determined to be 19.25%. The average transfer efficiency for l-nicotine in a 2R1 cigarette was 16.05%. The average transfer efficiency for d-nicotine in a TS1 cigarette was 10.15% and 10.65% for l-nicotine. These differences between d- and l-nicotine were determined not to be statistically significant and are of no practical consequence.
The Heat of Combustion of Tobacco and Carbon Oxide Formation
Authors: Norman AB , Perfetti TA , Perfetti PF , Hayworth RG 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Recent studies demonstrated a relationship between mass burn rates of straight-grade cigarettes and heats of combustion of the tobacco materials. In the present work, relationships between measured heats of combustion and elemental composition of the tobacco materials were further analyzed. Heats of combustion measured in oxygen were directly correlated with the carbon and hydrogen content of the tobacco materials tested. Ash content of the materials was inversely related to the heats of combustion. The water insoluble residues from exhaustively extracted tobacco materials showed higher heats of combustion and higher carbon content than the non-extracted materials, confirming a direct relationship between carbon content and heat of combustion. A value for the heat of formation of tobacco was estimated (1175 cal/g) from the heat of combustion data and elemental analysis results. The estimated value for heat of formation of tobacco appears to be constant regardless of the material type. Heat values measured in air were uniformly lower than the combustion heats in oxygen, suggesting formation of CO and other reaction products. Gases produced during bomb calorimetry experiments with five tobacco materials were analyzed for CO and CO2 content. When the materials were burned in oxygen, no CO was found in the gases produced. Measured heats of combustion matched estimates based on CO2 found in the gas and conversion of the sample hydrogen content to water. Materials burned in air produced CO2 (56% to 77% of the sample carbon content) and appreciable amounts of CO (7% to 16% of the sample carbon content). Unburned residue containing carbon and hydrogen was found in the air combustion experiments. Estimated heat values based on amounts of CO and CO2 found in the gas and water formed from the hydrogen lost during combustion in air were higher than the measured values. These observations indicate formation of products containing hydrogen when the materials were burned in air. CO and CO2 formation during combustion in air were related to the composition of the tobacco materials. Materials with high carbon and low ash content showed evidence of higher CO2 formation. Amounts of unburned residue also varied with material composition. Thus, energy released during tobacco combustion in air is related to material-dependent formation of reaction products in addition to the carbon oxides and to the quantity of unburned material.
Synthesis of 3-Oxo-α-ionol Ethyl Carbonate and its Conversion to Megastigmatrienones in Tobacco Smoke
Authors: Yang H , Liu J , Li K , Yin X , Tan X , Wang J 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
3-Oxo-α-ionol ethyl carbonate, a precursor of megastigmatrienones was prepared by reduction of α-ionone to α-ionol, followed by esterification with ethyl chloroformate and then by oxidation with t-butyl chromate. The total yield was about 23%. Infrared (IR) and mass spectra of this compound were determined. Upon smoking, cigarettes to which 0.002% by weight of the titled compound was added had an improved and more harmonious flavor. The smoke was sweeter and had a cleaner after taste. Experimental results suggest that the title compound added to the tobacco pyrolyzes to form megastigmatrienones during smoking.
Handling and Curing Characteristics of Cut-Strip Tobacco. Part 1: Effect of Strip-Size, Packing Density and Mode of Orientation
Authors: Johnson WH , Young JH , Ellington GH , Weeks WW , Tutor JC 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Previous work has demonstrated potential handling and curing efficiencies in the use of cut-strip tobacco. The present work considers further the effect of cut-strip size, packing density and mode of orientation on cured leaf chemistry (starch, reducing sugars, and total alkaloids) and leaf quality. Results showed that cured leaf chemistry of 15.2 × 22.9 cm cut-strip more closely matched properties of whole leaf than pieces 15.2 × 15.2 cm or smaller. Starch contents were significantly higher for the smaller cut-strip sizes, perhaps due to edge drying effects, while alkaloids were significantly lower. Within the range of 194 to 292 kg/m, packing density had little effect on leaf chemistry, with the exception that reducing sugars were slightly lower for the higher packing densities. This could be due to a longer time for the drying front to move through the more tightly packed tobacco, and hence more respiratory loss of sugars. Government grades and average market prices of cured strips were essentially unaffected over the range of strip sizes or packing densities tested. Based on airflow resistance measurements and observed drying characteristics, vertical orientation of strips was far superior to horizontal orientation, both with vertical airflow through the tobacco. The higher packing density reduced specific energy use (kWh/kg green tobacco) by as much as 22%, indicating potential energy savings for cut-strip over whole leaf curing.
