bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Media Use and Child Development
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M. 
Published: September 2017

Traditionally, research into the effects of television has assumed that children are passive recipients on whom television has a powerful influence. Since the mid‐1970s, however, media effects research has increasingly recognized the child viewer as an active and motivated explorer, rather than a passive receiver (→ Media Effects; Media Effects, History of). Recent research suggests that children are critical evaluators of what they see in the media. Even very young children have been shown to actively screen media offerings for attractiveness and understandability and make an effort to interpret television images in their own terms (→ Audience; Audience Segmentation; Media Use by Children; Media Use across the Life‐Span).
Media Use, International Comparison of
Authors: Rössler Patrick 
Published: September 2017

Mass media content is created for audience consumption. Without at least a small audience, the communication process remains unilateral and incomplete. Despite its relevance for media production, regulation, and →
Marketing
, data on media use is systematically collected only in a few (mostly western) countries of the world. Hence the international comparison of media use patterns remains fragmentary. Evidence provided by global research agencies is often difficult to interpret because a standardized definition of
media use
is lacking. In some cases, data on the distribution of media offerings (e.g., circulation figures) replaces genuine data on media use because the latter is not recorded. With usage patterns changing over time, this overview focuses on the description of valid sources rather than presenting research results that might soon be outdated. Nevertheless, the picture drawn for purposes of exemplification refers to the data available as of 2006 (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Mediating Factors
Authors: Eilders Christiane 
Published: September 2017

Mediating factors are the psychological and social conditions in the communication process that moderate the effects of persuasive mass communication. The concept was first introduced by Joseph T. Klapper in his influential bookThe effects of mass communication(1960). Sifting through empirical studies available in the late 1950s, Klapper identified five mediating factors that explain why media messages tend to reinforce rather than change existing attitudes. The consideration of moderating variables in media effects research marks a shift from the hypodermic needle or → stimulus–response model to the stimulus–organism–response model (→ Media Effects).
Mediatization of Organizations Theory
Authors: Verhoeven Piet 
Published: September 2017

Almost everything the general public knows of corporations and other organizations is mediated by the mass media. This is especially the case regarding strategic decisions, policymaking, and managerial behaviors. Consequently, the mass media seem to be used by organizations as key publics for → Public Relations in building trust, especially since people tend to trust the media more than they do corporations or political parties (→ Corporate Reputation; Trust of Publics).
Eurobarometer 61
(European Commission 2004) shows that 71 percent of the European public trusts the radio (up from 63 percent in 2001), 61 percent trust television (up from 56 percent in 2001), and 56 percent trust newspapers (up from 40 percent in 2001).
Mediatization of Politics
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro 
Published: September 2017

Mediatization of politics is a complex process that is closely linked to the presence of a → media logic in society and in the political sphere. It is distinguished from the idea of “mediation,” a natural, preordained mission of mass media to convey meaning from communicators to their target audiences. To define politics as “mediated” is a simple truism, in that communication and mass media are necessary prerequisites to the functioning of political systems (Mazzoleni & Schulz 1999). Some scholars, such as Deutsch (1963), even hold that politics
is
communication. Certainly, politics and the way it is performed and communicated have been widely affected by the rise of mass media between the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. Such media‐driven influence in the political environment is the core of the concept of mediatization. The media have become indispensable actors within the political domain. They have gained a central position in most political routines, such as election campaigns, government communication, public diplomacy and image building, and national and international celebrations.
Meeting Technologies
Authors: Scott Craig R. 
Published: September 2017

In an effort to enhance the functioning of the much maligned meeting, a variety of technological solutions have been introduced. These
meeting technologies
represent part of a rapidly growing industry focused on improving the millions of meetings held daily across the globe (→ Technology and Communication). Indeed, the increased use of collaborative teams (→ Group Communication), the growing number of virtual workers (→ Telework), the rising “costs” of travel, pushes toward globalization (→ Globalization of Organizations), and the declining expense associated with these tools have all created an environment ripe for the use of meeting technologies in workplaces, educational settings, and other contexts.
Memory, Message
Authors: Shapiro Michael A. 
Published: September 2017

Memory is critical to communication (→ Memory). The near‐instantaneous understanding of a familiar word in a conversation, recognizing an advertising image, mentally disagreeing with a politician's speech, feeling sympathy for a → soap opera character, understanding why today's events in an ongoing news story are important, and countless other responses to communication are all connected in some way with what we have stored in our nervous system. In many ways our personhood and our interactions with the world are defined by the memories we store and use.
Memory, Person
Authors: Claypool Heather M. , DeCoster Jamie 
Published: September 2017

