bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Iran and the Iranians
Authors: Ansari Ali M. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Iran and the Iranians’ explains that to begin to understand Iran is to appreciate its history—real and mythological—to see how different influences have been woven into a complex tapestry and how each layer has reinforced and redirected various traditions. Transcending that tradition and harnessing it for the future has been at the heart of the progressive agenda for over a century. Despite Iranians’ complex inheritance it is also true that as a political culture and civilization, the idea of Iran and the Iranians have sustained some striking continuities. The persistence of the language and the flexibility and adaptability of their culture has made it durable.
An idea whose time has come
Authors: Moon Jeremy 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
What is corporate social responsibility (CSR)? ‘An idea whose time has come’ begins with the definitions of CSR before looking at its antecedents and recent developments. CSR is simultaneously a set of societal expectations and a set of business practices. A business should be accountable; it should compensate for negative impacts and contribute to societal welfare; and the business needs to be operated ethically, responsibly, and sustainably. CSR has been embraced by businesses ranging from multinational corporations to small- and medium-sized enterprises and state-owned enterprises. Contemporary CSR is taken seriously, engaged in, and promoted by a much wider set of organizations including labour, finance, governmental, civil society, and professional organizations.
The company level
Authors: Moon Jeremy 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The company level’ looks at the practice of corporate social responsibility (CSR), within companies. It considers four frameworks that companies use to identify and manage their responsibilities: Carroll’s CSR pyramid, the stakeholder model, the triple bottom line approach, and the shared value approach. It then looks at the practices companies engage in, which are distinguished by their respective spheres: community, workplace, marketplace, and environment. The issues of internal organization and integration of CSR are critical to the performance and impact of companies adopting CSR. But how do CSR companies assess and understand the impact of their CSR contributions? The growth of intra-organizational CSR staff indicates a need for appropriately prepared personnel.
National and international developments
Authors: Moon Jeremy 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘National and international developments’ compares national approaches to corporate social responsibility (CSR), particularly between the USA and Europe, but also within Asia and Africa, and in so doing also identifies factors in the international development of CSR among these and other countries. CSR was first established in the USA, where the concept of specific company level responsibilities emerged both as a management and an academic concept, reflecting related cultural, economic, and political themes. The concept has not been simply exported; rather it has been adapted to different national ethical and regulatory frameworks in which assumptions and systems of responsibility are framed.
CSR and new governance
Authors: Moon Jeremy 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘CSR and new governance’ is concerned with the institutionalization of corporate social responsibility (CSR) within systems of societal governance. CSR emerges as a means of governing business and of bringing business to wider governance agendas—referred to as ‘new governance’. CSR features in a range of new governance systems, particularly in the standards and partnerships that institutionalize responsible business behaviour. The ways in which business defines and manages CSR, through new associations and individual companies, are reviewed, along with multi-actor organizations in which CSR also gets regulated and organized, including UN initiatives and a group of new CSR standards; the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative; the Ethical Trade Initiative; and a group of resource-specific stewardship councils.
Genes before 1944
Authors: Slack Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Genes before 1944’ outlines the development in our understanding of genes based on Gregor Mendel’s work carried out in 1866 on hereditary factors, to Oswald Avery’s paper on the chemical composition of DNA and the identity of the ‘transforming principle’ with a gene. Two completely separate lines of work led to our modern view, and they came together in the mid-twentieth century to create the new science of molecular biology. One of these lines of work was the study of heredity by biological experimentation and the other was the study of the chemistry of DNA.
Conclusion
Authors: Slack Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
There are many concepts of the gene. They range from defined sequences of DNA encoding proteins, to variant genes distinguishing individuals (markers), to unknown genes controlling quantitative traits, to hypothetical entities controlling behaviour as well as other complex characteristics. The science of genes is at its most precise and reliable when dealing with known protein coding genes. But all of the different concepts of the gene have been and continue to be important in numerous areas of human thought.
Microbiology of human health and disease
