bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Child Protection, Media Regulations for
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn C. 
Published: September 2017

In democratic societies, the fundamental, core principle of freedom of speech must often be balanced with the need to protect children from harm. This issue has dominated the public debate over children and the media throughout the twentieth century, often moving to the forefront during the entry of a new medium, when parental anxieties are particularly high (→ Media Use and Child Development). Since the earliest days of television and continuing into the digital age, parents' groups, health professionals, and educators have organized numerous campaigns to protect young people from various kinds of harmful media content, often calling on the government to enact safeguards (→ Violence as Media Content, Effects on Children of).
Cinematography
Authors: Keating Patrick 
Published: September 2017

Cinematography is the technique of photographing motion pictures. The art of cinematography involves working with three distinct sets of tools: the camera, the film, and the lighting. We can make useful distinctions among cinematography,
mise en scène
, and editing. Whereas mise en scène involves the arrangement of details in front of the camera, cinematography involves the act of capturing this arrangement on film (→ Film Production). The result of this process is a set of shots that can be cut together in the process of editing. Although these distinctions are not always clear‐cut, cinematography is one of the major components of a film's visual style, playing a powerful role in shaping the spectator's experience of cinematic time and space.
Climate of Opinion
Authors: Jeffres Leo W. 
Published: September 2017

Like many concepts in the social sciences, the “climate of opinion” is a metaphor borrowed from the physical world to describe a phenomenon that is not only important to the general public and policymakers but also to major mass communication theories. The
climate of opinion
refers to the “perceived popularity” of opinions (Sutherland & Galloway 1981). Political communication scholars often differentiate between → public opinion and popular opinion, between organized community on the one hand and mass or crowd on the other, between opinions based on consensus and unifying tradition and aggregated views of the moment. Policymakers generally respond to the former referents in each of these pairs, to public opinion, rather than to the latter, popular opinions, expressed in polls reported by the media (→ Polls and the Media; Public Opinion Polling; Survey). Scholars have examined how the climate of opinion affects → political discourse and the perceived freedom to talk (Wyatt et al. 2000).
Cluster Analysis
Authors: Emmer Martin 
Published: September 2017

Cluster analysis is a collective term for a broad variety of statistical methods and procedures which share the purpose of reducing the complexity of large collections of elements by arranging these objects into groups. Clustering procedures try to identify homogeneous groups (clusters) of entities within an empirical data set by comparing their attributes. The elements being clustered are predominantly the objects (cases, arranged in rows of a common data matrix) of an observation, but nothing stands against clustering the variables (columns in a data matrix) likewise. Thus cluster analysis is closely related to methods of → factor analysis.
CNN
Authors: Volkmer Ingrid 
Published: September 2017

Cable News Network (CNN) has become an icon of the globalized news world (→ news; Television News). CNN's rise as one of the most prominent global news organizations is based on a successful strategic integration of three key spheres of → journalism: (1) an innovative approach to internationalization (→ International News Reporting); (2) the invention of unique presentation styles, such as “breaking news”; and (3) a continuous implementation of state‐of‐the‐art technologies in order to reach clearly defined target audience segments (→ News Production and Technology).
Code
Authors: Craig Robert L. 
Published: September 2017

A code is a term in → semiotics that designates a set of related signs or signifying practices that correspond to a system of → meaning. While each → Sign has a unique signifier, what is signified is generally understood as a marker of difference within a larger group of signs. For instance, the number sign “2” has no meaning without the number system as a whole; when listeners hear the word “2,” they inherently understand that it represents a specific quantity different from 3, 4, and 5, etc., which were not uttered by the speaker (→ Sign Systems). Likewise, together color names comprise a code that corresponds to the color spectrum; “red” is meaningful as a sign because it is not green or blue. Morse code is a set system of dots and dashes that correspond to the alphabet. Knowing the whole code allows an encoder and decoder to communicate by selecting configurations from the code.
Coding
Authors: Rössler Patrick 
Published: September 2017

The term “coding” has different meanings in empirical research. Generally speaking, coding becomes relevant whenever data at hand are unstructured, and coding then provides a structure for a systematic analysis of these data. In quantitative research using standardized instruments, coding is the process of tagging data about a given unit of analysis, in order to assign these units to a category (→ Quantitative Methodology). Usually, these categories correspond to numbers that allow the information to be processed by statistical software.
Cognition
Authors: Shedletsky Lenny 
Published: September 2017

Cognitionrefers to (1) the wide variety of mental entities we locate within the mind, including thoughts, → meanings, ideas, → attitudes, knowledge, beliefs, perceptions, intentions, memories, images, dreams, states of mind, consciousness and subconsciousness, and (2) the operations of the mind, such as association, search, comparison, → attention, and inference. Cognition is thinking.
Commodification of the Media
Authors: Murdock Graham 
Published: September 2017

