bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Vaults and Domes: Statics as an Art
Authors: Bellini Federico 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The impressive domed buildings of the early modern architecture may be understood only by assessing how their builders believed they might have stood, reconstructing the intuitive principles of statics of their times.
The modern type of domed churches, since the Brunelleschi's Sagrestia Vecchia, required some decades to be completely defined. The arrival point of the quattrocento researches was Bramante's first designs for St. Peter's (1506–07), which show the groundbreaking irregular octagonal plan, invented to carry the huge load of the Vatican “cupola.” The ideas about the dome of St. Peter's (contrived by Sangallo, Michelangelo and Della Porta) led in the middle of the seventeenth century to the great season of the baroque domed churches, most of all those by Borromini.
Just at the apogee of the Roman baroque, a new generation of French masters, such as François Mansart, entirely rethought the concept of domes: they devised multiple domes that would transform the internal space into an experience of bright surfaces, neglecting the Italian exhibition of structural firmness. After the brilliant works of Guarini, sensible to French innovations, the age of the great cupolas was eventually concluded by Wren's dome of St. Paul's, reaching the extreme limit of early modern architecture, beyond which the triangle geometry‐statics‐orders would have dissolved.
Medici Queens as Patrons in France
Authors: Frommel Sabine 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Two queens, Catherine de’ Medici (1519–89) and Maria de’ Medici (1575–1642), played an important role in the evolution of architectural typology and language in France. Their destinies were not directly linked and their social situations were very different, but the unions they made responded to a political project to bring together France and Italy. As foreigners, both women had to fight against non‐acceptance, particularly in the case of Catherine because of the relatively recent nobility of her father's family, a fact that also hindered her patronage. Only after the tragic deaths of their husbands, Henri II and Henri IV respectively, did the two women commission important architectural projects that belonged to a well‐thought‐out program of propaganda that also embraced other artistic genres like painting, panegyrics, medals, and prints.
Baroque Spain: Architecture and Urbanism For a Universal Monarchy
Authors: Escobar Jesús 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Around 1600, the Spanish Habsburg universal monarchy – the early modern equivalent of empire – had territorial holdings on four continents and a newly established metropolitan center in Madrid. It was a society profoundly shaped by cultural and economic exchange. With a focus on buildings and public spaces in two cities, Seville and Santiago de Compostela, this chapter explores the cosmopolitan nature of seventeenth‐century architecture and urbanism in Spain and the process of cultural exchange as people, books, and ideas about classical architecture came together – at times from distant parts of the empire – to give shape to new urban monuments.
Crossbreeding Cultures: Italian and Local, Elite and Popular. Building in Bohemia, 1490‐1720
Authors: Meyer Dirk De 
Published: March 2017

AbstractFrom the moment Central‐European culture developed art history into an independent academic discipline, the early modern building yards of Prague and Bohemia were regarded primarily as local tributaries of an Italian, or eventually German, production, acquiring additional impurities the further away they were from the source of artistic genius. However, Prague society, with a population of artists so heterogeneous that the model of an autochthonous recipient is unsustainable, is a choice subject for the study of the sophisticated nature and techniques of artisticmétissage.Confronting the clients' ambitions with their architects' backgrounds, this chapter shows how extraordinary forms developed in an area of religious fault lines and ethnical stratifications. The origins and particularities of some late‐baroque churches, for instance, reside in the intricate combination of ardentFormwillenand theological erudition, of Italianist baroque culture and local devotional practices. Their geometric complexities and apparent linguistic contradictions are the fruit of harsh ideological clashes and of the surprising ecclesiastical wit and the convoluted minds of abbots who, contemporaneously, often operate as real international entrepreneurs.The resulting semantic riches have been tailored to the needs of a complex society and clientele: Modern in many ways, but still firmly rooted in pre‐Modern practices and traditions.
Laugier's Prototypal Hut, Soufflot's Sainte‐Geneviève, and the Enlightenment Theory of Representation
Authors: Levine Neil 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThe revolutionary concept of architectural representation based on the model of the primitive hut formulated by the young French Jesuit priest andamateurMarc‐Antoine Laugier (1713–69) is arguably the single most important contribution to modern architectural theory advanced in the Age of Enlightenment. Serving as the cornerstone of his argument for reforming contemporary architecture, Laugier's mimetic theory of representation appeared in 1753 in his anonymously publishedEssai sur l'architecture. It had a veritablesuccès de scandaleand was translated into English and German within a couple of years. In 1755 it appeared in a second French edition, this one including the name of the author and containing a number of illustrations. The most significant of these was the frontispiece, an extraordinary engraving that provided one of the boldest and most potent images ever produced of architectural representation as an imitation of nature. The primitive hut it depicted became the centerpiece around which much of the debate over modern architecture revolved during the succeeding two centuries.
Blenheim Palace (1705)
Authors: Hart Vaughan 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
No building of the first decade of the eighteenth century epitomized the spirit of its time more than Blenheim Palace. Built for a national hero by a grateful nation to celebrate a famous military victory, and designed by two of the leading architects of the age, Blenheim is unique in the long history of English country house building. From its start in 1705, just a year after the battle of Blenheim, it was both private house and national monument. Its principal architect, Sir John Vanbrugh, was assisted by Nicholas Hawksmoor, and both set about creating a fitting tribute to the Duke of Marlborough by drawing on contemporary ideas concerning heraldic display and the evocation of emotion through architecture.
Public Debate on Architecture in France
Authors: Wittman Richard 
Published: March 2017

