bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Watauinaiwa
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the connections between primitive rock art and the spiritual world. It asks: When, where, and how did this investing of the physical world with a spiritual dimension first begin? Might it have some connection with the peculiar and distinctive development of human curiosity that ultimately gives rise to science? It describes the association of ‘vision quests’ with North American rock art and of ‘trance dances’ with Southern African rock art. It considers the difficulty of playing ‘ethnographic snap’, i.e., finding apparent similarities between cultures separated by huge geographical or temporal distances. It argues that, despite the perils of ‘ethnographic snap’, the parallels between the discoveries of anthropologists and the discovery of Palaeolithic paintings and sculptures make it hard to escape the conclusion that this kind of awareness goes back deep into prehistory.
Horizons of Curiosity
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter deals with the notion of curiosity. It argues that curiosity at some level is as old as life itself. All living things at a minimal level investigate their surroundings by bumping into (or being bumped into) by whatever is near them. For creatures with nervous systems things are more complex. They actively explore their environment by prodding, poking, and mapping their surroundings with whatever means are available to them. The chapter then discusses the development of the cathedral of mind; the origins of what Darwin calls ‘the moral sense’; the capacity of chimpanzees to wage something like sustained warfare against members of their own species; and humans’ capacity for neurological integration, which propelled Homo sapiens into a new kind of cognitive world.
The House of Wisdom
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on how the Muslim conquest of Egypt at around ad 642 effected a profound cultural transformation and set the stage for a novel and radically international phase in the struggle to integrate different ways of thinking. Topics discussed include how the Arab caliphs’ encounters with the ideas of the ancient civilizations they now ruled paralleled Muhammad’s own encounters with Judaism and Christianity over a century earlier; the openness of the ruling families of the Abbasid Empire of Baghdad to influences from all parts of the globe; the Sassanian empire of Persia’ houses of wisdom, which served as repositories for documents; and Qu’ranic instructions that provided Muslims with a specific motivation for astronomical study.
The Dream of Aristotle
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief account of Caliph al-Ma’mun’s encounter with Aristotle in a dream, which explains why books on philosophy and other ancient sciences became plentiful in Baghdad. The discussions then turn to the development of a specialized vocabulary as Arabic became the medium for philosophical and theological debate; al-Kindī, an extraordinary polymath who wrote the first Arabic philosophical text On First Philosophy; Avicenna (born around ad 980), who compiled the multivolume al-Qanun fi’l-tibb—The Canon of Medicine—which systematized all the medical knowledge of the time and remained a standard textbook for the next 700 years; and ibn al-Haytham’s Kitab al-Manazir—The Book of Optics—where he combined the geometrical tradition of Euclid, the medical tradition of Galen, and Aristotle’s idea that light travelled into the eye (the theory of ‘intromission’).
Al-Ghazali’s Pilgrimage
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes Abū Hāmid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazālī, head of the Nizamiyyah College in Baghdad. In 1095 he resigned his teaching posts and set out on a pilgrimage, a quest for religious certainty, during which he vowed never again to serve the political authorities or teach in state-sponsored schools. The year before he published his Tahâfut al-falâsifa—The Incoherence of the Philosophers—in which he analyses a series of philosophical doctrines. The chapter also tells the story of Abd al-Rahman, a member of the Umayyad family who survived the coup that brought the Abbasids to power in ad 750. He escaped to Spain where he succeeded in making himself emir and established his capital in the city of Cordoba.
A Tale of Two Cities
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief account of the loss of Greek literature in the Christian West, which can be traced back to a bitter winter in AD 406 when the Rhine froze and German tribes poured across the river into the territories of the Roman Empire. The discussions then turn to the establishment of universities across Europe in the thirteenth century, which enjoyed a measure of independence from both church and state; the tensions that arose between scholars and residents of the towns where universities were located; Robert Grosseteste, who became Bishop of Lincoln and published some 120 works, ranging from French poetry to theology, science, and estate management; and Thomas Aquinas’ arrival in Paris in around 1245 and his project of integrating Aristotle’s philosophy with Christian teaching.
