bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hephthalite Khanate
Authors: Kurbanov Aydogdy 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Early Medieval era (4th–6th centuries
ce
) is one of the most intricate periods in the history of Central Asia, involving the “Great Movement of Peoples,” a migration of nomadic peoples (Huns) from Asia to Europe. In Central and South Asia there existed great empires, including Sasanian Iran, Gupta India, and several smaller states. During this time, mysterious new peoples – the Hephthalites – whose origin is still debated, appeared across Central Asia. Some scholars suggest that they were a part of a Hunnic confederation, while others propose that each of them had a different origin. In the 5th and 6th centuries
ce
, the Hephthalites founded a great empire in the territories of the modern states of Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and China. They dominated in that region for two centuries.
Tepanec Empire
Authors: Smith Michael E. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Tepanec Empire was a central Mexican polity associated with the Aztec king, Tezozomoc, who ruled 1371 to 1426
ce
from the city of Azcapotzalco. One of the early Aztec kings, Tezozomoc, conquered other Aztec city‐states and created an empire of indirect control that covered the western half of the Basin of Mexico and adjacent lands to the south and west. He was not able to conquer the Acolhua Empire of Texcoco, however. Upon Tezozomoc's death, an alliance of groups defeated the Tepanec armies, leading to the formation of the better‐known “Aztec Empire” based in Tenochtitlan. Although the later empire adopted many of the institutions and practices of the Tepanec Empire, an early ruler of Tenochtitlan, Itzcoatl, destroyed existing historical books in order to erase the memory of Tezozomoc and the Tepanec Empire.
Toltec Empire
Authors: Smith Michael E. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Toltec Empire is a label for the polity centered at the city of Tollan (Tula) in central Mexico during the Early Postclassic period (950–1150
ce
). Tollan was a large city engaged in active commerce with all parts of Mesoamerica. Scholars are split on whether the term “empire” is appropriate for this polity, which covered some 8000 square kilometers. Those arguing for an imperial status base their interpretations on the histories of the later Aztec peoples, who looked back to the Toltecs as their revered ancestors. Others point to the lack of clear evidence for imperial organization or the control of territory and suggest that Tula ruled a regional state without imperial status. Reconciliation of these views will require new archaeological evidence.
Mysore, Kingdom of
Authors: Lewis Barry 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The South Indian kingdom of Mysore rose to prominence under the Wodeyar dynasty during the early 17th century. Its heartland was the rolling scrub jungle and forests of the Southern Maidan region of what is today the state of Karnataka. Haidar Ali, a Mysore soldier, usurped the power of the Wodeyars in the late 18th century. His son Tipu Sultan ultimately lost both his life and the kingdom in 1799 to the British, who restored the Wodeyars to power as rulers of the Mysore “princely state.” Mysore was accessioned to the newly independent republic of India in 1947.
Zapotec Empire
Authors: Joyce Arthur A. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Archaeological and ethnohistoric evidence from Oaxaca, Mexico, suggests that Zapotec‐speaking peoples may have formed small empires during the pre‐Hispanic era. Archaeologists have proposed a Zapotec Empire centered on the Late Formative period city of Monte Albán in the Oaxaca Valley. Although there is evidence for warfare at this time in the Oaxacan highlands, the existence of a Monte Albán Empire has been debated. Stronger support is available for an empire centered on the Late Postclassic city of Tehuantepec on the Pacific coast. Evidence for this empire includes the displacement of local populations and construction of the hilltop fortress site of Guiengola.
Epirus, Kingdom of
Authors: Gilley Dawn L. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Epirus is a Greek‐speaking region in northwestern Greece significant for its interactions with Italy and Macedonia in the 4th and 3rd centuries
bce
. While the Epirote tribes were governed by a monarch since the early 4th century, at various points in their history the monarch ruled alongside the Epirote alliance. The kingdom reached its height during the reign of Pyrrhus I (r.307–272), who went to war with Macedonia, Carthage, and Rome.
