bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lexical Sorting in Snobol
Authors: Jones Randall L. , Fletcher William H. 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
Alphabetical sorting routines useful in processing natural language texts are explored in this article. Four basic algorithms (Bin, Bubble, Tree and Chain sorts) and five SNOBOL implementations of these algorithms are discussed. In addition, the authors deal with problems of program-defined special character sets and sorting orders diverging from standard machine collating sequence, as well as questions of producing reverse-alphabetized word lists. Comparative running times for these programs on representative corpora of varying sizes are tabulated and compared. For those readers unfamiliar with SNOBOL, the article offers a brief introduction to the language sufficient to allow understanding of these and many other SNOBOL programs. Thus the programmer who works with other languages can both familiarize himself with SNOBOL, and at the same time learn enough to translate the sort programs into his usual language. Reference is also made to SPITBOL, a recently developed high-speed compiler for SNOBOL.
Further Experiments in Language Translation
Authors: Sinaiko H. Wallace , Klare R.George 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
Language translation by computer has been proposed as a solution to the backlog of training and operational manuals awaiting translation by more conventional means. This study reports one of a series of experiments to assess the quality of translations produced by human translators and computers. The type of material under study was technical text (i.e., maintenance manuals) and the translation was from English to Vietnamese.
Utility or readability of the translations was assessed by reading comprehension tests, the cloze procedure (in which readers filled in blanks where words had been systematically deleted) and a rating scale for judging clarity. Time to perform each of these tasks was also measured. The subjects were 141 Vietnamese Navy officer candidates and a control group of 57 U.S. Navy officer candidates. A 500-word passage, from a U.S. Navy casualty control instruction, was translated by computer into a rough (un-edited) and a finished (post-edited) version; also, highly competent human translators prepared a Vietnamese text. Some Vietnamese subjects served as controls and took all tests based on the English, or untranslated, version.
Major conclusions were: (1) Translations produced by highly qualified humans were consistently more comprehensible than those produced by computer, whether edited or un-edited; post-edited versions of computer produced text were more comprehensible than unedited ones; most differences were not statistically significant; (2) Vietnamese Navy officer candidates were able to read text in English as well as its best Vietnamese version and their test scores were about as high as those of American control subjects. Reading speed was not affected by mode of translation.
Error Analysis A Recent Pseudoprocedure in Applied Linguistics
Authors: Bell Roger 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
In recent years, applied linguists have been much concerned with the description of linguistic behaviour previously labelled as «deviant». In particular, a technique known as «error analysis» has been developed by means of which it is claimed access is gained to the «transitional competence» of the L2 learner thus making the description of the learner's «interlanguage» and the explanation of the systematic nature of the errors generated by its grammar possible. Such a Technique can, if its claims are justified, be of inestimable value to linguist, teacher and learner but equally, if its claims are false, can lead to invalid assumptions concerning the nature of the «interlanguage», the form of appropriate teaching materials and learning strategies employed by learners.
It is suggested here, that in addition to being based on a number of false assumptions and offering a partly spurious assistance to those engaged in the language learning process, error analysis is in itself, an inadmissable pseudoprocedure which purports to contain a methodology that is, in part, impossible in principle and in part, in practice.
Hence, we need to reconsider the status of the concept «interlanguage», the analytical techniques involved in its description and the validity of the claims made for both.
Types of Translation Departures and Other Linguistic Events Occuring in Simultaneous Interpretation
Authors: Barik Henri C. 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
In simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter's version may depart from the original in three general ways: material may be omitted, added or substituted by the interpreter. An analysis of translations obtained from three classes of interpreters (professionals, students and amateurs) permits the categorization of these events. Four categories of omissions (skipping, comprehension, delay and compounding omissions), four categories of additions (qualifier, elaboration, relationship and closure additions), and five categories of substitutions or errors (varying degrees of semantic of phrasing changes) are specified, and examples of each type are given. Other linguistic events occuring in simultaneous interpretation are discussed.
Completion Grammars and Completion Automata Revisited
Authors: Steels Luc 
Published: December 2016

