bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cytokine Assays
Authors: Butterfield Lisa H , Whiteside Theresa L 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Cytokines are small molecular weight proteins or glycoproteins produced by various cells. They mediate cellular interactions and play a key role in health and disease. They bind to high‐affinity receptors located on various target cells and deliver signals responsible for a variety of biological effects. Once induced by external or internal stimuli, cytokines work as cascades. They regulate physiological interactions between cells, but they also have a potential for inducing tissue damage. While cytokines are local mediators meant to transiently regulate cells within microenvironments, in disease, they may trigger powerful and long‐lasting systemic toxicities. Cytokines are mediators of inflammation, and their qualitative and quantitative ‘profiles’ change as acute states become chronic. Today, cytokine expression by individual cells, their levels in body fluids and localisation in tissues can be readily measured and serially monitored to follow disease‐associated alterations. Measurements of ‘cytokine profiles’ are emerging as an important and informative parameter in diagnosis and prognosis of many human diseases.

Key Concepts

Assessments of cytokines underscore their physiological importance in health and disease.

A broad spectrum of assays for cytokine measurements is available.

Measuring several cytokines, establishing a ‘cytokine profile’, is most informative.

Cytokines are induced mediators and their biological effects are transient.

Cytokines mediate inflammation and thus impact on many clinical symptoms.

Profiling of cytokines may be diagnostically and prognostically useful.

Serial monitoring of cytokine profiles in disease emerges as a clinically helpful strategy.

The role of cytokines as biomarkers of disease progression and outcome is still to be validated.
Plant Reproduction
Authors: Brownfield Lynette , Twell David 
Published: January 2016

AbstractReproduction is required for the generation of new individuals. In land plants, reproduction can be asexual, where the offspring are genetically identical to the parent, or sexual, creating genetic variation. The life cycle of plants involves two alternating generations; a sporophyte that makes spores and a gametophyte that produces male and female gametes. During land plant evolution, this life cycle has altered from the gametophyte generation being the larger dominant generation to the sporophyte being the dominant plant we are familiar with. The structures that make spores and gametes, and the way reproductive cells are exchanged and dispersed, have also altered greatly as plants became better adapted to living in drier environments. Reproduction in the flowering plants has been extensively studied due to their economic importance, and we are beginning to uncover intriguing details of the molecular events that control critical aspects of the process in model and crop plants.Key ConceptsAsexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring and is beneficial under good conditions.Plants alternate between a diploid spore‐producing generation and a haploid gamete‐producing generation.In plants, spores are produced by meiosis and can be either released into the environment (bryophytes and nonseed plants) or develop within maternal tissues (seed plants).Distinct male and female gametes are produced in plants by mitotic divisions of haploid cells.Pollen is an evolutionary advance as it enables the dispersal and the delivery of the male gametes to the female gametes in the absence of free water.Seeds aid in the dispersal of offspring by providing a protective coat and a nutrition source to support seedlings during germination.The time of flowering is controlled through both internal signals and environmental cues, which control the production of a flower promoting protein.The development of the male and female gametophytes in flowering plants requires precise regulation to ensure the correct cell types are generated in the correct locations.Pollination is the process by which a pollen grain lands on a receptive female and grows a pollen tube through the female tissue towards an ovule.Seed development in flowering plants requires two fertilisation events (double fertilisation) to produce the embryo and an endosperm needed for seed development.
Roots: Contribution to the Rhizosphere
Authors: Curlango‐Rivera Gilberto , Gunawardena Uvini , Wen Fushi , Zhao Xiaowen , Xiong Zhongguo , Hawes Martha C 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Diverse compounds exuded by different parts of the root system create a unique environment known as the rhizosphere. Interactions among microorganisms found within the rhizosphere and communication between these microorganisms and plant roots play an important role in maintaining plant health. In 2004, the discovery of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)‐based neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have transformed our understanding of mammalian immune responses. Subsequent studies revealed that plant roots express a similar mechanism in the rhizosphere, where root border cells secrete extracellular DNA together with antibiotic amino acids, enzymes and other proteins, to trap pathogens and prevent their invasion of the root system. As in animals, the defense response is impaired if extracellular proteins and/or extracellular DNA are degraded by protease and/or by DNase at the time of inoculation with fungal or bacterial pathogens. Defining species‐specific mechanisms of plant extracellular trapping may yield new avenues for engineering the rhizosphere to improve crop production.

Key Concepts

Extracellular DNA (exDNA) in the rhizosphere has long been observed, and was presumed to result from cell death.

Recent studies have revealed that exDNA is a key component of an extracellular matrix involved in trapping and immobilisation of pathogens.

The specificity of exDNA‐based trapping may play a critical role in microbial population structure in the rhizosphere.

The discovery that DNA‐based extracellular trapping operates in animals and plants suggests that this previously unrecognised process is an ancient underpinning of eukaryotic defence.

