bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inequality/Stratification, Gender
Authors: Adams Michele 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Inequality and stratification based on gender refer to the differential ability of men and women to access society's resources and receive its privileges. As gender stratification increases, so does the level of gender inequality, reflecting greater differences between men's and women's access to power. Historically gender inequality has systematically disadvantaged women, with men occupying positions of dominance in the family and the paid labor force, as well as other social institutions, evidenced by women doing the bulk of unpaid housework and being paid less than men in the labor market. Gender inequality is a global phenomenon, although the relative power of men and women varies across countries. The disadvantaged position of women relative to men is a predominant factor in global levels of gender stratification, evidenced by women's lower levels of power and control over their reproduction, reduced education and health outcomes, and subjection to violence, intimate and stranger perpetrated, at the hands of men. Various theories, including structural functionalism, conflict theory, and feminist theories have been used as lenses to view gender stratification over time.
Management Theory
Authors: Chanlat Jean‐François 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSince the beginning of the nineteenth century, the industrialized world has known great socioeconomic development. During this long period of time, capitalist development was characterized by the growth of business firms, the rise of the state and public administration, the creation of numerous organizations, and the appearance of a new social figure, the manager. Since then, management thinking has experienced great development. The theories of management are both products of society, consisting of people and social forces in a historical context, and producers of this historical society. The sociology of management has to take into account this theoretical elaboration in order to understand the representations in its principal discourses, which contribute to shaping organizational forms and managerial practices.
Myth
Authors: Wasson Leslie 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
A myth is a story that has a parallel structure linking the past to the present and suggesting directions for the future. Myth, according to Lévi‐Strauss, allows anthropology to understand the underlying structure of a culture by examining linguistic elements and their relations to one another. A myth may be a cautionary or moral tale, or may be about idealized behavioral standards. Within sociology, the primary use of the word “myth” has been rather casual. This use of the term imputes a less than factual status to the topic of reference and calls into question the veracity of others' accounts and theories. Sociology currently lacks a clear concept of myth such as is found in anthropology or cultural studies.
Nationalism
Authors: Leoussi Athena S. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Nationalism is a complex social phenomenon with the nation as its object. In its modern, ideological manifestation of an otherwise human, natural attachment to the life‐giving forces of parenthood and land, observable throughout human history, nationalism has its roots in both the Enlightenment and the Romantic reaction to it. It found its earliest expressions in the American and French revolutions, and in the multiplicity of movements for national independence and national unity which have marked the modern world, from the nineteenth century to the present day. Given the rise of global connections and transnational communities, following World War II, some scholars have urged the abandonment of the assumption of a world ordered into nation‐states. Nevertheless, nationalism continues to be a powerful idea that inspires and mobilizes groups throughout the contemporary world.
Operations Management
Authors: Edwards John S. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Operations management is the management of the transformation processes that create products or services, and thus concerns all organizations. It is a discipline that takes a practical focus, striking a balance between the pragmatic and the theoretical.
This entry begins by briefly reviewing the history of operations management, especially since that term came into wide use in the 1960s. Key changes have been the inclusion of services and the adoption of a process view. It goes on to consider conceptual frameworks, noting the growth of “softer” approaches. Operations management application areas are then identified. Current “hot” topics include the servitization of manufacturing and integration with information systems. The principal methodological issue is the relationship between theory and practice with top level academic publication perhaps favoring a positivist approach. The entry closes with some speculations on future directions.
Opportunities for Learning
Authors: Gamoran Adam 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe concept of opportunities for learning refers to the content and quantity of curricular materials, activities, and assignments that students encounter in their classrooms. This notion is central to a sociological understanding of how schools operate. Major lines of research on opportunities for learning have examined curricular differentiation through ability grouping and tracking, and international comparisons of educational achievement. Within countries, differences in opportunities for learning are commonly linked to students' social and economic backgrounds, and consequently play a role in the reproduction of inequality. Opportunities for learning have come to increased salience in the current context of US education policy, as the emphasis on accountability has led to recognition that improving student learning rests substantially on improving the quality of teaching they encounter in classrooms.
