bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Consumer Informatics
Authors: Hesse Bradford W. 
Published: September 2017

In its broadest sense, consumer informatics can refer to that branch of the field of communications dedicated to understanding and improving the use of online information resources by the → public. Online information resources have been made available to consumers in a variety of different market sectors, from airline ticketing and travel to the online distribution of goods and services. In these instances, the online interactions replace interpersonal encounters as the basis for generating value to a sponsoring organization's bottom line. Communication researchers are often brought in to be sure the structure of the communication is made as user friendly and satisfactory as possible; unsatisfactory structures will drive away customers (→ Computer–User Interaction; E‐Commerce). In a more specific sense, the study of consumer informatics has gained its greatest currency in the area of medicine and healthcare (→ Health Communication).
Consumers in Media Markets
Authors: Napoli Philip M. 
Published: September 2017

Communication researchers have devoted a substantial amount of attention to understanding consumers in media markets. The processes by which audiences select between the various content options available, as well as the mechanisms by which media organizations seek to understand, anticipate, and respond to these choices have traditionally resided at the core of research focusing on media consumers. The study of media consumers fits within the somewhat broader framework of → audience research and is distinguished by its attention primarily to the economic dimensions of media consumption and the processes by which audiences select media products – as is reflected in the use of the term “consumers” (→ Media Economics; Exposure to Communication Content).
Content Analysis, Quantitative
Authors: Scheufele Bertram 
Published: September 2017

Quantitative content analysis is an empirical method used in the social sciences primarily for analyzing recorded human communication in a quantitative, systematic, and intersubjective way. This material can include newspaper articles, films, advertisements, interview transcripts, or observational protocols, for instance. Thus, a quantitative content analysis can be applied to verbal material, and also to visual material like the evening news or television entertainment. Surveys, → observations, and quantitative content analysis are the main three methods of data collection in empirical communication research, with quantitative content analysis the most prominent in the field (→ Survey). In other disciplines like psychology or sociology quantitative content analysis is not used as widely.
Copyright
Authors: Jackson Matt 
Published: September 2017

Copyright is the branch of law that provides property rights in expression, and it is the primary legal regime for the cultural and information industries, including print publishing, music, film, television, radio, theater, computer software, photography, and fine art. Copyright only protects expression, not the ideas being expressed. Ideas are the thoughts inside our heads and expression is the way we communicate those thoughts to others (→ Freedom of Communication). A book may include many facts and ideas. The author then uses specific expression, including words or pictures, to communicate those facts and ideas. A second author (or artist or musician) can use any of the facts or ideas contained in the book but would need permission to copy the first author's expression.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Carroll Craig E. 
Published: September 2017

Corporate (or organizational) reputation refers to what is generally said about an organization. Corporate reputation is different than organizational identity by its focus on what other people say about the organization, rather than what the organization itself or its members say. Corporate reputation is distinguished from → organizational image in the sense that it is generally more durable and substance‐based rather than fleeting and impression‐based. Generally, there is some story, an activity, or a topic associated with the firm, which is, in effect, regarded as remarkable.
Correlation Analysis
Authors: Weber René 
Published: September 2017

A correlation analysis is a statistical procedure that evaluates the association between two sets of variables. The association between variables can be linear or nonlinear (→ Linear and Nonlinear Models of Causal Analysis). In communication research, however, correlation analyses are mostly used to evaluate linear relationships. Sets of variables may include one or many variables. Associations between two variables (two sets of one variable) can be analyzed with a
bivariate correlation analysis
. Associations between one (dependent) variable and a set of two or more (independent) variables can be studied using
multiple correlation (regression) analysis
(→ Regression Analysis; Discriminant Analysis). Relationships between sets of many (independent and dependent) variables can be investigated using
canonical correlation analysis
(→ Factor Analysis; Structural Equation).
Crime Reporting
Authors: Wardle Claire 
Published: September 2017

Crime reporting represents a significant component of → Newspapers in the western world. This is the case for both broadsheets and tabloids, although crime coverage in tabloids tends to be more sensational, in terms of the types of crime covered, as well as the use of emotive language and visual images (→ Photojournalism; Sensationalism; Tabloid Press). The most up‐to‐date research in the US and UK suggests approximately 25 percent of newspaper articles are dedicated to crime and justice stories (Reiner et al. 2003). Furthermore, studies have shown crime news stories are read and remembered by a greater percentage of readers than any other type of news story (Graber 1980; → Exposure to the News).
Cultivation Effects
Authors: Signorielli Nancy 
Published: September 2017

