bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Libya's Oil Resources
Authors: McLachlan K. 
Published: February 2016

Libya is by most definitions an oil-based economy. Yet academic study of the national oil industry is at best fragmentary. The reasons for the poor showing of the Libyan oil industry in the literature stem partly from the relative decline in its international importance since the mid-1970s and partly from the ambiguity over acknowledgement of the role of the oil industry within Libya.The growth of the Libyan oil industry dates from 1951 and the coming of national independence. There had been surveys of a small scale and technologically limited kind in Libya in the Italian period. Some shows of oil had been discovered in Tripolitania as early as 1914 when water wells were drilled to supply Tripoli city (Waddams 1980, 27). Other oil was discovered in Tripolitania in the 1930s and a full scale exploration programme was prepared in the years 1937–1940 by the Italian national oil corporation under the geological guidance of Professor Ardito Desio, but never fully implemented due to the onset of war. Indeed, Desio was to return as a consultant to the oil companies working in Libya in the 1950s.In 1953 a mineral law was issued which paved the way for the grant of concessions to foreign oil companies to explore and develop oil resources. A petroleum law was promulgated in 1955 which offered rather more favourable terms on fees, rents, royalties and expensing to the oil companies than were available in other longer established oil producing states of North Africa and the Middle East (cf. Waddams, 1980, 57–70). At the same time, the assets of the oil companies in Libya were given far reaching protection under amendments of the petroleum law. The consequence of the generous operating terms of this and subsequent revisions of the law (1961 and 1965) was a rapid growth in the number of concessionaries exploring for oil within the country. The open-door policy pursued by the government was much criticised at a later period. Undoubtedly, however, it did succeed in attracting a wide spectrum of oil companies into Libya, including the major ones, such as Esso, Royal Dutch/Shell, Texaco, Gulf, BP and Mobil, together with many small independent interests. The best international techniques for exploration and development were put to work in Libya within a very short space of time, bringing the country rapidly into the ranks of the main oil-exporting states. Oil exports began on a commercial scale in September 1961 from Esso's Zelten fields in the Sirtican area, concession No. 6.
ULVS XVI: Prehistoric Rock Carvings in the Tripolitanian Pre-desert
Authors: Barker G. W. W. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThis paper discusses three groups of rock art in their local, Tripolitanian, context and in terms of their wider relationship with the known corpus of Saharan prehistoric art. The rock carvings at Maia Dib, Udei el Chel/Caf el-Metchia and el-Tolga are described and some preliminary thoughts advanced as to their date and significance. Some suggestions are also made regarding the possible relationship between these carvings and the climatic and environmental changes which characterised the Sahara in later prehistory.
A New Clausura in Western Tripolitania: Wadi Skiffa South
Authors: Mattingly D. J. , Jones G. D. B. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThis note gives a preliminary notice of the discovery of a further clausura in western Tripolitnia (Southern Tunisia). These linear barriers are assumed to have performed some function in customs regulation and the supervision of transhumance movements in the frontier zone, rather than being defensive barriers as such. The new discovery suggests that there may well be still others undiscovered in southern Tunisia and western Libya.
Archaic Greek Pottery from Euesperides, Cyrenaica
Authors: Vickers M. , Gill D. W. J. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThis summary report on Archaic Greek pottery from Euesperides, Cyrenaica, describes 60 diagnostic sherds of Eastern Greek, ‘Parian’, Laconian, Corinthian and Attic origin. The material all comes from the earliest occupation levels of the Sidi Abeid sector of the ancient site. However, the question of the exact date of the earliest settlement at Euesperides is complicated by a continuing controversy about the dating of Archaic Greek pottery in general. Only when these more general problems are resolved can a firmer date be assigned on the basis of the identifications in this catalogue.
Population Growth of the Libyan Small Towns
Authors: Kezeiri S. K. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThis paper addresses itself to the study of population growth of the small towns in Libya. The Libyan small towns have grown rapidly and it is expected that the majority will continue to grow in the future. Their growth can be attributed to natural increase, internal migration, the influx of foreigners, all of which have been stimulated by the State.
