bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Haile Selassie v Cable & Wireless Ltd Case
Authors: Rensmann Thilo 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In 1935, the Director-General of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones of Ethiopia, acting on behalf of the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie, entered into a contract for the institution and operation of a radio telegraphic service with the British Company Cable & Wireless Ltd (‘Cable & Wireless’). Following the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in 1936 (→ Occupation, Belligerent), the Ethiopian Emperor was forced to leave his country and subsequently lived in London (see also → Colonialism). On 9 May 1936 Italy proclaimed the → annexation of Ethiopia and the King of Italy declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (historically also known as Abyssinia). The British government, while still maintaining that Haile Selassie was the de iure Emperor of Ethiopia, in December 1936 recognized the Italian government as the de facto government of virtually the whole of Ethiopia (→ De facto Organs of a State; → Recognition).
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
Authors: Dann Philipp 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (‘IFAD’) is the 15th → United Nations (UN) specialized agency (→ United Nations, Specialized Agencies). It was established by the Agreement Establishing the International Fund for Agricultural Development (‘IFAD Agreement’ [concluded on 13 June 1976, which entered into force on 30 November 1977]). The seat of IFAD and the location of its headquarter is Rome (→ International Organizations or Institutions, Headquarters).
International Law, Regional Developments: Islam
Authors: Fadel Mohammad 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The origins of Islamic international law can be found in the Prophet Muhammad’s promulgation of the Charter of Medina in the first quarter of the 7th century CE, the first clause of which declared that the parties to the Charter were a nation ‘to the exclusion of others’ (para. 15 Charter of Medina) thereby unequivocally proclaiming the independence of the city-State. The nascent city-State of Medina, after uniting the Arabian Peninsula, expanded rapidly over the 150 years following the Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the west and the frontiers of China in the east. Islamic States subsequently spread along trade routes into central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, sub-Saharan Africa, the east African coast, and south-eastern Asia.
Latin American and Caribbean Economic System (SELA)
Authors: Montt Santiago 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Latin American and Caribbean Economic System (‘SELA’, from the Spanish Sistema Económico Latinoamericano; until 2006 called Latin American Economic System), established by the Panama Convention signed on 17 October 1975, is a permanent intergovernmental organization of ‘consultation, coordination, cooperation and joint economic and social promotion’ (Art. 2 Panama Convention; see also → International Organizations or Institutions, General Aspects; → Regional Co-operation). Inspired originally by the ideas embodied in both the → New International Economic Order (NIEO) and United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3281(XXIX) of 12 December 1974 (→ United Nations (UN); → United Nations, General Assembly), SELA brings together the vast majority of Latin American and Caribbean countries.
League of Arab States (LAS)
Authors: Rishmawi Mervat , Comandulli Marina 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The League of Arab States (‘LAS’) was created pursuant to a meeting held in Alexandria, Egypt, on 25 September 1944, between representatives of Syria, Transjordan, Iraq, Lebanon, and Egypt, who held a preparatory meeting and adopted the Alexandria Declaration which proclaimed the creation of the LAS. Therefore, at the outset, the LAS consisted of seven members, namely Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan after 1946), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and North Yemen. Since then, another 15 countries have joined the LAS, which currently comprises 22 countries, including Libya (1953), → Sudan (1956), Morocco (1958), Tunisia (1958), Kuwait (1961), Algeria (1962), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), the → United Arab Emirates (UAE) (1971), Bahrain (1971), Mauritania (1973), Somalia (1974), → Palestine (1974—represented by the → Palestine Liberation Organization [PLO]), Djibouti (1977), and Comoros (1993).
MERCOSUR, Permanent Appeals Court
Authors: Klumpp Marianne 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In 1991 when the Mercado Común del Sur (Common Market of the South; → MERCOSUR) came into existence and obtained its first institutional framework by the Treaty of Asunción (Treaty for the Establishment of a Common Market between the Argentine Republic, the Federative Republic of Brazil, the Republic of Paraguay and the Eastern Republic of Uruguay [done 26 March 1991, entered into force 29 November 1991] 2140 UNTS 257), reference to the need for a dispute resolution mechanism was made only in very basic language referring to dispute settlement by diplomatic means within the political bodies of the MERCOSUR pursuant to Annex III Treaty of Asunción.
