bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cambodia, Families in
Authors: Eng Sothy 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe Cambodian family is predominantly male‐headed and strictly traditional, consisting of husband, wife, and children, and is usually large, with an average of 4.7 persons per family. It is also common that the family includes extended family members such as first cousins, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, parents, or grandparents. Same‐sex couple families are prohibited by law. To maintain the family reputation or “good face,” each member of the family must conform to social norms and expectations and behave accordingly. Unfavorable behavior among children can reflect badly on their parents as it is seen as a manifestation of poor discipline, whereas great morality and academic or career success can enhance the “face” of the family.
Gender Socialization
Authors: Neimand Annie 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Questions regarding gender roles, behavior, and expectations tend to be situated in the nurture versus nature debate. Scholarship is unsettled as to the ways in which genes, biology, and psychosocial experience interact to shape gender differences. However, most science scholarship focuses on the role of the social environment, with gender conceptualized as a social construct composed of roles, behaviors, and expectations rather than being biologically innate. This entry defines and explains socialization and gender socialization. It then examines the agents of socialization – family, education, peers, and media – as sites of gender socialization.
Child Neglect/Abandonment
Authors: Laplant Katie M. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractChild neglect is the most prevalent form of child maltreatment; it is unique as neglect is an act of omission rather than an act of commission. Scholars have developed several categories of neglect including physical, medical, educational, and emotional. Parents who neglect their children have distinct characteristics that are risk factors contributing to their lack of care or endangerment of their children. Children of neglect present with a variety of negative effects including attachment issues and school difficulties and are at risk of continuing the cycle of the neglectful family pattern.
Fathering Styles in theUnitedStates
Authors: Steinour Heidi 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe cultural shift in gender, family, and work expectations in the United States has fostered a lively discussion about the role of men in families, as workers, and as fathers. Men are expected to take on more childrearing practices, be more involved in domestic labor, and develop a more engaged and interactive approach to parenting. Considering this shift, research on fathers' paternal identities is critical in exploring how family structure, cultural narratives of fathering, paternal involvement, race, class, biological ties, and procreation influence men and their children.
Intimate Partner Violence,USCriminal Justice Response to
Authors: Leisenring Amy 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe efforts of the battered women's movement in the 1960s and 1970s to draw attention to the problem of domestic violence (more recently identified as intimate partner violence, or IPV) led to dramatic reforms to the way that the criminal justice system handles the abuse of women from their partners and ex‐partners. In most jurisdictions in the United States, laws exist that encourage both police officers and prosecutors to approach IPV cases aggressively. However, for a variety of reasons, these policies have been the center of much debate and controversy. Largely, many researchers, practitioners, and victims' advocates question whether they serve the best interests of women who experience IPV. Empirical research on the effectiveness of such policies have had mixed findings. Future societal response to IPV may involve a more collaborative community effort.
Thailand, Families in
Authors: Foster John D. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractFamilies in the Southeast Asian country of Thailand have experienced significant changes in recent years as a result of the effects of industrialization and urbanization since the 1960s. Meanwhile, widespread support for the use of contraception has helped to decrease the fertility rate substantially, while advancements in medicine and health care delivery have increased life expectancy. Although Thai families benefit from an increase in per capital income, low unemployment, and greater access to modern technologies, major challenges loom on the horizon. One issue is Thailand's growing elderly population, who have fewer children to care for them than previous generations. While some issues arising from the process of modernization are comparable to other nations, other challenges are unique to Thailand.
K
insey Reports on Human Sexuality
Authors: Speice Travis D. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Alfred Kinsey's reports on human sexual behavior have been revolutionizing the ways in which individuals think about sexuality and sexual behaviors. More than 18,000 individuals participated in the separate studies on men and women, where sexual histories were collected and later analyzed. Most notably, Kinsey discovered that there was a wide range of sexual behaviors that were in fact common, including masturbation, premarital sex, and extramarital sex. He also catalogued the frequencies with which individuals participated in these activities and noted variation based on age, geographic location, social position, religiosity, and so on.
