bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Khurais Central Processing Facility Journey toward Excellence in Energy Efficiency
Authors: Al-Abbasi Amro K. , Al-Babtain Bader S. 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
This paper shares Khurais Central Processing Facility success journey in carrying out various energy optimizations as part of the Saudi Aramco operational excellence initiatives that have resulted in significant value creation to the company. It has achieved five years in a row annual reduction in energy intensity index (EII) performance and this is achieved through various energy initiatives that spanned throughout those years following its startup in 2009, and resulted in winning two international awards. The team adopted a systematic approach that unleashed creativity and pragmatic solutions to all identified opportunities. The process started by developing the internal guidelines for the facility Energy management system that is aligned with the corporate targets, and set the baseline for the journey.
Identifying opportunities for optimization cannot be done without a monitoring tool, and the team created its in-house performance monitoring tool and deploying it in its day-to-day operations. Generally, the basic frame work of the tool is the comparison of performance between actual and target performance indicators (KPIs). Any deviation of performance from the intended target will be alerted and called for attention. The bigger the gap, then the bigger the opportunity for the engineers to clear this performance gap and realize the benefits. What is unique about Khurais performance monitoring tool lies in the advisory features that guide the improvement efforts effectively. The advisory element provides the plant personnel with the required actions for carrying out the improvement work. In addition, the monitoring tool incorporates features of prioritizing improvement efforts to help them focus on key efforts. And only recently, Khurais is awarded a US patent for its unique performance tool.
The monitoring tool and close follow up resulted in generating major initiatives that leverage internal facility capabilities, by clearly exploiting low hanging fruit initiatives that require in many cases low capital investment. Such initiatives include; maximizing the oil train capacity so that any lower train load is shut down and hence minimizing power consumption; maximizing heat recovery steam generation utilization to minimize dependence on auxiliary boilers; and focusing on major equipment (compressors) efficiency enhancement by reducing the recycling while maintaining a reasonable safety margin. After implementing such initiatives, sustaining the benefits prove to be the greatest challenge, and again Khurais utilized its monitoring tool to do so. These initiatives and monitoring led to encouraging results, where from 2010 to 2015, the facility has improved its energy efficiency by 15%.
As part of the continuous improvement journey, KhPD is exploring opportunities for deploying proven energy efficiency technologies, such as LED lightings and absorption chillers that will exploit any waste heat available in our facility.
An Improved Approach for Estimation of Flow and Hysteresis Parameters Applicable to WAG Experiments
Authors: Mahzari Pedram , Sohrabi Mehran 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection has demonstrated encouraging results for improving oil recovery. However, numerical simulation of three-phase flow and the associated hysteresis effects are not well-understood. Currently, modelling of hysteresis phenomena occurring in WAG cycles is based on updating two-phase relative permeabilities (krs) to account for three-phase characteristics, which is not a trivial task. In this work, a new assessment on the WAG-hysteresis model, which was originally developed for water-wet conditions, was carried out by automatic history-matching of two coreflood experiments in water-wet and mixed-wet conditions. Here in this work, it was attempted to estimate a set of more reliable two-phase krs within active saturation ranges of coreflood experiments performed under water-wet and mixed-wet conditions. Using the first cycle of the WAG experiments (first waterflood and the subsequent gas flood), the two-phase krs (oil/water and gas/oil) were estimated assuming minimal hysteresis occurs in the first cycle. For subsequent cycles, pertinent parameters of the WAG-hysteresis model are included in automatic history-matching process. The outcome of these history-matching exercises would indicate how the WAG-hysteresis model would perform under different wettability conditions using a more representative set of two-phase krs. Also, using these experiments, the ability of the WAG-hysteresis model in simulating the full cycles of WAG injections would be assessed. In other words, auto-history-matching of whole WAG coreflood experiments would enable integrated simulation of two and three-phase flow regions co-existing in cyclic WAG injection.
The results indicate that history-matching the whole WAG experiment would lead to significantly improved simulation outcome. Values of the tuned Land trapping coefficient and the reduction factor for residual oil saturation were close to experimentally extracted information, which highlights the importance of two elements in evaluating WAG experiments; (i) including full-WAG experiments in history-matching and (ii) using a more representative set of two-phase krs. Therefore, employing our new methodology to estimate two-phase krs from first cycle of a WAG experiment could make the estimated unsteady-state krs more reliable for simulating hysteresis effects. Furthermore, the results show that the WAG-hysteresis model failed to reasonably predict the coreflood experiment performed at mixed-wet conditions. The failure can be attributed to two sources; 1) non-wet behaviour of water in mixed-wet systems, which should be reflected in three-phase water relative permeability curves and 2) over-simplifications assumptions embedded in the WAG-hysteresis model such as the linear Som reduction models. Hence, a series of modifications should be applied to change the formulations of the WAG-hysteresis model to develop a versatile model for mixed-wet conditions.
