bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Characterizing black holes
Authors: Blundell Katherine 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Characterizing black holes’ describes the two different types of black holes: Schwarzschild black holes that do not rotate and Kerr black holes that do. The only distinguishing characteristics of black holes are their mass and their spin. A remarkable feature of a spinning black hole is that the gravitational field pulls objects around the black hole’s axis of rotation, not merely in towards its centre—an effect called frame dragging. The static limit and ergosphere regions of black holes are also described. Einstein’s equations of General Relativity allow many different solutions describing alternative versions of curved spacetime. Could white holes and worm holes exist in our universe?
Falling into a black hole …
Authors: Blundell Katherine 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Falling into a black hole … considers what happens near to a black hole and how close is too close to avoid an object being pulled into the black hole. Gravitational redshift arises where spacetime is stretched out or curved by the effect of a black hole and time dilation is the effect of time ‘running more slowly’ moving closer to a black hole. These effects are larger if the black hole mass is larger, and also become more extreme the closer you get to the event horizon. The effect of spin and spin direction on how close particles may encounter the black hole, dynamic spacetime, tidal forces, and particle orbits are also considered.
Entropy and thermodynamics of black holes
Authors: Blundell Katherine 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Entropy and thermodynamics of black holes’ considers how the laws of thermodynamics and entropy can be applied to black holes. It discusses the work of Roger Penrose, James Bardeen, Brandon Carter, and Stephen Hawking, which, using quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, has enabled these scientists to propose likely behaviour in and around black holes. The concepts of black hole evaporation and Hawking radiation are explained to show how black holes lose mass and eventually disappear. It concludes with the black hole information paradox: can the information stored in the matter that fell into the black hole ever be recovered?
Eating more and growing bigger
Authors: Blundell Katherine 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
How do black holes grow? There is a lot of matter orbiting around a black hole and this matter can interact with itself, but must observe the laws of gravity and conservation of angular momentum. ‘Eating more and growing bigger’ explains that the accreting matter is very often in the form of a disc. It goes on to discuss what accretion discs look like, how hot they are, and how you measure how fast a black hole is spinning. How close matter is able to orbit before being swallowed by the black hole tells you how fast the black hole itself must be spinning.
Agents, networks, degree, and recirculation
Authors: Holland John H. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Agents, networks, degree, and recirculation’ explains that when studying complex adaptive systems (CAS) in a grammar-like way, agents serve as the ‘alphabet’. The hierarchical organization of CAS implies different kinds of agents at different levels, with correspondingly different grammars. The interactions of signal-processing agents at a point in time can be specified by a network—a snapshot of the agents’ performance capability. The combination of high fanout (the richness of an agent’s interactions) and hierarchical organization results in complex networks that include large numbers of sequences that form loops. More complex loops allow the CAS to ‘look ahead’, examining the effects of various action sequences without actually executing the actions.
what is environmental politics?
Authors: Dobson Andrew 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
The Introduction outlines the structure of this VSI. It begins by looking at the origins of environmental concern and asks why we should care about the environment at all. It considers the ideas that lie behind environmental politics and some of the disputes that take place within it. It then looks at the practice of environmental politics, the movement and the parties that enact it, and the policy tools that governments use. The history of the movement is also discussed, as well as the question of the different forms it takes, and how unified it is before concluding by looking to the future of environmental politics.
Origins
Authors: Dobson Andrew 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Humans have been part of the Earth’s history for a very short time, but our impact on the world around us has been considerable. The two major moments of accelerations of human impact were the development of agriculture and the Industrial Revolution. ‘Origins’ explains how they laid the foundations for concern about the sustainability of ways of life. The 1970s saw a growing awareness that negative environmental impacts might be a result of a mistaken whole development path, rather than local and isolated difficulties. An environmental political movement coalescing around those problems offered an alternative political platform, which has made a dramatic impact on politics in many ways and at many levels.
Local and global, North and South
Authors: Dobson Andrew 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Environmental problems have an international—even a global—character. Environmental politics is therefore, at least in part, an international politics. ‘Local and global, North and South’ considers how the national and international dimensions work—or not—together highlighting an apparently insurmountable faultline between the global North and the global South. Despite numerous obstacles, multilateral environmental agreements are possible. By comparing and contrasting two cases—the ozone layer and climate change—the factors and conditions that make for successful agreements are analysed. The local level, which is also crucial to environmental politics, is then considered because this is where environmental implications are felt most viscerally and its battles are fought most keenly.