Researchers who study person memory examine how perceivers store and recall information about a social target in order to understand how that information is structured in the perceiver's mind (→ Memory). Understanding the structure and organization of social information is important because it influences the way we perceive and process subsequently encountered targets, making it a crucial part of person perception (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality; Information Processing).
Memory and Rhetoric
Authors: Browne Stephen Howard 
Published: September 2017

For several decades now the role of public memory in shaping the present has occupied the attention of scholars across the humanities. From Holocaust studies to architecture, literature and → visual culture, colonialism, and queer theory, students of the subject are seeking to explain how and to what ends we avail ourselves of the past. Among the most recent and instructive contributions to this enterprise are those issuing from the study of rhetoric, which attends in particular to the discursive and strategic dimensions of public memory (→ Rhetorical Studies).
Mergers
Authors: Brown Duncan H. 
Published: September 2017

In the late 1970s and early 1980s two books were published that tracked the growing concentration of ownership in the media industries (→ Concentration in Media Systems). The first, published in 1979 by Benjamin M. Compaine, was titled
Who owns the media?
The first edition of Benjamin H. Bagdikian's book
The media monopoly
was published in 1983. Over the following years subsequent editions of these books continued to show how mergers between media corporations were creating a situation where a smaller and smaller number of media corporations controlled an increasing proportion of the media products audiences consumed. At the beginning of the new millennium, both series of books found it necessary to issue heavily revised editions to take account of the growing speed of change in the media industries (Compaine & Gomery 2000; Bagdikian 2004; → Media Conglomerates; Media Corporations, Forms of; Media Economics).
Message Design Logics
Authors: Morgan Melanie 
Published: September 2017

The major premise of message design logics is that individuals have different ways of reasoning (“design logics”) about communication. These individual differences affect how messages are structured to achieve goals (→ Message Production; Goals, Cognitive Aspects of; Goals, Social Aspects of). As such, message design logic provides a “rational goal analysis” of a speaker's understanding of means–end relations in communication, which results in a range of variations evidenced in messages across a spectrum of complex situations (O'Keefe 1988). Typically, rational goal analyses, such as Brown and Levinson's (1978) work on politeness or O'Keefe and Shepherd's (1987) work on arguments, see message variation in terms of “strategies.” The theory of message design logic extends rational goal analyses by arguing that strategy choice in the pursuit of goals can reflect underlying differences in fundamental premises individuals hold about communication (→ Interpersonal Communication).
Message Discrimination
Authors: Miller Peter V. 
Published: September 2017

Message discrimination is a self‐report measure of media exposure (→ Audience Research; Exposure to Communication Content; Information Processing; Cognition). In survey interviews, respondents are asked to recall → Information about a particular topic that they have encountered in various media in the recent past. For example, respondents might be asked, “What have you seen or heard on television about family planning in the last month?” Open questions like this are repeated for other media (e.g., → Newspapers, → Radio, → magazines, → books). Responses are recorded verbatim and coded into “messages.” The message discrimination measure is the sum of messages reported by a respondent for the topic of interest across all of the media.
Message Editing
Authors: Meyer Janet R. 
Published: September 2017

Message editing is the process whereby speakers review and sometimes revise a message plan prior to speaking. At lower levels of linguistic output, a not‐yet‐spoken clause might be checked for consistency with phonemic, syntactic, and/or lexical rules. At more abstract planning levels, the acceptability of a message plan could be assessed by comparing it against a set of editing criteria, and/or by anticipating outcomes of the message (→ Goals, Social Aspects of; Message Production).
Message Production
Authors: Hample Dale 
Published: September 2017

The object of research on message production is to answer the question, “Why do people say what they do?” The academic sources on this topic come from across the academy, notably → cognitive science, discourse studies (→ Discourse Analysis), and artificial intelligence, and from several specializations in communication, especially → Persuasion, → Interpersonal Communication, and argumentation (→ Cognition; Compliance Gaining). Unconnected research was done by many investigators for decades, but the project solidified with the publication of Greene's (1997b)Message production. From that point on, message production became an explicit topic for research and graduate seminars.
Metadiscourse
Authors: Craig Robert T. 
Published: September 2017

Metadiscourse is talk about talk. The common term → discourse refers to the pragmatic use of language (including nonverbal signs such as → paralanguage and → gestures in discourse) in extended texts or episodes of communication.Meta‐discourse refers to the pragmatic use of language to comment reflexively on discourse itself. The prefix “meta” (from a Greek word meaning with, across, or after) here denotes a shift to a higher‐order frame of reference. Metadiscourse shifts the focus of attention from ongoing communication, putting some stretch of discourse in a context or frame designed to influence the meaning and practical conduct of communication.
Metaphor
Authors: Kaplan Stuart Jay 
Published: September 2017

