bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Eating and drinking in later life
Authors: Martin Finbarr C. , Abyad Abdulrazzak , Arai Hidenori , Arcand Marcel , Balubaid Hashim Hasan , Beattie B. Lynn , Berner Yitshal N. , Kaushik Rajeev Mohan , Marín Pedro Paulo , Ouchi Yasuyoshi , Ramadan Marwan , Taboada Paulina 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Food and drink are vital to life and have a special place in human culture: providing and receiving food has significance beyond sustaining body physiology. Sudden premature death is becoming less common and people experiencing a slow decline before death with frailty and/or dementia is more common. When patients develop swallowing difficulties and disinterest in food and drink, this presents challenges to healthcare workers and families. Should medically assisted (artificial) nutrition and hydration be started? Evidence suggests that it usually makes little or no impact on physical comfort or clinical outcomes but its emotional and cultural role may be great and ethical decision-making must take this into account. In the chapter we discuss various cultural, ethical, and legal perspectives on this situation and the judgements and practical decisions that arise, specifically focusing on those different standpoints from parts of the world where Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism are predominant.
Advance care planning for older people
Authors: De Vleminck Aline , Deliens Luc 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
It has been suggested that end-of-life care for older people is currently inadequately adapted to their needs. Engaging early in the exploration of their wishes and preferences is of particular importance in this population. Since communication can be difficult for patients at the end of life, especially for those suffering from cognitive deficiencies such as dementia, it is important to become aware of wishes or preferences regarding care in advance and engage in advance care planning (ACP). ACP discussions can play a major role in facilitating adaptation to illness realities by providing patients with information about diagnosis and prognosis, by leading to appropriate decision-making, by alleviating anxiety, and by improving quality of life throughout the trajectory of the illness. ACP initially began as a movement to establish advance directives (ADs), but we have seen a shift to more emphasis being put on the process of communication and interaction.
Empowerment of the ageing population: a contribution to active ageing
Authors: Voelcker Ina , Kalache Alexandre 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Empowerment is fundamental to release the potential generated by the longevity revolution and to actualize the concept of active ageing. It is a key component in the promotion and maintenance of health, the fostering of lifelong learning and social participation, as well as in the safeguarding of protection until the end of life. The definition of empowerment becomes more complex in the context of increasing numbers of the very old, with its frequent association with dementia and limited functional capacity. Active ageing highlights that ageing is a lifelong process firmly rooted in the ideas of health prevention and health promotion. Implicit to it, is the view that actions at both the personal and the public policy level are essential to optimize opportunities for people as they age.
Optimizing physical activity across the lifespan
Authors: Anton Stephen D. , Corbett Duane B. , Manini Todd M. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Regular engagement in exercise has been found to improve multiple aspects of physical and psychological health, yet the majority of adults do not exercise at levels recommended by current guidelines. Although physical exercise is the only intervention consistently demonstrated to attenuate functional decline among seniors, an even smaller percentage of older adults engage in regular physical activity. Regular engagement in physical activity across the lifespan is strongly encouraged, as adoption of physical activity at an early age has the potential to modify the trajectory of physical decline. In this chapter, we review the various factors that can affect long-term adherence to engagement in regular physical activity, as well as considerations for special clinical populations. Regardless of programme type, most individuals will need assistance in changing their lifestyle. Healthcare providers can play an important role in promoting healthy levels of physical activity through the use of empirically supported behavioural skills.
Nanosciences and the medicine of ageing
Authors: Podrebarac James , Edin Joel , Suuronen Erik J. , Alarcon Emilio I. , Griffith May 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Age-associated diseases are becoming more prevalent as the worldwide population is getting older. This chapter reviews the current developments in nanotechnology directed at combating the rise of diseases and ailments stemming from ageing. The major complications that are discussed are cancers, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegeneration. Medical strategies based on nanotechnology include nanostructures surfaces, nanoparticles, nanoelectronics, aptamers, and nanoscale functional polymeric coatings. With nanotechnological tools now at our disposal, novel solutions are being developed for compatibility of implants, regeneration of tissues, destruction of malignancies, and replacement of organs or tissues as well as for diagnostics. As new types of therapeutics and diagnostics are being developed, diverse disciplines meet; this chapter attempts to give a comprehensive overview of the field for both clinicians and researchers.