Improving Control of Torsional Vibrations of Motor-Driven Reciprocating Compressors
Authors: Holopainen Timo P. , Arkkio Antero 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Torsional vibrations establish a remarkable risk for decreased reliability and availability of motor-driven reciprocating compressors in oil and gas industry. This risk can be significantly reduced by careful analysis and design of torsional drive trains. A drive train is composed of separate parts, as motor, coupling, flywheel and compressor. These components are usually produced by separate manufacturers. Thus, the control of torsional vibrations requires seamless cooperation between the system integrator and component suppliers.
Torsional analysis is based on the inertia, stiffness and damping properties of the train components. Usually, the chosen motor manufacturer provides this data to the system integrator. In addition to the mechanical properties, electric motors are characterized by the magnetic stiffness and damping induced by the magnetic fields in the air-gap between the rotor and stator.
The main aim of this paper is to describe the modelling of magnetic effects in general terms as part of the drive train torsional analysis. The second aim is to show the significance of the magnetic stiffness and damping particularly in motor-driven reciprocating compressors with a soft coupling.
This paper describes a recently introduced approach for the modelling of magnetic effects. This approach combines the accuracy of Finite Element Method (FEM) with the portability of parametric space-vector models. This is enabled by the linearization of the electromagnetic behavior in the operation point of the motor. The significance of portability follows from the typical procedure of torsional analysis and design carried out usually by the system integrator.
The calculation example is a motor-driven reciprocating compressor with a soft coupling. It is well-known that in these motor-compressors the effect of magnetic stiffness is significant due to several natural frequencies and excitation orders below the motor supply frequency. In general, the magnetic stiffness increases the natural frequencies, and the magnetic damping decreases the oscillation amplitudes of the lowest torsional modes.
The calculation example shows that the accuracy of the analytic formulae can be clearly increased by the presented new method. In addition, the calculation results demonstrate the significance of magnetic stiffness and damping in motor-driven compressors with a soft coupling. Thus, the reliability and availability of these compressor trains can be improved by including the magnetic effects into the analysis.
The Disruptive Concept of 3D Cutters and Hybrid Bits in Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Drill- Bit Design
Authors: Negm Sara , Aguib Karim , Karuppiah Venki , ElOufy Mamdouh , Remah Mostafa , Zayyan Mohammad , Sheikh Omar El 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The innovation used in polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit design has historically focused on two main elements—cutting structure (CS) stability, whether statically or dynamically, and the grade and quality of the PDC cutting element, which mainly involves the diamond microstructure and interface design. Since the onset of PDC bit development, there existed a limitation on PDC cutter element construction, and that is they had to be cylindrical diamond tables. This geometric PDC constraint derived everything else relating to PDC bit design. This constraint has finally been overcome. With the advent of new manufacturing techniques, PDC geometry flexibility has now been unlocked. Three-dimensional (3D) cutters add two new degrees of freedom to PDC bit design—cutter geometry and cutter placement on the bit face.
The first wave of 3D cutters included a conical diamond element (CDE), ridged diamond element (RDE), and rolling PDC cutter (RPC). This paper will present the fundamentals of such technology and their effect on field performance. The process by which these elements are applied to a PDC bit is by thorough review of bit-face anatomy versus the drilled application challenge. With such in-depth analysis, these new cutters are separately or concurrently utilized in a "hybrid" bit design, which eliminates traditional PDC bit failures, such as ringout, cored dulls, and impact in extreme applications, including fully drilling conglomerates.
The hybrid bit solution is a disruptive concept that is application-specific and significantly increases drilling efficiency through the selection of the proper technology mix. Moreover, embedded in the development of 3D cutters are the latest diamond microstructures that were traditionally the focus of PDC manufacturers. This paper highlights field deployment results to prove the concept of the technology mix per application in addition to some of the perceived risks.
Chronic deficiencies affecting PDC bit life have been resolved with new, innovative cutter geometries and their placement on the bit face depending on failure modes and load distribution. In addition, the proper selection of the applications suitable for each technology deployment is a key factor in the success of the trials and preserving the bits' cutting structure throughout the bit run. Consequently, the new method improved the bits' lifetime, drilled footage, and rate of penetration compared with the PDC bits using conventional cutters. The effectiveness of the newly introduced 3D cutter technologies and hybrid bits on lowering the cost per foot shows the success of such an approach in harsh economic climates and that the development of new technology is more important than ever in times of pricing pressure.