AbstractWestern European society experienced a profound historical transformation during the eighteenth century, with the emergence of modern understandings of the public and the nature of publicness itself. For the first time, information networks, constituted mostly by an unprecedented multiplication of printed texts, became the most potent sector of the public sphere, in a sense that we now take for granted in our awareness that media coverage is how events attain “publicity.” Those in touch with this print culture became aware that there were many other readers like them who were reading the same texts, around the same time, and likely thinking similar things about them. With this shift, a modern sense of the claims of public opinion on common affairs began to take shape. As the most prestigious public art of representation, standing squarely at the intersection of space, publicity, politics, and culture, architecture occupied a unique place within these transformations. Architects, patrons, and governments found themselves compelled to translate the public meanings of their buildings into the new networks of information exchange by which the civic public sphere was now increasingly constituted. Inevitably, printing became the medium of this shift, with myriad consequences for architectural practice, reception, theory, and patronage, as well as for the understanding of architectural history. This chapter traces the most important of those consequences in French architecture between the foundation of the Royal Academy of Architecture in 1671 and the coming of the French Revolution in 1789.
Spectatorship in French Theater Architecture: Stage and Public Space
Authors: van Oostveldt Bram 
Published: March 2017

AbstractTheater, as one of the oldest mass media, is often considered as the privileged place to discern the historically variable ways of how social identities are constructed and distributed. The social agency or performativity of theater is mostly studied from its representational aspects, focusing on the relation between what is performed on stage and the recipient of the performance, the spectator. However, it is equally important to include the place of performance as well. The location of the performance within the public space, its specific architecture and decorations, and its spatial structuring of the relation between performers and spectators, all contribute to theater's social agency. The importance of the performance place in the construction and distribution of social identities especially holds true for French eighteenth‐century architectural theory and practice. In a reaction to the dreadful spatial conditions of most French playhouses until deep in the eighteenth century, numerous architects and theorists proposed new ideas concerning theater architecture and the way they structured new modes of spectatorship.
St. Mary Le Strand (1724)
Authors: Hart Vaughan 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
St. Mary le Strand was conceived as part of the ambitious plan of 1711 for 50 new churches in London, of which the best known are Nicholas Hawkmoor's six. In the event, only 11 were fully commissioned. The original church on the Strand site had been demolished in Edward VI's reign. Hawksmoor, Thomas Archer, William Dickinson, James Gibbs, and Sir John Vanbrugh each drew up a design for the new church from around 1713. The church was eventually built to a design by Gibbs, after its approval in November 1714, with assistance from Hawksmoor.
The Office of The King's Works and Modernization of Architectural Patronage in England
Authors: Arciszewska Barbara 
Published: March 2017

AbstractOne of the most important institutions responsible for redefining the boundaries of eighteenth‐century patronage in British architecture was the Office of the King's Works. The Office was transformed in the early decades of the eighteenth century into a new instrument of professional interchange between the monarchy (no longer the king personally) and the evolving group of trained practitioners. The core of its business practices was shaped by the new bureaucracy, which at the time was considered one of the critical instruments of nascent modernity, its orderly procedures paralleling those of classicism itself. Eighteenth‐century British culture thus fostered a patronage and training system for architects diverging from the Continental model of professional development. Whereas the latter was defined by academic hierarchies, with their strict didactic practices and rituals, the architectural career in Britain was increasingly moderated by principles derived from bureaucratic organization and its quotidian regimes.
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden: The Flirtation With the French and Its Long‐Term Effects
Authors: Roding Juliette 
Published: March 2017