An extension of completion grammars is being introduced such that the model now deals with prefix, infix, postfix and post-infix word order patterns. It is shown that this extension does not affect the weak generative capacity of the system, which was known to be of type 2.
Also the existing notion of a completion automaton is reworked, mainly to have the distinction in word order be reflected by the operations of the automaton rather than by the transition functions of the underlying finite state machine.
In some recent publications (e.g. Steels (1975), Steels and Vermeir (1976), Steels (1976a&b» we have been dealing with a linguistic model known as compZetion grammars. These grammars were designed to cope with a functional viewpoint on language, this means they deal with case structures for language,expressions, instead of phrase structures as do the well-known Chomsky-type grammars.
The model of completion grammars was developed in a context of research on language processing and automatic translation. In particular it reflects the current tendency to build semantics directed systems, rather than syntax directed ones. (See for a more detailed discussion on the distinction between the two Wilks (1975) and Winograd (1973). For the use of completion grammars in the design of semantics directed systems, we refer to Steels (1975;1976a&b).
What will concern us in this paper is an extension of the model, and a study of the formal properties of these extended systems. Also we will introduce a new class of automata. The paper is organized as follows. First we extend the notion of a completion grammar, we give some intuitive explanations for the extension (1.1.), specify the basic definitions (1.2.) and study its weak generative capacity (1.3.). A second section deals with the automata. Again we start with intuitive explanations (2.1.), give the basic definitions and various examples (2.2.) and finally prove the relation between the grammars and the automata (2.3.).
Funktiewcorden - een Inventarisatie voor het Nederlands
Authors: van Wijk Carel , Kempen Gerard 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
This paper presents an inventory of the function words of the Dutch language. The function words, 418 in total, have been classified into eight categories: prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, relatives, pro-forms, auxiliary and copula verbs, conjunctive adverbs, and intensifiers. In addition, a list is given of about 300 adverbs, that is, of words which can only serve an adverbial grammatical function (and not as adjectives, for example). The lists were compiled by going through the 19 76 edition of the authoritative Van Dale dictionary and cross-checking against various other sources (word lists, word counts, and grammar books). The inventory of function words is claimed to be virtually complete; from the list of adverbs a few members may be missing.
Long-Term Exposure to NO2 and Ozone and Hypertension Incidence in the Black Women’s Health Study
Authors: Coogan Patricia F. , White Laura F. , Yu Jeffrey , Brook Robert D. , Burnett Richard T. , Marshall Julian D. , Bethea Traci N. , Rosenberg Lynn , Jerrett Michael 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

BACKGROUND
Evidence shows that exposure to air pollutants can increase blood pressure in the short and long term. Some studies show higher levels of hypertension prevalence in areas of high pollution. Few data exist on the association of air pollution with hypertension incidence. The purpose of the present study was to prospectively assess the associations of the traffic-related nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and of ozone with the incidence of hypertension in the Black Women’s Health Study (BWHS), a large cohort study of African American women.

METHODS
We used Cox proportional hazards models to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for hypertension associated with exposure to NO2 and ozone among 33,771 BWHS participants. NO2 and ozone levels at participant residential locations were estimated with validated models.

RESULTS
From 1995 to 2011, 9,570 incident cases of hypertension occurred in a total of 348,154 person-years (median follow-up time, 11 years). The multivariable HRs per interquartile range of NO2 (9.7 ppb) and ozone (6.7 ppb) were 0.92 (95% CI = 0.86, 0.98) and 1.09 (95% CI = 1.00, 1.18).

CONCLUSIONS
In this large cohort of African American women, higher ozone levels were associated with an increase in hypertension incidence. Higher NO2 levels were not associated with greater hypertension incidence; indeed, incidence was lower at higher NO2 levels.
Impact of Intravenous Immunoglobulin on Survival in Necrotizing Fasciitis With Vasopressor-Dependent Shock: A Propensity Score–Matched Analysis From 130 US Hospitals
Authors: Kadri Sameer S. , Swihart Bruce J. , Bonne Stephanie L. , Hohmann Samuel F. , Hennessy Laura V. , Louras Peter , Evans Heather L. , Rhee Chanu , Suffredini Anthony F. , Hooper David C. , Follmann Dean A. , Bulger Eileen M. , Danner Robert L. 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Background.
Shock frequently complicates necrotizing fasciitis (NF) caused by group A Streptococcus (GAS) or Staphylococcus aureus. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is sometimes administered for presumptive toxic shock syndrome (TSS), but its frequency of use and efficacy are unclear.

Methods.
Adult patients with NF and vasopressor-dependent shock undergoing surgical debridement from 2010 to 2014 were identified at 130 US hospitals. IVIG cases were propensity-matched and risk-adjusted. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality and the secondary outcome was median length of stay (LOS).

