bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Relations
Authors: Adiong Nassef Manabilang 
Published: June 2017

AbstractInternational relations is commonly understood as the study of behaviors and interactions of nation‐states (such as the United States or China), regional organizations (such as the European Union or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations), international organizations (such as the United Nations or World Bank), and multinational corporations (such as Google or McDonalds). The question whether these examples may further be characterized as governmental, intergovernmental, or nongovernmental in nature depends on the hybridity of the tasks and roles they undertake and the mission‐vision of these organizations.
Japanese Popular Culture
Authors: Khan Mohammed Abdul Mujeeb 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Contemporary Japanese culture has become equivalent in meaning with both innovation and tradition. This ostensibly contradictory characterization of Japanese culture has deep roots dating back to Japan's early modern period. Japanese popular culture's most salient features are seen in art forms new and derived and in traditions old and new. For example, in art, manga and anime are two of Japan's most powerful cultural ambassadors, finding avid fans throughout the world and even leading to the rise of inspired media and similar art forms abroad. As cultural ambassadors, this culture came to be considered a new type of diplomatic tool: soft power. Japanese culture from manga and anime to technological gadgets as imagined abroad is a part of the foreign imagination, but locally a voracious reading culture and a highly systematized consumer culture also thrive but are neglected by foreign observers. Before a discussion of modern manifestations of popular culture, this entry outlines historical aspects of cultural development in Japan. In doing so, it briefly covers cultural development and activities during earlier periods of Japanese history, from state unification through the modern period.
Asturias, Miguel Ángel
Authors: Mahmoodi‐Bakhtiari Behrooz 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Nobel Prize‐winning Guatemalan novelist, poet, diplomat, playwright, and journalist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1899–1974) is one of the pioneering authors who established Latin American literature's contribution to mainstream Western culture, as well as drawing attention to the importance of indigenous cultures in literature. The sociopolitical interests which have emerged in his works are the decline of Mayan civilization as a result of the Spanish colonization of Latin America; the effects of political dictatorships on society; and the exploitation of his people by foreign‐owned companies.
Liberation in Latin America
Authors: Orellana Rodrigo Castro 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
The fundamental background for the development of the concept of liberation has been a discussion of the possibility of a Latin American philosophy, dependency theory, liberation theology, and the phenomenon of populism in Latin America during the twentieth century. Within this context, the concept is anchored within a philosophical program that denounces Eurocentrism and claims a Latin American cultural authenticity. This program has gone through different stages from 1969 to the present, establishing a significant and problematic intellectual dialogue with Marxism, postmodern theory, and postcolonial theories
Luxemburg, Rosa
Authors: Ricordeau Gwenola 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Rosa Luxemburg (1871–1919), a German of Polish descent, was a Marxist theorist, revolutionary socialist, and anti‐imperialist activist who cofounded the Communist Party of Germany. She was involved in the left wing of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and advocated for mass strikes as a revolutionary strategy opposed to participation in bourgeois elections. Foreseeing World War I, she energetically attacked German militarism and imperialism. When the SPD voted for war credits in 1914, she founded with Karl Liebknecht and Clara Zetkin (among others) the Die Internationale group that in 1916 became the Spartakusbund. Due to her political anti‐war and anti‐imperialist activities, she was imprisoned during most of the war. After her release from jail by the German Revolution in November 1918, she co‐founded the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), but she and Karl Liebknecht were assassinated by Freikorps (reactionary paramilitary group).
Marshall, Paule
Authors: Hathaway Heather 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

Paule Marshall, born in the United States of Barbadian immigrants, offers valuable cross‐cultural perspectives on gender, nation, race, and postcoloniality. As suggested by her 2009 memoir,
Triangular Road
, she locates her own history and her stories in the Caribbean, Africa, and the United States, and explores the imperial and colonial dynamics among the three regions. Author of five novels, two collections of short fiction, a memoir, numerous essays, and recipient of awards from the National Endowment for the Humanities, Guggenheim, Ford, and MacArthur Foundations, Marshall is among the most highly accomplished US‐based writers exploring postcolonialism.
McKay, Claude
Authors: Camarasana Linda 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

Claude McKay (1889–1948), a Jamaican‐born colonial exile and key figure of the Harlem Renaissance who also helped inspire the Négritude movement, was a transnational black leftist writer and intellectual whose work explored black identity, racism, class struggle, migration, and the global system of Western colonialism. McKay wrote poetry in Jamaican dialect and traditional English verse forms; short stories; five novels; two memoirs; and two studies of race in the United States. His articles and poems appeared in leftist and revolutionary newspapers and periodicals. A colonial exile from age 22, McKay traveled widely and lived in Harlem and Chicago, major European cities, Soviet Russia, and North Africa. His Harlem Renaissance works include racial protest poems; and his second novel,
Banjo
, brings together black characters from African countries and the black diaspora.
Banana Bottom
(1933), the last novel published in McKay's lifetime, is about the protagonist's search for identity and belonging in colonial Jamaica.
Middle Eastern Anti‐Colonialism
Authors: Hassan‘ Naglaa Saad M. 
Published: June 2017

