bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Bilingual child acquisition through the lens of sociolinguistic approaches
Authors: Cornips Leonie 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This paper entails a perspective on bilingual child acquisition through the lens of sociolinguistic approaches. A discussion of the concepts of monolingual language ideology and power dynamics is undertaken in order to reveal their important consequences on studying bilingual child acquisition, in particular, which (parts of) language(s) and children are important to study with which kinds of methodologies, concepts, and analyses. This paper discusses ethnographic fieldwork as a methodology to dive deeper into the whole envelope of bilingual child use in situated interactions with parents/care-takers, teachers and other children at home and in the classroom. The emphasis on language ideologies and power dynamics has helped sociolinguistic enquiry to move away from existing monolingual bias in bilingual child acquisition research.
Usage-based approaches to second language acquisition
Authors: Wulff Stefanie , Ellis Nick C. 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
We present an overview of the cognitive underpinnings of usage-based approaches to second language acquisition (L2A). Not all constructions are equally learnable, even after years of (frequent) exposure. We present a usage-based analysis of this phenomenon in terms of fundamental principles of associative learning: Low salience, low contingency, and redundancy all lead to form-function mappings being less well learned. Compounding this, adult acquirers show effects of learned attention and blocking as a result of L1-tuned automatized processing of language. We also describe form-focused instruction studies that aim to recruit learners’ explicit, conscious processing capacities for noticing novel L2 constructions before subsequent implicit processing consolidates it into the system. We conclude with further readings which discuss wider coverage of usage-based L2A.
Simultaneous child bilingualism
Authors: Nicoladis Elena 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
Simultaneous bilingual children are exposed to two languages from an early age. They show a remarkable ability to differentiate their two languages from early in development. They nonetheless show some small signs of cross-linguistic influence, or processing their two languages in ways that show influence from the other language. Bilingual children’s language development can lag behind that of monolingual children’s, at least when including only the results of one of their languages. Some (but not all) studies have shown bilingual advantages in some aspects of cognitive development. It is not yet clear why there are differing results across studies.
The role of language input environments for language outcomes and language acquisition in young bilingual children
Authors: De Houwer Annick 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter outlines a holistic framework for approaching the study of language input to children under age 6 acquiring oral languages in bilingual settings. After a brief historical overview, the input factors discussed include relative timing of input in two languages, cumulative, absolute and relative frequency of overall language input, input frequency of linguistic categories, language models, the people speaking to children and language choice patterns, communicative settings and media use, and interactional style. The chapter addresses methodological issues and gives an indication of the extent to which particular aspects of the input have been investigated. It ends with a selective evaluation of links between input and bilingual language outcomes and early bilingual acquisition.
First language attrition and bilingualism
Authors: Yılmaz Gülsen , Schmid Monika S. 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
A considerable amount of research has been devoted to exploring how bilinguals accommodate their languages. Since it has long been assumed that the native language, once completely acquired, would be immune to change, this research has mainly been focused on L2 development and L1 interference in the process of L2 learning (Gass & Selinker, 1992; Kecskes & Papp, 2000; Mitchell et al., 2013; Ringbom, 1987). However, psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic investigations into the bilingual mind have consistently demonstrated that interaction between languages is two-way and that bilinguals use and process their native languages differently than monolinguals (Cook, 2015; Green & Abutalebi, 2013; Pavlenko & Jarvis, 2002). While the precise nature of this phenomenon and the linguistic and psycholinguistic determinants involved have not been completely explored, the symptoms ascribed to first language attrition are unanimously characterized as a natural part of the developmental process in bilingualism. As attrition research has considerably advanced our knowledge on the impact of later-learned languages and bilingualism on the L1 and the loss of L1 skills, this has led to the realization that L1 attrition forms a vital component of research into bilingualism. This chapter will present a synthesis derived from the findings of previous studies on first language attrition in adult speakers in an attempt to explain the extent to which native language knowledge can become compromised, and how. It will also demonstrate how including these speakers in bilingualism investigations may help us explore the limits and possibilities of our language capacity and provide additional insight into controversial issues in second language acquisition research such as maturational constraints and the nature of L2 knowledge in late learners.
Bilingualism and executive function
Authors: Bialystok Ellen 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines the idea that much of the confusion and contradictory evidence about the relation between bilingualism and executive function can be traced to an over-simplification of the two main terms. Using more nuanced definitions for “bilingualism” and “executive function”, research examining the effect of bilingualism on cognition in infancy, childhood, and adulthood is reviewed. The sum of the evidence is then used to attempt to extract a common “mechanism” for the diverse effects that is consistent with a broader definition of the main concepts of bilingualism and executive function. The conclusion is that a continuous notion of “executive attention” in which there is a linear relation between degree of bilingualism and degree of executive function demands provides a good fit with the empirical evidence and a plausible explanation for the modifications found in the brain and behavior of bilinguals across the lifespan.
Not quite neo-sentimentalism
Authors: Oliver-Skuse Tristram 
Published: January 2018

