bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Distributed Communication
Authors: Ling Rich 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Distributed communication systems have provided for the coordination and control of large‐scale social organizations. Indeed, it was the need to coordinate and control one such system, the railroads, that led to the wide‐scale deployment of one of the earliest distributed communication systems, the telegraph. Progressive enhancement of distributed communication , as seen in the telephone network and the networking of computers, has facilitated the fundamental restructuring of commercial and public administration without the need for colocated offices. Simultaneously, this has allowed for the centralization of information and control. Beyond administration, the increasing portability and ease of use of distributed communication means that it is being used by smaller groups, families, and individuals in their daily affairs. Future developments include cloud computing and the networking of objects into machine‐to‐machine or person‐to‐machine forms of distributed communication.
Prosumption, Produsage
Authors: Bruns Axel 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Prosumption and produsage present alternative conceptions of the involvement of end users, or consumers, in production processes, especially in digital and online media environments. These concepts have risen to particular prominence with the emergence of so‐called “Web 2.0” platforms and technologies, which encourage the creation and sharing of user‐generated content.
Memory
Authors: Meyers Oren 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThis entry defines the concept of collective memory and discusses its main characteristics as a social and cultural phenomenon. Next, it focuses on the study of a salient realm of collective recollecting—media memory; that is, the exploration of collective pasts that are narrated by the media, through the media, and about the media. Finally, the entry looks at key research trajectories shaping media memory studies and the current challenges facing this realm of scholarship.
Experience
Authors: Taylor Bryan C. , Munoz Ricardo V. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Experience is the distinctive quality of human consciousness in which ongoing existence makes itself available for meaningful reflection and interpretation. Experience commonly denotes a continuous quality of perception, in which embodied human interaction with the environment generates complex sensory information that is filtered by existing cognitive schemata. “Experience” has subsequently generated four connotations: a baseline stratum of perception consisting of fundamental, preorganized awareness; a portion of registered consciousness that is selected as a candidate for the infusion of greater intelligibility; an accumulation of practical and conceptual knowledge that is generated through lived cycles of human sense‐making and action; and a distinctly internal, private realm of knowledge and agency, possessed by both persons and groups, in which their authentic interests and identities are actively cultivated through ongoing reflection and interaction. Six theoretical traditions in communication that significantly elaborate experience are phenomenology, psychoanalysis, ideology critique, mediation, sense‐making, and ritual.
Nonverbal Communication
Authors: Manusov Valerie 
Published: October 2016

AbstractNonverbal communication is hard to define but is often said to be all those modes of communicating other than words or a parallel way to process social stimuli alongside language cues. The nonverbal communication system comprises facial expressions, body movements, vocalic or paralinguistic cues, personal and environmental space, objects, time, physical appearance, and smell/odor. These nonverbal modes perform important functions for us, such as sending relational messages, emotional expression, and impression formation. Theories have been developed to explain how some of these functions work, with particular attention given to changes in intimacy or immediacy (forms of relational messages) and deception and its detection.
LGBT
Studies
Authors: Scott D. Travers 
Published: October 2016

Abstract

This entry covers some of the main dimensions of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) studies, an area within which scholars seek to understand LGBT subjectivities, identities, histories, and power struggles. Descriptions are provided of areas of particular relevance to communication, and key figures or representative works are noted. The entry is organized around three key concerns of LGBT studies:
visibility
,
experience
, and
power
.
Data
Authors: Krippendorff Klaus 
Published: October 2016

AbstractIn empirical research, data are taken to be facts on the lowest possible level of abstraction. They are the ground for accepting or rejecting hypotheses, establishing theories, and justifying practical decisions. Researchers readily talk about good or bad data, but rarely explore what it takes for some phenomena to be considered data and others not. This entry questions the common conception of data as facts. It elaborates on five constitutive properties of data: durability, artificiality, analyzability, reliability, and ability to inform intended conclusions. Taking these properties seriously may change how data‐based decisions have to be evaluated.
Women in Communication Research
Authors: Dorsten Aimee‐Marie 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThis entry establishes a historical milieu for women in communication. Women's significance to the field has been hard won, progressing over two lengthy stages: (1) in the early mid‐twentieth century, when women worked as part of a research team or couple, and (2) from the mid‐twentieth century until the 1980s, when women “jumped the fence” into stable academic positions. Currently, women have taken up positions of power in the field, but they are still the exception to the rule: More women than men earn PhDs in communication, yet fewer women move into the professoriate. This entry highlights the early history of the field and features interviews with Gertrude J. Robinson, Brenda Dervin, and Sue Curry Jansen, who have been powerful women in the field, yet who also assert that their scholarly legitimacy has still been at times a “challenge” to those defining communication research.
Rhetorical Theory
Authors: Hauser Gerard A. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Since its origins, the Western tradition of rhetoric has had a contested status as a subject of instruction and a practice. Its orientation toward a world of radical contingencies has made it leery of truth and at odds with philosophy, which has had an historical quest for eternal truth. Its practice, which seeks to influence thinking on contingent matters, has been a necessary method for civic life in a democracy and made those skilled in the art suspect as deceptive. The entry considers the Western history of rhetoric with an emphasis on its intersections with philosophy.
G
ramsci,
A
ntonio
Authors: Cloud Dana L. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract

Antonio Gramsci was an Italian socialist revolutionary imprisoned under fascist rule. While incarcerated, he composed a series of essays published as the
Prison Notebooks
. Using coded language to evade censors, he discussed the role of culture in maintaining capitalist hegemony. At the same time, he was optimistic about the people's capacity to resist subjugation. To that end, he recommended that intellectuals organic to the working class engage in specifically revolutionary working‐class education. In communication theory, his most significant influence has been on the field of cultural studies. His theory of hegemony is also useful in understanding communication in social movements.
Orality
Authors: Soffer Oren 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Orality as a term is often used to contrast societies that have no writing technology with literate societies and cultures. Yet the dichotomy of orality and literacy is in many ways artificial. In communication studies, orality more commonly refers to a kind of osmosis between textual and oral spheres. Shifts in the history of communication—such as the rise of writing, print, electronic and digital media—can be analyzed from the perspective of the changing nature and characteristics of oral influences on written texts.
Network Society
Authors: Brennen J. Scott , Kreiss Daniel 
Published: October 2016

Abstract

Across a vast scholarly literature, “the network society” refers most broadly to a changing social structure whose primary mode of organization is social and media networks. This article begins by considering three communication traditions that describe “the network society” by emphasizing mediated and nonmediated social ties. Then, it further marks the broad contours of thought on “the network society” through a close reading of two foundational texts: Jan van Dijk's
The Network Society: Social Aspects of New Media
and Manuel Castell's three‐volume
The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture
.
Structuration Theory
Authors: McPhee Robert D. , Canary Heather E. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractStructuration theory is a general social theory that enjoys significant influence across disciplines. It has guided theorizing and research in communication, especially in organizational and group communication. The theory is distinctive in its devotion to overcoming clashes among empiricist, interpretive, and critical perspectives, and between micro‐ and macro‐oriented scholarship. Its perspective emphasizes concepts of practice, agency, and time‐space.
Williams,Raymond
Authors: Jones Paul K. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThe communications scholarship of the Welsh‐born Cambridge academic Raymond Williams (1921–1988) sits at the intersection of the fields of communications, cultural sociology, and cultural studies. This entry moves through three phases of his career: his early radical democratic work on communications and policy; his mid‐period, best known for the conceptual innovations of “mobile privatization” and “flow” but equally focused on developing “means of communication” as an alternative to McLuhan's “media”; and his related later work on communications incorporated within his Marxian “social formalist” cultural sociology.
Traditions of Communication Theory
Authors: Craig Robert T. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractTheories of communication, which originated independently in a wide range of disciplines and fields, often vary so much in content, intellectual style, and underlying assumptions as to seem essentially unrelated. Robert T. Craig has offered an historical and institutional interpretation of this problem and proposed to reconstruct the field on the basis of aconstitutive metamodelin which multiple traditions of thought engage in dialogue and debate on practical communication problems. This entry sketches the origins and development of communication theory, introduces the constitutive metamodel, overviews seven main traditions of communication theory, and discusses criticisms and applications of the metamodel.
Information‐Processing and Cognition
Authors: Greene John O. , Lillie Helen M. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThe domain of information‐processing and cognition is exceedingly broad and lends itself to analysis from a variety of perspectives. The focus of this entry is upon functionalist approaches to the area. Cognitive functionalism seeks to posit the structures and processes of the mind based upon observed input–output regularities. Three foundational assumptions of functionalist theorizing are discussed, the domain of application of such theories and the data used to construct and test those theories are described, and conceptions of elements of cognitive architecture that have proven most influential in theorizing about communication processes are reviewed.
Psychology
Authors: Rutledge Pamela B. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractPsychology is the scientific study of human behavior. While it shares considerable overlap with the field of communications, psychology starts with “why” questions. It focuses on primary psychological processes, such as behavior, emotion, and cognition, within multiple contexts and analytical perspectives, including biology, individual differences, environment, and culture. Psychology is a science and, therefore, has established research frameworks and traditions that guide inquiry and interpretation. The purpose of this entry is to highlight some of the areas where psychology's perspective contributes to communications. There are several subfields within psychology whose theories and perspectives have been historically important contributors to communications and media studies research and theory. These include cognitive, developmental, identity and personality, and social psychology. The field of psychology is also being continually expanded and enriched by emerging fields, among them media psychology, cognitive neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, cultural psychology, environmental psychology, narrative psychology, systems theory, and positive psychology.
Merleau‐Ponty,Maurice
Authors: Lanigan Richard L. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThe entry consists of an intellectual and personal biography of Maurice Merleau‐Ponty, and includes a contextual discussion of his intellectual friends, including Sartre, De Beauvoir, Lévi‐Strauss, and his student, Foucault. Merleau‐Ponty's contributions to the founding of French phenomenology and his conjunction of philosophy and the human sciences (anthropology, linguistics, psychology, sociology) are discussed under three topics: (1) existentialism, (2) semiotic phenomenology, and (3) communicology. A summary table presents a comparison of the concepts of expression and perception as articulated respectively by Saussure, Gusdorf, Jakobson, Merleau‐Ponty, and Foucault.
Myth
Authors: Coman Mihai 
Published: October 2016