Innovative Approach to Treat Produced Water for Re-Use in Saudi Aramco Reservoirs Pressure Maintenance
Authors: Soliman Mohamed Ahmed , Al-Zahrani Talal , Al-Qallaf Mohammed , Salu Samusideen , Ansari Nisar 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
As part of Saudi Aramco's continuous commitment to conserve the ground water, this initiative will conserve more than 744 MBD of ground water. This can be achieved by reusing the abundant disposal water available onsite as power water injection for reservoir pressure maintenance. The target is to conserve the Kingdom's precious ground water while maintaining crude production.
The produced or disposal water at Qatif is untapped resource with great potential as an alternative source to replace the valuable Wasia ground water to maintain pressure in C, D and F reservoirs of Qatif field. However, this formation water separated from LPPT, HPPT, LPDT, dehydrators, desalters and other separation units in the Qatif plant contains variable amounts of oil contaminant and suspended solids.
To maintain good/long-term injectivity of disposal wells in Qatif field, water quality this formation water to be treated to meet the oil reservoir injection specifications. The Injected disposal water should be clean to avoid the adverse impact on well injectivity.
Maximum oil-in-water content to be less than 20 ppm (wt). Maximum total oil and suspended solids (TSS) to be less than 50 ppm. Mean particle size of suspended solid shall not exceed 5 micron.
In this study, disposal water samples collected from Qatif water-oil separation plant (WOSEP) were characterized for TSS, oil content and key ions composition. Coreflood tests were carried out on reservoir core plugs at reservoir conditions (temperature of 220 °F and a pressure of 3,000 psi) to assess the effect of this disposal water on core permeability and required filtration to improve its injectivity. Also, several water treatment proposals were identified to meet the reservoir injection specifications. The expected OPEX and CAPEX benefits of implementing the best option are:
Ground water conservation of up to 744 MBWD. Power cost saving of up to 36 MW. Minimize capital cost by avoiding the installation of two additional WOSEP vessels, six new large pumps, new water injection network and the drilling of 10 additional disposal wells.
Challenges in the Selection of a Reliable Ultrasonic Flow Metering System for Custody Transfer Gas Application
Authors: Ganesan Sankara Subramanian , Malik Asadullah , Rajendran Arivazhagan 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The intent of this paper is to highlight the challenges and improvements to be carried out during the selection of a reliable Ultrasonic Flow metering system (UFM) in Custody Transfer Gas Applications. All gas measurement technologies having limitations including UFM. The main challenges in the UFM measurements are profile distortion, noise and ingress of foreign particles.
In addition to above, the paper also highlights the improvements such as dedicated H2S and HC dew point measurements alongwith GC in custody transfer metering system for the quality of the delivered gas. The design of Zconfiguration has been emphasized which ensures the online proving as well as availability. Moreover the redundant meters are provided with dedicated flow computers, which further ensures the reliability and availability of the metering measurments in-line with international standards.
Energy Saving Through Enhanced NGL Production
Authors: Al Mashjari Khoula , Al Awadhi Ibrahim , Sharma Ashok 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Replacement of ageing and damage equipment is necessary when repair is not feasible. However, the task becomes challenging when OEM no more exists, it is special equipment and has limited manufacturer. This paper presents the approach followed in design and engineering for replacement of specialized exchanger in cryogenic service which resulted in energy saving through increased NGL Production.
Hybrid type fully welded Cryogenic plate heat exchanger was installed during early nineties. During 2013 inspection, it was reported to be internally leaking. Due to complex geometry of the heat exchanger, it was not feasible to detect and repair, which resulted in NGL production loss of 30 Tons/Day. Instead of like to like replacement, different options were reviewed considering actual gas composition & process parameters and identified the manufacturer for this specialized heat exchanger. The best option which can not only meet performance requirement but also minimize plant modifications, was selected.
The replacement was implemented on a fast-track basis. Close coordination between different stakeholders ensured accelerated technical evaluation and purchase order placement (one month compared to normal 3-month period). Improved latest design of plate embossing was used which increased heat transfer area from existing 1275m2 to 1687.9m2 and resulted in increased heat duty from 5665 KW to 6465 kW. In order to avoid any increase in weight of new exchanger and at the same time ensure integrity, exchanger design was performed as per AD2000 Code, plate pack was designed for differential pressure, high strength stainless steel was used and finite element analysis was performed. Integration with brownfield facilities including nozzles and support locations were appropriately addressed to eliminate site modifications. Design, manufacturing and testing was closely monitored with resulted in flawless manufacturing within eight (8) months. Unique Airfreight of heavy exchanger (40T) was successfully carried out with careful planning which resulted in reduction of transportation time of usual 8 weeks to 1 week. Successful installation and commissioning of heat exchanger resulted in increase in NGL production of about 60 Ton/Day (Energy = 893 BBTU/Annum).
