bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Vietnam, Families in
Authors: Phuong Pham Thi Thu , Phuong Dang Thi Viet 
Published: March 2016

AbstractMarriage is the most common method of forming a family in Vietnam. Over two‐thirds of the population over the age of 15 is married, while the divorce rate is very low. Most families fall into the definition of the nuclear family, and the average number of people per family is 3.7. Empirical evidence has revealed the popularity of patrilocal residence patterns in Vietnam but matrilocal residence model also exists. Extended families and kinship networks still play a significant role in providing social and emotional supports to family members. The traditional pattern of domestic labor division, in which women have the higher burden, continues to dominate. This pattern influences parental socialization of children and the respective value placed on sons and daughters. Families in Vietnam in the twenty‐first century are still a source of caregiving for their members. However, pressures from modern life are creating significant challenges for how families function.
Theories of Aging
Authors: Franzese Alexis T. , Rurka Marissa M. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe study of aging has intrigued scholars and laypersons for centuries; over time, this area of study has undergone significant growth. While historically scholars were primarily concerned with promoting chronological longevity, since the late 1980s significant effort has been paid to understanding what it means to age well. In addition, there has been an increased emphasis on the important role of theory in grounding and connecting empirical observations. There are three main disciplinary‐based areas of aging theory: biological, psychological, and social. However, theorists have increasingly been developing and implementing more interdisciplinary theories such as the convoy theory of social support. These theories have important implications for understanding family dynamics and structure.
Gender and Communication
Authors: Charlebois Justin 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis entry discusses the relationship between gender and communication style. There is a tendency to distinguish between discretely masculine and feminine communication styles that are supposedly predetermined by biological sex. Gender miscommunication theory or a cultural differences approaches posits that men and women possess different assumptions about communication and thus draw on distinctly gendered communication styles in social interaction, which often results in systematic miscommunication. This entry argues that, while masculine and feminine communication styles exist, individuals can and do draw on both styles. Not only gender but also age, ethnicity/race, sexuality, social class, and the communicative context all potentially influence the communication style a speaker deploys. Communication styles are flexible discursive resources that speakers accept, contest, or even reformulate in social interaction. This entry discusses three empirical studies that demonstrate how speakers use gendered communication styles in specific social contexts and dispel the validity of gender miscommunication theory.
I
nternet Dating
Authors: Schubert Katie A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Internet dating has become increasingly common since the first few years of the twenty‐first century. More than 40 million people in the United States have tried Internet dating. This growing popularity can be explained by some societal trends that have arisen since the late twentieth century. This entry explores who is involved in Internet dating and why people decide to sign up for these sites. Further, the internal workings of dating sites are explained.
Communication, Family
Authors: Estlein Roi 
Published: March 2016

AbstractCommunication in families is the mechanism through which members exchange ideas and emotions, generate a sense of a shared group identity and togetherness, and dynamically manage their relationships. Because family communication both reflects and shapes family relationship dynamics, researchers have explored specific interaction behaviors, patterns, and strategies that explain and predict outcomes for families and individual members. As an interdisciplinary field of research, studies on family communication highlight psychological, social, relational, and developmental characteristics and processes in family life within cultural, historical, and technological contexts. This research suggests that communication within families is guided by environmental factors, shapes relationship dynamics, and actively contributes to family consequences, such as marital quality, divorce, parent–child relationships, children's development, sibling relationships, and relationships among extended family members.
Generational Bridge
Authors: Neves Barbara Barbosa , Fernandes Ana Alexandra 
Published: March 2016

AbstractGenerational bridges refer to inter‐ and cross‐generational relationships, being connections that help to negotiate family norms, roles, and expectations across generations. These bridges have become a trend because the global population is aging: the demographic changes that have occurred since the second half of the twentieth century, namely declines in fertility and mortality and an increase of life expectancy rates, have led to fast growth in the numbers of older (aged 65 and over) and oldest‐old (aged 80 and over) adults. These longevity gains have altered the structure of living generations, changing families: we now encounter a family structure with a higher number of living generations yet with fewer members of each generation. There has also been an increase in differences in ages and age ranges between generations, affecting family roles. To define these roles, for instance, parents may become a generational bridge between grandchildren and grandparents. Bridges based on intergenerational solidarity are essential for family relations and can mitigate intergenerational conflicts or ambivalence.
