bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Deterministic distribution of four-photon Dicke state over an arbitrary collective-noise channel with cross-Kerr nonlinearity
Authors: Wang Mei-Yu , Yan Feng-Li , Gao Ting 
Published: July 2016

AbstractWe present two deterministic quantum entanglement distribution protocols for a four-photon Dicke polarization entangled state resorting to the frequency and spatial degrees of freedom, which are immune to an arbitrary collective-noise channel. Both of the protocols adopt the X homodyne measurement based on the cross-Kerr nonlinearity to complete the task of the single-photon detection with nearly unit probability in principle. After the four receivers share the photons, they add some local unitary operations to obtain a standard four-photon Dicke polarization entangled state.
Using ILD or ITD Cues for Sound Source Localization and Speech Understanding in a Complex Listening Environment by Listeners With Bilateral and With Hearing-Preservation Cochlear Implants
Authors: Loiselle Louise H. , Dorman Michael F. , Yost William A. , Cook Sarah J. , Gifford Rene H. 
Published: July 2016

Purpose
To assess the role of interaural time differences and interaural level differences in (a) sound-source localization, and (b) speech understanding in a cocktail party listening environment for listeners with bilateral cochlear implants (CIs) and for listeners with hearing-preservation CIs.

Methods
Eleven bilateral listeners with MED-EL (Durham, NC) CIs and 8 listeners with hearing-preservation CIs with symmetrical low frequency, acoustic hearing using the MED-EL or Cochlear device were evaluated using 2 tests designed to task binaural hearing, localization, and a simulated cocktail party. Access to interaural cues for localization was constrained by the use of low-pass, high-pass, and wideband noise stimuli.

Results
Sound-source localization accuracy for listeners with bilateral CIs in response to the high-pass noise stimulus and sound-source localization accuracy for the listeners with hearing-preservation CIs in response to the low-pass noise stimulus did not differ significantly. Speech understanding in a cocktail party listening environment improved for all listeners when interaural cues, either interaural time difference or interaural level difference, were available.

Conclusions
The findings of the current study indicate that similar degrees of benefit to sound-source localization and speech understanding in complex listening environments are possible with 2 very different rehabilitation strategies: the provision of bilateral CIs and the preservation of hearing.
A conserved amino acid residue critical for product and substrate specificity in plant triterpene synthases
Authors: Salmon Melissa , Thimmappa Ramesha B. , Minto Robert E. , Melton Rachel E. , Hughes Richard K. , O’Maille Paul E. , Hemmings Andrew M. , Osbourn Anne 
Published: July 2016

SignificanceThe triterpenes are a large and highly diverse group of plant natural products. They are synthesized by cyclization of the linear isoprenoid 2,3-oxidosqualene into different triterpene scaffolds by enzymes known as triterpene synthases. This cyclization process is one of the most complex enzymatic reactions known and is only poorly understood. Here, we identify a conserved amino acid residue that is critical for both product and substrate specificity in triterpene synthases from diverse plant species. Our results shed new light on mechanisms of triterpene cyclization in plants and open up the possibility of manipulating both the nature of the precursor and product specificity, findings that can be exploited for the production of diverse and novel triterpenes.
Endogenous
N
-acyl taurines regulate skin wound healing
Authors: Sasso Oscar , Pontis Silvia , Armirotti Andrea , Cardinali Giorgia , Kovacs Daniela , Migliore Marco , Summa Maria , Moreno-Sanz Guillermo , Picardo Mauro , Piomelli Daniele 
Published: July 2016

Significance
Healthy human skin quickly repairs itself when wounded. Skin healing is essential for survival, and it depends on a well-ordered sequence of molecular and cellular events that require the cooperation of several growth-promoting proteins released by skin cells or produced in the extracellular matrix. In the present study, we identify a family of lipid-derived molecules that accelerate the closure of self-repairing skin wounds. These endogenous substances promote migration of epidermal keratinocytes and differentiation of dermal fibroblasts by recruiting intracellular signals similar to those engaged by protein growth factors. Understanding this unprecedented mechanism of wound-healing control may guide new therapeutic approaches to the management of chronic wounds in patients with diabetes, bed-ridden elderly people with pressure ulcers, and immunosuppressed recipients of organ transplants.
The Digital Divide in Farming: A Problem of Access or Engagement?
Authors: Hennessy Thia , Läpple Doris , Moran Brian 
Published: July 2016

