bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Group Communication and Problem‐Solving
Authors: Hirokawa Randy 
Published: September 2017

Interest in the relationship between group communication and group problem‐solving performance has a long and somewhat controversial history (→ Group Communication). Many trace interest in problem‐solving in the group context back to the early work of Maximilian Ringelmann (1861–1931). Ringelmann first measured the effort of a single individual working alone, then measured how much more effort was achieved by two, and then three, people working together. He found that the triad exerted the most effort, but the intriguing aspect of this finding was that the addition of each person did not increase the performance by the average effort of a single individual. Triads, for example, only exerted 2.5 times more effort than individuals working alone. In short, Ringelmann discovered aninverse relationshipbetween the number of people in a group and the magnitude of individual performance on additive tasks. This finding contradicts the notion that groups work harder than individuals, and became known as theRingelmann effect. Subsequent work carried out by Ingham and colleagues (1974) essentially replicated Ringelmann's original findings.
Hacktivism
Authors: Taylor Paul A. 
Published: September 2017

The simplest definition of hacktivism is that it represents the conjunction of technologically knowledgeablehackingtechniques with the values and communicational strategies of politicalactivism. Whilst hacking involves the imaginative and unorthodox use of computers and their systems, hacktivism is the application of those techniques in the pursuit of political agendas frequently associated with new globalized social movements (→ Technology and Globalization). Behind these initial, relatively clear definitions, however, lie more ambiguous and less easily separated relationships between old‐style hacking and its new applications.
Health Behavior Change, Transtheoretical Model of
Authors: Velicer Wayne F. 
Published: September 2017

The transtheoretical model is an integrative model of behavior change, combining key constructs from other theories. The model describes how people modify a problem behavior or acquire a positive behavior. It has been very influential in guiding the design of behavior change interventions during the last two decades. The central organizing construct of the model is the stages of change theory (→ Stages of Change Model). The model also includes a series of independent variables, the processes of change, which are 10 cognitive and behavioral activities that facilitate change, and a series of intermediate outcome measures, including the decisional balance inventory, self‐efficacy or situational temptations scale, and behavior measures (→ Health Campaigns, Communication in).
Health Belief Model
Authors: Menon Usha , Szalacha Laura 
Published: September 2017

The health belief model (HBM), prodigiously researched, has enjoyed sustained popularity amid evolving social norms, theories and models, and the recent developments of advanced technology influencing health behavior change (→ Health Communication; Planned Social Change through Communication). Developed by US Public Health Service social psychologists in the 1950s, the HBM was conceptualized to model the failure of individuals to engage in disease prevention or detection programs (→ Prevention and Communication). Around 1974, and later in the 1980s, additional components (knowledge about the disease, self‐efficacy or confidence in one's ability to perform the action of interest, cues to action), such as those examining responses to diagnosed illnesses and symptoms and adherence to medical regimens, were added to the model (Janz et al. 2003; → Health Literacy).
Health Communication, Ethics in
Authors: Guttman Nurit 
Published: September 2017

Ethics is at the heart of → health communication. Ethical issues are embedded in a wide array of health communication activities that aim to influence people's health‐related beliefs or behaviors. These activities include disseminating information about particular health risks, persuading people to adopt healthy lifestyles or to persuade others to adopt healthy lifestyles, and modeling healthy behaviors. Invariably, such health communication activities raise a multitude of ethical concerns, in particular because they deal with deeply held personal preferences and social values, or aim to foster social norms opposed by certain groups.
Heterosexism and the Media
Authors: Suter Elizabeth A. 
Published: September 2017

Heterosexism “refers to the belief and expectation that everyone is or should be heterosexual” and the term “heteronormativity” equates heterosexual experience with human experience, in effect “render[ing] all other forms of human sexual expression pathological, deviant, invisible, unintelligible, or written out of existence” (Yep 2002, 167). Heteronormativity provides a larger context for understanding how heterosexism influences cultural and social institutions, such as the media (→ Behavioral Norms: Perception through the Media).
Historic Key Events and the Media
Authors: Stöber Rudolf 
Published: September 2017

