bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Recognition of Coloured Light Signals
Authors: Holmes J. G. 
Published: November 2015

Part I describes the construction and calibration of a laboratory apparatus which combines light beams transmitted through colour filters in such proportions as to reproduce the intensity and energy distribution of all the coloured light signals generally used in practice. Part 2 discusses the technique of signal colour recognition and gives the results of over 40,000 observations in the form of charts on which are drawn contours of the frequency of recognition of the simple colours under different conditions of illumination, range of possible colours, etc. The significance of these contours is briefly discussed, with a view to stating physical limits within which signal colours should lie.
Population Density and the Heights of Buildings
Authors: Beckett H. E. 
Published: November 2015

Although it is nowadays generally accepted that, for a given population density, rehousing in higher and more widely spaced buildings is likely to result in improved natural lighting conditions, ideas have hitherto remained somewhat vague. In the present paper the truth of the above statement, for the special case of tenement blocks arranged in parallel rows, is established by a simple mathematical analysis. It is shown that, except in very open developments such as are rarely encountered in towns, an increase in the height of the buildings will, for a given population density, always improve the lighting conditions; or, less desirably, that more people can by this means be housed on a given site without making the lighting conditions worse. In the latter case it can frequently happen that the increase in population density is accompanied by an increase in the amount of open space per person. The analysis rests on the assumption that, for a given orientation of the blocks, the lighting conditions are defined by the angle of obstruction (determined by its tangent, h/w) at the ground-floor windows. The latter part of the note is concerned with an examination of the amounts of daylight and sunshine which can be received with various values of h/w.
Applications of Low Pressure Fluorescent Lamps
Authors: Stevens W. R. 
Published: November 2015

The paper is concerned particularly with the 5 ft. fluorescent lamp which was evolved from the high-voltage fluorescent discharge lamps developed in England before the war. The design of fittings, particularly the diffusing trough, is described as a natural outcome of war-time restrictions and requirements. The results of some experiments to determine the optimum sizes of diffusing fittings are given and multi-lamp fittings are briefly considered. Specular reflectors are discussed to show some of the limitations of design imposed by the size and brightness of the source. Installations of 5 ft. fluorescent lamps are illustrated to show the trend of modern good practice and some of the more important points are examined. Some possible future applications of the lamps are noted particularly their likely effect on building design in providing artificial daylight.
Studies of Lighting and Vision in Schools
Authors: Hopkinson R. G. 
Published: November 2015

An investigation into the problem of school lighting and vision has been made, in four stages:— (a) A study was made of the distribution of visual acuity in a random sample of London school children, in relation to the influence of illumination level and chalkboard reflection factor. The distribution was found to agree with a distribution measured in 1928 on a similar sample. Increased illumination was found to provide the greatest benefit to those children with indifferent visual acuity. (b) More detailed studies of the effect of illumination and contrast on visual acuity and on ease and speed of reading, were made on a selection of adults with visual acuity varying from very good (Snellen 6/4.5) to poor (Snellen 6/60). (c) The factors which influence glare have been investigated. (d) An analysis of visual tasks in schools was made by the M.R.C. investigators under the direction of Mr. H. C. Weston, and this analysis (of size, contrast, etc., of lettering on chalkboards) has been drawn upon, with Mr. Weston's kind permission. The present standard of illumination prescribed by the Ministry of Education (10-ft.c., that is, 10 lumens/sq. ft.) is found to be an adequate minimum standard provided chalkboard letters are large and children sit near the chalkboard. Improvements in ease of reading result from increased illumination levels, but these increases must be substantial. Under some average conditions the improvement in ease of reading which results from the child moving four feet nearer the chalkboard is matched only by an increase of 30: 1 in illumination level. The results of the experiment throw into sharp relief the need for the integration of the lighting with the design of school classrooms. The paper is a study of visual conditions associated mainly with formal teaching from fixed chalkboards. Educationists are, however, advocating the replacement of such methods, in infants' schools, by informal teaching in groups, using mobile chalkboards distributed round the room. In secondary schools the present methods will probably continue for some time. The studies reported in the paper are, of course, applicable to this new approach by educationists, but further work directly concerned with group teaching may be of value at a later stage.
Specification and Testing of Fluorescent Lighting Fittings and Components
Authors: Fahey G. , Waigh D. T. , Bloxsidge W. R. 
Published: November 2015

A specification for equipment ensures a certain performance. Its preparation requires a knowledge of the equipment and the factors which affect its performance. These problems are discussed for the mains voltage fluorescent lamp, control gear and fitting, and methods of test are described. It is suggested that tests should be made both in “free air” and “in fitting,” and that limiting conditions for satisfactory operation of lamps, control gear and fitting should be specified for both circumstances, assuming that control gear and fitting are designed to lamp requirements. A term to denote the “complete lighting unit” is recommended.
A Reflector Contour for Use with Tubular Light Sources
Authors: Stevens R. W. 
Published: November 2015