Efforts to engineer the rhizosphere may be facilitated by a better understanding of how plants control the environment surrounding their roots.
Enzyme‐Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Authors: Paulie Staffan , Perlmann Hedvig 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a highly sensitive immunoassay utilising enzyme‐conjugated antibodies, with antigen or antibodies bound to a solid support. The assay measures changes in enzyme activities proportional to the antigen or antibody concentrations involved in the underlying immune reactions. The assay exists in many variants and can be designed both for detection of antigen‐specific antibodies and for quantitative measurements of virtually any substance. Major applications include diagnostic assessment of disease‐related antibodies and detection and quantitation of hormones, cytokines and antigens from common pathogens. A special variant of the assay, ELISpot, can be used for studying secretion of analytes by single cells and is widely used for studying immune responses to vaccination and natural infection at the level of individual T and B cells.

Key Concepts

ELISA assays can be configured in many ways and used in many fields of science.

The combination of high sensitivity and specificity, simple procedure and the possibility to use both for analysing individual samples and for automated high‐throughput screening makes ELISA an ideal assay for many purposes.

Indirect ELISA is the basis for a large number of serological assays where detection of antibodies to infectious pathogens, allergens and autoimmune target antigens is the main diagnostic indicator of disease.

Sandwich ELISA, using an immobilised capture antibody and a labelled detection antibody, allows highly specific and sensitive detection and quantitation of virtually any antigenic substance including hormones, cytokines, toxins and microbial pathogens.

ELISpot allows detection of secreted products at the single‐cell level, making it possible to identify individual antigen‐specific T and B cells based on their secretion of cytokines and antibodies, respectively.
History of Insulin
Authors: Dagen Morag M 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce the peptide hormone insulin, which is necessary for the regulation of glucose metabolism. Before the advent of insulin treatment, the condition was invariably fatal. At the beginning of the twentieth century, aware of the accumulating evidence that the hyperglycaemia of diabetes mellitus could be controlled by an extract of the pancreas, Banting and Best produced the first clinically useful insulin preparation at the University of Toronto.
Insulin research led to a number of important breakthroughs in biochemistry: insulin was the first protein to be sequenced, it was the first peptide hormone shown to be formed by a posttranslational transformation of an inactive precursor and it was also the first genetically engineered protein to be approved for clinical use.

Key Concepts

Control of blood glucose levels is vitally important for health, and these are regulated by the hormone insulin.

Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by the pancreas.

Insufficient insulin results in the endocrine disease, diabetes mellitus.

Hyperglycaemia and glycosuria (glucose in urine) are important signs of diabetes mellitus.

Insulin and C‐peptide are produced by cleavage of proinsulin, a precursor protein.

Pharmaceutical insulin preparations do not currently contain C‐peptide.
Genetic Risk for Substance Abuse and Addiction: Family and Twin Studies
Authors: Prescott Carol A , Khoddam Rubin , Arpawong Thalida E 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Evidence from family, adoption and twin studies indicates that genetic variation contributes to the risk for developing addiction to alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs and to the comorbidity of addictions with other psychiatric disorders. For instance, it is estimated that 50–60% of the variation in risk for alcoholism is accounted for by genetic factors. Genetic influences are implicated in multiple aspects of substance involvement, including predispositions to drug‐seeking behaviour and development of physiological dependence. These influences likely occur through multiple mechanisms, ranging from cellular processes (e.g. metabolic, pharmacologic) to psychological (e.g. personality traits). Environmental factors are also key – individuals' psychosocial histories may outweigh their genetic predispositions or can combine with genetic factors to magnify or decrease risk for developing addictions.

Key Concepts

Substance abuse and addiction run in families.

Genetic epidemiology uses family, adoption and twin studies to address whether the familiality of addiction is due to environmental factors, genetic transmission or a combination of both.

For both men and women, 50–60% of the risk for developing alcoholism is familial and virtually all of this is due to genetic factors.

Experimenting with tobacco is primarily environmentally influenced, but genetic factors influence who develops addiction.

Addiction to illicit substances also appears to have a genetic component for males; fewer studies have been conducted in females.

