bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transhumanism
Authors: Fuller Steve 
Published: December 2017

Transhumanism is the recent philosophical, cultural, and political movement which calls for the indefinite extension (or “enhancement”) of human powers, even including that humans transform into some other mode of being – not just a still higher ape but perhaps a consolidated “cyborg” or some purely silicon existence. The movement is quite controversial, and has been associated with both libertarian and authoritarian political agendas. Nevertheless, transhumanists regard themselves as the most faithful heirs to the spirit of the eighteenth‐century European Enlightenment.
Anomie
Authors: Bernburg Jón Gunnar 
Published: December 2017

Anomie refers to situations where shared regulatory codes – social norms – fail to regulate behaviors and aspirations of individuals, resulting in unstable cooperation, widespread unhappiness, and higher crime rates. Sociologists have discussed the main causes of anomie in modern society. These include the weakening of traditional institutions (e.g., family, religion, polity) and dominance of economic values (emphasizing individual achievement), unequal opportunity and high inequality, and abrupt social change. Anomie has shaped both macro‐ and micro‐level criminology. Macro‐level research uses the concept of anomie to identify the societal conditions conducive to high crime rates. Micro‐level research uses the concept to identify strains explaining individual differences in delinquency.
Crime and Deviance
Authors: Asquith Nicole L. 
Published: December 2017

An inventory of the topics and issues most important to social theory reveals that crime is a critical social experience that has been instrumental to the development of the disciplines' theories and methodologies. Deviance and transgression are at the heart of theories aimed at explaining human behavior, and the twinned issues of conformity and deviance are central to the rich sociological theorizing over the last two centuries. This entry considers the scholarship of deviance – necessarily, in abridged form – and critically examines the arguments about the death knell of deviance as they relate to the contemporary landscapes of crime, deviance, and crime control, and questions its relevance to scholarship and practice.
Labeling Theory
Authors: Pastore Gerardo 
Published: December 2017

Labeling theory is a sociological and criminological approach to the study of deviance that focuses on the process of the social construction of crime. Labeling theorists attribute a major role to the social definition of the crime and to the process of labeling and stigmatization affecting deviant behavior: by assigning the label of criminal to an offender, a process is engaged that transforms the author of a single offense – or an occasional transgression – into a chronic offender. The core of deviant processes is clearly traceable to the rules that define a given conduct as right or wrong. No behavior is deviant in itself – it becomes so as soon as it is defined as such. The labeling approach therefore calls for serious thought on the power of groups within a society to define a certain behavior as deviant.
Happiness
Authors: Turner Bryan S. , Contreras‐Vejar Yuri 
Published: December 2017

Happiness has historically enjoyed many different definitions, perspectives, and transformations. We provisionally understand “happiness” in terms of “regime of happiness” that is as a social configuration in which different discourses articulate a vision of human fulfillment. These social configurations or regimes change over time and in different contexts. Furthermore any given society may have different competing views about what constitutes happiness. Happiness is therefore semantically equivocal and inevitably contested. To simplify our entry, we will focus exclusively on Western traditions.Any discussion of happiness has to engage with Aristotle's ideas. His ethical writings pioneered the debate, and have been essential in creating the philosophical as well as the politico‐religious vocabulary of Western civilizations. For Aristotle, happiness is a state between being independent and simultaneously being dependent on others for pleasure and companionship. Aristotle did not write much about the related notion of hope. However, he realized that it was connected with a lapse of time: memory captures the past, hope the future. Thus in Greek philosophy,eudaimoniaor human flourishing was recognized in Aristotle's ethics. In Christianity, it was developed through the notion ofbeatitude.After Immanuel Kant, the normative realm was reduced tomoralität, the domain of obligations.Sittlichkeit, ethical life, became deontological and the questions regarding thetelosof human life was eradicated from serious intellectual discussions. Social facticity came to be devoid of moral life. However, happiness was important in British utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham constructed a measure of happiness. J. S. Mill, rejecting this simple quantitative approach, recognized that happiness is the end of all human activity and the principle underpinning liberty. Another source of the modern notion of happiness was the pragmatic social psychology of William James who influenced both Max Weber and Émile Durkheim. However, Weber was reluctant to see happiness as a suitable topic for sociology and in the famous Munich lectures at the end of his life painted a picture of life as miserable and lacking in meaning. For both Durkheim and Weber, secularization raised questions as to whether happiness could be found in modern society.While the analysis of happiness has largely dropped out of modern social and political theory, it is widely used to measure how successful societies are in providing for the well‐being of their citizens in terms of health, wealth, and happiness. So‐called happiness studies have become a topic of scientific inquiry and of interest to governments and policymakers in judging the success of governments in delivering “well‐being” to their citizens.
Indirect and Mediated Intergroup Contact
Authors: Harwood Jake 
Published: December 2017