The Libyan Period in Egypt: An Essay in Interpretation
Authors: Leahy A. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThe common assumption that the Libyans who governed Egypt during the ‘Third Intermediate Period’ (c. 1070–715 BC) were Egyptianised is misleading. The nature and provenance of the extant evidence tends to obscure the retention of their ethnic identity, but this is apparent in the persistence of Libyan names and titles in Egypt. The influence of these Libyans can be traced in the fragmented political structure of the period, which represents decentralisation, not anarchy; in the erosion of the distinction between king and subject; in the disintegration of convention in language and script; and in the cessation of elaborate preparation for death and the afterlife.
Tripoli in the late Seventeenth Century: The Economics of corsairing in a ‘Sterill Country’
Authors: Pennell C. R. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThe economic poverty of Tripoli in the Seventeenth century was such that the piratical activities of its corsair fleet were of major importance to both the town and the Ottoman regime. An unpublished journal written by Thomas Baker (British Consul between 1679–1685) contains detailed information about the arrival and departure of both merchant ships and corsairs and about the value of prizes taken by the pirates and brought to Tripoli. These data are of great value in demonstrating the impact of the corsairs on the political and economic relationships of Tripoli with the European powers. If the corsairing was too successful, Tripoli was liable to be attacked by these powers. But on the other hand, when the authorities were constrained by treaties with the Europeans to limit the activities of the corsairs, the resulting economic hardship threatened the internal stability of the regime.
The Art and Architecture of Lepcis Magna: marble origins by Isotopic analysis
Authors: Walda H. , Walker S. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThis is a summary of a paper given to members and guests of the Society of Libyan Studies in London on 6th June 1984. The authors use the technique of stable isotope analysis of carbon and oxygen in samples of marble taken from carefully selected monuments in Lepcis Magna to compare statue types and architectural decoration. Controversial views on the origins of the sculptors working at Lepcis Magna are also examined in the light of this method.
The Reinterpretation of Latino-Punic Inscriptions from Roman Tripolitania
Authors: Elmayer A. F. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractNine Latino-Punic inscriptions from Roman Tripolitania are discussed in detail, and their wider context discussed. Not only do they attest to the prevalence of the Punic language in Roman Tripolitania, but also provide interesting data about the Neo-Punic language. They also shed light on the history of the ancient Roman province of Tripolitania and the Roman military and civil organisation in the zone of the ‘limes’.
The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: some implications for Libya
Authors: Blake G. H. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThe 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea will shape worldwide maritime management and offshore jurisdiction for generations to come. Libya will gain substantially from the new convention notably in respect of a 12 nautical mile territorial waters, and the acquisition of one of the largest Exclusive Economic Zones in the Mediterranean. The known resources of this zone are not abundant, though some useful oilfields have been found. Several of Libya's offshore boundaries remain to be fixed, and Libya's claim to the Gulf of Surt as ‘historic waters’ creates some uncertainty. An upsurge in Libyan offshore activity, including conservation activities, is likely in the future.
Nests of a Tube-dwelling Bee in Quaternary Sediments of the Jeffara Plain, S. P. L. A. J.
Authors: Anketell J. M. , Ghellali S. M. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractVertical, tubular borings, either simple or subdivided into cells by horizontal, spirally ornamented partitions of cemented fine silt, are common in the uppermost part of Unit Q3 of the Quaternary floodplain deposits in the eastern part of the Jeffara Plain. The structures display many features similar to those found in nests constructed by tube-dwelling, solitary wasps and bees. The size of the cells, the spiral construction of the partitions and the general architecture of the cells is closely comparable to the nest structure of the large carpenter beeXylocopa virginica krombeiniHurd., and it is suggested that the Quarternary nests were constructed by a bee of Xylocopid type.
