bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Communication Modes,
K
enyan
Authors: Miller Ann Neville , Booker Nancy Achieng' 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry provides an introduction to Kenyan modes of communication. Collectivism is the key value that determines how Kenyans choose to communicate. Within the broader collectivist approach, relative status of the individuals involved and the purpose of communication in a given situation also affect the appropriate mode of communication. Indirectness, third party communication, judiciously withholding information, and use of metaphors, proverbs, and stories are characteristic of Kenyan interaction with persons of different status in society, or when conveying sensitive news. Directness is typical of close, horizontal personal relationships.
Communication Modes,
K
orean
Authors: Robinson James H. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Within Korean modes of communication,
nunch'i
is critically important. Without it, a Korean appears immature at the least. With it, a Korean is well prepared to communicate effectively in social as well as professional contexts. More often than not
nunch'i
is seen and not heard. It is measured more by silences than by words. Within Korean society,
nunch'i
is related to dualism, hierarchy,
ch'emyon
or face and
kibun
or mood. Its usage can help one escape the unpleasant for oneself, but it can also appear less than truthful to others. If you overuse it, you might appear manipulative. If you are junior in status, you need it more than if you are senior. It can help ego‐protect one's own
ch'emyon
or
kibun
as well as those of one's seniors. When two people are in the same
nunch'i
channel, communication is highly effective.
Communication Modes,
T
aiwanese
Authors: Sandel Todd L. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry explains a number of communication styles that diverge from those found in China, and which differ within Taiwan. Taiwanese speak a distinct form of Mandarin, called Taiwan Guoyu, and often code‐switch and speak Taiwanese. Within Taiwan, people in the south tend to speak more Taiwanese and may be seen as local or “tai,” while those in the north speak more Mandarin, and may use a more feminine and cute style of discourse. Taiwanese perceive themselves as living on a beautiful and small island that requires protection; they are a society that is multilingual and multicultural, open and welcoming of immigrants. Finally, many in Taiwan express admiration for Japan, and see the past Japanese colonial legacy positively.
Hate Speech
Authors: Haas John 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Hate speech is one of a family of concepts that refer to speech that is designed to offend and denigrate members of a group. Initially, most definitions of hate speech included forms of expression that dehumanize members of racial, religious, or ethnic groups. That view of hate speech has expanded to include additional categories such as gender, age, sexual orientation, and physical capacity. A long tradition of research has sought to explain hate speech as one rational outcome of the communication process when people base their communication with others on group membership.
Hatred
Authors: Osborne Randall E. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractHate or hatred, as nouns, are defined as “intense hostility and aversion usually deriving from fear, anger, or sense of injury.” From this definition, we derive both an explanation for primary causes of hate and advice on what one might do to diminish or combat hate. As research on the topic of hatred has evolved over the last several decades, efforts have been made to assist individuals in understanding that “hate” is not something that “other people do” but something that all human beings are capable of feeling and expressing. Implications of this shift in thinking for work on combating hatred must be explored.
Intergroup Conflict and Reconciliation
Authors: Bar‐Tal Daniel , Vered Soli 
Published: December 2017

AbstractIntractable intergroup conflicts are demanding, stressful, exhausting, and costly both in human and material terms. Societies involved in this type of conflict develop appropriate sociopsychological conditions which enable them to adapt to the conflictual situation, survive the stressful period, and struggle successfully with the adversary. Changing the nature of relations between rival sides to an intractable conflict requires much more than reaching its official settlement. The establishment of stable and lasting peaceful relations between the former adversaries necessitates the formation of an ethos of peace and the construction of peace culture through processes of peacemaking and reconciliation. This is the peacebuilding process, which involves major societal change designed to enable the structuring of a new relationship based on mutual trust and acceptance, cooperation, and consideration of mutual needs. Success in this long and challenging societal process is a necessary condition for establishing life without bloodshed and suffering.
Intergroup Contact Theory
Authors: Joyce Nick 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Intergroup contact theory states that when an individual is allowed to communicate with someone who belongs to another group, their prejudices toward this other group will be reduced. This theory has been extensively supported by hundreds of empirical studies using a variety of methodologies and in numerous intergroup contexts. This entry discusses how researchers conceptualize intergroup contact and how this conceptualization has been expanded over time, details support for the basic effects of contact, and discusses variables that change intergroup contact's effectiveness (moderators), as well as variables that may be mechanisms of those effects (mediators).
Intergroup Media
Authors: Abrams Jessica R. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Intergroup media is the transactional relationship between media engagement, media content, and group identity. These three processes are presented and discussed, and the relationships between the three should be understood as bidirectional rather than unidirectional. A model representing the relationships is offered. Because the nature of the relationships will vary based on a specific group identity, the relationships are broadly addressed. New avenues for research are also offered.
Neuroscience of Intergroup Communication
Authors: Cargile Aaron Castelán 
Published: December 2017

