bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evidence and Argument
Authors: Meyer Elizabeth A. 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The human qualities, types of arguments, and the varieties of evidence that brought victory in a Roman courtroom are the subject of long controversy. The argument offered here is that evidence was subordinated to argument in Roman legal practice and the common thread tying arguments in various types of cases together was personal prestige of a particularly Roman sort—auctoritas, dignitas, gravitas—ideally possessed by litigants, advocates, witnesses, and supporting onlookers. But inert prestige was ineffectual: prestige carried with it expectations of behaviour, and its possessors were required to activate its power by appropriate behaviour in court, which confirmed the truthfulness of what they said, and at the same time strictly avoid inappropriate behaviour, which lessened or obliterated the power of their prestige.
Crimes against the State
Authors: Williamson Callie 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
During most of the Republic, the Romans viewed only perduellio as a threat to state security. Other threats were dealt with through institutionalised mechanisms of stability in Rome’s political structure, above all through the public lawmaking assemblies. Only when the political system wavered in the late Republic did the Romans criminalise “diminishing the superiority of the Roman people” maiestas populi Romani minuta (maiestas) as a crime against the state. Inherent in maiestas is the authority of the Roman people to negotiate consensus through the public lawmaking process in which the people voiced their commands. During the Empire, the emperor embodied the superiority of the Roman people and through him, as the chief lawmaker of Rome, were channelled the commands of the people. The scope of maiestas was altered to adapt to changing ideas of the state, but the idea that maiestas constituted the chief crime against the state persisted.
Legally Marginalised Groups—The Empire
Authors: Knapp Robert 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Until the mass citizenship grant of 212 CE, Roman law served Roman citizens almost exclusively. However, since the non-Romans’ legal systems generally sufficed, this marginalised status regarding Roman law was generally of little importance. Within the Roman citizen body, the Roman legal system marginalised many because of its expense and preferential treatment of the wealthy. In addition the culture, but not the legal system, through infamia marginalised some for what they did and the kind of person they were. While marginalised in modern eyes, Roman law treated women, freedmen, children and slaves as important participants in a wide range of societal functions, giving them specific abilities as well as disabilities. The most severe legal marginalisation occurred as the laws systematically and increasingly marginalised the humble citizens (humiliores) and evermore favoured the elite (honestiores). The system also treated outlaws, magicians, some cults and, later, Christians as outside the law’s Pale.
Slavery
Authors: Gamauf Richard 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
In Roman law slaves were chattels and persons at the same time. As persons, they were incapable of holding any rights. But this deficit led to their use as business agents because they could obtain rights for their masters, whereas free persons under classical Roman law could not. While the law tried to hold up the fiction that all slaves were the complete subjects of their masters and that no legal distinctions existed among slaves in this regard, their social positions, as reflected in the legal sources, differed widely. Since Roman jurists were confronted with almost all aspects of slavery, their writings show social differentiations between various types of slaves as far as these caused adjustments of their legal treatment. But at the same time the legal sources also document when, for the sake of the master’s interest or the public’s, social differences between slaves were levelled out.
Women and Patriarchy in Roman Law
Authors: Cantarella Eva 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
During the centuries between the date of the mythical founding of Rome and the first decades of the sixth century AD when Justinian’s Corpus Iuris Civilis was enacted, the legal condition of women underwent substantial transformation. To understand this process it is necessary to recall that during the first centuries of its history Rome was a patriarchal society, where onlypatres familiasenjoyed full civil and political rights. Other members of the family enjoyed only certain rights, and some did not enjoy any at all. Over the centuries paternal authority underwent important changes, which in different ways limited it. Rome had grown from a small village of peasants and shepherds to a metropolis that ruled the world. Political, social, economic conditions (not to say mentalities and religious beliefs and practices) changed the way of thinking of the Romans, their way of life and their attitude and behaviour towards women.
Women as Legal Actors
Authors: Halbwachs Verena 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Women as legally acting individuals rather than as tangential actors are to be found in the classical sources more often than is generally assumed. This is borne out by literary reports as well as in documents from legal practice, the latter have come down to us to a limited extent and have only recently been the subject of evaluation from the point of view of the participation of women. But the jurist writings provide us with a range of cases in which women are involved, in which they take a stand for their claims and where an unequal treatment in the legal opinion is not discernible. Here the task is to direct our focus onto these configurations, while taking into account the Roman social order, and not to allow the issue to be clouded by subsequent measures which limited the autonomy of (above all married) women.
Inheritance
Authors: Jakab Eva 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter surveys some of the most important aspects of the law of both testate and intestate inheritance in the period under discussion. It argues that the Roman law of succession can only really be understood within the context of Roman society, the networks of association and kinship and the complex social bonds that operated within the more privileged classes for whom inheritance was an important aspect of their social legacy and the legal standing of their family in generations to come. Ancient literary sources, reports of famous trials, sophisticated argumentations in the works of the jurists and epigraphic evidence enable different approaches to a better understanding of legal thinking and legal interpretation. Since succession was forbidden between Romans and peregrines, the law of inheritance was a special Roman matter, an important part of identity and a tool of integration.
Possession in Roman Law
Authors: Baldus Christian 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
In Roman terms, there is no real equivalent to the modern concepts of “possession”, as present-day laws use them. Possessio may describe the actual control over things that could lead to the acquisition of ownership; the control that made it possible to defend against encroachments by third parties; and the control that could result in the capacity to be sued in an ownership case. Frequently, the use of possessory elements is subordinated to property law. This chapter surveys the development of the law of possession in the late Classical period, when some attempts were made to structure the relevant conceptual instruments in a coherent fashion.
Price Setting and Other Attempts to Control the Economy
Authors: Koops Egbert 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Prices in the Roman economy were generally set by the operation of free market forces. Occasional government interventions in the form of price ceilings occurred in times of crisis, to stabilise volatile or politically important markets, or to signal moral policies. The mechanism of price formation was generally understood, but price shocks were expected to be curbed. In a similar vein, the valuation techniques developed by the Roman jurists were based on “true” prices rather than pure market prices. Even so, party autonomy in price setting was the norm. The grain market was guided to some extent for obvious political reasons, but even here there was room for private initiative. The freedom to contract was stressed as late as Diocletian, but, not much later, rampant inflation forced him to issue his edict on maximum prices, which remains an exceptional regulation in many ways.
Urban Landlords and Tenants
