bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lazarsfeld, Paul F.
Authors: Hardt Hanno 
Published: September 2017

Paul Felix Lazarsfeld (1901–1976), Vienna‐born sociologist, influenced by Ernst Mach, Henri Poincaré, and Albert Einstein, and intellectually close to the Vienna Circle of logical positivism, called himself a “European positivist.” He was the founder of modern empirical sociology and a major figure in twentieth‐century American sociology. His contributions to the study of communication grew out of his collaborative work at the
Bureau of Applied Social Research
, which he had founded at New York's Columbia University in 1937. His position was firmly established with the publication of
The people's choice
(Lazarsfeld et al. 1944) and
Personal influence
(Katz & Lazarsfeld 1955), which set the stage for the social scientific exploration of communication in modern society. Lazarsfeld's work is also an example of the intellectual contributions made by emigré scholars to American scholarship during and after World War II.
Leadership in Organizations
Authors: Collinson David L. 
Published: September 2017

Leadership dynamics significantly shape communication in organizations. By defining leadership primarily as a process of → Persuasion, many scholars place communication at the very heart of leadership dynamics. The complex organizational relationships between leaders and followers can crucially influence the nature and extent of communication. Equally, the nature and extent of communication often reflects and reinforces the quality of the relationships between leaders and followers. Within organizations, leadership and communication frequently interact in complex, mutually reinforcing and sometimes contradictory ways.
Linear and Nonlinear Models of Causal Analysis
Authors: Price Vincent , Freres Derek 
Published: September 2017

Communication researchers often gather quantitative data – for example from surveys, content analyses, or experiments – and then generate mathematical models to represent or summarize those data (→ Survey; Content Analysis, Quantitative; Experimental Design). These models are used in two basic ways: first, to generate
predictions
about certain variables; and second, to study
relationships
among some number of variables (Allison 1999). In some cases, the goal is to obtain as accurate a prediction as possible, without much regard to the particular variables used to make the prediction. In most cases, at least in communication research, the focus is on the pattern of relationships among particular variables, and especially on
testing hypotheses
made in advance about how variables are expected to interrelate (→ Hypothesis; Statistics, Explanatory).
Lippmann, Walter
Authors: Hardt Hanno 
Published: September 2017

Walter Lippmann (1889–1974), political columnist and confidant of several presidents, public intellectual and winner of two Pulitzer prizes, remains an important voice among critics of → public opinion and the role of the press. In early twentieth‐century America, he was an essential contributor to American political thought and the American way of life, whose path he observed with authority. Lippmann also represents a rare intellectual tradition in American journalism; his weekly column, “Today and tomorrow,” became a powerful and effective response to the political scene in Washington.
Local News
Authors: Choi Young Jae 
Published: September 2017

The term “local news” is often used to refer to news with coverage of events in a local context, which would be contrasted with news of other localities, or of national or international scope (→ International News Reporting). The geographic characteristics of local news have been regarded as forces with influence on shaping local media markets, labor, and media technology, which in turn affect local → news values. The geographic local boundary assumed to be influential in the process of local news production is easily connected to the socially constructed “community” concept. Thus, local news is expected to play a role in networking the local community and serving local interests (→ Community Integration).
Longitudinal Analysis
Authors: Scherer Helmut 
Published: September 2017

For many inquiries in the field of communication research, the analysis of change is of great value. Classic diffusion research in the communication sciences deals with the diffusion of information in society, and it is important to know the dynamics of the diffusion process, as well as the factors that influence it (→ Diffusion of Information and Innovation). Media research considers media effects mostly as individual changes caused by media content. Therefore, methods that allow the analysis of these changes are of particular importance in communication research.
Magazine
Authors: Schwalbe Carol B. 
Published: September 2017

No other popular mass medium rivals magazines for timelessness, permanence, and scope. Magazines reflect and mold the issues, opinions, and trends of the present; they also interpret and shape society's collective memory of the past (→ Collective Memory and the Media). Although critics fret about celebrity journalism and advertising pressure on editorial content, the diversity of magazines makes them a voice for the old and young, men and women, liberals and conservatives, the mighty and the marginalized.
Magazine, Visual Design of
Authors: Naismith Jacqueline 
Published: September 2017

