bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Signs
Authors: Cobley Paul 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
This entry defines “sign” and indicates some of its relations with “symbol” as a synonym for “sign” or as a subcategory of signs. It introduces a general definition of signs with a brief historical overview of the practice of understanding signs “as signs” rather than merely using signs to indicate. It also uses some paradigm cases developed in the last hundred years for understanding signs: the linguistic sign as adumbrated by Saussure, the nonverbal sign as adapted in semiology by Roland Barthes, the multivalent sign envisaged by Peirce, the “symbolic form” investigated by Cassirer, and the sign distinguished from “object” and “thing” as proposed by Deely. The entry focuses on the way in which the investigation of signhood has been characterized by the different apprehensions of the relations subtending signs and contrasting approaches to what signs do.
Ethnic Studies
Authors: Ceisel Christina M. , Valdivia Angharad N. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the wide‐ranging work deriving from ethnic studies in the heterogeneous discipline of communications. Following a brief definition of ethnic studies, the entry details its presence in all areas of the field—from interpersonal and organizational communications to media studies and its four components: production, content, audiences, and effects. The entry ends with the contemporary turn to hybrid and interracial identities as well as the transnational flow of ethnic populations and—therefore—ethnic studies in communication.
Structuralism
Authors: Coman Mihai 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Structuralism is a paradigm (although many of its exponents have declared that it is just a research method) that argues that the objective of scientific investigation is to identify the abstract structures that determine any social and cultural manifestation of the human being. Structuralists stress: (1) that in any system the units have no value and sense through substantial attributes, but through positional attributes; in other words relationships are more important than contents; and (2) that the aim of research has to be the discovery of the unconscious structure behind the surface manifestations. Pure structuralist inquiry tends to privilege hyperabstract models and to neglect the dynamics of cultural phenomena. That seems to be one of the reasons that few researchers in communication studies adopt the structuralist paradigm, because they believe that communication does not seem to be determined by such structures, but by multiple and fluent interactions.
Relativism
Authors: Bergman Mats 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Relativism holds that matters such as truth, knowledge, goodness, or beauty are relative to frames of reference like personal disposition, culture, conceptual structure, perspective of inquiry, or historical era. A relativist believes that there are no absolute criteria by which to rationally resolve disputes concerning such issues. There are many different sources and kinds of relativism; the field can be partly systematized by considering how relativized domains and relativizing frames can be combined. Depending on scope, it is possible to distinguish more or less radical versions of relativism. Critics of relativism typically argue that the position is self‐refuting or irresponsible.
Neuroscience
Authors: Cascio Christopher N. , Falk Emily B. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Communication neuroscience is a subfield of communication studies that combines methods from social neuroscience and communications. Communication neuroscience encompasses studies that map neural systems associated with communication processes, as well as work that treats neural activity as a predictor, mediator, or moderator of communication processes and outcomes. For example, communication neuroscience aims to understand how direct and indirect messages delivered through mediated and interpersonal communication influence individuals, groups, and populations by examining the neural mechanisms associated with message‐processing and subsequent attitude and behavioral outcomes. This entry highlights the recent contributions communication neuroscience has made to the field of communication studies.
Two‐Step and Multistep Flows of Communication
Authors: Jensen Klaus Bruhn 
Published: October 2016

AbstractTwo‐step flows of communication join mass communication and interpersonal communication. Formulated in early studies that began to consolidate the field of media and communication research, the two‐step flow model served to identify the complexity of the effects of mass media on individuals, groups, and societies—and of communication as a general social process. The model helped to differentiate the understanding of media “effects,” over time and at various levels of individual and collective cognition and action; it also anticipated current conceptions of communication in society in terms of networked structures and flows. With digital and mobile media, communication can be seen to flow in multiple steps and directions, across a growing range of technological platforms, if still anchored in humans as embodied communicators.
Gender Studies
Authors: Montiel Aimée Vega 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Gender studies is an interdisciplinary field of research where sociology, history, anthropology, economy, political science, psychoanalysis, law, and communication converge. It incorporates a wide diversity of theories and methods for the analysis of gender, power, sexuality, and communication and their intersection with other hierarchies of power. Its political goal is to achieve human rights for women and gender equality in and through media.
Interaction Design
Authors: Cockton Gilbert 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Interaction design (IxD) gives form, behaviors, and capabilities to interactive digital artifacts (e.g., Web sites, computer games, and in‐car systems) that compute responses to user actions. Computed responses can combine physical output, changes to computer memory, and exchanges of data over a network. IxD aims to support enjoyable meaningful effective user experiences by associating user input with appropriate responses. Unlike other forms of media, interactive digital artifacts have persistent and dynamic states: a newspaper or a film is not changed as a result of being read or viewed, but instances of most applications and Web sites change permanently as a result of usage. Designing these digital applications requires attention to detail over a range of timescales, from subseconds to months and even years. IxD teams combine craft knowledge and repertoires with strategic goals, primary and secondary research, and evaluation activities. Successful design results from an appropriate balance and integration of design activities.
Quantification
Authors: Smith Benjamin K. , Jensen Eric A. , Wagoner Brady 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Counting has long been a major tool in social science research methodology. In many fields, to understand a phenomenon is to quantify it, to represent both observed and latent qualities through numerical quantities. Yet the process of quantification is not easy or simple: It requires careful thought, planning, and a skeptical mind‐set. The quantification process involves converting qualitative phenomena into numbers, operationalization, and the application of aggregate analysis to individuals. First we provide a simple definition of quantification, then a brief history of quantification in the social sciences. This is followed by a discussion of the appropriate use of quantification, and in turn aggregation, as they apply to social science research. We conclude with two critical case studies that exemplify the misapplication of quantification in the context of rating scales and big data.
Philosophy
Authors: Hannan Jason 
Published: October 2016

