bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Automaticity
Authors: Wyer Robert S. 
Published: September 2017

Automaticity in information processing is best conceptualized in terms of its antithesis. “Deliberative” processing involves the comprehension and use of information for a particular purpose (e.g., to make a judgment or decision, to communicate to others, etc.). This processing is conscious and intentional; it requires some degree of cognitive or motor effort, and it is volitional. In contrast, behavior is automatic if it does
not
have one or more of these characteristics. That is, it is unintentional
or
it is performed unconsciously without awareness
or
it is effortless
or
it is unable to be controlled. Although these criteria are not independent, a behavior is often characterized as automatic if it meets any one of them (→ Cognition; Information Processing; Mindlessness and Automaticity).
Censorship, History of
Authors: Jansen Sue Curry 
Published: September 2017

The English word “censorship” is derived from the root
cense
from the Latin
censure
: to estimate, rate, assess, judge. Censor was a title given to two magistrates in ancient Rome who were responsible for administering the census, and supervising public morals. When the Roman Empire became the Holy Roman Empire, the church assumed primary responsibility for → censorship.
Collective Memory and the Media
Authors: Hoskins Andrew 
Published: September 2017

Memory, according to the Greeks, is the precondition of human thought (Samuel 1994). For psychologists, memory is also seen as a fundamental condition of consciousness. Not surprisingly, psychologists have constructed a variety of complex models of individual → memory. However, memories also require distinct social and communicative frameworks, patterned ways of framing the flow of remembered actions, images, sounds, smells, sensations, and impressions. Without social frameworks to anchor and sustain memories, they would soon falter and fade. This idea is central to the contribution of the sociologist Maurice Halbwachs (1877–1945) who advanced the study of memory beyond the individual and the interests of psychology at the time through his notion of “collective memory.” He believed that for individual memory to thrive it was reliant upon continuous support from “frameworks of social memory” (1992, 182).
Comforting Communication
Authors: Burleson Brant R. , Holmstrom Amanda J. 
Published: September 2017

Comforting communication encompasses the verbal and nonverbal messages that people use when trying to reduce others' emotional anguish. Thus, comforting represents a strategic communication activity that has the primary goal of alleviating another's emotional distress; it may also aim to enhance the other's self‐esteem, facilitate the other's coping, and assist the other's problem‐solving in a troublesome situation. Comforting is a form of behavioral empathy (→ Empathy Theory) or social support (→ Social Support in Interpersonal Communication) and is usually studied as a communicative activity carried out by laypersons in everyday situations; however, professionals (teachers, pastors, nurses, counselors, therapists) and para‐professionals (bartenders, hairdressers) also engage in comforting communication.
Communication: History of the Idea
Authors: Durham Peters John 
Published: September 2017

The word “communication” is descended from the Latin noun
communicatio
, which meant a sharing or imparting. From the root
communis
(common, public), it has no relation to terms such as
union
or
unity
, but rather is linked to the Latin
munus
(duty, gift), and thus has relatives in such terms as
common
,
immune
,
mad
,
mean
,
meaning
,
municipal
,
mutual
, and German terms such as
Gemeinschaft
(community) and
Meinung
(opinion). Its root senses have to do with change, exchange, and goods possessed by more than one person; the Latin verb
communicare
means to make common (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts).
Community Structure Model
Authors: Pollock John C. 
Published: September 2017

The community structure model explores links among community characteristics, media content, and effects of exposure to media content from a system perspective. Focusing on macro‐constructs associated with media content and media effects, the community structure approach rejects the perspective that all studies of media and audiences can be reduced to the individual level of psychological phenomena. “Structure” refers to community – typically city‐level – demographics or other aggregate measures of community identity, membership, participation, production, consumption, or access, ranging from income or education to health‐care access (e.g., number of physicians per 100,000 population or percent municipal spending on health‐care; → Exposure to Communication Content; Media Effects; Community Integration; Community Media).
Concentration in Media Systems
Authors: Mastrini Guillermo , Becerra Martin 
Published: September 2017

Concentration of ownership in the media sector presents important problems for the cultural industries. First, concentration creates dominant positions for some players, which can affect the necessary pluralism of ideas in a society (→ Plurality). From another point of view, there are strong pressures to allow strong players in a given market because of the growing trend toward globalization in cultural markets (→ Globalization Theories). The digitization of the whole field of cultural production and technological convergence processes have also stimulated concentration (→ Competition in Media Systems; Media Conglomerates).
Consonance of Media Content
Authors: Fröhlich Romy 
Published: September 2017

