bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clientelism
Authors: Casullo Maria Esperanza 
Published: September 2017

AbstractClientelism, or the exchange of goods and services for votes, is believed to be an endemic pathology of the new democracies of the developing world. As the democratic transition created a higher number of recent democracies, the academic production on the topic of clientelism has multiplied. However, there is a puzzling disparity between the central role that the clientelistic pathology supposedly plays in explaining the weak party institutionalization and the lack of programmatic competition in semiperipheral democracies and the relative paucity of hard data evidence about the true impact of clientelistic practices on electoral success. That goods are offered in return for votes is undeniable, but authors find somewhat contradictory evidence as to what the actual effectiveness of such offerings is. In recent years some scholars go as far as to argue that the concept of “clientelism” itself is deeply flawed, in that it presupposes that “poor people's politics” is inherently less civic‐minded and less valuable than the political activism of the higher classes; this obscures the many ways in which the poor engage in active protest and claim‐making.
Malaria
Authors: Austin Kelly , Mejia Maria Theresa 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMalaria is a preventable and treatable parasitic disease that represents a leading cause of death and underdevelopment in many less developed nations located in tropical and subtropical regions. High levels of cross‐national variation in malaria rates across zones in which the anopheles mosquito is endemic, including eradication in more developed regions of the world, suggests the significance of large‐scale social, environmental, and economic factors in shaping vulnerabilities to this pandemic. Poverty, gender inequalities, and environmental degradation all contribute to current trends in the global distribution of malaria, thus making the patterns of this infectious disease an important sociological issue.
Liminal
Authors: Cody Kevina 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Liminal
or
liminality
can best be understood as both a state and a process at the midpoint of a transition or rite of passage. Although it is primarily the work of Victor Turner that has explored the liminal stage between two identifiable states, the theorizations of Arnold Van Gennep in relation to rites of passage are also foundational. The theory of liminality as one of Turner's three identified cultural manifestations of communitas became a nexus around which his most prolific theorizations revolved. The liminal phase of a transition represents an instance of incompleteness when the “liminars” – the ritual subjects in this phase – slip through the classifications that traditionally locate states and positions in cultural space. Turner's later work shows an evolution toward a further conceptualization of the liminal – the liminoid – in the context of the kinds of practices pertinent to industrial societies.
Healthcare, Universal
Authors: Lanford Daniel , Quadagno Jill 
Published: September 2017

AbstractUniversal healthcare is broadly understood as the availability of basic health services to all people or citizens in a nation. Currently 75 nations have healthcare systems that can be classified as universal. Yet there is considerable variation across nations in how this goal is achieved. The United States stands alone as the only advanced nation lacking universal healthcare. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010 was designed to reduce the number of uninsured through a mix of private incentives and public support. Although the ACA has reduced the number of people without health insurance, it is unlikely to fully achieve universal coverage. Around the world, countries may move toward or away from universal healthcare. Movements in either direction will affect access to healthcare, healthcare costs, and health outcomes.
Netnography
Authors: Kozinets Robert V. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Netnography is a specific approach to conducting ethnographic research that uses the archival and communications functions of contemporary Internet‐based technologies such as mobile phones, tablets, and laptop computers. Netnography seeks to reveal the essence of human beings in an increasingly technological age. Netnography begins with ethnography's participant‐observational, humanistic, and often socially critical stance and selectively adds specifically adapted practices that include the use of search engines, data analytics, representational methods, digital delivery, and specific ethical procedures. Netnographic procedures eschew traditional assumptions about the nature and solidity of communities and culture, situating the research in notions of networked social interaction. Netnography, whose representational aims bridge digital humanities, data sciences, and cultural research approaches, is currently being adopted across the social sciences.
B
ooth,
C
harles (1840–1916)
Authors: Davies Wayne K.D. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Charles Booth was a successful businessman who was concerned about the extent of poverty in late Victorian cities. In 1886 he set out to establish what he saw as the “facts” of poverty and the way people lived and worked in London. His 17 volumes on the topic remain a landmark study of urban life. Updated in 1902–1903, they revealed that over 30 percent lived in poverty. The volumes provided vivid descriptions of the conditions of life and work in different occupations as well as of the varied character of the areas of London. Although criticized for what some saw as excessive fact‐gathering, his work produced major advances in the interpretation of urban areas, especially through its systematic approach, its development of a social classification, its detailed maps of the degree of poverty and of social condition in each street on London, and its discussion of the social contribution of religious organizations. However, Booth's empirical emphasis meant that he was less interested in developing concepts or theories. The development of state pensions for the aged in 1909 owed much to his advocacy of this policy.
T
aishang
Authors: Hsiao Hsin‐Huang Michael 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Taishang are a special social and economic product of Taiwan's unique international political situation. Taishang refers to Taiwanese businesses outside Taiwan and has become very popular since 2000, when their presence and activities in China and Southeast Asia have become socially noticeable, and even politically sensitive. The sociological uniqueness of Taishang lies in the fact that they have to practice their business on their own, without the Taiwanese state's official and diplomatic protection. Taiwan has no formal diplomatic relations in any countries in Southeast Asia, while the political relations between Taiwan and China remain tense and conflictual. In this rather strange and extraordinary political economic context, the ways Taishang manage their businesses and cope with their explicit and implicit political risks are thus of great interest and are worth investigating. Three important features of Taishang's business practice and managerial style in Southeast Asia are highlighted here; and the way Taishang have been forced to develop their unique “political connection” with government officials in China in order to enhance and defend their business destiny is also characterized.
Social Media
Authors: Slevin James 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Communication is a central feature of all forms social life. The study of the relationship between modern societies and the development of modern communication media has become a key area of sociological interest. The phrase
social media
indicates an intensification of this development, relationship, and interest. Despite all the popular attention they receive, social media and the impact of their development and use remain poorly understood. A major challenge in defining social media is the argument that all media are social in that they are developed and used by people and enable various forms of social action and interaction. In order to understand social media as a new development in communication and highlight their key characteristics from a sociological perspective, we must first dwell on the separate terms
social
and
media
, then progress from there.
Famine
Authors: Khondker Habibul Haque 
Published: September 2017