Authors: du Plessis Paul J. 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines legal and epigraphic sources devoted to the renting of mass housing in Rome and the other major cities of the Empire. Building on the pioneering work by Frier in 1980, it argues that the legal sources reveal a sophisticated system of subletting that was developed to accommodate the upper-class owners of these properties and left the daily management of them in the hands of venture capitalists. This was done not only to relieve these individuals of the stigma associated with commerce, but also to spread the financial risk of urban property investment among both owners and venture capitalists.
Tenure of Land and Agricultural Regulation
Authors: Kehoe Dennis P. 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the ways in which the Roman legal authorities defined property rights over land during the Republican and Imperial periods. The focus is on how the legal definition of property rights to land affected the economic interests of key constituencies, including landowners, farm tenants and the Roman state, which derived the bulk of its revenues from taxes connected with land, and also was a significant economic actor in its own right as the pre-eminent landowner in the Roman Empire. Farm tenancy represented an institution of fundamental importance to the Roman economy. Classical Roman law defined the tenant as a short-term occupant of the land paying a cash rent. The Roman legal authorities struggled with accommodating within Roman legal norms other forms of land tenure that accorded the tenant much stronger rights than in the classical Roman farm lease. This is what this chapter sets out to survey.
Roman Law, Markets and Market Prices
Authors: de Ligt Luuk 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter deals with legal rules and administrative procedures relating to concrete markets. The author’s principle aim is to make sense of a limited number of juridical sources, inscriptions and literary texts referring to applications for the right to hold markets (ius nundinarum) or for the privilege of immunity (immunitas) from market-taxes. Legal rules governing markets in the abstract meaning of the term are a vast topic. Instead of attempting a general study of this type, this chapter focuses on a handful of legal arrangements that made it possible for buyers or sellers to rescind contracts of sale that had been concluded in marketplaces. Finally, some attention is given to governmental attempts to impose fixed or maximum prices.
The Scope and Function of Civil Wrongs in Roman Society
Authors: Cursi Floriana 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The earliest evidence of Roman delicts is to be found in the rules of the XII Tables which introduced the first types of delict and obligation. From these rules the Roman lawyers did not develop a general law of delict governing the delictual liability. The Roman system of delicts was in fact typical: with new delicts emerging until the first century BC. Simultaneously, during the final Republican period, the praetor introduced some actions for reparation of damage, later included by Justinian in quasi delict category. But the Roman system of delicts, was too typical to ensure the total reparation of the private damages deriving from an unlawful conduct. So actio de dolo was introduced to repair the loss caused by dolus, in case of absence of any specific delictual action. This was a subsidiary remedy, which filled the gaps of the typical system of actions.
Juristic Papyrology and Roman Law
Authors: Alonso Rodríguez José Luis 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter deals with the place of papyrology in Roman law studies. While Theodor Mommsen is often quoted as predicting that the twentieth century would be the century of papyrology, things look different today. The publication of papyri continues at a rate of several hundreds per year, with vast amounts waiting to be published. In addition to the large mass of papyri from Egypt, a non-negligible number of documents from the Near East have come to light. Many of these texts are private legal instruments and acts of the Roman administration, including documents arising from legal proceedings. Yet these documents rarely attract the attention of Roman law scholars. As a result, the legal questions posed by the new documents often receive insufficient attention. This chapter argues for a reconsideration of this view and for a renewed focus on papyri as a source for Roman law.
Law, Business Ventures and Trade
Authors: Aubert J. J. 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter concentrates less on producing and distributing goods than on storing and transporting them within and across the Roman Empire. Roman law seems to have provided an adequate legal framework for activities linked with managing storage space and organising the transport of commodities over short and long distances. This is an area of law where juristic opinions can be confronted with documentary evidence such as inscriptions (leges horreorum), tablets (Puteolan archive of the Sulpicii), and papyri (maritime loans), as well as archaeological remains. Storage and transport involved capital investment and know-how, and required special attention to the nature of the goods and the activities of people as economic actors.
Roman Law and Latin Literature
Authors: Lowrie Michèle 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The law and literature movement is less active in Roman studies than in modern national languages despite the importance of ancient Rome for subsequent traditions. This chapter hopes to spur further research by surveying a range of representative topics individually familiar to Latinists, but whose interconnections become clearer under the “law and literature” rubric. These are: discursive media; censorship; law and theatricality; educative fictions; typology, exemplarity and moral reasoning; transformations in the public sphere. The Romans perceived law’s interaction with literature in terms that range from homology, to contestation, to intimate discomfort. Both do things with stories, both serve as normative vehicles, and fiction cannot rigorously disambiguate between these discourses. The Romans, however, were acutely aware of how formal differences affected pragmatic outcomes. A strong articulation of literature as ineffective over against the law’s power emerged during the Augustan period and was formative for modern conceptualisations.
SPQR
Authors: Polo Francisco Pina 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The Romans never wrote down their constitution, which made it more dynamic and flexible. The Republican institutions were the result of a long process of experimentation that lasted for centuries, but they were not immutable. Since the moment it was completed, the Roman Republican constitution was remarkably stable, a feature that helped Rome to become the great Mediterranean power. But the Romans continued introducing changes to their political institutions, in order to adapt them to the changing circumstances of Rome’s internal and foreign politics, illustrating the political pragmatism that characterised the Roman republican system. This chapter provides a survey of these developments.
Provincial Administration
Authors: Richardson John 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the administration of the provinces of the Roman Empire from the first beginnings of Rome’s overseas power in the third and second centuries BC to the reorganisation of the provinces in the fourth century AD. Firstly it looks at the nature of a provincia in the Republican period, the use of the both ius civile and local law in the provinces and the extent and limitations of the power of the governor. Secondly it examines the roles of the emperor and imperium-holders in the period of Augustus and the first three centuries AD and the shifts in the use of local and Roman law. A third section on the reforms of Diocletian follows. Throughout the interplay between the changes in the nature of the provinciae and the types and manner of jurisdiction is explored.
Historical Change in Signed Languages
Authors: Wilcox Sherman , Occhino Corrine 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Signed languages are natural human languages used by deaf people around the world as their primary language. This chapter explores the linguistic study of signed language, their linguistic properties, and aspects of their genetic and historical relationships. The chapter focuses on historical change that has occurred in signed languages, showing that the same linguistic processes that contribute to historical change in spoken languages, such as lexicalization, grammaticization, and semantic change, contribute to historical change in signed languages. Historical influences unique to signed languages, such as the educational approach of borrowing and adapting signs and an effort to create a system of representing the surrounding spoken/written language and of the incorporation of lexicalized fingerspelling are also discussed.
Social Network Analysis and Its Contribution to Research on Crime and Criminal Justice
Authors: Bouchard Martin , Malm Aili 
Published: November 2016