Macedonian Empire
Authors: Gilley Dawn L. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The ancient kingdom of Macedonia became an empire through the genius of Philip II who reigned from 359 to 336
bce
. He used military reform, diplomacy, and city foundations and fortifications to secure his borders, to bring the region of Upper Macedonia under his rule, and to create a stable economy. His son, Alexander III “the Great” (r.336–323
bce
), used many of the same methods to expand the kingdom to the Indus River conquering the Persian Empire and creating one of the largest empires in history. Unfortunately, at Alexander's death, it was unclear who his successor should be, and as a result, Philip and Alexander's empire began to be parceled out to Macedonian generals. Beginning in the 2nd century, the successor kingdoms, weakened by years of warfare, fell to the Roman Empire.
Pisa, Republic of
Authors: Skinner Patricia 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
It is debatable whether Pisa's aspirations amounted to the building of an empire. Its territorial ambitions were focused on domination within and close to the Tyrrhenian sea, whereas its activities further afield in the Mediterranean were largely built upon the concessions of other political powers (in Byzantium and the Crusader States, for example). Nevertheless, the city was represented by colonies across the Mediterranean, contributing to its reputation as a major sea power.
English Empire (British Isles and colonies to 1707)
Authors: MacMillan Ken 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The English empire to 1707 consisted of two territorial groupings. The first was the composite monarchy of England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and various surrounding islands. This composite monarchy of multiple kingdoms was, since Anglo‐Saxon times, increasingly but fitfully controlled by the English crown and by 1707 was largely united into a single “kingdom of Great Britain.” The second territorial group comprising the English empire was the collection of colonies, predominantly those across the Atlantic Ocean, that were settled by subjects of the composite monarchy after 1585. The imperial ideology that unified the empire was the assertion that a centralized, royal authority centered in England held both
imperium
(sovereignty) and
dominium
(possession) over the “British Empire.”
Wadai (Ouaddai) Empire
Authors: Saxon Douglas E. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Empire of Wadai was the last of the great African Sudanic Empires that controlled the trade in slaves across the Sahara. Located in the modern Republic of Chad, Wadai dominated the political and economic scene with the help of the Sanusiya Brotherhood, a Muslim brotherhood based in Eastern Libya. The French finally defeated Wadai in 1909 ending the era of African Empires linked to trans‐Saharan trade.
Nabataean Kingdom
Authors: Nehmé Laïla 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Nabataean kingdom is a political entity the earliest traces of which are attested in the 2nd century
bce
and which remained independent until 106
ce
, when it was annexed by Rome to form the Roman province of Arabia. At its peak, the kingdom reached Damascus in the north, the Hijaz in the south, the Negev in the west and the Syro‐Arabian desert in the east. The Nabataeans were originally merchants involved in the long‐distance trade in spices and aromatics which they conveyed from South Arabia to the Mediterranean.
Aragon, Crown of
Authors: Kagay Donald J. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Crown of Aragon, consisting of the realms of Aragon, Catalonia, Majorca, and Valencia, was first linked by the marriage of the rulers of Aragon and Catalonia in 1137 and by a series of victories in the second half of the 13th century against the dominant Muslim powers in eastern Spain. After the reign of Jaime I “the Conqueror” (1213–1276), the Crown of Aragon largely concluded its campaigns against Spanish Islam, becoming a player in the central Mediterranean with the 14th‐ and 15th‐century conquests of Sardinia, Sicily, southern Greece, and Italy. Though declining in power from the 16th century onward, the Crown of Aragon gave Spain, ostensibly unified by the marriage of the Catholic Kings, a viable colonial pattern for its conquests both in Italy and in the New World.
Pontic Empire
Authors: Thomas Carol G. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Black Sea pulls in two directions, encouraging unification of the coast but fragmentation of the deep territory surrounding the coast line. The Hellenistic Kingdom of Pontus is a remarkable example of success in controlling that situation. From 302bceinto the 1st centuryceit was a major force in the effort to recreate stable states in the vast territory of the “kingdom” that Alexander left on his death. The struggle to define a new political order convulsed the former Persian Empire, Macedonia, and Greece and then spread to Rome. For some decades it seemed that Pontus might prevail.
