bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prints
Authors: Pon Lisa 
Published: September 2017

Printing, strictly defined, is the process by which ink is transferred from a prepared matrix to another surface; prints are the material objects that bear the ink transferred by this process (→ Printing, History of). From the mid‐fifteenth century until the early nineteenth century in the west, a printing press powered by hand was most commonly used to effect the transfer. As a result, the surface receiving the ink, often a sheet of paper, was usually relatively small in scale in order to fit into the press. The matrix was routinely inked and printed repeatedly, producing hundreds or thousands of prints that were identical in content. Although, by the late sixteenth century, collectors were able to discern qualitative differences between prints made from a new or much used matrix, and were willing to pay substantially more for the former, print scholar William Ivins was correct to point out that the fundamental importance of printed images was their status as “exactly repeatable pictorial statements” (1953).
Propaganda in World War II
Authors: Taylor Philip M. 
Published: September 2017

World War II witnessed the greatest propaganda campaigns in history. Often referred to as the “Fourth Arm” after the army, navy, and air force, → propaganda was conducted by all belligerents and was essentially designed to sustain domestic civilian morale during a long war at home while undermining enemy civilian
and
military confidence in the ability to achieve victory. Although propaganda was becoming a characteristic of peacetime politics in the first half of the twentieth century, it was still seen largely as a weapon of war, especially in democracies.
Public Opinion, Media Effects on
Authors: Lamp Erich , Kepplinger Hans Mathias 
Published: September 2017

Because there are various concepts of → public opinion there are no general statements about the effects of mass media on it. Instead, the effects of mass media have to be related to specific concepts. Moreover, different study designs and methods have to be taken into consideration. According to the
quantitative concept
, public opinion is regarded as the distribution of individual opinions within a population and measured by representative opinion polls (→ Survey). According to this approach, the intensity and tone of media coverage directly influence public opinion. Most studies are based on a linear‐effect model (→ Linear and Nonlinear Models of Causal Analysis): the more often the media cover an issue, the more people believe it to be important (→ Agenda‐Setting Effects); and the more often the media present certain opinions, the more people adopt these opinions. The intensity and tone of media coverage are measured by quantitative content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Quantitative). In some studies, they are not measured but estimated; possible effects are concluded from media use (Robinson 1976). As well as the intensity and tone of media coverage, the framing of news stories can influence public opinion. Framing refers to the media's reporting of issues or events structured along certain perspectives, and to the audience's processing of that content according to predetermined schemas (→ schemas; Schemas and Media Effects). As demonstrated in several studies, people's interpretations and conclusions are mostly in line with media frames (→ Framing Effects).
Public Relations: Media Influence
Authors: Kleinnijenhuis Jan 
Published: September 2017

Earning public understanding and acceptance through reports in the press is one of the oldest means–ends schemes in public relations (PR). Firms, governments, NGOs, and interest groups alike use the media to convey their message to their publics. Hence, media influence is a two‐step process. Whether PR efforts lead to news items in the media depends on the relations of the company with the media and on the newsworthiness of the publicity efforts (→ Media Relations; News Factors; News Values). Once the media have published the news, PR media influence can be understood through theories about media effects (→ Media Effects; Exposure to Communication Content; Information Processing).
Realism
Authors: Jensen Klaus Bruhn 
Published: September 2017

A classic position in the history of ideas and theory of science, realism assumes that the world exists independently of human minds, and that it lends itself to intersubjective inquiry, even if humans – individually, collectively, and as a species – may be unable to understand reality in all its aspects (Nagel 1986). In recent theory of science, realism has regained influence in comparison with other major positions such as → critical rationalism and → constructivism. Pavitt (1999) suggested that realism is currently the dominant position in theory of science, and that it informs the practice of much current media and communication research. (In literary and other aesthetic theory, realism denotes fictional forms that represent reality in the categories of everyday experience [→ Fiction; Realism in Film and Photography; Reality and Media Reality].)
Reification
Authors: Hester‐Williams Kim D. 
Published: September 2017

“Popular communication” can be characterized by the various ways in which the general public engages popular forms of communication including radio, → Television, film, → popular music, and print media such as magazines, newspapers, and popular literature, as well as new technologies such as the Internet, email, and mobile phones (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts). In addition to their general utility, these cultural objects inform and entertain the general public and are directed toward mass audience reception. The conspicuous consumption of popular forms of communication reveals a complex set of interactions with these modes of communication (→ Popular Communication).
Relational Maintenance
Authors: Dainton Marianne 
Published: September 2017