AbstractThe view that some evaluative concepts are identical to some affective concepts naturally falls out of neo-sentimentalism, but it is unstable. This paper argues for a view of evaluative concepts that is neo-sentimentalist in spirit but which eschews the identity claim. If we adopt a Peacockean view of concepts, then we should think of some evaluative concepts as having possession conditions that are affective in some way. I argue that the best version of this thought claims that possessing those concepts requires being rationally compelled to form evaluative beliefs in response to certain emotions.
Unique antimicrobial spectrum of ophiobolin K produced by Aspergillus ustus
Authors: Sohsomboon Natthapat , Kanzaki Hiroshi , Nitoda Teruhiko 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
A co-cultivation study of two fungal strains showed that Aspergillus ustus could inhibit Aspergillus repens growth. The bioactive compound responsible for the observed activity was purified and identified as a sesterterpene, ophiobolin K. Ophiobolin K exhibited marked inhibition against both fungi and bacteria, especially A. repens, A. glaucus and gram-positive bacteria including Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Micrococcus luteus.
A low-complexity add-on score for protein remote homology search with COMER
Authors: Margelevičius Mindaugas 
Published: January 2018

Abstract

Motivation
Protein sequence alignment forms the basis for comparative modeling, the most reliable approach to protein structure prediction, among many other applications. Alignment between sequence families, or profile–profile alignment, represents one of the most, if not the most, sensitive means for homology detection but still necessitates improvement. We aim at improving the quality of profile–profile alignments and the sensitivity induced by them by refining profile–profile substitution scores.

Results
We have developed a new score that represents an additional component of profile–profile substitution scores. A comprehensive evaluation shows that the new add-on score statistically significantly improves both the sensitivity and the alignment quality of the COMER method. We discuss why the score leads to the improvement and its almost optimal computational complexity that makes it easily implementable in any profile–profile alignment method.

Availability and implementation
An implementation of the add-on score in the open-source COMER software and data are available at https://sourceforge.net/projects/comer. The COMER software is also available on Github at https://github.com/minmarg/comer and as a Docker image (minmar/comer).

Supplementary information
Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Host-specific differences in the contribution of an ESBL IncI1 plasmid to intestinal colonization by Escherichia coli O104:H4
Authors: Giles M , Cawthraw S A , AbuOun M , Thomas C M , Munera D , Waldor M K , La Ragione R M , Ritchie J M 
Published: January 2018

