bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Case of Ryanair - EU State Aid Policy on the Wrong Runway
Authors: Gröteke Friedrich , Kerber Wolfgang 
Published: September 2016

Summary
For the European Commission the case of Ryanair is a precedence decision about the application of state aid policy to agreements between regional airports and airlines. In a long-term contract with the regional airport of Charleroi (near by Brussels), the Irish low-cost airline Ryanair received better conditions than other airlines. In return, it committed itself to transport a certain number of passengers to this airport for a period of fifteen years. This alleviates considerably the entry of the so far non-established Charleroi Airport into the market for international airports. The Commission interprets these better conditions as a discrimination, which distorts competition among airlines. Contrary to that, a thorough economic analysis shows that these conditions must be regarded as a normal form of price differentiation in effective competition. Any airlines would have received similar conditions, if they have offered similar advantages to the airport. Consequently, the decision of the Commission in the Ryanair case is wrong. Additionally, the principles of the Commission, which entail the danger of an allencompassing regulation of prices for airport services, are misleading from an economic point of view, because they tend to impede effective competition in the aviation sector. The real state aid problem is, however, whether and under what conditions the public funding of airports leads to a distortion of competition among airports. This problem remains unsolved. This is also true for the problem of the slot-allocation on airports.
Diagnostics for assessing the linear noise and moment closure approximations
Authors: Gillespie Colin S. , Golightly Andrew 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
Solving the chemical master equation exactly is typically not possible, so instead we must rely on simulation based methods. Unfortunately, drawing exact realisations, results in simulating every reaction that occurs. This will preclude the use of exact simulators for models of any realistic size and so approximate algorithms become important. In this paper we describe a general framework for assessing the accuracy of the linear noise and two moment approximations. By constructing an efficient space filling design over the parameter region of interest, we present a number of useful diagnostic tools that aids modellers in assessing whether the approximation is suitable. In particular, we leverage the normality assumption of the linear noise and moment closure approximations.
„Geräuschlos und unbemerkt": Zur Paradoxie struktureller Kopplung
Authors: Corsi Giancarlo 
Published: September 2016

Zusammenfassung
Strukturelle Kopplungen zwischen sozialen Systemen weisen eine interessante doppelgesichtige Form auf. Einerseits sind sie Vorbedingung für die Existenz jeder Art von System: sie müssen vorausgesetzt werden und sind für die gekoppelten Systeme nicht zur Disposition. Deswegen sagt Luhmann, daß strukturellen Kopplungen „geräuschlos und unbemerkt" arbeiten. Andererseits sind alle bekannten Formen struktureller Kopplungen zwischen sozialen Systemen in der modernen Gesellschaft das Ergebnis von Entscheidungsprozessen oder sogar von Entscheidungsprogrammen. Diese doppelgesichtige Form macht die strukturellen Kopplungen zu Quellen von Irritation, da sie nicht transparent und nicht vorhersehbar sind, sondern als Entscheidungsprämissen auftreten (Ziele, Risiken, Planung usw.). Der Artikel zeigt an den beiden Beispielen der Kopplung zwischen Recht und Politik und zwischen psychischen und sozialen Systemen, wie diese Paradoxie arbeitet. Es wird die These verfolgt, daß die gekoppelten Systeme nur dank dieser Ambivalenz evoluieren und ihre historisch determinierten Strukturen „konstruieren" können.
Strukturelle Kopplung von Funktionssystemen „über" Organisation
Authors: Lieckweg Tania 
Published: September 2016

