bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
La religión y su lugar en la sociología
Authors: Cordero del Castillo Prisciliano 
Published: May 2016

La religión como objeto de la sociología.
La religión, en su naturaleza y en sus manifestaciones, es un fenómeno tan complejo que no puede ser comprendido por una sola ciencia. Como expresión de un mensaje sobrenatural, la religión es objeto de la teología. La filosofía trata, por su parte, de profundizar en su naturaleza a través del razonamiento.
Las ciencias empíricas que estudian el hecho religioso se ocupan de aspectos concretos: su dinámica a lo largo de la historia (historia de las religiones), su influjo en el campo psíquico (psicología de la religión), sus aspectos sociales (sociología de la religión), etc. Uno de los pocos paradigmas sociológicos que cuenta con el consenso general de la mayoría de los sociólogos de la religión es considerar a ésta no en su esencia, sino en sus manifestaciones externas, como un hecho social. Hoy, después de los estudios de Max Weber sobre la ética protestante calvinista y el desarrollo del capitalismo, nadie duda que la religión sea configurada y condicionada por la sociedad, al mismo tiempo que ésta, la sociedad, es condicionada por la religión. En este mismo sentido se manifiesta Fernández Fernández, F. (1996:77) cuando dice que “el binomio ‘Religión-Sociedad’, hecho religioso y contexto social, se encuentra siempre interrelacionado y es, por su propia situación y configuración social, interdependiente”.
Sociedad y educación en las Leyes de Indias
Authors: García Benítez Antonio 
Published: May 2016

En este artículo pretendo presentar un diseño de las investigaciones que estoy realizando, en base a la Legislación Indiana, desde una perspectiva sociohistórica de la Educación. En los más antiguos documentos legislativos (año 1503) ya vemos la preocupación por fundar escuelas, iniciándose una ingente legislación a través de Cédulas reales, Decretos, Órdenes, Reglamentos, Oficios e incluso Consultas y Pareceres que nos es preciso examinar y explicar. Los reyes españoles tuvieron más mimos para los súbditos americanos que para los peninsulares; no creo que hubiese ley que ordenara abrir escuelas en los pueblos peninsulares y si las hubo, muy pronto, para los que se iban formando en América.
Los estamentos sociales y los destinatarios de la educación.
Las fuentes históricas presentan la población de la América hispana, en el periodo colonial, escindida y estratificada en grupos sociales antagónicos y en categorías étnicas diferentes.
Energy 360: Invited Perspective: Another World’s First From The NCS: Subsea Gas Compression Is Here
Authors: Haldorsen Helge Hove , Ramberg Rune Mode 
Published: May 2016

President's column
Steve Thurston, Chevron’s vice president of deepwater exploration and projects compares developing US Gulf of Mexico oil fields like Jack and St. Malo in 7,000 ft to the 1969 moon landing: “Except we are going to the moon every day!” It really is impressive to see how offshore and subsea technology have evolved over the years. Of the world’s current oil demand of approximately 93 million BOPD, some 27 million BOPD or 30% comes from offshore fields and the offshore contribution is expected to continue to grow according to Douglas-Westwood World Drilling & Production Market Forecast 2005-2021.
The Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS) is among the front-runners in subsea technology developments and applications. It is like a giant “subsea and offshore 2.0 laboratory” for the rest of the offshore world.
According to Statoil, it has more than 500 subsea wells and is the world’s largest operator in water depths greater than 100 m.
The Troll-Oseberg Gas Injection subsea template installed in 1991 supplies gas subsea from Troll to Oseberg, 48 km away, making a gravity drainage recovery mechanism on Oseberg possible, resulting in a very high oil recovery factor.
Through more than 150 multibranched subsea wells (two to six branches per well), individual Troll oil province development wells can connect with nearly 45,000 ft of productive reservoir.
Subsea water separation and subsea reinjection units have been successfully used on the Troll oil and Tordis field developments. At the Tyrihans 10% additional recovery is achieved with injection of raw seawater from pumps on the seafloor.
Snøhvit and Ormen Lange are all-subsea offshore gas developments and send unprocessed wellstreams to shore 90 and 75 miles from shore, respectively.
Efficient subsea gas compression is the next challenge that the industry must face to continue subsea development. When an offshore gas field is developed 100% by a subsea development and the pressure falls because of production, compression will be needed at some point to maintain the production rate. But, there is no platform to put it on—unless you build one. What about installing subsea compression and skipping the platform altogether? Is this even possible? I posed questions to Statoil’s chief engineer in subsea technology, Rune Mode Ramberg, regarding the latest subsea compression developments on the NCS.
Maximize Recovery by Minimizing Production Delays and Shut-ins
Authors: Crafton James 
Published: May 2016