AbstractIntergroup communication emerges when individuals perceive themselves or others as belonging to a social category. During most of the 20th century, scholars were left to infer this internal shift, from interpersonal to intergroup, based solely on external behaviors and self‐reports. But technological advancements in the form of electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have more recently presented scientists with the capacity to peer inside the living human body, most particularly at the brain. As a result, neuroscientific research has mushroomed beyond the borders of medicine to offer a tantalizing and tentative look at internal events believed to be responsible for intergroup communication.
Power in Intergroup Communication
Authors: Ng Sik Hung , Stolte John F. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Power and cognate concepts of dependence, influence, control, authority, legitimacy, and dominance abound in sociology, psychology, and other social sciences. This entry integrates major conceptions of power, and presents an overview of key perspectives on power in intergroup communication, emphasizing theories of social exchange, social identity, and speech. Finally, it explores complementarities among these perspectives that promise to expand understanding of power and intergroup communication.
Secondary Transfer Effect of Intergroup Contact
Authors: Lolliot Simon 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of the state of the research programme for the secondary transfer effect of contact. Rooted in Gordon Allport's contact hypothesis—that intergroup contact will reduce prejudice—the secondary transfer effect of contact describes the process whereby contact with one outgroup reduces prejudice towards different outgroups. To date, four mediating mechanisms of the secondary transfer effect have contributed to our growing theoretical and empirical understanding of this effect. These mediators include attitude generalization, deprovincialization, intergroup anxiety, and perspective‐taking. The mediating mechanisms of attitude generalization, intergroup anxiety, and perspective‐taking all enjoy consistent support, whereas the deprovincialization hypothesis has, to date, received mixed evidence, partially owing to its narrow operationalization. Further theoretical development of the deprovincialization hypothesis is warranted. Similarly, more experimental and multiwave longitudinal research is needed to solidify both the underlying causality of the secondary transfer effect and to test the latest set of moderation and mediation hypotheses.
Social Identity Theory
Authors: Schmid Katharina 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Since its inception in the early 1970s, social identity theory has become one of the leading social psychological theories on group dynamics and intergroup relations. This entry provides an overview of the main tenets of the theory, with reference to key research findings. The theory explains how and when social categorization, social comparison, and social identification processes lead to intergroup discrimination and ingroup favoritism. Individuals categorize themselves and others into ingroups and outgroups, and strive for a positively valued social identity. Depending on the perceived status relations between the ingroup and the outgroup, the perceived stability and legitimacy of these status differences, and the perceived permeability of group boundaries, individuals may engage in three strategies to either achieve or maintain a positive identity, which have direct implications for understanding intergroup relations: individual mobility, social creativity, and social competition.
Sports, Culture, and Intergroup Communication
Authors: Giles Howard 
Published: December 2017