Marriage Promotion Policy
Authors: Avishai Orit , Heath Melanie , Randles Jennifer 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marriage promotion is a controversial US antipoverty policy that emerged as part of the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, which sought to end dependence on government benefits by promoting marriage and self‐sufficiency and making work‐related activities mandatory to receive aid. Marriage education and promotion activities have been supported by federal welfare funds through the Healthy Marriage Initiative (2002–2011) and the Fatherhood, Marriage, and Family Innovation Fund (2011–2015). Supporters of this policy argue that single parenthood is a cause of poverty and that encouraging and strengthening marriage through relationship education services is a plausible poverty‐reduction strategy. Critics argue that marriage promotion is an ideologically driven policy that obscures the structural causes of poverty and diverts funds from programs that directly benefit families living in poverty. Marriage promotion activities are being funded through 2015. Their longevity suggests that they have become established public policy.
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living
Authors: Klimczuk Andrzej 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Activities of daily living are usually defined as skills needed in typical daily self‐care. Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) are more complex skills beyond basic self‐care, and their measurement evaluates how individuals function in their homes, workplaces, and outdoor environments. The skills that pertain to IADLs are exposed to dysfunctions resulting from aging or illness. Reductions in those skills may begin to cause problems with independence but these problems can be solved with the help of others – for example, family members, social workers, and nurses.
C
atholicism and Families
Authors: Carter Gerard A. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Catholic families operate within a context of ancient theological dogmas derived from Jewish and Christian scriptures that place marriage at the center of family life and view sexuality as exclusively positioned within heterosexual marriage. Early church writers viewed marriage as a means of begetting children and by the Middle Ages marriage was closely linked with the liturgical functions as one of the seven Catholic key rituals. More recently, consideration of Catholic marriage and family life has focused on the effects of marriage as mutually unitive and procreative and the family as the “domestic church.” Valid marriage in the Catholic Church is marked by the essential properties of exclusivity (i.e., union of one man and one woman) and indissolvability (i.e., a union that endures until death). To enter validly into Catholic marriage, certain conditions must be met: freedom to marry; conformity to prescribed regulations; free exchange of consent; and consummation. Changing demographics are rapidly altering the modern face of Catholic families.
Child Support
Authors: Cook Kay 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Child support is a contentious policy issue that affects a large number of separated parents and their children worldwide. Inherent in the payment and receipt of child support are the emotional responses by former partners to separation, and many parents resent mandatory state involvement in their personal financial affairs. Determination and payment of child support obligations vary internationally, with court, administrative, and hybrid systems in operation. Those with mandatory administrative systems face the most criticism, as fathers' attitudes toward payment are the most salient. Research on child support issues, however, has not kept pace with policy developments. Most research has been conducted in the United States, where there is an emphasis on payment compliance. Conversely, other countries have made significant policy reforms without robust evidence. To address this imbalance, researchers have taken steps to consolidate the evidence and provide stronger directions for policy reform.
P
oland, Families in
Authors: Krywult‐Albańska Małgorzata 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This entry discusses family changes in Poland, focusing on selected historical and contemporary issues. The opening section provides a brief outline of historical trends, focusing on the communist period and the beginning of the transformation of the political system, which was set in motion by the collapse of communism.A discussion follows of select demographic and sociological characteristics of contemporary Polish families, set against a backdrop of past tendencies. The final section highlights some of the structural pressures affecting families and households in Poland.
Religion and Gender
Authors: Christ Stephen R. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractTypically, women represent a subordinated class within religious organizations as they are denied institutional power and access to the religious hierarchy. They are also subordinated within the home, where submission to a husband's will is the model for good feminine behavior. While great strides have been made for women who desire to enter the religious clergy life, there still remains a “stained‐glass ceiling” that inhibits their ability to rise up the religious hierarchy. As a result, many women have turned to alternative forms of religious expression to satisfy their personal yearning to connect to a higher power. Gender will undoubtedly continue to be a major theme in the politics and practice of religious doctrines and teachings.
M
exican
A
merican Families
Authors: Rodriguez Cassaundra 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Latinos represent the largest racial/ethnic minority group in the United States and Mexican Americans represent the largest subgroup in the broader Latino category. Some Mexican American families have been part of the US landscape since the mid‐1800s as a result of US conquest and/or patterns of migration. As a result, much of the family studies scholarship on Latino families has historically focused on Mexican American families specifically. However, like the research on this topic, Mexican American families are heterogeneous. These families are shaped and influenced by generational, socioeconomic, and immigration status as well as regional differences, religion, racialized status, gender norms, and labor and historical forces.