Authors: Money Nicholas P. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Microbiological research has been dominated by studies on pathogenic organisms since the work of Louis Pasteur in the 19th century. Recent research suggests that populations of microbes that live in our digestive, reproductive, and respiratory tracts are as important to our wellbeing as the avoidance and treatment of infection. The average human comprises 40 trillion eukaryotic cells and an accompanying microbiome of 100 trillion bacteria, mostly in the gut, and one quadrillion viruses. In addition to bacteria and viruses, the microbiome contains archaea, plus fungi and other eukaryotic microorganisms. The majority of these microbes are beneficial and only a minority have the potential to cause disease.
Under-nutrition
Authors: Bender David A. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Severe under-nutrition is generally associated with developing countries where food is in short supply, affecting some 162 million people world-wide, but malnutrition is also seen in about 2 per cent of the population of developed countries. ‘Under-nutrition’ highlights the three conditions classified as protein-energy malnutrition: marasmus, which affects adults and children; kwashiorkor, which affects young children; and cachexia, which is associated with advanced cancer and other chronic diseases, and involves increased metabolic rate as well as reduced food intake. Malnutrition leads to impaired immune responses, predisposing to infection, and muscle loss resulting in increased fatiguability, inability to work, and falls.
Functional foods, superfoods, and supplements
Authors: Bender David A. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
When a vitamin or mineral deficiency is widespread in a population, a common approach is to enrich or fortify a staple food. ‘Functional foods, superfoods, and supplements’ defines functional foods as foods that contain one or more added ingredients to provide a positive health benefit, over and above the normal functions of food to provide nutrients and satisfy hunger. Superfoods are ordinary foods that are especially rich in nutrients or antioxidants and other potentially protective compounds, including polyunsaturated fatty acids and dietary fibre. ‘Nutritional supplements’ covers a wide range of preparations which are regarded as foods rather than medicines, and in most countries are regulated under food rather than under medicinal legislation.
Geology or biology?
Authors: Sheppard Charles 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Early seafarers were wary of coral reefs, naturalists were confused by them, but many coastal people benefited greatly from these rocky structures that grew up to the sea’s surface. ‘Geology or biology?’ highlights the discovery of reefs by early explorers, discusses the various theories of how they are formed, and considers their biological complexity. Coral reefs will grow upwards to meet the surface when sea level is high, and will be eroded away during periods when sea level is low. A progressive understanding of vertical land movement and of vast changes in sea level lasting thousands of years show the layers of complexity that must be superimposed on Charles Darwin’s central theory of atoll formation.
The architects of a reef
Authors: Sheppard Charles 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The architects of a reef’ gives a global overview of reef distribution and details the biology, growth, and reproduction of the main animals and plants that build them. Coral reefs are diverse, tropical ecosystems. The dominant groups of biota are corals, coelenterate animals, mostly living in colonies but with some solitary species. All lay down a skeleton of limestone. The key to the evolutionary success of reef corals is the symbiosis that they form with single-celled algae that grow in the coral tissue itself. Coral’s energy sources, coral wars, and the other organisms found in coral reefs—soft corals, other calcareous coral relatives, sponges, and calcareous algae—are described.
The resulting structure—a reef
Authors: Sheppard Charles 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The resulting structure—a reef’ shows that coral reef profiles, composed of reef flats, reef crests, and reef slopes, are remarkably consistent. The general structure is complicated by shifts of sea level over geological time, so the basic pattern will have superimposed upon it evidence of episodic growth and erosion. The environmental conditions on the reef slope are ideal for most corals and other reef life including the soft corals and sponges, so this is where most species are found. The cryptic, or hidden, life of the coral reefs is discussed along with the rugosity of the corals, and the structure and life of the sand in the back reef area.
Hacks vs flaks: journalism and public relations
Authors: Hargreaves Ian 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Journalists often get a bad press, being portrayed as crusaders, single-minded, and determined above all else to get the information they desire. ‘Hacks vs flaks: journalism and public relations’ considers the motivations of journalists, their public image, and asks in whose interest the journalist works: for the interest of an employer or for a wider ‘public good’? The answer may be both, but in the event of a clash, which interest takes priority? The roles of public relations practitioners, intermediaries, and spin doctors are discussed. Traditional public relations techniques of media management are no longer effective in a world of resource-depleted mainstream journalism and uncontrollable social media.
The spread of Christianity
