bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Music Industry
Authors: Elavsky C. Michael 
Published: September 2017

The music industry is a term most commonly deployed in reference to the activities of the four largest transnational record corporations – often designated as the “majors” or the “big four,” namely SonyBMG, EMI (Electric and Music Industries), the Warner Music Group (WMG), and the Universal Music Group (UMG) – which collectively account for approximately 75 percent of all legal commercial music sales globally (→ Bertelsmann Corporation; Sony Corporation; Time Warner Inc.). All of these corporations are umbrella organizations linking smaller music labels, subsidiaries, and supplementary organizations together through complex corporate ties to larger transnational → media conglomerates (→ Global Media, History of; Globalization of the Media). Emerging from a long series of mergers occurring over the past century, these music corporations wield significant influence over the contemporary global music market.
Narrative News Story
Authors: Nerone John 
Published: September 2017

The term “narrative news story” refers most broadly to any sort of nonfiction storytelling, but more specifically to a → news story that begins with an anecdote rather than a summary lead and then is organized in temporal sequence rather than either by inverted pyramid style or analytically (→ news). Narrative news has a long and varied history, an interesting connection with literary history, a vibrant present, and a hopeful future (→ New Journalism).
New Journalism
Authors: Pauly John J. 
Published: September 2017

The term “new journalism” commonly refers to a style of literary reportage created in the 1960s by predominantly young American nonfiction writers such as Tom Wolfe, Norman Mailer, Gay Talese, Joan Didion, Hunter Thompson, George Plimpton, Truman Capote, and Michael Herr. Commentators have periodically declared other moments in the history of journalism as new. Most famously, the term was used in 1880s Britain to describe the popular newspapers of George Newness and W. T. Stead, then later applied in the 1890s to the mass circulation dailies being published by Alfred Harmsworth in Britain and by Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst in the United States (→ New Journalism, Nineteenth‐Century). More recently, one commentator (Boynton 2005) has referred to writers such as Susan Orlean and Ted Conover as members of a generation of “new new journalists” influenced by the literary experiments of the 1960s (→ Journalism, History of).
New Journalism, Nineteenth‐Century
Authors: Hampton Mark 
Published: September 2017

“The New Journalism,” a phrase made famous by cultural critic Matthew Arnold in 1887, refers to a wide range of changes in British → Newspaper and → magazine content and format, aimed at making print culture more accessible to working class and female readers. The controversial changes, some influenced by American practice, included formatting innovations, such as headlines, and new types of content, such as interviews, human interest stories, celebrity features, and a shifting emphasis from opinion to → news, facilitated by the emergence of Reuters and other → news agencies. Lengthier columns were replaced by paragraphs, often derisively called “snippets,” and the tone grew more personal. To its detractors (such as Arnold), the New Journalism entailed a challenge to the mid‐nineteenth‐century daily newspaper's authority and political seriousness. To its defenders, including such innovating editors and proprietors as T. P. O'Connor, George Newnes, and Alfred Harmsworth (subsequently Lord Northcliffe), the New Journalism represented an awareness that life was broader than parliamentary politics and the belief that press content should reflect readers' actual tastes rather than an elite's conception of readers' needs (→ Exposure to Communication Content; News Audience).
New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
Authors: Padovani Claudia 
Published: September 2017

The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) is the result of a political proposal concerning media and communication issues emerging from international debates in the late 1970s. The term originated in discussions within the Non‐Aligned Movement (NAM), following the proposal for a “new international economic order,” and became the expression of the aspirations of many countries in the global south to democratize the international communication system and rebalance information flows worldwide. UNESCO played a major role in fostering the debate until the early 1980s, especially through the work of an independent commission chaired by Irish diplomat Sean MacBride (→ UNESCO). The commission's report,
Many voices, one world
(MacBride Commission 2004), outlined the main international problems in communication and summarized NWICO's basic philosophical thrust. It was adopted at the twenty‐first general conference of UNESCO in Belgrade (1980) and still remains a milestone in the history of global debates around communication issues.
News Agencies
Authors: Paterson Chris 
Published: September 2017

News agencies are transnational media organizations that write and distribute stories and their components, such as images and interviews, to the news media (→ news). Audiences see their words and images upon almost every exposure to news, without usually knowing it. The original news agencies formed between 1835 and 1850 to fill the growing newspaper industry demand for stories. They later distributed photographs and eventually merged with newsreel companies or their successors, coming to dominate the distribution of television news images as well (→ News Agencies, History of).
News Agencies, History of
Authors: Boyd‐Barrett Oliver 
Published: September 2017