Technology Update
The greatest challenge facing the oil and gas industry, particularly in this low-price environment, is to increase recovery rates. Experts in multiple disciplines across the industry are focusing on it because even a small improvement in recovery factors can make a major impact.
To meet this challenge, the industry must do more than look to new, stepchange technologies; it must question current practices. For example, the practice of delaying first production after the multistage fracture stimulation of wells is widely seen as a sound operating strategy. Additional shut-ins, whether intentional or unexpected, are a part of everyday well operations. However, a growing body of evidence shows a negative effect on wellbore connectivity with the reservoir.
A recent study examined more than 360 wells in six North American shale plays to determine the effect of production delay and shut-ins (Crafton and Noe 2013). The analyses showed that delaying production quickly damages wells, thus affecting wellbore connectivity and production. A similar result was found for shut-ins, with a strong correlation between the number of shut-ins and incurred damage.
One of the mechanisms causing this damage is the energy stored in the fluid/ fluid interfaces in the form of a capillary pressure difference. Historically, the pressure difference has been understood to be relatively small, but in shale plays, it can easily be of the same magnitude as the original reservoir pressure.
The study also examined the potential benefit of using a persistent interfacial tension management (pITM) nanofluid to mitigate these negative effects and found that in cases of production delay or shut-in, wells treated with pITM nanofluid showed improved connectivity and production compared with untreated wells. Therefore, the reduction of interfacial tension has the effect of reducing the amount of energy, or pressure drop, needed to allow flow to begin.
The Study Methodology
To determine the effect of production delay and shut-ins, two metrics were used to compare well performance. The first was the “apparent fracture length,” which describes the degree of connectivity between the wellbore and the reservoir. This value was normalized for proppant weight placed and determined based on flowback pressure and production data, using the reciprocal productivity index approach (Crafton 1997).
Automated Drilling Technologies Showing Promise
Authors: Jacobs Trent 
Published: May 2016

Drilling Automation
For the past several years, automated drilling has promised to deliver major improvements in drilling performance. But the technology is facing new obstacles that might affect its progress and commercialization. Global oil prices and an ongoing gas glut have upturned the economics of automated projects, while in North America, human-operated drilling has improved substantially.
For Shell, those factors have caused it to scale back or cancel several projects in which automated drilling was to play a key role in the development of thousands of wells. This comes after years of headway the company was making with automated technology. In 2011, Drilling Contractor reported that the first generation of Shell’s automated control system had already shown a 70% improvement in rate of penetration (ROP) in areas where the company was testing the system. However, that figure is no longer relevant as human drillers in the US have narrowed the gap.
“What has happened is instead of competing against the average driller in an environment of high activity and scarcity, we are now competing against a pool of extremely talented and accomplished drillers,” said Mark Anderson, manager of drilling mechanics technologies at Shell. “Thus, the bar has been raised for the adoption of drilling automation-type technologies.”
Globally, however, there remains significant shortcomings in the capabilities and availability of rig crews, which underpin the need to deliver automation in the near future. Whether the goal is met rests on the shoulders of a small group of early adopters and innovators. If successful, their work will bring about a major departure from how drilling systems are designed and operated today by proving that, with data and algorithms in the driller’s seat, drilling can be made safer, more consistent, and ultimately cheaper by way of reducing nonproductive time (NPT).
Some experts foresee a generation of rigs that will operate mostly autonomously. Others predict that in the near future, it is more likely that rigs will be remotely controlled by drillers, geologists, and engineers working, not in the field, but in office buildings and on several wells at once. Some of the systems evolving now aim to turn drillers and rigs into something resembling today’s commercial airliners, whereby many functions of the airplane are automated with pilots able to take control if they need to.
The Road Map to Automation
Authors: Jacobs Trent 
Published: May 2016

Drilling Automation
John de Wardt, president of De Wardt & Company and program manager of the Drilling Systems Automation Roadmap cross-industry initiative, has been working for the past few years with other experts to develop a comprehensive technology road map for automation.
He is also a board member of SPE’s Drilling Systems Automation Technical Section (DSATS), formed to drive the development of automated well construction technologies. Based on his work with these groups, he expects that a series of breakthroughs in the next few years will lead to a full embrace of automated drilling systems in the next decade.
“It is easy to look at it and say it is a nice pipe dream. But then when I discuss with people what is actually happening out there, I see data points that verify this is a realistic vision,” said de Wardt. The road map is a guide that companies in the industry may follow to go from automated components, or subsystems, such as bottomhole assemblies or weight on bit controllers, to a fully automated drilling system.
While it may be a slow piecemeal approach, de Wardt said such a plan is needed to coordinate the complex ecosystem of companies involved with well construction. The industry reality is that it takes an amalgamation of equipment manufacturers, rig contractors, and service companies to drill wells for operators. A few majors, such as Shell, national oil companies, and integrated project management companies that own rigs may have such prowess but they are the exceptions.
“I think it will go both ways because there will be some integrators that are going to see the value in doing it from the top down,” he said. “But independents are not going to go out and spend big on this; they are not going to go out and fund such a change like that.”
One stop on the road map involves standardization. Using the Internet as an example, de Wardt said different automated systems need a common protocol so they can “talk” to each other and a control system, regardless of who made them. For instance, the work that DSATS is undertaking and the application developed by NOV using an open platform.
When Talking Automation, Mind the Algorithms
Authors: Jacobs Trent 
Published: May 2016

