bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hate Speech and Ethnophaulisms
Authors: Kinney Terry A. 
Published: September 2017

One of the most controversial topics that a democratic society faces is the issue of regulating the speech of its citizens. As Delgado and Stefancic suggest in
Must we defend Nazis? Hate speech, pornography, and the new First Amendment
(1997), the notion of “free speech” in a democratic society is a misnomer, as social institutions place controls on what can be said, to protect the public. This is certainly the case when speech is classified as obscene, defamatory, slanderous, or hateful, and holds a reasonable potential to be harmful (Lederer & Delgado 1995). Hate speech, for example, is a form of verbal aggression (→ Verbal Aggressiveness) that expresses hatred, contempt, ridicule, or threats toward a specific group or class of people (Asante 1998). Hate speech encompasses verbalizations, written messages, symbols, or symbolic acts that demean and degrade, and, as such, can promote discrimination, prejudice, and violence toward targeted groups. Hate speech often stems from thoughts and beliefs such as hatred, intolerance, prejudice, bigotry, or stereotyping (Allport 1954). Common forms of hate speech include ethnophaulisms, racial slurs and epithets, sexist comments, and homophobic speech (→ Prejudiced and Discriminatory Communication).
Health Communication and Journalism
Authors: Stryker Jo Ellen 
Published: September 2017

The news media are an important source of health information, not just for the general public, but also for patients, for doctors and the medical community, for entertainment producers in search of story ideas, and for policymakers and funding organizations (→ Health Communication). Journalistic practices favor the use of established sources, so public health and medical journals are one of the principal sources for health reporting. Fundamental differences between the institutional norms of → Journalism and public health and medicine create potential sources of misunderstanding and confusion among news consumers. Nonetheless, studies have demonstrated the effects of news media on knowledge, health behavior, medical practice, and public policy (→ Media Effects).
Identity Politics
Authors: Zacharias Usha 
Published: September 2017

Identity politics refers to the struggle for political recognition by marginalized social groups based on particular affiliations of individual identity, such as gender, sexuality, “race,” ethnicity, and nationality (→ Marginality, Stigma, and Communication; Symbolic Annihilation). Identity‐based movements, as they grew in the west, challenged the limitations of political representation and citizenship offered within the liberal democratic state and institutions. Even as identity politics made visible more dominant social inequities, it also opened the door for rethinking and questioning within social movements based on identity, such as the movements for women's liberation and feminisms in general (→ Social Movements and Communication). At the heart of feminist identity politics are the questions: who is the “woman” that is imagined as the subject of feminism or of women's emancipation, and is there a singular significance to gender identity when the “woman” is embedded in a network of other social identities such as race, ethnicity, religious community, or nationality?
Image Restoration Theory
Authors: Benoit William L. 
Published: September 2017

Image restoration theory – referred to as “image repair theory” in recent literature, to imply that an image might be improved but not completelyrestored– addresses the question of what a person or organization can say when accused or suspected of wrongdoing. Our reputation is vital both for our self‐esteem and because reputation influences how others will treat us. Ken Lay (Enron) and Congressman Gary Condit (who appeared uncooperative in the search for missing intern Chandra Levy) failed to repair their images. Tylenol, on the other hand, did repair its image after its capsules were poisoned. Countries also engage in image repair: Saudi Arabia placed a series of advertisements attempting to distance itself from the 9/11 tragedy (many of the terrorists were from Saudi Arabia, including Osama bin Laden). Clearly, a favorable → Image is desirable, and tarnished images need repair.
Imagined Interactions
Authors: Honeycutt James M. 
Published: September 2017

Imagined interactions are a type of social cognition and mental imagery (→ Cognition; Information Processing), theoretically grounded in symbolic interactionism (→ Symbolic Interaction), in which individuals imagine conversations with significant others for a variety of purposes (Honeycutt 2003). The imagined interaction construct has provided a beneficial mechanism for studying intrapersonal and interpersonal communication (→ Interpersonal Communication). Imagined interactions are a type of daydreaming that has definitive characteristics and serves a number of functions including rehearsal, self‐understanding, relational maintenance, managing conflict, catharsis, and compensation. They often concentrate on ongoing or important events in individuals’ daily lives and are associated with a variety of emotions (Klinger 1990).
Impersonal Effects
Authors: Tsfati Yariv 
Published: September 2017

Impersonal effects is an increasingly influential paradigm in media effects research (→ Media Effects). It argues that media are powerful in shaping our → perceptions of what anonymous others are feeling and experiencing, and that such perceptions, in turn, influence our → attitudes and behaviors in a variety of areas. The effect suggested by the theory is, thus, indirect: exposure to media affects the audience's perception of the collective conditions or the opinions and attitudes of people they do not know personally (→ Media Effects: Direct and Indirect Effects). Cognitive and attitudinal responses to these perceptions are the measurable changes constituting the effects.
Implicit Personality Theories
Authors: Lindsey Elizabeth 
Published: September 2017