AbstractPeople may encounter members of other groups in many ways other than face‐to‐face contact. Contact‐like experiences can occur through mass or interpersonal media, through imagined encounters, or through knowing about or observing contact between others. This entry addresses such experiences, noting where they have similar effects to direct contact, and in some circumstances the advantages of indirect forms of contact over more direct contact. Mediators and moderators of indirect contact overlap with those for direct contact, but some unique processes by which contact influences attitudes toward outgroups are also discussed here.
Intercultural Experiential Learning
Authors: Yang Min 
Published: December 2017

AbstractStudies and programs of intercultural experiential learning are informed by Kolb's experiential learning theory to examine and guide individuals' development of intercultural competence. Intercultural experiential learning can be viewed as a recursive cycle through which individuals acquire knowledge and skills for appropriate and effective intercultural interaction. Research has identified abilities and skills affording productive intercultural learning, and pedagogical approaches to fostering intercultural learning outcomes. Although direct experiences are widely adopted in intercultural experiential learning, there is a need to further explicate how learning from indirect experiences (i.e., vicarious learning) may benefit individuals. One example of vicarious learning is intercultural simulations immersing individuals in virtual environments that represent synthetic and/or national cultures. Future studies may explore how individuals' preferences for intercultural learning abilities and skills vary across cultural contexts, and how alternative pedagogies, especially group‐based intercultural training activities and vicarious intercultural experiential learning, can facilitate the development of intercultural competence.
Intercultural Training for Educators
Authors: Cushner Kenneth 
Published: December 2017

AbstractToday, more than ever before, the need exists to enhance the education of children, and thus teachers, with a new set of interculturally grounded knowledge, skills, and dispositions so they are better able to solve the global problems with people different from themselves that they, and their children, are certain to confront in the years ahead. Teachers, thus, must not only enhance their own intercultural competence, but must also understand the nuances of intercultural communication and interaction sufficiently so they can transfer this to the students in their charge.
Leptonema
Authors: Picardeau Mathieu 
Published: December 2017