Street lighting lanterns incorporating tubular fluorescent lamps often have a reflector system whose design is derived from the properties of the parabola. Because of the large angle subtended by the lamp at the surface of the reflector, the provision of a peak luminous intensity in a direction 70–80 deg. from the vertical generally results in a large amount of light being reflected above the horizontal. An alternative to the parabola as a basis for a reflector system is described which avoids this difficulty. A differential equation defining suitable contours is derived and a solution to this equation is given. The application of curves defined by these equations to practical reflector systems is then discussed.
The Design and Application of Flameproof Lighting Equipment
Authors: Strachan D. A. 
Published: November 2015

In industries where there are explosive or inflammable hazards, it is required that the lighting system should preclude the possibility of explosion or fire as a result of accidental sparking or damage to the equipment. Explosion hazards may be divided into two main groups:— (i) Hazards in buildings or parts thereof where gases, vapours or volatile liquids are present and may form an explosive mixture with air, either at room temperature or at some higher temperature; (ii) Hazards where dusts may be in an explosive mixture with air. In general, one of two systems of lighting may be employed where an explosive or inflammable hazard exists:— (i) By an external lighting system whereby the light sources are placed outside the building and arranged to project light through “windows”; (ii) By an internal lighting system:— (a) In which flameproof lighting equipment must be employed throughout owing to the nature and extent of the hazard, or (b) In which flameproof equipment is required only for specific areas where a “local” hazard may exist, e.g., in paint spraying booths. This paper relates solely to flameproof lighting equipment for use in hazardous situations, and docs not include reference to external lighting systems or to the installation of heavy-duty dustproof fittings which may be acceptable for some locations where certain dusts may be in an explosive mixture with air. Furthermore, the paper is concerned primarily with features of mechanical design, although reference is made to the factors which influence the lighting result.
The Decorative Approach to Commercial Lighting
Authors: Claude André 
Published: November 2015

Fluorescent light sources, by their characteristics, have completely upset the classical lighting techniques previously in use and have set new problems in the decorative quality of commercial lighting installations. No decorative lighting for commercial purposes and no luminous sign can be truly satisfactory unless the scheme that is to be carried out by the lighting engineer has in the first place been conceived by an artist pursuing an aesthetic conception regardless of the ultimate purpose of the installation. The author recommends that fluorescent light sources used in such installations should have a predominantly red spectral emission. Incandescent sources can be usefully combined with fluorescent sources. The completed lighting scheme should include one or more spots of colour, either light sources or lighted surfaces, which serve as tonal points of reference by which the colour value of the general lighting can be located.
Surface Distribution Factors and the Inter-Reflection Method
Authors: Croft Ronald 
Published: November 2015

The inter-reflection method of lighting design has been available since 1946, but its value has been reduced, due to the difficulty in separating the total flux from the luminaires into wall, ceiling and floor components. Methods so far suggested involve either the use of non-standard photometric data or the approximation of the intensity distribution to one of the few distributions for which tables have been subsequently calculated. The paper develops a method based on a simple analysis of the polar diagram. The distribution of flux over the room surfaces is related to “surface distribution factors,” which are calculated and given in graphical form for an extended range of standard distributions similar to those used by Harrison and Anderson in the calculation of coefficients of utilisation. The factors are related to the positions of the luminaires with respect to the surface to which they refer and this relationship is summed up in the form of a “surface coefficient.” Various methods of calculating distribution factors are mentioned, and an example of lighting design using the factors is given and discussed. The advantages of the inter-reflection method and the degree of accuracy to be expected are also discussed. Appendices, aimed at increasing the usefulness of the paper, are given, including definitions of new terms and an analysis of published performance data for a wide variety of luminaires (lighting fittings). These analysed data are given in a form suitable for use in the method described in this paper
Relative Brightness of Coloured Light Sources
Authors: Ferguson H. M. , Stevens W. R. 
Published: November 2015

Experiments in the laboratory to compare the apparent brightness of mercury and sodium light sources of high luminance show that most observers do not judge brightness on the ordinary photometric scale. In some circumstances the mercury luminance must be reduced to one third that of the sodium before observers, on balance, judge them to be equally bright. Similar, but less marked, results were found in a formal street lighting test, a mercury installation being judged more glaring than a sodium. This, however, did not produce a marked preference for the sodium installation. The commonly expressed preference for sodium street lighting may be partly explained by the reduced glare from sodium sources as compared with mercury but, it appears, is largely due to the characteristics of lanterns and installations now in use.
Some Practical Considerations in the Design and Manufacture of Neon Signs
Authors: Urquhart A. 
Published: November 2015

