bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Divorce Mediation in the
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Authors: Olmer Ruth M. , Brown Kristina S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Divorce mediation is an alternative approach to resolving conflict between two divorcing parties that is facilitated by a third, impartial person. The use of divorce mediation has been growing since the early 2000s as a result of the increase in divorces and the supported effectiveness of mediation in reducing conflict and increasing postdivorce satisfaction. Divorce mediation can address many different issues between divorcing parties, including financial and custody disputes, through a structured approach to open discussion. The entry provides a general description of divorce mediation before discussing divorce mediation trends, the mediation process, and the mediators' training.
Family Cohesion
Authors: Porta Nick J. , Brown Kristina S. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe emotional bond between family members is called family cohesion. Mary E. Richmond originally coined the phrase in 1917 when she discussed the power of this emotional connection. The circumplex model of marital and family systems and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale IV (FACES IV) are used today to understand and assess a family's level of cohesiveness. Too little or too much cohesiveness may be problematic for family members, and these assessment tools are used to help professionals identify unbalanced and potentially problematic families. Balanced levels of cohesion can vary by the stage of family development and culture.
Fecundity
Authors: Rodriguez Cassaundra 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Fecundity is defined as the ability to produce children, and is thus important to any discussion concerning reproduction and family size. While couples may have the ability to produce children, fecundity can be constrained by both fertility intentions and broader social forces, such as marital trends and labor force attachment. Alongside these factors, researchers are increasingly interested in factors negatively impacting biological fecundity. Couples who attempt to but do not become pregnant within a year of time to pregnancy are considered subfecund or fecundity‐impaired.
M
alaysia, Families in
Authors: Juhari Rumaya 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Malaysia is a multiethnic, multireligious country with Islam as the official religion and Malays as the major ethnic group. This multicultural setting is one of the unique features of the country. Families from different racial/ethnic groups live in harmony, practicing their diverse ethnic and religious belief systems and way of life. Tolerance of the differences across and within the races/ethnic groups is instilled and upheld. Malaysian families come in various forms and structures which are governed by different cultural principles and family laws. While mate selection is very much based on personal choice, arranged marriages still take place in a few exceptional cases. Monogamy is the dominant marital type; polygamy is legal for Muslims but not for non‐Muslims.
Marital Satisfaction
Authors: King Mary E. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marital satisfaction can be defined as the attitude an individual has toward his or her own marital relationship. Understanding marital satisfaction has major implications for researchers studying relationships and pragmatic implications for married couples and the professionals who work with them. Among the many contributing factors to marital satisfaction, three main facets are: how marriages normally progress through the relational lifecycle and the resulting fluctuation of satisfaction; enacting routine relational maintenance behaviors; and the role of conflict styles as contributing factors to overall marital satisfaction.
Marital Quality
Authors: Lucas Amy 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marital quality is a subjective assessment of the relationship between spouses. Commonly, marital quality is measured by examining interactions within relationships or respondents' feelings about and evaluations of their relationships. Marital quality is often considered to be multidimensional, and can be measured on both positive (i.e., satisfaction, happiness) and negative (i.e., conflict) dimensions.
Familism
Authors: Davis Alexandra N. , Streit Cara , Carlo Gustavo 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Familism values have been linked to the social behaviors of parents and children. Ethnic minority groups in the United States tend to endorse familism values to a greater degree than European American families, but research has especially focused on the role of familism in Latino families. Familism serves as a protective factor for Latino youth and is related to positive adjustment outcomes. The entry focuses on the role of familism in parenting behaviors and youth adjustment. Limitations and future research directions are also explored.
Flexible Scheduling
Authors: Leschyshyn Ashley , Minnotte Krista Lynn 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This entry defines flexible scheduling and explores the social context underlying its importance. It describes the many positive outcomes associated with flexible scheduling, along with factors that help to explain the availability of flexible scheduling within workplace organizations and explains what leads some workers to use flexible scheduling policies and others to avoid doing so. The entry also highlights the importance of workplace social support in shaping the use of flexible scheduling.