AbstractFamine, defined as excessive mortality due to extreme and protracted shortage of food, resulting from a mixture of political and economic factors, has been part of human history. Traditional thoughts of the causes of famine focused on acts of God or of nature. Later, the idea developed that famines were caused by population growth far exceeding growth in food production; however, famine still occurred in the twentieth century when there was a food surplus. The primary causes of famine in the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries can be attributed to poverty, social inequality, and failed governance.
Pentecostalism
Authors: Hunt Stephen 
Published: September 2017

AbstractInitially described as the emergent “third force” in Christianity, alongside Roman Catholicism and traditional Protestantism, Pentecostalism is now frequently designated as the most significant and fastest‐growing expression of global Christianity. Characterized by an ecstatic and esoteric form of Christianity evidenced in the doctrine of the Baptism of the Holy Spirit and subsequent experiences of the “charismata” – exemplified by speaking in tongues – that are emblematic of belief in an imminent God, the movement has attracted an immense quantity of sociological analyses. With its beginnings traceable to the first decade of the twentieth century, the Pentecostal movement currently displays numerous streams, which complicate matters of definition and measurement. Sociological debates range over its true origins; relationship to modernity, secularity, and societal change; and the question as to whether it constitutes a unique form of sectarianism and fundamentalism. Similarly, much scrutiny has focused upon its appeal to specific social groups and whether its attraction has historically been related to various forms of deprivation. Additional sociological concerns include processes of routinization, which may lead to denominationalism, on the one hand, and further dynamics of revival on the other, alongside an analysis of the extent and nature of its diversity of expression at a global level.
Treadmill of Destruction
Authors: Hooks Gregory , Smith Chad L. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The treadmill of destruction framework calls attention to the environmental harm resulting from war and war‐making. Geopolitical competition and arms races push military organizations to voraciously consume nonrenewable resources and dump highly toxic waste products. War devastates the lived environment for millions of people and poisons large tracts of land. In the twenty‐first century, the absolute size of the military in affluent nations of the global north are shrinking and this may result in a “greening” of the military in these affluent nations. But the environmental risks of war have not disappeared: they are being shifted to the vulnerable peoples and places in the global south.
War and Development in the Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Hooks Gregory 
Published: September 2017