Considered by many scholars to be a historically significant conceptual development in the study of → social cognition, implicit personality theories are cognitive structures utilized during → social perception and in social interaction. The knowledge contained in these structures specifies sets of personality traits perceived to be interrelated. Applied during social perception, implicit personality theories are key to impression formation, allowing a perceiver to make trait inferences, or, infer from a few, initially observed traits that a person will probably have a number of additional, implicated traits. Applied in social interaction, implicit personality theories are a source of person knowledge, a type of knowledge seen as essential to communication skills and achieving communication goals (→ Goals, Social Aspects of; Interpersonal Communication), as is knowledge of the self, roles, contexts, emotions, and how to put together one's messages (→ Schemas, Knowledge Structures, and Social Interaction).
Independent Media Centers Network
Authors: Brooten Lisa 
Published: September 2017

The global network of Independent Media Centers (IMCs), or “Indymedia,” is a groundbreaking example of the power of an online, multimedia network providing for instantaneous, decentralized global communication, unique in that it involves a network of nonprofit, autonomous media collectives. These new technological capacities are shifting the nature of news consumption and provoking debates about the nature of → news, its construction, and what constitutes a newsmaker. In addition, IMCs have been experimenting with hierarchy‐leveling organizational processes and interactive software in the interests of furthering democratic goals and providing a more diverse set of discussions than corporate media currently offer (→ Media Democracy Movement). Indymedia discussions also critique the global hegemony of the neo‐liberal and unilateral policies of the United States and its allies.
Individual Differences and Information Processing
Authors: Chamorro‐Premuzic Tomas 
Published: September 2017

“Individual differences” (also known as “differential psychology”) is the area of psychology concerned with the scientific understanding of how, why, and to what degree people differ. Its two major objects of study are personality and intelligence, though → emotion, motivation, vocational interests, and creativity also represent important, and increasingly researched, topics. Thus, individual difference factors attempt to describe and explain the nature, causes, and consequences of any psychological differences between individuals. Typically, such differences are quantified and measured or assessed via psychometric tests (Chamorro‐Premuzic & Furnham 2005).
Innis, Harold
Authors: Blondheim Menahem 
Published: September 2017

Harold Adams Innis (1894–1952) was a Canadian economic historian turned communication theorist, whose research focused on the role of the
medium
in communication processes. His work – historical in method (→ Media History) and ecumenical in scope – demonstrated the centrality of communications in social, political, and cultural development. Together with his junior colleague, → Marshall McLuhan, he is considered a founding father of a medium‐focused school of communication theory, variously known as the “Toronto School,” → “media ecology,” or → “medium theory.” It holds that communications media are the key to understanding the co‐development of mind, culture, and society.
Instructional Television
Authors: Avery Robert K. 
Published: September 2017

The term “instructional television” (ITV) is multidimensional, with definitions varying widely, depending on context, time period examined, and other factors. The term is frequently related or used interchangeably with other terms in this encyclopedia, including → Classroom Instructional Technology, → Distance Education, and → Educational Media, among others. At the most basic level, ITV refers to the use of the medium of → Television to deliver instructional content to one or more viewers, but the multiple interpretations of the term are tied directly to delivery/reception variables, content variables, and viewer variables.
Integrated Marketing Communications
Authors: Belch Michael A. , Belch George E. 
Published: September 2017

In the 1960s, Chevrolet spent almost its entire US television media budget on one program – the
Dinah Shore Show
. At that time prime‐time viewers had only three network channels to choose from and an advertiser could reach 80 percent of US households on any given evening by running commercials on CBS, NBC, and ABC programs (→ Television Networks). Newspapers were a primary source of information, and → cable television and the → Internet were decades away from development.
Interaction Adaptation Theory
Authors: Burgoon Judee K. 
Published: September 2017

In interpersonal encounters, people are usually responsive and adaptive to others (→ Interpersonal Communication). Their gestures, voices, and words take on the quality of a dance as they mesh with one another to create a coordinated interaction. Interaction adaptation theory (IAT; Burgoon et al. 1995b) predicts and explains how, when, and why people adapt to another's verbal and nonverbal communication (→ Nonverbal Communication and Culture) in similar or dissimilar ways. It focuses on how pairs of communicators – actors and their partners – coordinate their communication styles with one another in ongoing conversations.
Intercultural Norms
Authors: Kim Min‐Sun 
Published: September 2017

