bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
American-Mexican Boundary Disputes and Co-operation
Authors: Handl Günther 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The first Mexican–United States boundary had its origin in the 1819 Treaty of Amity, Settlement, and Limits Between the United States of America and His Catholic Majesty (‘Adams-Onís Treaty’ ‘Florida Purchase Treaty’) by which Spain ceded Florida and confirmed Louisiana as a US territory in exchange for which the US recognized all lands west of Louisiana as Spanish possessions (→ Boundaries; → Land Boundaries). This line of demarcation became the new Mexico–US boundary upon Mexican independence in 1821, and was reconfirmed in the Treaty of Limits between the United States of America and the United Mexican States as running from the Gulf of Mexico along the Sabine, Red, and Arkansas Rivers to the 42nd parallel, and along that line to the Pacific Ocean. The boundary underwent a first major adjustment in the wake of civil unrest in the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. A combination of factors including abolition of the Mexican federalist constitution and Mexican authorities’ clamp-down on American immigration into the Texas portion of the state, which had been prompted by governmental concern over the creeping ‘Americanization’ of the territory, caused its inhabitants to take up arms in 1835 and declare the territory’s independence in May 1836.
Apartheid
Authors: Gebhard Julia 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The term ‘apartheid’ derives from the Afrikaans word for ‘apartness’ or ‘separateness’. Originally, it was used only to describe the distinctive South African system of racial segregation and classification along racial lines accompanied by a denial of basic → human rights and political rights to the black and so-called ‘coloured’ (mixed race) population of South Africa between 1948 and 1994. Throughout the years, however, and particularly after apartheid rule had ended in South Africa in 1994, the meaning of the term has broadened. Today, it is used as a synonym for any ‘racial segregation and discrimination policies enacted by a government against a section of its own people’ (de Than and Shorts 110; see also → Equality of Individuals; → Racial and Religious Discrimination).
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
Authors: Gao Xuan , Quayle Peter 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The idea to create a multilateral ‘Asian Investment Bank’ to help address the sizeable infrastructure development needs in the region dates to a 2005 study by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. However, the proposal did not develop further until referenced by the president of → China, Xi Jinping, during a meeting in Jakarta with the president of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, in October 2013.
Bandung Conference (1955)
Authors: Bennouna Mohamed 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
As early as 1953, Indonesia, the most populous of the Muslim countries, took the initiative of bringing the → peoples of Asia and Africa closer together. The idea was formulated for the first time in the → United Nations (UN) in New York by the Indonesian Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo following the signing of the Military Armistice in Korea and Temporary Supplemental Agreement of 27 July 1953, which brought to an end the → Korean War (1950–53) where Thai, Filipino and Ethiopian troops were fighting alongside the Americans against the Chinese (Queille 272). After introducing the idea in the UN, Prime Minister Sastroamidjojo took the opportunity of the Colombo Conference, a meeting of Asian countries held in April 1954, to obtain agreement amongst the five participants—Burma, Ceylon, India, Indonesia, and Pakistan—for his idea of convoking a conference of African and Asian nations that came to be known as the Afro-Asian Conference or simply the Bandung Conference.
Buraimi Oasis Dispute
Authors: Fox Hazel 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In the rolling sand dunes that form much of Abu Dhabi are sited two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation, Buraimi oasis and, situated 100 km to the south east, Liwa, an extensive oasis bordering on the Rub’ al Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. After being abandoned by the Wahabis (an extremist Saudi sect) in 1869, the territorial status of the Buraimi oasis was unclear. With the rush for oil concessions in the Gulf (→ Abu Dhabi Oil Arbitration; → Oil Concession Disputes, Arbitration on), Buraimi became actively disputed. In 1952 Saudi Arabia occupied Buraimi (→ Occupation, Belligerent).
Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
Authors: Byron Dennis , Malcolm Christopher 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Caribbean Community (‘CARICOM’) is a regional integration initiative which has full juridical personality (Art. 228 (1) Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas Establishing the Caribbean Community Including the Single Market and Economy; in the following, all article references are to this treaty). Each Member State is sovereign and shall, in its territory, accord to CARICOM the most extensive legal capacity accorded to legal persons under its laws. This includes the capacity to acquire property, and to sue and be sued in its own name (Art. 228 (2)).
