bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Interracial Communication, Critical Approaches
Authors: Harris Tina M. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThis entry is an introduction to the different methodological approaches social scientists have used to understand interracial communication. A historical lens is used to provide context for understanding the origins of racial categories and how they were created to maintain a race‐based value system that directly influences inter‐ and intragroup perceptions and interactions. These racial groupings perpetuated a value‐laden racial hierarchy that protected the powerful and preserved systemic oppression through institutionalized racism. Addressing the historical evolution of race involves recognition of the inherent power in a system that differently benefits racial, ethnic, and cultural groups. A perspective is advanced that encourages the acknowledgment of societal privileges that are unequally distributed in society and the need to bring parity to an increasingly diverse multicultural society.
Rhetoric and Intercultural Communication
Authors: González Alberto , Bardhan Soumia 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry describes the connections between rhetorical communication and criticism and intercultural communication. The opportunity for intercultural considerations in rhetorical studies came with the turn away from neo‐Aristotelian models of persuasion. Methodological considerations and critical approaches for intercultural rhetorical criticism are described. Intercultural rhetoric is described from the following research areas: rhetorical criticism, Chinese rhetorical studies, ethnography of communication, whiteness studies, and vernacular rhetoric.
Tourism and Intercultural Communication
Authors: McMullen Melissa 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThis entry begins by describing the importance of studying intercultural communication exchanges that occur in the context of tourism and some of the difficulties in doing so. It then defines and discusses research addressing: first, tourists and challenges faced by tourists; second, cultural hosts and their reactions to tourism; and, third, the sites of interaction between tourists and cultural hosts. This entry concludes with some directions for future research on intercultural communication in tourism.
Intercultural Communication Study in New Zealand
Authors: Rahman Khairiah A. , Brown Adam 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry presents the development of cultural diversity in New Zealand and reviews key research areas in intercultural communication study in the country. There are significant contributions in the areas of indigenous and diaspora theories of identity, othering and stereotypes, media representations, intergenerational cultural differences within migrant communities, cultural adaptation between host and home cultures, intercultural communication competence, and cultural intelligence. These research areas are multidisciplinary and span the fields of education, psychology, communication, media, language, culture, and healthcare. Researchers supported by the local universities and research centers adopted qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methodologies using positivist, interpretive, constructivist, and critical approaches.
Intercultural Communication Study in Russia
Authors: Klyukanov Igor E. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry starts by noting a number of issues related to the study of intercultural communication and then presents the main historical developments leading up to the current state. A state‐of‐the‐art overview of the intercultural communication field in Russia follows, including the degrees conferred, academic professional organizations and groups, conferences, and journals. Next, major theoretical and methodological approaches are discussed, with a special note on the relationship between theory and method. A separate section is dedicated to key themes and topics, including emerging trends in intercultural communication research and education. The entry concludes by noting that, while intercultural communication research and education in Russia are vibrant and diverse, they still face methodological and theoretical challenges, with the pressing task of bringing conceptual coherence to the field.
Cross‐Cultural Experimental Research
Authors: Pfundmair Michaela 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Cross‐cultural experimental research is a methodological tool to reveal differences between cultures and identify cause and effect relationships. Any consideration of research designs starts with the development of cultural competence. When constructing an experiment, cultures of interest have to be considered and independent and dependent variables have to be adapted to ensure methodological equivalence. Before collecting data, sampling strategies and ethical considerations have to be taken into account. When interpreting cross‐cultural findings, the researcher has to adjust for culture‐specific response biases and consider adequate statistical measures. To help identify underlying cultural variables, specific methods like unpackaging, cultural priming, or situation sampling can be applied. Optimally, cross‐cultural differences are captured in multiple studies using divergent methods.
Cultural Value Dimensions
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Cultural value dimensions are constructs created by researchers to understand and predict human behavior in the cultural context and to compare human behaviors across two or more cultures. Interest in identifying cultural patterns goes back a hundred years, and the interest continues to grow with the discoveries of new dimensions by using values, beliefs, social exchange, and other aspects of subjective human culture. The value dimensions found are abstractions, and are useful in using as a starting point in intercultural communication. However, if a person from a certain culture does not fit the dimension, it is best not to try to fit the person in the cultural dimension.