Zusammenfassung
Der Text versucht, die bei Luhmann häufiger zu findende Formulierung „strukturelle Kopplung über Organisation " weiter zu entwickeln.1 Damit soll gezeigt werden, daß es sich bei der Formulierung um eine Zusammenfassung von drei möglichen Bedeutungen von Organisation im Zusammenhang mit strukturellen Kopplungen von Funktionssystemen handelt, die sich bei näherem Hinsehen wie folgt unterscheiden lassen: (Í) Organisation als Voraussetzung für strukturelle Kopplung: Organisationen stellen ganz allgemein mit ihren Strukturen die Voraussetzungen für die strukturelle Kopplung von Funktionssystemen bereit, dies gilt für nahezu alle Organisationen; (2) Organisation als strukturelle Kopplung: Organisationen sind selbst strukturelle Kopplungen von Funktionssystemen, so z.B. Universitäten in der Kopplung von Erziehung und Wissenschaft; (3) Organisation als Vermittler struktureller Kopplung: spezifische Organisationen stellen ihre Kommunikation zur Vermittlung und Realisierung von bestimmten strukturellen Kopplungen zur Verfügung, so zB. Finanzämter in der Vermittlung der strukturellen Kopplung von Politik und Wirtschaft durch Steuern. Von diesen drei möglichen Bedeutungen von Organisationen im Zusammenhang mit strukturellen Kopplungen muß deutlich unterschieden werden, daß Organisationen als Multireferenten ständig zwischen den verschiedenen Logiken der Funktionssysteme vermitteln. Abschließend soll die Annahme zur Diskussion gestellt werden, daß unter Globalisierungsbedingungen neue strukturelle Kopplungen von Funktionssystemen relevant werden, nämlich die „über" Organisationen. Die Ausführungen beziehen sich dabei auf die Globalisierungsentwicklungen in Recht und Wirtschaft.
Structural Coupling between Social Systems: Art and the Economy as Mutual Sources of Growth
Authors: Hutter Michael 
Published: September 2016

Zusammenfassung
Der Aufsatz erkundet den genauen Verlauf der strukturellen Kopplung zwischen zwei Funktionssystemen. Der ausgewählte Fall ist das Verhältnis zwischen der Wirtschaft und der Kunst. Historische Beispiele werden vorgestellt und interpretiert. Die Beispiele beziehen sich sowohl auf System-zu-System-Kopplungen als auch auf System-zu-Umwelt-Kopplungen. „Bahnen der Irritation " zwischen den beiden Systemen sind tatsächlich beobachtbar. Stile, in denen räumliche Formen arrangiert und Erzählformen komponiert werden, haben die wirtschaftliche Reproduktion irritiert; wirtschaftliche Themen haben die Reproduktion der Künste irritiert. In beiden Fällen hat die stabilisierte Irritation zu neuen Möglichkeiten weiterer Kommunikation geführt. Der Grad der Komplexität und Intensität der strukturellen Kopplungen wird deutlich erhöht, wenn Organisationen intervenieren und die Wirkung der Kopplungen beeinflussen.
Luhmann's theory of knowledge: beyond realism and constructivism?
Authors: Christis Jac 
Published: September 2016