Metaphor is widely regarded as a basic linguistic form in nearly all types of → Discourse (→ Linguistics). In contrast to early thinking about metaphor, which emphasized its role as a stylistic embellishment used for rhetorical effect, modern theories consider metaphor to be an essential feature of thinking itself. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) identified a variety of metaphor types that interconnect to structure how people conceptualize their experiences with their physical and social environments. This cognitive perspective on metaphor has stimulated scholarship on metaphor phenomena in a great many disciplines, including communication, organizational theory, political science, art, philosophy, computer science, and law. The role of metaphor in → Persuasion is of particular interest to communication scholars. Research findings suggest, for example, that → advertising containing metaphors receives greater → attention from readers and evokes more positive affect toward the ad (McQuarrie & Mick 1999; → Advertising as Persuasion).
Migrant Community Media
Authors: Karim Karim 
Published: September 2017

The term migrant community media, also known as ethnic or diasporic media, refers to the print, broadcast, and Internet‐based operations of ethnic minorities. They have emerged in recent decades as a significant category of global media (→ Globalization Theories). Previously, such media operated by minority groups in various countries were treated as being of minor academic interest. For a long time, migrant community media were usually underfunded and marginal to the mediascapes of most countries. However, ethnic media operated by community groups have increasingly become channels for transnational media flows (→ International Communication). Their relative prominence has come about due to a combination of factors, including the growing wealth of minority communities, the rising acknowledgment of ethnic media among host societies, and the increasing technological possibilities for “narrowcasting.”
Modernization
Authors: Waisbord Silvio 
Published: September 2017

As in other social sciences, modernization was the dominant paradigm in communication studies that sought to understand and define the role of communication in development in the late 1950s and 1960s. Modernization was originally proposed as synonymous with development. Development was understood as a transition toward a social order that mirrored the politics and economy of the west, namely, liberal democracy and capitalist and industrialized economies. Modernization's time of intellectual and policy ascendancy was the postwar years during the period of decolonization. Western scholars and powerful policymakers viewed modernization as an unavoidable and desirable transition for non‐western societies (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline; Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968; Development Communication).
Muckraking
Authors: Fellow Anthony R. 
Published: September 2017

US President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 admonished writers who exposed the wrongdoings by business, industry, and government. Borrowing a phrase from John Bunyon's
Pilgrim's Progress
, he called them “muckrakers,” who only rake the muck of life and never see the stars. Irish dramatist George Bernard Shaw later put another spin on the term, making it synonymous with → investigative reporting, saying journalists see the stars and want to cleanse the muck so others can see as well (→ Journalism, History of).
Music Videos
Authors: Straw Will 
Published: September 2017

“Music video” commonly designates a short audiovisual text in which a recorded song is accompanied by moving images. The term “music video” refers, as well, to the broader phenomenon of video clips and the television programs or networks that show them (→ Television Networks). Research on music video has typically used the video clip as an example with which to investigate larger issues concerning the status of image and music within media forms of the late twentieth and early twenty‐first centuries. It should be noted that large numbers of so‐called music videos are, in fact, shot on film rather than tape‐based or digital video (→ Digital Imagery).
NAFTA
and International Communication
Authors: Lozano José‐Carlos 
Published: September 2017

Media flows between countries have always been controversial. Fears of cultural consequences if imbalances occur and concerns about the symbolic value of cultural and media products have historically been at the heart of academic and political debates as well as public policies from governments (→ New World Information and Communication Order [NWICO]; UNESCO). These dimensions of culture and media have generated great numbers of exceptions and qualifications in regional free trade agreements.
Navigation
Authors: Wirth Werner 
Published: September 2017

The concept of navigation refers to the interpretation of user actions in hypermedia as a movement through virtual space. Navigation can thus be seen as → selective exposure to hypermedia on a micro‐level. Hypermedia commonly includes graphics and fragments of audio, video, and plain text (nodes), which are all knotted via hyperlinks. Navigation research is dedicated to the study of personal, situational, and media influences on how users move through hypermedia, select links, search for → Information, and learn from hypertext contents (→ Learning and Communication).
Negotiation and Bargaining
Authors: Roloff Michael E. 
Published: September 2017

