bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Negotiation Sequences
Authors: Olekalns Mara , Smith Philip L. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Negotiators’ communication patterns can be analyzed at several levels. Most often, researchers focus on the cumulative use of cooperative and competitive strategies to characterize the dominant strategic orientation of a negotiation. This perspective is complemented by analyses of strategy sequences, that is, how negotiators respond to opponents’ immediately preceding strategies. These sequences capture the moment‐to‐moment strategic decisions that negotiators make to direct the negotiation to specific goals. Sequences reflect the dynamic nature of negotiations, allowing better of understanding why negotiators sometimes fail to reach agreement and fail to identify all available resources. Two key findings emerge from this research. First, the same sequence may have different effects on outcomes depending on whether the dominant strategic approach is cooperative or competitive. Second, there is no single path to successful value creation: whether sequences play a central role in value creation depends on the broader strategic context within which negotiations take place.
Uncertainty and Anxiety in Intercultural Encounters
Authors: Neuliep James W. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Interacting with a stranger from a different culture typically involves more uncertainty than when interacting with a stranger from one's native culture. Uncertainty refers to the amount of predictability; that is, what is known about another person. With strangers, very little is known. During initial encounters with a stranger, uncertainty triggers anxiety. Uncertainty is cognitive; that is, what one knows, while anxiety is affective, that is how one feels. Uncertainty and anxiety are closely linked. When strangers first meet, their primary goal is to reduce uncertainty and increase predictability of their own and the other person's behavior. In order to accomplish this, they use specific communication strategies. How an individual reduces uncertainty varies across cultures.
Long‐Distance Relationships
Authors: Stafford Laura 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Relationships are long‐distance when opportunities for communication are restricted due to geographic constraints. Long‐distance relationships are of interest to relational scholars given the implicit assumption that relationships without frequent face‐to‐face contact are not as “close” as those with such contact. They exist in opposition to norms for shared residences and/or proximity among romantic partners (especially married couples), family members, and close friends. Long‐distance relationships have been of increasing interest due to their often heavy reliance on new communication technologies. Despite the diversity of long‐distance relationship types, most research in the fields of communication and relational studies has focused on heterosexual long‐distance dating relationships, with the primary focus on the maintenance of the relationship. Some research on long‐distance family relationships considers the impact of separation on well‐being.
Parent–Adolescent Communication
Authors: Dailey René M. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Adolescence is a time of major development, and parents are influential in this process. Research has established the importance of a balance between individuation and connection regarding optimal adolescent development. Adolescents who maintain closeness or a connection with their parents while establishing their identity and autonomy fare better emotionally, cognitively, and socially. Parenting style is integral to this process; those whose parents are authoritative (i.e., show both warmth and control) report higher adjustment across a variety of domains. Adolescents also employ conflict and information management (e.g., decreased disclosure and increased topic avoidance) with their parents to establish their independence. Several psychological and communication theories (e.g., attachment theory, family communication patterns, systems theory, relational dialectics, communication privacy management) are used to understand the continuity and change in communication between parents and adolescents as adolescents make the transition to adulthood.
Interpersonal Communication Skill/Competence
Authors: Sabee Christina M. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Interpersonal communication skill/competence is a complex concept that broadly describes communication that is both effective and socially appropriate. However, many different theoretical approaches tend to define efficacy and appropriateness in different ways, thus this entry explores perspectives related to message processing (expectancy theories, attribution theory), message production (goal–plan–action and hierarchical theories), and social relationships (relational dialectics theory). Each perspective is explored for its contribution to the field of understanding interpersonal communication skills and competence.
Dual‐Processing Perspectives
Authors: Bodie Graham D. , Eldredge Judson 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Dual‐process theories propose that human behavior (including communication) is the combined result of two qualitatively different processing mechanisms, one relatively fast, automatic, and associative, and the other relatively slow, controlled, and rule‐based. The dual‐processing perspective has had an overwhelming impact in the fields of cognitive and social psychology and neuroscience, and it has had equally important influence in the study of human communication. This entry traces the development of dual‐process theories from their domain specific beginnings in reasoning and persuasion, to the current search for a generalized dual‐systems model. Additionally, this entry discusses examples of how the dual‐processing perspective has diffused to communication specific literatures beyond persuasion, such as supportive communication and message production.
Convergence/Divergence
Authors: Soliz Jordan 
Published: December 2015