Teen Parenting in theUnitedStates
Authors: Skott Beth Pamela 
Published: March 2016

AbstractTeenage pregnancy and parenthood have long held negative connotations in various societies worldwide. With the disadvantage of youth working against them, teenage parents are often unprepared for the financial, social, emotional, and psychological realities of parenthood. Teenage parents and their children experience several disadvantages, including in medical, psychological, developmental, social, and emotional areas. Programs designed to lower the rate of teenage parenthood should focus on these risks as well as on prevention efforts.
Family of Procreation
Authors: Gerhardt Clara 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The term “family of procreation” is loosely used to refer to a family unit created by two or more people. The concept is juxtaposed to “family of origin,” which refers to the families from which individuals originate. The family of procreation will form unique family values and dynamics. When the family of procreation is narrowed down to the format of a nuclear family, multigenerational factors contributing to stress as well as resilience will filter down to this family form. Socioeconomic factors such as poverty, as well as cultural and ethnic values, can shift from one generation to the next and become more or less pronounced within the family of procreation. The intergenerational continuity of a family system can contribute toward the shelter that an individual or a newly formed couple may seek and experience while embarking on the creation of his/her or their own family of procreation.
Intergenerational Relationships
Authors: Gerhardt Clara 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The intergenerational or multigenerational family form is rapidly increasing, due to longer life expectancy as well as economic, emotional, and social demands. Historically, extended families were the norm and functioned as economic units, especially in rural and agricultural contexts. Changing demographic patterns include dual‐career, single‐parent, adolescent parent, and deployed military family structures. These serve as incentives to access temporary or permanent intergenerational support systems, even to form intergenerational households. Three generations can form a cohesive unit providing benefits from pooled resources. This family form can deal with child care needs, which can solidify intergenerational relations. Stressors increase when the middle generation in this triad feels sandwiched between caring for the older and younger generations. Family dynamics change over the life span, especially in grandparents' interactions with adult grandchildren. Research in the early twenty‐first century emphasizes the influence of multigenerational family dynamics on participating parties, the sociological/psychological implications, and optimal intergenerational parenting outcomes.
Day Care
Authors: Bartek Jennifer 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Day care is care for those who cannot be fully independent themselves, such as children, whether they are disabled or not. Research shows that there are various types of day care, including in‐home day care and out‐of‐home day care. These different types can affect children's social and behavioral development. Day care may also affect children's aggression and their language, behavioral, and cognitive development depending on the quality of care. In many countries, licensing regulations play a role in whether day care is deemed to be of quality. Research also examines the effects of day care on attachment relationships between mothers and children.
Race and Sexuality
Authors: Moras Amanda 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis entry illustrates the ways in which race and sexuality are co‐constructed, suggesting that racial ideologies have continuously relied on sexual stereotypes for meaning. Histories of racial exploitation including slavery, lynching, and Jim Crow segregation were predicated on the hypersexualization of black men and women and the supposed moral superiority of white sexuality. This hypersexualization was used to condone lynching and rape and more generally justify racial apartheid through fears around miscegenation. Similarly, colonization and conquest, sexual tourism, and the militarization of sexuality have used sexual fantasies and exploitation of the “other” as tools of subordination. These images persist today as women of color are often hypersexualized in the media.
Globalization and Families
Authors: Gerhardt Clara 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe demographics of families in the early twenty‐first century are changing rapidly and dramatically, often driven by the direct and indirect effects of globalization. Globalization refers to increasing interconnectedness worldwide. As it is a process that is constantly evolving, globalization defies a tight definition. Family forms that were the norm until recently are adapting and changing. Families relocate and are separated through voluntary migratory patterns, involuntary choices related to survival, and the hope of better opportunities. The demands of cultural uprooting and assimilation place parents in different cultural contexts from those of their own offspring and affect parenting. High‐pressured economic demands alter parenting practices. There has been a multilevel shift concerning the family as an institution, in some ways intentional and in some ways unintended. It is changing the cultural fabric of societies. Serious efforts are required to balance the far‐reaching effects of globalization while also nurturing those initiatives that carve out better futures for the world's families, by supporting diverse family forms and functions.