AbstractScholars and practitioners are placing emphasis on moving beyond defining development in narrowly economic terms. Instead, development emphasizes human capabilities and broad participation in decision‐making. This critical understanding of development calls into question assertions that war and preparation of war contributed to development in Europe (ca. 1500–2000) or in East Asia (post‐World War II). Only with a transition to democracy and turn away from militarism did these regimes begin to pursue developmental policies. In the twenty‐first century, wars are concentrated in the nations of the global south. Wars have been characterized as “development in reverse” – they destroy the institutions needed for development and reverse fragile gains in food security, child and maternal health, and environmental sustainability. For practitioners and scholars of development, the lessons are clear. Development is only possible when peace is firmly established. Development cannot be understood or promoted without a full consideration of war and social conflict.
Slow Food
Authors: Hsu Eric L. , Everuss Louis 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The slow food movement developed out of a protest at the opening of a McDonald's restaurant in Rome. Since then, the movement has spread to many other parts of the world. The objectives and practices of the slow food movement have led scholars working in sociology to connect it to several broader contemporary social movements. This entry details these social movements and describes how the slow food movement is linked to the antiglobalization movement and the growing discontent with high‐speed and socially isolated lifestyles. It also covers criticisms of the slow food movement, which question its efficacy, inclusivity, and scope.
Media Refusal
Authors: Portwood‐Stacer Laura 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMedia refusal is the voluntary nonuse of a media technology or nonconsumption of media content, entailing an encompassing, resistant attitude toward the media in question. Historically, all forms of mass communication have had their detractors; practices of media refusal are present wherever media is. Research often focuses on individual motivations for refusal; popular discourse often discusses nonuse as a remedy for pathological patterns of use of new media (e.g., committing “Facebook suicide” in response to a perceived Facebook addiction).
Cool Hunting
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli , Mascio Antonella 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe term “cool hunter” was first used in an article by Malcolm Gladwell forThe New Yorker(1997). Cool hunting activity can be defined as the research of cutting‐edge trends from observation and prediction of mundane and other consumption behaviors in specific groups of people. The cool hunter researcher first came to light in the 1990s breaking the traditional patterns of market research through the careful observation of the world of consumption, analyzing everyday life in multiple contexts and by using ethnographic, anthropological, and nonstandard sociological observation techniques.
G
arfinkel,
H
arold (1917–2011)
Authors: Heritage John 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Harold Garfinkel was a sociological theorist and founder of the sociological subfield of ethnomethodology. A student of Talcott Parsons after World War II, he developed an approach to social action theory that began from Weber's notion of
verstehen
. However, rather than focusing on
verstehen
as an element of sociological method, he examined it primarily as a characteristic of everyday understanding within the social world. Much of his career was occupied with analyzing the properties of the knowledge and reasoning practices that are central to
verstehende
processes in the construction of mutual understanding and social action in everyday social life. His ideas have diffused widely in sociology, and stimulated the development of several subfields.
Accommodation
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe act of accommodation entails a process more similar to an art rather than a science. With respect to individual to individual and group to group relations, those involved must constantly weigh situations, interactions, and relations, historical and contemporary, and try, as best they can, to have their actions and attitudes fit and reflect specific ongoing events. The term accommodation has been used to describe intergroup relations between dominant and nondominant groups, and between the powerful and the powerless. Indeed, the act of accommodation may simply reflect times when groups bide their time until they are re able to fight numerically and militarily stronger groups at another time and place. Thus accommodation may reflect a momentary “giving in.” Accommodation internationally may represent appeasement when, in the case of Neville Chamberlain's stance towards Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, and imperial Japan, the act of accommodating to them was seen by their leaders as a sign of weakness, thus precipitating the plunge into World WarII.
Affect Control Theory
Authors: Cannon Bryan C. , Robinson Dawn T. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Affect control theory offers a rigorous and generative model of how individuals interpret and respond to social events through cultural lenses. Developed by David R. Heise, this theory is stated as a set of mathematical equations and enables researchers to use computer simulations to explore the predicted behaviors, emotions, and identity impressions of individuals interacting within and between cultures. These equations model affective meanings within a control system, capturing the way that individuals create and conserve their working understandings of social situations by managing affect. These equations are empirically grounded, and require specification from data collected within the cultures represented by the models.
Bilingualism
Authors: Bartolomé Lilia I. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry defines bilingualism, the ability to use two languages, from a variety of disciplinary perspectives. In addition, it highlights distinctions between individual and societal bilingualism and describes various language contact situations that result in the use of two or more languages. The discussion around individual‐level bilingualism highlights factors that influence learner second‐language acquisition as well as key learning processes that often result in differing language proficiency levels. The examination of societal‐level bilingualism focuses on the interaction between language use and social organization. Characteristics of stable, unstable, and “diglossic” societal bilingualism are discussed. Finally, a language group's sociopolitical status and the concepts of “additive” and “subtractive” bilingualism, as well as language shift and language loss, are deliberated.
Conversation Analysis
Authors: Peräkylä Anssi 
Published: September 2017

