bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Irrigation Patterns Resemble ERA‐Interim Reanalysis Soil Moisture Additions
Authors: Tuinenburg O. A. , de Vries J. P. R. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractIrrigation modulates the water cycle by making water available for plants, increasing transpiration and atmospheric humidity, while decreasing temperatures due to the energy that is needed for evaporation. Irrigation is usually not included in atmospheric reanalysis systems, but moisture can be added to the soil due to data assimilation. This paper compares these soil moisture additions to the irrigation patterns. In the ERA‐interim atmospheric reanalysis, 2 m temperature observations are assimilated. A mismatch between modeled and observed temperatures is corrected by adding or removing moisture from the soil. These corrections show a clear pattern of mean soil moisture additions in many areas. To determine the cause of these increments, the spatial and temporal patterns of these soil moisture increments are compared to irrigation water demand and precipitation bias. In irrigated areas, the annual means and cycles of soil moisture increments correlate well with irrigation, and less with precipitation bias. Therefore, in irrigated areas, the soil moisture increments are more likely caused by irrigation than by the precipitation bias. In nonirrigated areas, a weak statistical relation between soil moisture increments and precipitation bias is present. Irrigation is currently not included in reanalysis systems. However, as irrigation indirectly influences the water balance in atmospheric reanalysis systems, we recommend to include this process in reanalysis models. Moreover, the influence of irrigation on the local and regional atmosphere should be taken into account when interpreting atmospheric data over strongly irrigated areas.
Media Populism
Authors: Cross Simon 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Media populism is where popular media and mediated politics intersect. Mediated political appeals are made only to those deemed belonging to the political community; no purpose is served appealing to those not belonging since by definition they are the social “problem” against whom the community is rhetorically mobilized. Media populism fuses leftwing or rightwing political themes/sentiments with popular media formats that claim to hear “the people's voice,” though only by elites ventriloquizing the voice of “the people.”
Failed States
Authors: Frödin Olle 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The concept of failed state denotes countries where institutions underpinning the legal and political order have fallen apart, meaning that government organizations do not have the capacity to enforce laws, guarantee rights, and provide core public goods, such as security and basic infrastructure. The concept gained prominence as a national security and international development narrative in the 1990s, and was subsequently widely used in government and academic discourse in the 2000s. Both the concept itself and the interventions associated with it are contested. National security analysts held that the failed state agenda was an overconfident and misguided foreign policy rationale that seriously underestimated the difficulties of state‐building operations. In academic circles, the concept has been criticized for being vaguely defined in that a clear and coherent set of indicators for what constitutes failed states is lacking. As a result, different kinds of states, such as Afghanistan, North Korea, Haiti, Iraq, and Colombia, have been lumped together into an undifferentiated mass under one label. In the wake of such criticism, scholars have recently developed more nuanced and refined categories to discriminate between kinds and degrees of state failure.
Women's Empowerment in the Global South
Authors: Moghadam Valentine M. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe empowerment of women in the global south is a key goal of women's rights movements, international organizations, and international agreements such as the Beijing Platform for Action and the Millennium Development Goals. It has also been the subject of feminist sociological research. This entry discusses the diverse ways that empowerment is conceptualized and measured, some trends in women's advancements, and the structural and cultural barriers that reinforce class differences.
Discreditable Stigma
Authors: Chaudoir Stephenie R. , Francis Ara , Earnshaw Valerie A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

A discreditable stigma is an attribute, characteristic, or identity that is socially devalued but can be concealed from or made invisible to others. People who are “marked” with one or more of these attributes typically come to occupy a lower social standing. Attributes such as physical illnesses, mental illnesses, identities, and significant or traumatic life experiences are considered to be
discreditable
in many cultural contexts. Because the discreditable can typically exert greater control over when, to whom, and how others in their social group or society come to know about the stigmatized attribute, informational control is an important and unique stigma management strategy and area of ongoing research.
Role Conflict
Authors: Gordon Judith 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Role conflict occurs when the performance of two or more roles overlaps or when a role interferes with the performance of another role. Interference may result in differing expectations about role performance by two senders, the same sender, the role itself, or the person interacting with the role. Conflict between roles associated with work and family, in particular, has received significant attention and can be time‐based, strain‐based, or behavior‐based. Measurement of role conflict has primarily relied on Likert‐type scales to assess general conflict or, more specifically, work–family conflict. Strategies for reducing role conflict include eliminating or downplaying a role, changing the expectations associated with one or both roles, and performing the roles in sequence rather than simultaneously.