AbstractThe Middle East, a Eurocentric term referring to this pivotal heart of the “old world” stretching from Egypt in the west to Iran in the east and from Turkey in the north to Yemen in the south, has a rich history of anti‐colonial struggle. The Middle East has to pay the price for its strategic geopolitical significance by falling victim to the steady drives of imperial powers. Colonialism served to re‐map the region with some states annexed, others disconnected, and still others, as in the case of Palestine, defaced. The discovery of oil enhanced and renewed these imperial desires which revealed themselves in the US invasion of Iraq. Within this convoluted context, anti‐colonialism displayed itself in multiple forms – violent and nonviolent, discursive and political, individual and communal – uniting, however, in the single aim of reclaiming land and preserving religion and language, particularly in the case of Arab countries.
Mimicry
Authors: Ganapathy‐Doré Geetha 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Derived from Greek and borrowed from biology, “mimicry” means resembling by imitation. It is closely related to, but distinct from, mimesis. It gained prominence thanks to the contribution of feminist scholars like Irigaray and Butler, and especially the postcolonial scholar Bhabha who has teased out the various significations of the term as colonial strategy and discourse. Postcolonial hybridity and contemporary transmesis offer a way out of the closure of mimicry. However, international call centers make mimicry of American English a gateway to commercial success.
Mittelholzer, Edgar
Authors: Nair Supriya M. 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Edgar Mittelholzer was a writer at the forefront of the 1950s generation of Anglophone Caribbean literature. Of mixed racial descent but from a Guyanese family that identified as white and European (particularly German) descent, Mittelholzer's dark skin created a rift with his father and led to his conflicted sense of self. He began writing at an early age and continued to write after he left for England in 1948, eventually producing over 20 novels (sometimes publishing more than one in the same year) and other works. But it involved a bitter struggle and, unable to cope with his depression and financial difficulties, he committed suicide in 1965. His work is distinct in style, but speaks to the pervasive issues of slavery, settlement, racism, colonialism, and other aspects of empire.
Mphahlele, Es'kia
Authors: Rogers Asha 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

The South African anti‐apartheid writer, critic, and intellectual Es'kia Mphahlele (formerly Ezekiel Mphahlele) was the leading proponent of African humanism. Banned by the apartheid regime and exiled for most of his career, Mphahlele was author of the autobiographies
Down Second Avenue
(1959) and
Afrika My Music
(1984), short story collections
Man Must Live
(1946) and
In Corner B
(1967), novels
The Wanderers
(1971) and
Chirundu
(1981), and critical works
The African Image
(1962) and
Voices in the Whirlwind
(1972). Regarded as the “dean of African letters,” Es'kia Mphahlele engaged both critically and creatively with the South African experience under apartheid, and the cultures of the African diaspora more generally.
Mudimbe, V. Y.
Authors: Wilkins Sam 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