Cavallo Case
Authors: Méndez Juan E , Bariffi Francisco J 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
On 24 August 2000, at Cancun International Airport, an Argentinean national named Ricardo Miguel Cavallo was arrested by Mexican police authorities. The detention was carried out without an arrest warrant at the request of the Mexican public prosecutor acting by virtue of Art. 16 Mexican Constitution, which allows the public prosecutor to detain a person for up to 48 hours without warrant when there is suspicion of the commission of a serious crime and well-founded expectation of a flight risk. Within the legal period of 48 hours the Mexican authorities received an arrest warrant issued by a Spanish judge (Baltazar Garzón, Juzgado de Instrucción No 5, Audiencia Nacional [‘AN’]; AN, Auto ordenando la prisión preventiva a los efectos extradicionales de 25 de Agosto de 2000) on the basis of the detainee’s alleged participation in the crime of → genocide, → terrorism, and torture committed in Argentina during the 1976–83 dictatorship (→ Torture, Prohibition of ).
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
Authors: Subedi Surya P 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (‘CSD’ ‘Commission’) is an intergovernmental body. It is the high-level forum for → sustainable development within the United Nations system. It was established in 1993 as a functional commission of the UN Economic and Social Council (‘ECOSOC’ ‘Council’) by UN ECOSOC Decision 1993/207. The functions of the Commission are set out in UN General Assembly Resolution 47/191 of 22 December 1992. The Commission was established primarily to review progress at the international, regional, and national levels in the implementation of recommendations and commitments contained in the final documents of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (‘UNCED’), namely the → Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (→ Stockholm Declaration [1972] and Rio Declaration [1992]).
Decolonization: French India
Authors: Trinidad Jamie 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
France’s territories in India consisted of five main settlements, sometimes referred to as ‘établissements’ or ‘comptoirs’ (Pondicherry, Karikal, Yanaon, Chandernagore and Mahé); a number of ‘loges’ (parcels of land that were the sites of French factories or trading posts); and the four small, uninhabited Iskitippah Islands, which had formed by → accretion in the 19th century in the boundary river between Yanaon and the Madras Presidency. The territories passed from French to Indian control in a series of events between 1947 and 1954. The events in question have received less attention than those leading to the decolonization of French territories in Indochina, Africa and the Middle East (see → Decolonization: French Territories).
Drago-Porter Convention (1907)
Authors: Benedek Wolfgang 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Drago-Porter Convention is a result of the Drago Doctrine, developed in the light of various instances of ‘gun-boat diplomacy’ carried out by European powers, in particular with regard to Latin American States unable or unwilling to honour their financial obligations (→ Debts). Thus, in reaction to the blockade and bombardment of Venezuelan ports by the → warships of Great Britain, Germany, and Italy in 1902–03, the Argentinian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Luís María Drago in 1902 instructed the Argentinian ambassador in Washington to seek United States (‘US’) support for a principle which later became known as the Drago Doctrine: ‘that the public debt can not occasion armed intervention nor even the actual occupation of the territory of American nations by a European power’ (Letter by Drago 4; → International Law, Regional Developments: Latin America; → Intervention, Prohibition of).
Equator Principles
Authors: González Napolitano Silvina S 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Equator Principles: A Financial Industry Benchmark for Determining, Assessing and Managing Environmental and Social Risk in Projects (‘The Equator Principles’) are a set of voluntary guidelines adopted in 2003 by a group of leading private banks and financial institutions (→ Corporations in International Law) in order to ensure that new significant projects financed or advised by them are developed in a socially and environmentally responsible manner. The principles respond to the need, claimed for years by non-governmental organizations (‘NGOs’ → Environment, Role of Non-Governmental Organizations), for more responsible financing behaviour from banks and financial institutions.
Group of 77 (G77)
Authors: Khan Rahmatullah 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Group of 77 (G77) came into being on 15 June 1964 when, at the end of the first session of the → United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Geneva, 77 → developing countries issued a joint declaration (Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Developing Countries Made at the Conclusion of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) which was spelt out three years later as the Charter of Algiers at the first ministerial meeting. A permanent institutional structure gradually emerged from the two constituent instruments and a network of Chapters of the Group of 77 with Liaison offices in Geneva (UNCTAD), Nairobi (→ United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]), Paris (→ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]), Rome (→ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO] and → International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD]), Vienna (→ United Nations Industrial Development Organization [UNIDO]), and the → World Bank Group in Washington DC (→ International Monetary Fund [IMF] and World Bank).