The available research is based on samples of European ancestry; genetic and environmental estimates could differ for other populations.
Genetic Influences on Dental Caries
Authors: Vieira Alexandre R 
Published: January 2016

AbstractDental caries is the most common bacteria‐mediated disease in the world despite being highly preventable. It is traditionally described as the interplay among a susceptible host, microbiota and diet. While studies of environmental risk factors have dominated the research effort on cariology, the past decade has demonstrated a growing interest in the factors that are genetically controlled that directly affect the host. The dental enamel, saliva and immune responses and individual behaviours are such factors. Genes involved in dental enamel development have been in the centre of most recent investigations; however, genes related to immune responses and saliva formation appear to be growing in interest. Genetics of behaviour is still an area completely unexplored in the cariology field, with the exception of the known variants that influence individual taste preferences. New insight may come for exploring the genes that are involved in the decision‐making process.Key ConceptsDental caries is a bacteria‐mediated disease that is greatly influenced by factors of the host.Host factors influencing dental caries are genetically influenced.Our limited understanding of the genetic influences of the host has impaired our ability for preventing dental caries at the population level.
Molecular Genetics of Hereditary Folate Malabsorption
Authors: Watkins David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Hereditary folate malabsorption is a genetic disorder that results in the specific inability to absorb ingested folate in the intestine and to transport serum folate across the blood–brain barrier into the cerebrospinal fluid. Absorption of other vitamins and nutrients is unimpaired. Affected individuals come to medical attention during the first year of life with low serum and cerebrospinal folate levels, megaloblastic anaemia and immunologic and neurologic findings. The disorder is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait and is caused by mutations in the
SLC46A1
gene, which encodes the proton‐coupled folate transporter (PCFT). Mutations at
SLC46A1
have been identified in over 30 patients with hereditary folate malabsorption. Several of these result in failure to translocate PCFT at the cell membrane; one was shown to encode a protein that was targeted to the cell membrane but did not support folate uptake.

Key Concepts

Hereditary folate malabsorption is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder.

The disorder results in decreased intestinal folate absorption and decreased serum folate levels.

It also results in decreased cerebrospinal fluid folate levels owing to decreased folate transport across the blood–brain barrier.

Patients have megaloblastic anaemia, immunological deficits and, in some cases, neurological problems.

Hereditary folate malabsorption is caused by mutations in the
SLC46A1
gene, which encodes the proton‐coupled folate transporter (PCFT).

Treatment with parenteral folinic acid corrects both haematological and neurological problems in hereditary folate malabsorption.

Study of patients with hereditary folate malabsorption demonstrated that PCFT was the physiological folate transporter in the small intestine.

PCFT and folate receptor α are required for folate transport across the blood–brain barrier.
Molecular Genetics of Preeclampsia
Authors: Williams Paula J 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Preeclampsia can occur during pregnancy affecting the health of both the mother and her baby during pregnancy. Preeclampsia is known to have a placental origin; however, the pathogenic changes which lead to the development of systemic endothelial dysfunction characteristic of the disorder remain to be determined. The key factors with an underlying genetic component, which are accepted as being important in the development of preeclampsia, include immune maladaptation, inadequate placentation, oxidative stress and thrombosis. For many years, it has been known that preeclampsia has a genetic component, and as such extensive genetic research has been carried out in this area using strategies including candidate gene studies and linkage analysis. Elucidating the exact genetic contribution to this disorder still remains a challenge owing to the complication of interactions between foetal and maternal genotypes, the environment and epistasis.

Key Concepts

The placenta is key to the development of preeclampsia.

Inadequate trophoblast invasion is one of the primary stages involved in the pathogenesis of the severe early onset form of preeclampsia.

Systemic endothelial dysfunction underlies the development of hypertension characteristic of preeclampsia.

Understanding the genetic contribution to preeclampsia is complicated owing to the interaction between maternal and foetal genotypes.

STOX1 and ACVR2A have been identified as potential positional candidate genes in preeclampsia.
Voltammetry: Electrochemical Detection of Neurotransmitters in the Brain
Authors: Patel Jyoti C 
Published: January 2016

AbstractVoltammetry is an electrochemical technique that capitalises on the ability of some substances to become oxidised or reduced. A variety of voltammetric methods have been developed for the detection of biogenic amines such as dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin in the brain. Each method differs in selectivity for the transmitter of interest and in temporal resolution. Of these, fast‐scan cyclic voltammetry (FCV) at carbon fibre electrodes has been used extensively for monitoring the evoked or spontaneous release of biogenic amines in various brain regions with temporal and spatial resolutions that capture extrasynaptic transmission. Studies in rodent and non‐rodent brain slices containing either monoamine cell bodies or axonal projections enable the dynamics of neurotransmitter release and its regulation by monoamine transporters, autoreceptors and local neuromodulators to be examined. Furthermore, rapid detection of release in freely moving animals can reveal the role of biogenic amines in motivated behaviour.Key ConceptsDopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin are the major biogenic amine transmitters in the brain.Voltammetry is an electrochemical method that detects the current generated when an electroactive molecule is oxidised; the current generated is directly proportional to the number of molecules oxidised.Many biologically active substances are electroactive and therefore possess the ability to become oxidised or reduced when a sufficient voltage is applied at a suitable electrochemical electrode.Carbon fibre microelectrodes are excellent electrochemical sensors for monitoring biogenic amines in the brain.Fast‐scan cyclic voltammetry (FCV) at carbon fibre microelectrode sensors resolves electroactive compounds by way of their peak oxidation and/or reduction potentials, and is the most popular voltammetric method used to detect neurotransmitter release.Studies of biogenic amine release regulation using FCV have made significant contributions to our present understanding of neurotransmitter release regulation and the role of monoamines in normal and pathological conditions.Brain slices have been used extensively for studies of monoamine release regulation using voltammetric methods.
Thermosome: A Group
II
Chaperonin of Archaea
Authors: Yamamoto Yohei Y , Yohda Masafumi 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Chaperonin, heat shock protein 60, plays an important role in the proteostasis of cytosol. Chaperonins are divided into two groups: group I and group II. Group II chaperonins exist in eukaryotes and archaea, and these chaperonins are named CCT/TRiC and Thermosome, respectively. Group II chaperonins have almost the same structure as group I chaperonins. The main difference is the existence of a helical protrusion, which constitutes a built‐in lid of the cavity. Group II chaperonin captures an unfolded protein in the cavity in the open conformation and changes to the closed conformation in an ATP‐dependent manner, which triggers folding of the captured protein. As Thermosome is relatively stable and simple compared with CCT, the conformational change mechanism and also the interaction with co‐chaperone, Prefoldin, have been studied in detail using Thermosome. The conformational change procedure of Thermosome will give insights on protein folding mechanism by group II chaperonins.

