bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inhomogeneous fluids
Authors: Allen Michael P. , Tildesley Dominic J. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
In this chapter, the special techniques needed to simulate and calculate properties for inhomogeneous systems are presented. The estimation of surface properties, such as the interfacial tension, may be accomplished by a variety of methods, including the calculation of the stress tensor profiles, the change in the potential energy on scaling the surface area at constant volume, the observation of equilibrium capillary wave fluctuations, or direct free energy measurement by cleaving. The structure within the interface is also of interest, and ways of quantifying this are described. Practical issues such as system size, preparation of a two-phase system, and equilibration time, are discussed. Special application areas, such as liquid drops, fluid membranes, and liquid crystals, are described.
Surfing the Quantum World
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Surfing the Quantum World bridges the gap between in-depth textbooks and typical popular science books on quantum ideas and phenomena. Among its significant features is the description of a host of mind-bending phenomena, such as a quantum object being in two places at once or a certain minus sign being the most consequential in the universe. Much of its first part is historical, starting with the ancient Greeks and their concepts of light, and ending with the creation of quantum mechanics. The second part begins by applying quantum mechanics and its probability nature to a pedagogical system, the one-dimensional box, an analog of which is a musical-instrument string. This is followed by a gentle introduction to the fundamental principles of quantum theory, whose core concepts and symbolic representations are the foundation for most of the subsequent chapters. For instance, it is shown how quantum theory explains the properties of the hydrogen atom and, via quantum spin and Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, how it accounts for the structure of the periodic table. White dwarf and neutron stars are seen to be gigantic quantum objects, while the maximum height of mountains is shown to have a quantum basis. Among the many other topics considered are a variety of interference phenomena, those that display the wave properties of particles like electrons and photons, and even of large molecules. The book concludes with a wide-ranging discussion of interpretational and philosophic issues, introduced in Chapters 14 by entanglement and 15 by Schrödinger’s cat.
The Nature of Light
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 2 reviews answers to the question of what is light, starting with the ancient Greeks and ending in 1900 with the wave concept of Maxwell’s electrodynamics. For some ancient Greeks, light consisted of atoms emitted from surface of the object, whereas for others it was fire that either entered into or was emitted by eyes, although the latter possibility was effectively eliminated around the year 1000. Competing proposals well after then were that light is either a wave phenomenon or consists of particles, with Isaac Newton’s corpuscular (particle) theory prevailing by the end of the 1600s over the wave concept championed by Christiaan Huygens, who published the first estimate of the speed of light. In the early 1800s, Thomas Young’s two-slit experiment proved that light was a wave, a concept codified and firmly grounded through Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic waves.
The Reality of Atoms
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 3 focuses on the concept of atoms, which dates back to the ancient Greek philosopher Leucippus, who claimed that everything consisted of them. This view began to be accepted among scientists when John Dalton championed it in the 1800s, although he was wrong in his atomic structure of molecules. That was corrected not long after by Jöns Berzelius. From then on the reality of atoms, and whether those of chemistry were the same as those of physics was a matter of debate. The theory of statistical mechanics, developed in the second half of the nineteenth century, helped establish their reality for most physicists, while many chemists were won over later, in part by the periodic table developed by the Russian Dimitri Mendeleev. Nearly every scientist was finally convinced by the explanation of Brownian motion by Albert Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski, whose formulas were verified by Jean Perrin in 1909.
The Nuclear Atom
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 5 describes how the concept of quantization (discretization) was first applied to atoms. This was done in 1913 by Niels Bohr, using Ernest Rutherford’s paradigm-changing, solar-system model of atomic structure, wherein the positively charged nucleus occupies a tiny central space, much smaller than the known sizes of atoms. Bohr, postulating a quantized version of this model for hydrogen, was able to explain previously inexplicable experimental features of that atom. He did so via an ad hoc quantization procedure that discretized the single electron’s energy, its angular momentum, and the radii of the orbits it could be in around the nucleus, formulas forwhich are presented, along with a diagram displaying the quantized energies. Despite this success, Bohr’s model failed not only for helium, with its two electrons, but for all other neutral atoms. It left some physicists hopeful, ready for whatever the next step might be.