AbstractIn Denmark, foreign, in particular Dutch and Dutch‐trained, architects dominated the scene until the middle of the eighteenth century, but from the middle of the seventeenth century onward the Danish absolute kings started to send their court architects abroad for further education. This culminated in the establishment of the Royal Danish Academy (1754) after the French model, with the architect Nicolas‐Henri Jardin and the sculptor Jacques Saly as leading figures. In Sweden, as in Denmark, the activities of immigrant architects and artists extended well into the eighteenth century. In 1768 the Royal Academy of Fine Arts was established, followed in 1779 by a special School of Architecture. Thanks to King Gustav III's personal interest in art and architecture, the French painter, stage designer, and architect Louis‐Jean Deprez came to Sweden in 1784. It was the start of the typical Swedish neoclassicist “Gustavian Style”. In a European perspective it is striking that in the course of the eighteenth century, both in Denmark and Sweden a firm Beaux‐Arts tradition was established that would influence architectural practices and debates for more than two centuries.
The Académie Royale D'architecture (1671–1793)
Authors: Armstrong Christopher Drew 
Published: March 2017

AbstractFrom 1671 to 1793, the Academy of Architecture existed under the direct authority of the French Royal Works Administration (theBâtiments du roi) and contributed to defining the image of the French monarchy during the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Created by Louis XIV's powerful chief minister, Jean‐Baptiste Colbert, the Academy served as a consultative body of leading professionals and included a school where aspiring young architects were exposed to the principles of classical design theory. When it was suppressed during the French Revolution, the Academy's membership comprised an outstanding array of figures whose work had contributed substantially to defining late‐eighteenth‐century neoclassicism and to reshaping Paris through numerous royal monuments and private buildings.
London, Parma, Dresden: Exposition, Competition, Exhibition
Authors: de la Ruffinière du Prey Pierre 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In the period between 1700 and 1800, institutions devoted to cultivating the arts and sciences proliferated at an average of almost one a year. In addition to their time‐honored functions as places of conviviality, research, and free exchange of ideas, many European academies of the fine arts assumed an important teaching role. The goal of this chapter is to discuss three general principles—pillars you might call them—of eighteenth‐century architectural pedagogy using a different school of architecture to epitomize each. London's Royal Academy of Arts demonstrates the inspirational effect on student audiences of Professor Thomas Sandby's annual expositions on architecture, especially on account of the lecture diagrams with which he illustrated them. At Parma Academy the architecture competitions created a proving ground for a cross section of young and—in the case of 1780—international talents all vying for recognition and in the process revealing current artistic trends. Finally, and contemporaneously, Dresden Academy sheds light on the widespread practice of academic exhibitions: public, periodic, and often moneymaking forums in one of which the architect Friedrich August Krubsacius made a spectacular mark on the artistic scene with drawings of Varro's aviary, published here for the first time since they originally went on display.
Architectural Debate in Venice
Authors: Kantor‐Kazovsky Lola 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
To a visitor to Venice and the Veneto it may seem that the eighteenth‐century architects of the state (which included, along with the city of Venice, the important cultural centers of Padua, Verona, Vicenza, and Treviso) faithfully followed the great traditions set by architects of the past. But this is only partially true: scholars now think that Venice at the time should be credited precisely for its groundbreaking architectural thought, and for advocating a radical innovation of architectural language before the actual advent of modernism. The outcome of these fiery debates is barely perceptible in the real buildings because practicing architects usually had to accommodate themselves to public taste, which was often conservative. As the architect Giorgio Massari is said to have complained, “I know for sure that for every innovative project of mine, however based on reason, another one, imitating Palladio or Vignola, will be preferred. And who will support my family when I have no work?”
Margravial Opera House Bayreuth (1748)
Authors: van Oostveldt Bram 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Together with Drottningholm Theater in Stockholm and the theater in Cesky Krumlow Castle in Bohemia, the Margravial Opera House in Bayreuth is one of the few remaining baroque theaters in Europe. Since 2012 it has been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The opera house was commissioned in 1744 by Willhelmine of Prussia, Margravine of Brandenburg‐Bayreuth (1709–58) and inaugurated during the wedding festivities for her daughter, Elisabeth Frederike Sophie, and Duke Carl Eugene of Württemberg in September 1748. Wilhelmine got the idea for the opera house when her brother, Frederick II of Prussia, with whom she shared a love for opera, sent her the plans for the new Berlin opera, which opened in 1743. Supported by her husband, Friedrich von Brandenburg‐Bayreuth (1711–63), Wilhelmine was determined to give the small court of Bayreuth one of the most beautiful opera houses in Europe and to turn Bayreuth into a center of Italian operatic culture.
Measuring Classical Architecture
Authors: Papaioannou Amalia 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThe mathematician John Dee, by making architecture one of his 21 derivative mathematical arts, followed a well‐known Renaissance tradition that strove to disengage architecture from its medieval classification within the mechanical arts and to include it instead among the liberal arts. Mathematics had been the most obvious choice for association, not only because of the practical application of arithmetic, geometry, and perspective in the delineation and execution of architectural projects, but also because it elevated the art of building into a philosophical exercise, since proportional correspondences between the architectural members were thought to express Nature's universal laws. Within the realm of the eighteenth century's emphasis on science and method, and in the wake of important technological advances in the manufacture of instruments for measurement, the relationship between architecture and mathematics was reevaluated.
Zeitgeist, Style, andStimmung: Historiography of Architecture
Authors: Hvattum Mari 
Published: March 2017