Childhood Socialization
Authors: Bühler‐Niederberger Doris 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe socialization perspective was almost the exclusive way to approach children in sociological theory and research up to the 1970s; it implied that childhood was a phase of transition to adulthood and conceived of children only as social actors‐in‐the‐becoming. However, Empirical research on situations of socialization which showed that such situations depend on the social competence of all participants led to revisions of this conception. Therefore, approaches of socialization were developed that attributed more activity to the child. The “new” sociology of childhood conceived of the child as social actor and showed that such agency was not limited to personality development but included participation in the social world. Childhood is marked by inequality in regard to the actual conditions of growing up and in future chances. Research on this issue can profitably link different scientific perspectives on children and socialization.
Interpretive Sociology
Authors: Adorjan Michael , Kelly Benjamin 
Published: September 2017

AbstractInterpretive sociology, at heart, embraces the principle that social life is subjective and that those who systematically study social life should attend to how people make sense and interpret their social world, actions, and identities. Inspired by Max Weber, it has influenced the emergence of symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology, among other hermeneutically focused sociological paradigms. Interpretive sociologists often employ ethnography, participant observation, and interviewing in order to empirically situate analyses in the context of the lived experiences of social actors in their social world.
Blended Families
Authors: Hemez Paul , Tedrow Lucky , Teachman Jay 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe term “blended family” can be used to describe any nontraditional family household, such as stepfamilies, families with adoptive children, and families that use an alternative form of pregnancy. Although it is not an easy task, several national surveys and the US Census gather data on blended families to compare trends across time. Since the turn of the twenty‐first century, the number of stepfamilies (the most common type of blended family) in the United States has been found to remain constant, but the number of cohabiting stepfamilies has significantly increased. Research also suggests that outcomes for children in blended families differ from the outcomes for children reared in traditional households. The prevalence of these families has caused legislatures to create new policies that apply to families without the traditional nuclear family structure.
Spectacles
Authors: Silk Michael 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Spectacles embody and naturalize the basic values of a society. Often narrated through emblematic individuals, spectacles are highly mediated events, sporting contests, political moments, and stories “of interest” that can normalize contemporary fears, anxieties, terrors, and concerns. Yet, spectacles are rife with contestation and contradictions, and important questions over depoliticization, passivity, and alienation become exacerbated when held together with new media technologies, platforms, and practices, especially when considering how spectacles are bound with social media, (new) social movements, activism, and prosumption.
Monopoly Capitalism
Authors: Bonanno Alessandro 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Monopoly capitalism refers to the postcompetitive phase of the development of capitalism. It consists of processes whereby the predominance of competitive markets is replaced by the predominance of monopoly markets. In theory, a monopoly refers to a market controlled by one single firm. Practically, it refers to a situation in which one or a few large companies control the entire market. The entry reviews the evolution of the debate on monopoly capitalism. It includes reviews of the classic contributions of early twentieth
‐
century Marxists such as Lenin and Hilferding, mid‐century progressive economists such as Schumpeter and Galbraith, post‐World War II neoliberals such as Friedman and neo‐Marxists such as Baran and Sweezy. Finally, the characteristics of monopoly capitalism under globalization are underscored.
Civil and Uncivil Society
Authors: Glasius Marlies 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry traces the genealogy of the concept of civil society and its recent resurgence. It discusses the problematic conceptualization of the “civility” of civil society and the antonymous concept of uncivil society, and briefly relates civil society to democracy and democratization and to capitalism, ending with a reflection on the debates relating to the existence and nature of a global civil society.
Schiller,Friedrichvon(1759–1805)
Authors: Nivala Asko 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe famous poet and playwright Friedrich von Schiller was also an important historian, philosopher, and social theorist. Schiller's theoretical works criticized the disenchantment and rationalization of modern society after the French Revolution and industrialization. He maintained that aesthetic education could overcome the alienation that was characteristic of modernity. Schiller applied Immanuel Kant's transcendental philosophy to society by analyzing the interaction between the sensuous drive and the formal drive. The drive toward aesthetic play should unite these to supersede the alienation of modernity. Schiller's ideas influenced G.W.F. Hegel, Karl Marx, and the Frankfurt School in addition to such classical sociological thinkers as Max Weber, Ferdinand Tönnies, and Niklas Luhmann.