AbstractMyth is an “exotic” presence in media and communication studies. The belief that online, modern societies hold nonmodern aspects and interpret the world through myths has led to studies devoted to its presence. Moreover, such studies have mainly justified themselves by identifying some cultural mediating forms that would explain the “un‐normality” of the presence of myth in modernity. These mythical constructs have been identified in popular culture, as relics of some archaic mentalities (the transformation of stars into cult objects, for example), or in advertising (as a background to invoked archetypes). In news media, studies have approached myth as a sort of “shadow text” that gives meaning to atypical forms of news stories. The presence of myths in media and communication studies has been supported through an appeal to archetypal, functionalist, and cognitive paradigms.
L
azarsfeld,
P
aul
F
.
Authors: Pooley Jefferson D. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Paul Lazarsfeld (1901–1976), often counted among the field's “founders,” made significant contributions to media and communication theory. Some of this work, including the two‐step flow model of mass communication reception, continues to resonate in studies of audience reception. But the full richness of his theorizing about the active, socially embedded audience has been neglected, even by scholars touting viewers' creative media readings in the 1980s and 1990s. Lazarsfeld's second major contribution, his sophisticated theory of action, has rarely surfaced in the communication literature. Nevertheless, his theorizing about action, media, and interpersonal influence is arguably more relevant than ever, as categories like “mass” and “social” are necessarily rethought.
Rhetoric
Authors: Schiappa Edward 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
“Rhetoric” is a word possibly coined by Plato to designate an educational agenda aimed at producing successful political speakers with which his own educational agenda was contrasted as “philosophy.” Throughout its 2,400‐year history, the idea of rhetoric is understood as the study and teaching of the art of persuasive communication. The scope and function of rhetorical education, and the range of human activity described as “rhetorical,” has varied over time and depends on a constellation of beliefs and practices concerning language, education, and knowledge.
Information Theory
Authors: Grant Colin B. 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThis article provides an overview of the origins of information theory in the work of Claude Shannon. While he was not concerned with questions of meaning, or semantics, subsequent discussions sought to extend the concept of entropy, or uncertainty, to offer a stronger account of semantic dimensions. Both Donald Mackay, from within engineering, and Fred Dretske, from a truth‐theoretic philosophical tradition, offer particularly constructive insights into the semantics of information. Finally, the chapter covers concepts of information from social‐theoretical perspectives set out by systems theorists.
Media Sociology
Authors: Waisbord Silvio 
Published: October 2016

