bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Directives
Authors: Fitch Kristine 
Published: September 2017

Directives were described by Searle (1975) as one of five basic
speech acts
. In his approach, taken from linguistic philosophy (→ Linguistic Pragmatics), speech acts were defined by a particular fit between words (propositional content) and the world. Directives are the class of speech acts that attempt to fit the world to the words; they are attempts by a speaker to get a hearer to do something. The class of directives as Searle proposed it encompassed a wide range of action verbs in English – command, request, plead, invite, permit, and many others – without distinguishing among them in any way. He left aside such issues as the fact that words for directives would vary across languages, that contextual variables such as magnitude of the desired action and relationship between speaker and hearer would affect which kind of directive might be used, and the varied responses hearers might have to directives. The basic definition of directives as attempts to get people to do things does, however, lend itself to a connection with compliance gaining and persuasion in the field of communication (see Fitch 1994).
Disclosure in Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Petronio Sandra 
Published: September 2017

Disclosure, as a type of interpersonal communication, means revealing private information that individuals believe they own and have a right to control. Disclosure builds romantic and friendship relationships, although there is a possibility of disclosing too much information, or telling information when a relational partner is not ready to hear the disclosure, thus hampering relational growth. Therefore we know that disclosure has both a positive outcome and the potential to have unwanted outcomes for interpersonal relationships (→ Interpersonal Communication).
Discriminant Analysis
Authors: Fahr Andreas 
Published: September 2017

The main aim of discriminant function analysis is to predict group membership of an object or a person by using as few characteristics (or set of predictors) as possible. Additionally, discriminant analysis is used to classify elements according to their characteristic properties (→ Statistics, Descriptive). So if you know the answers a subject might give to a crucial set of questions and/or the scores that subject might achieve on an important set of characteristics, discriminant analysis enables you to predict whether the subject is or will likely be a voter or nonvoter, buyer or nonbuyer, college dropout or graduate, researcher or lecturer, master or servant, winner or loser, television viewer or nonviewer, opinion‐leader or follower, etc.
Distance Education
Authors: Allen Terre H. 
Published: September 2017

Distance education refers to teaching and learning that occurs when students and teachers are in different physical and/or geographic locations. Although many people believe that distance education is a recent development made possible by the → Internet, it actually began in the late 1800s. Distance education has its roots in correspondence courses, which began around 1870. In fact, the first home study division of an American university was established in 1882 at the University of Chicago. Home study programs flourished in the early 1900s, and the National University Extension Associated established a Correspondence Study Division in 1915. Correspondence programs provided written educational materials leading to the completion of programs, certification, and college degrees to students via mail services. Generally, early distance education programs were targeted toward adults living in rural areas who did not have access to education otherwise.
Documentary Film, History of
Authors: Chanan Michael 
Published: September 2017

While scholars of early film have been much preoccupied with the emergence of storytelling and narrative (→ Storytelling and Narration), the dominant mode of early → cinema, beginning with the first films of the Lumières in 1895, was the actuality, or what might be called “documentary before documentary” (→ Cinematography; Cinematography, History of). An instinct for what Siegfried Kracauer (1960) called “the seizure of physical reality” produced a huge variety of images that, despite their brief and fragmentary character, were not without ideological implications, since they generally reproduced social → stereotypes unthinkingly and frequently projected and enhanced the iconic imagery of state power and authority. Cinema was born in the “civilized” countries of Europe and North America, and these early films also traded on exotic imagery from every corner of the world, which not surprisingly reflected the colonial ideology of the day. The French at this time used the term
documentaire
for what in English was called the “travelogue,” which emerged before World War I as one of the most popular proto‐documentary genres, along with the wonders of science and expedition films (→ Film Genres). However, the recent rediscovery in Britain of the Mitchell & Kenyon films reminds us that turning the camera on your own community was also a fundamental propensity.
Discourse, Deliberative
Authors: Guttman Nurit 
Published: September 2017

Definitions of deliberative discourse vary, but it is generally characterized as a unique type of public discussion that is rooted in deliberative democratic theory and involves a distinct process of learning about and considering issues from different perspectives. It entails an open, coercion‐free, and egalitarian process. Ideally, it takes place through a relatively long discussion process to enable the participants to engage in a careful examination of relevant issues, and to learn about a variety of views and considerations. It usually is intended to produce reasoned, well‐informed opinions or recommendations with policy implications (Gastil 2000; → Deliberativeness in Political Communication; Public Opinion; Public Sphere).
Editorial
Authors: Pfetsch Barbara 
Published: September 2017