Relational maintenance refers to activities that occur in interpersonal relationships after the relationship is developed and before the relationship is terminated (Stafford 1994). Although the term implies a temporal stage of relationship life, communication scholars have more frequently focused on the processes that sustain a relationship. For example, Dindia & Canary (1993) identified four commondefinitions of relational maintenance: (1) the process of keeping a relationship in existence; (2) the process of keeping a relationship in a specified state or condition; (3) the process of keeping a relationship in satisfactory condition; and (4) the process of keeping a relationship in repair (→ Relationship Development).
Rhetoric and Dialectic
Authors: Mack Peter 
Published: September 2017

Rhetoric and dialectic are closely related theories of (and trainings in) → Persuasion. They have some distinct bodies of doctrine (e.g., the topics of invention and the enthymeme belong to dialectic; the theory of disposition and the figures of speech to rhetoric) but over time they have also overlapped and annexed each other's territory (→ Rhetoric and Philosophy). Theorists today attempt to incorporate the insights and teachings of both subjects into an overarching theory of persuasive communication. These attempts have some instructive historical antecedents which will be the main subject of this article.
Rhetoric in Eastern Europe
Authors: Marin Noemi 
Published: September 2017

Throughout central and eastern Europe (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria), classical rhetorical studies pertain to a longstanding tradition of research on antiquity, while contemporary rhetoric scholarship focuses on democratic → Discourse and the political context in postcommunist times. A major challenge throughout the area is the diffused location of both classical and contemporary (postcommunist) rhetorical research. National academies of sciences along with classical philosophy and philology university programs host most classical and medieval rhetoric research. Scholarship on contemporary rhetorical discourse and political rhetoric can be located under postcommunist studies and philology. Since the fall of communism (1989), rhetorical practices of debate and democratic discourse are also part of postcommunist studies. Rhetoric as a general subject matter is embedded in humanities under programs such as classical studies, philology, linguistics, history, history of literature, ancient history, and classical philosophy. International democratic organizations sponsor new alliances with local, national, or international scope that acknowledge the role of debate and rhetoric for civic engagement, political awareness, and social change.
Rhetoric and Ethnography
Authors: Britt Elizabeth C. 
Published: September 2017

“Rhetoric” and “ethnography” are slippery concepts, each describing a practice or methodology as well as a class of textual objects. And while “rhetoric” describes an identifiable field of study more than does “ethnography,” which is most often associated with cultural anthropology, each is an inter‐ and cross‐disciplinary enterprise whose character can vary depending on its disciplinary home. Both rhetoric and ethnography – in their multiple meanings – have been individually challenged by postmodernism (→ Postmodernism and Communication), particularly by the loss of faith in grand, totalizing theories and the assumption that language plays a role in the construction of reality. But these challenges have also brought theorists and practitioners of rhetoric and ethnography together to explore how postmodern understandings of each concept can inform the other (→ Ethnography of Communication).
Rhetoric and History
Authors: Turner Kathleen J. 
Published: September 2017

The conjoining of the terms “rhetoric” and “history” suggests at least three related but distinct areas of study. One,
the history of rhetoric
, focuses on rhetorical theory and practice during particular periods of time; entries on various aspects of this area abound (e.g., → Rhetoric, Pre‐Socratic; Rhetoric, European Renaissance). Two others are the focus here:
rhetorical processes in history
and
the rhetoric of history
.
Rhetoric in North America: Canada
Authors: MacLennan Jennifer 
Published: September 2017

Rhetorical study in Canada resists neat categorization, in part because it is a relatively recent phenomenon characterized by a rich diversity of perspectives and approaches, and by a comparatively fluid conception of what it means to engage in scholarly activity in rhetoric. As an academic specialization, rhetoric emerged in Canada only in the last two decades of the twentieth century (→ Communication as an Academic Field: USA and Canada; Speech Communication, History of). Prior to the 1980s, the subject was not offered in Canadian universities; there were no communication departments where rhetoric might have been taught, and university literature departments, firmly in the belletristic tradition, disdained the teaching both of nonliterary works and of composition. However, despite the lack of institutional visibility and sanction, small numbers of individual rhetoricians found homes in professional colleges and in departments such as curriculum studies and political science, and – more rarely – in literature departments.
Rhetoric in North America: United States
Authors: Klumpp James F. 
Published: September 2017

The democratic ethic that has dominated the intellectual history of the United States has shaped a rhetorical practice driven by the socio‐cultural influence of the word. The result has been a rich multiplicity of voices that defy generalization, yet define a complex texture. The first rhetorical period, approximately the first century and a quarter of the presence of British settlement in North America, was dominated by religious rhetoric and specifically by the
Puritans
. Puritan sermons were highly structured, linking lessons from biblical text to everyday life. Puritans respected reason and viewed it as a gift from God that opened human insight into God's structuring of the universe. The democratic content of Puritan rhetoric was constrained. Beneath God, the minister was separated from others in the community by his trained role as the interpreter of the Word. Men and women were similarly differentiated by the biblical separation of gender. And finally the elect of the Puritan community were separated from non‐believers. Within that narrowed but still broad slice of Puritan life, democratic equality defined access to power (→ Rhetoric and Religion).
Rhetoric in Western Europe: France
Authors: Zoberman Pierre 
Published: September 2017