Emic and Etic Research
Authors: van Oudenhoven Jan Pieter 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Within the field of intercultural behavior there are two research approaches: the etic approach and the emic approach. Etic researchers are quantitatively oriented, look for causal explanations of cultural behavior, and are interested in discovering universal patterns of behavior. By keeping a certain distance from the object of study the researcher more easily discovers differences but also similarities between cultures. The alternative to etic research is offered by the emic approach, an interpretivist approach. The emic approach usually leads to a more profound understanding of a particular culture. Both approaches can strengthen one another. Knowing how cultures differ and also discovering similarities promotes understanding of other cultures and facilitates intercultural communication.
High‐ and Low‐Context Cultures
Authors: McKay‐Semmler Kelly L. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry provides an introduction to Edward T. Hall's high‐/low‐context continuum, some of its research applications, as well as critiques and future directions for research on these concepts. Hall theorizes that cultures vary in the emphasis they place on implicit versus explicit message content in daily communication activities. High‐context cultures privilege messages in which meaning resides largely within knowledge of the context of the interaction, including the setting and participants. In low‐context cultures, most of a message's meaning is conveyed in the explicit verbal code. Hall's continuum provides a communication‐based perspective on cultural variation, and his work is widely acknowledged for popularizing the early study of intercultural communication.
Monochronic and Polychronic Time
Authors: Kaufman‐Scarborough Carol 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The constructs of monochronic and polychronic time originated in the social science literature and were introduced by the late anthropologist and cultural researcher Edward T. Hall. Much of Hall's work took place in the field setting and his research extended across the cultures of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Time perceptions and use were found to vary as one of what Hall called “silent languages.” For instance, people in some cultures prefer to focus on one activity, with a decided preference for monochronic time use. In contrast, persons in other cultures may be more likely to use time polychronically, with customary activity patterns including two or more activities within the same block of time. The study of monochronic and polychronic time spans numerous disciplines, including anthropology, business, management, marketing, organizational behavior, and sociology.
Communication Modes,Mexican
Authors: Covarrubias Patricia O. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThis entry is inspired by Mexican Nobel laureate Octavio Paz's description of the Mexican self in social interaction as one that oscillates between intimacy and withdrawal to discuss key particulars of Mexican communication. Using the contrasting communication codes ofrespetoandconfianzaas cultural bases for interpersonal relationships, verbal and nonverbal elements are shown to be deployed artfully by Mexican interactants to enact social rapprochement and distancing. Specifically,respetoandconfianzaare shown to mediate the quality and quantity of speech, pronominal configurations, uses of titles, and other verbal and nonverbal strategies. Moreover, Mexican communication is discussed within the context of dominant historical underpinnings that influence contemporary Mexican communication. Mexican turn‐taking practices also are explained as representative of particularly problematic communication loci when they occur in intercultural contexts.
Communication Modes,SouthAfrican
Authors: Mesthrie Rajend 
Published: December 2017

AbstractSouth Africa offers a rich site of enquiry into multilingualism, multiculturalism, language hierarchies, discrimination, and opportunities for change. This entry details the linguistic and sociopolitical background necessary to understand the intercultural and communicative diversity and change in the country. Most studies have focused on the effects of discrimination in apartheid society on intercultural communication, and conversely the contribution of intercultural miscommunication to reinforcing negative stereotypes. Changes in the postapartheid order have still to be felt in the sphere of intercultural communication. Newer studies point to a lack of change in the domains of education and the law, where former hierarchies are largely entrenched.
Bi‐ and Multilingualism
Authors: de Groot Annette M. B. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

The terms
bilingualism
and
multilingualism
refer to the presence of two or more than two languages within an individual and within a society. This entry deals with individual bi‐ and multilingualism. It presents a number of dimensions along which individual bilinguals are classified and discusses the popular but also questioned idea that to ultimately command multiple languages at nativelike levels one should be exposed to them during a bounded period early in life. In addition, it presents the notion of language‐nonselective activation in bilingual memory and discusses how bilingualism may affect the content of lexical concepts and various aspects of nonverbal cognition.
Prejudice and Discrimination
Authors: Awad Germine H. , Rackley Kadie R. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Classic and contemporary definitions of prejudice and discrimination are presented. An updated definition that incorporates Gordon Allport's original conceptualization is offered. Discussion of the four levels of discrimination including individual, organizational, institutional, and cultural is presented. Different conceptualizations of prejudice are organized by explicit versus implicit forms such as old‐fashioned prejudice, modern‐symbolic prejudice, benevolent or paternalistic prejudice, aversive prejudice, ambivalent prejudice, and color‐blind ideology. Forms of discrimination are discussed such as microaggressions, blatant discrimination, subtle discrimination, and covert discrimination. Finally, a discussion of the contact hypothesis is offered.