Organizational Contingencies
Authors: Suhomlinova Olga , Currie Graeme 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Organizational contingencies are factors that moderate the effect of organizational characteristics on organizational performance. Whether a particular level of organizational characteristic would lead to high performance depends on the level of the relevant contingency factor. More broadly, a contingency is a moderating variable, and in principle any theory that contains a moderating variable is a contingency theory. The historical core of contingency theorizing – structural contingency theories – deals with the matters of organization, organizational structure, and design. The field has had a profound impact on teaching and practice of management. Research in this area peaked in the 1960s–1970s, stagnated thereafter, but is currently poised for a renaissance. What was initially at the periphery of contingency theorizing has burgeoned to encompass leadership, decision‐making, governance, and organizational change. Contingency theorizing has also spread beyond its “mother fields” of organization theory and organization studies to other disciplines such as public administration, information technology, marketing, and accounting.
Praxis
Authors: Wortmann Susan 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Praxis is most commonly associated with the ability of oppressed groups to transform their economic, political, and social worlds through a process of reflecting and acting on theoretically‐informed knowledge. In classical sociological theory, praxis is connected with Karl Marx and his emphasis on the revolutionary potential of the proletariat. In contemporary sociological theory, the term praxis is associated with a variety of critical theories. It is also tied to sociological methodologies, education, and the discipline of sociology, itself.
Resource Mobilization Theory
Authors: Edwards Bob , Kane Melinda D. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The broader resource mobilization approach, though underutilized, remains relevant to analyzing the full spectrum of social movement challenges to hegemonic authority across the full range of social and political institutions. This entry sketches core features of the resource mobilization perspective by categorizing five resource types – material, human, social‐organizational, cultural and moral; mechanisms of resource access; and the exchange relationships through which movement actors acquire specific resources.
Science and the Measurement of Risk
Authors: Haggett Claire 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe measurement of risk is not a straightforward matter. Risk assessments made by scientists often differ from those of the lay public, and can ignore or invalidate their understandings. Sociological work has highlighted that public responses to risk are shaped by inter‐related social, experiential, and perceptual factors and have to be considered as part of the social context from which they arise. Lay people also have their own knowledge and expertise to draw upon when making assessments of the immanency and impact of any risk. It is not necessarily the case therefore that the public are being “irrational” in their decision‐making but that they use a different rationality to that of scientists. These differences can lead to conflicts over risks, and resistance from the public to the measurements, and subsequent recommendations, imposed upon them by scientific research. This entry outlines the way in which scientific measurement of risk is conducted, how this differs from public understanding of risks, and the significance of this disjuncture.
Sexual Identities: Gay, Lesbian, Queer
Authors: Plummer Ken 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAfter outlining the concept of identity and the questions it poses generally for sociology, this entry applies the concept to the field of gay, lesbian, and queer identity. Earlier writing focused on the process of “coming out” and led to the emergence of a politics of identity. More recent work has focused on a multiplicity of changing identities. Connections are made to postcolonialism, intersectional studies, queer theory, and global research – all of which suggest a more complex and less unified form of identity.
Social Indicators
Authors: Land Kenneth C. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry commences with definitions of objective, subjective, and composite social indicators. It then reviews the historical development of the social indicators movement across the decades from the 1960s to the present. Next, three types of social indicators (policy/welfare/criterion indicators, subjective well‐being indicators, and descriptive indicators) are defined and illustrated. A final section describes two functions of social indicators, namely, the enlightenment function which encompasses the monitoring of changes over time in a broad range of social phenomena/quality‐of‐life indicators that extend beyond the traditional economic indicators, and the policy analysis function, including problem definition, policy choice and evaluation of alternatives, and program monitoring.
Social Justice, Theories of
Authors: Hegtvedt Karen A. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractIssues of justice and injustice are ubiquitous in groups of all sizes. Sociological concerns with social justice pertain to differences and disadvantages characterizing groups (e.g., income inequality, racism, sexism) as well as individual‐level processes regarding perceptions of and responses to injustice. This entry reviews social psychological approaches to defining justice, perceiving injustice, and responding to unfairness in distributions, procedures, and interpersonal treatment. Theories differentially highlight the role of motivations, cognitions, affect, and social comparisons in justice assessments, which in turn affect the nature of cognitive and behavioral responses. The inevitable differences that emerge in perceptions play into an understanding of social justice, conflict, and change more generally.