Studies on the control of broomrape (Orobancheramosa L.) in Virginia tobacco (Nicotianatabacum L.)
Authors: Covarelli L 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
During 1997 and 1998, in the province of Perugia (Umbria, central Italy), four field experimental trials were carried out to study the control of broomrape (OrobancheramosaL.) in Virginia tobacco. In 1997, maleic hydrazide (2040 mL ha-1), flumetralin (1200 mL ha-1), n-decanol (10720 mL ha-1), glyphosate (180-324 mL ha-1) and rimsulfuron (12.5-25 g ha-1) were tested on the variety K 394. In the second year, maleic hydrazide (2040 mL ha-1), n-decanol (10720 mL ha-1) and butralin (2160 mL ha-1) were utilised in the same variety. Furthermore, a field experiment was performed to assess the susceptibility of different untopped Virginia tobacco varieties to broomrape. The presence of the weed was recorded as the number of the aboveground broomrape plants per m2 and after harvest dry weight was determined. Maleic hydrazide proved to be highly effective against the parasitic weed when used at the early flowering stage of the crop, reducing by 95% and 73%, on average, the number of broomrape plants with respect to the untreated control, respectively in 1997 and 1998. Rimsulfuron, used 55 days after transplanting, had a satisfactory activity against broomrape (reduction of 50-70%). A double treatment with glyphosate caused a reduction of 100% of broomrape but it significantly depressed tobacco yield. Flumetralin, n-decanol and butralin did not show any control of broomrape. The variety BC 60 FB was found to be highly resistant to the weed with an average of 85% reduction in broomrape plants compared to the other varieties in the experiment.
Editors’ note
Authors: Heller WD , Scherer G 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Since the beginning of 2003, BeiträgezurTabakforschung International/Contributions to Tobacco Research is available on the Internet at www.beitraege-bti.de.
The website contains PDF files of all articles published in the Journal since 1961. In addition, an infobase has been implemented which allows the search for authors, bibliographic data and words in titles and abstracts. The website is updated with the complete articles at about the same time as each new issue of Beiträge goes into print. This means that the new issues may be available on the Internet somewhat earlier than the printed issue.
We think the website of Beiträge is an improvement of the service for all present readers and might also help to enlarge the readership of the Journal in the future. We all know that nothing is perfect and everything (particularly new things) can be improved. The Editorial Office of Beiträge would be grateful for any suggestions regarding improvement of the website.
We as Editors would like to take this opportunity to assure our readers that, despite this “great technical achievement”, the journal will keep to some “old-fashioned” traditions. For example, the peer-review process is maintained as it is and also the printed issue of Beiträge will be send to you in the usual way.
Observing the Peripheral Burning of Cigarettes by an Infrared Technique
Authors: Liu C , Woodcock D 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
A modern infrared camera was used to observe the peripheral burning of cigarettes during puffing and smouldering. The computer-controlled infrared system captured thermal images with recording rates up to 50 Hz at 8-bit (256-colour) resolution. The response time was less than 0.04 s at ca. 780 °C. The overall performance of the system was superior to most infrared systems used in previously reported investigations. The combined capacity allowed us to capture some faster, smaller high-temperature burning events on the periphery of a cigarette during puffing, which was first described by Egertion et al. in 1963 using an X-ray method. These transient burning events were caused by tobacco shreds near the coal surface experiencing the maximum air influx. The temperature of these transient burning events could be ca. 200 to 250 °C higher than the average peripheral temperature of the cigarette. The likelihood of these high-temperature burning events occurring during smouldering was significantly less. Some other details of the cigarette's combustion were also observed with improved simplicity and clarity.