One‐Child Policy
Authors: Yepes Ismael A. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe one‐child policy is a system of regulation created by the Chinese government to limit the number of births by each family in the People's Republic of China. The National Population and Family Planning Commission is responsible for the implementation and regulation of population growth. Those living in urban areas are subject to the strictest application of the policy. China has also offered financial incentives and educational opportunities to its citizens to bear one child. By contrast, those who violate the policy forego these benefits. Pregnant women who do not have permission to bear a child have been taken to clinics where their pregnancies are terminated. An unintended consequence of the policy is an unbalanced sex ratio. Due to the strong preference for sons among Chinese, baby girls are often abandoned so that their parents can get permission to try for a second child.
Serial Monogamy
Authors: Foster John D. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Serial monogamy is a common practice in postindustrial societies, including the United States. Its prevalence reflects the changing economic, cultural, and social realities of a postindustrial society. The practice has led to a transformation of families. Not everyone engages in serial monogamy, however. Some scholars argue that serial monogamy is another form of polygyny, in which men extend their reproductive capacity. Other scholars have not embraced this view. The prevalence of serial monogamy presents new challenges and new opportunities for family members.
Communication, Dyadic/Marital
Authors: Estlein Roi 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marital researchers have long tried to understand what makes a successful marriage and what distinguishes successful marriages from unsuccessful marriages. Whereas early research on marriage privileged personality traits, demographic factors, and individual psychological processes as predictors of marital success, more recent research has focused on the influence of interpersonal communication on marital outcomes. The interest in the communication between spouses is related to the assumption that dyadic interaction patterns play a central role in shaping successful and satisfying marital relationships. Moreover, an extensive empirical body of evidence has consistently documented an association between a couple's communication and the quality of their marriage. Such evidence has pointed to certain interaction patterns, characterized by responsive positive affect, as being associated with marital success, satisfaction, and adjustment, and to other behavioral patterns, reflecting controlling negative affect, as being associated with marital distress and even dissolution.
Child Abuse in the
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Authors: Malousek Jason R. , Colburn‐Malousek Lindsey K. , Brown Kristina S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In the United States, the history of confronting child abuse and maltreatment dates as far back as 1875. The modern era of addressing child abuse continues to evolve, with an ever‐growing number of child abuse cases being discovered due to increased awareness, protection, and mandated reporting laws. The role of the federal government in child welfare increased with the creation of the federal Child Abuse and Prevention Treatment Act in 1974, and the federal government continues to assist states in assessing and combating child abuse. Risk factors and their interactions associated with higher levels of child abuse can be separated into four domains: caregiver, family, child, and environmental. When children are abused, there are greater risks associated with negative life outcomes, physical difficulties, mental illness, and developmental issues.
Gender Wage Gap
Authors: Danaj Ermira 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Women are paid less than men. Despite stipulations regarding equal pay being included in the legislation of many countries, and despite the fact that equal pay for equal work is a right included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, women are still paid less than men in almost all countries. The unequal divisions of productive and reproductive labor, as well as horizontal and vertical sex segregation in labor markets, are the main factors accounting for the gender wage gap.
Family Decline Theory
Authors: Laplant Katie M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Family decline theory suggests that families as an institution are changing in such a way that they are in a state of decline. It is argued that the overall functions of the family, to have children and to nurture those children into functioning adults, are being threatened by changes in values and norms in society. The decline of the traditional nuclear family has brought about changes in many spheres of life throughout history. Proponents of family decline say that the decline in marriage rates, rise in divorce rates, changes in marital roles, and changing family structure are hindering the function of the family as an institution. However, many scholars also believe that the family is undergoing a state of change or transformation leading to new family values and structures that reflect the changes in societal norms and values.
Time Use
Authors: Mínguez Almudena Moreno 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Time and time use have become significant and relevant topics for families due to time scarcity stemming from the multiplicity of activities that involve citizens in a globalized, technologically advanced society. This entry seeks to provide a review of the literature on the use of time in relation to families, a conceptual dimension that has received little attention and is generally linked to the working world. Analysis and reflection on the meaning of family work time have only since around 2005 become an area of interest, as a consequence of the massive incorporation of women into the labor market and changes in family models. This dimension is still absent from the public policies of most countries.