Social Movements, Political Consequences of
Authors: Amenta Edwin , Caren Neal 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Scholars have increasingly turned their attention to the political or state‐related consequences of social movements. They refer to movements' attempts to change political institutions and their processes and outcomes as potential “external” consequences. In comparison to mobilizing supporters, fashioning identities among them, and choosing strategies, most macropolitical consequences of challengers are not directly implemented by them. But transforming movements from an object of explanation to an explanation sets up obstacles to developing a coherent and cumulative scholarship. Notably, scholars have had to revise their initial hypotheses that the strategies, organizational forms, and political contexts that aid mobilization will also aid in exerting political influence. In addition, movements and their organizations are defined as lacking in power and thus it is better to start with the null hypothesis that movements are not influential unless demonstrated otherwise. Moreover, most scholarship has consisted of case studies that are chosen mainly on the basis of the assumed significance of the movement or the interest of researchers in studying it. Scholarship has been working around and through these obstacles.
Socialization, Primary
Authors: Wasson Leslie 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Socialization is the process by which humans learn ways of being and doing that are expected and are considered appropriate in their social environments. We call it primary socialization when the individual is a newly added member of society and is therefore experiencing this process for the first time. Primary socialization has the social psychological characteristic of primacy, meaning that its position as first in the acquisition of social knowledge renders it a filter and a foundation for the subsequent information internalized by the fledgling social being. Primacy also makes early socialization remarkably resilient, in that it is much more difficult to change primary habits and beliefs than those learned later.
Sport, Alternative
Authors: Honea Joy Crissey 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAlternative sports like skateboarding, BMX, and snowboarding began to gain popularity in the 1990s as alternatives to traditional sport forms. They embodied qualities that distinguished themselves from mainstream sports like participant control and less focus on competition. Since then, these sports have increasingly moved into the center of the sports world, even becoming Olympic events in many cases. Research on alternative sport originally focused on the tension between the authenticity of the original cultural forms and the process of co‐optation of the activities by corporate interests and sponsors. Since then, scholars have begun to move beyond this dichotomy to analyze the complexity of cultural production and the cultural politics of incorporation into mainstream sports. Other areas of inquiry include gender inequality and feminist movements within action sports, the role of alternative sport venues in urban development and gentrification and the development of action sport social justice movements. Most research has focused on young, western, white participants and thus more data are needed on the roles of race, sexualities, and age within alternative sports.
Sport as Work
Authors: Donnelly Peter 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSport and work are usually identified as opposites, but there are several ways that sport is work‐like and a number of ways that sport is related to work. Although it is commonplace to refer to professional sports as a business, popular resentment about the high salaries of some professional athletes in some sports is related to the sense that sport is not work. However, sport and work have become metaphors for each other; while businesses frequently use sporting metaphors to refer to competition, teamwork, productivity and “coaching,” Taylorism, the scientific management and measurement of work, found its way into coaching and training principles in sports.
Standardization
Authors: Epstein Steven , Timmermans Stefan 
Published: September 2017

AbstractStandardization is a social and technical process of constructing uniformities across time and space through the generation of agreed upon rules. Modern life increasingly depends on the creation, institutionalization, use, dissemination, and contestation of diverse kinds of standards, and standardization is an omnipresent feature of a modernizing and globalizing world. The spread of standardization sparks numerous concerns about consequences. However, scholarship indicates that standards do not lead to a uniform world.
Statistics
Authors: Gillespie Wayne 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Statistics is a subfield of mathematics and a method of quantitative reasoning. Rooted firmly in a positivistic paradigm, statistical analysis is a fundamental aspect of the scientific method and was one of the hallmarks of modernity in the twentieth century. Primarily, statistics involves the collection, analysis, manipulation, and interpretation of data from experiment or observation. Statistics is a practical or applied discipline, and it is a socially constructed tool of the scientific method.
Scheler, Max (1874–1928)
Authors: Vandenberghe Frédéric 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The German Catholic philosopher, phenomenologist, and social theorist Max Scheler is one of the most creative and versatile figures within the phenomenological movement. Standing in the midst of an intellectual current that connects the historical philosophies of life of Dilthey, Simmel, and Bergson with the phenomenologies of Husserl, Heidegger, and Gadamer, his writings have significantly influenced those of Nicolai Hartmann, Edith Stein, Arnold Gehlen, Helmut Plessner, Karl Mannheim, and Alfred Schütz.