Drilling Automation
The word “automation” is a catchall for a detailed set of levels of control; 10 in fact. And each will be applied in a different way. As each system climbs the scale, one rung at a time, pushing it up will be increasingly accurate algorithms and computer models.
According to robotics pioneer Thomas Sheridan’s levels of automation, at the most base level, systems are simply advisers with no control whatsoever. Toward the middle of the scale, humans take on more of a supervisory role, or as some phrase it, “are kept in the loop.” The highest level involves automated systems that ask for no help from humans while doing their tasks, and actually ignore them, with the exception of override systems to initiate emergency shutdowns.
“Once we get to the point where there is full automation, there are going to be some exciting and radical new changes that take place,” said John Hedengren, an assistant professor of chemical engineering at Brigham Young University, who leads a research team on drilling automation and works with SPE’s Drilling Systems Automation Technical Section (DSATS) on data quality assurance for automation.
Hedengren underscores his optimism for what is yet to come by citing Moore’s Law, which has astutely predicted the exponential improvements seen in computer processing over the past half century. In the last 15 years, Hedengren said computing speed has increased by 1,000 times, while in the same time span, some of the algorithms for drilling optimization have also improved by 1,000 times. “If you put those two together, it is actually a million times faster to run some of the same problems that we were running just 15 years ago,” he said.
For automation, it means what was impossible to do even 5 years ago is achievable today by the convergence of advanced computing technology and advanced measuring devices that feed drilling information into the models for constant readjustments.
Profits Possible at Low Oil Prices But Tough Changes Required
Authors: Rassenfoss Stephen 
Published: May 2016

Conference Review - HIS Energy CERAWeek in Houston, Texas, April 20-24, 2015
Low oil prices look like something the industry needs to get used to. “This will be with us for a while,” said Rex Tillerson, chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of ExxonMobil. While prices will swing up at times, he predicted a “difficult price environment for the next couple of years.”
The message was repeated over and over by the speakers at the annual IHS CERAWeek conference in Houston, which attracts executives from around the globe.
“You have to prepare for USD 60 and less,” said Stephen Chazen, president and CEO of Occidental Petroleum. To adapt to the new environment, “we cut costs by a third. Some projects are going away.” Companies will need to concentrate on reducing their breakeven costs permanently or “you will have tough times,” said Patrick Pouyanné, CEO and president of the executive committee for Total. For many, tough times are already here, with announced layoffs from the global oil and gas industry surpassing 100,000 by April, according to The Wall Street Journal.
The number of drilling rigs working in North America is less than half of what it was at the peak last year, but that does not necessarily mean oil production will decline. Continued low prices led natural gas producers to sharply increase their productivity, allowing them to produce far more with a fraction of the rigs once needed.
“A significant decline in rig activity did not diminish the growth in capacity” in natural gas, Tillerson said. “Will we see the same phenomenon in tight oil? I do not know, but that is why I believe this is a very resilient industry. I think people will be surprised.”
So far, the measures of drilling efficiency and well productivity in the US oil plays have improved at a rate that followed the path previously traveled by gas producers, he said.
Better Survey Management Makes Wells Safer and More Productive
Authors: Parshall Joel 
Published: May 2016