Magazines use the aesthetic and rhetorical strategies of graphic design to produce style codes, which define the identity of the magazine as a recognizable title, and establish relationships with their audiences. The → magazine combines text and image to publish → news, information, editorial content, and → advertising. The structural components of the printed magazine include the cover (composed of masthead or title, and image), editorial and contents pages, single pages, and double‐page spreads. Magazine design employs the underlying structure of the grid (including columns and modules) to order arrangements of typographic, photographic, and illustrative elements on the page. The formal strategies of → graphic design, including proportion, balance, symmetry, color, rhythm, sequence, scale, and movement, are employed to produce visually persuasive texts (Frost 2003; Hurlburt 1978). As historical documents, magazines provide a record of relationships between → visual representation, identity, and consumption, across a vast spectrum of lifestyles, societies, and cultures (→ Magazine, History of).
Marginality, Stigma, and Communication
Authors: Brashers Dale 
Published: September 2017

Goffman (1963) popularized the concept of
stigma
through his well‐cited book,
Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity
. He defined it as “an attribute that is deeply discrediting,” which reduces the bearer “in our minds from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one” (Goffman 1963, 3). Stigmatizing attributes include “abominations of the body,” “blemishes of individual character,” and “tribal stigmas of race, nation, or religion” (Goffman 1963, 4). Current research supports the theory that people are stigmatized, and ultimately marginalized, because of mental and physical illnesses; behavior that is considered deviant, immoral, or illegal; and personal characteristics such as race, class, gender, and sexual orientation. Alonzo and Reynolds (1955), for example, noted that stigma associated with HIV or AIDS comes about because moral judgments often are made about personal responsibility and deviant behavior (e.g., gay sex or drug use) and because the disease is associated with contagion and death (→ Intercultural Communication in Health‐Care).
Marital Typologies
Authors: Fitzpatrick Mary Anne 
Published: September 2017

Marital typologies are classifications of marriages based on systematic differences among them. An assumption underlying the study of marital typologies is that within any given sample of marriages, a few discrete, meaningful types can be discerned. Marriages are categorized into types in order to understand the communication that occurs between husbands and wives (→ Interpersonal Communication; Marital Communication). Typologies of marriage range from vague, non‐theoretical formulations to elaborate conceptual models that include empirically testable statements. Researchers have adopted logical, intuitive, and empirical approaches to classify marriages to explain changing family forms over time, to help therapists working in clinical settings with troubled couples, and to aid researchers reflecting post hoc on data collected for other purposes. The resulting typologies, which focus on qualitative dimensions of relationships, have been theoretically interesting and heuristically valuable in sorting marriages.
Marketing
Authors: Esch Franz‐Rudolf , Strödter Kristina 
Published: September 2017

Commonly, people associate selling and → advertising with marketing. In the old interpretation, this understanding of marketing was quite right, as marketing primarily comprised making a sale. But today, there is more to marketing than selling, promoting, advertising, and publicizing. Selling and advertising are only two of the many tasks of marketing management. Briefly, marketing is about “meeting needs profitably” (Kotler & Keller 2006). But although marketing can be summarized in such simple terms, there are many tasks behind it.
Mask
Authors: Foley Kathy 
Published: September 2017

A mask is a facial representation worn by performers and exists in a continuum with puppetry, which often represents the same characters (Harlequin, Punch, Devil, etc.; → Visual Representation). Emigh (1996, 3, 7) theorizes masks as “transitional objects” that bridge gaps through strategies of play and argues that though in the west the mask is “generally regarded as a cosmetic disguise,” in some non‐western areas the mask is “an instrument of revelation, giving form to the ineffable and providing a nexus between the individual and communally defined forces.”
McLuhan, Marshall
Authors: Meyrowitz Joshua 
Published: September 2017

Marshall McLuhan is best known for his theories on the impact of media apart from the specific content/messages they convey. McLuhan linked major historical shifts, social trends, and changes in psychological and sensory orientations to the influence of changes in communication media and other technologies (→ Technology and Communication; Media History). McLuhan ridiculed typical concerns about message imitation and persuasion in his most famous pun: “The medium is the message.”
Media Advocacy in Health Communication
Authors: Dorfman Lori 
Published: September 2017

Media advocacy is the strategic use of mass media to support community organizing and to advance public policy that improves health (→ Health Communication; Strategic Communication). The purpose of media advocacy is to put pressure on policymakers by setting the agenda and shaping debate to include policy solutions in news coverage of health issues. Media advocacy equips people to become active in the political process of making change.
Media Content and Social Networks
Authors: Scheufele Dietram A. 
Published: September 2017

In
The people's choice
, → Paul F. Lazarsfeld and his colleagues laid out many of the key issues that disciplines such as communication, political science, and sociology continue to struggle with when modeling the intersection of mass media and social networks (Lazarsfeld et al. 1948). More specifically, they offered two key constructs to explain the interplay of mass‐mediated information, → social networks, and political → attitudes that are still relevant today: opinion leadership and political cross‐pressures (→ Opinion Leader).
Media Ecology
Authors: Newton Julianne H. 
Published: September 2017