Lysimachus, Kingdom of
Authors: Thomas Carol G. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Kingdom of Lysimachus was created when Lysimachus received Thrace as his share of Alexander's empire in 323
bce
. By 281, it reached from eastern Macedonia through Thrace and much of Asia Minor. The history of the 42 years describes the struggles of the successors to Alexander to control the territory that he had conquered or to claim a kingdom of their own. It also identifies the qualities of a successful competitor. The territory of Lysimachus' kingdom would not be unified again until the high Byzantine period followed by the success of the Ottoman Turks.
Maravi Kingdom
Authors: Newitt Malyn 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Maravi kingdoms flourished between the 16th and 19th centuries in the region north of the Zambesi between the Shire River and Lake Malawi in the east and the Luangwa river in the west. There were three kingdoms, those of Undi, Lundu, and Kalonga which were culturally similar and whose ruling dynasties came from the same Phiri clan. The kingdoms were decentralized and although they traded ivory with the Portuguese and Swahili, their authority depended largely on the control of locally based rainmaking and territorial cults. They disintegrated and effectively disappeared in the 19th century.
Scythian Empire
Authors: Meyer Caspar 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Scythians are a nomadic people who dominated the steppes of western Eurasia (modern Russia and Ukraine) in classical Antiquity and maintained close contacts with the Greek‐speaking cities on the northern Black Sea shore. The political organization of the Scythians is known to us only from external descriptions by Greek authors, notably Herodotus who claims that Scythia was ruled by kings and divided into districts, comparable to those of the Egyptian and Persian empires. Archaeological evidence suggests that the power of nomadic tribes in the region was based on the armed administration of an extensive exchange network that integrated the services and resources of different local communities.
Indo‐Parthian Kingdom
Authors: Ghosh Suchandra 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Indo‐Parthians succeeded the Indo‐Scythians in the Indo‐Iranian borderlands. Numismatic evidence forms the most important source for their history. The first ruler was Gondophares whose kingdom extended from Seistan through Arachosia, to the Kabul valley and over Gandhara to the Jammu‐Pathankot area. Their coins were divided into four principal categories. Gondophares also appears in a New Testament context. The reign of Gondophares could be fixed approximately between c.20 and 45
ce
. The accepted chronological sequence after Gondophares is Abdagases I, Orthagnes, Hybouzanes/Ubouzanes, Pacores, Sanabares, Abdagases II, Sarpedanes, and Sases. The kingdom collapsed as a result of a major invasion by the Kushans under Kujula Kadphises.
Ideology, imperial
Authors: Gorman Daniel 
Published: January 2016

AbstractImperial ideologies are the ideas, concepts, explanations, and justifications for empire which imperial societies have articulated for themselves. They are the means by which dominant imperial societies make sense of how they acquired an empire, why they continue to maintain an empire, and what form and shape their empire might take on in the future. They are the worldviews of imperial societies, and have formed the basis of how imperial societies have sought to organize their empires politically, socially, and economically. Imperial ideologies have often been expressed in contrast to colonial “Others,” and have in turn generated anti‐imperial ideologies.
Novgorod Republic
Authors: Langer Lawrence N. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Novgorod was an important political and commercial city‐state in Rus'. Founded in the 10th century and until its annexation by Moscow in 1478, Novgorod created a vast territorial empire and controlled much of the fur trade with the west. The city was one of the factories of the Hanseatic League and Rus's major importer of silver. In the 12th century the city circumscribed the power of its prince and established a republican system of government. An assembly (
veche
) elected the city's major officials: prince, mayor (
posadnik
), whose numbers grew from one to thirty‐six, a lord mayor (
stepennyi posadnik
), chiliarchs, an archbishop, and an archimandrite. The class of nobles or boiars controlled the republican offices, dominated the assembly, and likely governed through an executive council.
Ostrogoths, Kingdom of the
Authors: Burns Thomas S. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Ostrogoths were an important group during the Late Roman Empire. Their early elite emerged within the Hunnic Empire (c.400–455), and their most respected leader was King Theodoric the Great (r.490–526). He established an Ostrogothic kingdom (490–552), one of several prominent “successor states” created during the transformations of the Late Roman Empire.