International Law, Regional Developments: East Asia
Authors: Hamamoto Shotaro 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
There is apparently no single correct definition of ‘East Asia’. It is generally considered to be composed at least of today’s China, North and South Korea, and Japan and the present entry follows this general understanding. However, it refers, when necessary, also to Vietnam, which historians tend to include in East Asia for its tight relationship with successive Chinese dynasties, as well as to Mongolia, which played too important a role to be entirely ignored when one considers the history of the law applied in inter-State relations in the region surrounding China. Historians generally agree that the framework of ‘East Asia’ is broadly valid to understand the historical developments of Korea and Japan as well as the relationship between China, Korea, and Japan. They are, however, sceptical about its usefulness for the purpose of analysing the historical developments of China because China’s relationship with its northern and western neighbours cannot be explained by the logic that applied in ‘East Asia’.
Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua Case
Authors: Grossman Claudio M 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua was a landmark decision in the jurisprudence of the Inter-American system for the protection of → human rights. It was also the first time that an international tribunal recognized the existence of communal rights to land for indigenous populations within the human right to property, laid down in several international treaties and conventions (→ Group Rights; → Indigenous Peoples; → Property, Right to, International Protection). This section addresses the factual background of the case, an analysis of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ decision and an assessment of the impact of this case on human rights law worldwide (→ Inter-American Court of Human Rights [IACtHR]).
Overseas Territories, Australia, France, Netherlands, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States of America
Authors: Novak Gregor 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In the absence of a generally accepted definition of the term ‘overseas territories’ in international legal practice, it is useful to proceed from a broad construction of the term which includes all territories that in some way are politically dependent on a relatively distant metropolitan → State and were or are significant, as such, from the perspective of international law. The notion of a ‘metropolitan’ State and its politically dependent ‘polis’ is, at least etymologically, derived from the ancient Greek designation for a mother State or parent city of a Greek colony (see Bederman 35; see generally → History of International Law, Ancient Times to 1648).
Tinoco Concessions Arbitration
Authors: Hagedorn Cornelia 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The arbitrational ruling of 18 October 1924 deals with the validity of contracts entered into by a → de facto regime of Costa Rica between 1917 and 1919 (→ Arbitration). In 1917 the Costa Rican government was overthrown by Frederico Tinoco, the Secretary of War in that government. Tinoco assumed undisputed power, called an election, and established a new constitution. His government fell in September 1919, without having been recognized by some nations, including Great Britain (‘GB’) (→ Governments; → Non-Recognition; → Recognition). When Tinoco retired and left the country, the old constitution was restored.
Trendtex Trading Corporation v Central Bank of Nigeria Case
Authors: Ziegler Katja S 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Early in 1975, the Government of Nigeria concluded contracts to purchase extensive amounts of cement, to be delivered throughout the year, to satisfy the needs of a developing economy. Payment was done by letter of credit issued by the Central Bank of Nigeria, ie an undertaking to pay upon the receipt of title and transport of goods, independently of any circumstances in the sphere of the consignor. The volumes ordered were so large that the capacity of the port of Lagos was hopelessly exceeded. This led to a large backlog and long delays before ships could unload. In July 1975 a new military government took office. In order to reduce the quantities and spread delivery over time, it suspended the imports of cement and required special approval of delivery before the ships sailed, and additional confirmation of the letters of credit. Otherwise the Central Bank of Nigeria would not honour the letters of credit. The case arose out of two shipments consigned by Trendtex, a Swiss trading corporation, intended for the construction of military barracks, for which payment was refused.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT)
Authors: Wortmann Martin 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
UN-HABITAT is the United Nations Human Settlements Programme. The term ‘Habitat’ in this case refers to human habitation and may hence be slightly misleading. Its evolution could be divided into three phases beginning in the second half of the last century. In the first phase the → United Nations, after World War II, created programmes to help relieve the problems of human settlements and established first organizational structures—eg, a Centre for Housing, Building and Planning—with rather poor success due to the lack of financing. The second phase commenced when the UN held its first special world conference in Vancouver, Canada, from 31 May to 11 June 1976 titled ‘Habitat: United Nations Conference on Human Settlements’ (→ Conferences and Congresses, International).
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Authors: Bredel Ralf 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The origins of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (‘UNIDO’) can be traced to a series of studies on a programme of rapid industrialization of developing countries that the → United Nations (UN) Secretariat carried out during the early 1950s at the request of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (→ United Nations, Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC]). The latter had been stimulated by a resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1951, at its sixth session (→ United Nations, General Assembly). These studies culminated in a programme of work on industrialization and productivity prepared by the UN Secretary-General in 1956 and endorsed the next year by ECOSOC and the UN General Assembly (→ United Nations, Secretary-General).