Purity and Danger
Authors: Lupton Deborah 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

The cultural anthropologist Mary Douglas's book
Purity and Danger
is an influential exegesis of the ways in which concepts of purity, impurity, dirt, and pollution operate as contingent sociocultural products. Douglas argues that concepts of cleanliness and dirt are arbitrary and culturally defined. Rather than springing from concerns about the inherent potential for infection or biological contagion of objects, humans, or animals, they serve the social and cultural purposes of bolstering cultural beliefs, defining and policing accepted behavioral norms, and maintaining the symbolic boundaries between social groups. Sociologists and other social researchers have drawn on Douglas's theories to apply them to many social issues, particularly in relation to the ways in which concepts of self and other operate.
Runaway World
Authors: Stones Rob 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
“Runaway World: How Globalization Is Reshaping Our Lives” was the title provided by the eminent British sociologist Anthony Giddens for his 1999 BBC Reith Lectures. His central focus is our sense of living in a world that is in many ways out of control. Giddens notes that, although individuals often experience their incapacity to control their lives as personal failure, the root causes lie elsewhere, in the structural processes and interdependencies of globalization. He discusses the major transformations wrought by globalization under the key themes of risk, tradition, the family, democracy, and – added in the wake of 9/11 – security and terrorism. Giddens reflects insightfully on the processes by which many people threatened by these forces retreat into fundamentalism in an attempt to restore order, security, and meaning to their lives, and also on the need to deepen democratic forces.
B
asil
B
ernstein (1924–2000)
Authors: Jenks Chris 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Basil Bernstein (1924–2000) was an eminent British sociologist and holder of the Karl Mannheim Chair of Sociology of Education at the University of London. After a relatively unconventional entry into academic life, Bernstein achieved importance and influence within the social sciences and education through his then highly original combination of sociology and linguistics. His work was also quite distinct in that he drew on the inspirations of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim, a founding father of the discipline but one much out of favor. Bernstein's major concepts were
sociolinguistic codes
that he developed and refined over a number of years. In seeking to explain why social class largely determines educational achievement, he argued that different social classes engender different forms of social bond and that these bonds are highly influential in relation to how people think and learn and speak. The
restricted code
, typically that of the working‐class child, is discontinuous with the language of education, power, and control, namely the
elaborated code
, which is typically that of the middle‐class child. Bernstein also made a major contribution to the sociology of the curriculum.
Relativism
Authors: Kusch Martin 
Published: September 2017

AbstractVarious forms of relativism have been central to the social sciences since their inception. It is important to distinguish between different forms of relativism, according to what feature is claimed to be relative and the parameter to which something is said to be relative. Relativism can take descriptive, normative, or methodological forms. There is much disagreement about which theses are central to a relativist position. Frequently cited theses include dependence, pluralism, exclusiveness, notional confrontation, symmetry, contingency, underdetermination, and tolerance. Arguments for and against relativism draw on linguistic data, practical consequences, logical properties, or methodological benefits to scientific enquiry.
Infanticide
Authors: Kearl Michael C. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The killing of infants is found throughout the animal kingdom and throughout human history. Human infanticide has occurred for reasons of population control, sacrificial ritual, eugenics, political pogroms, and altruism. The act is often legally distinguished from murder, with maternal perpetrators frequently treated with leniency. Ethically, it may be indistinguishable from abortion.
Freeters (Permanent Part‐Timers)
Authors: Genda Yuji 
Published: September 2017

Abstract“Freeter” is a word coined in Japanese that refers to Japanese youth who continue to work as nonregular workers soon after their graduation from school. It is also a shortened form of “free arbeiter,” which connects the English word “freedom” with the German wordArbeit(“work”). During the booms of the 1980s and beginning of 1990s the term “freeter” was originally used to describe Japanese youth who prefer a free working style in their lives. Since the late 1990s, however, “nonregular freeters” started to refer to the miserable young people who failed to find regular work after graduation during periods of recession. According to the definition of the Japanese government, freeters are males and unmarried females between 15 and 34 years old – except students, who actually work or hope to work as part‐time orarubaitononregular workers. The population of freeters in Japan has remained between 1.7 and 1.8 million since the middle of the first decade of the twenty‐first century. Whether the number of freeters will increase or not in the future depends on the transition in the Japanese employment system, on economic conditions, and on the effectiveness of ongoing youth policies.
Commercial Surrogacy
Authors: Pande Amrita 
Published: September 2017

Abstract“Surrogacy” is the commonly used term for the practice of assisted reproduction, in which a woman gestates and gives birth to a child for someone else to raise. If she receives monetary payment beyond the reimbursement of medical and other reasonable expenses, the arrangement is labeled commercial surrogacy or contract pregnancy; otherwise it is referred to as altruistic surrogacy. Surrogacy has been generating feminist, ethical, legal, and social debates for over three decades. This scholarship can be loosely classified into four categories: liberal and feminist defense of the practice, which emphasizes a woman's right to use her body as she chooses; works that debate the ethics or morality of this practice; the multiple systems of stratification that are potentially reinforced by such arrangements; and, more recently, ethnographic scholarship on the impact of surrogacy on the cultural meanings of motherhood and kinship.
