bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
MAUSS
Authors: Vandenberghe Frédéric 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe antiutilitarian movement of the MAUSS – an acronym for Mouvement Anti‐Utilitariste dans les Sciences Sociales – was founded by the economist, political scientist, and sociologist Alain Caillé in 1981 to counter the hegemony of utilitarianism in the social sciences (rational choice) and society (neoliberalism). Its organ is theRevue du MAUSS, a biannual journal devoted to the study of the gift in which anthropologists, sociologists, economists, political scientists, and psychoanalysts on the left explore the contours of an alternative science and society that are not based on self‐interest and egoism, but rather on struggle and altruism.
Meta‐Power
Authors: McGinty Patrick J.W. , Burns Tom R. , Hall Peter M. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In the social sciences, power and control are typically conceptualized in terms of the capacity or right of one agent (individual or collective) to get another agent to act in some specified way or even to act against her own will (Max Weber). In various ways, the most prominent contemporary analyses (for instance, Peter Blau and Robert Dahl, among others) view power as principally one actor's control of the behavior of another actor. This approach to power captures only a limited part of the phenomenon. In reaction, Talcott Parsons (1963) redefined power as mobilization of resources to achieve collective goals, and broadened the concept to include cooperative efforts and larger institutional venues. While an improvement, this too missed key aspects involving groups, organizations, and states.
Organizational Failure
Authors: Ackroyd Stephen 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
There is a distinction between the failure of an organization to meet some measure of performance and the substantive failure of an organization. Companies, for example, are usually judged to be failing if they are not profitable; they are usually deemed to have failed and are wound up, but it is possible to find organizations that are permanently failing by reference to performance criteria such as this. Today organizations that tend to fail against performance criteria are often regarded as opportunities for learning, and remedial action is taken prior to failure to meet performance targets. However, it is actually quite difficult to find examples of substantive organizational failure in the absence of some potent and usually external cause. This is because organizations tend to adapt themselves and to retain their coherency even in adverse circumstances.
Pragmatism
Authors: Elliott David L. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Pragmatism began in 1871 with the formation of a discussion group of six Harvard graduates and scholars, among them the early pragmatist thinkers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James. The ideas of Peirce, including his doubt–belief theory of inquiry and theory of signs, and the ideas of James, especially his
Principles of Psychology
, were to influence the later Chicago or social pragmatists John Dewey and George Herbert Mead. Charlene Haddock Seigfried corrected the history of pragmatism by highlighting the contributions of early woman pragmatists, mostly notably the Chicago social worker Jane Addams. Mead was the chief pragmatist influence on the early Chicago School of sociology and its successor tradition of symbolic interactionism. Neil Gross recently used Hans Joas's reconstruction of classical pragmatist thought in developing a pragmatist theory of social mechanisms, in which he attempted to offer a more causal and macro alternative of pragmatist theory than that offered by symbolic interactionism. Dewey has been the chief pragmatist influence on recent work in the tradition of relational sociology, including Mustafa Emirbayer's manifesto for the approach, Josh Whitford's critique of rational choice theory, Ann Mische's ethnographic and network study of Brazilian youth activists, David Stark's theory of heterarchical organizations, and John Levi Martin's quest for a rigorous field theory.
Public Broadcasting
Authors: Allan Stuart 
Published: September 2017