Historic key events are genuine events with historical importance. Four factors are important to consider in this regard. (1) Historic key events have ashort and distinct duration. The event happens within a short time and it is clearly separated from later and earlier events. It is arguable whether wars and revolutions should be considered as historic key events; overall it seems best to regard them as chains of related historic key events (Wilke 1989). (2) Historic key events have a significantimpact on later times. The historical dimensions of the political, social, economic, or cultural effects are sometimes obvious when the event happens, but at other times the importance of the event becomes clearer with the passing of time, when the significance of its effects can be evaluated differently. It is easier to regard political or economic events as key events than social or cultural events. (3) Historic key events arenot primarily created for media attention. Their importance is independent of any media coverage. Even when some aspects of an event may have been planned in advance to attract media attention, its main purpose is not media effect. (4) Historic key events areambiguous and subjectivein many ways. Billy Wilder's filmOne, Two, Three(1961) started with a quote that provides a perfect illustration of the ambiguities of historic key events and media key events: “On Sunday, August 13th, 1961, the eyes of America were on the nation's capital, where Roger Maris was hitting home runs #44 and 45 against the Senators. On that same day, without any warning, the East German Communists sealed off the border between East and West Berlin. I only mention this to show the kind of people we're dealing with – real shifty!” On the one hand, the mass media cover key events; on the other hand, media routines can be used for political or other purposes (→ News Routines). The ambiguous status of a key event is due to the point of view. The above quotation illustrates that the importance of a given event may be valued very differently: some events achieve the status of a historic key event, while others remain simply key events in media coverage.
Hybridity Theories
Authors: Kraidy Marwan M. 
Published: September 2017

Theories of hybridity entered international communication research at a time when the cultural imperialism thesis was ceding ground to the media globalization paradigm (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories; Globalization Theories). This has been controversial because “the idea of cultural hybridization is one of those deceptively simple‐seeming notions which turns out … to have lots of tricky connotations and theoretical implications” (Tomlinson 1999, 141). Although usage of the term hybridity acquired critical momentum in Anglophone postcolonial studies – mostly focused on the British colonization of India and its politico‐economic‐cultural aftermath, especially in the work of literary critic Homi Bhabha (1994) – the notion itself has many historical and scholarly antecedents (→ Postcolonial Theory).
Identification
Authors: Cohen Jonathan 
Published: September 2017

Identification with media characters is a key component of viewers' propensity to become engaged (→ Transportation Theory) and involved in media content (→ Involvement with Media Content). Identification is an imaginative process that is evoked as a response to characters presented in mediated texts, whereby → audiences feel as if they are part of the world depicted by the mediated text (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality). When identifying with characters, audience members experience the events described by the plot not as external viewers, but rather from the perspective of the character with which they identify, and as if they were part of the story. Zillmann (2002) argues that because viewers often respond to characters they are obviously responding to them as witnesses (i.e., experiencing them from the outside), but this criticism is valid only if one assumes that the responses to characters are constant over time and across viewers and can take only one form. Most likely, identification and other forms of response (such as → parasocial interaction and relationships) are intertwined and people move in and out of these varying forms as they view (Wilson 1993).
Idiographic vs Nomothetic Science
Authors: Lindlof Thomas R. 
Published: September 2017

For more than a century, two forms of explanation have been used in the social sciences: nomothetic and idiographic. These two kinds of explanation embody major differences in scientific logic, → research methods, and even understandings of how the world is constituted. The differences are so stark that they appear to some scholars to be unbridgeable, thereby threatening the prospect of achieving unity in the sciences. However, other scholars welcome both approaches, viewing them as complementary ways of studying and evaluating the same phenomena. At the heart of the nomothetic/idiographic debates is the question of whether the social sciences require different modes of explanation than the natural sciences. These debates persist to the present day, albeit at lesser intensity than before and with greater sophistication in the terms of the argument.
Image
Authors: Benoit William L. 
Published: September 2017

One's image is a very important factor. For example, the oil industry came under fire in 2006 as profits rose along with gasoline prices. Actor and director Mel Gibson was roundly criticized for making anti‐Semitic comments while intoxicated. Athletes such as track star Justin Gatlin and cyclist Floyd Landis came under fire for alleged use of illegal performance‐enhancing drugs. First, the nature of our image influences our self‐esteem; if we believe we have created an undesirable image, that can be an embarrassing and unpleasant experience for us. Second, our image can influence our relations with others. Our reputation influences our persuasiveness; people are less likely to be persuaded by those whom they believe to have undesirable images. For us to be persuasive, our audience must believe that we are knowledgeable about our topic (expertise) and they must have faith that we will provide them with unbiased information (trustworthiness) (→ Credibility Effects; Credibility of Content). Third, others may shun us and treat us badly when they form undesirable impressions of us. It is clear that a desirable image is important to create, maintain, and repair when tarnished (→ Self‐Presentation; Image Restoration Theory).
Impression Management
Authors: Kim Eun Joo 
Published: September 2017