Non-Self-Governing Territories
Authors: Moïse Mbengue Makane 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Trusteeship territories were those territories or colonies placed under the administration of one or more States so commissioned by the UN. As such, the administering authority or authorities of a trusteeship territory were acting under the strict supervision of the Trusteeship Council which was established as one of the principal organs of the UN (→ United Nations Trusteeship System). Non-self-governing territories, by contrast, are not per se subject to a system of strict and direct supervision by the UN. Indeed, under the terms of Art. 73 (e) → United Nations Charter, members of the UN that have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government undertake to transmit regularly to the UN Secretary-General ‘information’ relating to the economic, social, and educational conditions in the territories for which they are respectively responsible.
Oil Concession Disputes, Arbitration on
Authors: von Walter André 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Oil concessions have commonly been granted by oil producing countries to foreign companies which possess the necessary technology and financial abilities for oil exploration and production activities. The high risk of the operations and the capital intensity of the investments have frequently led to special legal regimes providing, inter alia, for the settlement of disputes by international arbitral tribunals (→ Arbitration). The early oil concessions granted during the first half of the 20th century normally covered a vast area of acreage, conferred the control of the production process to the concessionaire, provided for modest royalties and bonuses to be paid to the host State, and were concluded for relatively long periods.
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
Authors: Hirsch Moshe 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Various issues pertaining to → world population and particularly population growth present formidable challenges to the contemporary → international community. Demographic trends are often interrelated with other global concerns, prominent among them, economic development and poverty, environmental degradation, public health, and → human rights and gender equality (→ Environment, International Protection; → Women, Rights of International Protection). Addressing these global challenges in an effective, co-ordinated manner is often a complex and divisive process. Socio-cultural and political controversies occasionally impede the development and implementation of effective strategies in this sensitive sphere. While several international institutions—global and regional—address population issues, the United Nations Population Fund (‘UNFPA’) is the largest internationally funded source of population assistance.
United Nations Trusteeship System
Authors: Melnyk Andriy Y 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The International Trusteeship System was established in 1945 under the authority of the → United Nations (UN) in accordance with Chapters XII and XIII UN Charter for the administration and supervision of a certain category of → non-self-governing territories in the aftermath of World War II. The trusteeship regime can be regarded as a successor of the mandate system under the → League of Nations (‘League’). Since the principal objective of the UN Trusteeship System (‘TS’) has been to govern the territories placed thereunder (‘trust territories’) for the benefit of their inhabitants and promote their progressive development towards self-governance or independence, it logically implies that the TS was contemplated as a transitional phenomenon designed to gradually reach the latter goal.
Unrepresentative Representatives
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter presents and discusses problems for electoral systems that arise because elections result in the selection of the elite, rather than genuine microcosm representation. The selection of a demographically unrepresentative group of political representatives has significant negative implications for the sensibility of electoral systems, due to effects on both the agential and epistemic dimensions of political representation. Those elected tend to be non-representative as a group along most demographic lines: wealth, income, education, race, sex, disability status, housing status, immigration status, occupation, and so on. Elected representatives skew wealthier, whiter, more likely to be male, much less likely to be disabled, much more likely to have a background as a lawyer or businessperson, and so on. This skew results in agential distortion, affecting the priorities, motivations, and values that elected officials have and will act upon. This skew also results in epistemic distortion, affecting what elected officials believe, what they investigate and question, which sources and individuals they trust, and their background knowledge and expertise. Taken together, this distortion in demographic representativeness, an expected and predictable outcome of using elections, reduces the ability of electoral systems to address the political problems that actually exist in a political community.
Overcoming Ignorance, Improving Epistemic Performance
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter argues that lottocratic political systems will do comparatively well with respect to the epistemic dimension of political sensibility, arguing that lottocracy will help avoid epistemic problems that arise due to ignorance and epistemic distortion. The lottocratic selection mechanism doesn’t require broad public knowledge about complex policy details, limiting concerns about ignorance, the bad press problems and efforts at systematic misinformation and disinformation, and other features of the distorted mass epistemic environment. The selection mechanism ensures microcosm representation, bringing the system much closer to descriptive representativeness and broad diversity of standpoints and expertise, experiences, and evidential history. And central lottocratic elements—including the learning phase and transparent and regulated use of expertise, the single-issue focus and the relatively manageable epistemic burden, the mechanisms of community consultation, the use of deliberation and discussion to obtain relevant evidence and testimony, and the expected reduction in the intensity of division within the political community and corresponding increase in trust and empathy across lines of disagreement—all contribute to improving the epistemic performance of the system, particularly in comparison to electoral representative systems. The chapter also considers and responds to concerns about the competence of randomly selected members of the political community and whether randomly chosen citizens will lack important political skill or political expertise.