Results.
Of 4127 cases of debrided NF with shock at 121 centers, only 164 patients (4%) at 61 centers received IVIG. IVIG subjects were younger with lower comorbidity indices, but higher illness severity. Clindamycin and vasopressor intensity were higher among IVIG cases, as was coding for TSS and GAS. In-hospital mortality did not differ between matched IVIG and non-IVIG groups (crude mortality, 27.3% vs 23.6%; adjusted odds ratio, 1.00 [95% confidence interval, .55–1.83]; P = .99). Early IVIG (≤2 days) did not alter this effect (P = .99). Among patients coded for TSS, GAS, and/or S. aureus, IVIG use was still unusual (59/868 [6.8%]) and lacked benefit (P = .63). Median LOS was similar between IVIG and non-IVIG groups (26 [13–49] vs 26 [11–43]; P = .84). Positive predictive values for identifying true NF and debridement among IVIG cases using our algorithms were 97% and 89%, respectively, based on records review at 4 hospitals.

Conclusions.
Adjunctive IVIG was administered infrequently in NF with shock and had no apparent impact on mortality or hospital LOS beyond that achieved with debridement and antibiotics.
Perspectives on the history of evo-devo and the contemporary research landscape in the genomics era
Authors: Tickle Cheryll , Urrutia Araxi O. 
Published: December 2016

A fundamental question in biology is how the extraordinary range of living organisms arose. In this theme issue, we celebrate how evolutionary studies on the origins of morphological diversity have changed over the past 350 years since the first publication of thePhilosophical Transactions of The Royal Society. Current understanding of this topic is enriched by many disciplines, including anatomy, palaeontology, developmental biology, genetics and genomics. Development is central because it is the means by which genetic information of an organism is translated into morphology. The discovery of the genetic basis of development has revealed how changes in form can be inherited, leading to the emergence of the field known as evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo). Recent approaches include imaging, quantitative morphometrics and, in particular, genomics, which brings a new dimension. Articles in this issue illustrate the contemporary evo-devo field by considering general principles emerging from genomics and how this and other approaches are applied to specific questions about the evolution of major transitions and innovations in morphology, diversification and modification of structures, intraspecific morphological variation and developmental plasticity. Current approaches enable a much broader range of organisms to be studied, thus building a better appreciation of the origins of morphological diversity.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
Alternative splicing and the evolution of phenotypic novelty
Authors: Bush Stephen J. , Chen Lu , Tovar-Corona Jaime M. , Urrutia Araxi O. 
Published: December 2016

Alternative splicing, a mechanism of post-transcriptional RNA processing whereby a single gene can encode multiple distinct transcripts, has been proposed to underlie morphological innovations in multicellular organisms. Genes with developmental functions are enriched for alternative splicing events, suggestive of a contribution of alternative splicing to developmental programmes. The role of alternative splicing as a source of transcript diversification has previously been compared to that of gene duplication, with the relationship between the two extensively explored. Alternative splicing is reduced following gene duplication with the retention of duplicate copies higher for genes which were alternatively spliced prior to duplication. Furthermore, and unlike the case for overall gene number, the proportion of alternatively spliced genes has also increased in line with the evolutionary diversification of cell types, suggesting alternative splicing may contribute to the complexity of developmental programmes. Together these observations suggest a prominent role for alternative splicing as a source of functional innovation. However, it is unknown whether the proliferation of alternative splicing events indeed reflects a functional expansion of the transcriptome or instead results from weaker selection acting on larger species, which tend to have a higher number of cell types and lower population sizes.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
Phylogenetic evidence for the modular evolution of metazoan signalling pathways
Authors: Babonis Leslie S. , Martindale Mark Q. 
Published: December 2016

Communication among cells was paramount to the evolutionary increase in cell type diversity and, ultimately, the origin of large body size. Across the diversity of Metazoa, there are only few conserved cell signalling pathways known to orchestrate the complex cell and tissue interactions regulating development; thus, modification to these few pathways has been responsible for generating diversity during the evolution of animals. Here, we summarize evidence for the origin and putative function of the intracellular, membrane-bound and secreted components of seven metazoan cell signalling pathways with a special focus on early branching metazoans (ctenophores, poriferans, placozoans and cnidarians) and basal unikonts (amoebozoans, fungi, filastereans and choanoflagellates). We highlight the modular incorporation of intra- and extracellular components in each signalling pathway and suggest that increases in the complexity of the extracellular matrix may have further promoted the modulation of cell signalling during metazoan evolution. Most importantly, this updated view of metazoan signalling pathways highlights the need for explicit study of canonical signalling pathway components in taxa that do not operate a complete signalling pathway. Studies like these are critical for developing a deeper understanding of the evolution of cell signalling.
This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
The origins, scaling and loss of tetrapod digits
Authors: Saxena Aditya , Towers Matthew , Cooper Kimberly L. 
Published: December 2016