Pathogenesis of fungal disease
Authors: Odds Frank C. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The pathogenesis of fungal disease involves an interplay between fungal virulence factors and host immune responses. Most fungal pathogens are opportunists that preferentially invade hosts with immune defects, but the fact that relative pathogenicity varies between fungal species (and even between different strains within a species) is evidence that fungi have evolved multiple, different molecular virulence factors. Experiments in which genes encoding putative virulence attributes are specifically disrupted and the resulting mutants are tested for virulence in a range of vertebrate and invertebrate hosts have identified or confirmed many gene products as significant for the pathogenesis of various types of fungal disease. These include factors determining fungal shape in vivo, biofilm formation, and a plethora of surface components, including adhesins and hydrolytic enzymes. This chapter provides an overview of fungal virulence attributes.
Immunology of fungal disease
Authors: Dambuza Ivy M. , Wagener Jeanette , Brown Gordon D. , Gow Neil A.R. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Advances in modern medicine, such as organ transplantations and the appearance of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), have significantly increased the patient cohort at risk of developing chronic superficial and life-threatening invasive fungal infections. To tackle this major healthcare problem, there is an urgent need to understand immunity against fungal infections for the purposes of vaccine design or immune-mediated interventions. In this chapter, we give an overview of the components of the innate and adaptive immune system and how they contribute to host defence against fungi. The various cell types contributing to fungal recognition and the subsequent stimulation of phagocytosis, the activation of inflammatory and B- and T-cell responses, and fungal clearance are discussed using the major fungal pathogens as model systems.
Candida species
Authors: Hube Bernhard , Kurzai Oliver 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Most pathogenic Candida species are members of the microbiota, but also cause superficial or invasive infections. C. albicans is predominant, followed by C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, and C. tropicalis. C. albicans is polymorphic and grows as yeast, pseudohyphae, or hyphae. The cell wall has multiple functions in pathogenesis. Metabolism and nutrient up-take strategies facilitate growth in multiple niches within the host. Drug resistance is an intrinsic property of C. glabrata and C. krusei, but can be developed by C. albicans and other Candida species during antifungal therapy. Pathogenicity mechanisms include host cell attachment, invasion, and destructive activities; immune evasion; and biofilm production. A disbalanced microbiota and impaired immunity favour superficial infections, and disturbance of the mucosal barriers, together with compromised immunity, enables Candida to invade the human bloodstream and cause invasive infection. Even with antifungal therapy (e.g. azoles or echinocandins), disseminated candidiasis has a high mortality (40–50%).
Hyaline moulds
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth M. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Hyaline moulds are fungi that grow predominantly in a filamentous form with colourless hyphae. This is not a taxonomic grouping and encompasses many thousands of different fungal genera. However, there is a small subset of environmental saprobes or plant pathogenic moulds, currently comprising at least 75 species from 30 different genera, that are opportunistic human pathogens and have been implicated in invasive infections referred to as hyalohyphomycosis. In addition they may cause less invasive cutaneous, subcutaneous, mucous membrane, and corneal infections. This group of organisms includes Fusarium, Sarocladium, Paecilomyces, Purpureocillium, Scedosporium, Rasamsonia, and Scopulariopsis spp., and it is these that form the focus of this chapter. Aspects of taxonomy, cell biology, pathogenesis, epidemiology, incidence, risk factors, presentation, diagnosis, and treatment are discussed with particular reference to those features that are specific to hyaline moulds.
Fungal central nervous system infections
Authors: Bicanic Tihana , Harrison Thomas S. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Infections of the central nervous system (CNS) are amongst the most severe of all fungal infections. Cryptococcus neoformans is the commonest cause of adult meningitis in many countries with high HIV prevalence. C gattii is usually seen in the tropics in apparently immunocompetent patients. Meningitis is also caused by Candida in premature babies, and by the dimorphic fungi in endemic areas. CNS infections with Aspergillus, the mucormycetes, and less common moulds usually present as intracranial mass lesions in immunocompromised hosts. Early suspicion, prompt imaging, and appropriate samples for culture, histology, and antigen and molecular tests are all critical for early diagnosis. Organism-specific antifungal therapy relies largely on liposomal amphotericin B and voriconazole, with therapeutic drug monitoring for the latter. Amphotericin B plus flucytosine is recommended for cryptococcal meningitis. Management of underlying conditions is also critical. Targeted prophylaxis in highest risk groups and pre-emptive therapy for HIV-associated cryptococcosis hold promise for prevention and improved outcome.