Authors: Woodhead Linda 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The spread of Christianity’ charts Christianity’s growth and spread, from being a tiny movement within a Jewish context to being the world’s largest religion with a global presence. How did Eastern Christianity develop differently from Western Christendom? Christianity’s growth was not smooth and uniform. It was most successful when in alliance with political powers, and least successful where other religions, such as Islam, were well established and it faced unfriendly political forces. Christianity has suffered repeated setbacks and retreats and at no time has it acted as a unified force. From the very start it has been internally divided, and it remains so.
Monastic and mystical Christianity
Authors: Woodhead Linda 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Monastic and mystical Christianity’ looks at the development of a form of Christianity that locates authority in the spiritual experience of each individual. Mystical Christianity focuses not just on God the Father and Son, but more on the Spirit which lies beyond name and form. Mystical Christianity appears at the very start of Christian history and has been appropriated by Church Christianity through monasticism, an extremely important development of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox faiths. Biblical Christianity has opened itself to the Mystical tendency in other ways, including in radical Reformation churches, the Holiness movement, and most successfully in modern Pentecostal and Charismatic forms of Christianity, which combine Word and Spirit.
Fungal diversity
Authors: Money Nicholas P. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Fungal diversity’ considers three species that illustrate the spectacular range of structural complexity found among fungi: Olpidium brassicae, Spirodactylon aureum, and Sphaerobolus stellatus. There are more than 70,000 species of fungi described by mycologists and over 90% of them are classified within Phylum Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes) and Phylum Ascomycota (ascomycetes). Half of the basidiomycetes produce mushrooms; the others include rusts and smuts that cause plant disease. The ascomycetes include the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fungi with beautiful cup-shaped fruit bodies, truffles, and morels. The other major groups of fungi are less well known and include species whose cells swim in water.
Cholera
Authors: Wayne Marta L. , Bolker Benjamin M. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Cholera is a water-borne, diarrhoeal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. For illness to occur, humans must consume vast amounts of the bacteria and cholera must possess a cluster of genes involved in creating the toxin co-regulated pilus. The gene for cholera enterotoxin must also be expressed. Treatment for cholera involves giving victims oral rehydration and antibiotics as a secondary defence. ‘Cholera’ explains that cholera gave rise to the foundation of epidemiology and Koch’s postulates, which state the requirements for identifying a particular organism as the causative agent of a disease. It also describes the ways in which cholera evolves antibiotic resistance, the interactions between Vibrio cholerae and the viruses that prey upon it, and possible reasons for the seasonality of epidemics.
Market and policy failures
Authors: Dixit Avinash 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Market and policy failures’ begins with monopolies and oligopolies. What are the effects of monopoly power? Many actions of consumers or firms have beneficial or harmful side-effects such as pollution. These positive or negative externalities depend on whether a market puts the correct price on that action. For a market to function well, the transaction parties must know what they are buying or selling. But there are information asymmetries. The effects of these can be seen through the lens of externalities, and the market failures resulting from these externalities can be remedied by Coasian or Pigouvian methods. Moral hazards, adverse selection, collective goods, the political economy of policy, and the recent financial crisis are also discussed.
The Weizmann era and the Balfour Declaration
Authors: Stanislawski Michael 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
The years 1904–14 witnessed the Second Aliyah, the emigration to Palestine of roughly forty thousand Jews, mainly from the Russian Empire. The first kibbutz, an egalitarian agricultural community, was founded south of the Sea of Galilee in 1909, and in the next decade eleven more collective settlements were created. They were revered as the purest expression of Zionism and socialism. “The Weizmann era and the Balfour Declaration” describes the importance of Chaim Weizmann, a chemist who came to Manchester University in 1904. In 1917 he secured the support of the British government for a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine in the form of the Balfour Declaration.
Zionism in a Jewish state, 1948–1967
Authors: Stanislawski Michael 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
After the declaration of independence, the history of Zionism became entangled with the history of the new State of Israel. But Zionism as an ideology continued to evolve. Challenges for the new state under the leadership of David Ben-Gurion included: the local Arab population; immigration; differences between the Ashkenazic and Mizrachi Jews; schooling; and ongoing squabbles between the Labor Zionists and the Revisionists. Zionism had to face the real-life implications of its definition of the Jews as a nation and not a religion. The “Who is a Jew?” debate continued to erode the consensus of what it meant to be a Jew in a secular Jewish state.
Estimation of time-varying growth, uptake and excretion rates from dynamic metabolomics data
Authors: Cinquemani Eugenio , Laroute Valérie , Cocaign-Bousquet Muriel , de Jong Hidde , Ropers Delphine 
Published: April 2017