Filter Theory
Authors: Fitzpatrick Jacki 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The term “filter theory” has been used to describe the processes by which individuals select romantic partners for long‐term relationships, such as marriage or nonmarital cohabitation. The theory was based on implicit assumptions that individuals are aware of their relational needs and have specific preferences for partner features, such as appearance or personality traits. Instead of relying on fate‐based beliefs about finding one “true love” mate, the theory assumes that individuals can find many potential partners who are as highly attractive. In this context, individuals make rational choices to narrow their options from many eligible partners to a single partner. During the twentieth century, researchers' attention to this theory declined as other theories gained prominence. However, the general principles of filter theory seem relevant to some processes in current couple/family dynamics, such as technology‐based searches for romantic partners or matching processes for adoptive parents and children. This theory might be worthy of renewed consideration for modern family studies.
Racial Socialization in the
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Authors: Csizmadia Annamaria 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Racial socialization refers to the process by which parents teach their children coping strategies and about the social constructions of race, instill pride in their race, prepare them for biases, and emphasize values, such as work ethic, honesty, and fair play while de‐emphasizing racial differences. Depending on environmental demands and child and family characteristics, parents use diverse strategies, including cultural socialization, preparation for bias, instilling racial mistrust, egalitarianism, and silence about race. All families transmit messages regarding race to children, although racial socialization is most prevalent among families of color. Families of color have the added responsibility to prepare children to function in the face of race‐based adversity. Racial socialization affects youth development in areas such as ethnic identity, self‐esteem, coping with discrimination, psychosocial well‐being, and academic achievement. Most research to date has been done on black and, to a lesser extent, Latino families.
Divorce Divide in the
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Authors: Grether Scott , Manzoni Anna 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In the United States, divorce rates have been increasing for the poor and low‐educated while they have been decreasing for the wealthy and high‐educated since the 1990s. These divergent trends in divorce rates by education and social class are referred to as the divorce divide. Explanations for the divorce divide have been linked to educational homogamy, an increase in age at first marriage, and changes to the institution of marriage, including the decoupling of childbearing from marriage. The perpetuation of socioeconomic inequality, class differences in family formation, boundary maintenance between social groups, and the intergenerational transmission of social and genetic traits are some of the implications of the divorce divide.
Conflict Tactics Scale
Authors: McLaren Rachel M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Because violence usually happens in private, researchers and clinicians have had difficulty studying and diagnosing abusive relationships. The most popular and widely used measure of intimate violence in couples and families is the Conflict Tactics Scale, a self‐report measure where respondents are asked to indicate whether they or their partner have engaged in certain behaviors over a specific time, such as the past year. The Conflict Tactics Scale is beneficial because it requires little time to complete, is easy to administer, and is a reliable measure. There is also a version for measuring maltreatment in parent–child relationships, the Conflict Tactics Scale Parent Child.
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igeria, Families in
Authors: Akinyemi Akanni Ibukun 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Nigeria, Africa's most populous country, is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups and largely dominated by three major dominant ethnotribal conglomerations – Yorubas, Hausas, and Igbos – divided along religious, cultural, and geographic boundaries. Despite these diversities, there are some common family orientations toward a patrilineal system of male dominance. Also, there are distinct features of the family system across the tribal, ethnic, and geographic divides. The changing social order has impacted significantly on the family which has resulted in shifting boundaries and identities within the family structures in Nigeria.
G
hana, Families in
Authors: Kpoor Albert 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In the recent past the family in Ghana has undergone structural modifications and functions as a result of increasing social change brought about by urbanization and by economic, social, and legal changes. Notable among these changes is the reduction in the number of families that are extended. This reduction has given rise to nuclear family types such as two‐parent families and single‐parent families. Social change has also brought about a reduction in the number of polygynous families. Irrespective of family type, Ghanaian families perform the general functions of procreation, socialization, and maintenance of members. Even though there have been modifications in the family structure in Ghana, the traditional extended family still persists.
Covenant Marriage
Authors: Alphonso Carla 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Three states (Louisiana, Arizona, and Arkansas) have covenant marriage provisions which allow for a second type of legal marriage contract. Covenant marriage is a legal strategy associated with the marriage reform movement to bolster marriage in an era of high divorce rates. Covenant marriage laws require premarital counseling as well as counseling during a marriage should problems arise. These laws also revert to a fault‐based divorce system. Few couples choose the covenant marriage option. Among those who do, researchers find that covenant married couples demonstrate higher levels of religiosity and of support for traditional gender roles.