The neon sign (a generic term embracing all high voltage illuminated signs and displays) is assuming an important place in the urban scene by night. The manufacture and application of neon signs involve the architect, the lighting engineer and the signmaker. New materials mean added scope for all three, and also added need for consultation in design. The paper presents the signmaker's view, his needs and his difficulties, his technical contributions, and the factors influencing his designers. The function and scope of the neon sign, the association of architectural themes and local atmosphere, the suitability and legibility of letter styles, the legal requirements, and the conformity with I.E.E. Regulations and British Standards in design, manufacture and installation, are discussed and illustrated.
The Effect of Glare from Street Lighting Lanterns on the Vision of Drivers of Different Ages
Authors: Christie A. W. , Fisher A. J. 
Published: November 2015

Although methods of evaluating the effect of glare on the ability of an observer to detect objects in terms of an equivalent veiling luminance (e.v.l.) were developed by Holladay and Stiles prior to 1930 their results have usually been interpreted in Britain as indicating that disability glare is negligible in lighted streets. A re-examination of this question indicates that disability glare is important and that erroneous conclusions may be reached if disability glare is neglected when calculating revealing power. For example the revealing power of non-cut-off lighting installations may be rated higher than that of cut-off installations, though the opposite is usually the case in the critical darker regions of the installations. New work has shown that the e.v.l. is markedly dependent on the age of the observer, and has indicated a need for further work to obtain more precise knowledge of the way the e.v.l. varies with changes in the position of the glare source in relation to the observer's point of regard over the range of conditions important in the street lighting problem.
Metals in Lighting Fittings
Authors: Stephens D. M. , Jenkins I. 
Published: November 2015

The choice of commercially available metals and alloys which have the necessary characteristics for lighting fittings is extremely broad but in practice the range of alloys actually used is small. The primary characteristics include adequate mechanical strength and ductility; a relatively high strength-to-weight ratio; corrosion resistance in a wide variety of environments; the ability to be formed or cast into complex shapes; and the ability to acquire a surface finish which is either technically or aesthetically desirable. The reasons for the restriction on the range of alloys which are used are discussed and the limitations of the available materials are considered. Trends in the development of new metallic materials which are likely to be of interest to the lighting engineer are described. The significance of current investigations on new processes for both the primary and secondary fabrication of metals are also considered in relation not only to the production of complex forms but also to their possible effects upon the overall cost of finished parts.
Lighting in Relation to other Components of the Total Environment
Authors: Manning Peter 
Published: November 2015

In the past environmental studies have tended to concentrate upon one topic at a time. Matters that are often interrelated, like aspects of lighting, heating and acoustics, have been treated as though they were isolated and each has been studied from a different viewpoint and to a different depth. Such an approach may have been difficult to avoid if knowledge was to be advanced but one major practical consequence has been that, in spite of a vast accumulation of knowledge of individual subjects, the everyday design of the built environment has continued to be a largely intuitive activity concerned with 'one-off' situations. This has happened because design decisions have to be made so that their effects upon many different factors achieve the best overall solution in a particular context. There is no point, for example, in achieving an exceptionally good visual environment if, as a result, the thermal environment is unacceptable, the return on the investment uneconomic or the working organisation unsatisfactory. Since such side-effects of environmental decision-making are rarely considered in research literature designers are often unable to use the researchers results and so find themselves thrown back upon their own resources. This paper provides a background for a report upon a series of studies of the 'total environment' in factories, offices and schools made by the former Pilkington Research Unit (PRU) of Liverpool University. The interaction of the visual environment within buildings with such components as the thermal, aural and spatial environments, and their consequences for individuals and social groups will be discussed as will the evaluation of total environments on the bases of annual costs, user-response and subjective appraisal.
Iris I: A Foodlet-Based Multiple-Micronutrient Intervention in 6- to 12-Month-Old Infants at High Risk of Micronutrient Malnutrition in Four Contrasting Populations: Description of a Multicenter Field Trial
Authors:   International Research on Infant Supplementation (IRIS I) Study Group:, Smuts C. Marius , Benadé A.J. Spinnler , Berger Jacques , Hop Le Thi , de Romaña Guillermo López , Untoro Juliawati , Karyadi Elvina , Erhardt Jürgen , Gross Rainer 
Published: November 2015

