bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Professionalization of Public Relations
Authors: Pieczka Magda 
Published: September 2017

The term “professionalization” refers to the way in which occupations become recognized as professions, usually explained by a range of factors related to the improvement of services offered and status enjoyed. The precise meaning of the term depends on the approach taken to defining the concept of “profession.” Three theoretical perspectives are in evidence in sociological literature: the functionalist approach, as articulated by Parsons (1954) and indebted to Durkheim, sees professions as key to maintaining social order; the critical approach, initiated in the 1970s (Freidson 1970, Johnson 1972), which views professions as centers of monopoly power and elitism; and the Foucauldian perspective, which defines the profession as characterized on the one hand by high status and power, and on the other hand by subjugation resulting from the exercise ofself‐discipline. Professionalization, therefore, can be understood respectively as: a process of improvement of services, knowledge, and standards; a process of social closure and exploitation of a monopoly position; and finally, a “soft” technology of control of expert labor (→ Professionalization of Journalism).
Psychology in Communication Processes
Authors: Bailenson Jeremy N. , Yee Nick 
Published: September 2017

Psychology is generally concerned with studying the mind, the brain, and human behavior. While popular media often focus on clinical psychology (the study and treatment of mental illness), there are many other forms of psychology, ranging from neuropsychology to cultural psychology to sports psychology. This entry largely focuses on experimental psychology, an overarching branch that includes all areas of psychology in which researchers manipulate variables in order to perform empirical tests of how people think and behave (→ Experimental Design). Examples of experimental psychology areas include cognitive, cultural, developmental, perceptual, and social psychology, all of which hold implications for communication research (→ Cognitive Science).
Public Access Television
Authors: Armstrong John S. 
Published: September 2017

Public access television – also known as community television or open channels (→ Community Media) – is a form of → television in which citizens produce programs and bypass corporations, governments, journalists, and other gatekeepers to transmit their programs directly to audiences (→ Access to the Media). Proponents of public access television promote it as a remedy to commercialism, centralization, and lack of diversity in television systems around the world (→ Commercialization of the Media; Plurality). As a systematic alternative to commercial or government‐supported television, public access television first emerged in Canada and the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Public access channels have since appeared in hundreds of communities in North America, Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, although public access outlets have never attracted audiences large enough to rival those of professional television systems.
Public Affairs
Authors: Heath Robert L. 
Published: September 2017

Public affairs is both a generic term for the trends and conditions that define and result from socio‐economic–socio‐political trends, and the corporate management function that works to position each organization comfortably and cooperatively in its non‐marketplace context. Focusing on the latter meaning, Madden (2005, 665) defined public affairs as “the management function responsible for interpreting an organization's external environment, or in the case of a corporation, its noncommercial environment, and managing an effective and appropriate response to that environment.” Its primary connection with society centers on governmental relations, the factors in the public policy (non‐marketplace) arena that can lead government to influence (support or oppose) management decisions and organizational operations and policies (→ Organizational Communication; Corporate Communication; Corporate Reputation; Organizational Image).
Public Broadcasting Systems
Authors: Bardoel Jo 
Published: September 2017

Public service broadcasting (PSB), according to McQuail (2005, 179), refers to “a system that is set up by law and generally financed by public funds (often a compulsory license fee paid by households) and given a large degree of editorial and operating independence.” Public service broadcasting is supposed to function independently of both the market and the state, and therefore differs from the alternative systems of commercial broadcasting on the one hand and authoritarian or state‐operated broadcasting on the other (→ Communication and Law; Media Policy; Radio Broadcasting, Regulation of; Television Broadcasting, Regulation of).
Public Diplomacy
Authors: Ociepka Beata 
Published: September 2017

The notion of public diplomacy has been used in international relations and in international communication studies since about the mid‐1960s. It originates from US foreign policy from the period of the Cold War. Public diplomacy is understood as a dialogical communication between governments and other actors on the stage of international relations via the mass communication media and non‐mediated channels of contact with the foreign countries' mass audience. The aim of public diplomacy is to create or reinforce a positive → Image of the country and its society, and by influencing → public opinion to shape positive attitudes toward the country, and in consequence to make the achievement of international policy goals easier.
Public Goods
Authors: Thompson Peter A. 
Published: September 2017

The idea of public goods has been subject to considerable debate and contestation. The term is generally used to classify products or services that are not diminished through usage and for which charges cannot be levied on individual consumption (e.g., street lighting). The concept of public goods is significant for media and communication scholars because it potentially applies to some forms of broadcasting and informational or audiovisual products and services. Such classifications also have implications for contemporary media policy debates concerning the regulation of communication technologies and the legitimate role of state intervention in market activities (→ Communication and Law; Media Policy).
Public Interest
Authors: Papathanassopoulos Stylianos 
Published: September 2017

