bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sources of International Organizations’ Law
Authors: Reinisch August 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter notes that for a considerable period, international organizations scholarship was preoccupied with establishing international organizations as actors enjoying their own international legal personality. With the increase and diversification of tasks fulfilled by such organizations, the question has come to the fore as to what extent these subjects of international law may become responsible for their actions. This debate has overshadowed the underlying and more fundamental question of what kinds of obligations can be identified as binding upon international organizations. According to this chapter, the latter central question requires one to turn to the sources of international organizations’ law. It places special emphasis on the practical implications of identifying the right sources for accountability issues, whether they concern UN embargoes, targeted sanctions, peacekeeping, or the administration of (criminal) justice by international organizations.
Sources of International Investment Law
Authors: Viñuales Jorge E. 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter addresses the challenges posed by the practice of international investment law to the conventional theory of the sources of international law. After a brief overview of the main ‘sources’ of ‘international investment law’, the chapter examines three challenges to this basic understanding, which arise from the need to account for the domestic laws governing different aspects of foreign investment transactions, the detailed jurisprudential norms generated by investment tribunals to specify broadly formulated norms, and the norms of general international law expressing the sovereignty of the State. For each category of norms, the chapter selects several problems that put the most widely accepted understanding of the sources of international law to test. It then explains why the problems examined have potentially important practical implications. The chapter concludes with some observations on the interactions between practice and the theory of the sources of international law.
Implication of Terms
Authors: McMeel Gerard 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter considers the implication of terms. It first looks to the general principles of the implication of terms, noting that courts have resorted to implied terms even in the context of very elaborate contracts in writing. The chapter then considers how implied terms are used in the context of law, showing that it is easier to state the law in terms of what terms have been implied in law, by reference to statutory codification or authoritative appellate judicial pronouncements, than to provide practical guidance on when the courts will identify a new implied term in law in the future. However, in order to illustrate the scope and flexibility of the technique, a few representative common law and statutory examples are introduced in this chapter. Next, the governing principles for implying new terms at law are considered.
Common Assumptions, Estoppel by Convention, and Estoppel by Deed
Authors: McMeel Gerard 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter mainly focuses on estoppel by convention, although it also briefly considers estoppel by deed. Where two parties arrive at a common understanding of their relationship the doctrine of estoppel by convention may preclude them from subsequently departing from the terms of that understanding where it would be unconscionable to do so. Such a result may substantially alter or contradict any prior agreement or arrangement between the parties, whether or not contained in a written instrument. It represents a major qualification of, or departure from, orthodox principles of the law of contract. The doctrine of estoppel by deed, meanwhile, precludes the maker of the deed from denying the truth of any matter which they have so asserted.
The Status of Instruments
Authors: McMeel Gerard 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter considers two special doctrines: first, the ancient rule which discharges a contract by operation of law if it is materially altered, commonly known as the rule in Pigot's Case; secondly, non est factum. It begins with a discussion of the impact of forgery on a document, as a forged document is a legal nullity. The chapter then turns to the above-mentioned doctrines in more detail, by first exploring the original formulation of the deliberate alternation of instruments in Pigot's Case before discussing the modern scope of the rule. Next, the plea of non est factum (‘this is not my deed’) is then examined. Finally, the chapter considers the principles which apply where a document is alleged to be a ‘sham’.
The International Sale of Goods
Authors: Bridge M G 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
The fourth edition of this text on all aspects of international trade law has been updated to incorporate and analyse the major recent developments, both in English law and contracts under the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). As well as contract law, the book also covers property matters and addresses those issues which arise from the use of documents of title, such as marine bills of lading. There is extensive treatment of the rights and duties of both the buyer and the seller, and sale contracts are considered alongside other contracts such as charter parties and letter of credit contracts. The CISG material has been significantly developed in this fourth edition and there is more extensive treatment of such matters as remedies, passing of property, standard form contracts, and the international dealing of commodities. The major developments in the case law are examined, most notably further developments on interpretation and implied terms in the Supreme Court, bunkers litigation, and the implications for the compensatory principle following the Supreme Court decision in Bunge SA v Nidera NV (2015).
Bills of Lading and Documents of Title
Authors: Bridge M G 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses the notion of the bill of lading as a document of title, before undergoing a legislative treatment of the subject as a whole. It had been decided in the eighteenth century, in recognition of mercantile custom to this effect, that the ocean bill of lading was a negotiable document of title. In consequence, the due negotiation of it by the seller to the buyer could transfer the property in the underlying goods. More importantly, it meant that constructive possession could be transferred and that the carrier had to deliver the cargo to the new holder (subject to any lien for unpaid freight) and could not plead that, without attorning directly to the new holder, they might not be made to do so. The new holder acquired the right to immediate possession and thus the necessary standing to maintain a tort action against the carrier.
Formation and Performance of the Contract