Family Size
Authors: Zito Rena Cornell , Constantine Panayiotis 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Family size drives, and is driven by, social factors operating on the societal and individual levels. Societal trends in family size concern researchers and policymakers who seek to anticipate and address global and local population pressures. As such, determinants of family size receive ample scholarly attention. Noteworthy determinants include family size intentions, cultural norms, rural residence, religiosity, and women's education and age at partnership. Family size, in turn, can affect a number of societal and individual outcomes, including children's educational attainment, parental health and labor force participation, and support for older generations. The extent to which family size has a causal effect on children, parents, and broader communities is contested, with some positing resource dilution or confluence models, and others arguing that the effect is driven by birth order or other factors.
Sex Ratio
Authors: Edmond Mary Bond 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
A sex ratio is defined as the number of men relative to the number of women in any given population. Unequal sex ratios have sociological causes and consequences, which are tightly linked to family formation, marriage quality, and gender inequality in general. Scholars have predicted the consequences of unequal sex ratios through theories of social exchange, evolutional psychology, and tokenism. Further, examples of the impacts of unequal sex ratios are evident from around the world, including delayed or forgone marriage, and marital disillusionment. Future research should further examine the consequences of unequal sex ratios, their causes, and policy interventions.
Othermothers
Authors: McCandless N. Jane 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Assisting biological or adoptive mothers in the care and socialization of their children, othermothers have, for generations, played an important role in a child's socialization process. The role of the othermother has a long and rich history within African American families. During these many years of mothering, othermothers not only had a positive impact on the children within a community, but their impact extended to the larger community as they often became political advocates for these same children and mothers. More recently the role of the othermother has emerged within new family forms, including lesbian‐headed families. Within these families the role of othermothers is, once again, being refined and recognized for the valuable part they have always played in the lives of children within the family, the neighborhood, and the larger community.
Polyamory
Authors: Schubert Katie A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Polyamory is the practice and acceptance of having more than one open and loving relationship at a time. Polyamorous relationships are built on five main principles: self‐knowledge, radical honesty, consent, self‐possession, and privileging love and sex over other emotions and activities such as jealousy. It is estimated that over half a million openly polyamorous families reside in the United States. The popularity of the polyamory movement can be traced back to the free love and feminist movements, as well as American's disillusionment with monogamy.
Work–Family Policies in the
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Authors: Steinour Heidi 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The significant increase of mothers in the US labor force has prompted questions regarding how employers and government agencies can assist families in balancing work–family expectations. Paternal leave, flexible work schedules, child care, and cultural discourses about family and work are all important considerations in this debate. Considering the push for paternal involvement in children's lives, researchers have continually analyzed the role of paid work and how it factors into the distribution of household and child care responsibilities. European solutions for these concerns are also discussed.
Rape
Authors: Bell Kristin A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Rape is often referred to as a form of gender‐based violence, or as “violence against women,” given that women suffer disproportionately from these types of abuse. Many challenges exist in defining and measuring the crime of rape. Over time, definitions of rape have shifted from force‐based definitions to a consent‐based approach, which is now giving way to coercion‐based definitions. In terms of measurement, rape mythology and rape narratives impact reporting of sexual violence by victims as well as how the crime is measured. Other factors, including stigma, victim‐blaming, and secondary victimization also play a role.
Domestic Partnerships in the
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Authors: Willetts Marion C. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Increasingly, and often in response to both shifting public opinion and changes in how relationships are formed, maintained, and dissolved, local municipalities in the United States and numerous states have implemented registered domestic partnership and other nonmarital coupling policies that provide legal recognition to the unions of intimate couples. While these policies are often designed specifically with couples in same‐sex unions as their focus, legal recognition of the nonmarital unions of different‐sex couples has also increased. The unions legally recognized by these nonmarital policies often are stigmatized as being deficient in some respects relative to legal marriage; however, they have also had the effect of increasing both public approval of and access to legal marriage for same‐sex couples. These policies also demonstrate, however, that marriage retains its status as the most desirable method by which to attain legal recognition of an intimate union.
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reland, Families in
Authors: Neville Patricia 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Perhaps one of the most contested social institutions in the Republic of Ireland is that of the family. While early anthropological research treated rural Irish families as something of an oddity, the Irish Free State saw fit to transform the Irish family into an ideal. As a result, the hetereosexual marital family unit was written into the nationalist narrative as well as the Irish Constitution. Consequently, only this type of family is recognized and supported by the state. Census data continues to affirm the prevalence of this conventional nuclear family. However, recent social and economic change, such as the introduction of divorce and the social acceptance of single motherhood, has facilitated the emergence of different family forms which have been accepted by Irish society.