News agencies are among the oldest electronic media, having survived as a genus at least since 1835, the year that the French agency Havas was established. Havas was the first of the world's agencies to engage in significant international activity. It was followed by Associated Press (AP) in the USA in 1846, Wolff in Germany in 1849, Tuwora in Austria in 1850, and Reuters in the UK in 1851. Very soon there was a national news agency in almost every European country. Outside Europe the pace of development was slower, but no less comprehensive. Generalist and specialist news agencies operating at international/global, regional, national, and sub‐national levels have constituted a networked system of news gathering and news distribution for well over one hundred years (→ News Agencies; International News Reporting).
News Corporation
Authors: Einstein Mara 
Published: September 2017

News Corporation (or “News Corp”) is an international media company with annual revenues of more than $28 billion, making it the third largest entertainment and → Media conglomerate behind → Time Warner Inc. and → Disney (Hoover's Company Records 2007). The company produces and distributes filmed entertainment for the theatrical (→ Cinema) and → Television markets as well as being a leader in direct broadcast satellite (DBS) distribution (→ Satellite Television). News Corp is a major competitor in the print category with holdings in → magazines, → Newspapers, and → books. While it is an international company, more than 50 percent of revenues were generated in the United States and Canada (→ United States of America: Media System; Canada: Media System). The Murdoch family owned 30 percent of News Corp as of 2007.
News Cycles
Authors: White Kathryn Jenson 
Published: September 2017

A news cycle is a round of coverage once measured in the number of hours between each issue of a newspaper (→ News Production and Technology). The term originated in the United States, and the
Oxford English Dictionary
dates the earliest use to a 1922
Los Angeles Times
article. Major metropolitan newspapers back then published multiple editions daily, but smaller local and most international newspapers followed a cycle of 24 hours, publishing at about the same time daily, either morning or evening (News; Newspaper). The Associated Press (AP) sent stories to its member organizations designated AM or PM, indicating whether the member belonged in, and could publish the content in, a morning or afternoon slot. AP sent corrections and updates over cable (first the wire, then computer) as news broke (→ News Agencies). Broadcast news initially scheduled programs in daily time slots, although stations did interrupt regular programming for breaking news (→ Television News; Radio News).
News as Discourse
Authors: Eilders Christiane 
Published: September 2017

“News as discourse” marks a theoretical framework for the analysis of news. News is considered as a complex communicative event – as discourse – including the social context of news reports (→ Discourse; Political Discourse). Rather than exclusively focusing on text properties such as the thematic structure of news reports, the actors, and the opinions addressed in the reports, the framework directs attention to the participants, the production, and the reception processes, as well as to the possible effects. “News as discourse” starts from the assumption that texts are a “result of social and professional routines of journalists in institutional settings, on the one hand, and an important condition for the effective cognitive processing of news texts by both journalists and readers, on the other hand” (van Dijk 1985, 70). Investigating text and context, the approach aims to assess the systematic relationship between the two.
News Factors
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias 
Published: September 2017

The term “news factors” denotes characteristics of news stories about events and topics that contribute to making them newsworthy (→ news; News Values). Other than events (e.g., the attacks on the US of September 11, 2001) and topics (terrorism), news factors like “damage” are scientific constructs, which can be related to all kinds of events or topics. News factors are regarded as – among other things – causes which make news stories newsworthy: the more news factors a news story carries, the more newsworthy is it. For example, a news story about a well‐known actor killed in a car accident (two news factors: “prominent person” and “damage”) is more newsworthy than a news story about an unknown person killed (one news factor: “damage”). Besides the number of news factors, their intensity has an influence on the newsworthiness of news stories. A news story on three people killed is more newsworthy than a news story on one person killed.
News Ideologies
Authors: Deuze Mark 
Published: September 2017

“Ideology” has two related definitions: a set of shared ideas that order group life, and the ways that such a set of ideas reinforces existing power relations (Barnhurst 2005). Following the first definition, an
occupational ideology
refers to a system of beliefs characteristic of a particular group of workers, including but not limited to their processes of producing meanings and ideas within the group (→ Journalism: Normative Theories). In news, a diversity of approaches across cultures has produced distinct journalisms in different locales, as for example documented in more than twenty countries all over the world (Weaver 1998). Regardless of cultural specificities, the existence of an increasingly isomorphic news ideology has consistently been documented in international journalism studies (Westerstahl & Johansson 1986). Research thus suggests that news workers around the world have in common an occupational ideology consisting of a generally shared system of ideal‐typical values (Deuze 2005).
News Magazine, History of
Authors: Scott Byron 
Published: September 2017