World Food Programme (WFP)
Authors: Mechlem Kerstin 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The World Food Programme (‘WFP’) is the food aid arm of the → United Nations (UN) system (see also → Food, Right to, International Protection). In 1960, at a time of large agricultural surpluses, the UN General Assembly invited the → Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in a resolution on the provision of food surpluses to food-deficient peoples through the UN system (UNGA Res 1496 [XV] [27 October 1960]), to study the feasibility and acceptability of additional arrangements, including multilateral arrangements, to mobilize available surplus foodstuffs and distribute them to the parts of the world with the greatest need.
What shall we eat
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter examines how Conservatives tackled the problem of the UK’s future food supply, arguing that this was the primary concern for Conservatives regarding post-war reconstruction. The chapter begins by detailing the depths of UK dependence on food imports. Arguing that the prospect of a hungry world offered Conservatives the chance to reimagine Britain’s political economy, it then explores the different visions for Britain’s economic and trading future put forward by Conservatives during the war. These were: a return to a perceived Victorian era of free trade and laissez-faire, an organic back-to-the-land vision of self-sufficiency and aristocratic revival, a corporatist economy centred around manufacturing, and imperial self-sufficiency. The chapter concludes by examining official Conservative and Labour food policy. It suggests that a ‘consensus of silence’ hung over both parties about the reality of the UK’s food position.
Tort and Insurance as Private Law
Authors: Steele Jenny , Arvind TT 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the role of insurance concerns within tort reasoning. It argues for moving away from the view of insurance as loss-spreading, and suggests instead that insurance should be seen in the light of the role it plays in facilitating cooperative relationships. Insurance deals with risk by removing it from the transaction and transferring responsibility for it to a third party. Focusing on ideas of responsibility without considering the context of insurance therefore runs the risk of disrupting voluntary arrangements and unsettling the parties’ allocation of risks. Seen in this light, insurance is an essential market mechanism which is closely connected to tort law, and which ought to be part of the broader contextual picture brought to bear when analysing tort law.
The Real Gist of Negligence
Authors: McBride Nicholas J 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the idea that damage is the ‘gist of negligence’, distinguishing between two different senses of that phrase: (1) a claimant has to show they have suffered damage in order to claim that they are the victim of the tort of negligence, and (2) a claimant has to show that they have suffered damage in order to bring an action in negligence against a defendant. It is argued in this chapter that (1) is untrue, and that while (2) is obviously true, there are occasions when the law would do better to dispense with this requirement as a precondition of allowing a claimant to sue in negligence.
What is ‘Reasonable Foreseeability’?
Authors: Bagshaw Roderick 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In English tort law the concept of ‘reasonable foreseeability’ plays established roles in seeding duties, setting standards of care, and limiting liability for ‘remote’ types of damage. This chapter investigates some of the practical challenges raised by asking whether damage to a claimant—or a particular degree of damage—is ‘reasonably foreseeable’, with the ultimate goal of illuminating whether ‘reasonable foreseeability’ is a ‘question of fact’, or a designed concept, reflecting judicial choices about matters such as the appropriate allocation of accident costs associated with innovation, or a doctrine that, regrettably, incorporates under-analysed normative judgements. The investigation considers challenging cases, such as those where there has been scientific progress since an accident and those where knowledge of risks was not evenly distributed between potential defendants. The conclusion reached is that judicial decisions about ‘reasonable foreseeability’ frequently depend on non-transparent normative assessments. The chapter ends, however, with the tentative suggestion that it may be necessary for a practical legal system to tolerate such assessments.
Polarization and Contestation of the Liberal Script in US Politics
Authors: Garner Andrew 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter casts a wide gaze at the major factors driving the increased polarization in American politics and how that polarization has contributed to challenges of the liberal script. Polarization of the public is the result of a restructuring of American society combined with changes in the strength and nature of partisan loyalties, fueled by a changing media landscape. Polarization of elites is due to an interweaving of mass polarization with institutional factors such as primary elections and redistricting that create perverse incentives for politicians to take more extreme positions, engage in increasingly extreme rhetoric, and adopt uncompromising, combative tactics. These two processes—mass polarization and elite polarization—interact in a vicious cycle that feeds one another. This vicious cycle of mutually reinforcing polarization is driving many of the recent contestations of the liberal script where political elites are incentivized to erode democratic norms and other antidemocratic behaviors.