Abstract

Convergence and divergence are most recognizable as core behavioral tenets of communication accommodation theory. The theory originated to explore and account for how and why our speech changes in reference to a conversational partner and/or social contexts This can include modifications in accents, dialects, speech rate, slang and idioms, language, and other nonverbal behaviors.
Convergence
represents behavioral strategies in which a speaker modifies his or her communication to become more similar to the communication styles of others.
Divergence
, on the other hand, represents strategies in which a speaker modifies his or her communication to create or amplify difference with others.
Appraisal Theories of Emotion
Authors: Metts Sandra 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Appraisal theories represent an approach to emotion experience focused on the subjective evaluations of affective arousal occurring within a particular circumstance. Appraisal dimensions include, for example, valence, intensity, goal obstruction, novelty, and significance. Prominent approaches to the appraisal process in the scholarly literature are represented in the categorical and process models. These models are summarized, and suggestions for applications of appraisal theories in interpersonal communication are offered.
Narratives and Social Interaction
Authors: Kellas Jody Koenig 
Published: December 2015

AbstractScholarship on narratives and social interaction encompasses a broad spectrum of theoretical, paradigmatic, methodological, and interdisciplinary approaches to understanding the ways people tell stories in the context of interpersonal communication. The study of narratives and social interaction, at its core, concerns how people construct, make sense of, and negotiate identity, relationships, and meaning. Across approaches, narrative coherence, tone, truth, co‐construction, and the functions of telling and listening to stories emerge as constructs central to understanding the communicative construction of narrative meaning.
Constructivism
Authors: Bodie Graham D. , Jones Susanne M. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Constructivism was initially proposed as a guiding theoretical framework in reaction to logical empiricism. Constructivism is an epistemological enterprise and assumes that knowledge is organized in personal constructs and arises as a function of individual interpretive processes, best understood as cognitive complexity. Constructivism has since evolved into a theory that captures functional communication competence or the ability to generate and process messages in ways that enable people to accomplish their social goals.
Identity Management
Authors: Miller Laura E. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Identity management involves the communication strategies individuals use to portray a positive image. A person's identity is formed largely through interactions with other people and through a continual process of creating and observing self‐image in diverse contexts and with varied interactional partners. Historical perspectives intersecting communication and identity, including research on identity management in relational and health contexts, illustrate the complexity of this phenomenon.
Time Series Analysis (
ARIMA
, Spectral Analysis)
Authors: VanLear C. Arthur 
Published: December 2015

Abstract

Time series analysis
(TSA) is a family of statistical analysis techniques that are used to analyze data consisting of a series of observations/measurements organized over time. There are two types of TSAs: time domain and frequency domain. ARIMA analysis is the most popular time domain analysis and Fourier/spectral analysis is the most popular frequency domain TSA. These two types of analyses are explained and examples of their use in interpersonal communication are given.
School Bullying
Authors: Matsunaga Masaki 
Published: December 2015

AbstractSchool bullying is a specific form of social aggression characterized by intentional, repeated, and unilateral enactment of harm doing in school settings. Bullying takes various forms (i.e., physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying) and is associated with a number of negative outcomes, including emotional distress, physical/health issues, and social/relational problems. Research has identified factors that help predict the risk of bullying, effective preventative approaches, and the role of communication in victims’ coping processes.
Longitudinal Designs and Growth Modeling
Authors: Shen Lijiang 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Longitudinal designs involve at least three waves of observations of the phenomenon under investigation. This entry discusses the types of longitudinal design, its advantages over cross‐sectional design, and primary reasons for selecting longitudinal design over cross‐sectional design. The property of longitudinal data is also discussed, followed by options for longitudinal data analyses and their interpretation.
Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Warber Katie M. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract

Evolutionary psychology is an interdisciplinary field of study that dates back to Charles Darwin; growing out of his benchmark book,
On the Origin of Species
(1859). Those in the field seek to understand the evolution of the social mind by theorizing about and testing hypotheses related to various selection pressures that led to current evolved psychological mechanisms in humans. Evolutionary psychology has been used to explain interpersonal processes including survival, mating, verbal and nonverbal communication, cooperation, competition, and kinship. Current research in evolutionary psychology weaves together biological, psychological, social, and cultural explanations for attitudes and behaviors into one cohesive body of evidence for the explanation and prediction of human psychological dynamics, many of which are at the root of interpersonal and relational communication phenomena.
Attachment and Conflict in Adult Relationships
Authors: Greenwood Dara 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Adult attachment styles are relational schemas (or templates), derived from early childhood experiences, which color expectations, perceptions, and behavior in close relationships. The extent to which individuals experience anxiety about or avoidance of intimacy can impact how they perceive and respond to relationship conflict, which can powerfully predict relationship satisfaction and longevity. Both attachment anxiety and avoidance are associated with problematic conflict resolution strategies but in different ways and to different degrees. Whereas anxious adults may perceive benign or ambiguous behaviors as threatening, engage in more aggressive partner blaming, and experience lower levels of empathy, avoidant adults may withdraw from conflict, inhibiting open communication and compromise. Gender also emerges as a moderator between attachment style and conflict dynamics, although the patterns are not consistent across studies. New research areas focus on physiological underpinnings of attachment, and the role that new media (e.g., Facebook) plays in reproducing or exacerbating attachment dynamics.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Allen Mike , Kim Sang‐Yeon 
Published: December 2015

AbstractMeta‐analysis is a set of procedures to synthesize existing quantitative data. The primary goal involves estimation of an average effect across investigations to reduce Type II (false negative) error and identify Type I (false positive) error. Also meta‐analysis estimates the variability within the observed findings and evaluates sources for that variability (random and systematic). Finally, meta‐analysis permits the possibility of testing and comparing various theoretical models across the entire set of data simultaneously.
Facial Expressions
Authors: Manusov Valerie 
Published: December 2015

AbstractFacial cues are often the “first glimpse” we have of another person. They invite us to engage with the other (or not), they work hand in hand with what people say to one another in their conversations, and they display our emotions (or hide them) from each other. As such they are a ubiquitous—and somewhat controversial—interpersonal communication behavior. This entry reviews the nature, functions, skills of, and the academic disagreement tied to, our facial behavior.
Problematic Events in Relationships
Authors: Samp Jennifer A. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Problematic events occur when an individual behaves uncharacteristically and perceives that a relational partner sees him or her less favorably because of the behavior. Conceptualized as a close relationship phenomenon most frequently occurring in friendships or romantic relationships, problematic events may be threatening to a person's sense of self as an individual and/or as a relational partner. To manage such perceived threats, problematic event offenders engage in strategic communication whereby they may pursue a variety of self, other, or relationally oriented goals during a subsequent discussion with a relationship partner. Such goals are revealed in what problematic event offenders say, but also how they structure messages as revealed in focal center and message embellishment.
Normative Model of Social Support
Authors: Goldsmith Daena J. 
Published: December 2015

AbstractThe Normative Model of Social Support explains why some messages or conversations are more successful than others at achieving the task, identity, and relational purposes in an interpersonal situation such as advice‐giving among friends or couples discussing healthful lifestyle changes. The model has been used to explore social support, information‐seeking, topic avoidance, and uncertainty management in health‐related contexts. It produces a rational model of how messages are interpreted and evaluated within a social group; this can provide a basis for context‐specific theorizing as well as practical intervention.
Impulse Control
Authors: DiPaola Ben , E. Roloff Michael 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Individuals sometimes communicate impulsively rather than in a planned and strategic fashion. Although impulsive behavior can reflect a genuine desire and result in immediate gratification, it can also have destructive outcomes. Consequently, researchers have been interested in how impulses can be controlled. This entry will examine the nature of impulse control perspective used to understand it and how impulse control is related to communication.
Attribution in Conflict
Authors: Sillars Alan , McLaren Rachel M. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Attributions are inferences about the underlying causes or motivations for human behavior. In conflict situations, attribution processes are involved when people assign blame, evaluate intentions behind offending behavior, or assess the likelihood that conflict can be managed cooperatively. There are many documented attribution biases that can exacerbate conflicts. Attribution biases affect the way people assign blame and responsibility for conflict, which has direct repercussions for communication. When people attribute conflict to the negative traits or intentional acts of others, they often communicate in a negative, verbally competitive, or ambiguous/avoidant manner. Biases also affect attributions for communicative intent and message reception. These biases can be mitigated by engaging in conflict reframing, increasing awareness and knowledge of attribution biases, and exerting control over attributions.
Hookups
Authors: Mongeau Paul A. , Wiedmaier Benjamin , Knight Kendra 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Hookups represent casual sexual interactions (ranging from only kissing to intimate touching and penetrative intercourse) that occur outside committed, romantic, relationships. Hookups occur particularly frequently on US college campuses; they are, however, not limited to that context. Most college students have experienced at least one such interaction during their college years. Students perceive their peers as more comfortable with hookups than they are as individuals. The hookup label is elastic and allows for considerable variation in meanings. Although typically defined as occurring between strangers or brief acquaintances, in many cases hookups occur between friends and former (or potential) romantic partners. Hookups generate a variety of positive and negative outcomes, but appear to provide the former more than the latter. Finally, the college‐aged cohort (i.e., emerging adults) is likely drawn to hookups because the nonrelational sex appeals to their life goals of personal exploration and sexual experimentation.
Goal Understanding Theory
Authors: Palomares Nicholas A. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Goal understanding theory provides a cognitive explanation for how people understand someone's goal(s) in social interaction. The theory draws on the idea that diagnostic factors of conversation are cognitively associated with goals. Factors activate linked goals, which are potentially inferred during conversation depending on their relative level of accessibility. Through the goal inference restriction process, some goals gain more activation than others. People are more likely to infer (detect) highly accessible goals compared to less accessible goals. This entry details the roots of goal understanding theory, its explanatory mechanisms, and supportive research on how and why people infer certain goals in social interaction.
Caregiver Communication
Authors: Martin Summer C. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract

The term
caregiver communication
typically refers to the exchange of messages between a person who is ill, aged, or disabled and a family member who is providing unpaid aid to him or her. The majority of communication‐related research on caregiving examines spouses or adult children who are caring for their chronically ill partner or parent, respectively. Caregiving has been associated with significant costs (e.g., depression, stress) for the care provider—and, to a lesser extent, the care receiver—and communication can both contribute to and help protect against these detrimental effects. Therefore, the study of caregiver communication has widespread, important implications and provides valuable insight about relevant topics (e.g., caregiver tasks, caregiver burden, and the dilemmas inherent in attempting to balance multiple goals in caregiving interactions). Some research in this area has been influenced by, and helps inform, theoretical perspectives related to interpersonal communication.
Communication in Military Families
Authors: Knobloch Leanne K. , Wilson Steve R. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Because United States military families make substantial sacrifices in service to their country, they represent a distinctive and important domain for understanding the dynamics of interpersonal communication. Recent years has seen a surge in scholarly attention paid to the communication of US military families during a post‐9/11 era of war. One strand of research illuminates how the military context provides a unique backdrop for communication among military personnel, their romantic partners, and their children. Other lines of work describe the communication tasks facing military families during each stage of the deployment cycle. Several avenues for additional work are essential for scholars to tackle into the future.
Cross‐Sex Friendships
Authors: Weger Harry 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Cross‐sex friendships represent a historical novelty embedded in a heteronormative cultural milieu. As social institutions integrate men and women, the opportunities for, and the occurrence of, cross‐sex friendships grow increasingly common. The emergence of opposite‐sex friendships as commonplace in the last half century presents challenges to both scholarly inquiry and practical maintenance of cross‐sex friendships. This entry presents conceptualizations of the term “cross‐sex friendship” and uses heterosexism as a frame for understanding both research in cross‐sex friendship and the challenges faced by cross‐sex friends in maintaining their relationship.
Understanding and Conflict
Authors: Sillars Alan , McLaren Rachel M. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract

To say that people
understand
one another means that they accurately imagine the other's subjective experience (beliefs, intentions, emotions, etc.). Understanding poses greater challenges in conflict than in other social contexts. Misunderstanding can lead to conflict when people fail to recognize and adjust for beliefs and expectations that are important to others. Misunderstanding can aggravate conflict and inhibit productive communication when people misjudge and distort the other's perceptions and motives. Research suggests that misunderstanding is a widespread feature of relationship conflict and is not always improved by direct talk. Misunderstanding occurs due to motivated (goal‐directed) sensemaking, combined with inherent ambiguity and selectivity in communication. Incongruent interpretations of relational communication and mismatched conflict frames are two prevalent sources of misunderstanding. Although understanding does not have a consistent, overall association with relationship adjustment, increased understanding can promote constructive conflict by allowing people to see the other's behavior in more complex and less biased terms and by promoting awareness of commonalities.