The concept of → news as a component of a → magazine's editorial content is as old as the medium (→ Magazine, History of). The
Gentleman's Magazine
is regarded by magazine historian Frank Luther Mott (1938) and others as the first to use the word as part of a periodical's title; it was begun in 1731 by a London printer, Edward Cave, and contained tidbits of doings in the royal court and around the town. But the idea of devoting an entire magazine to in‐depth articles and interpretive features on recent events worldwide is far more modern. To remain topical, news magazines had to be weekly or at least fortnightly. Their introduction had to await an array of historical developments, including an efficient postal service, faster printing presses, and general literacy. This article deals only with the genre in print and not the labeling of television or radio shows as “newsmagazines” (→ Television).
News Myths
Authors: Lule Jack 
Published: September 2017

Myth is a concept used to explore the storytelling practices of journalists. From this perspective, myth is not a false belief or an untrue story, nor is it contrasted with reality. Myth is a story that a society produces by drawing on archetypal figures and forms to express prevailing beliefs, ideals, and values. Journalists appear to apply these fundamental forms and narratives as they compose their stories (→ Narrative News Story; News Story; Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs, Media Effects on).
News Processing across the Life‐Span
Authors: Gunter Barrie 
Published: September 2017

The → news is like lifeblood to democratic societies. The information provided daily through the major mass media → Television, → Radio, → Newspapers, and increasingly the → Internet – keeps citizens up to date with the latest political, economic, and social developments, world events, natural and man‐made disasters, lives of famous public figures, scientific breakthroughs, and sports and weather. It serves to keep electorates apprised of the performance of their elected political representatives, helps people to cope with bad news, and also provides a sense of continuity in an increasingly varied media landscape and a sense of security even during times of extreme adversity (→ Journalism: Normative Theories).
News Production and Technology
Authors: Weischenberg Siegfried , Matuschek Clemens 
Published: September 2017

The term “news production and technology” describes the process and the tools that are necessary for formatting and disseminating journalistic content to an audience. Communication always needs a medium – be it air, paper, or electricity – to travel from producer to recipient, and the advance of technology has had a deep impact on forms of communication. Any kind of communication that goes beyond direct, local, interpersonal oral or visual interaction depends on a means of technology as a medium. The development of modern mass media, allowing journalists to reach dispersed, large audiences, is interrelated with technological innovations such as the invention of printing and electricity (→ Media History). Thus, production of media content is largely dependent on and shaped by technology, which in itself can be seen as a
necessary condition
for journalism as a profession and its economic as well as social and political relevance (→ Communication Technology and Democracy).
News Story
Authors: Weischenberg Siegfried , Birkner Thomas 
Published: September 2017

A
news story
is the standard format that journalists employ for producing the texts they publish in the media. In contrast to feature narratives or subjective reviews and editorials, the news story aims to give a direct, succinct, and fact‐based account (→ Objectivity in Reporting), but instead the news story does political work and gives orientation in a complex world (Schudson 1982). This difference causes problems not only for storytellers but also for news researchers.
Newscast, 24‐Hour
Authors: Hoskins Andrew 
Published: September 2017

The rise of 24‐hour news programming, associated with the shift from the electronic news gathering (ENG) of the 1970s to the satellite news gathering (SNG) of the 1980s, marks a shift in the temporal and spatial connectivity of the globe. The continuousness and sheer expanse of 24/7 news has driven an appetite for immediacy, proximity, and simultaneity, so that today these are the dominant modes of television news programs, defining how the world is represented to millions and shaping news agendas and allegedly the events being represented (→ Television News).
Newspaper
Authors: Ghanem Salma I. 
Published: September 2017

Known as the chroniclers of daily life, newspapers assemble large amounts of information in the form of words, pictures, and graphics printed on lightweight, inexpensive paper stock for the purpose of informing and entertaining the public. Newspapers are portable, inexpensive, and printed either daily or weekly in tabloid or broadsheet format. Estimates indicate that there are approximately 60,000 newspapers in the world and about one in eight are dailies. The daily operation of a newspaper varies with the size of the paper, but most papers consist of five departments: advertising, editorial, production, circulation, and business. Newspaper revenue comes from sales and advertising. According to the
International Journal of Newspaper Technology
(Chisholm 2004), over 80 percent of revenue in the United States comes from advertising, while in the United Kingdom the figure is over 60 percent, and in Germany over 55 percent. However, both the Internet and changes in the economy have led to a decline in advertising revenue for newspapers worldwide (→ Advertising; Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media). Because revenue is linked to circulation, the commercial potential of newspapers is constrained by the size and economic prosperity of their markets. Newspapers account for the biggest segments of the publishing world, with 40 percent of the industry's revenue.
Newspaper Journalism
Authors: Matheson Donald 
Published: September 2017