Media ecology is a multidisciplinary field that studies the evolution, effects, and forms of environments. Media ecology is most often defined as both the study of
media as environments
and the study of
environments
– such as situations or contexts –
as media
. Scholars work within expansive definitions of media, ecology, and technology. Although “medium” is often conceptualized in terms of transportation or a pipeline, the term actually means “environment.” Media therefore include not only communication technologies but also such entities as the brain and body, a lecture hall or galaxy, and languages, symbols, and → codes (→ Information and Communication Technology, Development of). Media ecologists study all types of technology, not just communication technologies, and often use the terms “media” and “technology” interchangeably. “Ecology,” too, encompasses a complex range of meanings for media ecologists, who draw on → systems theory to analyze the co‐evolution of the human organism and technologies. In addition, media ecologists are concerned with the general role of technology in society (→ Communication and Social Change: Research Methods).
Media Effects, Strength of
Authors: Perse Elizabeth M. 
Published: September 2017

Twenty‐first‐century mass communication scholars rarely question the existence of media effects. Research has presented significant and consistent evidence that the mass media have noticeable and meaningful effects. Evidence comes not only from the accumulation of the body of different studies, but from the various meta‐analyses that organize various research studies and combine their findings to assess the direction and strength of media effects. In general, research finds that media effects are modest, small to moderate in size. Conclusions about the strength of media effects, however, must be tempered by considerations of → research methodology (laboratory compared to more natural settings), the effects of different types of media content (pro‐social compared to antisocial; → Media Production and Content), and the effects of routine compared to unusual content (→ Media Effects; Media Effects, History of).
Media Equation Theory
Authors: Lee Kwan Min 
Published: September 2017

The term “media equation” means that → Media equal real life. It implies that people (→ Audience) process technology‐mediated experiences in the same way as they would do nonmediated experiences, because an “individual's interactions with computers, television, and new media are fundamentally social and natural, just like interaction in real life” (Reeves & Nass 1996, 5). In 1996, Reeves and Nass first introduced this theory, and carefully summarized their previous media equation studies in the seminal bookThe media equation. Since the publication of this book, Nass, Reeves, and their colleagues have expanded the domain of the theory from traditional communication settings to radically different areas, from e‐commerce to human–robot interaction.
Media Marketing
Authors: Phillips Mark R. 
Published: September 2017

In an age of rapid technological innovation it would seem counterintuitive to assume that marketing and advertising techniques would remain stagnant; to survive and prosper, as in all aspects of business, marketers need to adapt their strategies and activities and advertisers need to evolve in terms of style, content, and media application (→ Marketing; Advertising). Media, both as a self‐perpetuating entity and as a facilitator of others' marketing goals needs to respond to changes in environment and strategic perspective. Indeed, media are currently witnessing great flux in marketing approaches. Marketers are being forced to rethink traditional paradigms and re‐evaluate fundamental tenets right down to the bedrock definitions including markets, what constitutes an “ad,” and what is meant by “media.”
Media as Political Actors
Authors: Patterson Thomas E. 
Published: September 2017

Political advocacy is not journalists' main concern. They are chiefly in the business of gathering and disseminating the daily news, and they define themselves more by their professionalism than by their partisanship (→ Journalists' Role Perceptions). According to McQuail (1994, 145), “The height of [journalists'] professional skill is the exercise of a practical craft, which delivers the required institutional product, characterized by a high degree of objectivity, key marks of which are obsessive facticity and neutrality of attitude” (→ Professionalization of Journalism; Quality of the News; Standards of News).
Mediatization of Society
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro 
Published: September 2017

From a very general point of view, “mediatization of society” is a concept that indicates the extension of the influence of the media (considered both as a cultural technology and as an organization) into all spheres of society and social life. In this broad sense, the way the media influence social life is linked to the larger process of culturalization, that is, the process by which culture – considered as the complex of signs, symbols, meanings, and values circulating within and between societies – has become increasingly central to the operation of all social institutions (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Medium Theory
Authors: Meyrowitz Joshua 
Published: September 2017

Medium theory stands apart from more generic “media theory” in its exploration of the influences of communication technologies in addition to, and distinct from, the specific content (messages) they convey. Medium theorists argue that media are not simply channels for transmitting information between two or more environments, but are themselves distinct social‐psychological settings or environments that encourage certain types of interaction and discourage others (→ Media). Medium theory analyzes differences among communication environments.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Levine Timothy R. , Hullett Craig R. 
Published: September 2017

