bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Oral health and mouth diseases
Authors: MacEntee Michael I. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The mouth contributes to nutrition, respiration, and communications but it also contains potential pathogens that threaten other parts of the body. It is readily accessible to spot early signs of immune, endocrine, haematological, gastrointestinal, metabolic, and neoplastic disorders. Teeth are destroyed rapidly by the sugar-laden diets and poor oral hygiene that are common occurrences among residents of long-term care facilities. Moreover, the adverse effect of rampant dental caries from medications that disturb salivary flow is too often overlooked by physicians and pharmacists. Oral cancer causes more deaths than each of colorectal, gastric, prostate, and breast cancers, while oral mucositis can be an excruciatingly painful side effect of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Overall, impairments and disabilities of the mouth and teeth influence physical and cognitive homeostasis and frailty, whereas effective management of oral disorder is an essential component of good geriatric care for successful ageing and quality of life in old age.
Malabsorption
Authors: Ducrotté Philippe , Chassagne Philippe 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The clinical challenge of recognizing then treating malabsorption is crucial in older patients, in whom the consequences in terms of both morbidity and mortality are more severe. This challenge is reinforced by a frequent atypical clinical presentation delaying the diagnosis in many cases. Indeed, as in many diseases that occur in old patients, symptoms such as weight loss are often considered to be related to altered appetite or increased catabolism rather than to malabsorption. We now have substantial evidence that malabsorption in older people should not be ascribed to the ageing process and should be evaluated in the same way as malabsorption occurring in younger patients. In an older patient, there may be several contributory causes.
Constipation and faecal incontinence
Authors: Chassagne Philippe , Roca Frédéric 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Constipation and faecal incontinence are the two main functional digestive disorders reported by old people. Prevalence increases with age and predominantly affects women. Both are associated with poorer quality of life. Clinical assessment of constipation including a detailed history is the best approach to identify features suggesting abnormal transit or evacuation problems. As for many geriatric syndromes, medication related effects should always be considered. Faecal incontinence is a marker of disability assessed by most activities of daily living (ADL) scales. In severe cases, faecal incontinence is also associated with high mortality rates. The main risk factor for transient faecal incontinence is the coexistence of a functional digestive disorder such as constipation (especially with faecal impaction) or diarrhoea. These two conditions must be identified since they can be improved by specific therapeutic programmes, which are usually multidimensional and multiprofessional.
Symptom assessment and management at the end of life
Authors: Van Den Noortgate Nele , Sampson Elizabeth 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
As people age, the number and complexity of illnesses they develop increases. Symptoms during the last year of life in older persons are often a combination of the underlying life-threatening illness and other chronic conditions. These may be complicated by psychosocial and spiritual needs, related to life events such as bereavement. Geriatric palliative medicine involves the care and management of older patients’ progressive advanced disease, for whom the aim is quality of life. It focuses on detailed geriatric assessment, relief from pain and other symptoms such as anorexia, constipation, or delirium, and also management of psychological problems including depression or anxiety. This may be more challenging in people with cognitive impairment who may not be able to express whether they are in pain or otherwise suffering. Adequate pain and symptom management at the end of life emphasizes the need for a tailored multidisciplinary approach for patients and their family.
Healthy ageing phenotypes and trajectories
Authors: Collino Sebastiano , Comte Blandine , Guillot Estelle Pujos , Franceschi Claudio , Galindo Antonio Nuñez , Dayon Loïc , Kussmann Martin 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The concept of healthy ageing today is linked to the efforts of maintaining physical and mental independence, and to prevent the decline of physiological functions that are mandatory to guarantee a good quality of life. Yet, an individual’s ageing trajectory and underlying mechanisms are multifaceted and still far from understood. Hence, there is an urgent need for the further development of ageing phenotypes that can be utilized in the identification of biomarkers to characterize and predict biological age, taking into account the multiple dimensions of ageing. New technologies, often termed ‘systems biology’ approaches, are being increasingly applied to research focused on ageing populations. These technologies should enable investigators, and eventually clinicians, to (a) understand ageing metabolism in a more detailed and specific way; (b) enable the phenotypic characterization of many age-related disorders including chronic disease states; and (c) stratify older adults and the multiple comorbid conditions that may impact them.
Driving, transportation, and mobility in the older adult
Authors: Shapiro Benjamin M. , Fitten L. Jaime 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Older adults drive more miles than prior generations and have mobility and transportation needs that are central to independence and well-being. While older adult crash rates have decreased due to safety improvements, those aged 80 years and older have higher morbidity and mortality from crashes due to physical vulnerabilities. Normal ageing is associated with cognitive, motor, and sensory changes that prompt healthy older adults to modify their driving. Older adults use a wide range of potentially driver-impairing medications that increase accident risk. Glaucoma, visual field changes from strokes, and other impairments assessed in the Useful Field of View test can significantly increase crash risk. Moderate and advanced dementia results in unsafe driving due to the impact on ‘process skills’, resulting in the prevailing opinion that they should not drive. However, there is no appropriate screening instrument to assess driving safety among older adults.