Current Measurement Reliability of Selected Smoke Analytes
Authors: Purkis SW , Bailey IA 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The reliability of measurements of mainstream smoke analytes other than “tar”, nicotine and carbon monoxide (CO) is not known but is important in the current regulatory environment internationally. An appreciation of between laboratory variability is essential for companies contracting analytical work to outside suppliers.
Seven laboratories obtained data from three cigarette brands for as many as they could currently measure of the 44 smoke analytes, commonly referred to as the “Hoffmann list”. The brands, of “tar” yields 12 mg, 8 mg and 5 mg, were smoked under the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) smoking regime to obtain average yield values based on 5 replicates, each laboratory smoking their chosen number of cigarettes per replicate. In addition, laboratories used their preferred and internally validated methodology i.e. smoking machine type, trapping system, sample work-up and detection system. Around 3600 data points were obtained.
This study was based on one point in time measurements. It did not therefore include any components of longer-term variability that would be expected to further increase the measurement variability. No analytes had lower within-laboratory measurement variability than “tar” and 70% of the other analytes had significantly higher levels. All laboratories ranked the products in the same order for all analytes (except some metals) but there were as much as 10-fold differences in measured values between laboratories. The mean difference between highest and lowest yield measurements was 80% when the values for the three smoke analytes with differences in excess of 8-fold were excluded.
Given the lack of standardised methods, and the consequent high degree of inter-laboratory variability it is not currently possible to make meaningful comparisons between such data from several sources. Indeed, calculation of yields from benchmarking studies may prove no less reliable.
TSNA Levels in the Mainstream Smoke of Simplified Blend Prototypes
Authors: Zuber J , d'Andres S , Boudoux R , Renaud JM 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Different approaches have been reported in the literature to reduce the tobacco-specific nitrosamine (TSNA) levels in mainstream smoke (MSS). The reduction of TSNA in the raw tobacco is an approach that has received much attention in recent years. Different elements determine the level of TSNA in MSS: During combustion, part of the TSNA in the cigarette filler can transfer into smoke while another portion can undergo thermal degradation. Moreover, it is possible that TSNA can be pyrosynthesized and that concomitant synergetic effects between the blend components can also occur. Depending on their extent, the formation and degradation of nitrosamines during the combustion process might have an important impact on TSNA level in the smoke of blended cigarettes and might lead to MSS TSNA deliveries which would not parallel that of the blend components.
On the Development of a Very Rapid Gas Chromatographic Method for the Analysis of High Molecular Weight Hydrocarbons in Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Coleman III WM , Gordon BM 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
A very rapid, flash-gas chromatographic (GC), quantitative method for the analysis of high molecular weight saturated hydrocarbons in cigarette smoke has been developed. The method was fast, accurate and precise. Sample turn around times were approximately six minutes, with an accompanying average percent relative standard deviation (%RSD) of less than 10%. Four linear saturated hydrocarbons with 27, 29, 31 and 33 carbon atoms were quantitated in an array of reference cigarettes ranging in “tar” deliveries from approximately 2 to approximately 20 mg. By use of a cyclohexane extraction of cigarette smoke captured on Cambridge filter pads, the extraction efficiency was determined to be greater than 95% for each hydrocarbon. The approach represents a significant advance over current analytical procedures that require, on average, greater than 30-min sample turn around times.
Application of Pattern Recognition Method for Color Assessment of Oriental Tobacco based on HPLC of Polyphenols
Authors: Dagnon S , Edreva A 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The color of Oriental tobaccos was organoleptically assayed, and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of polyphenols was performed. The major tobacco polyphenols (chlorogenic acid, its isomers, and rutin), as well as scopoletin and kaempferol-3-rutinoside were quantified. HPLC polyphenol profiles were processed by pattern recognition method (PRM), and the values of indexes of similarity (Is,%) between the cultivars studied were determined. It was shown that data from organoleptic color assessment and from PRM based on HPLC profiles of polyphenols of the cultivars studied are largely compatible. Hence, PRM can be suggested as an additional tool for objective color evaluation and classification of Oriental tobacco.