Lottocracy, Democracy, Legitimacy, and Political Morality
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Shifting out of functionalist or instrumentalist arguments that focus on the likely political sensibility and political outcomes under a lottocracy, this chapter considers other components of political morality that are relevant to the evaluation of political systems. The chapter argues that there are four distinct dimensions of political morality that are related to whether a political system is democratic: political equality, political participation, respect for and protection of the rights of body and mind (rights of life, bodily integrity, physical liberty, speech, thought, and association), and responsiveness. These operate as significant moral considerations that alter and limit how political outcomes can be pursued and brought about. The chapter argues that lottocratic systems do at least as well as electoral systems with respect to each of these four considerations of political morality. The chapter also presents a scalar conception of political legitimacy on which a political system’s legitimacy is a function of the extent to which a system is democratic (where this is a function of how well the system does by the four considerations just identified) and the extent to which there is an individualized moral justification of the system to those living under it. The chapter also responds to challenges to lottocracy on the grounds that a morally important kind of accountability is absent, and that lottocracy requires an objectionable “blind deference” to the randomly chosen.
Blue Jerusalem
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This radical re-interpretation of British history and British Conservatism between 1939 and 1945 reveals the bold, at times utopian, plans British Conservatives drew up for Britain and the post-war world. From proposals for world government to a more united Empire via dreams of a new Christian elite and a move back to the land, it reveals how Conservatives were every bit as imaginative and courageous as their Labour and left-wing opponents. Bringing these alternative visions of Britain’s post-war future back to life, this book restores politics to the centre of the story of Britain’s war. It demonstrates how everything from the weapons Britain fought with to theatres in which the fighting took place, and the allies Britain chose, were the product of political decisions about the different futures Conservatives wanted to make. Rejecting notions of a ‘People’s War’ that continue to cloud how we think of the Second World War, it explores how Conservatives used their control of the home and battle fronts to fight a deeply Conservative war and build the martial, imperial, and Christian nation many had long dreamed of. A study of political thinking as well as political manoeuvre, it goes beyond an examination of the usual suspects—Winston Churchill, Neville Chamberlain, etc.—to reveal a hitherto lost world of British Conservatism and a set of forgotten futures that continue to shape our world.
For what do we fight
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter examines the debates over war aims during the period between September 1939 and May 1940. It begins by examining why Neville Chamberlain was unwilling to announce war aims before exploring different Conservative plans for the post-war world including: a global federation of states, an anti-Bolshevik Christian Europe, and the dismemberment of Germany. It then examines the desire for a more aggressive military strategy advocated by the Watching Committee of senior Conservatives and support for a negotiated peace articulated by the Union and Reconstruction movement. The chapter argues that Chamberlain’s refusal to articulate positive war aims led the Prime Minister to couch the war in ever grander and epochal terms, a way of framing the conflict that was incompatible with his preferred military strategy of a long war of attrition. The chapter concludes by arguing that this incompatibility was central to Chamberlain’s eventual fall from office.
From Diplomacy to Physics and Back Again
Authors: Lalli Roberto 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter charts the changing roles of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) in both the scientific and political realms from the end of World War II to the present. The analysis suggests a four-phase periodization of the centenary history of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) with the transformations between each phase characterized by negotiations concerning the functions and roles of the institution in the international arena. To properly understand these passages, one should interpret IUPAP as a hybrid science diplomacy organization rather than employing ahistorical fixed taxonomies or international non-governmental scientific institutions. After a first inactive period running from its foundation to the end of World War II, IUPAP underwent a re-foundation followed by a decade of growth as a predominantly Western organization. In the period from the mid-1950s to the end of the Cold War, IUPAP transformed into a bridge between the East and the West. Finally, in the post-Cold War period, IUPAP reconfigured itself as a global organization aligned with the UN sustainable growth agenda.