Physiology and metabolism of fungal pathogens
Authors: Gow Neil A.R. , Brown Alistair J.P. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The metabolism and physiology of an invading fungal pathogen determine the outcome of its interaction with the host. The pathogen must be able to assimilate nutrients to grow and colonize diverse host niches. Meanwhile, the host attempts to restrict this growth by withholding some essential nutrients, by imposing stresses, and by inducing innate immune defences. These interactions involve complex regulatory networks that ultimately dictate the equilibrium between pathogen killing and the establishment of commensal or pathogenic associations.
Fungal cell structure and organization
Authors: Read Nick D 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Human pathogenic fungi produce three basic ‘cell’ types: hyphae, yeast cells, and spores. The organization and subcellular structure of these different cell types and their modes of growth and formation are reviewed. Growth and form is the consequence of how new cell surface is formed. This is generated by the delivery of vesicles to the surface which provides new membrane and the enzymes for cell wall synthesis. To generate these various cell types, the pathway of vesicle secretion to the surface has to be carefully regulated. These vesicles have to be transported through the cell by the cytoskeleton, and in filamentous cells these vesicles accumulate at a supply centre called the Spitzenkörper before docking and fusion with the hyphal apex. Ultimately, membrane is also endocytosed and recycled behind actively expanding regions of the fungal surface. These various processes are described and particular emphasis is given to the structural and organizational features of fungal cells that play roles in their pathogenesis and virulence.
Epidemiology of fungal disease
Authors: Mody Rajal K. , Cleveland Angela Ahlquist , Lockhart Shawn R. , Brandt Mary E. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Surveillance and outbreak investigations are important epidemiological tools for assessing the frequency, distribution, and determinants of infections. The primary goal of these activities is to identify measures to reduce the burden of disease. This chapter describes examples of surveillance and approaches to outbreak investigations that have formed the basis of fungal infection control measures. However, considerable knowledge gaps exist, new threats are emerging (including antifungal resistance), and healthcare advances are making more people susceptible to severe fungal infections. Expanded surveillance efforts, timely outbreak detection, and effective outbreak investigations are needed to further reduce the burden of fungal infections. This will require confronting challenges that have held back fungal disease epidemiology, including limited clinical suspicion of fungal infections by clinical providers, difficulties in diagnosing fungal infections due to suboptimal diagnostic methods, limited availability of antifungal susceptibility testing and molecular subtyping, and a lack of mandated fungal disease surveillance in most countries.
Cryptococcus species
Authors: Halliday Catriona L. , Kidd Sarah E. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are the principal pathogenic species within the genus Cryptococcus and the causative agents of cryptococcosis. Although rare, the incidence of infection due to other Cryptococcus species previously regarded as saprophytes, has increased over the last 40 years. Irrespective of the infecting species, infections are acquired following inhalation from the environment, causing localised or disseminated disease. The severity of disease is dependent on the organism’s virulence factors and the host’s immune response, and the clinical manifestations are indistinguishable. Accurate identification of the pathogenic species relies on rDNA sequencing
The dermatophytes
Authors: Howell Susan 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Dermatophytes are unique in their ability to utilize keratin as a substrate, and this makes them the commonest cause of superficial skin, hair, and nail infection worldwide. They comprise three genera and more than 30 species, and species have evolved to be anthropophilic, zoophilic, or geophilic. Infection is acquired by contact with a source, and on skin is known as ringworm because a circular lesion with a raised scaling edge may form. Diagnosis requires microscopic examination of tissue and culture to identify the pathogen. Management of infection includes identifying the source to prevent reinfection.
Pneumocystis jirovecii
Authors: Flanagan Stuart 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
In humans, Pneumocystis pneumonia is caused by a yeast-like fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii. Originally called P. carinii, this organism was thought to be a protozoan; however, the discovery of chitin, β-1,3-glucan, and ergosterol in the cell wall confirmed it as a fungus. DNA analysis demonstrated that the human disease was caused by P. jirovecii, while P. carinii was found to infect rats. P. jirovecii resides in mammalian lung tissue, usually without ill effects, but in immunocompromised hosts it becomes pathogenic and causes respiratory infection. P. jirovecii has been isolated from air and pond water samples; pond water is the potential source of infection. Almost 90% of cases of Pneumocystis pneumonia occur in HIV-positive individuals with CD4 T-cell counts below 200 cells per microlitre. The infection is diagnosed by clinical history, assessment of oxygenation levels, and direct microscopy of sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage samples. Treatment requires antibiotics and HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy) for HIV infection.