AbstractThis chapter discusses how the development of network analysis techniques has affected research on crime and the practice of crime control over the past two decades. It describes the contributions of network analysis to criminological research, including the new questions that network analysis techniques allowed criminologists to address, the old questions that have been addressed more adequately, and the novel evidence these techniques yielded. The ways in which network analysis been used by the police and other practitioners in their efforts to prevent and control crime is reviewed, as well as the limitations of network data in understanding crime patterns.
Validation of a scaling law for the coronal magnetic field strength and loop length of solar and stellar flares
Authors: Namekata Kosuke , Sakaue Takahito , Watanabe Kyoko , Asai Ayumi , Shibata Kazunari 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Shibata and Yokoyama (1999, ApJ, 526, L49; 2002, ApJ, 577, 422) proposed a method of estimating the coronal magnetic field strength (B) and magnetic loop length (L) of solar and stellar flares, on the basis of magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the magnetic reconnection model. Using the scaling law provided by Shibata and Yokoyama (1999, ApJ, 526, L49; 2002, ApJ, 577, 422), we obtain B and L as functions of the emission measure (EM = n2L3) and temperature (T) at the flare peak. Here, n is the coronal electron density of the flares. This scaling law enables the estimation of B and L for unresolved stellar flares from the observable physical quantities EM and T, which is helpful for studying stellar surface activities. To apply this scaling law to stellar flares, we discuss its validity for spatially resolved solar flares. Quantities EM and T are calculated from GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) soft X-ray flux data, and B and L are theoretically estimated using the scaling law. For the same flare events, B and L were also observationally estimated with images taken by the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)/Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) Magnetogram and Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) 94 Å pass band. As expected, a positive correlation was found between the theoretically and observationally estimated values. We interpret this result as indirect evidence that flares are caused by magnetic reconnection. Moreover, this analysis makes us confident about the validity of applying this scaling law to stellar flares as well as solar flares.
Parent Support Programs and Coping Mechanisms in NICU Parents
Authors: Huenink Ellen , Porterfield Susan 
Published: November 2016