Quantum Boxes, Stringed Instruments
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 7 illustrates the results obtained by applying the Schrödinger equation to a simple pedagogical quantum system, the particle in a one-dimensional box. The wave functions are seen to be sine waves; their wavelengths are evaluated and used to calculate the quantized energies via the de Broglie relation. An energy-level diagram of some of the energies is constructed; on it are illustrations of the corresponding wave functions and probability distributions. The wave functions are seen to be either symmetric or antisymmetric about the midpoint of the line representing the box, thereby providing a lead-in to the later exploration of certain symmetry properties of multi-electron atoms. It is next pointed out that the Schrödinger equation for this system is identical to Newton’s equation describing the vibrations of a stretched musical string. The different meaning of the two solutions is discussed, as is the concept and structure of linear superpositions of them.
The Hydrogen Atom and Its Colorful Photons
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The energies, kets and wave functions obtained from the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom are examined in Chapter 9. Three quantum numbers are identified. The energies turn out to be the same as in the Bohr model, and an energy-level diagram appropriate to the quantum description is constructed. Graphs of the probability distributions are interpreted as the electron being in a “cloud” around the proton, rather than at a fixed position: the atom is fuzzy, not sharp-edged. The wavelengths of the five photons of the Balmer series are shown to be in the visible range. These photons are emitted when electrons transition from higher-excited states to the second lowest one, which means that electronic-type transitions underlie the presence of colors in our visible environment. The non-collapse of the atom, required by classical physics, is shown to arise from the structure of Schrödinger’s equation.
Spin ½ and the Periodic Table
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Some major quantal developments are described in Chapter 10. The Stern-Gerlach experiment is encountered first, wherein a beam of silver atoms is deflected by a magnetic field, leading to a pair of traces on a detecting plate. Next is the proposal that electrons have a new attribute known as spin, used to explain the Stern-Gerlach result, thereby confirming the validity of this new attribute. To account for the structure of the periodic table, the central-field approximation is introduced. In it, electrons in an atom are treated like those in hydrogen, except that they have four not three quantum numbers, the fourth related to spin. The Pauli Exclusion Principle requires that no four can be the same for any electron in the atom, a feature that explains the occurrence of shells in the periodic table. The electronic structure of various atoms is stated, with silver being a giant spin ½ system.
Interference Phenomena: Exploring the Essential Mystery
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 11 introduces the essential mystery of quantum mechanics, shows how it is resolved, and then goes on to examine related phenomena. The mystery is how individual photons, not electromagnetic waves, can give rise to the interference pattern seen in the two-slit experiment. They are shown to do so because the relevant quantum amplitude is a linear combination of two terms, leading to the pattern when neither slit is identified as the one the photon went through, but collapsing to one term and no pattern if the slit is identified. Similar results are shown to occur when individual electrons are incident on the two slits, and when large molecules, which have de Broglie wavelengths, are scattered by diffraction gratings. Many other interference experiments are described, including those where a photon was shown to be in two places simultaneously and one where a photon displayed both wave and particle features.
Entanglement and the Elements of Reality
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 14 examines entangled quantum systems, hidden variable theories and Bell’s inequality. In 1935, Einstein and collaborators, postulating the existence of elements of reality, analyzed an entangled system and concluded that quantum theory was incomplete. Their analysis is described using spin singlets, which are entangled states of two spin ½ particles. A possible avoidance of their conclusion is by using hidden variable theories. In analyzing a class of local hidden variable theories, John Bell derived an equality that could test them. This was done by experiments using entangled photons; their results violated the inequality, thereby establishing that quantum mechanics, not local hidden variable theories, is the correct description. Later theoretical analysis, and relevant experimental results, strongly supported this. A further theoretical analysis, involving just a single measurement, led to a pronounced conclusion: farewell to the elements of reality. Ditto as well to the spooky-action-at-a-distance problem that had so bothered Einstein.
Schrödinger’s Cat and the Meaning of It All
Authors: Levin Frank S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Chapter 15 deals with various unresolved issues, such as how measurements are to be described, whether they induce collapse of linear superpositions, and if so, what the result should be. Another is whether quantum mechanics applies to macroscopic measuring devices, and if not, why not. Some of these issues are addressed via the Schrödinger cat-in-the-box experiment, in particular whether the cat is ever half alive and half dead; analogs of the corresponding Schrödinger-cat state (not involving a cat) have been studied experimentally. For Schrödinger, it was ridiculous to apply quantum mechanics to macroscopic situations, nevertheless, it has been explored by many physicists. Whether measurements induce collapse and whether collapse arises in various formulations/interpretations of quantum mechanics is examined in the context of generic measuring instruments known as pointer devices. Various conclusions have been reached, though consensus has not, despite only one interpretation having been verified experimentally.