AbstractSport is largely a social construction that sustains a plethora of cultural forms, ideologies, and communicative practices. Indeed, some commentators claim one cannot understand a culture adequately if they do not appreciate its distinctive sports and attending histories. Sport reflects societies' attitudes, with the latter shaping the former and often being associated with nationalistic ideals and militarism. Intergroup dynamics are readily observed in fans' dress styles, fanzines, expressed values, and the nature of their rivalries, to name but a few. Different sports, and the way they are mediatized and commodified, are changing every year, and this presents an exciting challenge for intergroup theory development.
Culture‐Specific and Culture‐General Training
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Intercultural training programs are called culture specific when they focus on a particular country and culture general when they include material that prepares people to work anywhere in the world by discussing issues that are relevant for sojourners. There is much debate about what approach is more appropriate to prepare people for international assignments, and a combination of both types of trainings offer an optimal package. Culture‐general training consists of personal safety, principles of culture learning, culture theories, and sociopolitical and economic aspects. Culture‐specific consists of country‐, industry‐, and organization‐level knowledge and skills.
Intercultural Competence Development
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Intercultural competence development is used interchangeably with other constructs like intercultural sensitivity, intercultural expertise, cultural intelligence, and perspective taking. These concepts are used to capture the ability of sojourners and immigrants to adapt in the host culture where they are domiciled for a long period of time. Such long‐term assignments require cultural adaptation for the sojourners to be effective in their assignments. Intercultural competence calls for a set of abilities: the ability to observe cultural differences, the ability to empathize, and the ability to modify one's behavior to act appropriately in the host culture.
Intercultural Games and Simulations
Authors: Wiggins Bradley E. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The entry presents intercultural games and simulations in the context of their use as a training and learning tool for the purposes of improved or enhanced intercultural competency. It also introduces conceptual differences between cross‐cultural and intercultural, game and simulation, non‐digital and digital. Metaphors common to intercultural games and simulations illustrate their necessity in the entry in terms of bridging the conceptual complexity of culture with real‐world application. Prior to a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of national and synthetic cultural representation in simulations and games it is necessary to review a series of common intercultural simulations and games. Finally, several learning elements common to intercultural simulations and games are presented.
Borderlands
Authors: Cooks Leda , Zenovich Jennifer A. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
This entry discusses the evolution of theorizing the border and borderlands in intercultural communication scholarship. The entry focuses on the usefulness of these concepts in theorizing cultural interaction in the spaces where cultures overlap. We trace the use and tensions between these two terms and then offer a few conclusions about the possibilities that the border and borderlands provide for studying spaces of and for identity in intercultural communication scholarship.
Cultural Imperialism Theories
Authors: Potter Rich , Valdivia Angharad N. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThe cultural imperialism thesis developed in relation to dependency theory during the late 1960s and influenced geopolitical dynamics during the 1970s and 1980s, including the debate over a new world information and communications order (NWICO) and socialist policy, especially in Latin America. By the mid‐1980s, enthusiasm for the cultural imperialism thesis had been tempered by geopolitical trends, especially the accelerated integration of markets within a neoliberal framework, as well as a reorientation of global communications research toward active audiences and hybrid identities. As a result, the focus of cultural imperialism theories shifted from the influence of individual nation‐states to that of capitalism as a world system. Debates persist, but the recognition of uneven flows of information and media within a hegemonic system remains central to the field.
Cultural Nationalism
Authors: Cai Shenshen 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
After defining the concept of cultural nationalism, this entry compares cultural nationalism and state/political nationalism with regard to their respective emphasis on the function and significance of culture and state in nation building and survival, together with an explanation of the function and potential of cultural nationalism in supporting national subsistence and prosperity in a globalized world. Then the entry looks at a brief case study of cultural nationalism in contemporary China to further illustrate its most recent development in the biggest developing country and economic superpower in the world.
Diaspora and Diasporic Identity
Authors: Drzewiecka Jolanta A. 
Published: December 2017

AbstractThis entry provides an overview of approaches to diaspora and diasporic identity in communication. The key elements of diaspora are connections and activism across borders, multiple belonging, and deployment of primordial and fluid identities in different contexts. Scholars examine how diasporic groups construct and authenticate their identification with historic homes, how they maintain connections across borders, the forms of activism, and diasporic media and media use. The latter is the largest and fastest‐growing area.
Double Consciousness
Authors: McPhail Mark Lawrence 
Published: December 2017

AbstractDouble consciousness is the term used by William Edward Burghardt Du Bois to describe the sense of “two‐ness” that marked African American life and culture at the turn of the 20th century. For Du Bois, the defining characterization of black life was the paradoxical condition of being both included and simultaneously excluded from the American polity. The concept has had a significant influence on theoretical and critical scholarship that explores the intersections of difference and identity within African American scholarship and beyond, and offers a powerful perspective for interrogating and transforming the forces of social and symbolic domination and exclusion.
Identity Politics
Authors: Daugherty Jacqueline , Jackson Ronald L. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Identity politics is a concept used to describe the distribution of resources and rights, based on a claim to a particular biologically, socially, or self‐defined identity. This concept is predicated on two important assumptions: people who share an identity have common political/social/economic interests, and identity is a somewhat stable and measurable construct, which creates both ingroup and outgroup members. Identity politics is both a common political organizing strategy and an outcome of major theoretical movements.
Postcolonial Approaches to Intercultural Communication
Authors: Schwartz‐DuPre Rae Lynn 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Postcolonial intercultural communication is an intellectual, cultural, and political movement committed to two interrelated projects: (a) critiquing and resisting inequities, power imbalances, Eurocentric research methods, master narratives, universal theories of culture, spatial homogenization, and temporal teleology; and (b) an interventionist methodology that actively promotes decolonizing present scholarship, thereby creating space for new theories of knowledge production and understandings.
Postmodernism
Authors: Holliday Adrian 
Published: December 2017