AbstractIn the very first paragraph ofHistory of the Art of Antiquity(1764), Johann Joachim Winckelmann delivered a program statement for a new kind of art history: “The history of the art of antiquity that I have endeavoured to write is no mere narrative of the chronology and alterations of art, for I take history in the wider sense that it has in the Greek language and my intention is to provide asystem.” Merely describing artworks of the past no longer made sense, Winckelmann argued. Instead, one had to identify the laws that govern the making of art, examine the conditions under which it has been produced, and look at the way these conditions differed with time and place. Only then could a systematic understanding of art's and architecture's history emerge, as opposed to a mere assemblage of examples.
Luscombe Castle (1799)
Authors: Macarthur John 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Luscombe Castle, designed by Humphry Repton and John Nash in 1799, epitomizes a watershed moment in the history of architectural planning. The irregular form of the building was determined by views from the house, and by a logical interrelation of rooms and services. Point‐of‐view planning and functional analysis were to become precepts of modern architectural planning, and while these ideas developed across the century, Luscombe is a case where we can see these ideas consciously applied and interacting in the work of two of the most influential British designers of the late eighteenth century.
Outward Forms and Inward Spirit: The Recovery of Historical Church Architecture in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bann Stephen 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
This chapter considers a number of written accounts and visual representations of historic church architecture that originated in the nineteenth century. All the examples are drawn from France and England, and comparisons and contrasts between the two countries are emphasized. The argument is that, over this period, a particular focus came to be placed upon the experience of such historic buildings from within. The task of evoking these interiors through images and texts is seen as being tantamount to a spiritual exercise, in the case of Lamennais, though for the young Augustus Pugin the experience provoked an arousal of more troublesome sensations. A novelist like Balzac delighted in evoking the light that falls on the white walls of a village church. But toward the end of the century the French writer Pierre Loti was impelled to construct his own Gothic chamber as an integral part of his dwelling space. Though the visual enhancement of historic interiors can be detected in the early 1800s in the oils of painters such as Granet, it was new media like lithography, and eventually the photograph, that reinforced and popularized the vision of interiority through their special technical effects.
Ruskin and Victorian Gothic
Authors: Kite Stephen 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

The chapter examines the impact of the major cultural figure John Ruskin (1819–1900) on the character, aesthetics, and ethics of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture. It surveys three interrelated characteristics of the style of architecture known as “Ruskinian Gothic”: mass and shadow, polychromy and ornament, and changefulness. The mass and shadow section shows how the visionary art of J. M. W. Turner deepened Ruskin's sensibility to the drama of
chiaroscuro
(light and shade) in architecture. It indicates how Ruskin's
The Seven Lamps of Architecture
(1849) and
The Stones of Venice
(1851–53) were crucial in establishing mass, breadth, and dramatic shadow, as the characteristic expression of Victorian Gothic architecture from the 1850s. The section on polychromy and ornament then describes how these architects enlivened their muscular architectural forms with colors, materials, and motifs inspired by Ruskin's meditations on the marbled “incrustation” of medieval Venetian architecture, and the striated buildings of the Pisan Romanesque. The final section, on changefulness, stresses Ruskin's radical politico‐ethical ideas, showing how his challenge to free workmanship from the slavery of the machine led to the Arts and Crafts ideals represented by William Morris, and the free‐style architecture of Philip Webb and Norman Shaw.
Gothic Historiography: An Interdisciplinary Speculation
Authors: Macdonell Cameron A. 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThis chapter addresses the conditions of revivalism in nineteenth‐century British architecture. Specifically, it addresses the eschatological conditions of revivalism as a return from the dead and the question of haunting in Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin's British Gothic Revival church architecture. To do so, this chapter speculates on the interdisciplinarity of modern Gothic architecture and literature from the Georgian and Victorian eras of Britain, presenting three reasons why scholars of either architecture or literature (or both) have neglected the possibility of a relationship between Gothic literature and Gothic Revival architecture, especially in the buildings and books of Victorian Britain. Drawing on a theoretical discourse used in Gothic literary studies (i.e. the uncanny), this chapter presents an overlooked aspect of the uncanny: veiling human sensory experience from the awful presence of the divine. Pugin's obsession with chancel screens (and their relationship with the Mosaic separation between the holy and the holy of holies) opens the possibility of reading Pugin's mortal experience of Holy Communion as necessarily uncanny and, in the process, nuancing Pugin's negotiation of Gothic architecture as a structural principle and ornamental flourish.