The term “editorial” in the mass media refers to a format designed to express the outlet's or a particular author's commentary or political position most openly and legitimately. In editorials the different media outlets establish a particular ideological profile that distinguishes them from their competitors and binds to them certain segments of the audience. Editorials must be seen in contrast to news reporting, which insists on being factual, objective, and impartial, thereby reflecting the world by describing it (→ news; Objectivity in Reporting). The purpose of editorials is related to the more persuasive and evaluative functions of media performance. The newspaper, radio, or television program here seeks to express its distinctive view on issues of public concern, aiming to advise, evaluate, commend, rebuke, and imagine the world as it wishes it to be.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Authors: O'Keefe Daniel J. 
Published: September 2017

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of → Persuasion, developed by Richard Petty, John Cacioppo, and their collaborators, is an example of a “dual process” approach to persuasion (another example is Chaiken's heuristic‐systematic model, HSM). The ELM suggests that important variations in the nature of persuasion are a function of the likelihood that receivers will engage in elaboration of (that is, thinking about) information relevant to the persuasive issue. Depending on the degree of elaboration, two different kinds of persuasion process can be engaged – one involving systematic thinking and the other involving cognitive shortcuts. Different factors influence persuasive outcomes depending on which process is activated.
Emotion and Communication in Organizations
Authors: Tracy Sarah J. 
Published: September 2017

Emotional communication is central to many jobs (→ emotion). Stockbrokers express aggression, nurses communicate care, and emotions such as shame, pride, and fear are central in organizational evaluation. Nonetheless, organization studies have traditionally written out emotion, treating it as a private issue, a barrier to effectiveness, or something that should be controlled (→ Organizational Communication). Early research suggested that organizations were and should be rational, scientific entities (→ Bureaucracy and Communication). In this paradigm, if emotions were examined, they were measured as variables of job satisfaction, morale, or commitment. Furthermore, emotions have traditionally been subjugated to the private, personal, feminine sphere (→ Feminist and Gender Studies).
Entertainment Content and Reality Perception
Authors: Weimann Gabriel 
Published: September 2017

Our perceptions of reality may often rely on mass mediated images. Walter Lippmann's classical work,Public Opinion, first published in 1922, highlighted the possibility that factual features of the world often have little relation to the perception and beliefs that people entertain about the world (→ Lippmann, Walter). Lippmann (1922) argued that the press's depiction of events was often spurious; the images it created were misleading, distorted, and shaped false “pictures in our heads” of the “world outside.” Although Lippmann never formulated his ideas in terms of a model or theory of reconstructed realities, his notion of the reliance of the public on the often distorted presentation of reality in the media should be acknowledged as such. Lippmann made the important distinction between the real environment and the pseudo‐environment, sketched and delivered by the mass media. However, although Lippmann had vision concerning the differences between reality and perceptions of reality, he could not anticipate the emergence of the electronic media and the ever‐growing role of the new media in shaping “the pictures in our heads.” As radio, and then television, cable, and satellite technologies, and then the Internet, appeared, the world shrank to a global village, exposed to the flow of mass‐produced news and entertainment, and the notion of a mediated world became more realistic and powerful. Consequently, a common focus of communication research has been the public's perceptions of reality as based on mass mediated contents and images (Eveland 2002) (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality). Social reality perceptions, or the “pictures in our head,” are best defined as individuals' conceptions of the world. They include perceptions of others' opinions and behavior, social indicators such as crime, wealth, careers, professions, sex roles and more (→ Reality and Media Reality).
Ethnographic Film
Authors: Ruby Jay 
Published: September 2017

It is commonly assumed that an ethnographic film is any documentary about nonwestern cultures. There is scholarly debate about its parameters. Some suggest all film is ethnographic (Heider 1976), while others restrict the term to films produced by anthropologists (Ruby 2000). There are no up‐to‐date histories of ethnographic film. The scholarly literature in the field is concerned with assumed dilemmas between science and art; questions of → accuracy, fairness, and objectivity (→ Objectivity in Reporting); the relationship between written and visual anthropology; and collaborations between filmmakers and anthropologists (see Banks & Morphy 1997; Crawford & Turton 1992; De Heusch 1962/1988; MacDougall 1998; and the journals
Visual Anthropology
and
Visual Anthropology Review
). The common definition will guide the discussion that follows.
Experiment, Laboratory
Authors: Weaver James B. 
Published: September 2017