Television is the world's storyteller, telling most of the stories to most of the people, most of the time. As such it has become our most common and constant learning environment, one that very few can or even want to escape or ignore. Children today are born into homes in which most stories are told by a centralized commercial institution rather than parents, peers, schools, or the church. Television shows and tells us about life – who wins, who loses, who is powerful, who is weak, as well as who is happy and who is sad (Weimann 2000; → Media Effects; Media and Perceptions of Reality).
Cultural Imperialism Theories
Authors: Morris Nancy 
Published: September 2017

The cultural imperialism thesis states, broadly, that a powerful country uses cultural means to achieve or support the political and economic ends of imperialism that were historically attained through military force and occupation. In this view, the tools of culture can smooth the way for domination by exposing people to lifestyles to aspire to, products to desire, and even new sources of allegiance (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Cultural Studies
Authors: Grossberg Lawrence 
Published: September 2017

Cultural studies is a recent, innovative, and interdisciplinary project that has had a significant presence in the field of communication since the late 1970s, as well as in other humanities and social sciences (→ Communication and Media Studies, History since 1968). Cultural studies is concerned with describing and intervening in the ways in which texts, discourses, and other cultural practices are produced within, circulate through, and operate in the everyday life of human beings and the institutions of society.
Cumulative Media Effects
Authors: Fan David 
Published: September 2017

The mass media can be the major influence on the adoption of an idea after the general public begins to become aware. Initially, an idea spreads through limited → social networks, with members exchanging information in formats ranging from face‐to‐face discussions to blogs on the → Internet (→ Blogger). Such interactivity means that participants are actively engaged in the topic. The spread will be more rapid if the adopters are more vocal, more influential, and have the other traits that → Rogers(2003) ascribes to innovators and to early adopters for the diffusion of innovations (→ Diffusion of Information and Innovation).
Deliberative Polls
Authors: Lindeman Mark 
Published: September 2017

The phrase “deliberative polls” most often refers to political philosopher James Fishkin's conception of a multi‐stage opinion poll that incorporates systematic deliberation on policy issues (→ Public Opinion Polling). As such, Fishkin has trademarked the phrase “deliberative polling.” It can refer to other methods of introducing a deliberative component to public opinion research, some of which are touched on below.
Design
Authors: Buchanan Richard 
Published: September 2017

Design is the human power to conceive, plan, and make all of the products that serve human beings in the accomplishment of their individual and collective purposes. It is a cultural art and a practical art, supporting all forms of activity in the human community by providing a high degree of forethought for communications, artifacts, actions, and organizations. The practice of design provides the subject matter and examples upon which the arts and sciences of communication base a significant portion of research and theory. In turn, the exploration of rhetoric and the arts and sciences of communication deepens awareness of the dimensions of communication in design and human‐made products (→ Art as Communication; Rhetorical Studies).
Development Communication: Africa
Authors: Moemeka Andrew A. 
Published: September 2017

“Development” refers to the process of social change that has as its objective the promotion of physical and material progress (→ Development Communication). The “silent engine” that drives this development endeavor is communication. In the developed world, development communication is geared toward addressing the dysfunctions of physical and material progress. In the developing world, it is concerned with the provision of physical and material infrastructure. But it is also concerned with social change in the form of inspiring hard work, eliciting self‐help, and providing education, health facilities, and other critical conditions. Africa is one of the regions in the developing world where development seems to be occurring slowly. As a result, there has been great concern about how to stimulate development and social change.
Development Communication Campaigns
Authors: Storey J. Douglas 
Published: September 2017

The use of → strategic communication has an ancient history dating back at least to Aristotle'sRhetoric(→ Rhetoric, Greek). But technological and theoretical advances beginning in the twentieth century, most notably the growth of electronic media and media studies, have resulted in dramatic improvements in the scale, sophistication, and effectiveness of purposive communication and in the rise of contemporary communication campaigns. Billions of dollars are spent globally each year on commercial, political, and public service campaigns aimed at influencing consumer decisions, mobilizing support for political candidates, changing unhealthy behaviors and reinforcing healthy ones, advocating for social issues and policy changes, and much more.
Development Communication: Latin America
Authors: Beltrán Luis Ramiro 
Published: September 2017