AbstractPhilosophy was once hailed as the “queen of the sciences,” a form of inquiry so basic and fundamental that it was thought to be the foundation of every major field and discipline. Yet, for all its magnanimity and dramatic history, philosophy as an idea is curiously difficult to define and more difficult still to make sense of. This has everything to do with the many different ways of approaching the multifaceted thing we call “philosophy.” This entry attempts to make sense of philosophy, both as an idea and as a tradition, by reviewing the major historical periods and traditions of philosophical thought. It covers the prehistory of philosophy, as well as the ancient, medieval, modern, and contemporary periods. It then covers the major domains of philosophical inquiry: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.
Remediation
Authors: Bolter Jay David 
Published: October 2016

AbstractRemediation is a term used to describe the way various media forms borrow from and refashion one another. At any given time, our media culture consists of processes of cooperation and competition among various media and their forms. In the current media culture, digital media forms, such as video games and social media, are among the key remediators. Remediation can be understood as a contribution to the larger theoretical approach known as intermediality.
Sociology of Culture
Authors: Robinson Laura , Schulz Jeremy 
Published: October 2016

Abstract

This entry charts the important lines of research in the sociology of culture, a recently invigorated subfield within the field of sociology now claiming one of the largest memberships of any section within the American Sociological Association. The entry contends that the sociology of culture is not only distinguished by its empirical and methodological pluralism, but embraces five distinct conceptual frameworks oriented toward five distinct empirical research programs, namely
lifeworld culture
,
organic culture
,
dispositional culture
,
produced culture
, and
media and communication culture
. Given its reach, analytical sophistication, and ecumenicism, the sociology of culture has the potential to inform a broad spectrum of research into the contemporary phenomenon of digitized communication and media at the dawn of the digital revolution.
Entertainment
Authors: Zerlang Martin 
Published: October 2016

AbstractA definition of entertainment must combine a general, anthropological perspective with a specific, historical perspective. The pursuit of happiness is an anthropological constant in human history, closely related to play, not least that of people playing together. But, as a consequence of the process of modernization, this pursuit has been undergoing a great deal of differentiation. A distinction between active and passive pleasures has often been used as a criterion for distinguishing between art and entertainment, active pleasures being considered higher than passive pleasures. In its interplay with society, entertainment may be considered simultaneously as an experiment with society and as an escape from society. Entertainment can be described as play put on display.
Incommunicability
Authors: Chang Briankle G. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Communication presupposes communicability: the ability on the part of the participants in communication to make it possible. At the same time, it is a common experience that, however hard we try, our expressions often fall short of representing our feelings or thoughts, and of communicating to others what we intend to convey. This entry explores incommunicability as a constituent and a condition of communication, even while communicability enjoys conceptual or logical priority over incommunicability, just as possibility precedes impossibility. Communication can be understood as a promise: In promising and communicating, we bring ourselves into a future that may or may not arrive.
Ethnography
Authors: La Pastina Antonio C. , Yadlin‐Segal Aya 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Ethnography has its roots in the enlightenment project of European colonial empires of the 19th century. Scholars, mapping and studying the lands controlled by European powers, began to compile information not only about the natural world but also about the cultural practices among the “primitive” peoples encountered around the world. From the early 20th century ethnography emerged in its recognizable form as a participatory practice providing an in‐depth understanding of the conditions under which culture is produced. Over the last century, ethnography has mutated from the purview of anthropology alone, and has become well established and accepted within the social sciences. This entry reviews the introduction of ethnography into communication research from the 1960s, its development and consolidation in the field, and recent ethnographic approaches to online communication.
Public Opinion Research
Authors: Johnson Courtney N. , Moy Patricia 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
The study of public opinion is critical to understanding the ideas, norms, and politics of any society. This entry provides an overview of the history of public opinion; it focuses on some normative debates about the nature of the public, juxtaposes the public with other entities, and explores how publics are important in all societies, not merely in democracies. The latter parts of this entry review the key methods by which public opinion is studied today.
Muscle synergies after stroke are correlated with perilesional high gamma
Authors: Godlove Jason , Gulati Tanuj , Dichter Ben , Chang Edward , Ganguly Karunesh 
Published: October 2016