Background:
Many neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) parents experience emotional distress leading to adverse infant outcomes. Parents may not cope positively in stressful situations, and support programs often are underutilized.

Purpose:
To determine coping mechanisms utilized by NICU parents, and types of support programs parents are likely to attend. To determine whether sociodemographic and length-of-stay differences impact coping mechanisms utilized, and types of support programs preferred.

Methods:
A correlational cross-sectional survey design was used. The 28-item Brief COPE tool, questions about demographics and preferred support program styles, was distributed to a convenience sample of NICU parents in a level IV NICU in the southeastern United States.

Results:
One hundred one NICU parents used coping mechanisms, with acceptance emotional support, active coping, positive reframing, religion, planning, and instrumental support being the most common. Preferred support classes were infant development and talking with other NICU parents. Caucasians more commonly coped using active coping, planning, emotional support, acceptance, instrumental support, and venting compared with other races. Women utilized self-blame coping mechanisms more often compared with men. Younger parents were more likely to use venting and denial coping mechanisms. Parents with a shorter stay utilized self-distraction coping and preferred the class of talking with other parents.

Implications for Practice:
Support program preference, type of coping mechanism utilized, and sociodemographic factors may be used to guide the creation of NICU support programs.

Implications for Research:
Additional studies are needed to determine whether support program offering according to preferences and sociodemographic characteristics increases attendance and decreases emotional distress.