As a fundamental interpersonal process, impression management is an important concept in any communication context. Impression management refers to the process of editing, packaging, and communicating information to control one's own images as perceived by other people. Studies have shown that people use impression management to influence others, and that it eventually affects the overall quality of one's life. Even when people have no direct reason to influence others' behaviors, people are motivated to impression‐manage for the following two reasons. First, impression management influences their own self‐esteem and reduces negative emotions. Second, it enables people to construct and maintain their private identities. Impression management has been used to define diverse interpersonal communication phenomena, including encounters between strangers, job interviews, friend relationships, romantic relationships, and doctor–patient relationships. The term “impression management” is commonly used interchangeably with → “self‐presentation,” although some studies differentiate between the two with regard to intended goal direction and authenticity. While impression management focuses on goal‐directed social activity to enhance one's own image and power, self‐presentation focuses on self‐relevant or authentic presentation (Leary & Kowalski 1990).
Information Overload
Authors: Grimshaw David J. 
Published: September 2017

Information overload is a term first used in the early 1960s to indicate limits to human information handling capacity (Meier 1962) and later by Toffler (1970) as one dimension of “future shock,” by which he broadly meant too much change in too short a time. Computer communications and the → Internet have contributed to the realization of this “shock,” sometimes also referred to as “techno‐stress” (Weil & Rosen 1997). The term “information overload” has its roots in the context of computer‐mediated communications (→ Human–Computer Interaction), where it might typically be applied to an individual who receives a large number of emails per day and who experiences some difficulty in processing the volume of information. Lest one is tempted to think of information overload as a new problem, let us recall the words of T. S. Eliot (1934), “where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?”
Information Seeking
Authors: Knobloch‐Westerwick Silvia 
Published: September 2017

Information seeking may be considered as at the heart of much communication. It includes deliberate, intentional pursuit of further knowledge, as well as the more casual skimming of messages and accidental observations and encounters. Scholars in communication research have employed the term in a variety of contexts – for instance, interpersonal relationships, → Organizational Communication, personal health issues, mass communication, → Political Communication, or database and Internet use (→ Interpersonal Communication; Health Communication; Internet; Exposure to the Internet). The following overview is structured by these areas. An overarching methodological problem in information‐seeking research is that individuals may often be unable or not willing to report their information‐seeking behavior with the accuracy and precision required. Fortunately, new communication technologies have provided not only new forms of information seeking but also new ways to observe and measure it, for example through log files (→ Log‐File Analysis).
Information Society
Authors: Webster Frank 
Published: September 2017

The designation “information society” presupposes that → Information plays a defining role in the way we live today. For many commentators it is because information is more pervasive than hitherto that it is appropriate to characterize the present as self‐evidently an information society. There is obviously more media output, more education available, more information and communications technologies about, more information occupations than before. Accordingly, it is obvious that we live in an information society. Such thinking is tautologous.
Interactivity, Concept of
Authors: Neuman W. Russell 
Published: September 2017

Interactivity is a relatively new, evolving, and still elusive concept in the study of communication, most frequently associated with new digital media technologies (→ Digital Media, History of). The concept's elusiveness may result from the common use of the term to identify a loosely defined bundle of attributes rather than a single attribute or phenomenon. At its core, interactivity refers to the phenomenon of mutual adaptation, usually between a communication medium such as the Internet or a video game and a human user of that medium.
Interactivity in Reception
Authors: Lee Kwan Min 
Published: September 2017

Interactivityis regarded as one of the most critical concepts in new media theories due to the increasing popularity of interactive media such as the → Internet, computer games, and computer‐mediated communication (CMC) media (→ Video Games; Human–Computer Interaction). Despite the explosion of theoretical discussions on the concept of interactivity, a precise explication of the concept is yet to be accomplished. As a result, this concept often implies different things to different people in different contexts.
Intercultural Communication in Health‐Care
Authors: Watson Bernadette M. 
Published: September 2017

In the twenty‐first century mankind lives in a more multicultural environment than ever before. For many health practitioners this means they have to interact with people from different cultures. Good communication is vital to effective health‐care, so communication problems in intercultural encounters have the potential to lead to patient misdiagnosis. In such encounters health practitioners not only face the natural barriers of communicating with patients who may be unfamiliar with the health practitioners' language, but they may face an extra challenge when patients have culturally different health belief systems (→ Health Communication; Doctor–Patient Talk).
Intercultural Media Effects
Authors: Elasmar Michael G. 
Published: September 2017