The mass media are an important, if not the most important, factor in the development of free opinion in democracies. That is to say that the media have a specific democratic responsibility (McQuail 1987, 117–118). It is no wonder that, apart from freedom of speech, free journalism, and a free media system, thediversity of mediais seen as being the most important condition for the emergence and progression of democracies (→ Concentration in Media Systems). A heterogeneous media structure is also seen as being an important condition for the development of a diverse and pluralistic media content, representing a balanced diversity of viewpoints on political issues and opinions (→ Plurality). This again is conceived as an important condition in the development of a diverse and pluralistic → public opinion and sound comprehension by citizens of political coherences and procedures in democracies.
Construction of Reality through the News
Authors: Heider Don 
Published: September 2017

Between the local newspaper, radio updates, the evening television newscasts and now updates via the → Internet, your PDA or your cell phone, → news seems ubiquitous. But where does news come from? How does what you read and hear and view get to the point of being published or broadcast? Fundamentally, news is a construction, and the nature of that construction is important to how we shape our view of the symbolic and mediated reality of the world (→ Reality and Media Reality; Constructivism). So how are those symbols created and recognized, and what role do the mediators, the news producers, play in shaping how we think about the world around us?
Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media
Authors: Martin Hugh J. 
Published: September 2017

Media rely on different combinations of revenue from consumers and advertisers to pay production costs and earn a profit. Reliance on either revenue source is determined by the characteristics of the media good, and by consumer and advertiser demand for the good. Consumers select media products that meet needs such as entertainment or information for decision‐making. Advertisers in turn select media that reach potential customers for the advertised products (→ Markets of the Media; Media Economics; Economies of Scale in Media Markets).
Course Organization Programs in Education
Authors: Yaros Ronald A. 
Published: September 2017

Software programs and computer systems for organizing courses continue to grow in popularity and can be divided into two categories. The first category includes “standalone” computer hardware and software that is obtained by an institution and used onsite to deliver course‐related content (intranet; → Computers and Display Programs in Education). The second category is a server environment capable of delivering content to anyone anywhere in the world via the world wide web (→ Internet). Physical absence no longer prevents students from participating in an educational experience. A 2005 survey of 2,200 colleges by the Sloan Consortium reported that nearly 3.2 million students took at least one online course in the fall of 2005, up from 2.3 million in 2004 (Carnevale 2006). Such programs can reach students who are physically or geographically unable to attend school. Some distance learners can interact with teachers and their peers on a daily basis (→ Distance Education).
Credibility Effects
Authors: Jackob Nikolaus 
Published: September 2017

The importance of credibility in human communication had already been recognized long before modern communication research emerged as a scientific discipline. For ancient rhetoricians like Aristotle or Cicero it was self‐evident that the credibility of a communicator had an important impact on the persuasiveness of his performance (→ Rhetorical Studies; Rhetoric, Greek). At the beginning of the twentieth century credibility became a central concept in communication research, first in → propaganda, later in other areas such as → advertising or → political communication. Today, the field of research is quite complex: different research traditions have bred a considerable number of definitions, operationalizations, and findings. Three major models of credibility can be distinguished: the source model, the recipient model, and the experience model. Modern research has come to the conclusion that there is no linear relationship between the credibility of a communication source and the effectiveness of its persuasive efforts. The magnitude as well as the persistence of credibility effects depend on several intervening variables (→ Journalists, Credibility of; Credibility of Content).
Cultural Products as Tradable Services
Authors: Wilkinson Kenton T. 
Published: September 2017

In the communication field, the term “cultural product” refers to media artifacts such as → books, → Newspapers, → magazines, recorded music, films, → Television programs, and related audiovisual materials. “Cultural product” succinctly conveys the juxtaposition that renders these artifacts controversial: they express cultural values of societies that produce them, yet are economic goods created, distributed, and engaged by → audiences under market conditions (→ Culture Industries; Music Industry; Markets of the Media). Because of their power to influence a society's aesthetic and ideological environments, as well as its economy, the exchange of cultural products across political, cultural, and linguistic boundaries can be quite sensitive. Efforts to promote cultural products' creation and dissemination – and also to control their importation and circulation – have been undertaken by a variety of organizations in diverse contexts (Hesmondhalgh 2007). Historically this has involved less developed nations restricting importation of cultural products from more developed nations, although despite moves toward free trade, more developed nations have resisted cultural imports from their peers.
Culture: Definitions and Concepts
Authors: Cobley Paul 
Published: September 2017