AbstractPrecisely what counts as public broadcasting varies from one national media system to the next across the globe. Common to most definitions is the understanding that it revolves around a public service ethos that may be contrasted with the economic (profit‐oriented) priorities of private or commercial broadcasting. In investigating the key issues at stake, a continuum may be discerned between the model of public broadcasting introduced in the United States in the 1920s, at one end, and those developed in countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and Australia, at the other. In tracing their historical evolution, it is possible to pinpoint a range of factors that continue to shape their development in an era of interactive digital and high‐definition technologies with growing competition for viewers. Given contending demands on governmental support, concerns have been raised about how to sustain, let alone enhance, a public service ethos for a type of broadcasting increasingly being fragmented into narrowcasting. Differing views about its continued viability prompt considerable debate, involving a wide range of interested stakeholders in media policy‐making.
Peirce,CharlesSanders (1839–1914)
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J.I. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractCharles Sanders Peirce emphasizes the way in which various kinds of signs mediate between the represented and the interpreted in order to create “habits” of social action; that is, we tend to think that a sign adequately represents what it is supposed to designate and often do not give the relationships between signs and their designated referents much thought. The apparently simple addition of a third item in the relationship between an “object” of thought and the “subject” who is doing the thinking allows us to move beyond a simplistic application of Cartesian subject–object, mind–body dualism. Peirce's critique of Cartesian dualism makes it clear that an epistemology that focuses on the solitary individual “subject” as an interpreter of “objects” is severely misleading. Peirce's correction of Descartes's logic and epistemology parallels Einstein's extension of Newton's physics. The isolated individual scientist (e.g., Galileo) never exists in reality. All scientific understanding is ultimately based on communities of scholars or “invisible colleges” that collectively interpret “facts” based on signs that are recognized by the majority of those who belong to the network. Peirce is widely considered to be a pathbreaking thinker.
Race and the Criminal Justice System
Authors: Samuel Laurie 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry reviews the role of race in the definition of crime and justice within the American criminal justice system. The criminal justice system is a system of social control designed to regulate the behavior of citizens which includes the police, courts, corrections, probation, and parole. Its very creation is based on prejudices and stereotypes, and official decisions are therefore made through a lens of inequality.
Scientific Networks and Invisible Colleges
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J.I. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe sociological study of science by early pioneers like De Solla Price and Merton has given way to science and technology in society (STS). Latour and Woolgar have studied the social construction of empirical findings in lab work. Sociological studies of Nobel Prize‐winners in science indicate that those who study with Nobel Prize‐winners are themselves the most likely recipients of the Nobel Prize, presumably because they have firsthand information about the cutting‐edge topics and techniques. In hermeneutics the idea of a “hermeneutic circle” or “spiral” in science is associated with “interaction between agents” and close ties between theorists and empirical researchers. In semiotics the notion of an interpretive community or network has been postulated as an aspect of C.S. Peirce's more abstract notion of a recursive “interpretant.” Collins has stressed the general importance of networks. His theory holds that there is a “law of small numbers” and that the half a dozen or so major “philosophers” in any particular time and place are very likely to know one another. Each thinker searches for a niche. Full comprehension of the theory requires an understanding of the network.
Scientology
Authors: Andersen Peter B. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Scientology, or the Church of Scientology, was founded in 1954. It was a development of the Dianetics movement which was based on L. Ron Hubbard's book on the therapeutic system Dianetics, published in 1950. Both Dianetics and Scientology are based on Hubbard's utilitarian philosophy which has led to a number of social organizations for the betterment of human living. Dianetics and Scientology therapy are in severe disagreement with psychology and psychiatry, both of which Scientology consequently fights and tries to expose in various ways. The Church of Scientology has faced many conflicts with individuals and states in individual
US
states, but was recognized in the United States in 1993. The church is currently striving for consolidation and recognition in the states where it works.
Seikatsu
/
Seikatsusha
Authors: Seifert Wolfgang 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

The word
seikatsusha
, coined for the first time in 1917, is today an omnipresent “verbal talisman” in Japan, used by political parties, associations, and companies in their respective advertising strategies. By contrast, in Japan
seikatsusha
is also a concept, used by new social movements in an emphatic sense. Whereas this word is a commonplace term for some, for others it is strongly connected to a specific kind of thought: it describes someone who shapes his or her life independently and actively; he or she is not predominantly a consumer (
shōshisha
). This integrating view of the individual, characterized as “active,” was developed in philosophy and later had an effect on the social sciences. As a word and as a sociological term,
seikatsusha
, which defies translation into western languages, invites us to reflect on how members of a society might be grasped sociologically, as individuals within all their spheres of activity and voluntary social relations.
Social Change: the Contributions of S.N. Eisenstadt
Authors: Ben‐Rafael Eliezer , Sternberg Yitzhak 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSocial change is a major focus of Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt's sociological work. It runs as a thread that binds together many of his works, from his earliest studies on the absorption of immigrants and empires, through his explorations of Axial civilizations, up to his later works on multiple modernities. We highlight his major theoretical contributions to social change, including his discussions of the great revolutions. We also point out some substantive limitations that can be found in his works and formulate some suggestions and directions for further theorization in this area.
Social Psychology, Applied
Authors: Mankowski Eric , O'Connor Emma 
Published: September 2017