Cultural Diversity Training in Organizations
Authors: Wilkinson Louise C. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractCultural diversity training in organizations addresses problems and possibilities that arise when people from different social and cultural groups come together. Designed to reduce misunderstanding and conflict, and to build understanding, cultural competence, and inclusion, organizations use training to help improve their use of diversity to support organizational effectiveness. The contemporary field of cultural diversity training generally originates from two historical training traditions: equity‐oriented and culture‐based training. Each contains important threads woven into the field today. Most training includes imparting knowledge about key topics and developing both internal and external skills. The field continues to evolve.
Training for Expatriates
Authors: Feitosa Jennifer , Salas Eduardo 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry develops the state of science in regards to training for expatriates. Expatriates are those individuals who go to a foreign country to complete an assignment. Unfortunately, they often return early or change jobs upon their repatriation. Although there is little consistency regarding the content and methods used to train these individuals in the most effective way, consensus exists that more resources should be allocated for adequate training. Given the high level of failure as well as the growth made possible by relying on expatriates for global competitiveness, this entry highlights 10 themes along with training considerations for each. Future research agendas include the criterion problem, methodological challenges, and the changing nature of these temporary assignments.
Training for Immigrants
Authors: Smith L. Ripley 
Published: December 2017

AbstractImmigration is one of the defining population characteristics around the globe today. The topic of immigration/immigrants is one of the unique intercultural fields of inquiry that is directly impacted by government policy decisions. In addition, the vast majority of immigrant training is conducted by a combination of government‐funded practitioners and community partners. As immigrants transition from their country of origin to their new host country there are numerous demographic, sociological, and personal implications. Training immigrants in various professional and life skills is critical for successful adjustment in the new host culture. Research in this area has emphasized pragmatic skills like language and vocational training in order to improve economic mobility, while deemphasizing contextual factors and cultural intelligence.
Ambivalence
Authors: Durante Federica 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Ambivalence is generally defined as holding simultaneously positive and negative evaluations toward the same object. The literature distinguishes among three types of ambivalence: cognitive, emotional, and cognitive‐affective. Studies have shown that ambivalence impacts many aspects of attitude (temporal stability, resistance to persuasion, information‐processing, reliability in predicting intentions and behaviors), but there is disagreement about the mechanisms underlying such effects, as well as about the best way to measure ambivalence. The concept of ambivalence has been used to investigate many different topics (e.g., politics, health, drugs, alcohol) and social targets, which is particularly relevant for intercultural communication given the role of intergroup attitudes in shaping social interactions. Interestingly, within two theoretical frameworks, ambivalence toward gender and societal groups is conceptualized as functional to the maintenance of the status quo. Clarifying the origins of attitudinal ambivalence remains an important challenge for future studies.
Black Masculinity
Authors: Jackson Ronald L. , Elmore Branden 
Published: December 2017

AbstractMasculinity is a social descriptor that travels. What it means to be masculine may vary by continent, country, tribe, and even family. This one adjective might also refer to one who identifies as cis male, cis female, androgynous, transgender, bigender, agender, pangender, transsexual, gender questioning, intersex, and so forth. The complexity of gender in the 21st century is almost mind‐numbing. So this entry tries to simplify this by addressing mainstream notions of masculinity, and then applying those notions to what it means to be black in the United States. There have been entire books written about this, so this brief explanation simply whets the appetite so the reader may find additional works by scholars such as Judith Butler, Brenda J. Allen, bell hooks, Riche Richardson, Mark Orbe, Michael Messner, Michael Kimmel, Mark Hopson, Robert Staples, Jeffrey McCune, Michael Eric Dyson, and others.
Cultural Contracts Theory
Authors: Jackson Ronald L. , Elmore Branden 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
It is evident that every aspect of social life from language to social roles (e.g., parent, sibling, professional) to orientation or attitude (e.g. political affiliation or opinion about myriad social issues such as immigration, birth control, capital punishment, etc.) peers into our unavoidable need to not only participate in but also make sense of the world around us. Identities in and of themselves cannot stand alone. We must do something with them. It is not enough to simply be a woman or be a member of a particular racial group; we are compelled to juxtapose “woman” with “man,” “black” with “white,” and “I” with “Other.” At the moment this comparative act of juxtaposing groups takes place, identity negotiation begins. It is not immediately clear what is meant by the term “identity negotiation”; hence cultural contracts theory was developed to explain the negotiation process.