Buganda, Kingdom of
Authors: Yoder John C. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Kingdom of Buganda, located on the northern shores of Lake Victoria, reached its apogee in the 19th century. Ruled by kings known as
kabakas
, Buganda's economy was based on the cultivation of bananas. This wealth enabled the kabakas to collect tribute and extract labor from a dense and stable agricultural population. The kabakas also benefited from an extensive regional trade network. The kabakas’ prestige was enhanced by their claim of having descended from the mythical ancestor Kintu. Although regarded as despotic, the kabakas of Buganda were not absolute rulers. Clans, powerful women, and ambitious court officials all wielded a measure of power. By the mid‐19th century, the kabakas had obtained guns, welcomed Muslim and Christian missionaries, and embraced literacy in an effort to increase their power. Despite subjection to Britain by 1900, the Kingdom of Buganda remained semi‐autonomous during the colonial period and has continued to be a powerful entity even since Uganda's independence in 1962.
Sena Empire
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Sena dynasty ruled in Bengal and parts of Bihar in the 11th and 12th centuries
ce
. They are famous as champions of Brahmanism. It is under the Senas that the Bengali script and language attained some of its present features. The structure of society in Bengal was also systematized under Sena rule and was codified in religious texts like the
upapuranas
. Sanskrit literature flourished under their patronage.
Pala Empire
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Pala Empire was the first regional empire in eastern India. It flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries
ce
and was based in Bihar and Bengal. It played an important role in shaping the culture of eastern India. The Palas are also known as great patrons of Buddhism, which by this period came to be confined to eastern and certain other parts of India. Buddhism also facilitated contact with Southeast Asia. The interaction between Devapala and the king of Sumatra and Java was recorded in the Nalanda copper plate. The later Pala rulers came to be inclined toward Shaivism. The development of art also reached a high water mark.
Harsha Empire
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Harshavardhana, or just Harsha, was the last great Hindu emperor of India to historians who viewed Indian history as a succession of empires. To them, the end of the reign of Harshavardhana in 648
ce
marked the end of the ancient era and the beginning of the medieval. The extent of his empire, however, was not as large as they had thought. Harsha is credited with establishing Kanyakubja (Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh) as a symbol of royal power in North India. This was followed by the famous “tripartite struggle” among three regional powers that sought to capture Kanauj. The visit of the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang is another important event in Harsha's reign.
Rwanda, Kingdom of
Authors: Van Schuylenbergh Patricia 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The history of the Kingdom of Rwanda has been challenged by fundamental studies. These indicate that, contrary to the long‐prevailing historiographical tradition, Rwanda's past does not consist of the dynastic history of an elect Tutsi ethnic group, but was formed from several nuclei which underwent assorted evolutions. A Tutsi royalty emerged (Nyiginya dynasty) and extended its territory from central Rwanda using a variety of methods; its powers were nevertheless limited depending on the occupied or colonized region. At the end of the 19th century, the kingdom reached its furthest territorial and political expansion. The arrival of Europeans progressively altered the face of the kingdom. It was first colonized by the Germans, then became a mandatory territory under Belgian supervision after World War I, and the system of indirect administration shook its complex but fragile sociopolitical cohesion. Revolution and subsequent independence marked the end of the Tutsi kingdom in favor of an independent Hutu republic.
Yap and the Yap Empire (Micronesia)
Authors: Petersen Glenn 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Central Pacific island of Yap served as the focal point in a far‐flung maritime network for centuries before European colonial intrusion into the region. Yapese exercised a limited degree of economic, political, and religious or supernatural control over the other, much smaller islands in this Micronesian archipelago. This system of interrelationships is often construed as a small‐scale, informal empire.
Karkota dynasty of Kashmir
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Karkota dynasty took power in the valley of Kashmir in the first half of the 7th century
ce
. The dynasty is largely known from the
Rajatarangini
of Kalhan written in the 12th century. Lalitaditya was the most prominent king of this dynasty. Unlike the other Kashmir kings, he undertook an extensive campaign through the whole of India. Much of Kalhan's account, however, is unreliable, although there are reasons to believe his claims of victory in the northern and eastern parts of India.