Authors: Bridge M G 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses the differences in the formation and performance of the contract between the Sale of Goods Act and the CISG. The differences between English law and the CISG are various. They include, first, rules in the CISG that have no counterpart in English sales law. They also include rules that on the face of it differ from their English equivalents, rules that appear to accord with English law but on closer inspection may depart from it, and rules in English law that are not to be found in the CISG. The chapter pays attention to the form in which the contractual agreement may be expressed, to the incorporation of standard terms in the contract by reference to an external source, to the question whether and to what extent all communications passing between the parties constitute part of the contract, and to the interpretation of the contract itself.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Authors: Higgins Rosalyn , Webb Philippa , Akande Dapo , Sivakumaran Sandesh , Sloan James 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was established by the General Assembly in 1950. UNHCR was initially created for a provisional period of three years, its being provided in the Statute that the arrangements for the Office were to be revisited at the eighth regular session of the General Assembly ‘with a view to determining whether the Office should be continued beyond 31 December 1953’. Between 1953 and 2003, the mandate of the UNHCR was extended periodically, for a period of five years at a time, making it more difficult for it to engage in long-term planning of its work. Only in 2004 did the General Assembly remove the temporal limitation attached to the UNHCR, authorizing the continuation of the Office ‘until the refugee problem is solved’. This chapter discusses the UNHCR’s position within the UN system, its structure, location, mandate, and role.
Protecting the Environment
Authors: Higgins Rosalyn , Webb Philippa , Akande Dapo , Sivakumaran Sandesh , Sloan James 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
The United Nations (UN) has taken action to protect the environment despite the absence of any explicit mention of the environment or its protection in the UN Charter. The UN has ‘played a pivotal role as a framework for developing environmental decision-making’. It has also ‘contributed to many of the principles of environmental law’, including the polluter-pays principle, the notion of common differentiated responsibilities, and the precautionary principle. This chapter discusses the work of the principal organs, including the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, and International Court of Justice; the work of the specialized agencies; institutional arrangements of multilateral environmental agreements; and the United Nations Environment Programme.
Osteoporosis
Authors: Shepherd Angela J. , Mckee Juliet M. 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
Osteoporotic fractures are major causes of suffering and death. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) is the standard of care for diagnosis (T-score ≤ –2.5) of osteoporosis. Prevention of fractures requires addressing bone and muscle strength and balance. Physical exercise, good nutrition (fruits, vegetables, adequate calcium), adequate vitamin intake (C, D, and K), tobacco cessation, and no more than moderate alcohol intake enhance bone health and decrease fracture risk. Long-term treatment with glucocorticoids, certain drugs used in breast or prostate cancer treatment, and proton pump inhibitors used for gastroesophageal reflux disease may increase the risk for osteoporosis. Pharmacologically, bisphosphonates are the mainstay of osteoporosis treatment.
Integrative Geriatric Psychiatry
Authors: Glick Ronald , Gebara Marie Anne , Lenze Eric 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
Psychiatric disorders, most prominently anxiety disorders and depression, are common among older adults and are associated with significant morbidity and impact on quality of life. Standard approaches, including pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy, are helpful for many patients, but treatment resistance and incomplete response are common. Complementary and integrative approaches have the potential to augment the response to traditional treatments. This chapter provides a background on the evaluation and management of these disorders. Treatment considerations focus on mind–body and biological approaches, with the latter including the informed use of nutritional supplements and two whole-systems approaches.
Common Rheumatic Diseases in the Elderly
Authors: Manek Nisha J. , Muñoz George 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
With increasing longevity, the prevalence and impact of rheumatic diseases are projected to rise dramatically in the coming decades. Common rheumatic diseases such as osteoarthritis typically arise among the elderly. For diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout, patients diagnosed at earlier ages carry the burden into their later years. Gout is associated both with comorbid conditions whose prevalence rises with age as well as with medications commonly prescribed in older people. These factors, along with the unique challenges associated with optimal diagnosis and treatment of arthritides in the elderly, suggest we can expect a “perfect storm” of health challenges for older patients and their health care providers. The chapter reviews the most common rheumatic diseases in geriatric patients and the evidence base for complementary and integrative therapies. In most cases, a multidisciplinary approach is beneficial.
Interprofessional Team-Based Care
Authors: Lunsford Beverly , Mikovich Terry A. 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
As older adults live longer, they experience a concomitant increase in chronic illness, which may be associated with a more frequent need for health care and intermittent or progressive functional decline. There is an increased need for regular health care monitoring as well as treatment and coordination of care among multiple providers and across settings to prevent, delay, or minimize decline in health and quality of life. Interprofessional collaboration is critical for safe coordination of care, reduction of duplication in services, and cost containment. Health care professionals who serve older adults are developing new models of collaboration to provide more integrated and person-centered approaches to maintaining the quality of life for older adults, especially those with multiple chronic illnesses. These models include health-oriented teams, home and community-based services, Acute Care for Elders (ACE), home-based primary care, Program of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE), comprehensive geriatric assessment, and palliative care teams.
Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography–Supervised Biopsy
Authors: Xu Qiuyun , Adabi Saba , Clayton Anne , Daveluy Steven , Mehregan Darius , Nasiriavanaki Mohammadreza 
Published: January 2018