Fungal cardiovascular infections
Authors: Drake Sarah , Sandoe Jonathan 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Fungal cardiovascular disease can broadly be divided into four groups: infective endocarditis (including implantable cardiac electronic devices), mycotic aneurysms, vascular graft infections, and intravascular catheter-related infections. These conditions are rare but are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, which may be in excess of 80% in certain groups of patients. Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp. account for the majority of these infections, but rare fungi may also be involved, particularly in infective endocarditis, where they are responsible for approximately 25% of cases. This chapter will cover the epidemiology, causative fungi, clinical features, diagnosis, management, and prevention of these four fungal cardiovascular conditions.
Fungal infections of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
Authors: Hay Roderick J. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Fungal infections that involve the skin range from tinea pedis or ‘athlete’s foot’, which presents no threat to life, to less common, and often life-threatening, systemic mycoses such as cryptococcosis. The superficial infections are world-wide in distribution, and are estimated to be the fourth most common of all non-fatal causes of human disability. Diagnosis is often clinical, supported where appropriate by laboratory diagnostics. However, in those cases where deep infection is possible, screening patients for other sites of infection is key to therapeutic success. Treatment for the superficial infection is often based on topical medications obtainable without prescription, whereas the systemic infections usually require the best treatment for bloodstream-disseminated forms of infection.
Fungal diseases of the ear, nose, and throat
Authors: Chakrabarti Arunaloke 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Fungal infection of the ear (otomycosis), nose (fungal rhinosinusitis), and throat (oropharyngeal candidiasis) are common diseases. Fungal laryngeal diseases and invasive otomycosis & acute fungal rhinosinusitis are much less common and occur in immunosuppressed hosts, including those with diabetes. Aspergillus and Candida spp. are the commonest causes of otomycosis, whilst Aspergillus spp. predominate in sinus disease, with members of the Mucorales also causing serious invasive infections. Management of the non-invasive conditions can be difficult, and otomycosis and rhinosinusitis often become chronic. Invasive disease usually requires surgical intervention along with appropriate antifungal therapy. Acute invasive fungal rhinosinusitis has a mortality of approximately 50%.
Fungaemia and disseminated infection
Authors: Lester Rebecca , Rex John 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Invasive fungal disease can present without localization or obvious target organ involvement. These disseminated mycoses occur predominantly in patients who are immunocompromised, particularly from haematological malignancy and HIV. Candidiasis and aspergillosis are the commonest forms of disseminated fungal infection worldwide, but an increasing number of non-Candida yeasts and non-Aspergillus moulds have emerged as important causes of invasive disease in recent years. Endemic fungi such as Histoplasma capsulatum are important causes of invasive disease within limited geographic regions. Fever is the commonest manifestation of disseminated fungal infection, but other clinical features such as cutaneous manifestations may point to a specific diagnosis. Definitive diagnosis relies on the detection of fungi in tissue or blood, but serological tests can augment diagnosis in some infections. Mortality from disseminated fungal disease is high and prompt initiation of antifungal therapy—where invasive disease is suspected—is essential.
Genito-urinary fungal infections
Authors: Sobel Jack D. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The predominant fungal causes of genitourinary disease are Candida spp.; other fungal genera are uncommon pathogens in both sexes. Vulvovaginal candidiasis affects millions of women worldwide—and includes acute sporadic, recurrent, and chronic syndromes—and considerable progress has been made in understanding its pathophysiology and hence the best therapy. Therapeutic options are still limited, however, and misdiagnosis is common. In contrast, urinary tract candidiasis reflects an entirely different pathogenesis and clinical expression affecting a predominantly hospital-based older population. Candida organisms are extremely difficult to eradicate from often complicated urinary tract infections. Non-Candida fungal species reach the kidney and prostate by the bloodstream rather than the ascending route taken by Candida spp. In women, not infrequently, there is simultaneous lower genital tract and urinary tract infection, requiring attention to both systems.
Fungal eye infections
Authors: Clark Heather L. , Pearlman Eric 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Mycotic keratitis is a fungal infection of the cornea that leads to severe, painful ulceration and loss of vision, and is a major cause of blindness worldwide, particularly in the developing world. Major risk factors for mycotic keratitis include ocular trauma and contact lens use. Both yeasts and moulds can cause mycotic keratitis, with the filamentous moulds of the Fusarium and Aspergillus genera the most common aetiological agents worldwide. Fungi, particularly Candida spp. yeasts, can also cause endophthalmitis—a painful, blinding infection of the posterior eye. Treatment of these infections is challenging owing to a limited arsenal of antifungal agents and highly variable susceptibility among causative fungi. Furthermore, associated inflammation contributes greatly to tissue damage and permanent blindness. Studies using experimental models of mycotic keratitis have revealed new targets for novel antifungal agents and anti-inflammatory therapies that have the potential to reduce the impact of these devastating infections.