Critical perspectives
Authors: Moon Jeremy 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Critical perspectives’ presents two systemic critiques of corporate social responsibility (CSR), which argue that CSR is fundamentally undesirable or impossible. Firstly, there is the view associated with Milton Friedman that sees CSR as contrary to the core purpose of business, as unaccountable management excess at the expense of shareholders, and as undermining of democratic accountability for public affairs. Secondly, there is the anti-corporate perspective, usually associated with critics of capitalism more generally. This view sees CSR as an extension of the underlying problems of capitalism and of corporations therein. CSR advocates generally sit between the two views, rejecting both sets of deductive logics and their respective implications for the sociability and accountability of markets.
Appetite, fat, and obesity
Authors: Luck Martin 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Appetite, fat, and obesity’ considers the role of insulin in the body’s fat storage process. In the condition diabetes mellitus, the sugar level in the blood rises uncontrollably so the kidneys cannot stop it leaking into the urine. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which a person’s immune system attacks the insulin-secreting β-cells of the pancreas. The only effective treatment is to inject the missing insulin. Type 2 diabetes is considered more of a lifestyle disease. But what exactly is the connection between obesity and poorly regulated blood glucose? The body has more hormones capable of responding to energy shortage than to energy abundance, which may be why keeping control of body weight can be difficult. The hormones affecting appetite are also discussed.
Genes as DNA
Authors: Slack Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
After 1944, a remarkable set of discoveries established the overall shape of modern molecular biology and most famous of all was the discovery of the three dimensional structure of DNA: the famous double helix, which explained how the substance could act as the genetic material. ‘Genes as DNA’ describes the complex structure of genes and explains the terms ‘genome’ and ‘genomics’. In the 1980s and 1990s the complex mechanisms by which genes control embryonic development were discovered. The complete sequencing of a typical human genome was started in the late 1990s and achieved in 2003. It showed that the genome of human beings contains about three billion base pairs of DNA.
Mutations and gene variants
Authors: Slack Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
All gene variants originate as mutations. Most variants in the genome of any given individual are not new mutations but have been inherited from previous generations. ‘Mutations and gene variants’ shows that mutations can occur in any cell of the body, but in order to be inherited they must occur in the DNA of the reproductive cells. There are numerous genetic diseases caused by a single mutation in one gene, and the examples considered here are cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, achondroplasia, and Holt-Oram Syndrome. In such cases, the inheritance of the abnormal gene variant follows simple Mendelian rules. The origin of cancer is explained as a combination of mutations occurring in a single cell of the body. Inherited gene variants predisposing to cancer do so because they reduce the number of new mutations required.
Genes in evolution
Authors: Slack Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Genes in evolution’ illustrates that a great deal of change in the primary sequence of DNA was not adaptive at all. It was not natural selection, but ‘neutral evolution’, consisting of an accumulation of mutations of no selective consequence that spread through the population by the effects of random sampling of variants from one generation to the next. In natural selection, generally what is good for the organism is good for the propagation of the gene variants it carries. But sometimes, as for sex and altruism, maximizing inheritance of gene variants that bring them about seems at first sight to be of advantage to the group, but of disadvantage for the individual.
Microbes in agriculture and biotechnology
Authors: Money Nicholas P. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Microbes in agriculture and biotechnology’ considers the applied microbiological research to improve soil fertility and combat plant diseases, as well as the development of genetically modified (GM) food, which may help to reduce the cost of modern agricultural practices and their contribution to climate change. Natural mechanisms that control soil fertility are inadequate to the task of supporting modern intensive agriculture and a human population that may exceed nine billion in 2050. Intensive grazing of cattle on deforested land is similarly unsustainable. Even in areas where soils are exceedingly rich, crop productivity falls without soil amendment with organic matter and inorganic fertilizers.
Over-nutrition: problems of overweight and obesity
Authors: Bender David A. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Over-nutrition: problems of overweight and obesity’ shows that Western society’s attitude to obesity has changed, and obesity is now considered to be undesirable. A desirable body weight and body mass index (BMI) in the range of 20 to 25 kg/m2 is associated with optimal life expectancy. The health risks of obesity are wide-ranging—including a major cause of early death from cancer, coronary heart disease, and type II diabetes—and it is placing a considerable financial strain on health services. Obesity is the result of increased availability and consumption of food, coupled with decreased physical activity. The various ways in which overweight people can be helped to lose weight are considered.