AbstractMovements can be factored into modules termed “muscle synergies”. After stroke, abnormal synergies are linked to impaired movements; however, their neural basis is not understood. In a single subject, we examined how electrocorticography signals from the perilesional cortex were associated with synergies. The measured synergies contained a mix of both normal and abnormal patterns and were remarkably similar to those described in past work. Interestingly, we found that both normal and abnormal synergies were correlated with perilesional high gamma. Given the link between high gamma and cortical spiking, our results suggest that perilesional spiking may organize synergies after stroke.
Emergency Radiology “Boot Camp”: Educating Emergency Medicine Residents Using E‐learning Radiology Modules
Authors: Minkowitz Shlomo , Leeman Kristen , Giambrone Ashley E. , Kherani Jennifer F. , Belfi Lily M. , Bartolotta Roger J. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractObjectivesThere is an overall paucity of literature on the radiologic education of emergency medicine (EM) clinicians. Given the fact that many EM clinicians preliminarily review images for their patients, we hypothesized that a brief imaging curriculum could be efficacious in teaching basic and relevant radiologic interpretation.MethodsWe designed a 4‐hour “radiology boot camp” for a group of 20 EM residents (from all years of training) covering several subject specific e‐learning modules. They completed precourse and postcourse quizzes to evaluate the efficacy of these modules. These modules included interactive PowerPoint‐based tutorials, games, and imaging decision support simulators. Matched results from the pre‐ and posttests were analyzed using paired t test. An additional questionnaire was administered to the EM residents to evaluate their perception of the educational experience.ResultsThe precourse and postcourse quizzes demonstrated a statistically significant level of improved knowledge due to the educational modules (p < 0.0001). In addition, all of the participants believed the modules were a useful learning experience (100%) and a vast majority described them as a valuable resource for future reference (95%).ConclusionWe demonstrate a model for providing an easy and effective means of educating EM residents on basic imaging interpretation and utilization, using e‐learning modules.
Structure and Reaction Chemistry of Magnesium Organocuprates Derived from Magnesiacyclopentadienes and Copper(I) Salts
Authors: Liu Liang , Wei Junnian , Chi Yue , Zhang Wen‐Xiong , Xi Zhenfeng 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThe chemistry of magnesium organocuprates, including their synthesis, structures, and reactions, remains underexplored. In this work, by taking advantage of the high reactivity and ready availability of magnesiacyclopentadienes, a series of magnesiacyclopentadiene‐based organocuprates were synthesized and structurally characterized. A variety of CuX salts (X=Cl, Br, I, or alkynyl) were successfully applied to react with magnesiacyclopentadienes. Besides CuX salts, AgX salts (X=Cl, alkynyl) also undergwent the above reaction to afford the corresponding magnesium organoargentates. Single‐crystal X‐ray structural analysis and DFT calculations of these butadienyl magnesium organocuprates revealed unique structural characteristics and bonding modes. These results are also very useful to understand the transmetalation process, since the product can be viewed as the resting‐state intermediate of a transmetalation reaction between organomagnesium compounds and coinage‐metal salts. Preliminary information on the reaction chemistry of these magnesium organocuprates is provided by their reactions with allyl bromide, benzoyl chloride, and CO2.
Hysteretic Four‐Step Spin Crossover within a Three‐Dimensional Porous Hofmann‐like Material
Authors: Clements John E. , Price Jason R. , Neville Suzanne M. , Kepert Cameron J. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractMaterials that display multiple stepped spin crossover (SCO) transitions with accompanying hysteresis present the opportunity for ternary, quaternary, and quinary electronic switching and data storage but are rare in existence. Herein, we present the first report of a four‐step hysteretic SCO framework. Single‐crystal structure analysis of a porous 3D Hofmann‐like material showed long‐range ordering of spin states: HS, HS0.67LS0.33, HS0.5LS0.5, HS0.33LS0.67, and LS. These detailed structural studies provide insight into how multistep SCO materials can be rationally designed through control of host–host and host–guest interactions.
ortho‐C−H Arylation of Benzoic Acids with Aryl Bromides and Chlorides Catalyzed by Ruthenium
Authors: Biafora Agostino , Krause Thilo , Hackenberger Dagmar , Belitz Florian , Gooßen Lukas J. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractA system consisting of catalytic amounts of [(p‐cym)RuCl2]2/PEt3⋅HBF4, K2CO3 as the base, and NMP as the solvent efficiently mediates the ortho‐C−H arylation of benzoic acids with aryl bromides at 100 °C. Replacing the phosphine ligand with the amino acid dl‐pipecolinic acid enables the analogous transformation with aryl chlorides. The key advantage of this broadly applicable transformation is the use of an inexpensive ruthenium catalyst in combination with simple carboxylates as directing groups, which can either be tracelessly removed or used as anchor points for decarboxylative ipso substitutions.
Green synthesis and characterization of spherical copper nanoparticles as organometallic antibacterial agent
Authors: Keihan Amir Homayoun , Veisi Hamed , Veasi Hojat 
Published: October 2016