Cultural Intelligence, Postcolonial Critique
Authors: Dutta Debalina , Dutta Mohan J. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Cultural intelligence (CQ) taps into a person's ability to adapt into new cultural contexts and is conceptualized by its proponents as a key characteristic of the manager operating in transnational contexts. A postcolonial critique of CQ examines the ways in which the concept serves as an instrument of new colonialism, on the one hand as a tool of surveillance and on the other hand by co‐opting culture as an instrument for extending the reach of transnational capital. The location of CQ at the intersections of knowledge and politics shapes the function of the concept within the ambit of transnational capitalism.
English Hegemony
Authors: Tsuda Yukio 
Published: December 2017

Abstract“English hegemony,” or the dominance of English, causes a number of problems of inequality and discrimination in communication all around the world. The problems include linguicism, linguicide, Americanization of culture, information control, mind control, and English divide. “English divide” has created the English‐language‐based class system where people are hierarchized according to their ability in English, thus reproducing inequality.
Standpoint Theory
Authors: Allen Brenda J. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Standpoint theory contends that humans produce knowledge through power relations that construct and divide social groups into dominant and nondominant categories. Experiences within those categories produce different, unequal opportunities that cultivate distinct ways of knowing and being. Nondominant group members can provide more complete knowledge about reality than dominant ones because they understand the world from both perspectives. The theory originated in analyses of power dynamics in master–slave relationships and labor roles and progressed to feminist studies about gender relations. Feminist standpoint theory maintains that subordinate group members achieve standpoints through consciousness‐raising about power relations. Critical researchers use feminist standpoint methodology to gain insight from oppressed groups about resisting power to effect social change. Feminist standpoint theory has expanded beyond gender to encompass categories such as race and social class. Recent scholarship calls for studying standpoints of Third World groups in Western societies and marginalized groups in international contexts.
Transculturality
Authors: Pahor Marija Jurić 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Transculturality does not view cultures as homogeneous, self‐contained entities, emphasizing instead how they transgress borders, overlap, and intermingle. Reappearing in the 1990s in Wolfgang Welsch's work in particular, the concept was first coined in 1940, as
transculturación
(transculturation), by Fernando Ortiz. Starting out in Cuba, it first spread to Latin America and Francophone Canada before emerging in the United States and Europe in the 1990s. It is considered to be the key concept in postcolonial studies. Transculturality and transculturation differ in their focus, and offer numerous opportunities for alignment with contemporary thought on notions of hybridity, contact zones, and third space.
Cultural Assumptions in
I
ndia and the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The United States and India are two of the largest democracies of the world. The United States is the largest economy in the world, and India is the seventh largest economy and the ninth largest trading partner of the United States with goods and service trade of US $110 billion. India has an ancient culture with linguistic and cultural diversity, next to the continent of Africa, whereas the United States is a young immigrant nation with one official language. Both countries have nuclear weapons. There is a need to understand their values comparatively to help understand intercultural communication between people of these countries.
Interpersonal Argumentation across Cultures
Authors: Cionea Ioana A. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The study of interpersonal argumentation across cultures examines the connections between intercultural or cross‐cultural communication and the practice of interpersonal argumentation and arguing. This entry briefly reviews the tradition of argumentation and its connections to other areas of communication study, such as rhetoric, persuasion, or conflict. The entry then explains the concept of arguing and conceptualizations of culture, indicating what the study of interpersonal argumentation across cultures entails, based on these definitions. The main portion of the entry is dedicated to highlighting thematic groupings of key issues in argumentation across cultures, with examples from studies available in the literature, and suggestions for possible areas of investigation.
Design of C3‐Alkenyl‐Substituted 2‐Indolylmethanols for Catalytic Asymmetric Interrupted Nazarov‐Type Cyclization
Authors: Wang Cong‐Shuai , Wu Jia‐Le , Li Can , Li Lin‐Zhi , Mei Guang‐Jian , Shi Feng 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThe C3‐alkenyl‐substituted 2‐indolylmethanols have been designed as a new class of substrates for catalytic asymmetric interrupted Nazarov‐type cyclizations. In the presence of chiral phosphoric acid as a mild chiral Brønsted acid, the interrupted Nazarov‐type cyclization of C3‐alkenyl‐substituted 2‐indolylmethanols with nucleophiles occurred smoothly to construct cyclopenta[b]indole frameworks in generally excellent diastereo‐ and enantioselectivities (up to >95:5 dr, >99% ee).magnified image