Zusammenfassung
In diesem Aufsatz wird der grammatikalische Realismus Wittgensteins verwendet für eine Klärung der Diskussion, die Luhmann mit metaphysischen Realisten und skeptischen Idealisten führt. Luhmann betont (gegen die metaphysischen Realisten) mit Recht, daß die Bedeutung von Begriffen nicht durch ihre Referenten bestimmt wird. Gleichzeitig aber hält er (gegen die skeptischen Idealisten) mit Recht daran fest, daß diese , Autonomie der Bedeutung' eine notwendige Bedingung ist, sowohl für externe Referenz als auch für die Anwendung von Wahrheitsprädikaten auf empirische Aussagen. Luhmann teilt die in diese Position enthaltene Trennung von Bedeutung, Referenz und Wahrheit mit den grammatikalischen Realismus. Wenn er ausspricht, daß wir keinen direkten Zugang zur Außenwelt besitzen und diese deshalb unbekannt bleibt, überschreitet er jedoch Sinngrenzen. Der Aufsatz zeigt, daß diese Überschreitung unnötig ist. Was bleibt, ist eine Position die sowohl metaphysisch- realistische Grundlagen als auch konstruktivistische Exzessen vermeidet.
Patterns of Inclusion and Exclusion: Property, Nation and Religion
Authors: Bohn Cornelia , Hahn Alois 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
Adopting a comparative approach, the article discusses patterns of inclusion and exclusion such as property, nation and religion from a historical viewpoint. According to Luhmann the concept of inclusion and exclusion is about taking into account persons in social systems; according to Foucault it is related to deviance and abnormality. The transition from stratified to functionally differentiated societies is analysed, emphasising the transformation of ›Inklusionsindividualität‹ to ›Exklusionsindwidualität‹. Property and nation are both treated as transient semantics: for a short time after its emergence, private property guarantees inclusion and brings about new forms of identity and exclusion. Without the nation state the autonomy of subsystems would not be tolerable. The idea of a nation temporarily compensates for exclusion rates resulting from this new form of differentiation. While religion grants access to anyone and everyone even in stratified societies, thus anticipating the new pattern of inclusion, it also turns into a reservoir for unplanned, non-functionary exclusion in modern society.
Tristes Tropiques. Systems Theory and the Literary Scene
Authors: Balke Friedrich 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
In Niklas Luhmann’s later works on social exclusion, his concept of environment is no longer strictly epistemological but becomes increasingly ethnographic. From a systems theoretical point of view, environments are mere effects of social systems and their need to distinguish constantly between essential operations and operations that are of no consequence for the continuous reproduction of the systems’ identities. However, under certain circumstances environments turn out to be spatial. One could even say that on the analytical agenda the spatial dimension of exclusion takes precedence over the temporal dimension of sociality to the same degree that sociality becomes a primarily temporal reality - and systems theory describes its own approach as a turn to radical temporalization of all social structures. In these spaces or territories it is not communication that can be observed but human beings reduced to their bodily state. Having become a kind of container for socially unadressable bodies, this environment of the functionally differentiated world society does not require empirical social research or complex explanations, but the evidence-producing strategies of ethnographic fieldwork or simply travel notes.
On Drawing A Line. Politics and the Significatory Logics of Inclusion / Exclusion
Authors: Marchart Oliver 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
The article investigates into one of the most essential tropes of political thought: the figure of ›drawing a line‹. The many ways are described in which this figure appears and is modulated in the works of Mao, Carl Schmitt, Paul Goodman, the Red Army Faction as well as in popular culture. Yet ›drawing a line‹ is more than a rhetorical figure. What is argued in the article is that this figure invokes further reaching political questions as to the groundless nature of society, the necessity of decision, the impossibility of inclusion without exclusion, the problematic of the subject along with questions of identity construction in general.
Strangers, Inclusions, and Identities
Authors: Stich Rudolf 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
The paper examines from a historical and theoretical point of view the interrelation between the sociological theory of inclusion and exclusion and the classical sociology of the stranger. Inclusion/exclusion is a new theoretical perspective which mirrors the increasing prominence of communication in modern social systems and the pluralization of reference systems in which any psychic system in modern society is involved. Sociological theorizing on inclusion/exclusion thinks about how social systems include persons via addresses and the formation of expectations or exclude them by not creating addresses and expectations referring to them. In contradistinction to this general analytics of inclusion/exclusion, the sociology of the stranger theorizes a special case. It belongs to those corpora of sociological theorizing closely coupled with a historical semantics which we find in nearly every society we know anything about. There are at least three important social structural premises of the sociology of the stranger: participation in social systems is thought as membership; social systems are characterized by social closure; and, finally, persons as members are compact social objects, unifying diverse participations from a core identity attributed to persons. As all these three characteristics are no longer valid in modern society, the paper postulates that the sociology of the stranger and the analytics of inclusion/exclusion are successive historical models for the participation of psychic systems in society. From this results the concluding discussion of structural changes in concepts of identity. Identities in modern society are characterized by atomization; they are decoupled from authenticity; they are multiple identities, all of which imply part-time engagements. The network metaphor is interpreted as an apt description of these transformations. All these changes in identity concepts are related to a societal structure in which the participation of persons is particularized by multiple inclusions.
Spitzensport versus Studium? Organisationswandel und Netzwerkbildung als strukturelle Lösungen des Inklusionsproblems studierender Spitzensportler / Top-level Sports versus University Studies? Changes in Organizations and Networking as Structural Solutions for Inclusion Problems of Top-Level Athletes Who Work on a College Degree
Authors: Riedl Lars , Borggrefe Carmen , Cachay Klaus 
Published: September 2016