Fungal diseases of the respiratory tract
Authors: Jacobs Samantha E. , Small Catherine B. , Walsh Thomas J. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Fungal respiratory infections are important causes of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients. Invasive aspergillosis remains the most common invasive fungal infection whereas other filamentous fungi, such as Fusarium spp., Mucorales, and Scedosporium spp., are increasing in frequency, particularly in neutropenic hosts. Endemic mycoses, including those due to Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides spp., and Talaromyces marneffei, are increasingly prevalent in patients with cell-mediated immunodeficiencies in respective geographic regions. Culture remains the gold standard of diagnosis but has limited sensitivity and often requires invasive procedures. Non-invasive diagnostic tests, including the serum sandwich enzyme immunoassay for the detection of galactomannan, the (1→3)-β-D-glucan assay, and molecular amplification methods have been developed to facilitate early and accurate diagnosis. Successful therapy depends upon early initiation of antifungal agents and reversal of immunosuppression. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B and newer generation triazoles including voriconazole, posaconazole, and isavuconazole have expanded the ability to treat multi-drug resistant pathogens more effectively and with less toxicity.
Fungal infections in haemato-oncology
Authors: Koehler Philipp , Cornely Oliver A. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Invasive fungal infections on haemato-oncology wards present a major challenge. Patients at risk for invasive fungal infection usually have a compromised immune system due to bone marrow failure caused by underlying disease, prolonged neutropenia after intensive chemotherapy, or immunosuppression after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation to avoid graft-versus-host disease. Three major entities—invasive candidiasis, invasive aspergillosis, and mucormycosis—account for the majority of fungal infections. Here, we describe specific host and therapeutic factors predisposing to invasive fungal infection in the haemato-oncology setting. Clinical presentation is highly variable and dependent on the underlying pathogen, organ involvement, and site of infection. Diagnosis is mainly based on radiographic imaging combined with microbiological and histopathological work-up. Various prophylaxis and treatment strategies have been developed, and the evidence for these is discussed.
Fungal infections among patients with AIDS
Authors: Denis Blandine , Lanternier Fanny , Lortholary Olivier 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Fungal infections are the most common opportunistic infections occurring in HIV-infected patients, though their incidence has decreased dramatically with the introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Most cases occur in untreated/non-compliant patients or patients whose multiple antiretroviral regimens have failed. They are a good marker of the severity of cellular immunodepression. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia remains a frequent opportunistic infection in rich resource settings, and cryptococcosis a major problem in the Southern Hemisphere. In endemic areas, infections due to dimorphic fungi are an important group. An exhaustive search for dissemination should be made in HIV-infected patients—at least for those at an advanced stage of immune deficiency. Introduction of cART in combination with antifungal treatment depends on the risk of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) progression, and on the risk of cumulative toxicity and the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome if introduced too early. Fungal infections remain a problem in the cART era.
Fungal infections in solid organ transplantation
Authors: James Darius Armstrong , Shah Anand , Reed Anna 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Fungal infections are a significant and life-threatening complication of organ transplantation, on a global scale. Risk varies according to transplant type, with liver, lung, and small bowel transplant recipients being at particular risk. Whilst invasive candidiasis is the most common fungal infection in organ transplantation overall, aspergillosis is a particular problem in lung transplantation. In addition, a wide spectrum of fungi may cause invasive disease in organ transplantation, consequently diagnosis and treatment can be challenging. Key challenges are to understand individual risk for infection, appropriate prophylactic strategies, and molecular diagnostic approaches. Treatment options are complicated by drug–drug interactions with transplant therapy, as well as intrinsic allograft dysfunction seen in many patients. In this chapter, we review the epidemiology, risk factors, diagnosis, and management of fungal infections in solid organ transplantation.
Fungal infections in intensive therapy units
Authors: Barnes Rosemary A. , Backx Matthijs 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Invasive candidiasis remains the main cause of invasive fungal disease in the intensive care unit. The risk of infection is often overestimated and most units will have incidences of 1–2% or lower. Units with higher incidences may have specific geographical and epidemiological factors, or may need to address infection control issues contributing to transmission. Routine use of prophylaxis or empiric therapy is not warranted at this level of disease. Discriminatory risk factors for this low incidence of disease are poorly defined and Candida specific biomarkers have not been validated for pre-emptive therapy. Insights into human response to invasive fungal disease gained from proteomic and genomic studies will increase our understanding, enabling us to target fungal diagnostics and antifungal treatments more accurately.