According to thedoxa, rhetoric flourished in France under absolutism, enjoyed a fire‐and‐brimstone revival during the Revolution, and gradually disappeared in the nineteenth century, until it was reduced to the few figures of style school children still learned in the twentieth century. Actually, after 1700, interwoven rhetorical and anti‐rhetorical strands shape a field that expands and contracts, with occasional eclipses. Rhetoric – with competing definitions as an art of → Persuasion and/or ornate speech – survived in academic programs until the late nineteenth century. Latin rhetoric thrived in the Jesuits' schools, whose curriculum remained faithful to theRatio studiorum, until their expulsion (1764); elsewhere, it was gradually restricted to French and its emphasis shifted from oratory to techniques of writing and reading, reminiscent of the Hellenisticprogymnasmata(preparatory exercises), until the 1890s, when literary history anddissertationdisplaced it. Rhetoric resurfaced in the twentieth century, especially in the 1960s–1970s: its taxonomies appealed to the structuralists (→ Structuralism); its history was reassessed; it was also recast as a theory of communication (→ Communication Theory and Philosophy; Rhetorical Studies). It has since inspired dynamic and innovative research.
Rhetoric in Western Europe: Spain
Authors: Eire Antonio López 
Published: September 2017

As in the rest of Europe during the “Siècle des lumières,” the decadence of rhetoric was a fact in Spain. Persuasion based on the rhetorical employment of language was neither considered important nor respected, consequently leaving poetry as much more highly esteemed than eloquence (→ Aesthetics; Persuasion; Rhetoric and Poetics). There was only one exception, namely, sacred oratory – that is, religious discourses given by priests from the pulpit. That is how we can interpret the translation from Latin into Spanish of the work of Fray Luis de Granada (1504–1588) about eloquent preaching entitled
Rhetorica ecclesiatica
, which was published in 1770.
Scales
Authors: Mangold Roland 
Published: September 2017

In communication research scales are used to assess the intensity or the strength of personal variables like traits, states, → attitudes, feelings, and so on (→ emotion). A rating is based on a statement expressing a perception, an attribution, or an attitude toward something that is presented to the subject. He or she is asked to indicate the degree of his or her agreement with this statement by marking a corresponding label from a list provided by the scale. Bipolar
Likert scales
(Likert 1932) extend from negative to positive numbers (e.g., −2 to +2), whereas unipolar Likert scales start from non‐negative numbers like 0 or 1 (e.g., +1 to +5). Likert scales are most frequently constructed as five‐point scales, but scales with seven or even nine points are also common. The labels assigned to points on a Likert scale (like “strongly disagree,” “somewhat disagree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “somewhat agree,” “strongly agree”) must be chosen with great care in order to hold up equal semantic distances between the labels over the entire scale. As it cannot be ensured that subjects perceive intervals between adjacent points on the scale as equidistant, responses collected from subjects should preferably be cautiously treated as ordinal (and not as interval) data (→ Measurement Theory; Scales and Indices; Rating Methods).
Scholarship of Teaching
Authors: Boileau Don M. 
Published: September 2017

Because a teacher is a manager of a communication environment, investigation into the teaching process analyzes the complexity of the communication situation and the specifics of student–teacher communication. The specificity of a distinct “scholarship of teaching,” suggested by Ernest Boyer (1990), argues that studying those topics emanating from the teaching process is worthy of scholarly recognition. While Boyer started discussing an individual teacher reflecting on the teaching process, the study of instructional communication added a structured approach, with evidence‐based conclusions, to the broader dimension of teaching communication. For Boyer, scholarship existed in systematic examination and sharing with others about teaching (→ Educational Communication; Learning and Communication).
Schramm, Wilbur
Authors: McAnany Emile G. 
Published: September 2017

Wilbur Schramm (1907–1987) has been called the founder of the field of communication study (Rogers 1995). More accurately, he is credited with creating the first PhD program in mass communication at the University of Illinois in 1948 (McAnany 1988) and setting the stage for the growth of university communication programs in the USA and abroad (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline; Communication as an Academic Field: USA and Canada).
Search Engines
Authors: Couvering Elizabeth Van 
Published: September 2017