Jumping the Broom
Authors: Christ Stephen R. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
During the time of slavery in the United States, many enslaved Africans were not able to marry in churches or courthouses. As a result, the custom of “jumping the broom” emerged as a nontraditional wedding ceremony which functioned as well as a wedding license among free individuals in the South. While this wedding ceremony was once forced on couples, the act has experienced a revival in recent years among African Americans wishing to connect with the lived experiences of their ancestors.
Gender Roles
Authors: Neimand Annie 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This entry defines and differentiates sex and gender, followed by gender roles as understood within the social sciences. The sociological perspectives of gender roles are outlined. Specifically gender roles are examined within structural functionalist, symbolic interactionist, social role theory, conflict theory, and feminist theory frameworks. Further, the dominant breadwinner–homemaker family model and narrative is considered, with a focus on changing gender roles and their relationship to culture and history.
Custody Disputes
Authors: Elizabeth Vivienne 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Custody disputes have increased in number since the early 1980s. A significant factor in this increase is a change in the social expectation of fathers toward higher levels of involvement in their children's lives, together with a change in attitudes by separated and divorced fathers toward residence and contact, in a social context where mothers typically remain the primary parents. Central to many disputed cases of child custody are allegations of domestic violence, child abuse, and/or parental alienation. Fathers' rights groups claim that allegations of domestic violence and/or child abuse are false and are being used tactically to restrict contact. However, research indicates that false allegations of violence and abuse are rare and that minimization or false denials are more commonplace.
Family Crisis in the
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Authors: Randles Jennifer 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Many scholars, policymakers, and pundits argue that a family crisis exists because most people now deviate from traditional family formation patterns that put lifelong marriage at the center of family and social life. Excessive individualism is blamed for undermining marriage as a social institution. Compared to mid‐twentieth‐century family trends, Americans now marry at older ages, have more children outside marriage, divorce and remarry more, and are more likely to live in a stepfamily. Other family and marriage scholars who challenge the claim that the United States is in the midst of a family crisis argue that marriage is not deteriorating but simply changing to accommodate changing gender roles, economic restructuring, and growing social acceptance of different family forms, including single‐parent and same‐sex families.
Hooking Up in the
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Authors: Wood Claire , Perlman Daniel 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This entry defines the concept of hooking up; identifies historical and contemporary factors fostering a hookup culture; indicates the prevalence of hooking up as well as demographic and other correlates (e.g., situational factors and personality attributes) associated with hooking up; considers hooking up before, during, and after college; looks at young adults' motives for hooking up; and discusses the feelings individuals experience after hooking up. Although it is not a universal pattern for all students, hooking up has become an important and widespread phenomenon on US college campuses today.
Family Policies
Authors: Hengstebeck Natalie D. , Helms Heather M. , Crosby Danielle A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Family policy is a type of public and social policy aimed at promoting, protecting, and strengthening families across five domains of family functioning: family creation, partnership support, economic support, childrearing, and caregiving. Between‐ and within‐county variation across existing political institutions, party leadership over time, religious traditions, public opinion, social organization, and policymakers' attitudes about changing family dynamics have resulted in divergent patterns of family policies. This entry discusses six divergent family policy regimes and examines how they differ in the inclusion of family diversity, gender equality, and indicators of family well‐being, and in the types, accessibility, and comprehensiveness of benefits. The entry concludes with factors that facilitate the effectiveness of family policies and implications for future research.
Place of Residence Rules
Authors: Blume Amelia , Shuker Zeinab F. , Abrutyn Seth 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Place of residence rules can take on multiple meanings, linked to either kinship‐based patterns of residence or legal and survey definitions of residence used to measure families and living arrangements. Kinship‐based patterns are associated with the cultural, economic, and social conditions of a given group. These rules of residence delineate where family units, namely husband–wife, physically reside. Worldwide, the most common place of residence is patrilocal (virilocal) residence, where kinship networks are formed as a part of patrilineal descent groups. Along with descent rules, place of residence rules contribute to group identities; political, trade, and economic alliances; and the maintenance and passing down of property and land (Lee 1979). In western countries residence rules are used with legal implications, such as the collection of census data in the United States.