bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Syntax of Yes and No
Authors: Holmberg Anders 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis is a study of the syntax of yes–no questions and answers to them in the languages of the world. Even very short answers like ‘yes’ and ‘no’ are claimed to be complete sentences. A typical answer consists of a focused polarity feature which is either spelled out as a particle or supported by a moved verb, with the rest of the sentence subject to ellipsis under identity with the question. These are the two main types of yes–no answers found among the languages of the world. How to answer negative questions is subject to cross-linguistic (and also intralinguistic) variation, where ‘yes’ in one language appears to correspond to ‘no’ in another. The variation is argued to depend on the syntax of negation and the syntax of questions. Data have been gathered from well over a hundred languages, but some are discussed in particular detail, as representatives of different types of question and answer systems, including English, Finnish, Swedish, Thai, and Chinese. An important claim is that all sentences have a polarity feature as head, which is unvalued in yes–no questions and assigned a value in the answer. A seemingly trivial phenomenon, how to say yes and no is shown to have wide-ranging consequences for linguistic theory and the understanding of linguistic variation.
The Social Study of Information Technology Markets
Authors: Pollock Neil , Williams Neil 
Published: March 2016

AbstractWho are the industry analysts who, by providing information about the performance and prospects of various offerings, are key to the current operation of IT markets? Despite their salience, little is known about them. The chapter considers how we may assess the influence of analysts. Do they merely describe the evolution of the sector? Do their knowledge outputs accelerate existing trends? Or do they shift or even redirect technology trajectories. The chapter links these interests to an underpinning theoretical concern with how we understand the ‘performativity’ of their expert knowledge. Callon (2007) has suggested that academic economists’ models are performative: aligning market behaviour to the predictions in their models and thus constituting markets. Does this model apply to wider business knowledge? Or should we explain the influence of industry analyst expertise by exploring the multiple interactions through which their knowledge is evaluated and consumed as well as generated?
Marketing of Quantifications
Authors: Campagnolo Gian Marco 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe chapter discusses Gartner’s signature research piece the ‘Magic Quadrant’ which some describe as the most influential piece of research in the IT domain. The substantive interest in the chapter is to understand the history, construction and contemporary use of this object. The chapter shows how it both derives from, and has led to, deep transformations within corporate computing. However, the Magic Quadrant is not without controversy. It is described by some as wielding ‘substantial power’ and by others as nothing short of ‘simple marketing’. Conceptually, the chapters aim is to discuss what the Magic Quadrant might mean for our understanding of the idea of ‘commensuration’. Is the Magic Quadrant powerful because it is a ranking and therefore puts all vendors on an even scale, as some would argue (Espeland & Stevens 2009) or is it influential for other reasons? The chapter makes some suggestions in this latter direction through exploring the ‘marketing of quantifications’.
The Expertise Ecosystem
Authors: Pollock Neil , Williams Neil 
Published: March 2016

AbstractGartner has outpaced its global competitors (Forrester and IDC) and a handful of smaller players like Ovum, Yankee Group. The industry is highly polarized between larger firms who attract adopter subscriptions on the basis of their independence and breadth of expertise and hundreds of smaller boutique analyst outfits that may seek to advise vendors on marketing their products. This complex ecosystem, in which smaller and larger players play different kinds of role, is also changing. Social media technologies have reduced barriers to entry, leading to a dramatic increase in ‘new entrants’. This includes so-called ‘open source’ or ‘2.0 research firms’ that employ different business models or research practices that, in some respects, have begun to compete with the incumbents. The chapter also discusses the growth of new forms of expertise - ‘analyst relations’ specialists who help IT vendors respond more systematically to the challenge of industry analyst firms.
From IT Markets to the Sociology of Business Knowledge
Authors: Pollock Neil , Williams Neil 
Published: March 2016

AbstractRevisiting the central concerns of this book, the chapter asks whether the current portrayal of the ‘performativity’ of markets as (partially or fully) built around financial/economic theories—is useful for analyzing business contexts. The chapter rejects the dichotomy in existing literature between implausibly ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ readings of the performativity of such expertise. The (strong) performativity thesis that portrays economic theory as ‘doing things to people’ seems less appropriate in a business setting in which cognitive authority is distributed amongst an array of sceptical and reflexive players. What may be at stake is less the performativity of knowledge than its performance i.e. its generation, circulation, validation, and consumption across a closely interacting network. The chapter argues for more systematic exploration of the epistemic systems of different types of business knowledge as pointers towards a Sociology of Business Knowledge.