Meta‐analysis is a set of methods and statistical analyses for summarizing the findings of an existing empirical literature. As the name implies, it is a study of studies. It provides a way to do a quantitative literature review that involves cumulating effects across studies (→ Quantitative Methodology). The purpose of a meta‐analysis is to ascertain if the findings from a collection of studies investigating some specific issue lead to some consistent result and, if so, to estimate the magnitude of that finding. If not, it serves to reconcile findings that appear to offer mixed support for a hypothesis. Meta‐analysis is also useful in identifying the reasons why findings are inconsistent from study to study (→ Generalizability) and to identify theoretically important moderators. Meta‐analysis will likely play an increasingly important role in making sense out of social science research.
Mindlessness and Automaticity
Authors: Kellermann Kathy , McCann Robert M. 
Published: September 2017

Mindlessness is the automatic (nonconscious) management of behavior. Mindless behavior is studied under many varied and related names: mindlessness, → automaticity, tacit knowledge, implicit learning, implicit cognition, nonconscious processing and, as one recent popular book puts it, “blink” (Langer 1978; Lewicki 1986; Reber 1993; Bargh & Ferguson 2000; Gladwell 2005; Litman & Reber 2005). Langer introduced mindlessness into social psychology nearly three decades ago (Langer 1978). As editor of
Communication Monographs
, Judee Burgoon devoted a five‐article “Chautauqua” to the concept in 1992 (see, e.g., Kellermann 1992).
Minority Journalism
Authors: Lind Rebecca Ann 
Published: September 2017

In a social context, scholars conceptualize minority groups on the basis of social status. Whether from a domestic or an international perspective, minority status is not predicated on numerical representation within a culture; it has to do with social or cultural difference, based on language, religion, or other cultural practices (→ Ethnic Journalism). When language differences exist, the dominant social group considers the news reports minority groups themselves produce as “foreign‐language journalism.” Most scholars discount biological theories of race, which attempt to mark minority groups on the basis of physical characteristics, but some attempt to differentiate between racial or ethnic minorities. Even so, the key relationship between the minority group and the dominant social group is that the former is subordinate to the latter. As a result, members of minority groups frequently do not enjoy the same access to education, economic or political power, or other cultural capital as do members of the dominant social group (→ Access to the Media; News Ideologies).
Modernity
Authors: Straubhaar Joseph 
Published: September 2017

Since the 1990s, academic debates have revived modernity as a key concept. Tomlinson (1991) argued that much of what was labeled “cultural imperialism” (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories) was in fact a broader spread of a globalized pattern of modernity. This discourse argued, in particular, that beneath much of what was seen as Americanization or westernization lay a more general, deeper globalization of capitalism, “the broader discourse of cultural imperialism as
the spread of the culture of modernity itself
” (Tomlinson 1991, 89–90, original italics; → Americanization of the Media; Globalization Theories).
Morality and Taste in Media Content
Authors: Glasser Theodore L. 
Published: September 2017

Tensions and contradictions abound in claims about media content and its relationship to popular taste and public morality. Media, especially mainstream media, reinforce prevailing norms of taste and morality by catering to them, but they also legitimize new and different standards of good and bad by circulating provocative and unorthodox material. Media coverage of scandals focuses on what is self‐evidently or demonstrably wrong and thus conserves the status quo, except when the scandal involves the media themselves, in which case the theme of the coverage can conveniently shift from what is right to do, properly the domain of ethics, to the right to do it, properly the domain of law (→ Scandalization in the News). In many parts of the world, particularly at times when audiences condemn what they crave, the producers of media content struggle to navigate a course between serving the public interest, typically a high‐minded standard crafted by media practitioners or promulgated by the state, and serving the public's interest, a baser standard established by market forces (→ Media Production and Content).
Multitasking
Authors: Koolstra Cees 
Published: September 2017

Multitasking may be defined as the performance of two or more → information‐processing activities simultaneously. The term originated in computer science as a description of a central processor performing two or more tasks at the same time. In the context of communication and media studies, multitasking is the term used for the situation in which an individual is using a → medium while doing one or more other information‐processing tasks at the same time. If multitasking pertains to using two or more media simultaneously, for example the combination of watching → Television and reading the → Newspaper, one can speak of “media multitasking” (e.g., Foehr 2006) or simultaneous use of (multiple) media.
Museum
Authors: Waite Phelan Catherine 
Published: September 2017

The visitor to a museum engages in a dialogue, enters a political space, or constructs a visual legacy, all of which signify membership in a larger community that links past, present, and future. Membership in such a community is made possible through communication. Whether one views the museum as an exchange of information or as the construction of a shared identity, communication serves as the starting point. The museum offers a public space, distinct from the mundane activities of everyday life, designed to communicate a sense of time and place distinctly different from workplace and home (→ Public Sphere).