Instead of conventional approach of like to like equipment replacement, innovative approach of enhancing design and performance of the heat exchanger, and close coordination during manufacturing, transportation and installation phases resulted in energy saving through enhanced NGL production, while maintaining safety and integrity in brownfield conditions. This initiative was appreciated by COMPANY management by awarding it a special recognition as part of 2014 GASCO Energy Award.
Optimize, Sustain and Transform: Drilling Performance Improvements Through 12-1/4" Intermediate Section
Authors: Alawi Mohamed Al , Najwani Mohamed , Walker Hamish , Wingate John 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
The Operator is developing a large onshore field in the Sultanate of Oman. Its full field development requires the construction of over 300 wells. Critical to the success of the project is the sustained reduction in drilling time per well. This paper outlines the strategy and performance improvements achieved through the 12-1/4" intermediate hole section in the pursuit of this goal.
The vertical 12-1/4″ section measures 2,650 m and consists primarily of hard carbonate sequences. There is a 350 m clastic base, of which the final 170m comprises very hard and abrasive sandstone. Multiple bit runs with sub-optimal ROP characterize drilling performance through this section. The ideal section TD is 20 m below the hard basal section.
Several drilling optimization initiatives were developed into a Continuous Improvement strategy to address performance opportunities. Work streams included, offset well analysis, KPI delineation, standardized drilling practices and procedures, BHA and drill bit design, parameter optimization, real-time monitoring, and rig site bit run supervision. The removal of unnecessary downhole tools and the transition from matrix to steel body PDC bits has also helped reduce costs. The Operator fostered collaborative working relationships with its bit vendors to develop applicable bit technology whilst encouraging competition to drive incremental performance.
A novel initiative specifically developed for this application has been real-time monitoring using an ROP console. The advisor console is located both in the office and on the drill floor. The key functionalities of the system include, engineered optimum parameter fairways, real-time performance benchmarking, look-ahead lithology/rock strength/stringer identification, drilling related risk alerts, and current/upcoming formation information. The system is tailored to each rig type, BHA and bit type, and ensures latest performance expectations and parameter advice can be disseminated across rig lines.
The strategy has meant the section can now be drilled twice as fast, using half the number of bits. Section Total Depth (TD) is also frequently reached to the optimized depth (in one bit run) enabling continued optimization for the start of the next section (8-3/8").
Coal Bed Methane - Unconventional Gas Becomes an Optimised Solution
Authors: Amott Nick , Garlick Paul , Andrews Paul , Wagensveld Steven van 
Published: November 2016

Abstract
Tight gas resources as exemplified by the dramatic increase in production in the USA and being aggressively developed worldwide, have analogues with Coal Bed Methane (CBM). CBM (sometimes known as Coal Seam Gas) is an unconventional resource where gas is adsorbed within the solid matrix of a coal seam. CBM projects are characterised by large, complex and repetitive gathering system infrastructure which are similar to the general traits of tight gas production systems, especially those associated with fracturing well stimulation techniques.
CBM has been utilised as a source of natural gas for decades, predominantly in the USA, Canada and Australia. However, the majority of the worlds’ 143 trillion cubic metres of Coal Bed Methane remain untapped. To date, the more favourable economics of conventional gas reserves extraction and the recent burgeoning shale gas resource in the USA has limited CBM exploitation. However, increasing demand for gas in eastern markets has led to renewed interest and investment in CBM development. This paper presents a "primer" for CBM covering the resources, extraction methods, gas characterisation and environmental considerations; including co-production of water and land management issues due to the thousands of wells required for a development. The collected gas is usually compressed, dehydrated and exported as sales gas, and provides an excellent feedstock for LNG production.
Unlike conventional gas production, the gas and water production rates from an individual CBM well cannot be known until the well is completed (and in the case of tight gas, fractured), so CBM/tight gas projects present design engineers with technical challenges in terms of optimisation, equipment sizing and modularisation. The geographically distributed, capital intensive nature of CBM projects also places great focus on cost and scope optimisation by operating companies and design contractors.
An introduction to CBM production and facilities design is presented in this paper, together with discussion of an innovative, patent pending method of modelling gas and water gathering system networks, using Monte Carlo analysis and a genetic algorithm for cost optimisation.