Landmarks in the History of the Discovery of Spin in Fundamental Particles
Authors: Satija Indubala I. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter gets into the heart of the discovery of spin in physics as physicists try to make sense of the atomic spectra with the discovery of the anomalous Zeeman effect by Thomas Preston before the dawn of the twentieth century as Nature gave the first signal of the existence of quantum spin. Following Bohr, Sommerfeld, and Lande’s contributions with integers and then half-integers, quantum numbers make appearances, and after Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit’s ground-breaking contributions, physicists finally embrace the idea that electron spins. Pauli’s introduction of quantum spin with Pauli matrices provided a non-relativistic theory of the quantum spin. Hestenes argues that spin is not intrinsically related to Pauli matrices, and contrary to conventional wisdom, he advocates the view that the spin is very much present in the non-relativistic quantum physics.
A Peek Inside the Nucleus: From Proton-Neutron to Flavored and Colored Quarks
Authors: Satija Indubala I. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter highlights the importance of spin magnetic moment of the nucleons as it provided the first warning that the protons and the neutrons are not elementary, leading up to the discovery of quarks with novel attributes such as the flavour and the colo. The mathematical framework of spin-1/2 provided the basis of isospin and guided physicists to understand strongly interacting particles, with interaction that is about 100 times the strength of the electromagnetic interaction described by the standard model. Chapter wraps up with the question of what is meant by an elementary particle ?
The Lore of the g-factor
Authors: Satija Indubala I. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter tells the story of the g-factor known as the g-factor anomaly and its role in determining the laws of Nature. It is a remarkable story where a tiny discrepancy between the theoretical and the experimental value for the electron g-factor led physicists to QED and as its fine tuning continues for muons, it can potentially challenge the existing model of the strong interaction—namely the standard model. Here is a narrative of the history of QED starting with the Shelter Island conference. With the fine structure constant emerging as the parameter that makes quantum electrodynamics work, readers get a taste of the beauty and the virtuosity of Feynman diagrams. The chapter also discusses Andy Charalambous’s artwork which was inspired by the Feynman diagrams
Professor Jane Stapleton and her Dialogue with the Courts
Authors: Kiefel Hon Susan 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The importance of the dialogue between the academy and the courts cannot be overstated. Few have made such a contribution to that dialogue as Professor Jane Stapleton. In this chapter, presented at the Festschrift in Professor Stapleton’s honour, that contribution is celebrated by Susan Kiefel AC, Chief Justice of Australia. The chapter explores the ‘reflexive tort scholarship’ of which Professor Stapleton was an advocate. Such scholarship emphasises the role of the judge, is responsive to change signalled by courts, and influences courts with its insights. Through the lens of reflexive tort scholarship, the Chief Justice explores Professor Stapleton’s impact on Australia’s tort law, acknowledging the extent to which it has guided Australian courts, with a particular focus on her scholarship on factual causation and scope of liability, and on pure economic loss.
Fulfilling the Promise of the Golden Thread?: Vulnerability and Australian Negligence Law
Authors: Burns Kylie 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Professor Jane Stapleton argued in 2003 that the High Court of Australia had identified the ‘protection of the vulnerable as a core moral concern of tort law: its golden thread. This chapter considers how ‘vulnerability’ has been used by Australian courts in developing negligence law since 2003. Section 2 considers the themes of Professor Stapleton’s original paper. Section 3 overviews how the concept of vulnerability has been utilised by the Australian High Court in negligence cases. Section 4 focuses on ‘Stolen Generation’ negligence claims by First Peoples. Section 5 considers public interest litigation on behalf of ‘vulnerable’ plaintiffs against public defendants including claims by injured immigration detainees and climate change litigation. The chapter concludes that protection of the vulnerable is a concern that has the potential to influence the development of Australian negligence law, however the promise of the golden thread has not (yet) been fully fulfilled.
Making a Difference: Liability and Necessity
Authors: Steel Sandy 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Building on Stapleton’s analysis, this chapter aims to improve understanding of the role of necessity—of making a difference to the occurrence of an outcome—to legal liability, and the relationship of this idea to causal requirements in law. It proceeds in three sections. First, it considers the role of necessity in the current law, broadening attention beyond the traditional focus on compensation, to consider the role of necessity in relation to liability to other legal responses, such as rescission. This analysis shows the importance, in determining the relevance of necessity, of distinguishing different kinds of liability. Making a difference sometimes affects the availability of a particular form of legal liability, rather than the existence of liability. Second, it considers how, conceptually, liability without necessity should be understood, arguing that it is sometimes causal, and sometimes non-causal. Third, it examines possible justifications of liability in the absence of difference-making. In light of this discussion, it identifies various respects in which the current law needs modification.