AbstractObjectivesTo assess stability and contribution of a large ESBL-encoding IncI1 plasmid to intestinal colonization by Escherichia coli O104:H4 in two different mammalian hosts.MethodsSpecific-pathogen-free 3–4-day-old New Zealand White rabbits and conventionally reared 6-week-old weaned lambs were orally infected with WT E. coli O104:H4 or the ESBL-plasmid-cured derivative, and the recovery of bacteria in intestinal homogenates and faeces monitored over time.ResultsCarriage of the ESBL plasmid had differing impacts on E. coli O104:H4 colonization of the two experimental hosts. The plasmid-cured strain was recovered at significantly higher levels than WT during late-stage colonization of rabbits, but at lower levels than WT in sheep. Regardless of the animal host, the ESBL plasmid was stably maintained in virtually all in vivo passaged bacteria that were examined.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that carriage of ESBL plasmids has distinct effects on the host bacterium depending upon the animal species it encounters and demonstrates that, as for E. coli O157:H7, ruminants could represent a potential transmission reservoir.
Introduction
Authors: Harrison James 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to both the anthropogenic threats facing the marine environment at the beginning of the twenty-first century and the role that international law plays in regulating humankind’s impacts on the oceans. It argues that the protection of the marine environment is a common concern of humankind, requiring the cooperation of all States in adopting appropriate international rules and standards to address the main threats to the marine environment and collective efforts to ensure the enforcement of those norms. The chapter then explains the key sources of international law that are relevant to the regulation of marine activities, highlighting the central role played by treaties, related non-binding instruments, judicial decisions, and general principles of international law. This introduction to the sources of international law provides a basic background to the more detailed analysis of specific treaties and related instruments in the remainder of the book.
Environmental Regulation of Seabed Activities within and beyond National Jurisdiction
Authors: Harrison James 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
Chapter 8 considers the regulation of seabed activities within and beyond national jurisdiction. First, the legal framework for seabed activities within national jurisdiction is examined, highlighting the central role played by coastal States, the basic rules that apply by virtue of UNCLOS, and the opportunities for supplementary global or regional rules to improve marine environmental protection. The chapter undertakes a case study of the development of rules and standards relating to the hydrocarbon industry. The chapter then turns to the regulation of seabed activities beyond national jurisdiction. In this context, UNCLOS confers significant legislative and enforcement powers on the International Seabed Authority, which acts on behalf of the international community to regulate deep-seabed mining. The chapter analyses the way in which environmental protection has been integrated into Regulations to date, and discusses future challenges remaining in this respect.
Towards Integrated Management of the Oceans at the International Level
Authors: Harrison James 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
The world’s oceans constitute a single, interconnected planetary system, and their effective protection, therefore, demands an integrated approach. Yet, the decentralized nature of the international legal order means that the challenges for coordination are immense. Chapter 10 explains the difficulties of developing a coherent and comprehensive legal framework for the protection of the marine environment, with a particular focus on the challenges of promoting multipurpose marine protected areas in light of the proliferation of sectoral regulatory regimes. The chapter then assesses the possible mechanisms for promoting coordination between relevant treaties. Both top-down global coordination of environmental protection and bottom-up cooperation are considered. The prospects for this issue to be addressed through the ongoing negotiations on a new legally binding instrument for the conservation of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction are also taken into account.
The Sources of International Law
Authors: Besson Samantha , d’Aspremont Jean 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This introductory chapter offers a brief overview on the sources of international law. It first highlights the importance of and the controversies surrounding the sources of international law, touching upon the nature, legality, normativity, and legitimacy of international law, as well as the sites and tools of its contestation. The chapter then turns to the historical origins of the sources of international law, asserting that the sources of international law are in fact a product of the Enlightenment project and, arguably, of the liberal doctrine of politics. Finally, the chapter takes a look at how the dominant adherence to the sources of international law has been accompanied by constant contestation among international lawyers about their origins, criteria, functions, unity, and hierarchy. The chapter concludes with a brief summary of the following chapters.
Sources in the Modern Tradition
Authors: Gaurier Dominique 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter observes that early writers on the law of war or on the law of peace offered their contributions in an intellectual context that was very different from our own. They were attempting to provide explanations for the questions related to war and peace, and in doing so drew upon interesting elements in Roman or canon law. Yet, none of the sources available to them were sufficient to offer a comprehensive response to related legal issues. Although these authors were all largely relying on the Bible and on ancient or contemporaneous history, some also drew information from their own life experiences. The majority, however, built their theories on the basis of their own readings and legal knowledge. Furthermore, only very few authors addressed the question of the sources of international law.
Sources in the Modern Tradition
Authors: Lesaffer Randall 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter considers how the modern historiography of international law has ascribed pride of place to the jurisprudence of the law of nature and nations of the Early Modern Age. Whereas the writers from this period have had a significant influence on nineteenth-century international law, their utility as a historical source has been far overrated. The development of the law of nations in that period was much more informed by State practice than historians have commonly credited. Moreover, historiography has overestimated the novelty of the contribution of Early Modern jurisprudence and has almost cast its major historical source of inspiration into oblivion: the late medieval jurisprudence of canon and Roman law. It is thus important to restore medieval jurisprudence to its rightful place in the grand narrative of the evolution of international law.