Valentin Yves Mudimbe, (1941– ) is a Congolese‐American philosopher, philologist, linguist, essayist, poet, and novelist. He has produced a broad range of work on his wide‐ranging specialties since the 1970s. Most relevant to postcolonial theory has been his work on the epistemological origins and foundations of representations of Africa, especially his acclaimed
The Invention of Africa
, published in 1988.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Bahrawi Nazry 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
A contested concept in today's age of nation‐states, “multiculturalism” can refer to both institutional practice and theoretical assumptions. While the term has multiple meanings, multiculturalism in both senses shares the common goal of addressing diversity in human societies, with some focus on citizenship. This entry considers the practice and theory of multiculturalism from the postcolonial perspective. It argues that multiculturalism deals with postcolonial issues of Self and the Other, essences and hybrids, masters and slaves. The entry juxtaposes the idea and manifestations of multiculturalism that have developed in parts of the Western world with those formulated in parts of Asia in relation to race, religion, and gender. To this end, it outlines the tracts of thinkers of multiculturalism such as Charles Taylor, Stuart Hall, Syed Hussein Alatas, and Ashis Nandy to get a fuller sense of the term.
Music
Authors: Bushnell Cameron Fae 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
The subject “Music,” even delimited by the titular “Postcolonial Studies,” describes an enormous range of musical styles and genres from an expansive geography composed, performed, and listened to in a vast array of personal, social, religious, and political circumstances. Given its highly mobile circulation across political borders and its facile interpenetration of multifarious cultural expressions, music promises a portrait of a utopic postcolonial admixture of cultures, much as creolité provides in language. At the same time, “world music” raises questions about differential relations of power and histories of colonialism and postcoloniality that the term seems to elide. This entry demonstrates not only the asymmetry of power relations in the movement of music from West to East, but also underscores both the indigenization of European forms and the interpenetration of musical styles between colonized nations and among various, primarily Anglophone, diasporas.
Narayan, R. K.
Authors: Jain Bhawana 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
R. K. Narayan (1906–2001) is considered one of India's finest authors writing in English. His creative writings, spanning more than 50 years, won the admiration of writers such as Somerset Maugham and E. M. Forster and a wider public recognition throughout the world. His writings are rich in serious comedy and realism. His fictional town of Malgudi is the locus of many of his gripping novels and short stories. The particularity in depicting the universal human condition through the local and ordinary Indian life is an important characteristic of his works.
Neocolonialism in Latin America
Authors: Intersimone Luis Alfredo 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Overlapping with the concept of populism and a Marxist version of dependency theory, the premise of neocolonialism in Latin America bloomed in the 1960s. The center–periphery relation that neocolonialism speaks of implicitly carries with it the idea of a capitalism that functions on a multinational level promoting political intervention and economic exploitation, thus explaining the relations between the United States and Latin America. This is why Roberto Fernández Retamar considered Cuba to be the first “neocolony” since 1898. Brazilian writer Darcy Ribeiro and the filmmakers Fernando Solanas and Osvaldo Getino have also tried to develop the concept. It is significant today in view of the wave of new, leftist governments that have emerged in the region and that are trying to put into practice theories developed 40 years ago.
Nkrumah, Kwame
Authors: Grimm Kevin E. 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
As he led Ghana to independence in 1957, Kwame Nkrumah became a symbol to the world of a decolonizing Africa. He inspired many nonwhite populations around the globe, including African Americans, to continue their struggles for freedom. His ideology of Nkrumaism (or Nkrumahism), also called Consciencism, combined socialism, pan‐Africanism, and an opposition to economic neocolonialism. Nkrumah also strove to keep Ghana, and Africa, politically and economically independent and nonaligned in the bipolar Cold War. While his centralization of political power, the lack of results from Nkrumaism and Consciencism, and the decay of Ghana's economy led to a successful military coup against him in 1966, during the late 1950s and early 1960s Nkrumah's pan‐Africanism, nonalignment, and opposition to neocolonialism were important and influential ideas in the nonwhite, nonaligned Third World during the height of the Cold War.
North American Anti‐Colonialism
Authors: Richards Jason 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
North American anti‐colonialism is generally thought of in terms of the colonists’ resistance to the British Empire in the last half of the eighteenth century. But America was itself a colonizing power, which infringed upon Native American territory and enslaved African Americans. These forms of internal colonization were fiercely contested by wars of Indian resistance as well as slave rebellions, acts of opposition that demonstrate the various forms of anti‐colonialism in North America.
Plaatje, Sol T.
Authors: Davies Dominic 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

Sol Plaatje (1876–1932) was founding general secretary of the South African Native National Congress (SANNC, later the African National Congress or ANC) and the first black African to publish a novel in English. These two achievements are emblematic of a life that was defined by both literary prominence and political activism. He was a prolific journalist and newspaper editor, providing avenues for political education and documenting the oppression and dispossession of native Africans. He was also a talented linguist and cross‐cultural interpreter, publishing translations of Shakespeare into Setswana for his African readers and Setswana proverbs into English for his British ones. His two most widely read works,
Native Life in South Africa
(1916) and
Mhudi
(1930), are both concerned with reclaiming native African culture and history with a view to the sorts of political enfranchisement and empowerment that would not be realized in South Africa until 1994: he was a man both of, and ahead of, his times.
Realism in Brazilian Literature
Authors: Gumbrecht Hans Ulrich 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Two innovative theses will be developed in reference to the concept of Brazilian realism. The first of these concerns realism as a body of texts whose center and origin are constituted by the three canonized and final novels of Joaquim Machado de Assis. Second, realism is understood not as a (close to) “objective” representation of extratextual reality, but as an intensity of reflection and narrative experimentation within a historical situation of epistemological uncertainty, concerning the possibility of understanding and describing the world in a consensual fashion. Starting out with Machado de Assis's experimental textual play within this historical situation, a nationally specific genealogy of realism can be traced from the late nineteenth into the twentieth century, connecting Machado's work to that of such classical Brazilian authors as Euclides da Cunha and Guimarães Rosa.
Religion
Authors: Santesso Esra Mirze 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Religion has an ambivalent place in postcolonial studies. While discussions of faith and spirituality are central to many postcolonial cultural productions, critical considerations of the same are relatively uncommon: the supposed liberalism of the humanities is thought to exist in contrast to the irrational and coercive discourse of religion. Even though Christianity was an important ally in furthering colonial interests, and the colonizer's religion replaced native spiritual practices, there was little interest in thinking about religion's impact on postcolonial identity. Recently, though, there has been a renewed interest in religion as an extension of diasporic subjectivity – so much so that Otherness, defined solely on the basis of race in postwar Europe, is now also a designation of religious difference. As a result of migrations from former colonies to Western states, new and competing forms of faith have begun to emerge, complicating the implementation of liberal and multicultural policies within secular states.
Resistance
Authors: Davies Dominic 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Resistance is a central concept and defining feature of postcolonial studies. The political and critical project of postcolonialism is both to look back, recovering historical resistances, and to look forward, initiating new forms of resistance. However, postcolonialism also interrogates definitions of resistance, examining its own deployment of the term and critically reflecting on the way in which resistance might be recovered and instigated. The field's self‐reflexivity and ongoing internal debates enable a shifting conception of resistance that refuses to be pinned down, but that is nevertheless able to seek, continuously and regeneratively, new counter‐tactics against hegemonic power and to work toward the liberation of oppressed peoples. Charting the etymological and semantic overlaps of resistance and postcolonialism, as well as some of the contributions to understandings of resistance by key postcolonial writers and critics, this entry explains why postcolonial resistance has been crucial to historical and literary work of the twentieth century and why it is still of imperative political and critical relevance in the twenty‐first.
Sembène, Ousmane
Authors: Diabate Naminata 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