Reorganising Libya's National Water Resources
Authors: Allan J. A. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractLibya's further economic development depends on the careful use of its coastal aquifers and the economic exploitation of the substantial but remote groundwater resources of the south. The former have been seriously impaired by over-use and the Libyan government has decided to assure water supplies for agriculture, industry and for urban use by moving up to 3 km3 per year of fossil groundwater to the Gulf of Surt and later to the Gefara Plain. The article discusses the scope and significance of the plans and comments on the agricultural implications and the likely ultimate use of the water.
The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Survey IV: The 1981 Season
Authors: Jones G. D. B. , Barker G. W. W. , Buck D. J. , Burns J. R. , Dore J. N. , Mattingly D. J. , Welsby D. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThe final season of the three-year programme to survey the central Tripolitanian pre-desert examined the region to the west of the regions of the Wadis Sofeggin and Zem Zem, casting important light on the route between the interior of Libya and the coast during the prehistoric and Roman periods. In particular, a detailed account is given of the archaeological sites of the Bir Scedua Basin and of the Severan fort at Gheriat el-Garbia.
Pre-Islamic Pottery from Ajdabiyah
Authors: Riley J. A. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractIn the course of the Islamic period excavations at Ajdabiyah during the 1970s, three sondages through the floor of the Islamic mosque, produced a limited amount of pre-Islamic pottery. The pottery ranged in date from the early Hellenistic period through to the seventh century AD, attesting more or less continuous occupation of the area. The suite of pottery shapes resembled those commonly occurring in stratified levels at Berenice (Benghazi), illustrating the regional similarity of local wares.
The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Survey 1979–1981: Palaeoeconomy and Environmental Archaeology in the Pre-Desert
Authors: Barker G. W. W. , Jones G. D. B. , Gilbertson D. , Jones D. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractThree seasons of intensive survey in the central Tripolitanian pre-desert, primarily in the regions of the Wadis Sofeggin and Zem Zem, have provided a new basis for the study of pre-desert cultures. Not only have hundreds of new sites been discovered, but the combination of environmental and geomorphological studies with archaeological survey is now providing important information about the underlying mechanisms which supported them. An increasing settlement density and social complexity can be identified in the Romano–Libyan period together with the development of intensive farming and elaborate irrigation systems. There is little evidence for significant climatic change to account for this increased settlement intensity or for its subsequent decline. The explanation for this must probably be sought in a complex relationship between social organisation, population change, and the agricultural system, and its impact on the environment.
Planning for change in Fezzan
Authors: McLachlan K. S. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractIn the period 1980 to 1982 the Libyan authorities began planning for the economic and social development of the country to the year 2000. This article examines the special factors that influenced the formulation of the Sabha regional plan. Particular attention is focussed on the background for oil exports and income and the impact this had on official attitudes to economic planning in Libya. The various options proposed for the Sabha regional plan are examined together with their implications for agriculture, which was used in the plan as the sector into which all other developments were tied to give an integrated and truely regional plan for change.
The Roman Road-Station at Thenadassa (Ain Wif)
Authors: Mattingly D. J. 
Published: February 2016

AbstractA reappraisal of the Roman period ruins at Ain Wif has been made following the identification there of traces of defensive walls. These walls are interpreted as being the robbed-out remains of a Roman fortlet and possibly also a tort on the same site. Two phases of military occupation were also evident in modern drain trenches being cut across the site and are attested epigraphically for the military bath-house by the spring. Ceramic evidence from the site suggests that the initial phase lies within the second century, whilst the Severan occupation, known from an inscription to begin early in the third century, represents a second phase. The previous view of the site as an undefended road-station, with a military presence only under the Severan emperors is no longer tenable. Moreover, the new evidence indicates that there was some measure of military organisation in the hinterland of the Emporia prior to the accession of Septimius Severus at the very end of the second century AD. The importance of the site also lies in its large civilian and indigenous population who continued to occupy the site long after the military had departed.
Imported Grain Mills at Cyrene
Authors: Riley John A. 