AbstractThis article explores farmers’ use of computers for farm business purposes by analyzing the computer access and usage decisions of almost 900 Irish farmers. The findings reveal that computer ownership is influenced by a combination of farm business and household characteristics, but that farm business characteristics dominate if the computer is used for the business. More detailed findings suggest that computers are most likely to be used on larger dairy farms, while farmers who are living alone have limited access to computers. Public policy needs to support the adoption of information technologies, and the role of computers in tackling social isolation and providing farm information is critically discussed.
Congestive heart failure information extraction framework for automated treatment performance measures assessment
Authors: Meystre Stéphane M , Kim Youngjun , Gobbel Glenn T , Matheny Michael E , Redd Andrew , Bray Bruce E , Garvin Jennifer H 
Published: July 2016

Objective: This paper describes a new congestive heart failure (CHF) treatment performance measure information extraction system – CHIEF – developed as part of the Automated Data Acquisition for Heart Failure project, a Veterans Health Administration project aiming at improving the detection of patients not receiving recommended care for CHF.
Design: CHIEF is based on the Apache Unstructured Information Management Architecture framework, and uses a combination of rules, dictionaries, and machine learning methods to extract left ventricular function mentions and values, CHF medications, and documented reasons for a patient not receiving these medications.
Measurements: The training and evaluation of CHIEF were based on subsets of a reference standard of various clinical notes from 1083 Veterans Health Administration patients. Domain experts manually annotated these notes to create our reference standard. Metrics used included recall, precision, and the F1-measure.
Results: In general, CHIEF extracted CHF medications with high recall (&gt;0.990) and good precision (0.960–0.978). Mentions of Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction were also extracted with high recall (0.978–0.986) and precision (0.986–0.994), and quantitative values of Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction were found with 0.910–0.945 recall and with high precision (0.939–0.976). Reasons for not prescribing CHF medications were more difficult to extract, only reaching fair accuracy with about 0.310–0.400 recall and 0.250–0.320 precision.
Conclusion: This study demonstrated that applying natural language processing to unlock the rich and detailed clinical information found in clinical narrative text notes makes fast and scalable quality improvement approaches possible, eventually improving management and outpatient treatment of patients suffering from CHF.
Historical Development of the Law of the Sea
Authors: Treves Tullio 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter highlights, in the historic development of the law of the sea, the roots of the law as it currently stands and the questions still open today. It considers the early phases of the evolution of the law of the sea up to the end of the nineteenth century followed by, in more detail, developments that took place in the twentieth century up until the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. This fundamental event in the history of the law of the sea in the twentieth century is the basis of the international law of the sea of today, and is dealt with in subsequent chapters of this Handbook.
The Archipelagic Regime
Authors: Davenport Tara 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The archipelagic regime in Part IV of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) was aimed at resolving an issue that had long challenged the international community, namely, whether a group of islands should be considered a single entity and thus subject to a special regime distinct from the rules applicable to continental land masses and individual islands. This chapter examines the critical issues associated with the implementation of Part IV as well as future issues that may arise. It first discusses the development of the archipelagic regime. It then addresses the definition of an archipelago and an archipelagic State, archipelagic baselines, and archipelagic waters, respectively, and examines issues in implementation. It considers the issue of ‘dependent archipelagos’ and whether there is a lacuna in LOSC in this regard. The chapter concludes with a discussion on future areas of focus for the archipelagic regime.
Port and Coastal States
Authors: Molenaar Erik 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter discusses port States, coastal States and their jurisdictions. Seaports give access to the landmass of a State for persons and goods, and are therefore logical points of control for, inter alia, customs, immigration, sanitation and national security purposes. The spatial scope of a seaport includes the outermost permanent harbour works — but not offshore installations and artificial islands — as well as roadsteads that extend beyond the outer limit of the territorial sea, provided they are normally used for the loading, unloading and anchoring of ships. Port State jurisdiction can be defined as relating to activities and standards occurring within, or applicable to: the port; the maritime zones of other coastal States; areas beyond national jurisdiction (i.e. the high seas and the ‘Area’); and the maritime zones of the coastal State in which the port is located. Coastal States are universally understood to be States with a sea-coastline. A coastal State's jurisdiction relates to its own maritime zones, and encompasses the resources and activities therein as well as external impacts on them.
Courts and Tribunals
Authors: Oxman Bernard 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