The Universal Law
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes events that followed Roger Bacon’s death in 1294. His successors in both Oxford and Paris began developing various ways of using the idea of a mathematically universal law to understand the physical world. In Oxford this was particularly associated with a series of fellows at Merton College. These include Thomas Bradwardine, who devised a mathematical formula to establish the relationship between the force applied to an object, the resistance to its motion, and the velocity that results; and Merton logician William of Heytesbury, who developed a formula stating that ‘a moving body will travel in an equal period of time a distance exactly equal to that which it would travel if it were moving continuously at its mean speed’. These mathematical approaches to physics were soon echoed in Paris where they were combined with an idea of motion that contradicted the traditional theory of Aristotle.
A New Era
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
On a spring evening in 1676 boats began to arrive at the steps of the Dorset Garden Theatre, bringing a fashionable audience to a performance of Thomas Shadwell’s new comedy, The Virtuoso. Embedded within the comic goings on of this new play was a satirical commentary on an emerging way of thinking, which was poised to revolutionize intellectual life. This chapter focusses on the meaning of ‘virtuoso’ and its evolution into a term applied to a group of people who were dedicated to investigating natural phenomena. Their apparently obsessive preoccupation was the target of Shadwell’s play. The English virtuosi linked their novel philosophy to a radical new approach to the Scriptures epitomized by the so-called ‘Geneva Bible’.
The Experimental Philosophy
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the new Reformation in Europe, which involved the physical removal of all imagery from churches. These actions were not merely justified as obedience to the Second Commandment, but were also seen as mirroring the radical new way of reading Scripture advocated by Luther. His growing conviction that the Scriptures should be understood ‘in their simplest meaning as far as possible’ and his insistence the literal meaning was ‘the highest, best, strongest’ involved a rejection of the long tradition of more imaginative allegorical approaches. This approach was echoed by other Reformation leaders, who not only extended his preference for simplicity from the reading of Scripture to visible symbolic forms of worship, but helped it to extend into new ways of looking at the natural world.
The Oxonian Sparkles
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter first describes the Oxford club which later metamorphosed into the Royal Society. The club was founded by a young Puritan clergyman named John Wilkins, who in 1648 was made Warden of Wadham College. A year after his appointment, Wilkins founded ‘an experimentall philosophicall clubbe’ which met weekly in his rooms. The chapter also discusses how the acceptance or rejection of Aristotle’s principle that ‘nature abhors a vacuum’ became a means of showing how a well-designed experiment could solve a philosophical dispute; the experiments of Robert Boyle; the Royal Society’s commissioning of clergyman Thomas Sprat to write a history of its origin and purpose; and the deployment of the study of nature as a means of marginalizing religious concerns.
The Literary Inquest
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief description of how a small group, on 20 May 1857, gathered at the rooms of the Royal Asiatic Society in New Burlington Street to determine the results of a dramatic experiment. The group was tasked with comparing the contents of four sealed packets sent by William Henry Fox Talbot, German scholar Dr Julius Oppert, Irish clergyman Dr Edward Hincks, and imperial soldier Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson. The discussions then turn to the efforts of Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks to decipher Assyrian and Babylonian cuneiform. These texts represent a wealth of information and interest for biblical studies. However, their translations remain uncertain given the rivalry and perpetual disagreements between Hincks, Rawlinson, and other scholars in the field.
Science in a Time of Cholera
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes the Oxford cholera epidemic in the summer of 1854 and the role of Henry Acland. When he took up the post of anatomy lecturer in 1845, Acland found that the university’s science studies were almost extinct and sought to remedy the situation by proposing the building of a fully equipped centre exclusively devoted to the sciences. His proposal, however, fell on deaf ears. Undaunted he wrote ‘hundreds and thousands of letters’, and in 1849 a new proposal was launched. Opinion in the university was sharply divided; the crucial vote for the new scheme was due to be taken on 11 December 1854. By then Acland had been appointed as consulting physician to the Board of Health and found himself in charge of the city’s attempts to combat the cholera outbreak. In the end, the vote was 68 to 64 in favour of building the Oxford Museum.
A Visit to the Museum
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In late June 1860 the British Association for the Advancement of Science held its third meeting in Oxford. Acland was the local secretary of the association and arranged for all the events to be held at the still-unfurnished University Museum. On the afternoon of June 30, Dr Draper was scheduled to deliver his paper and it was understood that the Bishop of Oxford would also speak. This was first time that On the Origin of Species had been debated in a public forum and interest was intense. This chapter details the events that occurred before, during, and after the meeting, which included a dispute between the Bishop and T. H. Huxley, a strong supporter of Darwin.