P
hilippines, Families in
Authors: Gata Larissa 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Filipino family is considered a highly valuable social institution in the Philippines. In general, Filipino families are bilaterally extended and residentially nuclear. Although Filipinos recognize husbands and fathers to be household heads, the family structure continues to be egalitarian in giving importance to both male and female family members. Like in other cultures in Asia, families in the Philippines uphold the principle of seniority in assigning authority within kinship groups. The kinship system is established through blood ties, marriage, and rituals. Kin groups are maintained primarily for mutual assistance. Moreover, when Filipino families become transnational due to migration and overseas work, they capitalize on computer‐mediated communication to maintain their familial connections across borders. A number of changes are happening among Filipino families including the increased participation of women in the labor force, a decline in family authority in terms of its influence over individual members, and an increasing number of single‐parent families.
Infertility
Authors: Steuber Keli Ryan 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Infertility is most often defined as the inability to achieve pregnancy after one year of unprotected intercourse. Clinically, practitioners are concerned with whether the difficulty lies in conception or carrying a pregnancy to term; however, in social science research the underlying focus is on the parents' inability to have a child more broadly. Age is a predominant factor in the diagnosis and treatment of infertility, such that individuals who are aged 35 years or older are often labeled and treated as infertile within six months, rather than one year, of unprotected intercourse resulting in no pregnancy. Individuals can be characterized as having primary infertility, which is when they have no prior children, or secondary infertility, suggesting they have successfully birthed a child prior to their current attempt to become pregnant. Approximately 15 percent of couples, or 4.3 of the 28 million married couples in the United States, encounter difficulty conceiving at some point in their relational life span.
Gender Stratification
Authors: Danaj Ermira 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Gender stratification refers to the inequalities between women and men regarding wealth, power, and privilege. Gender is a socially structured principle and represents a hierarchical, asymmetrical, and unequal division between men and women. Gender stratification is a relatively new concept borne of the feminist perspective in social sciences, especially in sociology, around the 1970s. Gender stratification can be illustrated by the figures of unequal participation of women in the labor market, incomes, politics, and so on.
Immigrant Families in theUnitedStates
Authors: Vesely Colleen K. , Letiecq Bethany L. , Ewaida Marriam 
Published: March 2016

AbstractOne‐fifth of the US population comprises immigrants and their children. In addition, immigrant settlement patterns indicate immigrantfamiliesnow make up a larger portion of US immigrants than in previous decades. Given this, immigrant families are more diverse than ever in terms of language, countries of origin, reasons for migrating, and access to resources. Accounting for and highlighting the diversity among immigrant families, this entry begins with a brief demographic overview and then reviews notable immigration policies that have affected immigrant families over time. It examines the “situatedness” or social location of immigrant families in the United States and concludes with a discussion of family processes that are likely influenced by policies and the resulting opportunity structure of immigrant families.
Marriage Counseling in the
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Authors: Brown Kristina S. , Janousek Thomas 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marriage counseling first emerged in the United States in the late 1920s. The origins of marriage counseling began with those not trained to specifically do marriage counseling but whose training was in areas ranging from birth control to medicine to sex therapy. Through the explosion of family therapy in the 1950s and the intersecting political and religious views on marriage, counseling with intimate partners continues as a mainstay practice most commonly referred to as “couple's therapy.” Leading figures in the field brought marriage counseling legitimacy through the creation of guiding theories and principles of practice. Modern marriage counselors consider issues of feminism and multiculturalism to be integral to their practice.
Second‐Parent Adoption in the
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Authors: Harder Brittany M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In some situations, second‐parent adoption has been granted to both heterosexual and same‐sex couples in the United States. Although LGBTQ families seek legal security and protection by way of second‐parent adoption, second‐parent adoption is not legally recognized at the federal level nor in all states. Laws that prohibit same‐sex parents from joint custody and second‐parent adoption deny the legal recognition of both parents as the parents of the child. Second‐parent adoption is not a guaranteed legal right even in the US states that have previously granted parenting rights to same‐sex couples. Advocacy groups, same‐sex couples, LGBTQ families, and their allies continue to seek to practice marriage, parenting, and personal relationships, with one avenue being second‐parent adoption.