The newspaper is the oldest and arguably the most important of all media for journalism. More journalists work in newspapers than in any other media. Moreover, dominant ideas of news – as a factual, independent account of the day's principal events, set out in an ordered way for a geographically defined audience – emerged historically along with the business of the → Newspaper (→ Newspaper, History of). Newspapers thus provide much of the form or architecture through which journalists and their audiences recognize news (Barnhurst & Nerone 2001), such as the division of journalism into the categories → news,features, andsports, as well as journalistic ideals, including independence from power and speaking to and for a public. Changes in newspaper journalism are therefore the focus of particular scholarly concern, and some commentators suggest that recent changes signal the end of journalism (Hardt 1998).
Newspaper, Visual Design of
Authors: Craig Robert L. , Leturia Elio 
Published: September 2017

Newspaper design refers to the process of planning, selecting, organizing and arranging the → typography, photographs, illustrations, and graphics of → Newspapers (→ Photography; Infographics). It also refers to the
look
or
style
of a newspaper (→ Design; Graphic Design). Newspaper design is highly conventional, so historians have noted visual features that comprise different stylistic periods. These styles are closely related to how publishers, editors, and journalists define the role of journalism in society (Barnhurst & Nerone 2001; → Journalism, History of; Journalists' Role Perception). Changing technology also profoundly influences newspaper design.
Nollywood
Authors: Haynes Jonathan 
Published: September 2017

“Nollywood” – the Nigerian direct‐to‐video film industry – has become the third largest film industry in the world, producing a staggering 1,500 titles per year. It began during the Nigerian political, social, and economic crisis of the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the collapsing national currency made celluloid film production prohibitively expensive and when rampant crime made people hesitate to go out to cinemas at night. Widespread ownership of video cassette recorders, an infrastructure developed to sell pirated cassettes of foreign films, numerous personnel who had been working in film, television, or theatre, and a huge potential market allowed the creation of a novel film industry based entirely on video (→ Video; Africa: Media Systems).
Nonverbal Communication and Culture
Authors: Li Han Z. 
Published: September 2017

Humans communicate verbally through words and nonverbally via facial expressions and body movements. Nonverbal communication refers to any human behavior, other than words, that serves a communicative purpose (→ Interpersonal Communication). Such behavior can occur voluntarily or involuntarily, either simultaneously with words or alone. Nonverbal communicative behaviors that have been under intensive research include high–low context, silence, turn‐taking, facial expressions of emotion, head nod, and gaze and mutual gaze.
Nonverbal Signals, Effects of
Authors: Bente Gary , Krämer Nicole C. 
Published: September 2017

Human communication is a
multichannel reality
comprising verbal, paraverbal, and nonverbal signals. Although some authors subsume paraverbal aspects, like pitch, tone of voice, etc., under the heading of nonverbal behavior, it is most common to preserve the term “nonverbal” for those aspects of communicative behavior that are transmitted visually, such as gestures, body posture and movement (→ Gestures and Kinesics), facial displays (→ Facial Expressions), gaze (→ Gaze in Interaction), and interpersonal distance (→ Proxemics).
Propaganda, Visual Communication of
Authors: Jowett Garth 
Published: September 2017

There is no more difficult concept to clearly define than that of → propaganda. Countless books and learned essays have grappled with a definition of this persuasive practice that would encompass all of its many manifestations. The difficulty in arriving at a definition that satisfies all aspects of this particular type of persuasive behavior is compounded by the historical shift in the acceptance of those activities that today might be labeled as propaganda. Propaganda, in its most neutral sense, means to disseminate or promote particular ideas. A working definition of propaganda which focuses on the communication process is as follows: “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (Jowett & O'Donnell 2006).
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
Authors: Downing John D. H. 
Published: September 2017

Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty were among the half dozen major broadcast information sources for the Soviet bloc from soon after World War II until the final collapse of the Soviet system in 1991. The two shortwave stations were covertly founded in 1950 (Radio Free Europe) and 1953 (Radio Liberation from Bolshevism, its initial title) by the US Central Intelligence Agency. Radio Liberty broadcast to the citizens of the Soviet Union, and Radio Free Europe to most of the sovietized eastern and central Europe, including the Balkan states. Radio Liberty's signal began to reach the USSR with any strength only in 1960 (→ International Radio).
Religion and Popular Communication
Authors: Radwan Jon 
Published: September 2017

“Communication” derives from the Latin term
communicare
meaning to share or impart and to make common (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts). “Popular communication” refers to those efforts of, by, and for the people that establish and maintain this sharing and commonality (→ Popular Communication). In this sense, communication is the basic requirement for sustaining any social group. “The people” are generally understood as the average or common members of a society, the masses, and are contrasted with elite sub‐groups that possess an unusual degree of power, wealth, or information. “The people” are also distinguished from “others,” who are nonmembers of any particular group at issue but are members of their own social groups (→
Popular Culture
).