Microbial and planktonic engines of the reef
Authors: Sheppard Charles 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Symbiotic algae are a crucial source of fuel for the reef, via corals and others, but how is the food and energy from the corals transferred to other parts of the ecosystem to support the huge abundance and diversity seen there? ‘Microbial and planktonic engines of the reef’ describes the filter feeding—extracting particles from the water—of the large proportion of reef animals. These particles consist of plankton, microbes, bacteria, viruses, and zooplankton. Sponges also display microbial symbiotic connections with algae and cyanobacteria that is a key component of material and energy transfer. The productivity from seaweeds on which numerous species of herbivorous fish and sea urchins graze is also important.
Reef fish and other major predators
Authors: Sheppard Charles 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Healthy reefs provide a habitat for an immense number of fish that come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colours. No other natural habitat in the ocean shows this diversity and abundance. About a quarter of all marine species may be found on coral reefs even though this habitat occupies only one or two per cent of the area of the earth. ‘Reef fish and other major predators’ describes the diverse feeding ecology of reef fishes; coral reef predators such as the colourful crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster plancii; symbiotic relationships between different species of fish or with different invertebrates; and the dangers of overfishing in reef communities.
Climate change and reefs
Authors: Sheppard Charles 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Reefs are more affected by the damaging consequences of climate change than any other ecosystem. ‘Climate change and reefs’ illustrates how the impacts of climate change add on to, and synergistically multiply, the harmful effects of local disease and pollution. Warming of the seas and an increase of intense light overload the photosynthetic mechanism and symbiotic algae die. When these are expelled, the coral appears bleached and may die if conditions continue. The increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere also leads to acidification of the oceans, which reduces the amount of carbonate available to corals for limestone deposition. Severely damaged or destroyed reefs will erode, which means they can no longer act as breakwaters for island communities.
The international evolution of accounting
Authors: Nobes Christopher 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
What are the purposes of accounting? How do these purposes affect how accounting works? What is double-entry bookkeeping? ‘The international evolution of accounting’ considers these questions and outlines some examples of how different countries have contributed to the development of accounting. Double-entry bookkeeping, conceived in thirteenth-century Italy, balances the debits and credits. It enables the calculation of profit and the presentation of a business's financial position. Publication of accounting information is required to protect shareholders and creditors from potential malpractice by company directors. The globalization of world business has resulted in International Financial Reporting Standards, now used by around 90 countries. The US use their Financial Accounting Standards Board's ‘generally accepted accounting principles’.
Digital: after the deluge
Authors: Hargreaves Ian 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
What is journalism’s future? ‘Digital: after the deluge’ considers the ‘new media’ services—blogs, Google, Twitter, Facebook—that have transformed the way that people gather, edit, access, and consume news, but that also have had severe consequences for the news industry. The argument was that this new information ecology, or ‘fifth estate’, would inform people reliably, promote debate, and hold power to account. Journalism can only do this if it is trusted, and it will only be trusted if it embraces a discipline of verification. The activities of Matt Drudge, the American West Coast blogger, Julian Assange, the founder of WikiLeaks, and the secret service leaker, Edward Snowden, are also discussed.
What is a fungus?
Authors: Money Nicholas P. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘What is a fungus?’ explores the evolutionary origins of fungi and how they differ from plants and animals. The fungi are united by three principal characteristics: they are eukaryotes, which feed by absorption, and reproduce by forming spores. Fungi are more closely related to animals than they are to plants; fungi and animals both belong to the Opisthokonta taxonomic supergroup. The emergence of the fungi as a distinctive group of organisms is estimated to have happened between 760 million years ago and one billion years ago. The structure, growth, and physiology of the fungal cell are also described.
Fungal genetics and life cycles
Authors: Money Nicholas P. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
All of the structures produced by fungi, from simple budding yeast cells to long-lived bracket mushrooms, are encoded in genes. The genome of the fungus is a blueprint for its organization and operation. ‘Fungal genetics and life cycles’ explores the sequencing of genomes and progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms that link gene expression to fungal growth and development. Genetic experiments on yeast have led to major advances in our understanding of cell division and cancer. Filamentous fungi are also important research subjects for geneticists. The life cycles of mushrooms are complex and some species have thousands of mating types, or sexes.
Fungi in animal health and disease
Authors: Money Nicholas P. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Fungi in animal health and disease’ considers the fungi that populate the healthy human microbiome and the nature of superficial and systemic fungal infections in humans and other animals. Most of our associations with fungi are harmless and some of them support our well-being. Fungal diseases or ‘mycoses’ can develop, however, when our immune defences are weakened. The resulting opportunistic infections can be difficult to treat. Infections can also develop when the skin is damaged by a severe burn or if fungi contaminate tissues exposed during surgery. Fungal spores carry allergens and are a significant cause of asthma. A small number of mushroom species produce hallucinogens and others contain poisons.