Key Concepts

Group II chaperonin is an essential cytosolic molecular chaperone in eukaryotes and archaea.

The archaeal group II chaperonin is named Thermosome.

Group II chaperonin has a built‐in lid for the central cavity.

As ATP induces a conformational change from the open to the closed conformation, twisting of the ring occurs.

Group II chaperonin cooperates with a co‐chaperone, Prefoldin, which captures an unfolded protein and transfers it to the central cavity of the group II chaperonin.
Does the Clinical Context Improve the Reliability of Rheumatologists Grading Digital Ulcers in Systemic Sclerosis?
Authors: Hughes M. , Roberts C. , Tracey A. , Dinsdale G. , Murray A. , Herrick A. L. 
Published: January 2016

ObjectiveDigital ulcers (DUs) are often a primary end point in systemic sclerosis (SSc; scleroderma) clinical trials, although the reliability of rheumatologists grading DUs is poor to moderate at best. DU assessment in recent trials has been based upon visual inspection alone, which potentially misses “real‐world” clinical contextual information. Our aim was to investigate whether this clinical information improves the reliability of rheumatologists grading DUs. A secondary aim was to assess agreement between patients and rheumatologists.MethodsEighty images of a range of digital lesions were collected from patients with SSc with the clinical context: pain (severity and temporal relationship), lesion duration, and discharge (patient reported and clinician observed). Raters received all images either with or without the clinical context, and graded these images (using a custom‐built interface) on an ordinal scale of severity: no ulcer, inactive ulcer, or active ulcer. Patients also graded their lesion(s) on the same scale.ResultsFifty‐one rheumatologists from 15 countries completed the study (26 without and 25 with context): 4,590 (including 510 repeated) image gradings were obtained. Context did not significantly increase (without and with context) either intra‐ (0.64, 0.71) or interrater (0.32, 0.36) reliability. Pain (visual analog scale and temporal relationship) and discharge (patient reported and clinician observed) were associated with increased lesion severity, and duration with reduced severity. Agreement between individual patients and rheumatologists was poor without and with context (0.19, 0.28).ConclusionThe overall intra‐ and interrater reliability of DU grading did not significantly improve with the clinical context. Agreement between patients and rheumatologists was poor.
Synthesis and Characterization of Novel OAT‐g‐PMMA Matrices: Its Application in Controlled and Colonic Drug Delivery
Authors: Bharti Srijita , Mishra Sumit , Dey Kartick Prasad 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThis research reports synthesis of novel graft copolymers of oatmeal (OAT‐g‐PMMA) using a methyl methacrylate monomer via the “microwave‐assisted” technique which were applied as matrices. The synthesized matrices were used to develop the bioavailability of model drug (5‐amino salicylic acid (5‐ASA)) for colon‐targeted delivery. Characterization of novel synthesized matrices includes intrinsic viscosity, 13C‐CP/MAS solid‐state NMR spectroscopy, FTIR, DSC, SEM, TGA, UV, and elemental analysis. In vitro release studies of 5‐ASA were performed in simulated gastric medium (pH 2) and simulated intestinal medium (pH 7 and 7.4). The release rate of 5‐ASA from OAT‐g‐PMMA matrices was found to be slower than oatmeal in simulated gastric media. However, the reverse trend was observed in simulated intestinal medium. These results suggest that synthesized novel OAT‐g‐PMMA matrices are more suitable for oral delivery of applied model drug as compared to starting biopolymer (oatmeal) with special reference followed by the Fickian diffusion mechanism as a colonic drug carrier.