Lep.to.ne'ma. Gr. adj.leptosthin, narrow, fine; Gr. neut. n.nemaa filament or thread; N.L. neut. n.Leptonemaa thin filament or thread, describing a bacterium that resembles a thin filament or thread.Spirochaetes / Spirochaetia / Spirochaetales / Leptospiraceae / LeptonemaLong, thin, flexible rods, 0.1–0.2μm in diameter and 13–21μm in length, with a regular helical coiling pattern having a wavelength of 0.6–0.7 µm. Unicellular but may be observed as dividing pairs or short chains in actively growing cultures. Resting stages are not known. Gram‐stain negative. Due to small diameter, unstained cells arenot visible by bright‐field microscopy. Dark‐field or phase‐contrast microscopy is required for visualization of unstained cells. Highly motile.Obligate aerobes. Growth temperatures range between 13 and 30°C, with optimal growth at 28–30°C.Chemoorganotrophic; consume long‐chain fatty acids and fatty alcohols as primary carbon and energy sources. Can grow on trypticase media. Uses respiration with oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. Optimal growth occurs in semisolid (0.2%) agar media. Growth on 1–2% solid agar results in the formation of clear to turbid subsurface colonies. Oxidase‐positive. Lipase‐positive. Nonpathogenic for cattle, gerbils, guinea pigs, hamsters, and mice.Free living in aquatic environments and soil. Some strains found in association with animals. Does not share significant levels of sequence similarity with otherLeptospiraceaeas determined by DNA hybridization analysis. The 16S rRNA sequence is distinct from otherLeptospiraceae.DNA G + C content (mol%): 54.Type species:Leptonema illini(Hanson, Tripathy, Evans and Alexander 1974) Hovind‐Hougen 1983, 439VP(Effective publication: Hovind‐Hougen 1979, 251) (LeptospiraserotypeilliniHanson, Tripathy, Evans and Alexander 1974, 356).
Grimshaw, Allen (1929–2011)
Authors: Corsaro William A. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Allen Grimshaw was born in New York City in 1929. He took his AB degree in anthropology and sociology at the University of Missouri in 1950 and his PhD at the University of Pennsylvania in 1959. He joined the faculty at Indiana University, Bloomington that same year as Instructor and retired as professor of sociology in 1994. Grimshaw's most significant contribution to sociology was theory construction and empirical research in two areas: conflict and violence, and the general area of sociolinguistics. In the later part of his career Grimshaw successfully integrated these two areas in studies of the discourse of international negotiations on the macro level and of conflict talk (sociolinguistic investigations of arguments in conversations) at the micro level.
Tilly, Charles (1929–2008)
Authors: Hanagan Michael 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Charles Tilly was a leading American historical sociologist. His first book was a widely acclaimed study of the Vendée and the rural counter‐revolutionaries of 1793–1796. Over his entire career he published more than 50 books in social history and historical sociology. Among his best‐known works were
The Contentious French
,
Popular Contention in Great Britain 1758–1834
, and (with Doug McAdam and Sidney Tarrow),
The Dynamics of Contention
. He particularly contributed to the study and understanding of contentious action, state‐making, and the rise of European capitalism. In his last years he was involved in a major shift in methodological approach highlighting the role of mechanisms and social relations in the study of social change, finally describing himself as a “rational realist.”
Moskos, Charles (1934–2008)
Authors: Miller Laura L. , Williams John Allen 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Charles C. Moskos (1934–2008) was a highly influential and internationally recognized sociologist who helped develop the field of military sociology through his scholarship, teaching, mentorship, prolific writing, organizational leadership, public policy engagement, and lectures in numerous civilian and military institutions in the United States and abroad. Moskos's most significant research focused on the American enlisted experience, social integration in the military – especially racial integration, military peace‐keeping and humanitarian operations, and the I/O hypothesis, or model of institutional and occupational forms of military organization. Moskos also made significant contributions to the study of conscientious objection and national service, as well as the history of Greek Americans.
Karim, Nazmul (1922–1982)
Authors: Khondker Habibul 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Professor A.K. Nazmul Karim (1922–1982), a Bangladeshi sociologist, educated at Columbia University and London University, played a pioneering role in establishing sociology as an academic discipline in Bangladesh with the help of UNESCO in 1957. His teaching and research on rural social stratification and political power inspired a generation of Bangladeshi sociologists and made sociology a highly popular field of social science in the country.
Migrant Workers
Authors: Khondker Habibul 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Migrant workers are those who work for income in countries other than where they are born. Migration of the laboring class or the flow of people across national boundaries is a physical evidence of globalization, a master process which may be viewed as an amalgam of flows: flows of capital, labor, technology, popular culture, ideas of modernity and radical contra‐modern views. The drivers of migration include demographic imbalance, regional and international income inequality, breakdown of social order, and environmental degradation. The flow of people in the twenty‐first century is multidirectional. Migrants move from the Global South to the Global North, and in some instances in the opposite direction.
Gypsies
Authors: Lydaki Anna 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Gypsies, the nomadic groups now known as Roma, set out from northwest India at the end of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century, and most of them are now settled permanently in one place. Their language, Romani, is not written and spoken by all Gypsies, but there are many dialects influenced by borrowed elements from the countries in which the live. Gypsies have always been the target of racism, arousing, on the one hand, the notion of the romantic stereotype, but also exciting a negative response from the mainstream who, unwilling to accept anyone different, refuse to treat Gypsies as equals. They are considered unreliable and are often associated with witchcraft. Today, the Gypsies' plight is critical as the evolution of technology has rendered their traditional jobs obsolete and almost all of them make a living from peddling, a dying trade in itself in the maelstrom of global financial strife. Poverty, unhealthy living conditions, the frequent necessity of moving around, unemployment and the rejection they often face, all lead to Gypsy children abandoning school in an effort to find work in order to survive.
Marine Pollution
Authors: Burns Thomas J. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Marine pollution refers to the degradation of the earth's oceans. The vast preponderance of marine pollution can be attributed to ways in which humankind relates to the natural environment. Sources include runoff from the use of herbicides, chemical fertilizers, and insecticides in farming, industrial wastes, trailings from mine operations, oil spills, improperly treated sewage, and silt from erosion. To understand the human causes of environmental degradation in general, and marine pollution in particular, it is important to consider a number ofdemographic and social phenomena. These include: increasing population pressures, globalization processes, inefficient use of resources and the dumping of waste, metabolic rift, overtaxing of the oceans' resources as a commons problem, mismatches between the problems and the institutions that would address them, and cultures based around expanding consumption. Addressing these problems would be facilitated by a growing cultural awareness of the natural environment, as well as by the advent of practices stewarding the common resources of the world's oceans.
Nomads
Authors: Fiddian‐Qasmiyeh Elena 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Nomads rely on movement and mobility as an intrinsic part of their livelihood strategies, moving across different types of territory and for different distances, often consciously or unconsciously crossing international borders. In recent history, the mobility of nomadic people has been viewed as a threat to sociopolitical stability, leading to measures being taken to settle nomadic groups in order to control them and force them to contribute to a national economy.
Alliances (Racial/Ethnic)
Authors: Bowser Benjamin P. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractSince 2000, there has been explosive growth in the social movement literature primarily from international case studies of movements in reaction to globalization. There is a growing recognition that globalization is about advancing neoliberal economics. A feature of this literature is that the social identities of international alliance actors are rarely defined by race or ethnicity. Perhaps other more fundamental bases for alliances and conflicts may exist that are overlooked because of the particular US obsession with race and ethnicity. Alternatively, race and ethnic differences may be more important than realized in the global cases. Whatever is the case, the global case studies have yet to offer new theoretical insights about the inner workings of movements or alliances. An example of an experimental approach was found that could contextualize factors and generate theory in alliance formation for studies in both the United States and globally.
Cognitive Interviewing
Authors: Ryan J. Michael , Noel HarmoniJoie 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Cognitive interviewing is a qualitative method used to pretest survey questions before the survey is fielded so changes can be made to improve the questions if needed. It is among the most widely used means of pretesting survey questions, especially for official government surveys and is currently the primary method of pretesting utilized by federal statistical agencies in the United States.
Du Bois: “Talented Tenth”
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