Zusammenfassung
Spitzensport zu betreiben und gleichzeitig ein Hochschulstudium zu absolvieren, scheint unter den derzeitigen Umständen nahezu unmöglich. Der Artikel konstruiert dieses Phänomen der Unvereinbarkeit zweier Karrieren zunächst gesellschaftstheoretisch als Inklusionsproblem. Da eine merkliche Verbesserung der Situation der Athleten letztlich nur auf Seiten der Hochschule erwartet werden darf, werden anschließend aus organisationstheoretischer Perspektive die dortigen Möglichkeiten und Grenzen interner Strukturveränderungen reflektiert. Schließlich wird diskutiert, wie Hochschulen mit den Erwartungen des Spitzensports umgehen können und in welcher Weise sich im Rahmen von Netzwerken womöglich doch Kooperationsbeziehungen zwischen den beteiligten Organisationen zugunsten studierender Spitzensportler aufbauen lassen.
Neural Signatures of Value Comparison in Human Cingulate Cortex during Decisions Requiring an Effort-Reward Trade-off
Authors: Klein-Flügge Miriam C. , Kennerley Steven W. , Friston Karl , Bestmann Sven 
Published: September 2016

Integrating costs and benefits is crucial for optimal decision-making. Although much is known about decisions that involve outcome-related costs (e.g., delay, risk), many of our choices are attached to actions and require an evaluation of the associated motor costs. Yet how the brain incorporates motor costs into choices remains largely unclear. We used human fMRI during choices involving monetary reward and physical effort to identify brain regions that serve as a choice comparator for effort-reward trade-offs. By independently varying both options' effort and reward levels, we were able to identify the neural signature of a comparator mechanism. A network involving supplementary motor area and the caudal portion of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex encoded the difference in reward (positively) and effort levels (negatively) between chosen and unchosen choice options. We next modeled effort-discounted subjective values using a novel behavioral model. This revealed that the same network of regions involving dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and supplementary motor area encoded the difference between the chosen and unchosen options' subjective values, and that activity was best described using a concave model of effort-discounting. In addition, this signal reflected how precisely value determined participants' choices. By contrast, separate signals in supplementary motor area and ventromedial prefrontal cortex correlated with participants' tendency to avoid effort and seek reward, respectively. This suggests that the critical neural signature of decision-making for choices involving motor costs is found in human cingulate cortex and not ventromedial prefrontal cortex as typically reported for outcome-based choice. Furthermore, distinct frontal circuits seem to drive behavior toward reward maximization and effort minimization.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTThe neural processes that govern the trade-off between expected benefits and motor costs remain largely unknown. This is striking because energetic requirements play an integral role in our day-to-day choices and instrumental behavior, and a diminished willingness to exert effort is a characteristic feature of a range of neurological disorders. We use a new behavioral characterization of how humans trade off reward maximization with effort minimization to examine the neural signatures that underpin such choices, using BOLD MRI neuroimaging data. We find the critical neural signature of decision-making, a signal that reflects the comparison of value between choice options, in human cingulate cortex, whereas two distinct brain circuits drive behavior toward reward maximization or effort minimization.
Hypocretin/Orexin Peptides Alter Spike Encoding by Serotonergic Dorsal Raphe Neurons through Two Distinct Mechanisms That Increase the Late Afterhyperpolarization
Authors: Ishibashi Masaru , Gumenchuk Iryna , Miyazaki Kenichi , Inoue Takafumi , Ross William N. , Leonard Christopher S. 
Published: September 2016