In the 1940s, → Paul F. Lazarsfeld defined international communication as a study of the “processes by which various cultures influence each other” (Lazarsfeld 1976, 485). The term culture has been defined in a variety of ways over the years. An all‐encompassing definition of culture was given by Kroeber: culture “is a way of habitual acting, feeling and thinking channeled by a society out of an infinite number and variety of potential ways of living” (Kroeber 1952, 136; → Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Intergroup Accommodative Processes
Authors: Gallois Cindy 
Published: September 2017

We constantly interact with people from different social groups to our own: cultures, ethnic groups, genders, ages, occupations, organizations, even clubs (→ Intercultural and Intergroup Communication). We may wish to affiliate with another person or group, or to distinguish ourselves from them. We express this motivation through language and communication, and through our interpretation of others' communication. The main communication dimensions considered here are intergroup (versus interpersonal) and accommodation (versus nonaccommodation). The main theory describing and explaining them is → Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT: Giles 1973; see Gallois et al. 2005, for a review).
Intergroup Dimensions of Organizational Life
Authors: Callan Victor J. 
Published: September 2017

Organizations are intergroup in nature in that they are collections of people working together to achieve a common set of objectives. These objectives are typically around the creation of innovative products and services that meet the needs of customers, and organizations are always searching for new ways to deliver products and services that offer better quality, more innovation, and higher value than do their competitors. Communication within and across the organization is the central means by which individual and group activities in organizations are coordinated to devise, disseminate and pursue such objectives (→ Bureaucracy and Communication; Control and Authority in Organizations).
International Television
Authors: Curtin Michael 
Published: September 2017

During the latter half of the twentieth century, most discussions about international television tended to focus on national media systems and relations of exchange among those systems. Since the 1990s, however, television has increasingly been studied as a global phenomenon. Although national systems still figure prominently, research and policy debates now explore the ways in which television participates in broader processes of globalization (→ Globalization of the Media; Globalization Theories).
Internet
Authors: McDonald Daniel G. 
Published: September 2017

The Internet is a network of computer networks. In that sense, even though the content provided can often be similar to that offered by radio or television networks (→ Radio; Radio Networks; Television; Television Networks), a more appropriate structural analogy should probably be to telephone or telegraph networks (→ Telegraph, History of). The Internet, telephone, and telegraph networks all originated as electronic means of communicating in a point‐to‐point context. In relation to content, as well, early experiments with the telephone (in the 1880s and 1890s) connected performers and audiences in multiple locations and varied content, such as sports contests, musical programs, and vaudeville shows, and provided a kind of conceptual forerunner for what was to come with radio, television, and the Internet.
Internet Law and Regulation
Authors: Eko Lyombe 
Published: September 2017

The → Internet is a global network of computer networks linked by various information and telecommunication infrastructures and technologies. The Internet and the technologies that transmit its rivers of information around the globe are conceptualized and regulated by all countries of the world within the framework of their political, economic, social, and cultural systems. Each country has an attitude toward the Internet, especially those parts of the Internet within its national territory. This multiplicity of regulatory approaches to the Internet essentially transforms cyberspace into a series of interconnected jurisdictions where each country attempts to apply its rules, regulations, and culture to the networks within its territorial jurisdiction. Internet law and regulation is further complicated by the convergence of several media – information technology, telecommunications, print media, sound, still images, and motion pictures – which are regulated differently by different countries (→ Communication and Law; Convergence of Media Systems; Media Policy).
Internet Ratings Systems
Authors: Van Couvering Elizabeth 
Published: September 2017

Internet ratings systems, such as those provided by Nielsen//NetRatings or comScore Media Metrix, measure and rank the popularity of different websites and are used extensively in setting online advertising rates (→ Internet; Exposure to the Internet). The three typical online metrics are
unique visitors
,
page views
, and
reach
. In theory, these are simple measures:
unique visitors
measures the number of visitors to a website (analogous to the “audience” of a television show),
page views
measures the number of times a web page has been seen, and
reach
represents the percentage of the audience who have visited the website during the period under question (typically monthly). In practice, each of these elements is subject to some controversy due to a lack of agreement about measuring methods and differing sources of data. In addition to the main variables of unique visitors, page views, and reach, ratings companies also report on the
demographic profile
(age, sex, race, location, occupation, education, income, etc.) of visitors for different websites. Ratings agencies may also report directly on the frequency and volume of advertising placed on different websites.