Maitraka Empire
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Maitrakas were an early medieval regional dynasty of western India from the 5th to the 8th centuries
ce
. They assumed independence following the decline of the Guptas. Valabhi (modern Vala in Kathiawar, Gujarat), the Maitraka capital, became a center of learning as well as trade and commerce. The Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited the Maitraka kingdom and spoke highly of its kings. Another Chinese pilgrim, Fa Xian, spoke about the university of Valabhi.
Rai dynasty of Sind
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Rai dynasty ruled in Sind (Pakistan) from the 5th to the 7th centuries
ce
. The dynasty's history is entirely reconstructed on the basis of Muslim chronicles like
Chachnama
, a history of Sind. Scholars have tried to restore the kings’ original Sanskrit names. During this period Sind became subject to attacks from Persia and the Arabs, and the Rais were successful in maintaining security within their territory. The extension of this dynasty's influence up to Kanauj in the Gangetic doab (river basin) of northern India, claimed in the Muslim chronicles, is, however, debatable.
Satavahana Empire
Authors: Majumdar Susmita Basu , Chakravarti Ranabir 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Satavahanas were the first formidable political entity in peninsular India. At the zenith of their power, their authority embraced the entire Deccan spanning from the Narmada River in the north to the Krishna River in the south and extending from the west to the east coast of India. They rose to power in central Deccan, with Pratishthana (modern Paithan, Maharashtra) as their capital. The Satavahana realm witnessed a mature monarchical polity for the first time in peninsular India, marked by urban centers, royal inscriptions, and the issuance of coinage. Dynastic monarchy became the order of the day. The Satavahanas ruled from about the 1st century
bce
to the 3rd century
ce
. The most powerful ruler of this dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni. His reign marked the beginning of the Saka–Satavahana struggle, which became a major feature of politics in the Deccan.
Lozi Empire
Authors: Hogan Jack 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Lozi Empire, a major pre‐colonial African polity centered on the Upper Zambezi floodplain, dominated the region for over a century. Structures of ritual, political, economic, and social power were built into the fabric of the empire, and the power of tribute and slaves sustained it. A powerful, centralized state forged a polity that met the colonial moment from a position of unusual strength.
Kazan Khanate
Authors: Davies Brian L. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Kazan Khanate emerged on the middle Volga in the mid‐15th century as a successor to the declining Golden Horde. It was a multi‐ethnic and multi‐religious state: its ruling class was Tatar and Muslim, with non‐Muslim Chuvashes and Finno‐Ugric‐speaking peoples as their subjects. The Khanate's economy was less dependent on pastoral nomadism and more agriculturally and commercially developed than the Nogai Horde's. The Kazan Khanate got caught up in the great political rivalry between Muscovy and the Crimean Khanate and was annexed by Muscovy in 1552.
Malagasy empires (Sakalava and Merina)
Authors: Campbell Gwyn 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Two empires emerged in Madagascar between the 17th and 19th centuries. The Sakalava Empire, comprising a loose coalition of three kingdoms, embraced most of the west of the island. It was based on control of foreign trade achieved through an alliance with the Swahili and Indian middlemen whose long‐standing maritime trading network connected Madagascar to East Africa, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and West India. From the 1750s, rising demand for Malagasy slaves, live cattle, and provisions from the French‐held Mascarenes initially augmented Sakalava dominance. However, from the 1790s, the Merina of the central highlands unified under a dynasty that sought to dominate trade with the Mascarenes, and in 1820 signed a treaty with the British who recognized the Merina sovereign as king of Madagascar and supplied him with the arms and military training required to expand. The Merina initiated military conquests of other regions – in the process ending Sakalava imperial pretensions. However, they aroused enmity and counterattacks from non‐Merina groups, notably the Sakalava, while excessive forced labor undermined the domestic economy and loyalty of Merina subjects. These factors ensured the success of the 1895 French colonial takeover and the end of the Merina Empire.