A universally valid and widely accepted definition of the field does not exist, but three conceptualizations have prevailed in the western world, the first two emanating from the US and the third from Latin America. The first, development communication, is the notion that mass media are capable of creating a public atmosphere favorable to change, which is assumed to be indispensable for modernizing traditional societies through technological advancement and economic growth. The second is → “development support communication,” i.e., the idea that planned and organized communication – massive, interpersonal, and mixed – is a key instrument for the accomplishment of the practical goals of national development‐seeking institutions (→ Planned Social Change through Communication). The third is the concept of alternative communication for democratic development. This assumes that, by expanding and balancing people's access to, and participation in, the communication process – at both mass media and interpersonal grassroots levels – development should secure, in addition to material gains, social justice, freedom for all, and the majority's rule (→ Communication Strategies for Empowerment).
Development Communication: Middle East
Authors: Dajani Nabil H. 
Published: September 2017

This entry offers an overview of → development communication in the region that the west calls the Middle East, but which in Arabic is known as “al‐Mashrik al Arabi,” or the Arab East. The area comprises three Arab regions that fall between the eastern Mediterranean, the Arabian (Persian) Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. Located in an area where Africa, Asia, and Europe meet, these regions are: Egypt, which is in Africa; Bilad ash‐Sham (sometimes referred to as the Fertile Crescent or Greater Syria), on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, which extends from Turkey and Iran in the north to Egypt in the south and the Arabian peninsula and the Red Sea to the east (including the present states of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Palestine); and the Arabian peninsula, or Arabian Gulf, which is largely a desert area that includes the present states of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, the Arab Emirates, and Kuwait.
Development Institutions
Authors: Groshek Jacob , Ogan Christine 
Published: September 2017

At present, there are over 50,000 international organizations with a total budget easily over US$250 billion devoted to improving social, economic, political, and health conditions around the world, specifically in less developed countries (Directory of Development Organizations 2007; → International Communication Agencies). The current status of modern international development organizations can be traced back to the end of World War II and the official launch of the United Nations. Indeed, while other organizations pre‐date the UN, including religious and political bodies, it was the formation of the UN and its many subsidiary programs and funds that helped catalyze international → modernization efforts.
Development Journalism
Authors: Shah Hemant 
Published: September 2017

During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (→ UNESCO) was the site of vociferous debate about global communication. Collectively, these arguments have come to be known as the → New World Information and Communication Order [NWICO] debate. Nations of the south, many of which had relatively recently emerged from colonial domination, demanded a restructuring of the flows, distribution, and practice related to global information and communication. Many nations of the west, led by the United States and Great Britain, resisted any restructuring, arguing that such changes would have to be mandated by governments and would amount to undermining sound universal principles such as the free flow of information. Among the most contentious issues in the debate was development journalism – a term referring to the role of the press in the process of socio‐economic development, primarily in countries of the south (→ Development Communication).
Development Support Communication
Authors: Melkote Srinivas R. 
Published: September 2017

A cursory examination of halo terms used on the world stage in the last 50 years will surely unearth the term “development.”
Development
is commonly understood to mean a process by which societal conditions are improved. However, there is much disagreement on what constitutes improvement. Consequently, the term
development
has been continually contested. Development communication, a special focus of this entry, often refers to a linear process of information exchange, resulting in knowledge acquisition or persuasion toward some objective related to development. This term too has been actively contested, especially with the changing interpretations of
development
. Today, many emphasize
communication
as a process of shared meaning that takes place in a cultural, political‐economic, and geographical context, and is inseparable from that context (→ Development Communication).
Dialogic Perspectives
Authors: Barge J. Kevin 
Published: September 2017

Multiple intellectual traditions exist within a dialogic perspective toward organizational communication. These intellectual traditions share a common set of theoretical inclinations that distinguish a dialogic perspective by focusing on discourse, holism, and tensionality (Stewart et al. 2004). First, dialogic approaches emphasize the
centrality of discourse
. A dialogic perspective focuses on both “little d” and “big D” discourse, with the former centering on language‐in‐use and the latter spotlighting enduring systems of thought, feeling, and action that structure the way organizational members make sense of and act in their social worlds (Fairhurst & Putnam 2004). Second, dialogic approaches are
holistic
as they emphasize the interplay among communication, context, action, and meaning. Third, dialogic approaches view human systems as riddled with
tensionality
, which requires theorists and researchers to articulate the tensions constituting a system and how individuals attempt to manage them (→ Organizational Discourse).
Discourse
Authors: Cobley Paul 
Published: September 2017