Research utilizing experimentation (→ Experimental Design) is undertaken in a variety of contexts and settings. Decisions concerning the circumstances under which to conduct an experiment typically reflect a combination of considerations including the nature of the research question (→ Hypothesis), the availability of research resources, and the researcher's interest in balancing concerns about the → validity and the → generalizability of subsequent findings. Overwhelmingly, the most common setting for experimentation in communication is thelaboratory.
Experiment, Natural
Authors: Weaver James B. 
Published: September 2017

Our understanding of several communication phenomena has benefited extensively from informative reports of “natural” experiments. Natural experiments are infrequently detailed in the social and behavioral sciences, however, because they result only when naturally arising circumstances make it possible to separate and examine typically confounded phenomena. Like field experiments (→ Experiment, Field), natural experiments occur in venues where the researcher has limited control over environmental or situational conditions. Distinctive in the natural experiment, moreover, randomization is impossible and the researcher exercises no influence over the independent variable (→ Experiment, Laboratory). That is, the independent variable is not manipulated but rather varies (often presence vs absence) due to a naturally occurring event or situation.
Field Research
Authors: Anderson James A. 
Published: September 2017

Field research is a somewhat dated term that is used to describe research conducted under the naturally occurring contingencies of unmanipulated or naturally manipulated contexts. In this usage it is contrasted with laboratory research, which is to be conducted under highly controlled circumstances and in fully manipulated contexts. In this contrast, field research is considered to provide relevance to everyday life, and laboratory research rigor to the conclusions drawn. In the traditions of law‐seeking sciences, laboratory research returns findings of the highest generalizability and, therefore, of greater value. This attribution, of course, politicizes the relationship between different → Research Methods and the sciences that depend on them.
Film Genres
Authors: Preston Catherine 
Published: September 2017

A working definition of film genre depends on the purposes toward which it will be applied. The audience approaches genre as it is generally defined as kind, sort, or style. Categorizing films this way has been in use going back to the advent of film production and consumption (→ Film Production). For example, the “actuality” (early documentaries; → Documentary Film), the “comedy” (
The Waterer Watered)
, and the “Western” (
The Great Train Robbery
) were all references that theaters used to advertise the film that accompanied the vaudeville show of the week (→ Cinema). Early filmmakers learned to cinematically code a narrative as early viewers learned how to understand these new codes, and the film company duly noted their response (→ Code). This relationship has continued to the present day. Genres offer fairly reliable means by which the industry can attempt to repeat and capitalize on previous box‐office successes. They also provide audiences with knowledge they can use to organize their own viewing. In this sense, the rationale behind film genres has always been that of production balanced by consumption, and like the study of → stars, genre has always transcended the traditional boundaries of film studies.
Foreign Correspondents
Authors: Karadjov Christopher D. 
Published: September 2017

The “classic” foreign correspondent had become an identifiable occupation by the second half of the nineteenth century, supporting an increasing need of European and US newspapers to cover overseas military and civilian developments (→ Journalism, History of). Ever since, foreign correspondents have been considered an elite among news professionals. The numbers of “classic” foreign correspondents reached a peak worldwide between the 1950s and 1980s, but have been falling since because media organizations have increasingly been using local reporters to provide international news to their audiences (→ International News Reporting). Competition, financial constraints, and technological advances have democratized the field of international news gathering and the profession of the foreign correspondent.
Foreign Policy and the Media
Authors: Price Monroe E. 
Published: September 2017

There are at least two salient questions when thinking about foreign policy and the media. The first is whether foreign policy is affected by media considerations: have modern technological developments meant that foreign policy is increasingly affected by media concerns? The second is whether there is what might be called a foreign policy of media structures, namely an interest by an individual state (or the international community) in the mode by which media is developed through an interdependent set of nations (→ Media Policy). The answer to both questions is yes, and the issues are interconnected.
Francophonie
Authors: Polo Jean‐François 
Published: September 2017