AbstractMedia sociology is fragmented in myriad lines of research anchored in analytical and theoretical concerns from across sociological thought and other social sciences. It is not a coherent, well‐defined field of study with shared questions, ontological center, or common institutional roof. It is disaggregated in parallel questions about “the media” soaked in sociological thinking. This shapes a vibrant, chaotic, layered academic space grounded in the sociological tradition with significant overlaps with other disciplines and postdisciplines—from cultural studies to the social study of science and technology. This entry assesses the state of media sociology and shows why sociological thinking matters to media studies. A sociological focus on large‐scale social forces interrogates the significance of supraindividual processes and collective phenomena in the media and mediated processes. It brings a sensitivity to social context, social forces, social history, and social problems that expands the analytical horizons of media studies by placing media questions in a web of social relations.
Pragmatics
Authors: Senft Gunter 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThis entry takes an interdisciplinary approach to linguistic pragmatics. It discusses how the meaning of utterances can only be understood in relation to overall cultural, social, and interpersonal contexts, as well as to culture‐specific conventions and the speech events in which they are embedded. The entry discusses core issues of pragmatics such as speech act theory, conversational implicature, deixis, gesture, interaction strategies, ritual communication, phatic communion, linguistic relativity, ethnography of speaking, ethnomethodology, and conversation analysis. It takes a transdisciplinary view of the field, showing that linguistic pragmatics has its predecessors in other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, ethology, ethnology, and sociology.
Narrative
Authors: Bamberg Michael 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThis entry reviews the recent turn to narrative in the social and life sciences as having evolved from a widely shared interest and hope to find new answers to longstanding questions of lived experience, subjectivity, identity, and sense of self. The review enters narrative and storytelling from two ends: The first places narrative in the context of theories that approach it as an authoritative text that was borrowed and expanded to cover the general domain of how to live a meaningful life and to make sense of self–other relationships. The second starts off from narrating and storytelling practices in everyday, mundane communicative interactions, and highlights the interactive functions of storytelling as crucial for doing relational identity work. Both general orientations are reviewed in terms of their potential and shortcomings with regard to the original goal of an innovative contribution to human sense‐making and identity work.
Literary Studies
Authors: Murray Simone 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThe relationship between literary studies and communication has been distant since cultural studies split off from literary studies in the mid‐twentieth century. Nevertheless, literary studies has left its mark on communications in both disciplines' preference for textual analysis, as well as in productive research fields that have sprung up between the two disciplines—such as book history, studies of reading, and adaptation studies. As digitization increasingly affects all aspects of literary production, circulation, and consumption, the relationship between literary studies and communications looks likely to become closer, as both come under the increasing gravitational pull of digital humanities.
Evolutionary Theory and Models
Authors: Monge Peter , Oh Poong 
Published: October 2016

AbstractThis entry introduces the theory and models of evolution by natural selection as a powerful tool for examining changes that occur naturally in a wide range of complex and dynamic communication systems. The first section provides a brief overview of the development of evolution theory and discusses the difference between Darwinian evolution and other evolutionary ideas. The second section discusses the three fundamental mechanisms of Darwinian evolution—replication, mutation, and selection—and other relevant concepts on the basis of the key literature in modern evolutionary theory. The third section reviews evolutionary game theory and the debates over human rationality it triggered. The fourth section discusses the application of evolutionary models to communication systems, including symbolic and signaling systems and communication networks.
S
chütz,
A
lfred
Authors: Lanigan Richard L. 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
The entry offers a brief biographical sketch of Schütz's life and career, both as an investment banker and as a philosopher who focused on the sociology of communication. His relationship to his friend and mentor, Edmund Husserl, is discussed with reference to both phenomenological philosophy and its application in human sciences as a logic of qualitative methodology. Separate sections are devoted respectively to economics, sociology, semiotics, and communicology. A particular focus of the entry is the use of semiotic phenomenology as a methodological approach to the kind of communication research known today as communicology. Brief mention is made of a connection to Harold Lasswell and mass communication research.
Human–Computer Interaction
Authors: Cockton Gilbert 
Published: October 2016

Abstract
Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the study of human interactions with computers across a wide range of behaviors, experiences, outcomes, and contexts. It results in knowledge on the impact of interactions on users and usage contexts. This can be related to specific design features, and thus provide guidance to interaction designers on favorable or adverse design practices. Timespans of interaction studied range from subseconds to several years and apply knowledge, perspectives, and methods from the human sciences, humanities, and creative arts. The study of subsecond interactions draws on perceptual and motor psychology. The study of subminute interactions draws on cognitive and affective psychology. Studies of longer interactions draw on ethnography, social and cultural anthropology, cultural theory, human geography, and potentially any discipline that researches and theorizes human behaviors and competences. Overall, HCI is a broad and ever expanding multidisciplinary field with theoretical and practical foci.