BACKGROUND
Currently, only skin biopsy can provide definitive histological confirmation for the diagnosis of skin diseases. To improve the diagnostic accuracy and to assist the dermatologist, various imaging techniques have been added to the examination of skin. Among all these techniques, the recent advances in optical coherence tomography (OCT) have made it possible to image the skin up to 2 millimeters in depth.

OBJECTIVE
To testify the feasibility of OCT imaging in skin biopsy, the authors investigated the OCT imaging for real-time visualization of needle insertion and punch biopsy techniques in both a tissue phantom and biological tissue.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
A swept-source OCT with 1,305-nm central wavelength was used in this study. The euthanized mouse was used for real-time visualization of needle insertion. A gelatin phantom with India ink was used to demonstrate the punch biopsy using OCT.

RESULTS
Optical coherence tomography can provide guidance for skin injections as well as real-time imaging to assist in the performance of punch biopsy.

CONCLUSION
Optical coherence tomography holds potential not only as a diagnostic tool in dermatology. It can also allow for visualization for more accurate drug delivery, and noninvasively assess the response to treatment.
Constipation and diarrhea during the menopause transition and early postmenopause: observations from the Seattle Midlife Women's Health Study
Authors: Callan Nini G.L. , Mitchell Ellen S. , Heitkemper Margaret M. , Woods Nancy F. 
Published: January 2018

Abstract

Objective:
To assess the relationship of constipation and diarrhea severity during the menopause transition (MT) with age, MT stage, reproductive biomarkers, stress-related biomarkers, and stress-related perceptions.

Methods:
From 1990 to 1992, women aged 35 to 55 years were recruited from the greater Seattle area; 291 of them consented to ongoing (1990-2013) annual data collection by daily menstrual calendar, health diary, and annual health questionnaire. A subset (n = 131) provided a first morning voided urine specimen (1997-2013). These were assayed for levels of E1G, follicle-stimulating hormone, testosterone, cortisol, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. Mixed-effects modeling was used to identify how changes in constipation and diarrhea severity over time related to age, MT stage, reproductive biomarkers, stress-related biomarkers, and stress-related perceptions.

Results:
In a univariate model, age, late reproductive (LR) stage, tension, and anxiety were all significantly and positively related to constipation severity, whereas cortisol was significantly and negatively associated. In a multivariate model, only tension and cortisol remained significant predictors of constipation severity (P < 0.05). In a univariate model, age, LR stage, and estrone glucuronide were significantly and negatively associated with diarrhea severity, whereas tension, anxiety, and perceived stress were significantly and positively related. In a multivariate model, only tension and age remained significant predictors of diarrhea severity.

Conclusions:
Key reproductive hormones do not play a significant role in constipation or diarrhea severity in the MT. In contrast, stress perception, tension, anxiety, and cortisol do. These factors should be evaluated in further research involving constipation and diarrhea.
Perspectives and decision-making about menopausal therapies in women who had bilateral oophorectomy
Authors: Siyam Tasneem , Ross Sue , Shandro Tami , Hagen Shelly , Battochio Lori , Yuksel Nesé 
Published: January 2018

Abstract

Objective:
The aim of the study was to explore the process of decision-making about menopausal treatments in women who have had surgical menopause as a result of bilateral oophorectomy (≤50 y).

Methods:
We used a descriptive qualitative research design. Women who had a surgical menopause were purposefully selected from the Edmonton Menopause Clinics. Focus groups were held, each with six to nine participants. All sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis.

Results:
We conducted five focus groups from June 30 to July 21, 2016 (N = 37). One-third of the women had the surgery within the last 5 years. Almost all women had a concurrent hysterectomy (97%) and were current users of hormone therapy (70%). Four main themes identified were “perceptions of surgical menopause,” “perceptions of received support,” “being my own advocate,” and “concept of adequate support.” Women shared that the experience was worse than their expectations and did not believe they were given adequate support to prepare them to make therapy decisions. Women had to “be their own advocates” and seek support from within the healthcare system and outside to cope with their health issues. To make an informed decision about treatments postsurgery, women expressed a need to learn more about the symptoms of surgical menopause, treatment options, resources, avenues for support, and stories of similar experiences, preferably before the surgery.