Many of the great morphologists of the nineteenth century marvelled at similarities between the limbs of diverse species, and Charles Darwin noted these homologies as significant supporting evidence for descent with modification from a common ancestor. Sir Richard Owen also took great care to highlight each of the elements of the forelimb and hindlimb in a multitude of species with focused attention on the homology between the hoof of the horse and the middle digit of man. The ensuing decades brought about a convergence of palaeontology, experimental embryology and molecular biology to lend further support to the homologies of tetrapod limbs and their developmental origins. However, for all that we now understand about the conserved mechanisms of limb development and the development of gross morphological disturbances, little of what is presented in the experimental or medical literature reflects the remarkable diversity resulting from the 450 million year experiment of natural selection. An understanding of conserved and divergent limb morphologies in this new age of genomics and genome engineering promises to reveal more of the developmental potential residing in all limbs and to unravel the mechanisms of evolutionary variation in limb size and shape. In this review, we present the current state of our rapidly advancing understanding of the evolutionary origin of hands and feet and highlight what is known about the mechanisms that shape diverse limbs.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
The bald and the beautiful: hairlessness in domestic dog breeds
Authors: Parker Heidi G. , Harris Alexander , Dreger Dayna L. , Davis Brian W. , Ostrander Elaine A. 
Published: December 2016

An extraordinary amount of genomic variation is contained within the chromosomes of domestic dogs, manifesting as dramatic differences in morphology, behaviour and disease susceptibility. Morphology, in particular, has been a topic of enormous interest as biologists struggle to understand the small window of dog domestication from wolves, and the division of dogs into pure breeding, closed populations termed breeds. Many traits related to morphology, including body size, leg length and skull shape, have been under selection as part of the standard descriptions for the nearly 400 breeds recognized worldwide. Just as important, however, are the minor traits that have undergone selection by fanciers and breeders to define dogs of a particular appearance, such as tail length, ear position, back arch and variation in fur (pelage) growth patterns. In this paper, we both review and present new data for traits associated with pelage including fur length, curl, growth, shedding and even the presence or absence of fur. Finally, we report the discovery of a new gene associated with the absence of coat in the American Hairless Terrier breed.
This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
Insulin receptors and wing dimorphism in rice planthoppers
Authors: Xu Hai-Jun , Zhang Chuan-Xi 
Published: December 2016

Wing polymorphism contributes significantly to the success of a wide variety of insects. However, its underlying molecular mechanism is less well understood. The migratory planthopper (BPH),Nilaparvata lugens, is one of the most extensively studied insects for wing polymorphism, due to its natural features of short- and long-winged morphs. Using the BPH as an example, we first surveyed the environmental cues that possibly influence wing developmental plasticity. Second, we explained the molecular basis by which two insulin receptors (InR1 and InR2) act as switches to determine alternative wing morphs in the BPH. This finding provides an additional layer of regulatory mechanism underlying wing polymorphism in insects in addition to juvenile hormones. Further, based on a discrete domain structure between InR1 and InR2 across insect species, we discussed the potential roles by which they might contribute to insect polymorphism. Last, we concluded with future directions of disentangling the insulin signalling pathway in the BPH, which serves as an ideal model for studying wing developmental plasticity in insects.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.
Evolution of floral diversity: genomics, genes andgamma
Authors: Chanderbali Andre S. , Berger Brent A. , Howarth Dianella G. , Soltis Douglas E. , Soltis Pamela S. 
Published: December 2016

A salient feature of flowering plant diversification is the emergence of a novel suite of floral features coinciding with the origin of the most species-rich lineage, Pentapetalae. Advances in phylogenetics, developmental genetics and genomics, including new analyses presented here, are helping to reconstruct the specific evolutionary steps involved in the evolution of this clade. The enormous floral diversity among Pentapetalae appears to be built on a highly conserved ground plan of five-parted (pentamerous) flowers with whorled phyllotaxis. By contrast, lability in the number and arrangement of component parts of the flower characterize the early-diverging eudicot lineages subtending Pentapetalae. The diversification of Pentapetalae also coincides closely with ancient hexaploidy, referred to as thegammawhole-genome triplication, for which the phylogenetic timing, mechanistic details and molecular evolutionary consequences are as yet not fully resolved. Transcription factors regulating floral development often persist in duplicate or triplicate ingamma-derived genomes, and both individual genes and whole transcriptional programmes exhibit a shift from broadly overlapping to tightly defined expression domains in Pentapetalae flowers. Investigations of these changes associated with the origin of Pentapetalae can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of what is arguably one of the most important evolutionary diversification events within terrestrial plants.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evo-devo in the genomics era, and the origins of morphological diversity’.