Statistical inference with probabilistic graphical models
Authors: Shah Devavrat 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter introduces graphical models as a powerful tool to derive efficient algorithms for inference problems. When dealing with complex interdependent variables, inference problems may become of huge complexity. In this context, the structure of the variables is of great interest. In this chapter, directed and undirected graphical models are first defined, before some crucial results are stated, such as the Hammersley–Clifford theorem of Markov random fields and the junction tree property aimed at finding groupings under which a graphical model becomes a tree. Taking advantage of the structure of the variables, belief propagation is then described, including two particular instances: the sum–product and max–sum algorithms. In the final section, the learning problem is addressed in three different contexts: parameter learning, graphical model learning, and latent graphical model learning.
Cavity method: message-passing from a physics perspective
Authors: Mézard Marc 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The cavity method is introduced as a heuristic framework from a physics perspective to solve probabilistic graphical models and is presented at both the replica symmetry (RS) and one-step replica symmetry breaking (1RSB) levels. This technique has been applied with success to a wide range of models and problems, such as spin glasses, random constraint satisfaction problems (rCSP), and error correcting codes. First, the RS cavity solution for the Sherrington–Kirkpatrick model—a fully connected spin glass model—is derived and its equivalence to the RS solution obtained using replicas is discussed. The general cavity method for diluted graphs is then illustrated at both RS and 1RSB levels. The latter was a significant breakthrough in the last decade and has direct applications to rCSP. Finally, as an example of an actual problem, k-SAT is investigated using belief and survey propagation.
Local algorithms for graphs
Authors: Gamarnik David 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
A significant topic of recent interest has been analyzing the performance of various algorithms for graphical models, however, such analysis relies on properties of graphs which are known to be very hard to compute. In this chapter, statistical physics tools are used to show that local algorithms—that is, algorithms for which the result on each node depends only upon nodes at a finite distance—can provide some precise estimates for the independent set problem as long as the graph remains locally tree-like. For example, Erdös-Rényi graphs are one such class of analyzable graphs, as their sparse nature gives them this locally tree-like property. The chapter also discusses the validity of such methods and algorithms when loops become an important feature of the graph and shows that the limits of such algorithms are linked to the clustering problem.
The Latin New Testament
Authors: Houghton H. A. G. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the history and development of the Latin New Testament and a user’s guide to the resources available for research and further study. The first five chapters offer a new historical synthesis, bringing together evidence from Christian authors and biblical manuscripts from earliest times to the late Middle Ages. Each witness is considered in its chronological and geographical context, to build up the bigger picture of the transmission of the text. There are chapters introducing features of Latin biblical manuscripts and examining how the Latin tradition may serve as a witness for the Greek New Testament. In addition, each book of the New Testament is considered in turn, with details of the principal witnesses and features of particular textual interest. The three main scholarly editions of the Latin New Testament (the Vetus Latina edition, the Stuttgart Vulgate, and the Oxford Vulgate) are described in detail. Information is also given about other editions and resources, enabling researchers to understand the significance of different approaches and become aware of the latest developments. The Catalogue of Manuscripts gives full details of each manuscript used in the major editions, with bibliographical references and links to sets of digital images. The Appendices include concordances for the different ways in which manuscripts are cited in scholarly literature. An extensive reference bibliography of publications on the Latin New Testament is also supplied.
Features of Latin New Testament Manuscripts
Authors: Houghton H.A.G. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This is an introduction to the characteristics of manuscripts of the Latin New Testament and their description. The first section covers writing materials and the layout of each page, including the per cola et commata sense-line format. The second deals with scripts, abbreviations, and punctuation. The section on ‘Contents and Paratext’ includes a discussion of the order of New Testament books and details of the most common biblical prologues and chapter titles (capitula). There is an explanation of the Eusebian apparatus for identifying material found in more than one Gospel and the canons and concordances for the Pauline Epistles. The final section treats decoration and illustrations, including evangelist portraits and symbols, ‘carpet pages’, and the chi-rho page typical of Insular manuscripts.
Tentasali
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes early efforts of scientists to immerse themselves in the culture of indigenous peoples. American ethologist Frank Hamilton Cushing, for instance, joined an anthropological expedition to New Mexico and decided to ‘go native’. From 1879 to 1884, he lived with the Zuni tribe and was initiated into their rituals and practices. Thirty years later, Polish-born anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski lived among the natives of the Trobriand Islands. Malinowski was the first to define the technique of ‘participant-observation’, the goal of which was ‘to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life, to realise his vision of his world’. This approach brought to light indigenous peoples’ extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. Cushing himself was given the tribal name, ‘tentasali’, meaning ‘medicine flower’.