Experiments of Thought
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on James Clerk Maxwell, who at age 14 produced a scientific paper that was read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. A few years later it was followed up by a second paper, ‘On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids’, resulting from an experiment where he shone a beam of polarized light into a twisted cylinder of gelatin. The then 18-year-old Maxwell discovered that as the light shone through the stressed jelly, the strain patterns became visible to the naked eye, and had thereby invented a technique widely used by engineers until it was eventually superseded by computer modelling. While Maxwell never achieved the kind of celebrity accorded to Newton or Darwin, his achievements were not lost on his successors. Twentieth-century physicists have described Maxwell as among ‘the most penetrating intellects of all time’.
The Unity of Nature
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes James Clerk Maxwell’s work on electricity and magnetism, which was influenced by Michael Faraday’s research on electricity. Maxwell attempted ‘to state the mathematical methods by which he believed that electrical phenomena can best be comprehended and reduced to calculation’. He did so by developing a remarkable analogy between electric and magnetic force, and the flow of an imaginary weightless and incompressible fluid. Maxwell derived mathematical formulae for the action of Faraday’s ‘lines of force’, which merged them into a single ‘flux’ across what he described as a ‘field’ (an idea that became a crucial concept in twentieth-century physics).
Particle Physics in the LHC Era
Authors: Barr Giles , Devenish Robin , Walczak Roman , Weidberg Tony 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This book gives a modern introduction to particle physics. The main mathematical tools required for the rest of the book are developed in Chapter 2. A quantitative introduction to accelerator physics is presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 covers detector physics, with an emphasis on fundamental physical principles. Chapter 5 covers the static quark model, with applications to light mesons and baryons as well as heavier states containing charm and beauty quarks. Chapter 6 introduces relativistic quantum mechanics and uses spinors to relate Lorentz invariance to the Dirac equation. Chapter 7 covers the basics of the electroweak theory based on broken SU(2) × U(1) symmetry. Chapter 8 reviews some of the key experiments that led to the development of the electroweak theory. Chapter 9 explains the importance of deep inelastic scattering data for providing direct evidence for the existence of quarks. It also gives a brief introduction to quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Chapter 10 considers flavour oscillations in the quark sector and then discusses the evidence for CP violation. Chapter 11 examines the theory of neutrino oscillations as well as the evidence for these oscillations. Chapter 12 gives an elementary introduction to the Higgs mechanism as well as a careful explanation of the experimental evidence for the existence of a Higgs boson. Chapter 13 looks at LHC physics and explains how searches for Beyond the Standard Model Physics are performed. It concludes with a discussion of the evidence for dark matter and dark energy.
Introduction
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter starts with a few words about the reader’s expected prior knowledge of subatomic physics and quantum mechanics. It is made clear that while relativistic quantum mechanics is introduced and used, the use of relativistic quantum field theory or Lagrangian methods is avoided, apart from a few sections in the chapter on the Higgs mechanism. Natural units are defined, with energies measured in multiples of electron volts (eV). Particles (leptons and quarks) are introduced, with hadrons as composite particles of qqˉ (meson) or qqq (baryon) states. The fundamental forces of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions are introduced, followed by the idea of electroweak unification. The importance of symmetry and the use of group theory are summarized. The chapter ends with an outline of the book’s structure and how it may be read, depending on the prior knowledge or needs of the reader.
Accelerators
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter gives an introduction to accelerator physics, concentrating on synchrotrons. Accelerating cavities for standing and travelling radiofrequency (RF) waves, the synchronicity requirement, and the beam bunch structure are explained, as well as the energy loss due to synchrotron radiation. The beam emittance and the amplitude β function are introduced to describe the ensemble of beam trajectories. Dipole and quadrupole magnets, which act as the most important elements of so-called beam optics, are described. The LHC superconducting dipole magnets are described in some detail as an example. Colliders and fixed-target accelerators are then compared in terms of the centre-of-mass energy and the luminosity. As an important example, antiproton–proton colliders, including the use of stochastic cooling, are described and the chapter concludes with the outlook for accelerator developments in future decades.