Normative conduct is a major component of systems of culture. Each culture has its specific norms for everyday social interaction. Differences in norms and cultural expectations often become grounds for intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication; Nonverbal Communication and Culture). There are innumerable definitions of norms in the social science literature. For example, norms are defined as “rules of conduct,” “blueprints for behavior,” and “cultural expectations.” Comparing existing definitions, Gibbs (1965) finds three attributes of a norm: “(1) a collective evaluation of behavior in terms of what ought to be; (2) a collective expectation as to what behavior will be; and (3) particular reactions to behavior including attempts to apply sanctions or otherwise induce a particular kind of behavior” (→ Intercultural Norms; Social Norms).
International Radio
Authors: Jauert Per 
Published: September 2017

Since → Radio broadcasting was launched shortly after World War I, it has served two culturally different, almost paradoxical, functions in relation to its distribution. On the one hand, it turned out to be one of the more effective instruments in the nation‐building process, and on the other it was from its initial years distributed on a global scale. Benedict Anderson's concept of “imagined communities” would express the role of radio broadcasting not as a tool for national identity‐shaping within a nationalist ideology, but more as a way to encircle a common feeling or a sense of “Englishness,” “Danishness,” etc. Although in public debate about the cultural role of the electronic media it is often claimed they dilute national culture, in a historical perspective it is clearly the other way round. Over the past century, radio in large part shaped a national sense of shared imaginations and frames of reference, and at the same time also maintained its position as an international medium.
Internet Use across the Life‐Span
Authors: Coombs W. Timothy 
Published: September 2017

Internet usage refers primarily to the online activities of visiting web pages and using email (→ Electronic Mail). It is reasonable to expect differences in online activities between different age groups. However, international Internet data frequently excludes age as a variable, making age‐based analyses more challenging (Findahl 2004). To evaluate the data that does exist accurately, both general and specific Internet usage needs to be considered when comparing age groups and Internet usage. General usage simply refers to going online. Specific usage refers to what activities are performed online (→ Internet).
Interview, Qualitative
Authors: Möhring Wiebke , Schluetz Daniela 
Published: September 2017

At first sight, a scientific → interview resembles a common conversation, a qualitative interview even more so than a standardized one. Unlike a day‐to‐day conversation, however, such an interview takes place in an artificial situation, follows specific rules, and is conducted to reach a predefined goal. An open‐ended interview can be conducted for two different reasons. It may be
explorative
, which means that it is used to gather a first understanding of a topic, a deeper insight into the relevant dimensions in question, and an idea of the terms used in describing these dimensions. An explorative interview is only the first in a series of other, usually standardized, research steps. A
qualitative
interview, on the other hand, is a method of inquiry in its own right. It is theoretically rooted in symbolic interactionism and Max Weber's
verstehender Soziologie
(→ Symbolic Interaction; Verstehen vs Erklären). The great value of open‐ended interviews lies in the fact that respondents are allowed to tell it “their way” with a minimum of direction, thus offering their understanding of the topic in question in the context of and from their social position.
Intimate Talk with Family and Friends
Authors: Sandel Todd 
Published: September 2017

Intimate talk with family and friends can be examined as a product, process, or resource. It is a product of a relationship that has become intimate over time. This is the focus of studies involving social penetration (Altman & Taylor 1973) or social exchange theories (Thibaut & Kelley 1959), which find that as one person self‐discloses, the other may reciprocate and the relationship becomes closer or more intimate. A different understanding comes from seeing intimate talk as process: speakers co‐construct meaning and through talk create the relationship. This is the focus of scholars interested in → conversation analysis. Standing between these two approaches is intimate talk as resource, whereby speakers are competent in the performance and interpretation of certain forms of talk, such as joking or greeting, and intentionally use these to create, index or point to, and sustain intimate relationships. This is the focus of studies in such fields as sociolinguistics and the → ethnography of communication.
Investigative Reporting
Authors: Aucoin James L. 
Published: September 2017

Investigative journalism is the product of independent work by reporters and editors, which reveals a public or social issue that would otherwise remain unknown. Reporters produce original investigations for → Newspapers, → magazines, → books, broadcast outlets (→ Television; Radio), newsletters, and news websites (→ Internet). The process of investigation may take days, months, or years and include reviewing public documents, conducting multiple interviews, surveying public opinion, analyzing databases, or the like. Investigative reports are usually comprehensive and much longer than other → news stories.
Intergroup Reconciliation, Processes of
Authors: Giles Howard 
Published: September 2017