Application of a Diffusion-denuder Method for the Investigation of the Effects of ‘Smoke pH’ on Vapor-phase Nicotine Yields from Different Types of Cigarettes
Authors: Cochran EW , Joseph MJ , Stinson SS , Summers SS 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The potential effects of smoke pH on vapor-phase nicotine, or unprotonated nicotine, were investigated using a diffusion denuder method selected for its ability to quantitatively monitor vapor-phase nicotine in the presence of smoke particulate. For the purpose of this paper, the pH of the water-soluble fraction of mainstream cigarette smoke will be referred to as ‘smoke pH'. In this study, samples with different construction parameters affecting smoke pH were analyzed for percent vapor-phase nicotine. The smoke pH values ranged from 5.87 to 7.79. Percent initial vapor-phase nicotine values ranged from 0.4% to 1.5%. The range of the vapor-phase nicotine values for this study was (a) independent of smoke pH and (b) potentially dependent upon cigarette construction. In a second experiment, cigarettes with the same construction were used to repeat the analysis, thus eliminating construction as a variable. The tobacco was treated with varying levels of urea to give a range in smoke pH from 6.47 to 7.15. The determined initial vapor-phase nicotine values ranged from 0.4% to 2.1% of the total mainstream smoke nicotine. This variation was independent of smoke pH. It was determined in this study that (a) the maximum initial vapor-phase nicotine delivered to mainstream smoke was 2.1% of the total nicotine delivered for our cigarette samples and (b) the delivery of the unprotonated nicotine to mainstream smoke was not meaningfully affected by changes in smoke pH within the range studied.
Adhesive Distribution between Paper Components of Cigarettes
Authors: Kroell B , Starlinger S , Eitzinger B 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The objective of this contribution is to characterise the distribution of adhesive between the plug wrap paper and the tipping paper on a finished cigarette. On the one hand, it is well known that this distribution influences various properties of the cigarette, but on the other hand, there are no methods available to completely determine this distribution. The area covered by adhesive, the amount of adhesive, and the thickness and position of the adhesive layer between the plug wrap and the tipping paper were chosen as essential quantities. Image analysis was used to evaluate the area covered by adhesive, and the amount of adhesive between the papers. The thickness and position of the adhesive layer were determined by processing pictures of paper cross-sections obtained with a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF-SIMS).
Determination of Total Ammonia in Mainstream Smoke
Authors: Huang CB , Bassfield R , Dabney B , Hsu F 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
Ammonia is generated in mainstream smoke (MSS) from multiple precursors in tobacco such as amino acids, proteins, nitrates and ammonium salts. Ammonia derived from both the particulate and vapor phases is measured with the particulate phase contributing greater than 80% of the total ammonia. The general approach of the analytical methods involved the collection of MSS by either electrostatic precipitation (EP) or impingers with acidic solution combined with Cambridge filters (CF, 44 or 92 mm) and the analysis of ammonium cations by ion chromatography (IC) with a conductivity detector. The available results from both internal testing and external literature for 1R4F Kentucky reference cigarettes, smoked under Federal Trade Commission (FTC) puffing conditions, showed a wide range of yields from approximately 5 to 18 µg/cig of ammonia. To investigate possible causes for this wide range and to optimize the analytical method, several parameters deemed critical to the results were studied using 1R4F. They include the type of acids (hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and malic acid), acid strength (0.005 M to 0.1 M), trapping efficiency and sample stability. The study showed that the type and concentration of acids was not significantly related to the total ammonia content in MSS. The study also indicated that the size and type of trapping devices, such as CF pads, acid treated CF pads and EP tube, did not significantly affect the trapping efficiency.