All the goods and services used in everyday life possess intrinsic qualities that meet human wants, and even those that cater to basic needs, like hunger, may also satisfy a desire for beauty or a wish to communicate. Food is more enjoyable if made with love or artistically presented and served with style. These material and aesthetic qualities, as defined by social convention, constitute a good's value to its users: its use value. At the same time, in modern capitalist economies, goods also have a value in the marketplace: an exchange value. When a good is produced with the express aim of selling it at a price, it becomes a “commodity.” In order to expand, capitalism required all goods to be converted into commodities. Analyzing this process of commodification and its impact on the diversity and availability of cultural goods is central to the account of media systems in industrialized, market‐economy countries from the perspective of political economy (→ Political Economy of the Media).
Communibiology
Authors: Beatty Michael J. 
Published: September 2017

An important and enduring question for communication science concerns why people interact in the ways they do. This issue has been simplistically framed as a “nature–nurture” question although the process is substantially more complex than can be captured by a dichotomous metric. Until the early 1970s, genetic inheritance played a central role in accounts of psychological development. Critics, however, argued that the correlations in the 0.50 region between identical twins' personality scores indicated that no more than 25 percent of the variance in personality was attributable to genetic inheritance (→ Correlation Analysis; Regression Analysis).
Communication as an Academic Field: Middle East, Israel
Authors: Adoni Hanna , First Anat 
Published: September 2017

The
institutionalization
of communication as an academic field in Israel began with the establishment of the Communication Institute of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. From 1966 when founded by → Elihu Katz, and through the 1990s, the Communication Institute acted as a sole academic authority, a conceptual model, and a source of faculty recruitment for communication departments in the other Israeli institutions of higher education. Today, 18 academic programs in communication operate in Israel, offering various academic degrees. The basic orientation of these programs is theoretical; yet, the professional practicum, taught by senior Israeli journalists, forms an integral part of the curriculum. About 200 practicing communication scholars are members of the Israel Communication Association (ISCA) founded in the mid‐1990s. Most of them are also members of the ICA, IAMCR, and other professional organizations.
Communication as an Academic Field: Western Europe
Authors: McQuail Denis 
Published: September 2017

Communications and media as a field of research in Europe scarcely predates World War II and, with minor exceptions, did not develop as a full program of study until the last quarter of the twentieth century. The main exception was Germany, where a press science (Zeitungswissenschaft) was quite well established in some German universities before the war and was later restored under the name ofPublizistik(→ Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968).
Communication Evaluation Research
Authors: Bertrand Jane T. 
Published: September 2017

This entry addresses research that evaluates communication programs designed to bring about change in individual behavior and social norms. These programs or campaigns may focus on health, agriculture, environment, water and sanitation, democracy and governance, gender equity, human rights, and related areas. They
can be referred to by
different labels: → strategic communication, behavior change communication, information‐education communication, communication for social change, and → development communication, among others (→ Health Campaigns for Development). Communication evaluation research serves both to guide the design of such programs and to determine their effectiveness in achieving their objectives (→ Communication and Social Change: Research Methods). The myriad of communication forms used in such programs generally fall into three categories: mass media, community mobilization, and interpersonal communication/counseling (IPC/C).
Communication Inequality
Authors: Ramanadhan Shoba , Viswanath K. 
Published: September 2017

Communication inequality refers to differences in the generation, manipulation, and distribution of → Information among social groups, as well as differences in: (1) access to and use of information channels, (2) attention to media content, (3) recall, knowledge, and comprehension, and (4) capacity to act on relevant information among individuals (Viswanath 2006). The intellectual origins of the communication inequality theory can be traced to the knowledge gap hypothesis by Tichenor et al. (1970), an early formalization of inequalities in communication research (→ Knowledge Gap Effects). According to this hypothesis, benefits from information flows on a given topic are more likely to be accrued by people of higher socio‐economic status compared to people of lower socio‐economic status, thus widening the existing gaps rather than narrowing them, drawing attention to the unequal media effects. Subsequently, the term → “digital divide” made its way through both scholarly and popular literatures, drawing attention to the unequal access to the → Internet among different social groups. Viswanath expanded on these formulations of access to one medium (the Internet) and → Media Effects on knowledge to incorporate the thesis of inequalities across the communication continuum as well as across information delivery systems (Viswanath 2005, 2006). In its current formulation, the communication inequality thesis draws attention to disparities across the communication continuum, starting with access to learning, and the consequences of the disparities. Moreover, it argues that the inequalities may manifest at both individual and group levels.
Communication Research and Politics
Authors: Nordenstreng Kaarle 
Published: September 2017