A search engine is a computer program that allows the user to enter a series of keywords, usually called a “query,” and that responds with a list of results from a database that match the query. Major search engines, such as Google, Yahoo Search, and Microsoft Live Search, provide the most widely used method of finding information on the world wide web. Search engine websites are the most visited in the world, with estimates showing that in 2006 the Google and Yahoo websites reached approximately 80 percent of worldwide Internet users, or approximately 500 million people each month (→ Internet; Exposure to the Internet). As more and more information and entertainment becomes digital and is stored in databases, search engines are becoming increasingly important. The ability to effectively use a search engine is becoming widely recognized as a key skill of digital or information literacy. On the Internet, there is often a strong incentive for companies to place highly in search engine results, and search engine companies have become very powerful economic actors in online media.
Sexism in the Media
Authors: Byerly Carolyn M. 
Published: September 2017

Sexism in the media relates to concerns about a range of gender inequalities – in content, employment, policy, decision‐making, and ownership – that have been a major focus of women's liberation movements throughout the world since the 1970s. Mass media matter to women everywhere. They play a central role in the formulation and dissemination of ideas and the shaping of → public opinion, whether their format is news, entertainment, or → advertising. In fact, the media's influence is even greater today than ever, with 24/7 news channels, and hundreds of satellite and digital services offering everything from natural history to hardcore pornography and picture messaging via mobile phones.
Social Cognitive Theory
Authors: Bandura Albert 
Published: September 2017

Theories of human behavior differ in their conceptions of human nature and what they regard as the basic determinants and mechanisms governing self‐development, adaptation, and change. Social cognitive theory is rooted in an agentic perspective (→ Bandura 1986, 2006a). To be an agent is to influence one's own functioning and events that affect one's life. In this view people are contributors to their life circumstances, not just products of them.
Social Networks
Authors: Valente Thomas W. 
Published: September 2017

Social networks are the interpersonal relationships people have with friends, family, colleagues, acquaintances, and others they may come into contact with directly or via media communications. Social → network analysis is used to understand these social relationships and how they help explain individual and social behavior (Scott

; Wasserman & Faust

). Social networks are studied at multiple levels of analysis including dyadic, group, and system. There are three primary types of network data collection technique: local, partial, and complete (Morris

).
Social Perception: Impersonal Impact
Authors: Moy Patricia 
Published: September 2017

According to the impersonal impact hypothesis, the mass media influence individuals' perceptions of risk to others (societal‐level risk), but not perceptions of risk to themselves (personal risk; → Risk Perceptions). Implicit in this hypothesis is the notion that individuals can compartmentalize various perceptions of risk, differentiating between societal‐level judgments, or beliefs about the larger community with respect to a given risk, and personal‐level judgments, or estimations of their own vulnerability to that risk (Tyler & Cook

).
Social Perception: Unrealistic Optimism
Authors: Ostman Ronald E. 
Published: September 2017

Unrealistic optimism, suggested by LeJeune and Alex in 1973, was described as the “illusion of unique invulnerability.” It was further developed by Weinstein () in an article on individual perceptions of future life events. This illusion refers to an individual's tendency to believe oneself invulnerable or at very low risk of suffering misfortune and victimization. It does not refer to the perceptions of individuals who have been victims of a particular misfortune (→ Victimization, Secondary). However, victim experience with one misfortune does not negate unrealistic optimism regarding other misfortunes.
Spirituality and Development
Authors: Steeves H. Leslie 
Published: September 2017

Most approaches to → development communication are grounded in economic frameworks concerned with how material resources are allocated in society. The dominant → modernization philosophy aims to maximize individual opportunities for material gain, while critical perspectives argue for just distributions of resources and against the inequities of capitalist systems. Both literatures usually fail to consider non‐material aspects of people's lives, thereby neglecting a vital resource for empowerment and social change (→ Communication Strategies for Empowerment; Planned Social Change through Communication; Secular Social Change).
Stars
Authors: Drake Philip 
Published: September 2017

A star is an individual who is highly celebrated and deemed exceptional in a particular field or profession. The term has most commonly been associated with performers in popular media such as music, television, and, particularly, → cinema. Stardom is closely linked to fame and celebrity (→ Celebrity Culture), and these terms are often used interchangeably. The term “star,” which can be both noun (“a star”) and verb (“to star in”) originated in the popular American press of the early nineteenth century in relation to the expanding coverage of public figures and human interest stories. Articles in the so‐called → “penny press” about popular performers of stage and vaudeville had the effect of expanding public interest in the names and qualities of these recognizable individuals. The film scholar Richard DeCordova (

) has demonstrated that the institution of cinema was important to the expansion of stardom at the start of the twentieth century. He identifies an emergence of interest in “picture personalities,” and the subsequent naming of performers on screen and in film studio publicity material, as crucial in the development of the → Hollywood film industry and its star system.