Theoretical Research Programs
Authors: Wagner David G. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractA theoretical research program has three components: a set of interrelated theories, a set of substantive and methodological working strategies used to generate and evaluate these theories, and a set of models for empirical investigation and analysis based on these theories. Theoretical research programs are important to our understanding of how sociological knowledge grows. Programs are distinct from the broad, overarching metatheoretical strategies, such as functionalism and interactionism, which orient the construction of individual theories. Programs are more dynamic than strategies, the latter growing only very slowly and seldom in response to assessment of the theories that they generate. Programs are also distinct from individual theoretical arguments, or unit theories, such as Davis and Moore's theory of stratification or Lenski's theory of status crystallization. Although programs generally originate in a unit theory, they become much more complex as a network of interrelated theories emerges over time. Theoretical research programs provide accounts of social phenomena as diverse as affect control, status organization, network exchange, resource mobilization, revolution, and coalition formation in political action. They have become particularly common in recent work in sociological social psychology and in the study of group processes.
Top Management Team
Authors: Díaz‐Fernández M. Carmen , González‐Rodríguez M. Rosario , Simonetti Biagio 
Published: September 2017

AbstractTop management team (TMT) is a relevant managerial topic widely recognized in company environments and in the academic literature. In this framework, most practitioners and theorists pursue in‐depth knowledge of the notion of TMT and its internal functioning since it is a key driver to determine the company's strategic behavior and hence outcomes. Despite the relevance of TMT, no agreement can be found in the literature regarding the relationship beteween TMT, strategic pattern, and company performance. This is mainly attributed to methodological weakness in most of the empircal studies. New theories are emerging to solve that weakness to make the topic and the upper echelons theory, the main theory of TMT, continue in significance.
Total Institutions
Authors: Manning Peter K. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Total institutions is a concept developed and elaborated by Erving Goffman in
Asylums
. The research, the product of fieldwork, was done in a large public mental hospital and focused on the ways in which such institutions claim to be oriented to humane treatment, but in fact treat people as things to be processed. This is accomplished forcefully in a variety of ways such that the organization is divided into two social worlds: the secular world of the inmates and the sacred world of the staff. This divide is enforced by an arbitrary system of rules, exchanges, and rewards all of which maintain the self of the inmate as both worthless and incapacitated for life in civil society. Although much has changed in the treatment of the mentally ill, the concept remains relevant to understanding a wide variety of total institutions.
Unemployment as a Social Problem
Authors: Allmendinger Jutta , Ludwig‐Mayerhofer Wolfgang 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Most (post)industrial societies have been, to varying degrees, afflicted with unemployment during the past decades, and little indicates that this will change decisively in the years to come. This entry discusses definitions of unemployment, describes which groups are most affected by unemployment, and points out the divergence that exists between countries concerning the amount and the effects of unemployment, and finally it addresses labor market policies and the effects these have.
Variables
Authors: Baur Nina , Lamnek Siegfried 
Published: September 2017

AbstractA variable is a superordinated attribute, characteristic, or finding that exists in at least two distinct subordinated categories (classes, groups, units of measurement, values). In social research, variables are used to assign single cases to categories – all cases assigned to the same category count as “the same” (concerning this variable), all cases allotted to different categories are regarded as being dissimilar. In order to ensure that all cases are equivalently categorized, concepts have to be defined, operationalized, and measured. Correct measurement is important as statistical procedures make use of variables but only work correctly if data are free from distortion. There are multiple ways of classifying types of variables, for example, by the number and discernibility of their categories, their level of aggregation, their level of measurement, and how they can be operationalized and interpreted.
Violent Crime
Authors: Hansen Laura L. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractLittle strikes more fear in members of society than the possibility of becoming a victim of violent crime. Yet incidents of the most violent crime, murder, have progressively reduced since the 1990s in the United States. In this entry what constitutes a violent crime is discussed, including the narrow definitions offered by law enforcement, compared with a broader spectrum of definitions of violent sexual acts as presented by the World Health Organization. The most likely victims are discussed, by race, ethnicity, and sex. Additionally, the key variables are introduced that contribute to violence‐prone communities, including poverty, blocked opportunities, and gang presence.
Argentina: Media System
Authors: Mastrini Guillermo 
Published: September 2017

Argentina is located in the southernmost part of Latin America. It has more than 38 million inhabitants, the main language is Spanish, and the Catholic religion is predominant. Since 1983 it has had a democratic system of government which formally guarantees press freedom in its Constitution. Article 14 of Argentina's National Constitution sets the guarantees for
freedom of expression
. The legal framework limits itself to the regulation of citizens’ rights and journalists’ responsibilities. Since the return of democracy freedom of expression has been exercised, although it has sometimes faced legal challenges on interpretation (→ Freedom of Communication).