Although there is a paucity of work focusing explicitly on intergroup apologies, forgiveness, reconciliation, or reparations in the discipline of communication, even a casual observer of the international news scene suggests that these are ever‐increasing concerns in interethnic and international politics. Much of the academic research that does relate to these topics derives from social psychology (see Nadler et al. 2008) and international relations (e.g., Rothstein, 1999; Bar‐Siman‐Tov 2004) and is of the utmost relevance to intergroup and intercultural communication (→ Intercultural and Intergroup Communication).
Journalism: Legal Situation
Authors: Davidson Sandra 
Published: September 2017

“Knowledge is power,” said English lawyer and philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626). But sometimes journalists have the knowledge while the government has the power. This can lead to clashes that, unfortunately for journalists, can sometimes lead to imprisonment and even death (→ Violence against Journalists). While civil libel suits against journalists remain the media's biggest financial danger, that danger pales in comparison to loss of freedom or life (→ Libel and Slander).
Knowledge Gap Effects
Authors: Gaziano Cecilie 
Published: September 2017

Building upon early research from rural sociology, diffusion of innovations, public opinion poll data, and information campaigns, Tichenor et al. (1970, 159–160) posed the hypothesis: “As the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status (SES) tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease.” The less advantaged were predicted to gain knowledge but at a slower rate than more advantaged groups. The gap can be studied at one time point or over time. Tichenor et al., also known as the Minnesota Team, focused on public affairs and scientific knowledge (→ Political Knowledge). They assumed that knowledge growth was irreversible (although forgetting can occur) and that ceiling effects occurred at varying rates for different SES groups or else had not been reached (→ Media Campaigns and Perception of Reality; Media Use by Social Variable).
Kurdish International Broadcasting
Authors: Akpinar Zozan 
Published: September 2017

Med TV, the first Kurdish satellite TV channel, began its standard broadcasts in May 1995 from its head office in London and its main studios near Brussels. It was created by people close to the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), which had been conducting an armed struggle against the Turkish state since 1984. On the one hand, this channel was seen as an instrument in the struggle against Turkish media, which were used in the conflict by the Turkish army according to “psychological warfare” requirements. On the other hand, it was seen as a means of opposing the homogenization policy of the Turkish nation‐state, which banned the use of Kurdish in broadcasting. Europe, where a considerable Kurdish migrant population lived, constituted a human and material resource‐base favorable to creating a satellite network in Kurdish (→ International Television).
Objectivity in Reporting
Authors: Hackett Robert A. 
Published: September 2017

The concept of “objectivity” connotes a set of practices and ideas, such as a stance of → neutrality or → balance in relation to the people and events being reported. It is a central ethos in journalism, especially in the Anglo American liberal democracies (→ Ethics in Journalism). It is also acquiring global significance as journalists seek new roles and institutional supports within the “transition societies” of formerly communist and third world dictatorships. What objectivity means in practice, however, and whether it is a desirable and achievable goal for reporting in a democratic society are questions very much debated.
Organizational Communication: Critical Approaches
Authors: Mumby Dennis K. 
Published: September 2017

The term “critical approach” refers to a broad, interdisciplinary body of theory and research that conceives of organizations as dynamic sites of control and resistance. “Critical studies” covers several distinct yet related intellectual traditions, each of which examines the communicative practices through which control and resistance are produced, reproduced, and transformed in the process of organizing. These traditions include: neo‐Marxism, → critical theory, postmodernism, and feminism (→ Postmodernism and Communication; Feminist and Gender Studies). Each of these traditions shares the “post‐linguistic turn” assumption that language and → Discourse are central, constitutive elements of human meaning and reality formation.
Organizational Communication: Postmodern Approaches
Authors: Ganesh Shiv 
Published: September 2017

Postmodern approaches to organizational communication elude easy description. Broadly speaking, they are diverse forms of inquiry that challenge and reconstruct systems of power, identity, and representation (→ Control and Authority in Organizations). Since the 1980s, postmodern approaches, situated with reference to a larger critical tradition, have burgeoned in organizational communication studies. Under this rubric, many extant theories and methods in → Organizational Communication inquiry have been challenged and refashioned.
P2P Networking
Authors: Dini Paolo , Krause Paul 
Published: September 2017

The emergence of peer‐to‐peer (P2P) networking shows that technological determinism can be turned on its head: rather than socio‐economic systems being determined by technological developments, sometimes technology can be determined by its users. Although in general the coupling goes both ways, P2P networking culminates the progression in computer architectures from mainframes through minicomputers, workstations, PCs, and client–server (master–slave) architectures, as information and communication technology (ICT), over a 50‐year span, gradually adapted to the needs and behavior of its users (→ Communication Networks). In contrast to the master–slave or client–server architecture, in a peer‐to‐peer network each node has the same status and can issue requests to or respond to requests from any other node. Centralized management of network traffic becomes functionally unnecessary, with implications of increased local autonomy and lack of centralized control of the content carried by such traffic.