A facile and green route for the synthesis of copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) has been achieved using green tea extract as a reducing, capping and stabilizing agent. UV–visible spectra gave surface plasmon resonance at 560 nm. The Cu NPs were characterized using various techniques. The size of the Cu NPs was about 20 nm. Antibacterial activity of biogenic Cu NPs were investigated against bacterial species Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli and compared based on diameter of inhibition zone in disc diffusion assay and minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of NPs dispersed in liquid cultures. The NPs showed better inhibitory activity against Gram‐positive bacteria (S. aureus and B. subtilis) compared to Gram‐negative bacteria. Toxicity of the NPs was evaluated against animal cell line using MTT assay.
Interpenetrating photopolymers for intraocular lens application
Authors: Shaik Syed Hussain , Donempudi Shailaja , Tammishetti Shekharam , Rao Garikapati Koteswara , Pal Bhadra Manika 
Published: October 2016

ABSTRACTInterpenetrating photopolymer network materials suitable for intraocular lens application are presented. A rapidly curable, transparent, hydrophobic material with appropriate optical and thermomechanical properties has been prepared from Benzyl acrylate and Benzyl methacrylate. To improve its biocompatibility and optimize surface—cell interactions, this material was modified with respect to its hydrophobicity. Materials which are more hydrophobic, and more hydrophilic, than the base resin were prepared by copolymerization with either a fluoroacrylate or a PEG acrylate respectively. All materials were characterized for their optical and thermomechanical properties. Their in‐vitro cytotoxicity and interaction with mouse fibroblast cells were also studied. It was shown that all materials of the study were biocompatible and more hydrophilic materials resisted cell attachment and may be more suitable for IOL application than their more hydrophobic counter parts of the study. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017, 134, 44496.
Rapid Activation of Transforming Growth Factor β–Activated Kinase 1 in Chondrocytes by Phosphorylation and K63‐Linked Polyubiquitination Upon Injury to Animal Articular Cartilage
Authors: Ismail Heba M. , Didangelos Athanasios , Vincent Tonia L. , Saklatvala Jeremy 
Published: October 2016

ObjectiveMechanical injury to cartilage predisposes to osteoarthritis (OA). Wounding of the articular cartilage surface causes rapid activation of MAP kinases and NF‐κB, mimicking the response to inflammatory cytokines. This study was undertaken to identify the upstream signaling mechanisms involved.MethodsCartilage was injured by dissecting it from the articular surface of porcine metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints or by avulsing murine proximal femoral epiphyses. Protein phosphorylation was assayed by Western blotting of cartilage lysates. Immunolocalization of phosphorylated activating transcription factor 2 (ATF‐2) and NF‐κB/p65 was detected by confocal microscopy. Messenger RNA (mRNA) was measured by quantitative reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR). Receptor associated protein 80 (RAP‐80) ubiquitin interacting motif agarose was used in a pull‐down assay to obtain K63‐polyubiquitinated proteins. Ubiquitin linkages on immunoprecipitated transforming growth factor β–activated kinase 1 (TAK‐1) were analyzed with deubiquitinases.ResultsSharp injury to porcine cartilage caused rapid activation of JNK and NF‐κB pathways and the upstream kinases MKK‐4, IKK, and TAK‐1. Pharmacologic inhibition of TAK‐1 in porcine cartilage abolished JNK and NF‐κB activation and reduced the injury‐dependent inflammatory gene response. High molecular weight species of phosphorylated TAK‐1 were induced by injury, indicating its ubiquitination. An overall increase in K63‐linked polyubiquitination was detected upon injury, and TAK‐1 was specifically linked to K63‐ but not K48‐polyubiquitin chains. In mice, avulsion of wild‐type femoral epiphyses caused similar intracellular signaling that was reduced in cartilage‐specific TAK‐1–null mice. Epiphyseal cartilage of MyD88‐null and TRAF‐6–null mice responded to injury, suggesting the involvement of a ubiquitin E3 ligase other than TRAF‐6.ConclusionActivation of TAK‐1 by phosphorylation and K63‐linked polyubiquitination by injury indicates its role in driving cell activation. Further studies are needed to identify the upstream ubiquitination mechanisms, including the E3 ligase involved.