At crucial moments in a people's history, the question “What is to be done?” is raised. Alongside this question, additional questions will follow, such as “Who will do it, when, and how?” When one explores such works as Plato's
Republic
, Machiavelli's
The Prince
, Comte's
Course in Positive Philosophy
, Marx and Engel's
Communist Manifesto
, and Edward W. Blyden's
The People of Africa
, one is deeply aware of the sense of crisis expressed by the writers and the urgency with which they raised the questions posed above. One must therefore understand the responses to group or national crises and the urgency of responses to such crises before fully understanding W.E.B. Du Bois's own urgent response to the national crisis of race, and to the many ways in which the crisis was more pronounced and devastating to blacks.
Grobalization
Authors: Ryan J. Michael 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Grobalization is a term coined by sociologist George Ritzer in his book
The Globalization of Nothing
. It is meant to serve as a companion to the widely employed concept of glocalization. Grobalization is seen as a companion process to glocalization, both under the broader heading of globalization. While glocalization represents the unique combinations resulting from the interpenetration of the global and the local, grobalization represents “the imperialistic ambitions of nations, corporations, organizations, and the like and their desire, indeed need, to impose themselves on various geographic areas.” Thus, glocalization would be most closely associated with postmodern, pluralistic ideas of heterogeneity, whereas grobalization represents a more modern, imperialistic, and homogenizing perspective.
Labor/Labor Power
Authors: Beamish Rob 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Labor is an eternal, naturally imposed condition, common to all societies. Humankind is directly part of the material order of nature and inescapably bound to its laws (e.g., gravity, mitosis and meiosis, aging). As living creatures, humans have specific material needs they must meet (e.g., metabolizing oxygen, water, and protein). Those needs are not all met immediately and directly. Through the evolution of the material order, the human order came to stand separated from the material order. Whereas the material order of nature is direct, concrete, and thingly, the human order is concurrently immediate and mediate, concrete and abstract, and objective and subjective. Labor in general is the activity through which humankind mediates itself with the material order and draws upon the concrete and abstract aspects of its being to create and recreate its existence. If labor is the eternal, naturally imposed condition of human life, labor power is the eternal, active, mediating capacity bringing humankind into contact with the material order. In class societies, labor power is the sole source of value creation and because its expenditure over an entire working day can produce value above its own value, it is the source of surplus value.
Postmodern Social Theory
Authors: Ryan J. Michael 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Postmodern social theory is a field which is both difficult to define and rejects being defined. It is, in fact, a field that struggles against definitions, against norms, against protocols. Instead, it seeks to deconstruct, decenter, and delegitimize scientific claims to universal truths. With these characteristics in mind, it is easy to understand why defining such a field would be a difficult, if not counterproductive, task. Various authors have sought to overcome this difficulty by relying on common characteristics of various postmodern theories, others have defined the field by those who work in it, and still others – particularly those who work in the field itself – have avoided any attempts to define it at all.
Sexual Markets, Commodification, and Consumption
Authors: Plummer Ken 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThere is a long history of sex markets but contemporary capitalism has generated a wider and more intensive array. In this entry critical theories are discussed and eight basic market types are briefly described:selling relationships(e.g., “mail order brides”);selling emotions(e.g., sex therapy);selling “things” like drugs (e.g., viagra and sex toys);selling representations(e.g., the major global industry of pornography);selling marketing(e.g., advertising);selling bodies(e.g., table dancing/lap dancing, sex tourism);selling people(e.g., sex trafficking); andselling life itself(e.g., gamete donation, surrogacy, and adoption). Sex markets, sex work, and prostitution have thus become more diversified than ever before with a wider range of services.