As a common term in English, discourse means any extended verbal communication, such as Jesus's discourse with the people (John 6: 22–71) or, “The Disinherited Knight then addressed his discourse to Baldwin” (Scott,
Ivanhoe
). Discourse is lengthy but targeted speech between individuals or between an individual and a group. As a theoretical term, discourse gained in importance during the twentieth century, both in the relatively new discipline of → linguistics and in the newer discipline of communication study (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline), taking on two distinct meanings. First, it refers to stretches of communication beyond the small units that are examined with the traditional methods of linguistic analysis. Second, discourse directs attention to the social origins and consequences of communications (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts).
Disowning Projection
Authors: McDonald Daniel G. 
Published: September 2017

In a
projection
, a person attributes certain aspects of him or herself to others (→ Attribution Processes). The process is closely tied to → identification in the psychology of personality. A
disowning projection
involves attributing negative aspects of the self to others, such as “selfish motives, evil intent … [or] stupid attitudes” (Cameron 1947). Cameron includes the exclusion of those characteristics from the self as part of that projection (hence the
disowning
portion of the name). Theoretically, a disowning projection should be contrasted with an
assimilative projection
, in which a person similarly projects his or her own qualities onto others. Although both are projections, the content and effects of the projections are quite different. When negative characteristics are projected, the person who is projecting disassociates him or herself from the characteristics. When positive characteristics are projected, no such disassociation occurs. Instead, the person who is projecting maintains the view of him or herself as being described by these characteristics, and, after projecting them onto others, sees him or herself as similar to those others.
Document Analysis
Authors: Meyen Michael 
Published: September 2017

By no means all method textbooks discuss document analysis because there is disaccord as to whether this is an independent technique or whether it merely aims to apply different methods to a particular investigation material (→ Research Methods). There is also controversy as to what has to be understood by “document.” Used in a wider sense as a synonym for the word “source” in historical research (→ Historiography), this concept encompasses all objects manufactured by man. However, as a rule, only written sources are considered to be documents. Examples are: reports, the wordings of laws, the minutes of proceedings, records, letters, diaries, leaflets, press articles, books, organization charts, or work instructions. Since these documents have their origin in everyday contexts and there is no contact between the researcher and the production of the investigation material, document analysis is a non‐reactive method. Consequently, neither the researcher nor the aim of the investigation has any influence on the material itself. In addition, the costs of document analysis are lower than those of any primary → survey. Against this, the method has two major disadvantages: usually, documents only account for parts of the questions asked by the researcher, and they leave room for interpretations (→ Qualitative Methodology; Objectivity in Science).
Documentary Film
Authors: Nichols Bill 
Published: September 2017

Among the qualities that distinguish films considered documentary are: (1) explicit reference to the historical world that surrounds the film, (2) a persuasive effort that encourages viewers to see or understand some aspect of the actual world in a particular way, and (3) an indexical relationship between the image and the reality it refers to. Indexical images match in their particulars the physical appearance of what they represent (→ Documentary Film, History of; Film Genres). They do not possess a general likeness to a model or referent, as a → painting would; they are closer to an exact replica of what came before the camera. The cinematic image can capture the look of a person, place, or event precisely. The optical properties of cameras, lenses, and recording media – from film to memory cards – capture aspects of the world with great precision. This allows the indexical image to serve as documentary evidence, as footage from surveillance cameras demonstrates.
Drama in Media Content
Authors: Scodari Christine 
Published: September 2017

On the terrain of popular communication are cultural artifacts with a potential to entertain, inform, or persuade. Accordingly, dramatic media content has been investigated by way of five interdependent perspectives: (1) genre (→ Film Genres), (2) medium, (3) narrative, (4) ideology, and (5) → meaning. Especially with regard to film and → television, this generic designation has been fluid, with shifting parameters and a tendency toward what Altman (1999) and others have called “genre mixing.” Television awards and DVD sellers may broadly distinguish drama from comedy, but scholars often treat what might otherwise be considered sub‐genres of drama as genres in their own right. So, any scripted, narrative program or film that is not comedy, and which cannot be neatly classified under another, more specific brand such as Western, soap opera, film noir, melodrama, science fiction, action, or suspense/thriller, is designated simply as a drama. For instance, television features medical, legal, crime/espionage, political, and teen dramas, among others.
Embedded Journalists
Authors: Mosdell Nick 
Published: September 2017

The concept of journalists accompanying troops into combat is not new, but the scale and manner of media operations on the battlefield transformed in the 2003 Iraq war. The change in terminology from → “war correspondent” to “embedded journalist” gave rise to debates among media, military, and other commentators about the implications for the coverage of current and future conflicts (→ Conflict as Media Content).