Orexins (hypocretins) are neuropeptides that regulate multiple homeostatic processes, including reward and arousal, in part by exciting serotonergic dorsal raphe neurons, the major source of forebrain serotonin. Here, using mouse brain slices, we found that, instead of simply depolarizing these neurons, orexin-A altered the spike encoding process by increasing the postspike afterhyperpolarization (AHP) via two distinct mechanisms. This orexin-enhanced AHP (oeAHP) was mediated by both OX1and OX2receptors, required Ca2+influx, reversed near EK, and decayed with two components, the faster of which resulted from enhanced SK channel activation, whereas the slower component decayed like a slow AHP (sAHP), but was not blocked by UCL2077, an antagonist of sAHPs in some neurons. Intracellular phospholipase C inhibition (U73122) blocked the entire oeAHP, but neither component was sensitive to PKC inhibition or altered PKA signaling, unlike classical sAHPs. The enhanced SK current did not depend on IP3-mediated Ca2+release but resulted from A-current inhibition and the resultant spike broadening, which increased Ca2+influx and Ca2+-induced-Ca2+release, whereas the slower component was insensitive to these factors. Functionally, the oeAHP slowed and stabilized orexin-induced firing compared with firing produced by a virtual orexin conductance lacking the oeAHP. The oeAHP also reduced steady-state firing rate and firing fidelity in response to stimulation, without affecting the initial rate or fidelity. Collectively, these findings reveal a new orexin action in serotonergic raphe neurons and suggest that, when orexin is released during arousal and reward, it enhances the spike encoding of phasic over tonic inputs, such as those related to sensory, motor, and reward events.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTOrexin peptides are known to excite neurons via slow postsynaptic depolarizations. Here we elucidate a significant new orexin action that increases and prolongs the postspike afterhyperpolarization (AHP) in 5-HT dorsal raphe neurons and other arousal-system neurons. Our mechanistic studies establish involvement of two distinct Ca2+-dependent AHP currents dependent on phospholipase C signaling but independent of IP3 or PKC. Our functional studies establish that this action preserves responsiveness to phasic inputs while attenuating responsiveness to tonic inputs. Thus, our findings bring new insight into the actions of an important neuropeptide and indicate that, in addition to producing excitation, orexins can tune postsynaptic excitability to better encode the phasic sensory, motor, and reward signals expected during aroused states.
Chemogenetic Activation of an Extinction Neural Circuit Reduces Cue-Induced Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking
Authors: Augur Isabel F. , Wyckoff Andrew R. , Aston-Jones Gary , Kalivas Peter W. , Peters Jamie 
Published: September 2016

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has been shown to negatively regulate cocaine-seeking behavior, but the precise conditions by which vmPFC activity can be exploited to reduce cocaine relapse are currently unknown. We used viral-mediated gene transfer of designer receptors (DREADDs) to activate vmPFC neurons and examine the consequences on cocaine seeking in a rat self-administration model of relapse. Activation of vmPFC neurons with the Gq-DREADD reduced reinstatement of cocaine seeking elicited by cocaine-associated cues, but not by cocaine itself. We used a retro-DREADD approach to confine the Gq-DREADD to vmPFC neurons that project to the medial nucleus accumbens shell, confirming that these neurons are responsible for the decreased cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. The effects of vmPFC activation on cue-induced reinstatement depended on prior extinction training, consistent with the reported role of this structure in extinction memory. These data help define the conditions under which chemogenetic activation of extinction neural circuits can be exploited to reduce relapse triggered by reminder cues.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTThe ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) projection to the nucleus accumbens shell is important for extinction of cocaine seeking, but its anatomical proximity to the relapse-promoting projection from the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex to the nucleus accumbens core makes it difficult to selectively enhance neuronal activity in one pathway or the other using traditional pharmacotherapy (e.g., systemically administered drugs). Viral-mediated gene delivery of an activating Gq-DREADD to vmPFC and/or vmPFC projections to the nucleus accumbens shell allows the chemogenetic exploitation of this extinction neural circuit to reduce cocaine seeking and was particularly effective against relapse triggered by cocaine reminder cues.