Commonly, “francophonie” carries three meanings: linguistic (those who have French in common); geographical (the peoples whose mother tongue, fluency, or administrative language is French); and a more mystical meaning, signifying membership of a collective community. But “Francophonie” (capital F) designates the movement and institutions initiated by French authorities after World War II in favor of the French language, in the context of its former colonies' independence. France tried to promote a French “commonwealth” and a special relationship with ex‐colonies to protect the language. France was very often accused of maintaining neo‐colonial relationships, but the movement for Francophonie was also supported by leaders of the new independent states as a means to build new relations with the former colonizer. Were these, then, actions to support the French language worldwide, or to protect French political and economic interests in its former colonies? This debate has been at the core of the history of Francophonie. Nowadays, through its institutions and agents, Francophonie strives to propose an alternative to a homogenizing globalization process, by promoting cultural diversity (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts; Globalization Theories).
Freedom of Communication
Authors: Winston Brian 
Published: September 2017

The
annaliste
historian Fernand Braudel asserts that dealing with the concept of liberty, “in all its connotations including ‘taking liberties,’” is the distinguishing mark of western civilization, the socio‐political problem that most persistently occurs from the fifth century to the present. The liberty to communicate, to impart and receive information of all kinds, is at the heart of the western idea of liberty. “This process has never been peaceful; yet it is one of the secrets that explains Europe's progress” (Braudel 1993). The struggle for the practice of free “mass” communication begins with the emergence of newspapers in the seventeenth century, but the press freedoms gained over the next 300 years have been limited to print (→ Newspaper, History of; Freedom of the Press, Concept of). Even in the west a media‐blind right of free expression has never been established, and newer media from film through broadcasting and beyond have been subject to the imposition, or the attempted imposition, of specific controls.
Globalization of the Media
Authors: Thussu Daya Kishan 
Published: September 2017

Like many other spheres of contemporary life, the mass media have been profoundly affected by the processes of globalization (→ Globalization Theories). During the 1990s, the global media landscape was transformed as a result of the deregulation and privatization of broadcasting and telecommunication, enabling a quantum leap in the production and distribution of media products across continents and in real time.
Globalization of Organizations
Authors: Stohl Cynthia 
Published: September 2017

Most generally, globalization is defined as “the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life” (Held et al. 1999, 5). Globalization is produced and maintained through communicative action. Political, cultural, social, and economic events are no longer bound by time or space. The free flow of goods, services, money, and ideas, facilitated by emerging technologies, strongly influence and are influenced by organizational communication practices. No longer circumscribed by socio‐geographic borders, organizational identities transcend nation‐states. The complexity of contemporary issues such as AIDS, global warming, and terrorism implicates organizational interdependence. No matter what their mission, structure, or physical location, all types of organizations must address the complexities of operating within a multicultural communicative, legal, moral, and social context (→ Globalization Theories).
Graffiti
Authors: Ferrell Jeff 
Published: September 2017

Broadly speaking, graffiti denotes the array of words, figures, and symbols illicitly inscribed in public space. Over the past three decades this phenomenon has taken on special salience as the graffiti of youth sub‐cultures has emerged as a pervasive form of public communication. Because of this, graffiti has become perhaps the most potent and visible symbol of delinquency and danger, with political authorities and the public regularly associating public graffiti with gang activity. In reality, the contemporary role of graffiti as a form of public communication, and as a communicative component within youthful sub‐cultures, is far more complex than a simple equating of graffiti and gangs (→ Popular Communication).
Graphic Design
Authors: Soar Matthew 
Published: September 2017

“Graphic design” refers, in essence, to the artful arrangement of images and text on a variety of surfaces and in a range of forms. Typical pieces of graphic design include: posters; → books; CD, DVD, and book covers; brochures and flyers; → magazines and → Newspapers; logos, trademarks, → branding and corporate identity systems; product packaging; annual reports; T‐shirts; signage and way‐finding systems; websites; and motion graphics (e.g., film title sequences, TV station identifiers, and promos). Related and sometimes overlapping activities include product design, exhibition and information design, type design and → typography, and design for interactivity (websites, kiosks, DVD‐ROMs; → Design; Interactivity, Concept of).
Group Communication and Social Influence
Authors: Pavitt Charles 
Published: September 2017

When a decision‐making group comes into discussion intending to choose among a set of possible courses of action, any disagreement among the members of the group regarding the best option normally results in some form of social influence. We assume that group members enter discussion having formulated a “pre‐discussion preference” for a particular option, that these members leave discussion with a “post‐discussion preference” among the options, and that the group as a whole reaches a decision about the best option. Social influence occurs when there is a difference between individual member pre‐discussion and post‐discussion preferences and/or when the group decision differs from what would be predicted based on the members' pre‐discussion preferences (→ Attitudes; Persuasion).