As mass media play an increasing role in our societies by providing an arena of public debate and making politicians, policies, and relevant facts widely known, they are expected to follow certain rules of conduct. These rules and the normative media theories they draw upon typically imply presumptions as to the public interest the media should serve (McQuail 1992; 2005; → Journalism: Normative Theories). Presumptions about what is the public interest, directly or indirectly, determine the institutional set‐up of media systems, legal regulations, and media policy measures as well as journalistic codes of ethic and performance standards (→ Communication and Law; Ethics in Journalism; Ethics of Media Content; Media Performance; Media Policy).
Public Opinion
Authors: Glynn Carroll J. , Huge Michael E. 
Published: September 2017

Bearing the dubious distinction of being one of the oldest, yet least understood, concepts in social science,
public opinion
continues to inspire and perplex scholars from communication and other fields. The term can be adequately defined as a general measure of the directionality and strength of issue‐specific views and sentiments held by a relevant group. Public opinion bears a sort of syntactical internal contradiction: While “public” denotes the group and the universal, “opinion” on its own is typically associated with the individual and considered a somewhat internal, subjective formulation. The rise of survey research during the early twentieth century further complicated matters with a trend toward quantifying public opinion as a simple aggregation of individual survey responses (→ Survey; Public Opinion Polling). The rejection of such mathematical reductions – along with the suggestion that public opinion was in fact a group‐level social force iteratively constructed through interpersonal interaction and media use (→ Interpersonal Communication; Political Media Use; Media Use by Social Variable) – set the stage for a social science debate that has continued for well over 50 years.
Public Relations Field Dynamics
Authors: Szyszka Peter 
Published: September 2017

Systems theory reveals that organizations are integrated into their social environment by means of a network of relationships (→ Systems Theory). In part, this rationale of organizational success motivated Harlow, who used the term → “Public Relations” (PR) to describe the field of “all types of relations an organization has with its publics” (1957, xi; → Organization–Public Relationships). Systems theory and relationship analysis help explain why PR can be reciprocally activated: an organization and its reference groups observe, analyze, and rate each other regularly, particularly when it seems to be relevant because of expected risks and chances. On the organizational side, it is the task of PR activities to arrange these processes as communication management and to intervene communicatively if it seems to be necessary or expedient.
Public Sphere, Fragmentation of
Authors: Marcinkowski Frank 
Published: September 2017

The public sphere is defined as a network of all the communicative spaces within which public affairs are debated and a public opinion is formed (→ Public Sphere; Public Opinion). Such an infrastructure of political communication is crucial for democratic self‐government and the social integration of modern society. Both functions seem to be threatened if the public sphere decays into a multitude of arenas that are just loosely connected (if at all) and do not form a coherent space for deliberation (→ Deliberativeness in Political Communication; Political Discourse).
Publics: Situational Theory
Authors: Verčič Ana Tkalac 
Published: September 2017

During the past 40‐odd years, James E. Grunig's situational theory of communication behavior has been developed, changed, empirically tested, and adjusted through new research, with the purpose of defining the communication process and the behavior that results from it. Situational theory seeks to explain why people communicate and when it is most likely that they communicate. The theory also uses communicational behavior to partition the general → Public into smaller segments which are most likely to communicate about certain issues. Situational theory also predicts behavioral effects of communication (→ Media Effects), as well as attitudes that are most commonly connected to specific types of communication and types of public for which these consequences are most likely. Finally, the theory describes the process in which a certain, previously unconnected, group of people develops into an activist group that, with its → public opinion, influences the decisions of a certain organization (Grunig 1997).
Radical Media
Authors: Rodríguez Clemencia 
Published: September 2017

“Radical media” is a term used by communication scholars to refer to information and communication technologies used by radical media activists to bring about social change (→ Activist Media; Social Movements and Communication). In this sense, the word “radical” means the expression of ideas, opinions, and options to reorganize society that are not sanctioned by the established social order. British communication scholar John Downing coined the term in his volume
Radical media
, where he critiques the term “alternative media” as oxymoronic because “[e]verything, at some point, is alternative to something else” (1984, ix). For Downing, the designation radical media needs to be based on a careful historical examination of the medium's context, content, and consequences. Under certain cultural and political conditions, content that in other contexts would be deemed apolitical and inoffensive can yield tremendous social change when transmitted by radical media; thus, context determines the “radicalness” of the content in each case. Also, the medium's organization does not necessarily mean that the content is radical; each case has to be examined in order to establish if and to what extent the medium's content is in fact radical, depending on its potential to strengthen resistance politics and bring about social change.
Radio
Authors: Ferguson Douglas 
Published: September 2017