Communication research is intimately related to politics, especially if politics is understood widely as the deliberate management of society. Research on media and other aspects of communication such as election campaigns has typically been inspired and financed by political motives (→ Election Campaign Communication). On the other hand, research has influenced politics by producing concepts and findings about how communication really works in society. Historically, the origins of communication research are deeply rooted in politics, beginning with the rhetoric of antiquity (→ Rhetoric and Politics; Rhetorical Studies) and ending with studies around each new medium – the press in the seventeenth century, film in the early twentieth century, → Radio and → Television in the mid‐twentieth century, and the → Internet toward the new millennium (→ Media History). Histories of the field leave no doubt that each school of thought was founded as a consequence of a more or less direct political call of the day (Hardt 2001; Pietilä 2005; → Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968). It is less obvious what has been the opposite direction of influence – whether research has had a notable impact on politics.
Comparative Research
Authors: Wirth Werner , Kolb Steffen 
Published: September 2017

A specific comparative research methodology is known in most social sciences. Its definition often refers to countries and cultures at the same time, because cultural differences
between
countries can be rather small (e.g., in Scandinavian countries), whereas very different cultural or ethnic groups may live
within
one country (e.g., minorities in the United States). Comparative studies have their problems on every level of research, i.e., from theory to types of research questions, → operationalization, instruments, sampling, and interpretation of results (→ Sampling, Random; Sampling, Nonrandom).
Computer Games and Child Development
Authors: Sherry John L. , Bowman Nicholas David 
Published: September 2017

Video games are a prevalent and profitable facet of the modern media entertainment industry (→ Video Games). Although children (anyone under the age of 18) comprise only 31 percent of the $10 billion US video game market, their numbers are increasing. Whereas in the 1990s, only 60 percent of middle‐school‐aged children reported playing video games on a consistent basis, a 2001 study by the National Institute on Media and the Family reported over 92 percent of US children played video games, an increase of over 30 percent. Worldwide, the video game industry is expected to grow to over $46.5 billion by the year 2010, with a growing portion of this market comprised of children.
Content Analysis, Qualitative
Authors: Scheufele Bertram 
Published: September 2017

Like quantitative content analysis, qualitative content analysis is an empirical method of social sciences for analyzing live or recorded human communication such as → Newspaper articles, protocols of → television news or programs, transcripts of → interviews, or protocols from → observations (→ Content Analysis, Quantitative). This written or transcribed material is called text material in this context (→ Text and Intertextuality). From a general perspective, there are two main differences between quantitative and qualitative content analysis. First, quantitative content analysis works deductively and measures quantitatively. In this respect, quantitative content analysis decomposes the text material into different parts and assigns numeric codes to these elements or parts. Of course, such parts are not just words, but are rather issues, statements, arguments, or bundles of → meaning. By contrast, however, qualitative content analysis works inductively by summarizing and classifying elements or parts of the text material and assigning labels or categories to them. In this respect, qualitative content analysis searches rather for “coherent” meaning structures in the text material.
Copy Test and Starch Test
Authors: Schulz Rüdiger 
Published: September 2017

The term “copy test” refers to a group of different test methods designed to measure the usage of adverts or editorials in the print media. During the course of an interview, readers who state that they have read the test issue of a → magazine or → Newspaper are shown an original copy of the issue in question. The interviewer then goes through this copy with the respondent page by page, asking questions about all, or certain, selected adverts or editorials to establish whether each one was “read in full,” “only glanced at” or “paid no attention at all” (→ Readership Research; Test Theory).
Credibility of Content
Authors: Rouner Donna 
Published: September 2017

Credibility of messages, studied in the communication, psychology, sociology, political science, and other literatures, is generally defined as a collection of attributes of messages that make the message content or their senders valued relative to the information imparted. The attributes generally refer to either the sources of the messages' content or the authenticity of their meaning. Perceived source or message credibility, then, is generally defined as a message recipient's recognition and holding of evaluative information about these messages and their sources (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Crisis Communication
Authors: Coombs W. Timothy 
Published: September 2017

The topic of crisis communication has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers in → public relations, → corporate communication, → marketing, and management. The ever‐growing body of research is both a blessing and a curse. There is a large amount of information, which is good. However, the insights are scattered throughout a myriad of books and journals, making it difficult for crisis managers to uncover. In addition, there are some serious shortcomings in the literature.
Cultural Appropriation
Authors: Bredin Marian 
Published: September 2017