Since at least the nineteenth century, culture has been one of the most difficult, richly connotative concepts to define. While it is widely accepted that its roots are to be found in the Latin verb
colere
, among whose associated meanings is “to cultivate,” this has been all but forgotten in ordinary language. Being a web of meaning in which social life is suspended, culture most commonly goes unnoticed, and requires detailed inquiry, or what the anthropologist Clifford Geertz (borrowing from the philosopher, Gilbert Ryle) called “thick description.” Geertz used Ryle's example of two boys in a room, rapidly contracting their right eyelids: is this a wink, a twitch, a deliberate message, to someone in particular, coded, without cognizance of the rest of the company? These and other preparatory questions have to be addressed before any analysis can reach an understanding of the “piled‐up structures of inferences and implications” (Geertz 1993, 7) that characterize communications in any culture. Culture, thus, can be said to consist of all the structures and processes of → meaning in which communication takes place.
Culture Industries
Authors: Elavsky C. Michael 
Published: September 2017

The study of the culture industries has become increasingly more complex in the field of communications in light of the ways in which expanding research into their organization, activities, and logics connects with questions and arguments concerning culture, commercialism, and social control. Largely originating in Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer'sThe Dialectic of Enlightenment(1944), the term “culture industry” was initially utilized to critique the proliferation of commercial mass culture and what the authors perceived as the increasingly routinized techniques employed in the processes of cultural production (→ Critical Theory).
Cybernetics
Authors: Krippendorff Klaus 
Published: September 2017

Heron of Alexandria (first century
ad
) was the first chronicler of a peculiar mechanism capable of holding the flame of oil lamps steady. Later, similar mechanisms were found in water clocks. In the eighteenth century, they reappeared in the regulator of Watt's steam engine, which drove industrial production. Since 1910, engineers have called them servomechanisms. Norbert Wiener (1948, 1950), mathematician at MIT, realized that the theory underlying them had far wider applications, linked them to communication, and called the study of these phenomena “cybernetics … the science of control and communication in the animal and the machine” (→ Communication: History of the Idea). He derived “cybernetics” from the Greek
kybernetes
or “steersman.” Before him, Ampere had used the word to designate a science of government, without, however, developing the idea.
Development Communication, Planning of
Authors: Storey J. Douglas 
Published: September 2017

Effective development communication programs require a clearly defined strategy with specific goals established in advance. Communication goals may range from relatively short‐term changes in individual behavior (for example, improving health or environmental practices) to relatively long‐term changes in social or structural conditions (for example, increased economic opportunity, increased gender equity, improved environmental quality). Goals must align with → audience or stakeholder needs and achieving this match usually requires the involvement of stakeholders in the program planning stage, if not all stages of program implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (→ Stakeholder Theory). Unlike many other types of communication programs, development communication demands greater attention to social structural factors (Wilkins 2000) because change typically is sought at the societal level, not just the individual level. Also, longer‐term and macro‐structural changes usually require greater attention to self‐sustainability of communication activities, engaging whole communities and organizations (not just individuals) and creating mechanisms for ongoing participation by and coordination among stakeholder groups at multiple levels of social organization from the international and national level to the local and community level (→ Participatory Communication).
Diffusion of Information and Innovation
Authors: Dearing James W. , Kim Do Kyun 
Published: September 2017

Diffusion
is a multifaceted perspective about social change in which people, innovations, and the media environment affect how rapidly change occurs. Scholars dating back at least to the German social philosopher Georg Simmel and the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde theorized about imitative behavior at the level of small groups and within communities, and the relation between these micro‐level processes to macro‐level social change. In the 100 years since, researchers have tended to conceptualize diffusion either at the macro sociological level of sector, system, national, or state change (Dearing et al. 2006), the social psychological or communicative level of local relationships and how those linkages affect adoption patterns as in the classic studies by Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955) and by Rogers & Kincaid (1981), or the psychological level of how individuals perceive innovations in the form of a codified set of pros and cons (Manning et al. 1995). Beginning in the 1960s, diffusion concepts have been operationalized and used to purposively spread pro‐social innovations through → development communication in Colombia, Pakistan, Brazil, Nigeria, India, Finland, Korea, Tanzania, Bolivia, and Vietnam (see, e.g., Puska et al. 1986).
Discourse Analysis
Authors: Scheufele Bertram 
Published: September 2017