Wellbore Positioning
Do you know where your wellbore is?
The question is not rhetorical, but one the SPE Wellbore Positioning Technical Section (WPTS) strives to ensure that well operators can answer with high accuracy. The ability to do so is central to safe drilling operations, optimum production, and maximum recovery of reserves. And knowing the answer depends on good wellbore survey management, a practice that frequently is deficient among drilling operations managers. It is a problem that the WPTS is trying to remedy.
Obtained by means of gyroscopic systems or magnetic systems such as measurement-while-drilling (MWD) and logging-while-drilling (LWD) tools, a wellbore survey provides essential depth and directional data as a well is drilled. The use of data from properly designed surveys enables operators to ensure that a well will have a safe pathway to its target and avoid a collision with another wellbore. Survey information is also crucial in preparing to drill a relief well, should it be necessary.
In addition, surveys provide geoscience staff and government regulators with important data, play a significant role in forensic investigations, and aid in estimating reserves. Operators also sometimes obtain post-drilling surveys to achieve an enhanced accuracy of wellbore locational data.
Safety and Economic Benefits
Because the highest priority is to drill wells safely, conducting a wellbore survey is first and foremost a safety practice. However, the WPTS believes that many people in the industry fail to recognize the full economic benefit that good survey practice adds to drilling projects by reducing the uncertainty of achieving the intended well path. Thus, they underestimate the economic cost of inadequate survey practice.
The growth of pad drilling, in which multiple wells are drilled from the same location and spaced closer together, accentuates the need for good wellbore survey practice for safety and economic reasons.
“If you don’t know where your well is, how do you know what your reserves are?” asked Robert Wylie, product line director of Dynamic Drilling Solutions at National Oilwell Varco.
Reflecting this theme, Wylie moderated a WPTS topical luncheon titled “Why Did Your Reservoir Just Move?” at the 2014 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition (ATCE). Good survey management drives increased value for wells, reservoirs, and companies, he said.
Q&A with Ahmad Al-Khowaiter, CTO, Saudi Aramco
Authors: Henni Abdelghani 
Published: May 2016

Q&A
How important is technology to Saudi Aramco’s strategy?
The development and implementation of a globally competitive technology is very important to Saudi Aramco. We believe technology leadership drives continued and future success in the energy sector and is essential to achieving our aspirations to help solve global energy challenges and to stimulate the local knowledge economy.
We have laid the groundwork to create a sustainable competitive advantage through the introduction of a balanced portfolio of technically feasible and commercially viable technology options.
In upstream, the key research domains are reservoir engineering, computational modeling, drilling, production, geophysics, and geology. Research and development activities seek to increase incremental oil recovery from major reservoirs and increase the company’s resource base. Specific technology projects are directed toward increasing exploration probability, reducing finding costs, increasing production reliability, and enhancing cost efficiency.
In downstream, by which we mean everything that takes place above the ground, the key research domains are oil and gas treatment, oil upgrading, chemicals, and network integrity. The downstream research domains are all about maximizing the value from every barrel of oil we produce, which is achieved though innovation in process improvement and production efficiencies in downstream businesses such as chemicals and refining.
In addition, our strategic research domains of carbon management and fuel/ engine technology pursue the long-term sustainability of crude oil as the preferred energy source in the global marketplace.
What are the new technologies being pursued?
Our technology portfolio includes a number of cutting-edge innovations across a range of disciplines, including areas such as advanced materials, robotics, computational modeling, and others.
For example, researchers at our upstream research center are at the forefront of leveraging micro- and nanotechnologies to develop breakthrough technologies to increase oil and gas production.
Specific areas of interest include exploration, drilling, reservoir characterization, mapping and detecting various subsurface fluids, improved/enhanced oil recovery, and production.
Development of Improved High-Strength Coiled Tubing
Authors: Carpenter Chris 
Published: May 2016

This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 173639, “The Development of High-Strength Coiled Tubing With Improved Fatigue Performance and H2S Resistance,” by M. Valdez, C. Morales, R. Rolovic, SPE, and B. Reichert, SPE, Tenaris, prepared for the 2015 SPE Coiled Tubing and Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, USA, 24–25 March. The paper has not been peer reviewed.
Today, there is a need for higher-strength coiled-tubing (CT) grades with better resistance to severe environments and better fatigue performance in both the tube body and the bias weld. A complete redesign of CT technology and its manufacturing process has recently been carried out. Testing has shown that the fatigue life of the new CT grades exceeds that of currently available high-strength grades. Additionally, the bias-weld fatigue life has improved significantly. Sulfide-stress- cracking (SSC) resistance of the new CT grades is considerably better than that of conventional CT grades with the same strength.
Introduction
Significant changes in CT operating conditions have been driven by the adoption of multistage fracturing in long horizontal wells for shale oil and gas completions. In these, CT is used in well-completion operations, typically perforating the toe of the well, then milling zonal-isolation plugs used in fracturing, and then cleaning debris from the wellbore.
Stress and strain levels in the CT used for well-completion operations are typically much greater than those experienced in traditional intervention operations. These operating conditions have identified performance limitations of the CT as it is currently manufactured. One limitation is the yield strength of currently available CT grades. Another limitation is the reduced fatigue life of the bias welds relative to the adjacent base tube, particularly in high-strength-grade tubes. A third limitation is the resistance to SSC, which generally deteriorates as the strength of the tube increases. The objective of this new CT-technology development was to provide a higher-strength tube with better bias-weld performance and improved SSC resistance. This required a full metallurgical understanding of current CT materials and of the manufacturing process, in order to identify improvements. For a discussion of past and current CT technology, manufacturing, and validation methodology, please see the complete paper.