Greek Sources
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn this chapter, the Greek sources are discussed in two parts: first, the epigraphic sources such as the lead tablets from Dodona and the inscriptions from Didyma and Claros, and second, the literary sources containing narratives on consultations of the oracles at Delphi, Didyma, and Claros. Although not a single original oracle report from Delphi, the most famous oracle site in the Greek world, has been preserved, the evidence of the Delphic oracle is examined through literary sources. Oracle collections from Athens and Sparta and their connection with chresmologues are also discussed.
Prophecy and Ecstasy
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe prophetic performance is typically associated with a specific state of mind variously called ecstasy, trance, or possession. This chapter demonstrates that an altered state of consciousness appears as a prerequisite of the prophetic performance in ancient Near Eastern, Greek, and biblical texts. One of the designations of Mesopotamian prophets, muḫḫûm/maḫḫû, implies an ecstatic performance, and many biblical prophets engage in ecstatic behavior, seeing visions, and making spirit journeys. In Greek sources, the divine possession of the Delphic Pythia is taken for granted, and also the prophets of Didyma, Dodona, and Claros are believed to have been influenced by the divine spirit. Neither the Greek nor the Near Eastern sources specify how the altered state of consciousness was reached. The essential thing was that they were divinely inspired, not how the inspiration manifested itself.
Prophets and Temples
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter collects evidence of temples as venues of the prophetic performance, prophets among the temple personnel and as advocates (sometimes even critics) of temple worship at Mari and in Assyria, in Greek sanctuaries, and in Jerusalem. The chapter discusses prophets and temples (institutions of religious worship)—the function and significance of temples and cult places varied according to their size, location, wealth, and status; their legitimacy and symbolic significance provided an identity for the community they served and the maintenance of their symbolic universe. The most important sanctuaries featuring in the sources are the temple of Dagan at Terqa (Mari) and that of Ištar in Arbela (Assyria); the temples of Apollo at Delphi, Didyma, and Claros, and that of Zeus at Dodona; and the temple of Jerusalem.
Prophets and Kings
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter highlights the significance of prophecy for political decision-making from the point of view of royal ideology and communication between prophets and rulers, not forgetting the critical potential of prophecy. Throughout the ancient Eastern Mediterranean, political leadership was divinely sanctioned; all important decisions had to be subjected to the divine will, and the diviners were the professionals who were believed to be able to find it out. What unites different divinatory practices is their function in guiding decision-making in society by means of revealing the divine will. Prophets, like other diviners, acted as instruments of divine encouragement and warning, and they were typically consulted in situations of war and crises.
Prophecy and Gender
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates that prophecy was a gendered phenomenon, but the prophetic role was not generally gender-specific, which is remarkable in the patriarchal cultures within which prophecy functioned. The chapter approaches the issue of gender and prophetic divination from a comparative perspective. First, a taxonomy of gender of the prophets and deities in the ancient Eastern Mediterranean is presented, followed by a discussion on the agency of the prophets from the gender point of view. The chapter concludes by analyzing the gendered representations of deities and their alleged agency, that of the goddess Ištar in particular.
Keyholes for Comparative Reconstruction
Authors: Nissinen Martti 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe most important thing to be taken into account when attempting to reconstruct ancient divination is the nature of the source material. Every single text tells us something about the historical phenomenon. When put together, the texts provide a set of “keyholes” that show parts of the historical prophetic landscape, but at the same time hide even bigger parts of it. This chapter draws together the views to be seen through the keyholes, identifying the common category of prophecy in the ancient Eastern Mediterranean cultural sphere. Without a comparative perspective, the picture of ancient prophecy available from fragmented sources would never grow bigger, and the question of the larger landscape visible through different keyholes would not emerge.
Inference in the Real World
Authors: Golan Amos 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn this chapter I provide a mix of detailed cross-disciplinary examples to illustrate the method in real-world settings. The examples in this chapter illustrate modeling and inference in a relatively simple set of problems. After exploring single-parameter applications under very limited information, I consider multi-parameter problems, beginning with the inference of a two-parameter size distribution of firms. This demonstrates a main characteristic of social science problems where the available information is most often insufficient to provide a very exact inference. Then a simple ecological example is formulated. It provides an interesting theoretical application of analyzing complex ecological networks based on very limited macro-level information. The chapter concludes with a simple formulation of efficient network and information aggregation. A few shorter examples are provided as well.