Cross‐Cultural Families
Authors: Noam Kris R. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
In cross‐cultural families, there is more than one culture within the same household. Cultures can intersect within generations (parents' cultures differ), between generations (parents' and children's cultures differ), or for both generations together (parents' and children's culture differs from their peers' culture). Each cross‐cultural family has its own dynamics, but cross‐cultural families also have similarities and share a number of disadvantages and advantages. Members of cross‐cultural families may encounter culture clashes, identity confusion, or cultural dissonance. On the other hand, living in a cross‐cultural family can generate cognitive advantages for bicultural children and an enriched cultural setting can make family members more adaptable to various settings. Transforming cultures into “symbolic cultures” can enable family members to be more flexible with their culture and help them to benefit from living in a cross‐cultural family.
Health and Families
Authors: Swindle Taren M. , Rutledge Julie M. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractIndividuals' physical, mental, and social health cannot be understood in isolation from the family. When the family as a whole is engaged in healthy behaviors, all the individual members are more likely to be in good physical health. The health of the family as a functional unit is influenced by the family's cohesion, flexibility, and communication (as shown by the circumplex model of family systems). Breakdowns in any of these areas can affect both physical and mental health. A family's reaction to a stressful event such as a health diagnosis can lead to improvement or crisis for the individuals and the family (as shown by the ABC‐X model of family stress). External sociocultural factors also impact the health of families, including social support, socioeconomic or minority status, and community resources. The patient‐centered medical home model and the community‐based participatory research model are emerging frameworks for healthcare and research that recognize the embeddedness of the individual in the family.
Foster Care
Authors: Schmeeckle Maria 
Published: March 2016

AbstractFoster care is home‐based care provided to children who are unable to live with parents or guardians due to neglect, abuse, abandonment, or other reasons. Governments vary in their ability and willingness to take responsibility for children in need of alternative care. In high‐resource countries foster care is often provided formally through governments, and in low‐resource countries it is often provided informally through extended families and communities. Foster care tends not to be offered transnationally, but it is globalized through the dissemination of research and support provided by international nongovernmental organizations. In countries with well‐developed formal foster‐care systems such as the United States, improvements to the system are called for by researchers and practitioners due to racial disparities, service delays, inadequate caseworker training, high staff turnover, and other problems. This entry also discusses long‐term disadvantages for foster youth, trends in foster care, unanswered questions in the field, and debates about how foster care is being provided.
G
ermany, Families in
Authors: Brown Kristina S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Germany has a rich and sometimes infamous history including Adolf Hitler, the Holocaust, and the Berlin Wall. But German social policies such as the Parental Leave Act of 2007 suggest that a high value is placed on family. In response to historically low fertility and birth rates, German policy aims to promote family. Marital and family issues in Germany including abortion, parental leave, child care, gender roles, homeschooling, right to education, divorce, child custody, domestic violence, gender roles, and LGBT populations will be introduced.
Divorce Revolution
Authors: Ruspini Elisabetta 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe increased divorce rate in the west is one of the consequences of the social revolution of the late twentieth century. The social and cultural revolution of the late 1960s and 1970s played a key role in reconfiguring women's and men's views of marriage and family life. Scholars have debated the implications of the “divorce revolution” and the social consequences of the liberalization of divorce laws. Specifically, the widespread change in divorce laws from a fault‐based to a no‐fault regime made divorce easier by requiring the consent of only one spouse to dissolve a marriage without any agreement or fault by the other.
Gay Men as Parents
Authors: Ruspini Elisabetta 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Contemporary western societies are characterized by a growing diversification of family types. Families have changed dramatically over time due to economic, demographic, cultural, and political factors. The diversity of families is evident in the growth of nontraditional family structures. Within this challenging context, the phenomenon of homosexual parenting – a term that includes all those families in which at least one adult who defines himself/herself as homosexual is the parent of at least one child – has for some time been an emerging reality in many western societies. While in the past the children in homosexual families generally came from a previous heterosexual relationship, now the decision to become a parent is increasingly disconnected from heterosexuality, with possibilities having been opened up by assisted reproductive techniques but also by access to adoption. Within this context of change, the phenomenon of planned gay fatherhood has emerged: this is part of a broader process of social change that involves family life (Ruspini 2013).