The Lions of Miletus
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on a profound revolution in thought that took place in the Greek-speaking Ionian colony of Miletus. Around 547/6 BC a book was published by a citizen of Miletus named Anaximandros. One of the first Greek books to be written in prose, it both developed and disagreed with ideas first put forward by his teacher, Thales; the author (who was one of the first to draw a map of the known world) also had knowledge of lands beyond those where people spoke Greek. Each one of these factors played into the revolutionary concept contained within it—an idea in which a new kind of religious thinking and a new kind of interest in the natural world were two sides of the same coin. For Anaximandros everything has its origin in a single arche—a source or principle—which is ‘ungenerated and imperishable’.
The Move to Athens
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter first describes how the philosopher Anaxagoras came to Athens and introduced its citizens to the new Ionian way of thinking. Like Anaximandros before him, Anaxagoras wrote a book which carried forward and extended two of the central themes of Ionian thinking: the nature of the divine arche and the way in which it ordered and steered the universe. The chapter then discusses how Athenian philosophers began to develop and extend the ideas of the Ionians; the teachings of the sophists; and Socrates’ search for a reliable basis for moral action. Anaxagoras and his predecessors argued that there was an underlying order which gave rise to all the physical processes we perceive. Socrates extended this notion by arguing that this underlying order was also a moral order. His incessant questions about what we would now call moral realism provided his successors with an intellectual slipstream for further physical investigations.
Through the Academy Door
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In wake of Socrates’ execution, Plato left Athens and travelled to Italy where he formed a lasting relationship with the Pythagorean community at Tarentum led by Archytas, who seems to have had a significant impact on the development of his thinking. This chapter discusses Plato’s initiation of religiously motivated mathematical and astronomical studies; Aristotle’s arche; the emergence of Stoicism and Epicureanism; and the anti-scientific aspect of Epicurean philosophy. The final section deals with the export of Greek philosophy throughout the known world, which brought it into contact with a religious tradition that had very different roots. The meeting between Hellenistic science and the three Abrahamic religions—first Judaism, then Christianity, and later Islam—would in time radically reframe the way in which the relationship between divine order and the physical world was conceived.
The Divided City
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the city of Alexandria. Alexander the Great founded this new Greek capital of Egypt around 322 bc and shortly after, his general Ptolemy imported 120,000 captive Jews from the Greek conquest of Judea. The city was divided into five districts named after letters of the alphabet: the Greeks in Alpha and Beta, the Jews and other immigrants in the north east Gamma and Delta districts, and the native Egyptians in Episilon. The city’s diversity was a frequent cause of friction and Alexandria became famous for its riots. However, a more positive aspect of Alexandria’s diversity lay in the mutual discovery of different cultures.
Industrious Jack
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter first discusses John Philoponus’ book Against Proclus. Working through each of Proclus’ 18 arguments, Philoponus demonstrates, through close philosophical analysis, that in no case do Proclus’ conclusions follow from his premises. There is only one premise that he cannot accept, even for the sake of argument, and that is the dogma that Plato and Aristotle never disagree. The chapter then turns to Simplicius the Cicilian’s life in exile, when he produced his great commentaries on Aristotle in which he included the attack on his fellow pupil, Philoponus. Simplicius announces his forthcoming assault in the prologue to his commentary on Aristotle’s De Caelo (On the Heavens).
The Creation of the World
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Philoponus’ book De Opificio Mundi—On the Creation of the World—a commentary on the Genesis account of creation. While one thrust of the book is to refute the criticisms of Genesis made by his pagan philosophical colleagues, a larger part is directed against the kind of interpretations of Genesis put forward by some fellow Christians. The crux of his dispute with the former concerned the nature and purpose of God’s relationship with the physical world. The heart of his argument with the latter turned on the nature and purpose of God’s Holy Scriptures. The chapter also considers Philoponus’ other theological writings, where he attempted to bring a philosophical clarity to two of the most vexed theological issues of the time: the nature of Christ and the nature of the Trinity.
Imposed Silence
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter begins by briefly considering the person Roger Bacon was referring to when he claimed that the most beautiful parts of philosophy were those that he may have learned from a mysterious French soldier known as Pierre de Maricourt or Petrus Peregrinus (Peter the Pilgrim). It then turns to how the Church’s control of doctrine affected the whole future relationship of science and religion. It discusses the use of state violence to ensure religious conformity. The Pope began to appoint ‘inquisitors’ or judges to try individual cases of heresy. The newly established Dominican and Franciscan orders seemed to some to have been providentially supplied for just this purpose.