The settlement of disputes between States is generally not regulated by municipal law and municipal courts but by international law regulated by treaty. Because States are not subject to the jurisdiction of international tribunals absent express consent, an important function of dispute settlement clauses in treaties is to indicate whether such consent is granted and, if so, with respect to which disputes before which tribunals. This chapter discusses the following: the obligation of states to settle disputes peacefully; the duty to arbitrate or adjudicate disputes under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC); choice of forum for compulsory settlement of LOSC disputes; nature of dispute; procedural and substantive limitations on jurisdiction under Section 2 of Part XV of the LOSC; and institutional constraints on the exercise of jurisdiction.
The Mediterranean Sea
Authors: Papanicolopulu Irini 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter assesses the legal regime of the Mediterranean Sea. The legal regime of any given ocean or sea is a composite product, which includes the unilateral acts of States by which they establish maritime zones and regulate the exercise of their power therein; the bilateral agreements for the delimitation of maritime boundaries; and the multilateral legal instruments, which provide uniform substantial regulation and institutionalise cooperation. The chapter examines legal regime of the Mediterranean based on this division, looking first at the jurisdictional framework, then at the delimitation of maritime boundaries, and finally at the multilateral instruments adopted by coastal States in order to regulate a number of activities.
The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Freestone David , Schofield Clive 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter assesses the legal regime of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. It first examines regional maritime claims before reviewing marine activities, environment, and resources within the Caribbean. It then considers the current status of the delimitation of maritime boundaries in the Caribbean Sea, through agreements as well as judicial settlement. It highlights remaining problems and provides some concluding observations.
Warming Waters and Souring Seas
Authors: Stephens Tim 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the impact of climate change and ocean acidification on the oceans and their implications for the international law of the sea. In particular, it assesses the implications of rising sea levels for territorial sea baselines, the seawards extent of maritime zones, and maritime boundaries. It also considers the restrictions placed by the UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) upon States in pursuing climate mitigation and adaptation policies, such as attempts to ‘engineer’ the global climate by artificially enhancing the capacity of the oceans to draw CO2 from the atmosphere. The chapter analyzes the role of the LOSC, alongside other treaty regimes, in addressing the serious threat of ocean acidification.
Military Operations
Authors: Kraska James 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter assesses the legal regime for military operations at sea under the UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC). It considers the rules that apply at the seam between peace and war, and how the provisions of the law of naval warfare interact with the law of the sea. It shows that the adoption of the LOSC did not entirely quell disagreements over the right to conduct military operations in areas under coastal State sovereignty or jurisdiction.
Reconfiguring the Un System of Collective Security
Authors: Blokker Niels 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines pacific settlement and collective security as the primary instruments of the United Nations for promoting and underwriting international security. It begins by focusing on the development of newer approaches to UN-centred collective security in the new millennium in response to increased security threats. The chapter discusses economic sanctions, consent-based peacekeeping, robust peace operations, the coercive responsibility to protect (R2P), and nuclear security. In particular, it considers the evolution of peacekeeping side by side with preventive diplomacy, as well as the increase in the number of UN operations after the end of the Cold War to resolve outstanding conflicts. It also evaluates the report prepared by Algerian diplomat Lakhdar Brahimi, chair of a high-level international panel appointed by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to make recommendations for changes in UN peacekeeping. The chapter concludes by considering the shift from collective security to global governance.
Use of Force
Authors: Weisburd Mark 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines restrictions on the International Court of Justice’s (ICJ) capacity to act due to problems of admissibility or justiciability with respect to the use of force. It considers how the ICJ deals with cases requiring the exercise of non-legal judgement in relation to the UN Security Council’s authority. It also looks at disputes involving the use of force that can be decided only through the exercise of non-legal judgement. Five cases are highlighted: Corfu Channel (UK v. Albania), Nicaragua v. US, the ICJ’s advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, Oil Platforms (Iran v. US), and Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The chapter concludes by focusing on cases involving matters that are arguably within the province of the UN Security Council.
‘Failures to Protect’ in International Law
Authors: Nollkaemper André 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines failures by outside actors to protect populations from mass atrocities such as genocide and crimes against humanity. It begins by tracing the origins of ‘failures to protect critiques’, whereby many observers express moral outrage against bystander states which they believe should have done more. In this discourse, mass atrocities are attributed to a combination of acts by perpetrators and omissions by bystanders. The chapter analyses the legal basis for applying the ‘failure to protect critique’ to both perpetrators and bystanders. In particular, it discusses the extent to which international law allows holding individual bystander states responsible for a failure to protect. It also discusses the failure to protect-critique on the United Nations and other international organizations. The chapter suggests that international law justifies and even requires inaction among bystander states and international organizations when mass atrocities occur.