Published: February 2016

There are, in the gardens of the Department of Antiquities at Cyrene, two well preserved grain mills which probably date to the early Imperial Roman period. The context and location of their discovery within Cyrene is not known and their dating must rely on parallels from elsewhere. Moreover, it cannot be certain that each catillus (upper millstone) originally belonged with the meta (lower millstone) with which it is now associated, although it seems likely in view of their compatible sizes.Both grain mills are of hard, grey, vesicular volcanic lava and were certainly imported into Cyrenaica, which has a purely sedimentary geology and no rock suitable for intensive grinding. A study of millstones in Cyrenaica would for this reason provide important information about the trade in millstones in the eastern Mediterranean region. This subject has received little attention to date, but has considerable potential, particularly in the light of Peacock's recent study (1980) of the complex and wide ranging Roman millstone trade in the central Mediterranean region. It was in this context that a sample was taken from the catillus of each grain mill and examined in thin section using a petrological microscope.
Amphoras in the Apollonia Museum Store
Authors: Riley John A. 
Published: February 2016

The store rooms of the Department of Antiquities at Apollonia contain pottery from excavations at Apollonia and Ras el Hilal, together with a few stray finds from other sites (including some from the sea collected by the Royal Air Force Aqualung Society in the 1950s and early 1960s). The bulk of this material dates in the later Roman period (i.e. sixth century A.D. onwards), but includes a little earlier Roman and some Hellenistic pottery. There is a representative selection of coarse wares, including amphoras, as yet unpublished. These are mainly in fragmentary condition but their typological range conforms with that from the well stratified and dated excavations at Berenice-Benghazi (Riley, in press).Publication of the more complete of these amphoras seems justified as there is a relative scarcity of published information on Roman amphoras from the eastern Mediterranean, at a time when many eastern types are being recognised in western Mediterranean excavated contexts (Panella, 1974; Hayes, 1976a; Riley, 1981). In addition, a brief consideration of the other amphoras helps to illustrate the diversity of trade in liquid agricultural produce within the eastern Mediterranean region. No locally made amphoras were noted on the Apollonia stone: all were imported into Cyrenaica.The Hellenistic period is represented by Rhodian (Inv. Nos. 321, 322 and 1582) and Knidian (Inv. Nos. 141 and 723) amphora fragments. There are several sherds of early Imperial amphoras, and attention has been drawn to these by Panella (1974). These include a first to second century A.D. Aegean type (ibid., 477, Ostia Form LXIII; Apollonia Box 2036, from Ras el Hilal); a Spanish garum amphora of the same period (ibid., 513, Ostia Form LXIII; Apollonia Inv. No. 256); several Tripolitanian amphoras of the first and second centuries A.D. (ibid., 562, Ostia Form LXIV; Apollonia Inv. Nos. 253, 254, 315 and 317); and a common Aegean amphora of the third and fourth centuries A.D. (ibid., 597, Ostia Form VI).
Monitoring Land and Water Use in the Gefara Region by Satellite Imagery
Authors: Allan J. A. , Latham J. S. , Warwick-Smith R. 
Published: February 2016

Over ninety-seven per cent of Libya's water for agricultural and other uses came from groundwater in 1980 (Pallas). By then it was obvious that the renewable water in the coastal aquifers was seriously depleted and would not be sufficient to sustain the levels of water use implied by the national agricultural development plans. Meanwhile the potential of the southern aquifers had become apparent through their development in Kufrah, Sarir and Fezzan.The Gefara Plain has always been the major agricultural area of the country and until 1973, both before and after independence, had always attracted the bulk of public and private investment in irrigation. The decline in the level of the coastal groundwater was observed, or predicted, by all hydro-geologists who looked at the Gefara Plain after 1950, although it should be remarked that the observations were made on the basis of imprecise and unrepresentative data. Even by 1980 figures on groundwater recharge (estimated from landuse and assumed pumping levels) were numerous and inconsistent making it difficult for policy makers to determine the economies required and the measures necessary to achieve the optimum management of water resources. Depending upon which estimates of recharge and withdrawal were used, the amount by which withdrawal exceeded recharge varied from three to eight times.In these circumstances it was obviously prudent to attempt to determine the water balance from the Gefara Plain, and to this end a study was commissioned by FAO, on behalf of the Secretariat of Agriculture in Tripoli, for a study of recent satellite imagery to determine whether this inexpensive system of resources survey could make a contribution to planning water use in north-west Libya. By providing data on the irrigated area. From such data the water use element of the water balance equation could be estimated.