Abstract

Motivation
Technological advances in metabolomics have made it possible to monitor the concentration of extracellular metabolites over time. From these data, it is possible to compute the rates of uptake and excretion of the metabolites by a growing cell population, providing precious information on the functioning of intracellular metabolism. The computation of the rate of these exchange reactions, however, is difficult to achieve in practice for a number of reasons, notably noisy measurements, correlations between the concentration profiles of the different extracellular metabolites, and discontinuties in the profiles due to sudden changes in metabolic regime.

Results
We present a method for precisely estimating time-varying uptake and excretion rates from time-series measurements of extracellular metabolite concentrations, specifically addressing all of the above issues. The estimation problem is formulated in a regularized Bayesian framework and solved by a combination of extended Kalman filtering and smoothing. The method is shown to improve upon methods based on spline smoothing of the data. Moreover, when applied to two actual datasets, the method recovers known features of overflow metabolism in Escherichia coli and Lactococcus lactis, and provides evidence for acetate uptake by L. lactis after glucose exhaustion. The results raise interesting perspectives for further work on rate estimation from measurements of intracellular metabolites.

Availability and implementation
The Matlab code for the estimation method is available for download at https://team.inria.fr/ibis/rate-estimation-software/, together with the datasets.

Supplementary information
Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Efficient simulation of intrinsic, extrinsic and external noise in biochemical systems
Authors: Pischel Dennis , Sundmacher Kai , Flassig Robert J 
Published: April 2017

Abstract

Motivation
Biological cells operate in a noisy regime influenced by intrinsic, extrinsic and external noise, which leads to large differences of individual cell states. Stochastic effects must be taken into account to characterize biochemical kinetics accurately. Since the exact solution of the chemical master equation, which governs the underlying stochastic process, cannot be derived for most biochemical systems, approximate methods are used to obtain a solution.

Results
In this study, a method to efficiently simulate the various sources of noise simultaneously is proposed and benchmarked on several examples. The method relies on the combination of the sigma point approach to describe extrinsic and external variability and the τ-leaping algorithm to account for the stochasticity due to probabilistic reactions. The comparison of our method to extensive Monte Carlo calculations demonstrates an immense computational advantage while losing an acceptable amount of accuracy. Additionally, the application to parameter optimization problems in stochastic biochemical reaction networks is shown, which is rarely applied due to its huge computational burden. To give further insight, a MATLAB script is provided including the proposed method applied to a simple toy example of gene expression.

Availability and implementation
MATLAB code is available at Bioinformatics online.

Supplementary information
Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Industrial Injuries Compensation
Authors: Lewis Richard 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
This article highlights aspects of the tort system of compensation for personal injury by comparing the provision made for workers under the state’s industrial injury scheme. The relative significance of the two schemes has rarely been considered and has not been dealt with in any law journal. Although lawyers are ever-present in tort claims, they have little involvement with applications for social security benefit. Partly as a result, there is a stark contrast between the voluminous literature on the common law, on the one hand, and the very limited information about statute-based workers’ compensation on the other. This article tries to redress the balance by bringing the industrial scheme back into the spotlight. Comparisons are made of entitlement under both systems and the value of the compensation they provide. The industrial scheme is shown to pay benefits which, in the long term, can often exceed the lump sum paid in tort. A wide range of statistics is used to illustrate the relative importance and practical effect of the two regimes. In tracing the history of workers’ compensation the enduring significance of the industrial scheme is revealed together with other findings which may surprise those familiar only with litigation at common law.
Evidence appraisal: a scoping review, conceptual framework, and research agenda
Authors: Goldstein Andrew , Venker Eric , Weng Chunhua 
Published: April 2017

AbstractObjectiveCritical appraisal of clinical evidence promises to help prevent, detect, and address flaws related to study importance, ethics, validity, applicability, and reporting. These research issues are of growing concern. The purpose of this scoping review is to survey the current literature on evidence appraisal to develop a conceptual framework and an informatics research agenda.MethodsWe conducted an iterative literature search of Medline for discussion or research on the critical appraisal of clinical evidence. After title and abstract review, 121 articles were included in the analysis. We performed qualitative thematic analysis to describe the evidence appraisal architecture and its issues and opportunities. From this analysis, we derived a conceptual framework and an informatics research agenda.ResultsWe identified 68 themes in 10 categories. This analysis revealed that the practice of evidence appraisal is quite common but is rarely subjected to documentation, organization, validation, integration, or uptake. This is related to underdeveloped tools, scant incentives, and insufficient acquisition of appraisal data and transformation of the data into usable knowledge.DiscussionThe gaps in acquiring appraisal data, transforming the data into actionable information and knowledge, and ensuring its dissemination and adoption can be addressed with proven informatics approaches.ConclusionsEvidence appraisal faces several challenges, but implementing an informatics research agenda would likely help realize the potential of evidence appraisal for improving the rigor and value of clinical evidence.