Like qualitative content analysis and → Grounded Theory, discourse analysis can be conceived as a qualitative empirical method of analyzing mostly recorded human communication (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative). The term itself was first introduced to the public by Zellig Harris in the early 1950s, but used rather unsystematically. In general terms, discourse analysis serves for analyzing written or spoken language use within a society or in public – like public discourse about abortion in Germany and the United States or like the anti‐Semitism discourse in postwar Austria. As one can tell from issues like abortion or racism, discourse analysis quite often implies a normative element. For instance, the critical discourse approach (e.g., Ruth Wodak, Teun A. van Dijk) asks about social hierarchies by studying language as a form of social practice. This approach is thus convinced that social and political domination is reproduced by speech, talk, and discourse.
Distribution
Authors: Bates Benjamin J. 
Published: September 2017

Communication requires the distribution of information from its creator to audiences, through some medium (→ Diffusion of Information and Innovation). This may occur in simple ways, such as talking (→ Interpersonal Communication), through broadcast networks (→ Radio; Television), or through the production and physical distributions of fixed forms such as → newspapers or → books. Distribution systems can be thought of as networks connecting senders and receivers, with structural limitations that can impact on what information can be sent, and to whom. It is the “channel” in Shannon and Weaver's information theory model (1963; → Models of Communication; Communication Networks). While the concept of distributing information can be broadly applied, the characteristics and economics of distribution are of particular importance to mass communication, where the economic and technological features of distribution systems influence the definition of media and their markets (→ Markets of the Media). Media can be defined and differentiated, in fact, as specific distribution technologies for information. Media markets can be defined in part by the reach and scope of a particular distribution system for a media good or service. And the viability and function of media and markets depend on the economics of particular distribution systems.
Diversity in the Workplace
Authors: Allen Brenda J. 
Published: September 2017

Diversity has become an important topic in workplaces around the world, as nations experience changes in demographics. Many countries are adjusting to increases in numbers of nontraditional workers, especially women, older persons, and people with disabilities. Meanwhile, due to global economics, industrialized areas are witnessing influxes of skilled and unskilled migrants seeking employment (→ Migration and Immigration) (Cheney & Barnett 2005). Also, multinational corporations are setting up subsidiaries in foreign locations, where local workers interact with co‐workers and executives from the companies' headquarters (→ Communication Networks; Meeting Technologies; Network Organizations through Communication Technology; Technology and Globalization). Thus, people from diverse places with diverse expertise, experience, and expectations are encountering one another at work, where they confront differences in value systems, language skills, and communication styles. As organizations accommodate these workers, they also must serve diverse clientele/consumers in various cultural and geographic contexts.
Emotion and Discourse
Authors: Bloch Charlotte 
Published: September 2017

Human emotionality is an ongoing stream that pervades every aspect of social life, talk, conversation, and discourse. Emotions are appraisals of situations; they have somatic bodily characteristics and their expressions can take nonverbal forms (facial, vocal, posture; → emotion). Theoretical approaches to the emotional dimensions of discourse are found within three traditions of research: psychology of emotions, sociology of emotions, and psycho‐ and socio‐linguistics. Although Charles Darwin's pioneering work in this field emphasized that different emotions are expressed in particular ways on a vocal level as well as a facial level, the vocal level has been rather ignored, both in classical psychological works (Tomkins 1963) and in the later development of this field. The same tendency has characterized the development of psycholinguistic research.
Emotional Arousal Theory
Authors: Zillmann Dolf 
Published: September 2017

Arousal is commonly construed as the experience of restlessness, excitation, and agitation. It manifests itself in heightened overt and covert bodily activities that create a readiness for action (→ Physical Effects of Media Content). Acute states of such arousal characterize all vital emotions, and the subjective experience of these acute states is part and parcel of all strong feelings. Emotional arousal is consequently seen as an essential component of such experiences as pleasure and displeasure, sadness and happiness, love and hate, despair and elation, gaiety and dejection, rage and exultation, exhilaration and grief, frustration and triumph, merriment and fear, anger and joy, and so on (→ emotion).
Entertainment Education
Authors: Cody Michael J. , Sabido Miguel 
Published: September 2017

Entertainment education is defined as the “process of purposely designing and implementing a media message to both entertain and educate, in order to increase audience members' knowledge about an educational issue, create favorable attitudes, shift social norms, and change over behavior” (Singhal & Rogers 2004, 5). Parables, fables, and morality plays have been used for centuries not only to entertain but also to transmit knowledge of history, culture, values, and life lessons. Modern entertainment education includes designing a campaign strategy that incorporates radio and television dramas, talk programs, comedies, music, → animation, participatory theatre, interactive websites, and → video games, largely to promote health and social issues (Singhal et al. 2004; → Drama in Media Content; Broadcast Talk; Situation Comedies).