Fungal toxin-mediated disease
Authors: Kibbler Christopher C. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
More than 300 mycotoxins have been described, and increasing numbers have been shown to cause disease in humans. They may cause organ failure, carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and immunosuppression, or have oestrogenic effects. Exposure may occur through ingestion of preformed toxin in contaminated foodstuffs, ingestion of toxic mushrooms, or inhalation of airborne toxins in damp environments This chapter discusses food-borne mycotoxin disease, mushroom poisoning, and the potential impact on health of environmental exposure to airborne mycotoxins. It is intended to provide a background and understanding of these conditions, about which there is a relative ignorance amongst healthcare professionals. However, their clinical management requires the expertise of mycologists and toxicologists to ensure an optimum outcome.
Serology of fungal disease
Authors: Barton Richard 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Examination of serum and other body fluids for the presence of antibodies to fungi, or the direct detection of the fungal antigens themselves, can play an important role in the diagnosis of fungal disease. Various methods have been applied, though currently the most commonly used is some form of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Antigen detection has become a standard method for diagnosing cryptococcosis and can play a key role in detecting aspergillosis, and to a lesser extent candidiasis, depending on the underlying disease. Antibody testing is routine for many fungal diseases, including coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and many forms of aspergillosis. Beta-D-glucan is a generic fungal antigen found in the cell walls of many fungi, and detection of BDG is a test which many find useful when screening the sera of at-risk patients. Increasingly, physicians and scientists are looking to serodiagnostic tests not only to diagnose, but also to monitor treatment outcomes.
Getting Underneath the Power of “Contact”: Revisiting the Fundamental Lever of Stigma as a Social Network Phenomenon
Authors: Pescosolido Bernice A. , Manago Bianca 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Physical conditions, such as body size, physical deformity, and deafness, elicit stigma, which has emotional, social, and health consequences. Researchers have consistently found that contact with a stigmatized individual can be one of the most powerful tools for dismantling this stigma. Specifically, the contact hypothesis argues that a lack of knowledge about stigmatized others makes it easier to stereotype and discriminate against them. Although the contact hypothesis has been supported in research, this chapter argues that network science offers relevant theory and research that may be instructive for further understanding and contextualizing the contact hypothesis. This chapter suggests that the structure and content of social networks affect stigmatizing attitudes and provide a theoretical basis to examine how individuals who are routinely in “contact” with stigmatized persons (e.g., family members, co-workers, and health professionals) may influence stigma. Finally, the chapter discusses the importance of these insights for anti-stigma campaigns.
Perceived Racial Discrimination and Health Behavior: Mediation and Moderation
Authors: Gibbons Frederick X. , Stock Michelle L. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Research has documented a strong link between perceived racial discrimination and various health outcomes among African Americans. These outcomes include health status and health-relevant behavior. This chapter focuses on the relation between the stress associated with perceived racial discrimination and health-risk behavior, primarily substance use and abuse. The chapter examines a variety of factors thought to mediate this relation, the two primary ones being negative affect and self-control. Research has shown that discrimination has an impact on both factors, and these in turn directly affect substance use. The chapter also examines several factors that have been shown to moderate the discrimination–health relationship. In addition, the chapter reviews research examining moderators that can be either risk-promoting or protective. Some research identifying individuals who appear to respond in a favorable or healthy manner to perceived discrimination is also reviewed. The chapter concludes with recommendations for future research.
Social Identity, Stigma, and Health
Authors: Jetten Jolanda , Haslam S. Alexander , Cruwys Tegan , Branscombe Nyla R. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This chapter argues that an understanding of social identity processes is critical to understand when and how stigma affects health. This chapter presents a social identity analysis of the relationship between stigma and health and starts from the premise that it is particularly difficult for individuals who belong to stigmatized groups to derive a positive identity from their social group memberships. However, when individuals turn to the stigmatized group, identify with it, and draw social support from others within it, their health will be buffered against some of the negative consequences of discrimination because group memberships—and the social identities that are derived from them—act as psychological resources. Perceptions of the broader sociostructural context that affect appraisals of discrimination and coping with stigma play an important role in determining whether the curing properties of group memberships are unlocked, turning the curse of belonging to a stigmatized group into a cure.
Physical Health Disparities and Stigma: Race, Sexual Orientation, and Body Weight
Authors: Dovidio John F. , Penner Louis A. , Calabrese Sarah K. , Pearl Rebecca L. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This chapter reviews evidence of stigma and differences in physical health between members of dominant social groups and select disadvantaged social groups (defined by race, sexual orientation, and weight) and considers the direct and indirect ways that stigma can contribute to these differences in health. The goal of this chapter is to provide a deeper understanding of the relationship between stigma and health disparities for members of these groups. It considers how enacted, anticipated, and internalized stigmas influence, to varying degrees, health and health disparities experienced by Blacks, sexual minorities, and people with overweight or obesity. The chapter concludes by suggesting promising future directions for research. The new insights provided by this theoretical understanding can lead to interventions that reduce stigma as well as help members of these (and other) stigmatized groups better cope with the stigma they confront in their lives and thus realize better psychological and physical health.