Particle detectors
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter starts with an overview of collider detectors before describing interactions of particles with matter, which provides a physics foundation for the design of particle detectors. Ionization, multiple scattering, transition and Čerenkov radiation by charged particles, as well as bremsstrahlung and nuclear interactions of high-energy hadrons, are described. This is followed by an explanation of how energy loss in matter leads to signal generation, such as by moving charges in electric fields and light emission in scintillators. Detectors for photons, detectors for reconstruction of tracks of charged particles (with the use of magnets), such as wire chambers and silicon detectors, and electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters to measure energies of particles and jets of particles are described and their use for particle identification explained. The chapter concludes with an explanation of the role of triggers and two examples of detector systems: the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the LHC.
Dynamic quarks
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In this chapter, the Rutherford scattering formula is derived using quantum mechanics. The kinematics of the quark–parton model (QPM) are described. The differential cross section for neutrino and antineutrino scattering on electrons is derived. This is generalized to give the QPM prediction for the cross section for scattering on nuclei. The key experiments supporting this model are reviewed with emphasis on the importance of scaling. Indirect and direct evidence for gluons is described. An elementary introduction to quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is given. The concept of running coupling constants is introduced in the context of QED and QCD. The concept of asymptotic freedom is used to explain the success of the QPM. Scaling violations are explained in terms of QCD, and a description is given of how the data can be used to determine the gluon distribution function. Finally, the QPM is generalized to the case of hadron–hadron scattering.
Oscillations and CP violation in meson systems
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter covers the diverse physical effects that have been measured in meson systems over the past half-century, including the surprising discovery of CP violation and its subsequent study. Flavour oscillations and regeneration are described for the kaon system, which is used to formulate the mathematical description of the combined mixing and decay of the meson states. The observation of neutral meson mixing, which has now been achieved in all four of the known neutral meson systems, is described using box diagrams. The chapter then extensively discusses the phenomenon of CP violation, how it was discovered, the conditions under which it manifests itself in experimentally accessible situations, and how the Kobayashi–Maskawa formalism incorporates it into the standard model. The different origins of CP violation are considered, including mixing and direct CP violation. CP violation studies from LHCb and B-factories are reviewed. CP violation is related to the unitarity triangle.
Neutrino oscillations
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter presents a derivation of the neutrino oscillation probability and discusses why this gives the correct result despite some dubious assumptions being made. The upper limits on neutrino masses are reviewed. The evidence for muon neutrino oscillations from atmospheric neutrinos is described, as well as the confirmation from a long-baseline neutrino experiment. The evidence for electron neutrino oscillations is reviewed, with emphasis on evidence independent of the solar model. Laboratory confirmation using antineutrinos from nuclear reactors is also described. The discrepancy between the solar neutrino results and the simple vacuum oscillation model is reviewed. The Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein (MSW) effect is outlined and shown to provide an explanation. Measurements of the third mixing angle θ13 are described. Finally, the possibility of CP violation in the neutrino sector is reviewed and there is a discussion of how this might account for the observed matter–antimatter asymmetry in the Universe.
The Higgs boson
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter starts with a simple introduction to gauge invariance and spontaneous symmetry breaking. An elementary introduction to Lagrangians in classical and quantum mechanics is given. A simplified description of the Higgs mechanism for electroweak symmetry breaking is presented in terms of Lagrangians. The experimental evidence for the observation of the Higgs boson is described in the two-photon, ZZ*, and WW* channels. There is an emphasis on understanding the Standard Model backgrounds and the required detector performance. The statistical techniques used to assess the significance of the results are described. The measurements used to determine the spin–parity of the Higgs boson are reviewed. The evidence for the Higgs boson decay to fermions is described using the two-tau decay mode. The outlook for future studies to determine if this Higgs boson is compatible with the Standard Model Higgs boson is discussed.
Party Competition and News Coverage of European Parliament Elections
Authors: Hanretty Chris , Banducci Susan 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
While the attention paid by the news media to European Parliamentary elections has increased, the chapter asks whether the nature of news coverage has changed. In particular, as coverage has increased (which may be viewed as a good development), have there been unintended consequences resulting in the nature of coverage. The chapter asks whether EP election coverage follows a general secular trend of increasing personalization and focus on strategy rather than policy. The chapter's analysis suggests that the political system can explain variation across time and space in election coverage. If hard‐news coverage and substantive policy coverage are beneficial for the political process, then its findings suggest that, in particular, close elections and polarized party systems may have beneficial effects. Where there are pro‐EU governments, the outlets in these systems tend to produce more hard news that is beneficial to voters but also increase horse‐race news, which may be an unintended consequence.