Living Alone Together
Authors: Aletraris Lydia 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Living alone together (LAT; or living apart together) refers to individuals who have an intimate relationship without cohabiting. These couples are often referred to as “commuter couples.” Each person in a LAT relationship maintains his/her own home and takes turns traveling to visit his/her partner. The rise of couples in LAT arrangements is largely due to dual‐employed couples pursuing careers that necessitate them living apart as their careers would be difficult to pursue in the same place. The experience of a distance relationship is shaped by family and career characteristics. On average, women tend to evaluate these relationships more positively than do men. Advantages of living alone together include individual and career growth, increased professional productivity, opportunities for advancement, autonomy, and gender equity in the division of household labor. Disadvantages include burden of travel, lack of physical intimacy, loneliness, financial burdens, and negative reactions from family and friends.
Heterogamy, Religious
Authors: Schramm David G. , Lester Ashlie 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Religious heterogamy is present when partners differ on any religious facet, including denomination, belief, practice, or commitment. Belonging to a specific religious faith, the relative importance of religiosity, and the extent to which spouses engage in religious activities influence many couple relationships. Religion tends to have a positive influence on couple relationships. The religious makeup of a couple – whether couples share or differ in their religious backgrounds and beliefs – is influential in couple outcomes. However, since the 1990s the importance of religion and the influence of religion on couple relationships have declined.
I
srael, Families in
Authors: Fogiel‐Bijaoui Sylvie 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Although Israel, as a postindustrial society, is undergoing a process of individualization, familism clearly remains a marker of that society. That is so mainly because the personal status of all inhabitants –Jews, Arabs, and “others” –is governed by religious institutions. This situation seems to be desired by the majority, which, given the Jewish–Arab conflict, considers religious laws as being rightly instrumentalized to preserve the boundaries of each ethno‐religious collective, and all the more so because alternatives and bypasses exist. In this conflictual context, the “double track” of the family institution will continue for the foreseeable future. That is, the main track –the institutionalized, religious one –will coexist with the individualization process and the circumventions that process fuels. The significant change, however, is that because of the transformations within Arab society, Arab women will also contribute to new (re)configurations of the family in Israel.
S
outh
K
orea, Families in
Authors: Han Yoonsun , Lee Jaerim 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Contradictory values and norms prevail in contemporary South Korean (Korean hereafter) families. Patrilineal Confucian ideas are deeply embedded in Korean families, but at the same time rapid modernization since the 1960s has gradually pushed Koreans away from traditional ideas governing the family. As a result, contradictory Confucian and egalitarian norms prevail in contemporary Korean families. Modern Korea has experienced demographic changes such as delayed marriage, increased divorce, increased interethnic marriage, equalized sex ratio at birth, low fertility, population aging, and diversified household structures. The nature of family relationships has changed as well. Traditional ideas grounded in Confucian familism strictly maintained a hierarchical order between parents and children, husband and wife, and elder and younger siblings. However, relationships between family members have shifted toward more egalitarian practices. In response to the various demographic and relational changes in contemporary Korea, national family policies have undergone major reform since 2005.
Racism and Families in theUnitedStates
Authors: Foster John D. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractRacism has had substantial effects on families living in the United States. Historical racism and persisting prejudice and discrimination produce myriad hardships for families of diverse racial and national backgrounds. Racial differences in familial experiences, such as marriage, number of children, and divorce, reproduce racial disparities in wealth, income, employment, and educational attainment. The consequences of this inequality have deleterious effects on both young and old in minority families. While interracial marriage has increased, it remains rare. Today immigrant families face unique challenges as they attempt to achieve the American dream.
Childlessness, Voluntary
Authors: Tunalilar Ozcan 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Family scholars studying voluntary childlessness have increasingly focused on how to define the empirical boundaries of the childfree, attitudes toward voluntary childlessness, reasons behind remaining childless, and consequences of childlessness at older age. The available evidence suggests an increasing prevalence of voluntary childlessness with somewhat greater societal acceptance in the United States than in previous eras. Certain demographic characteristics (being a man, highly educated, and white) are consistently associated with higher likelihood of remaining voluntarily childless. A considerable number of studies have used the life course perspective as a theoretical tool in explaining childlessness. The dearth of empirical studies indicates a growing need to incorporate men's experiences into this line of research.
Russia, Families in
Authors: Tikhaze Dmitry , Kurilova Anastassia 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe social institution of the family in Russia is gradually changing. Families are becoming smaller, with less children. Official marriage is often replaced with nonmarital cohabitation, which in the early twenty‐first century is normative in Russia. The average age at first marriage and birth is rising as more young Russians seek to reach a stable material and social status first. At the same time family ties in Russia are considered to have remained relatively close. Marriage and divorce rates are high while the birth rate is below the replacement level.