Intervention, Armed Intervention, Armed Attack, Threat to Peace, Act of Aggression, and Threat or Use of Force
Authors: Klabbers Jan 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the international law on the use of force and related terms such as intervention, armed intervention, armed attack, threat to peace, act of aggression, and threat of force. It considers the different ways in which the use of force can be classified and explains why this occurs. The discussion begins by analysing the variety of terms used in the UN Charter and other security arrangements. It then looks at the relevant practice of states when concluding agreements on the use of force, as well as the practice of the UN Security Council and the International Court of Justice when dealing with interstate conflicts. The chapter concludes by evaluating the relationship between language and law with respect to the use of force.
The Prohibition of the Use of Force in Arbitrations and Fact-Finding Reports
Authors: Koutroulis Vaios 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the approach used by arbitral tribunals and commissions of inquiry or fact-finding missions with respect to rules governing the use of force after the adoption of the UN Charter in 1945, with emphasis on the right to self-defence and the conditions relating to its exercise. It assesses the legal significance of arbitral awards and fact-finding reports and considers how they have interpreted and applied jus contra bellum—the prohibition of the use of force in international relations and its exceptions. The chapter focuses on two significant arbitration precedents: the Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission and an arbitral tribunal constituted under Annex VII to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Finally, it discusses questions relating to the threshold for the application of jus contra bellum rules, namely Articles 2(4) and 51 of the UN Charter, and whether such rules are applicable to non-state actors.
The Resilience of the Restrictive Rules on Self-Defence
Authors: Kammerhofer Joerg 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the resilience of the treaty, and perhaps also customary, law on self-defence since 2001. It first considers ‘resilience’ in the context of the jus ad bellum and how law can be resilient vis-à-vis changing circumstance, opinions, interpretation, and state practice. It then looks at the indicators for and against resilience by analysing post-2001 developments, paying particular attention to three areas: jurisprudence, scholarly literature in international law, and state and institutional practice. The chapter also explains what ‘resilience’ can and cannot be, and how the law and its perceptions change—or remain the same. Two avenues on the question of what is resilient are evaluated: either the norm or its interpretation (perception) change. Finally, the chapter considers a number of cases in which the International Court of Justice has made pronouncements on and partial clarifications of important aspects of the law on self-defence since 2001.
Theatre of Operations
Authors: Martin Jean Christophe 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter explores ‘theatre of operations’ as a legal concept in international law, with emphasis on the geographical extent—‘boundaries of the battlefield’—of the use of force by belligerents. It addresses the meaning of ‘theatre of operations’ by considering two legal issues: the right of parties to an armed conflict to conduct military operations and the applicable law to armed operations carried out beyond the borders of a state. It examines the notion of the area of war in the context of jus in bello, jus ad bellum, and actions taken by the UN Security Council in response to armed conflicts, with reference to security and exclusion zones. It identifies ‘protected zones’ in which military operations are excluded based on the international law of armed conflicts and looks at issues raised by cyber warfare pertaining to the applicability of classic provisions of jus ad bellum and jus in bello.
National Liberation in the Context of Post- and Non-Colonial Struggles for Self-Determination
Authors: Chadwick Elizabeth 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the contemporary viability of self-determination and liberation conflicts in the context of the use of force and the limits placed on that force. Drawing on the parameters of restraint developed in humanitarian and human rights laws, it explores the role of force in the struggles for self-determination. The chapter begins with an assessment of the role played by coercion in the internal affairs of states, followed by a discussion on self-determination in relation to jus in bello, jus ad bellum, terrorism, and human rights. It then considers the normative and legal limits placed on force between states compared to the limits on force utilized within states between governments and non-state actors. The chapter concludes by analysing the extent to which existing rules are affected by international support for ‘legitimate’ revolutionary armed conflicts for self-determination.
Blockades and Interdictions
Authors: Heintschel von Heinegg Wolff 
Published: July 2016

Abstract
This chapter examines the rules and principles that govern a naval or aerial blockade or some other form of interference with foreign vessels and aircraft in the absence of an explicit authorization by the UN Security Council. After clarifying the concept of blockade under the jus ad bellum and the jus in bello, it considers blockades authorized as military enforcement measures. It also discusses some unresolved or even contested issues regarding the legality of blockades, with reference to blockades in situations other than international armed conflict and the principle of proportionality in relation to humanity. The scope of interdiction operations and its legal bases under international treaties are analysed next, together with maritime interdiction operations and the applicability of prize law during non-international armed conflicts. Finally, the chapter explores the right of individual or collective self-defence as a basis for interdiction operations.