Happiness
Authors: Bartram David 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Happiness is a form of subjective well‐being; the concept captures how people feel about their lives as a whole. (A closely related concept, life satisfaction, indicates how people cognitively evaluate their lives.) Rather than assuming that happiness follows automatically from enjoying what many would consider favorable objective conditions, researchers investigate happiness empirically (often via surveys), asking individuals to indicate how happy they are and then studying the relationship between their answers and their circumstances or experiences. Findings might be relevant to institutional policies (including perhaps those of governments); alternatively, individuals might find insight for themselves through research in this field.
Radical Interactionism
Authors: Shaw James 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Radical interactionism (RI) is a theoretical perspective arising from the symbolic interactionist (SI) tradition, departing from conventional approaches to SI by redressing the lack of attention to the workings of power and domination in everyday social life. Developed primarily by Lonnie Athens, RI pushes the SI tradition beyond its theoretical and political conservatism, making the analysis of domination essential to all social inquiry. RI integrates the foundational SI work of George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer with the less well known work of Robert Park, bringing their early SI writings in dialogue with contemporary critiques of the SI tradition. This emerging theoretical position provides clear methodological guidance for social scientists who look to reconcile SI theory with contemporary critiques and with a growing theoretical emphasis on power and domination in everyday life.
Agency–Structure Relationship
Authors: Kabele Jiří 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The challenge to social theory posed by phenomena of stability in changing social worlds is usually thematized as the dilemma of agency and structure: while human affairs are enacted by agents in unique ways, these agents are not free to enact them as they choose; instead, they must respect the reality of structures. After briefly summarizing the history of solutions to this dilemma, this entry shows how Bourdieu's and Giddens's metatheoretical legitimations of the dialectical dualism of agency and structure gave rise to a 30‐year debate about the status and nature of this relationship. Critical realists enriched the debate with philosophical perspectives and attention to the indirect structuring effects of social structures on agency. In contrast, actor‐network theory distanced itself from the debate and changed our perspective on the dilemma by ascribing “agency” to things or abstract ideas. Finally, the debate is rephrased to bring out a common denominator of the variety of theoretical and methodological approaches to studying the agency–structure relationship.
Hunger
Authors: Scanlan Stephen J. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry examines hunger by presenting both its conceptualization and a synopsis of key sociological contributions to this area of research. The sociology of hunger entails disentangling the complexities of the concept with the help of the theory and the methods it has at its disposal. Examining the issue both in the United States and around the world, sociologists emphasize the structural conditions that generate hunger, locating the experience of the individual in larger cultural, economic, social, and political processes tied to social institutions and social change. In defining the concept and understanding its components and forms, sociologists emphasize inequality and barriers to access to food as the foundation to hunger. The study of hunger from a sociological perspective is connected with numerous subfields with an interest in globalization, political economy, population ecology, social stratification and inequality, and policy discussions (among the topics that are more prominent in shaping the discussion).
Asymmetric Warfare
Authors: Mello Patrick A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Asymmetric warfare is commonly defined as a mode of combat where the aims, means, or methods of the parties in conflict are substantively dissimilar. Most scholars assume a gaping power disparity between the warring parties in asymmetric conflicts. However, a two‐fold distinction can be made, separating asymmetry of strength from asymmetry of weakness. The former rests on an actor's ability to play to its own strengths, while the latter refers to a strategy that seeks to exploit an opponent's weaknesses, often through indirect and drawn‐out warfare. While narrow conceptions of asymmetric warfare largely focus on differences in military and economic power, more comprehensive understandings of the term emphasize that disparities in political and military strategy, notions of time, and organizational characteristics of the parties in conflict are just as important as differences in material capabilities.
Situated Knowledge
Authors: Stoetzler Marcel , Yuval‐Davis Nira 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term “situated knowledge” was introduced in 1988 by Donna Haraway as an alternative to positivist notions of objectivity and relativism, although it has roots reaching far back in modern western philosophy. It implies that acknowledgment of the situatedness of specific social locations and life practices allows actors to make truth claims that can be subjected to examination and dialogical constructions that are appropriate for emancipatory practices. “Situated knowledge” has therefore become a major concept in feminist and antiracist theory.