Ousmane Sembène (1923–2007), was a filmmaker, novelist, and short‐story writer. Hailed as the father of African cinema, his many films, documentaries, and novels have earned him continental and global fame. His works occupy a crucial place in the teaching of African cinema, literature, and culture, both inside and outside the continent. The scholarly and popular attention to Sembène's productions reflects his artistry and his investment in social change. Critique of the ills of colonialism, marginalization of the materially dispossessed, post‐independence kleptocracy, and problematic cultural practices constitutes the backbone of his esthetic (literary and cinematic) productions. Although already a successful novelist, Sembène turned to filmmaking, shooting in African languages, in an attempt to reach the widest possible African audience. Despite his goal of seeking to transform consciousness with films such as
Moolaade
and
Xala
, Sembène avoided comforting, simplistic positions, leaving viewers free to make their own decisions.
Settler Colonies and Settlement Literature
Authors: Weaver‐Hightower Rebecca 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Postcolonial scholarship has tended to discuss settlement by referring to European colonization beginning in the early modern period and by differentiating “settler colonies” (like Australia and Canada) from “occupation colonies” (like Nigeria and India). Equally often, though, only the settler colony is defined and named, thus constructing its opposite (the occupation colony) as the unmarked colonial norm. The most basic distinction between the two is that, after the formal end of colonization, in settler colonies the colonizing population remained, whereas in the occupation colony most of the colonizing population returned home. One can best understand settler colonies by highlighting their distinctions from occupation colonies, though these differences between the two have been and continue to be debated.
Krausism
Authors: Orden Jiménez Rafael V. 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Krausism is a philosophical movement of liberal humanism that advocates social, legal, political, and educational reform, and which was very influential in Spanish‐ and Portuguese‐speaking countries during the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. This philosophical current was inspired by the ideas of German philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause (1781–1832) and his most prominent disciples, German legal scholar Heinrich Ahrens (1808–74) and Belgian philosopher Guillaume Tiberghien (1819–1901). Krausist ideas greatly influenced various Spanish‐speaking countries in their project of developing a process of modernization in accordance with the tradition of continental European humanism. The influence of Krause's philosophy is considered a phenomenon particular to Spain and the Spanish‐speaking countries of Latin America.
Diaspora
Authors: Neutill Rani , Desai Jigna 
Published: June 2017

Abstract

From its Greek root,
diaspora
means to literally scatter or sow across. The
Oxford English Dictionary
traces its usage to a reference in the Old Testament (Deut. 28:25) to the dispersal of the people of Israel across the world. Traditionally, the term diaspora relies on the idea of a home that has been left behind, or a home that one did not personally occupy but that one's ancestors did. Contemporary dispersed communities, known today as diasporas, differ from the original definition. Recent studies in diaspora move away from the idea of return and fixed notions of homeland and look at the intersectional nature of identity as it relates not only to race, gender, and class, but also to sexuality. This entry reviews the field of diaspora studies, examining theories of the nation, postcolonial studies, and transnationalism.
Lahiri, Jhumpa
Authors: Jussawalla Feroza 
Published: June 2017

Abstract
Jhumpa Lahiri (1967– ) is the Rabindranath Tagore or Jane Austen of contemporary diasporic American literature. Like Jane Austen, she works deftly on a “two inch bit of ivory,” Bengali family life in the US diaspora. Lahiri is an American writer dealing with American materials, the condition of immigration to America, and the cross‐cultural interaction therein.