Advanced Inference in the Real World
Authors: Golan Amos 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn this chapter I continue the voyage into info-metrics in action, with an emphasis on more advanced info-metric inference in real-world environments. I develop a sequence of increasingly complex applications. In the first example, the maximum entropy method is extended for inferring interval information, with an application to weather data. The next example introduces additional conditional information into the constraints. It is a laboratory example, complemented with simulated data matched to observed population frequencies. The last example is the most complex, using surprisal analysis and Bayes’s rule to infer conditional probabilities from brain tumor data. In each problem the quantities whose entropy is maximized are identified and motivated. These examples demonstrate the power and generality of the info-metrics framework by showing that it allows inference in a variety of realistic settings.
A Complete Info-Metrics Framework
Authors: Golan Amos 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
In this chapter I develop the complete info-metrics framework for inferring problems and theories under all types of uncertainty and missing information. That framework allows for uncertainty in the observed values and about the functional form, as captured by the constraints. Using the derivations of Chapter 8, it also extends the info-metrics framework to include priors. The basic properties of the complete framework are developed as well. Generally speaking, that framework can be viewed as a “meta-theory”—a theory of how to construct theories and consistent models given the available information. This accrues all the benefits of the maximum entropy formalism but additionally accommodates a larger class of problems. The derivations are complemented with a complete visual representation of the info-metrics framework. Theoretical and empirical applications are provided.
Causal Inference via Constraint Satisfaction
Authors: Golan Amos 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn this chapter I introduce a number of ideas connected to causal inference that are inherently connected to info-metrics. In the context of this chapter, causal inference means the causality inferred from the available information. I begin by introducing and examining nonmonotonic and default logics, which were developed to deal with extremely high conditional probabilities. Other facets of info-metrics and causal inference are then discussed. I also show the direct effect of the complete set of input information on the inferred solution. I conclude the chapter with a detailed Markov example providing a more traditional approach to causal inference, developed within the info-metrics framework. The example builds on the notion of exogeneity and demonstrates that the info-metrics framework provides a simple way of incorporating additional exogenous information, thereby opening the way for empirical testing of causal inference. A short summary of the notion of “pure” causality is also provided.
Info-Metrics and Statistical Inference
Authors: Golan Amos 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn this chapter I concentrate on continuous inferential problems: problems where the dependent variable is continuous, such as classical regression problems. As in the previous chapter, using duality theory, I show that the info-metrics framework is general enough to include the class of information-theoretic methods as a special case. The formulation is developed for the classical regression problem, but the results apply to many other problems. A detailed discussion of the benefits and costs of using the info-metrics framework is provided and contrasted with other approaches. I use theoretical examples and policy-relevant applications to demonstrate the method. The common problem of misspecification is also discussed and studied within the info-metrics framework. I show that a misspecified model and a correctly specified one can yield similar answers. The appendices provide detailed discussions of the generalized method of moments and the Bayesian method of moments. Both are connected to info-metrics.
Non-linear development of secular gravitational instability in protoplanetary disks
Authors: Tominaga Ryosuke T , Inutsuka Shu-ichiro , Takahashi Sanemichi Z 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
We perform non-linear simulation of secular gravitational instability (GI) in protoplanetary disks, which has been proposed as a mechanism of planetesimal and multiple ring formation. Since the timescale of the growth of the secular GI is much longer than the Keplerian rotation period, we develop a new numerical scheme for a long-term calculation utilizing the concept of symplectic integration. With our new scheme, we first investigate the non-linear development of the secular GI in a disk without a pressure gradient in the initial state. We find that the surface density of dust increases by more than a factor of 100 while that of gas does not increase even by a factor of 2, which results in the formation of dust-dominated rings. A line mass of the dust ring tends to be very close to the critical line mass of a self-gravitating isothermal filament. Our results indicate that the non-linear growth of the secular GI provides a powerful mechanism to concentrate the dust. We also find that the dust ring formed via the non-linear growth of the secular GI migrates inward with a low velocity, which is driven by the self-gravity of the ring. We give a semi-analytical expression for the inward migration speed of the dusty ring.