Conclusions:
We identified several modifiable deterrents to decision-making in early surgical menopause which can help inform the development of a patient decision aid for this context.
Comparison of Vaginal Axis in Women Who Have Undergone Hysterectomy Versus Women With an Intact Uterus
Authors: Lee Daniel D. , Siegelman Evan S. , Chua Wynne Y. , Arya Lily A. , Harvie Heidi S. 
Published: January 2018

Objectives
To compare vaginal axis and posterior cul-de-sac measurements in women who have undergone hysterectomy and women with an intact uterus.

Methods
This was a retrospective cohort study comparing magnetic resonance imaging findings in women who had undergone hysterectomy with women with an intact uterus. The primary outcome was change in the upper, middle, and lower vaginal axes relative to the pelvic inclination correction system line. Secondary outcomes included angles between the upper-middle and middle-lower vagina, depth of the posterior cul-de-sac, and total vaginal length.

Results
In the hysterectomy group, the middle vaginal axis was significantly more anterior as compared with the intact uterus group (61.3 degrees ± 12.7 vs 49.4 degrees ± 23.6, P = 0.01). The upper-middle and the middle-lower vaginal angles were significantly more obtuse in the hysterectomy group than the intact uterus group (112.3 degrees ± 28.7 vs 69.3 degrees ± 56.6, P = 0.01 and 145.4 degrees ± 13.2 vs 130.9 degrees ± 29.7, P = 0.02, respectively). The mean depth of the posterior cul-de-sac and the total vaginal length were significantly shorter in the hysterectomy group than the intact uterus group (5.5 mm ± 7.6 vs 21.8 mm ± 11.9, P < 0.0001 and 78.7 mm ± 3.9 vs 100 mm ± 15.9, P < 0.001, respectively).

Conclusions
The vaginal anatomy of women who have undergone hysterectomy differs significantly from that of women with an intact uterus.
Fluidigm2PURC: automated processing and haplotype inference for double-barcoded PCR amplicons
Authors: Blischak Paul D. , Latvis Maribeth , Morales-Briones Diego F. , Johnson Jens C. , Di Stilio Verónica S. , Wolfe Andrea D. , Tank David C. 
Published: January 2018

ABSTRACTPremise of the studyTargeted enrichment strategies for phylogenomic inference are a time- and cost-efficient way to collect DNA sequence data for large numbers of individuals at multiple, independent loci. Automated and reproducible processing of these data is a crucial step for researchers conducting phylogenetic studies.Methods and ResultsWe present Fluidigm2PURC, an open source Python utility for processing paired-end Illumina data from double-barcoded PCR amplicons. In combination with the program PURC (Pipeline for Untangling Reticulate Complexes), our scripts process raw FASTQ files for analysis with PURC and use its output to infer haplotypes for diploids, polyploids, and samples with unknown ploidy. We demonstrate the use of the pipeline with an example data set from the genus Thalictrum L. (Ranunculaceae).ConclusionsFluidigm2PURC is freely available for Unix-like operating systems on GitHub [https://github.com/pblischak/fluidigm2purc] and for all operating systems through Docker [https://hub.docker.com/r/pblischak/fluidigm2purc].
Partial correlation analysis of transcriptomes helps detangle the growth and defense network in spruce
Authors: Porth Ilga , White Richard , Jaquish Barry , Ritland Kermit 
Published: January 2018

SUMMARYIn plants, there can be a trade-off between resource allocations to growth versus defense. Here, we use partial correlation analysis of gene expression to make inferences about the nature of this interaction.We studied segregating progenies of Interior spruce subject to weevil attack. In a controlled experiment, we measured pre-attack plant growth and post-attack damage with several morphological measures, and profiled transcriptomes of 188 progeny.We used partial correlations of individual transcripts (ESTs) with pairs of growth/defense traits to identify important nodes and edges in the inferred underlying gene network, e.g., those pairs of growth/defense traits with high mutual correlation with a single EST transcript. We give a method to identify such ESTs.A terpenoid ABC transporter gene showed strongest correlations (P=0.019); its transcript represented a hub within the compact 166-member gene-gene interaction network (P=0.004) of the negative genetic correlations between growth and subsequent pest attack. A small 21-member interaction network (P=0.004) represented the uncovered positive correlations.Our study demonstrates partial correlation analysis identifies important gene networks underlying growth and susceptibility to the weevil in spruce. In particular, we found transcripts that strongly modify the trade-off between growth and defense, and allow identification of networks more central to the trade-off.