Experimental Science
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Roger Bacon’s discourse on experimental science. On 22 June 1266, Bacon received a letter stamped with the papal seal of Clement IV instructing him to send the Pope ‘writings and remedies for current conditions ... not withstanding any prohibitions from his order’. This instruction faced him with the task of summarizing some thirty years of work and thought. Bacon’s response included Opus Majus, ‘the greater work’, and possibly Opus Minus, ‘the lesser work’. In his discourse, Bacon argued that a ‘philosophical chancellor’ could organize science and the pursuit of technology for the benefit of the Christian world. He dispatched the great work to the Pope in 1267, presumably with the hope that Clement might take on this role.
A Lutheran Astrologer
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the work of Johannes Kepler, a young Lutheran maths teacher at the Stiftsschule at Graz. Kepler was introduced to Copernicus’ theory by his seminary professor, Michael Maestlin, while studying to be a Lutheran pastor. When he published his first book, Mysterium Cosmographicum—The Mystery of the Universe—Kepler had included Rheticus’ Narratio Prima as an appendix. It was in response to being sent this book that Galileo had confessed to being himself a secret Copernican. In their theological attitude to the new theory the two men, though belonging to different confessions, were in effect singing from the same hymn sheet.
Le Grand Newton
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton. By the end of the eighteenth century, Newton was revered on the Continent as an icon of human rationality: the supreme representative of a way of thinking that could replace the old superstitions of religion. These Continental admirers of Newton represented the first concerted philosophical attempt to use science against religion since the Epicurean philosophers of Greece and Rome. Their approach was a reverse image of Newton’s British followers, who found a confirmation of divine order in Sir Isaac’s theories in much the same way that Plato had found a confirmation of the rationality of the universe in the theories of Eudoxos of Cnidus. This latter perspective was closer to Newton’s own view.
Mathematical Theologies
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Following the death of Queen Anne in August 1714, her nearest protestant relative George Ludwig, the Prince Elector of Hanover, travelled to England and was crowned in Westminster Abbey that October. A year after the coronation, his daughter-in-law Caroline received a letter from Leibniz about what he considered to be the decay of natural religion in England. Caroline relayed the contents of the letter to Dr Samuel Clarke, the Rector of St James Westminster. An exchange of papers was then conducted through the Princess, which continued until Leibniz’s death in 1716. This chapter considers these exchanges. It discusses the defences that natural theology offered against atheism and infidelity, as well as the work of Blaise Pascal. It argues that Leibniz’s metaphysical sense of divine order and Newton’s empirical insistence on God’s freedom to do what he chose were both critical elements in driving discovery forward.
The Coast of Infinity
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the work of Wilhelm (or William) Herschel, whose observations of the stars eventually confirmed Newton’s universal hypothesis. Herschel first came to the attention of the Royal Society when William Watson, the son of the then secretary, found him on a street in Bath looking at the Moon through a telescope. When Watson asked if he might be permitted to look in, he discovered that the clarity and resolution of what he saw were superior to any telescope he had ever used. Herschel began constructing his telescope in 1773 (nearly half a century after Newton’s death) when he realized that to achieve what he called ‘space-penetrating power’, he would need a larger version of the tiny reflector telescope that Newton had presented to the Royal Society.
The Creed of Science
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the work and correspondence between Darwin and Herschel. It describes how Darwin asked his publishers to send Herschel a copy of On the Origin of Species following its publication; Herschel later sent Darwin a signed copy of the second edition of his own book, Physical Geography. It also discusses how their religious convictions moved in somewhat different directions over the course of their lives. As he grew older, and particularly after his marriage, Herschel’s religious feelings seemed to grow warmer and deeper. In contrast, Darwin, in the autobiography that he wrote for his family in 1876, described how in the years after returning from his travels he had gradually come ‘to disbelieve in Christianity as divine revelation’.
The Intellectual Picklock
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on George Smith, ‘deluge Smith’ the ‘intellectual picklock’, a nationally known figure whose discoveries were eagerly followed in the pages of the Daily Telegraph. Smith had a childhood fascination with accounts of the exploits of Rawlinson and Layard, and had taught himself to read cuneiform. Starting his working life as an apprentice bank note engraver, he would spend all his lunch hours at the British Museum and all his spare earnings on books about Assyria. He was appointed assistant in the Assyriology Department in 1867. Smith died at the age of 36 in the British consulate in Aleppo after contracting a plague while on expedition in Nineveh.