Radio is a media technology that permits one person or organization to communicate with many receivers over large distances via the electromagnetic spectrum and radiated electrons. Listening to radio is possible by modulating voice (→ Broadcast Talk) or music (→ Popular Music) onto a radio wave that transmits at a predetermined signal. A radio receiver is tuned to the modulated carrier wave broadcasting at that frequency and the radio circuitry amplifies the voice or music, after discarding the carrier frequency wave (→ Radio Technology; Information and Communication Technology, Development of).
Radio for Development
Authors: Huesca Robert 
Published: September 2017

Radio for development is the strategic use of this medium to effect social changes beneficial to a community, nation, or region. Within the study and practice of communication for national development and social change, → Radio has claimed a prominent place for a variety of reasons. As an aural medium, radio obviates the need for a literate audience, making it an attractive medium for states and agencies working with impoverished populations that lack access to schools or other forms of literacy training. In addition, radio is an inexpensive medium for its audience, and therefore enjoys a wide range of diffusion even among rural people with scant resources for material not directly related to their basic needs. Finally, radio is relatively inexpensive to produce and distribute, making it an attractive medium for donor agencies concerned with per capita costs for reaching underdeveloped audiences with pro‐social messages. Indeed, among all communication media (print, film, telephone, television, and new media), radio consistently enjoys the highest rates of diffusion and use in the developing world (→ Exposure to Radio).
Radio Networks
Authors: McDonald Daniel G. 
Published: September 2017

A traditional → radio network consists of a series of radio broadcasting stations connected in some way (typically by broadcast, landline, microwave, or satellite; → Radio Technology) so that each of the stations can carry the same programs or advertisements (→ Advertising). Often, the stations will carry the programs simultaneously, but under some circumstances (e.g., stations in differing time zones), a program or set of programs may be delayed for a given length of time. In both cases, the network serves to extend the audience beyond that which would have been available without the network. The linkage between stations may take the form of very different stations linked for the convenience of sharing particular content, or may take the form of one primary station linked to multiple “repeater” stations in which the repeater simply rebroadcasts whatever it receives from the primary station. More recently, with the advent of satellite channels and the → Internet, the radio network label has been applied to describe any audio service involving a large number of receivers, rather than stations, although it is questionable whether a system involving only one transmission device should be considered a network.
Radio News
Authors: Ferguson Douglas 
Published: September 2017

Timely information delivered over radio waves dates back to the earliest stations and before (→ Radio; Radio: Social History; news). Lee de Forest reported the election night results via radio in 1916 and the first licensed US station to report election returns was KDKA in 1920. By 1924, radio broadcasts became a major influence on → public opinion because they could report live events. Radio news in the UK first gained attention during the General Strike of 1926, which briefly halted newspaper publication.
Radio: Social History
Authors: Priestman Chris 
Published: September 2017

The introduction of → Radio broadcasting during the 1920s released a tide of social changes, which have profoundly affected every society in the world, changes that have subsequently been amplified by → Television and information and communication technology (→ Television: Social History; Information and Communication Technology, Development of). By the end of the twentieth century these electronic media had become so embedded in social, political, and economic processes that it is hard today to conceive of a world without their influence. Their defining characteristic as public media is that they provide systems for communicating simultaneously with large, geographically dispersed → audiences via pathways that are immediate and capable of delivering messages live: they abolish the delay between production and reception inherent in all earlier public media. Their combined effect has been greatly to accelerate the formation and shaping of cultural consciousness within societies (Hilmes 1997). They provide mechanisms of continuous reference and comparison by which individuals perceive their relationships beyond their immediate private sphere. The few social groups yet to be reached by radio have nevertheless felt the effects of communications‐driven political and economic change indirectly.
Readership Research
Authors: Schulz Rüdiger 
Published: September 2017

Readership research employs empirical methods to investigate print media usage, focusing mainly on → magazines and → Newspapers that appear periodically. Of primary importance in this context are readership analyses that ascertain findings on print‐media coverage (reach or cumulative audience) and readership structure (composition of readership to describe print‐media target groups). These methods are supplemented by reception analyses, which investigate reading habits in a more general sense.
Reasoned Action, Theory of
Authors: Fishbein Martin 
Published: September 2017