“Negotiation” is derived from a Latin term that means “to conduct business,” and a great deal of research is focused on economic transactions such as sales and collective bargaining. Over time, the use of negotiation has expanded to other contexts such as marriage (→ Marital Communication; Marital Typologies) and hostage negotiations (Rogan et al. 1997), and in addition to its traditional role as a tool for creating exchange agreements (→ Social Exchange), it is now recognized to be an important component of conflict management (→ Conflict Resolution). Because of its widespread use, negotiation research is conducted throughout the social sciences including anthropology, communication, economics, management, political science, psychology, and sociology.
Netherlands: Media System
Authors: Bardoel Jo 
Published: September 2017

Despite its open borders and its central location between big European countries, the Netherlands (with a population of 16.3 million) has its own tradition with respect to both press and broadcasting, a tradition that is closely related to the country's overall socio‐political structure during most of the twentieth century. In the early years of the twenty‐first century we notice, however, that this “Dutch model” is eroding rapidly and beginning to follow a more “European” or even “global” media model, in which concentration (→ Concentration in Media Systems) and internationalization have become paramount.
News Processing and Retention
Authors: Price Vincent , Feldman Lauren 
Published: September 2017

Of the numerous functions the news media perform in contemporary society, perhaps none is so basic as their role in distributing information. In many democratic theories, broad and equitable distribution of timely → news is viewed as necessary for sound → public opinion and popular decision‐making (→ Political Discourse). Students of journalism, mass communication, and politics have consequently invested considerable effort in studying the ways people process news stories and how much information – and what types of information – they retain as a result.
News Values
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias 
Published: September 2017

The composition of news in the mass media is shaped by a broad variety of causes – by the number and type of topical events, by the type of the media and the interests of their audiences, by professional routines and individual preferences of journalists, and by technical constraints and economic conditions (Shoemaker & Reese 1996; → Media Production and Content). Among these causes are the news values of → news factors. They are the basis of the theory of news values. This theory explains the selection of news for publication, and the prominence of news stories in newspapers and news programs, by professional criteria of news factors in news stories (aspects of events) and the news values of the news factors (selection criteria). In the theory of news values, nonprofessional influences like individual preferences of journalists, political leaning of news organizations, and pressures from their owners, advertisers, or other social forces are neglected. Therefore, it deals only with a small part of the whole process of newsmaking. The term “news factors” denotes characteristics of news reports, with respect to the events covered. The term “news values” denotes the relative impact of news factors on the processing of news stories by journalists. The term “newsworthiness” denotes the chances of news stories getting published and the prominence of their presentation.
News Workers
Authors: Ettema James S. 
Published: September 2017

News workers are those engaged in the production of the written, visual, or audio texts designated as news and information appearing in print media and on broadcast and cable television, radio, and the Internet. These workers assign, report, research, write, and edit reports as well as produce and assemble visual images and the graphic forms for news and information. News workers also include senior editors, news directors, and others who manage these functions (→ news; News Routines; News Story).
Newscast
Authors: Hoskins Andrew 
Published: September 2017

The newscast has anchored broadcast media schedules since their invention and has delivered mundane and momentous news and information daily from near and far, entwining itself with society, culture, and the politics of the day. Synonymous with the great conflicts and crises of mediated history – particularly US‐centered history – the televisual nightly newscast has embedded itself into the narrative of nations (and even, at times, their conscience), connecting an apparently simultaneous, unified, and collective audience (→ Television: Social History).
Newspaper, Antecedents of
Authors: Raymond Joad 
Published: September 2017

The first newspapers appeared in western Europe in the seventeenth century, in forms that laid the basis for, and anticipated the form and content of, the contemporary newspaper (→ Newspaper, History of). While they developed out of sixteenth‐century print and manuscript news media, their advent constituted an early modern media revolution that was central to state formation, reading, and politics in this period. The quantity of news provision increased, resulting in a qualitative transformation, and news media became embedded in politics and culture (Zaret 2000; → news; Political News).
Newspaper, History of
Authors: Conboy Martin 
Published: September 2017

Historians tend to agree that theActa Diurnain ancient Rome, a daily gazette of official news, was one of the most important precursors of the → Newspaper as a public disseminator of topical information in the western world. (Newspapers, in their modern sense, would not emerge in countries such as China, Japan, and Korea until centuries later, but forerunners such as newssheets – containing official edicts and decrees – had limited circulation). Handwritten copies publicized news from police courts, accidents, deaths, the reporting of municipal councils, courts of law, and even the Senate. These reports were posted outside a variety of public buildings for the perusal of interested citizens. It would be over a thousand years, however, before technology, politics, and education would allow the regular commercial distribution of printed news in the form that we recognize today as the newspaper.