AbstractConversation analysis (CA) was started by Harvey Sacks and his coworkers at the University of California in the 1960s. It is a method for investigating the structure and process of social interaction between humans. Focusing on talk as well as on the nonverbal aspects of interaction, CA studies use video or audio recordings of naturally occurring interaction and identify words, vocalizations, and body movements that are composed in ways that make them recognizable to the participants. CA studies can focus either on ordinary conversations, that take place between acquaintances or family members or on institutional encounters where participants accomplish institutional tasks through their interaction.
Crime, Social Control Theory of
Authors: Orcutt James D. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Social control theory has origins in the early works of the moral and utilitarian philosophers. The social control theory of crime is fundamentally a theory of conformity, searching for the reasons why people conform and examining the social bonds and psychological controls which maintain that conformity. When these controlling influences are weak, individuals are freer to deviate from legal and moral norms.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Dean Paul , Ames Miranda 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is the idea that businesses must consider the social and environmental impacts of their practices and meet certain societal expectations regarding those impacts. This entry describes the historical context of this idea, from early conceptions of the corporation to the contemporary CSR, which exists in the context of global capitalism. It outlines four institutionalized forms of CSR: socially responsible investing, corporate codes of conduct, social certifications, and legal regulations. The entry concludes with a discussion of the contested impacts of CSR.
D
ewey,
J
ohn (1859–1952)
Authors: Jacobs Mark D. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

John Dewey was perhaps the most prominent
US
public philosopher over the course of his long career. Along with his students and colleagues, he introduced pragmatism into American sociology. He was a seminal figure in social psychology, the sociology of education, urban sociology, and the sociology of culture. His work continues to guide sociologists in the present day, especially those engaging the new “public sociology.”
Divisions of Household Labor
Authors: Adams Michele 
Published: September 2017

AbstractDivision of household labor refers to the allocation of duties implicated in keeping a family running smoothly in the private sphere, including tasks such as cleaning, cooking, laundry, and childcare. Traditionally, in the public sphere, men were the family breadwinners, while in the private sphere women were the housework experts, doing between three fourths and two thirds of routine household labor. Breadwinning is paid, valued, and empowering; housework is unpaid, devalued, and disempowering and the disadvantages accruing to women doing the bulk of the housework shade over into their paid labor force participation. Over the course of the twentieth century, women's housework contribution declined while their labor force participation increased, and men's household labor contribution increased, even as women continued to do the majority of household labor. Time availability, relative resources, and gender ideology are three popular theoretical explanations for the gender gap in household contribution at the family level, while new theoretical perspectives examine work–family and gender policy at the national level as contexts within which the family distribution of household labor is embedded.
Dramaturgy
Authors: Manning Peter K. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractDramaturgy is a sociological term referring to a metaphorical perspective on social life that sees interaction as a performance for an audience. When used sociologically, dramaturgy points to a family of words associated with the idea of being sensitive to and analyzing performances that selectively emphasize some features of action to convey an impression. Dramaturgy is a metaperspective that makes sense of action at several levels whether it is carried out by organizations, groups, or other social actors or acting units. It emphasizes the role of symbols, audience feedback, and the validation of actions. The work of Erving Goffman, notably,The Presentation of Self in Everyday life, is the primary source for these ideas and has been subject to debate and criticism.
Divorce
Authors: Bahr Stephen J. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
A major social trend during the past century has been an increase in the divorce rate. In the United States, about one half of all marriages end in divorce. Divorce risk factors include teenage marriage, premarital cohabitation, poverty, unemployment, parental divorce, infidelity, alcohol and drug abuse, weak marital commitment, high levels of conflict, and domestic violence. Compared with married adults, divorced persons tend to have more economic hardship, health problems, and mortality, and lower psychological well‐being. Divorce appears to have a significant impact on well‐being that is not explained by selection. Compared to children with two biological parents, children of divorced parents don't do as well in school and are more likely to use drugs, be sexually active, and commit delinquent acts. As adults, they are not as close to their parents and are more likely themselves to divorce.