The theory of reasoned action (TRA) is a general theory of behavior that was first introduced in 1967 by Martin Fishbein, and was extended by Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (e.g., Fishbein & Ajzen 1975; Ajzen & Fishbein 1980). Developed largely in response to the repeated failure of traditional → attitude measures to predict specific behaviors, the theory began with the premise that the simplest and most efficient way to predict a given behavior was to ask a person whether he or she was or was not going to perform that behavior. Thus, according to the theory, performance or non‐performance of a given behavior is primarily determined by the strength of a person's intention to perform (or to not perform) that behavior, where intention is defined as the subjective likelihood that one will perform (or try to perform) the behavior in question (→ Attitude‐Behavior Consistency; Planned Behavior, Theory of).
Reciprocal Effects
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias 
Published: September 2017

Originally, the term “reciprocal effects” was used by Kurt Lang and Gladys Engel Lang (1953) to describe the behavior of people in front of TV cameras. Here it is used in a broader sense. It denotes all the effects of the mass media on actual and potential subjects of media coverage (→ Media Effects; Media Effects: Direct and Indirect Effects). Included are the effects of media coverage that mentions subjects personally or explicitly deals with individuals and topics closely related to them. Subjects are distinguished from bystanders who are not directly or indirectly addressed by media coverage. With respect to the time when reciprocal effects occur, anticipatory, immediate, and corrective reactions are distinguished.
Anticipatory reactions
intend to avoid or seek to bring about media coverage.
Immediate reactions
are instantaneous consequences of interactions between media people (reporters, camera men, etc.) and the protagonists of media reports.
Corrective reactions
are produced by existing news coverage. When we look at reciprocal effects, there is no given distinction between cause and effect, because every element can be seen as both cause and effect. For example, a report might be seen as an effect of a subject's prior behavior while also being the cause of his subsequent emotions. Thus, the traditionally linear model of media effects becomes a
feedback
model of media relations: the personality or behavior of subjects stimulates media reports that, in turn, directly influence the cognitions, appraisals, emotions, and behavior of subjects (→ Linear and Nonlinear Models of Causal Analysis).
Regression Analysis
Authors: Rubin Alan M. 
Published: September 2017

The essence of scientific research is explaining and predicting relationships among variables. Two or more variables co‐vary and are related if their values systematically correspond to each other. In other words, as one value increases or decreases, the other value consistently or systematically increases or decreases (→ Correlation Analysis). For example, researchers might observe the amount of Internet use increases from younger to older adolescence, leading them to expect a relationship between Internet use and age of adolescents.
Relational Dialectics
Authors: Baxter Leslie A. 
Published: September 2017

Relational dialectics is an interpretive theory of meaning‐making in familial and non‐kin relationships (→ Meaning). Formally articulated in 1996 by Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery, the theory is grounded in the philosophy of dialogism articulated by Russian language philosopher → Mikhail Bakhtin (→ Dialogic Perspectives). It relies primarily on qualitative methods with a goal of rendering a rich understanding of the meaning‐making process (→ Qualitative Methodology). Unlike many interpretive theories, however, relational dialectics theory (RDT) challenges interpretivism's focus on consensual, unified meanings, emphasizing instead the fragmented and contested nature of meaning‐making. Further, RDT moves from subjective sense‐making of individuals to focus on → Discourse. The theory can be summarized in
three core propositions
.
Relational Schemas
Authors: Koerner Ascan F. 
Published: September 2017

Schemas are defined as large‐scale cognitive structures representing general knowledge, often also described as subjective theories, about some object or concept (Smith 1998). Their main functions include aiding in the interpretation of external stimuli, directing attention to specific types of external information, and guiding the retrieval and judgment of information from memory. That is, schemas play a central role in information processing and how persons understand and act in their social worlds. It follows that relational schemas organize knowledge of relationships in long‐term memory and play an important role in the cognitive processes that precede, accompany, and follow interpersonal communication (→ Schemas, Knowledge Structures, and Social Interaction).
Rhetoric in East Asia: Korea
Authors: Park WooSoo 
Published: September 2017

The history of Korean rhetoric is the history of translation of and communication with its neighboring foreign cultures. From its early period of the Three Kingdoms to the later Yi dynasty, Korea sought its own ways of expression under the influence of Chinese culture. More recently, from the beginning of the twentieth century to its independence from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, the influence of Japanese culture was predominant (→ Rhetoric in East Asia: China and Japan). Since then, Korea has been strongly affected culturally by America (→ Rhetoric in North America: United States).