Looking ahead
Authors: Wayne Marta L. , Bolker Benjamin M. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Looking ahead’ shows how our understanding of disease ecology and evolution has revolutionized disease management. By developing transmission control strategies to close the encounter filter and vaccines and treatments to close the compatibility filter, we have reduced the misery caused by infectious disease. But what is the outlook for the future control of infectious diseases? We cannot eradicate infectious disease. Living things have parasitized one another since the beginning of life itself. New zoonotic diseases will continue to emerge, and existing diseases will continually evolve to escape our methods of control. Despite this stark reality, we can minimize the impact of disease even if we can never fully conquer it.
Evaluating the interaction of the invasive tunicate Didemnum vexillum with the Atlantic sea scallop Placopecten magellanicus on open and closed fishing grounds of Georges Bank
Authors: Kaplan Katherine A , Hart Deborah R , Hopkins Karen , Gallager Scott , York Amber , Taylor Richard , Sullivan Patrick J 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
An invasive colonial tunicate (Didemnum vexillum) was initially observed on Georges Bank in 1998, and it has since spread in benthic environments on fishing grounds and areas closed to bottom-fishing. It can form dense mats on gravel substrates that are also a preferred habitat for the Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus), which supports one of the most valuable commercial fisheries in the United States. We used HabCam, a vessel-towed underwater imaging system, to investigate the spatial distributions of P. magellanicus and D. vexillum in a region that includes fishing grounds and an area protected from bottom-fishing. We found a negative relationship between P. magellanicus and D. vexillum, even after controlling for substrate and management status, suggesting that D. vexillum competes for habitat with P. magellanicus. We also applied the geostatistical method of universal kriging to interpolate the distribution of D. vexllium based on the covariables gravel, depth and area. Our results indicate that D. vexillum is more common in areas open to fishing than in the areas closed to fishing, even taking bottom substrate effects into account. Didemnum vexillum appears to have spread over portions of the northern edge of Georges Bank. This research evaluates potential fish and invertebrate habitat degradation caused by an invasive species.
A RANDOMIZED DOUBLE-BLIND PLACEBO-CONTROL PILOT STUDY OF EPLERENONE FOR THE TREATMENT OF CENTRAL SEROUS CHORIORETINOPATHY (ECSELSIOR)
Authors: Rahimy Ehsan , Pitcher John D. , Hsu Jason , Adam Murtaza K. , Shahlaee Abtin , Samara Wasim A. , Vander James F. , Kaiser Richard S. , Chiang Allen , Spirn Marc J. , Fineman Mitchell S. 
Published: April 2017

Purpose:
To evaluate the safety and effects of oral eplerenone in chronic central serous chorioretinopathy.

Methods:
Prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-control study at a tertiary referral academic private practice. For a diagnosis of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy, patients must have had at least 3 months clinical follow-up demonstrating persistent symptoms, subfoveal fluid on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, and <50% reduction in fluid thickness. Patients were randomized 2:1 (treatment:placebo) to receive eplerenone (25 mg daily for 1 week, then up to 50 mg daily for 8 weeks) or placebo once daily.

Results:
Fifteen patients completed the study. Ten patients (15 eyes) were randomized into the eplerenone treatment arm, while the remaining 5 patients (6 eyes) received placebo. After 9 weeks of eplerenone therapy, mean logarithm of the minimal angle of resolution visual acuity improved from 0.394 (Snellen equivalent: 20/50) to 0.330 (20/43, P = 0.04). In the placebo group, the mean logarithm of the minimal angle of resolution visual acuity slightly decreased from 0.313 (20/41) to 0.342 (20/44) during the same period (P = 0.21). With respect to anatomic changes, mean maximal subretinal fluid height in the eplerenone group improved from 139.3 μm at baseline to 51.8 μm (P = 0.02), mean subfoveal fluid height improved from 121.4 μm to 29.4 μm (P = 0.01), and mean central subfield thickness improved from 366.2 μm to 283.7 μm (P = 0.02). In comparison with the placebo group, mean maximal subretinal fluid height worsened from 135.9 μm to 172.3 μm (P = 0.32), mean subfoveal fluid height worsened from 92.1 μm to 134.0 μm (P = 0.54), and mean central subfield thickness worsened from 345.0 μm to 380.0 μm (P = 0.37). No patients in either group experienced serious adverse events to result in treatment discontinuation.

Conclusion:
These findings suggest that oral eplerenone therapy is safe and potentially effective in the treatment of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy with persistent subretinal fluid.