AbstractPostmodernism represents a paradigm change in intercultural communication studies. It maintains that cultures as objectively bounded and describable domains of behavior are socially and politically constructed. As an example, the supposedly objective distinction between more individualist and more collectivist national cultures is instead a Western construction of superiority and deficiency respectively. The purpose of intercultural communication research and awareness cannot therefore be an objective focus on cultural difference, but rather a subjective exploration of the Self and Other politics of how difference is constructed, possibly in relation to prejudice and race, and of how such constructions can therefore be managed.
Third Space
Authors: Kelly Michael 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
The notion of the Third Space was developed in the 1990s to provide a theoretical tool for understanding intercultural contact in increasingly diverse cultural environments. It attempts to account for complex and contradictory patterns of interaction, to present a dynamic and dialogic understanding of intercultural exchange, to reduce presumptions of confrontation, and to avoid essentialist tendencies in intercultural relations. The concept has been useful in the areas of cultural criticism, mediation, and education, particularly language education. It has resolved some of the problems around traditional accounts of intercultural communication, but has also raised issues that have led to some resistance. Third Space is a fruitful concept, based on openness, but may be under pressure from hardening national and ideological attitudes.
Transnationalism
Authors: Kapoor Priya 
Published: December 2017

AbstractTransnationalism gives intercultural communication more than just an idiom for scattered migrant flows or for border crossing between sovereign nations. It also considers the affective domain accompanying relocation and dislocation, as social, economic, technological, and political linkages between people continue to grow. Transnationalism has become a turgid term that sheds light on the political‐economic‐cultural aspects of the study of human and social movements. New transnational frames evaluate the territorial and ideological resilience of nation‐states unevenly differentiated by their development policies, economic power, and military might. Theorizing transnationalism is an essential task within the field as it examines extant knowledge production in academia and presents possibilities of change from an economic regime—neoliberal globalization—that has seen few viable alternatives, other than transnational advocacy networks. With transnationalism comes a deep acknowledgment that the power dynamics in the world have shifted, and therefore new linkages of ideas and knowledges need new scholarship that defines them.
Communication Styles in English and German
Authors: House Juliane 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
In this entry cultural differences in communicative styles preferred by speakers of German and English are presented, and their impact on intercultural misunderstandings is discussed. Concretely, five dimensions contrasting these cultural differences are introduced and exemplified. The value and legitimacy of their explanatory power for culture clashes and for the perception of misunderstanding are investigated. These five dimensions are the outcome of a large number of empirical contrastive studies using a variety of different data sets and methodologies.
Conflict Management Styles across Cultures
Authors: van der Zee Karen , Hofhuis Joep 
Published: December 2017

Abstract
Due to globalization, interactions at work increasingly occur in an intercultural context. When members of different cultures meet at work, conflicts are not only more likely to occur, so is the chance that the way conflict partners respond to conflict will lead to incongruences. This entry presents an overview of cultural dimensions which have been identified as influencing negotiation strategies. Moreover, it discusses a number of social and psychological processes that are at play when conflict occurs between members of different cultural groups. The entry ends with some practical implications.
Cultural Assumptions in
C
hina and the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Prosser Michael H. 
Published: December 2017

Abstract

Both Chinese and Americans accept cultural assumptions that are sometimes similar and often different from each other. Foundational concepts derive in the Chinese context from such ancient individuals as Confucius in his
Analects
with an emphasis on benevolence (
ren
) and ritualistic and moral behavior (
de
and
li
). Despite cultural lapses during the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, ancient Chinese philosophies' logic stressed implicit, ritualistic, and harmonious behavior. Over time, Chinese logic became more intuitive, circular, and high context. Confucianism remains a current major cultural assumption for Chinese citizens, including the youth today. Based originally on the Greco/Roman/Judao/Christian philosophical tradition, Western, and especially American, cultural assumptions and values stress democracy, freedom, independence, truthful discourse, wisdom, ideal knowledge, justice, happiness, rule of law, and the good life. John Locke had a profound influence on the Western perspective, contributing ideas that were foundational to Jefferson's Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution, and the French Revolution's views of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Jefferson essentially copied Locke's views of humans' highest rights and values: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Although the influence of religious traditions and beliefs significantly continue an ongoing decline in Western and American society, the Bible remains the best‐selling book in the United States and it has an important influence in American life, including religious assumptions and traditions.