Cultural appropriation describes the use and exploitation by a majority or dominant group, of cultural knowledge or expressions originally produced by a minority or dominated group. It is applied to media and popular communication when ideas, images, sounds, and narratives produced by one group are appropriated for personal, professional, or commercial gain by members of a more powerful social group. Linked to colonial histories, racist discourses, and disparate access to power and resources, cultural appropriation can occur within and across specific national communities and within a range of popular communication practices (→ Communication Inequality).
Creative Facility
Authors: Greene John O. 
Published: September 2017

Creative facility concerns individual differences in the capacity for fluent production of unique, appropriate verbalizations. That is, there are people who seem particularly adept at coming up with novel spoken responses – people who are said to be “quick witted” or “glib;” who have a “snappy comeback,” or can “think on their feet.” This individual‐difference variable is thought to be at least somewhat temporally stable and cross‐situational (although certainly there are various factors that impact its manifestation in particular circumstances; → Individual Differences and Information Processing; Information Processing).
Deceptive Message Production
Authors: Burgoon Judee K. , Hamel Lauren M. 
Published: September 2017

Deceit is part and parcel of daily life. It not only frequents news headlines in conjunction with political chicanery, corporate scandals, campus cheating, telemarketing scams, identity theft, online predators, and terrorist plots but also permeates the fabric of everyday conversation (→ Deception in Discourse). People who complete diaries of their communication report 20 to 33 percent of their interactions include some form of deceit and they average two lies per day (DePaulo et al. 1996; Hancock et al. 2004). Biologically, deception is regarded as adaptive, as a part of natural selection that improves chances of survival for animals that are most successful at it. Thus, deceit is not limited to humans. Other species have developed very sophisticated forms of deception ranging from camouflage and mimicry to misdirection, bluffing, and hiding of resources.
Delivery and Rhetoric
Authors: Onsberg Merete 
Published: September 2017

As rhetoric originally was closely tied to the oral presentation of a speech, delivery, understood as the best management of voice and body, was naturally of interest to the art. Thus, in the traditional rhetorical system, the so‐called rhetorical
canon
, delivery made up the fifth and last part (Greek
hypokrisis
, Latin
actio
or
pronuntiatio
) (→ Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman).
Desensitization
Authors: Rudy Rena M. , Linz Daniel G. 
Published: September 2017

Media desensitization is a reduction in emotional, physiological, cognitive, and/or behavioral reactivity resulting from extensive media exposure. Communication researchers have primarily used the term “desensitization” to label the effects of repeated media violence exposure on violence tolerance, meaning both a decrease in empathy and concern and also an increase in callousness toward victims of violence (→ Violence as Media Content, Effects of; Violence as Media Content, Effects on Children of).
Development Discourse
Authors: Chae Young‐Gil 
Published: September 2017

Development discourse refers to the process of articulating knowledge and power through which particular concepts, theories, and practices for social change are created and reproduced (Escobar 1995; 1999; 2000; Crush 1996). Historically, the approach to development in terms of discourse has evolved out of debates on → modernization and Marxist dependency theory rooted in social evolutionism (→ Dependency Theories). Departing from the linear models of social progress, this approach to development seeks to articulate the processes and meanings of more nuanced social control and challenges. Epistemological premises are grounded in poststructuralist concepts asserting language and discourse of development as systematically organizing power through the subjectivity of social actors and their actions (→ Power and Discourse).
Digital Imagery
Authors: Messaris Paul 
Published: September 2017

Two distinct processes can give rise to digital images. On the one hand, they can be created entirely by computer, as → animations or as single computer‐generated images. On the other hand, they can be produced photographically, through digital cameras and camcorders, or through the digital scanning of photographs originally recorded on celluloid (→ Photography). When a real visual scene is photographed digitally, the scene's pattern of light and color is translated into a rectangular grid of pictorial elements, known as pixels. Variations in brightness or color from one pixel to another are recorded in terms of discrete, fixed units – hence, “digitally” – instead of the continuous gradations employed by analog media.
Direct‐to‐Consumer Advertising
Authors: Verhoef Peter C. , Hoekstra Janny C. 
Published: September 2017

Marketing communication is often equated with mass advertising using media such as television, radio, and print (→ Marketing; Advertising; Television; Radio). This is often referred to as above‐the‐line advertising. Besides these media, organizations can also use more directly targeted media, which include direct mail, telephone, email, etc. (→ Electronic Mail). This is referred to as below‐the‐line advertising or direct‐to‐consumer advertising. Remarkably, spending on below‐the‐line advertising more than doubles spending on above‐the‐line advertising in the US (V12 Group & Winterberry Group 2006). Moreover, below‐the‐line advertising spending has increased by 7.5 percent per year, while spending on above‐the‐line advertising increases at a lower rate of 5.5 percent per year. These figures emphasize the importance of below‐the‐line advertising.