AbstractApplied social psychology develops and uses theories and research about how people influence others' thoughts, feelings, and behavior to address social and health problems caused by human behavior, such as racial, class, and gender discrimination, environmental pollution and natural resource depletion, interpersonal violence, and drug misuse. The field emphasizes an interdependent and cyclical relationship among theory development, research in social settings, and application of knowledge through action and intervention. A wide variety of experimental, quasi‐experimental, correlational, and longitudinal research designs and methods of data collection including surveys, observation, and qualitative interviews are employed. Knowledge from the field has contributed to successful interventions that decrease prejudice and discrimination, increase conservation of natural resources and recycling, improve jury decision‐making, and increase cooperation and reduce conflict between social groups. With the increasing complexity of social problems and systems, applied social psychology is needed more than ever to improve human well‐being.
Spatial Relationships
Authors: Hess Martin 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry provides a brief account of how spatial relationships have been theorized in the social sciences. Space has often been conceived of as a physical arena in which social interaction takes place, a view that became increasingly challenged in human geography and cognate disciplines like sociology. Recent work therefore emphasizes the relational nature of space and place as constituted through social interactions rather than as a Kantian a priori of human existence. A relational understanding of space produces new spatial imaginaries that supersede the established concept of space within the history of modernity where space was seen as divided and territorialized, and society and space/place mapped onto each other. In a relational view, however, emphasis is placed on the multiplicity of sociospatial relations that continuously make and remake space and place.
Stratification Systems: Openness
Authors: Bögenhold Dieter 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The concept of stratification refers to the idea of vertical segmentation in a sense of having more or less resources. Degrees of stratification are always relational and they express degrees of social inequality. Open stratification systems exist when a society leaves channels for upward or downward mobility, where actors or families can change their position inter or intragenerationally. The classic idea in Marx's categorization was that access to means of production serves as the pivot point of all sociological and economic analysis. An early contrast to the dominant Marxist view was elaborated by Max Weber, who stressed the fact of differentiation. Bourdieu sees the social world in terms of a metaphor: Consider a multidimensional social sphere in which different groups of actors reflect, on the one hand, the sphere of social position and, on the other hand, the sphere of lifestyles. Other authors emphasize the growing relativity of the class concept due to increasing trends of mobility caused by education, urbanization, and changing demographic patterns, including the declining significance of the institution of the family, which leads more and more to a multicolored puzzle of conditions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behavior.
Saint‐Simon, Claude Henri (1760–1825)
Authors: Pickering Mary 
Published: September 2017

AbstractClaude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint‐Simon, was an early nineteenth‐century reformer and thinker, who predicted that in the future society would be scientific and industrial in nature and should be reorganized to value productivity and work in support of the common welfare. He helped inspire sociology, socialism, technocratic approaches to social organization, and the idea of a united Europe.
Sexualities Across the Life Course
Authors: Carpenter Laura M. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The life‐course perspective is a powerful tool for studying sexual life. Scholars who approach sexualities from a life‐course perspective are chiefly interested in how sexual and social experiences – such as childhood sex play, immigration, or divorce – at one point in a person's life affect their sexual beliefs and behaviors at later junctures. They are also concerned with how individuals' sexual biographies are shaped by broader cultural and historical changes, such as the development of oral contraceptives or the gay rights movement.
Terrorism
Authors: Kellner Douglas 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Over the past two centuries, terrorism has been a highly contested and volatile topic. Those accused of terrorism are vilified as enemies of the state and social order, but many labeled “terrorists” insist that they are “freedom fighters,” strugglers for national liberation, or
mujaheddin
(holy warrior) or
fedayeen
(“prepared for martyrdom”), ready to die for righteous causes. Many decry terrorists' indiscriminate violence against civilians, while other critics like Chomsky (1988) and Herman (1982) document state use of violence and terror against its perceived enemies. Sociologically, terrorist groups recruit disaffected and alienated individuals often motivated by strong ideologies like nationalism, or religion, to commit terrorist acts. These in turn generate societal fear and exacerbate conflicts and hatred within the social fabric and can be used by the state to oppress groups labeled “terrorists.” In the twenty‐first century, governments throughout the world have attempted to define terrorism more precisely and to criminalize terrorism, while terrorist activities multiply. As weapons of destruction become more deadly and widespread, social divisions between haves and have‐nots multiply, and conflict rages throughout the world, terrorism will likely continue to be a major issue and problem of the present era.
Urban, Concept of
Authors: Parrillo Vincent N. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe term “urban” is derived from the Latin wordurbanus, which means “pertaining to the city.” Within sociology, however, the criteria of what constitutes a city vary. These include population size, administrative function, and economic characteristics. Historically, “urban” could be understood as referring to a spatially defined city, with all the surrounding space being rural. In the twentieth century this changed with the emergence of a third entity, the suburban. With the blurring of these lines between urban and nonurban elements, new theoretical approaches have had to be developed.
Women in Science
Authors: Rosser Sue V. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe work of historians of science, data analysts, gender studies scholars, as well as sociologists of science informs the interdisciplinary field of women in science. Historians have elucidated the changing impact of gender and gender roles on women's lives as scientists at different historical times, different geographic locations, and in different scientific disciplines. Data gathered by national governments on the numbers and status of women in science provide a mechanism to document the numbers of women in different disciplines and the positions they hold. Relatively recently, the US National Science Foundation has recognized the role of intersectionality and its impact upon the percentages of degrees obtained by women in different STEM disciplines, the sector or institutional type of employment, unemployment rates and salaries, as well as women's daily experiences as scientists.
World Conflict
Authors: Fellman Gordon 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Wars of the past century or so have addressed economic and political conflicts and, increasingly, ethnic and religious conflicts. The scope of war seems to be decreasing from “macrowar” to “microwar,” with terrorism and drone attacks replacing massive civilian deaths and warriors' deaths in conventional war. Drone attacks are “proactive” in promoting policy objectives of governments, so far, while terrorism seems more commonly to be “reactive,” against economic and political effects of the world economic order culminating in globalization. At the bases of this change are the structural realities of the ending of the Cold War, the downsides of globalization, social psychological realities of anger fueling “conflict structures,” and yearnings for community. Cross‐cutting all these forces and structures is the growing appeal and influence of nonviolence as an alternative method for resolving world conflicts.
Advertising, Emotions in
Authors: Reichert Tom 
Published: September 2017