The Date of the Tocra Graffiti
Authors: Reynolds J. M. 
Published: February 2016

The large numbers of roughly-cut inscriptions on the inner face of the ancient city wall at Tocra, in the area south of the east gate, have often attracted attention. Interest in them flagged when it was realised that they consisted essentially of personal names; but recent developments in onomastic studies have given a new significance to personal names. Moreover since R. G. Goodchild dug there in the sixties it has been apparent that the inscribed stretch of the city-wall had been utilised for one side of a gymnasium courtyard and that the inscriptions on it are ephebic, so that they should throw some light on a civic instituion very much at the heart of the city's life. My purpose here, however, is simply to clarify the date at which the surviving texts were cut.The gymnasium has produced two main and one subsidiary series of texts. The first consists of graffiti on blocks found in situ on the inner face of the city wall as described above, and also on the inner face of the gymnasium wall flanking the main east/west street of the city, with additional items on blocks which patently derive from the gymnasium, but are found loose or re-used in many other parts of the site. Their appearance gives the impression that they were the work of the ephebes themselves and, since they often overcut one another, that they were produced over a period of time. They normally present personal names without patronymics, often in groups or in pairs, and with a brief indication that the associated persons were customary companions and sometimes certainly lovers.
Clermont-Ganneau's Visit to Cyrenaica in 1895
Authors: Masson Olivier , Reynolds Joyce 
Published: February 2016

The official visit to Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Crete and Tunisia made in 1895 by the French orientalist Charles Clermont-Ganneau (1845–1923) seems to have been quite forgotten, apart from a brief note by F. Chamoux (Cyrène sous la monarchie des Battiades, 1953, 19, n.5) describing the acquisition of certain antiquities by the Museum of the Louvre. Clermont-Ganneau himself produced no report. His references to his journey were brief and scattered (thus CRAI 1901, 42–3; Rec. Arch. Orient. VI, 1905, 53) and his publication was limited to illustrations without comment in his Album d'antiquités orientales, recueil de monuments inédits ou peu connus (Paris, Leroux, 1897), an uncompleted piece of work of which only plates I–II (Neirab), III–VI (Cyrenaica, miscellaneous objects), VII (Crete), and XLIII–L (Syria, Cyprus, Nendjirli, Malta etc.) ever appeared.Thanks to the help of Mr. Bernard Delavault, an unpublished file has now come to light in the office of the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum at the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, which fortunately supplements the record. It includes sixteen pages of an unfinished manuscript report of the 1895 journey by Clermont-Ganneau, together with a number of transcriptions and letters which contain interesting information.Clermont-Ganneau left Paris on 17th January and returned on 7th April, having made stops of some duration at Tunis, Malta, Tripoli in Libya (where he collected antiquities, including coins), Benghazi (where he spent a fortnight), Crete (his travels in the island, which lasted for twenty-five days, will be described elsewhere), Alexandria; then Malta and Tripoli both for the second time, Homs (for a visit to Lepcis Magna), Gabès, Sfax, Sousse and Tunis again. Conditions in Cyrenaica made it impossible for him to get to the Cyrene area as he had hoped, and this accounts for the length of his stay at Benghazi where he collected the documents which are the subject of this paper; for while there he bought or was given antiquities which went to the Louvre and acquired from various sources copies of inscriptions.