Stigma, Health, and Individual Differences
Authors: Mendoza-Denton Rodolfo , Leitner Jordan B. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This chapter discusses how within-group variability is as important a component to understanding the relationship between stigma and health outcomes as between-group variability. The chapter offers a framework that proposes that people’s expectations, beliefs, attitudes, goals, and self-regulatory competencies interact with one another, as well as with people’s cultural environment, to yield individual differences in response to perceived discrimination. The chapter reviews a set of individual difference constructs that have been shown to affect physical and psychological health-related outcomes. Throughout the chapter, we emphasize that individual differences can arise not only through differences in how much a given construct characterizes a person but also through differences in the relationships among the constructs themselves as well as differences in the environment. The broad goal is to reconcile individual variability with group-level differences.
Parenting as a Buffer That Deters Discrimination and Race-Related Stressors from “Getting Under the Skin”: Theories, Findings, and Future Directions
Authors: Barton Allen W. , Brody Gene H. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
In this chapter, the hypothesis is explored that parenting processes buffer children’s physical health from the deleterious effects of discrimination. First, the existing empirical literature is reviewed on the stress-buffering effects of parenting on children’s physical health outcomes, with respect to the stress of general childhood adversity and the specific stressor of discrimination. Next, theoretical approaches are considered that account for the capacity of parenting to buffer contextual stressors, including discrimination, from compromising mental and physical health outcomes. Particular emphasis is given to the putative mechanisms potentially responsible for protective-stabilizing effects. Then, a critique of the extant research and theory on this topic highlights particular qualifications and considerations for the research community. Finally, suggestions are offered for future research directions, including the use of randomized prevention trials to test hypotheses about the protective functions of parenting in preventing discrimination from “getting under the skin.”
Mental and Physical Health Consequences of the Stigma Associated with Mental Illnesses
Authors: Link Bruce G. , Phelan Jo C. , Sullivan Greer 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
People with mental illnesses experience physical illness and premature mortality at much higher rates compared to people without such illnesses. This chapter proposes that the stigma of mental illness comprises an important set of causes of this physical health disparity. It draws on classical and modified labeling theory from sociology for insights and propositions as to why mental illness stigma might affect physical health. The chapter proposes that the stigma of mental illness might affect not only the future experience of mental illness but also a broad range of physical illnesses, thereby contributing to the substantial physical health disparity that people with mental illnesses experience. The chapter develops a conceptual model that places at its center stigma processes including structural, interpersonal, social psychological, and internalized processes. Stigma processes at these levels induce stress and reduce resources, which in turn compromise physical health to produce large physical health disparities.
Neural and Cardiovascular Pathways from Stigma to Suboptimal Health
Authors: Derks Belle , Scheepers Daan 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This chapter reviews research from the emerging field of social neuroscience to examine the underlying mechanisms that explain why stigma and discrimination lead to suboptimal health outcomes. The review is structured around three pathways through which stigmatization has negative effects on physical health, and it discusses neural and cardiovascular processes associated with (1) the stress that being a target of discrimination elicits, (2) impaired self-regulation of health behavior among targets of discrimination, and (3) how intergroup dynamics during interactions between health care provider and patient can result in suboptimal health care for stigmatized individuals. The insights offered by the neuroscience perspective provide crucial information on how to interrupt the downward stigma–health spiral and can inform policy to reduce the impact of stigma and discrimination on the physical health of its targets.
Baptism
Authors: Wood Susan K. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This chapter surveys commonalities and divergences with regard to the theology and practice of baptism that are reflected in the World Council of Churches convergence document on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, and considers in particular the Anabaptist, Baptist, Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist, Orthodox, Quaker, and Reformed traditions. Major topics treated include: the role of faith with regard to baptism, interconnections between baptism, faith, and justification; the relationship between baptism and patterns of initiation in various traditions; and elements of the ancient catechumenate in contemporary rites. The chapter argues that in the expansive theology of baptism in the catechumenal tradition baptism is understood to be transformative and regenerative, eucharistic in orientation and meaning, eschatological in orientation, and ecclesial in context. The chapter finally summarizes the achievements of ecumenical dialogue and identifies remaining issues.