Infants in developing countries are at risk of concurrent micronutrient deficiencies, because the same causative factors may lead to deficiencies of different micronutrients. Inadequate dietary intake is considered one of the major causes of micronutrient deficiencies, especially among poor and underprivileged children in developing countries. Operational strategies and distribution systems are often duplicated when supplementation programs for single micronutrients are implemented at the same time. The International Research on Infant Supplementation (IRIS) trial was conducted in four distinct populations on three continents: Africa, Latin America, and Asia. The participating countries were South Africa, Peru, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The study had a randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled design. Each country aimed to enroll at least 70 infants per intervention group (65 + 5 anticipated dropouts). The micronutrient vehicle was in the form of a “foodlet” (food-like tablet) manufactured as chewable tablets, which were easy to break and dissolve, and which had the same taste, color, and flavor for all countries. Children were randomly assigned to one of four 6-month intervention groups: group 1 received a daily foodlet containing multiple micronutrients; group 2 received a daily placebo foodlet containing no micronutrients; group 3 received a weekly foodlet that contained multiple micronutrients (twice the dose of the daily foodlet) and placebo foodlets on the other days of the week; group 4 received a daily foodlet containing only 10 mg of elemental iron. The IRIS Trial aimed to examine the prevalence of multi-micronutrient deficiencies in 6- to 12-month-old infants from rural populations, and to examine the efficacy of multi-micronutrient supplementation in infants from the different countries included in the study. This paper describes the general methodology of the IRIS trial and the operational differences among the country sites.
Fortification of Soy Sauce Using Various Iron Sources: Sensory Acceptability and Shelf Stability
Authors: Watanapaisantrakul Ratana , Chavasit Visith , Kongkachuichai Ratchanee 
Published: November 2015

Background Soy sauces are available in different types and grades, which allows them to reach consumers of all socioeconomic groups. Ferric sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (NaFeEDTA) has been used for iron fortification of soy sauces in some countries, however, its high cost may make it unattractive to policymakers and industry. Objective We evaluated the feasibility of using more economical iron sources for iron fortification, with soy sauce of various types and grades used as a vehicle. Methods Seven iron sources were tested for their feasibility for fortification of four types of soy sauce: naturally fermented in the traditional style, naturally fermented according to large-scale industrial formulas 1 and 5, and chemically hydrolyzed at 5 mg per serving (15 mL, per Thailand's food labeling regulations). Either citric acid or sodium citrate was added at 0.1% as a chelator. Results Five iron sources—ferrous sulfate, NaFeEDTA, ferric ammonium citrate, ferrous lactate, and ferrous gluconate—did not significantly affect the sensory qualities of the product over a period of 3 months ( p > .05). Ferrous fumarate and ferrous bisglycinate caused unacceptable precipitation. Less than 3% of 260 and 306 commonly cooked foods out of 871 and 772 preparations using soy sauces fortified with NaFeEDTA and ferrous sulfate, respectively, were found to be different from normal with regard to sensory qualities. The cost of fortification was US 0.22 cents to US 3.28 cents per bottle (700 mL). Conclusions Both naturally fermented and chemically hydrolyzed soy sauces could be fortified with all five iron sources. Ferrous sulfate is the most appropriate source because of its low cost and acceptable sensory characteristics. Soy sauce is a promising vehicle for iron fortification, however, the bioavailability of iron in the products examined here needs to be evaluated under normal use conditions.
Women's Empowerment and Domestic Violence: The Role of Sociocultural Determinants in Maternal and Child Undernutrition in Tribal and Rural Communities in South India
Authors: Sethuraman Kavita , Lansdown Richard , Sullivan Keith 
Published: November 2015

Background Moderate malnutrition continues to affect 46% of children under five years of age and 47% of rural women in India. Women's lack of empowerment is believed to be an important factor in the persistent prevalence of malnutrition. In India, women's empowerment often varies by community, with tribes sometimes being the most progressive. Objective To explore the relationship between women's empowerment, maternal nutritional status, and the nutritional status of their children aged 6 to 24 months in rural and tribal communities. Methods This study in rural Karnataka, India, included tribal and rural subjects and used both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. Structured interviews with mothers were performed and anthropometric measurements were obtained for 820 mother—child pairs. The data were analyzed by multivariate and logistic regression. Results Some degree of malnutrition was seen in 83.5% of children and 72.4% of mothers in the sample. Biological variables explained most of the variance in nutritional status, followed by health-care seeking and women's empowerment variables; socioeconomic variables explained the least amount of variance. Women's empowerment variables were significantly associated with child nutrition and explained 5.6% of the variance in the sample. Maternal experience of psychological abuse and sexual coercion increased the risk of malnutrition in mothers and children. Domestic violence was experienced by 34% of mothers in the sample. Conclusions In addition to the known investments needed to reduce malnutrition, improving women's nutrition, promoting gender equality, empowering women, and ending violence against women could further reduce the prevalence of malnutrition in this segment of the Indian population.