Emotions are fundamental to the human experience, so it is not surprising that advertisers employ emotional appeals to evoke specific feelings in consumers. Today's commercials, print ads, and Internet interstitials generate a range of emotional reactions from humor and elation to shame and disgust, from arousal and fear to sorrow and pity (→ Excitation and Arousal).
Advertising, Endorsement in
Authors: Lafferty Barbara A. 
Published: September 2017

In the fields of consumer research, communications, and → Persuasion, few concepts have been studied more over the decades than that of endorsers in advertisements. An endorser can broadly be defined as any individual who appears in an advertisement as a spokesperson for that product. The endorser can be a well‐known actor, athlete, or any other person with celebrity status (→ Celebrity Culture; Stars), or another perceived expert such as a doctor, a scientist, or even the CEO of a firm. Using credible or celebrity endorsers to promote the product is a popular advertising technique used worldwide to attract → attention to the ad, enhance the persuasiveness of the message, increase recall of the ad, and make the brand stand apart from competitive products.
Aesthetics
Authors: Messaris Paul 
Published: September 2017

In the context of communication studies, aesthetic theory may be defined as the attempt to understand people's enjoyment of certain forms of communication – such as stories, movies, music, dance – that are apparently attended to for their own sake, despite their lack of any ostensible instrumental value. Although this type of enjoyment can be considered an inherent feature of human biology (Dissanayake 1992), the specific experiences that give rise to it differ widely among the cultures of the world (→ Intercultural and Intergroup Communication). Simply put, the study of aesthetics seeks to answer two basic questions: what do people like or dislike about such experiences – and why?
Arab Satellite TV News
Authors: Kraidy Marwan M. 
Published: September 2017

Arab → satellite television emerged in the context of the 1991 Gulf War. Since then, the evolution of the industry has evinced two changes of direction. First, there was a shift, in the 1990s, from officially sanctioned national broadcasting systems to a process of regional media integration (→ West Asia: Media Systems; Egypt: Media System; North Africa: Media Systems; Communication Law and Policy: Middle East). The second shift occurred around 2000, toward specialization and niche markets. The years 1991, 1996, and 2003 witnessed industry milestones. First, politically connected Saudi entrepreneurs launched the Middle East Broadcasting System (MBC) in London, and the Egyptian government launched the Egyptian Satellite Channel (ESC) in 1991. Then came the launch of
Al Jazeera
and the initiation of satellite operations by Lebanese broadcasters LBC and Future TV in 1996. In 2003,
Al Arabiya
went on the air as a Saudi‐financed rival to Al Jazeera. As of 2007, there were more than 250 Arabic‐language, transnational satellite television channels.
Archiving of Internet Content
Authors: Schneider Steve , Foot Kirsten 
Published: September 2017

Communication scholars interested in new media are increasingly archiving content of the → Internet or “web content,” and studying web archives to examine retrospectively content produced and distributed on the web, and the behavior of those producing, sharing, and using the world wide web. Although web archiving has been actively pursued since the mid‐1990s, new media scholars have more recently begun to find web archives helpful as they seek to understand developments related to the web in a variety of ways. These may involve adapting traditional methods of social research such as content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative; Content Analysis, Quantitative), ethnography (→ Ethnography of Communication), focus groups, → Surveys, and experiments (→ Experimental Design) or developing methods such as network ethnography (→ Network Analysis), hyperlink analysis, and other approaches to structural or phenomenological analyses of the web (→ Online Research).