Sources in the Meta-History of International Law
Authors: Janis Mark Weston 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter introduces a ‘meta-theory’ of international law. It employs the insights of Thomas Kuhn, who argued that once a paradigm has been accepted by a scientific community, most scientists accept it without much question. When the paradigm is overwhelmed, a ‘scientific revolution’—a new paradigm—emerges. The paradigm for the sources of international law is Article 38 of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) Statute, which emerged during and after World War I when international lawyers, faced with the horrors of that awful conflict, lost faith in their old discipline, thereby initiating Kuhn’s scientific revolution. Nowadays, Article 38 remains an attractive paradigm: first because the ICJ and its Statute are almost universally accepted; secondly, because it is neatly formulated; thirdly, because the paradigm has been confirmed in case law and commentary; and fourthly, because it is widely taught.
Legal History as a Source of International Law
Authors: Kolb Robert 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines to what extent ‘history’ can be considered a source of international law. It argues, in a classical way, that history is a material source of international law, though the chapter also examines some norms of positive international law which refer to historical facts. It first casts the question of history as a source of international law in its historical context. Classical international law, with its much greater emphasis on history as a factor of account, stands to by analysed, with reasons for the differences with today investigated. Hereafter, the chapter attends to the main expressions of ‘history as a source’ in the positive international law of today. Finally, the chapter considers the structural effects of historical facts and arguments on the interpreter.
Legal History as a Source of International Law
Authors: Moyn Samuel 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter maintains that no serious theory of the sources of international law can avoid what professional historians now take for granted: namely, that historical knowledge is necessarily political. It begins by laying out this argument, before assessing its implications for mainstream accounts of the sources of international law. The chapter goes on to explore a recent legal conflict in which history figured in order to test and improve the claim that history is political. It looks at the recent contention in US courts interpreting the Alien Tort Statute (1789) about whether a norm of corporate liability for atrocity crimes is part of customary international law. Finally, the chapter concludes that this fascinating instance of the uses of history in the ascertainment of the requirements of international law fits well the theory that historical knowledge is ineradicably political, though contained by professionalism.
Sources in Legal-Positivist Theories
Authors: Lefkowitz David 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter begins by examining the case for legal positivism. Legal positivism is understood as the thesis that the existence of law is a matter of its social source, regardless of its merits. Descriptive, normative, and conceptual arguments are considered, with the aim of demonstrating that what follows for the sources of international law from the commitment to positivism depends on the specific defence offered for accepting it as an account of the nature of law. The remainder of the chapter examines the possibility of customary international law: given that custom can and does serve as a source of international law, positivists owe a plausible account of how customary rules are made or posited. A preliminary argument for the compatibility of the normative practice account of custom with the respective arguments of Hans Kelsen and Joseph Raz for legal positivism brings the chapter to a close.
Sources in Legal-Positivist Theories
Authors: Kammerhofer Jörg 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates that the Kelsen–Merkl Stufenbau theory of the hierarchy of norms avoids many of the misconceptions of orthodox scholarship. This theory is the closest there is to a legal common-sense theory of the sources of international law. It is close to the mainstream, but provides a solid theoretical basis. False necessities are here deconstructed: the sources are neither a priori nor external to the law. Applying the Stufenbau theory to international law, the chapter concludes by sketching out the possibilities of ordering the sources of international law. A structural analysis of the international legal order clears the way for level-headed research on this legal order’s daily operations: norm-conflict and its application and interpretation.
Sources in Legal-Formalist Theories
Authors: d’Aspremont Jean 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
This chapter reflects on how sources function as a vehicle of legal forms in international legal thought and practice. It specifically examines the extent to which the sources of international law are instrumental in the formalization of the determination of the contents of international legal rules as well as the formalization of the ascertainment of international legal rules. The chapter starts by distinguishing between two types of formalist theories—namely, content-determination formalism and law-ascertainment formalism—before offering some comparative insights. It then evaluates the extent to which sources contribute to the formalization of content-determination and law ascertainment in international legal thought and practice. In doing so, this chapter demonstrates that the sources of international law turn out to be a very poor vehicle of formalism and that international lawyers should accordingly cease to think of the sources of international law as conducive to the formalization of international legal argumentation.
Sources in Interpretation Theories
Authors: Venzke Ingo 
Published: January 2018

Abstract
It is generally recognized that interpretations do not take meanings from norms but give meanings to them. In this way, the practice of interpretation contributes to the process of international law-making. The chapter takes as a starting point the understanding of interpretation in international law as an argumentative practice about the meaning of legal norms. It asks which meaning interpreters should give to a norm and how they should justify their interpretative choices. Turning from the rule of interpretation to the reality of the practice, the chapter further asks, ‘What do interpreters do when they interpret?’ It draws attention to the power that interpreters exercise and to the biases that they maintain. In conclusion, the chapter stresses that it is necessary to keep a keen eye on the role of power and rhetoric in the interpretative practice that makes international law.