bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Nuraghi of Sardinia
Authors: Lilliu Giovanni 
Published: January 2016

One of the most characteristic features of Sardinian architecture, playing an important part in the scenery of the island, is provided by the ancient, forbidding and imposing megalithic structures which the local inhabitants, in the original prehistoric and pre-Indo-European tongue, call nurakes, nuraghes, nuraxzk, nuraccis, nuragis, nuracus, etc., according to district and dialect. We generally know them by the Italian form of the word, nuraghi (singular nuraghe).Built of large blocks set without mortar in more or less regular horizontal rows, the nuraghe, in its simplest form, appears as a round tower with battered sides. Its height depends upon the number, from one to three, of the storeys it contains, and may sometimes, as at the nuraghe Santu Antine at Torralba in the province of Sassari, reach as much as 20 m., with walls from 2 to 5 m. thick (PLATE VIId).
Autumn Killing
Authors: Higgs E. S. , White J. Peter 
Published: January 2016

It is commonly held in the existing literature that prehistoric peoples were compelled to kill off an abnormally high proportion of their livestock in autumn because of a lack of winter fodder. There is literary evidence for autumn killing in several European localities (n. 1). It is therefore a plausible assumption that earlier cultures are hardly less likely to have been more successful in overcoming this difficulty. This article is concerned to examine whether this assumption is valid.The inference generally made about autumn killing rests almost entirely on Watson’s report on the Skara Brae bones (n. 2). By the use of Watson’s method such a claim may also be made for the Old Sleaford sheep, and this is shown here. But there are grounds for supposing that such a claim is methodologically unjustified, and we have endeavoured to set out a method by which such claims may be tested.
The Destruction of the Palace of Knossos and its Pottery
Authors: Popham M. R. 
Published: January 2016

The present dispute over the date of the of the Linear B tablets found at Knossos has been, for the most part, concerned with the question whether they belong to an LM II/IIIA I destruction of the Palace, which Evans dated about 1400 B.c., or to the end of the LM IIIB period, some 150 or more years later, when Evans believed that the Palace ruins were only partly reoccupied [I]. To many archaeologists, however, the problem is a different one. For them the evidence of the pottery and of the sealings associated with the burning of the Palace and with the baking of its clay archives makes the later dating of the tablets impossible. Their concern is rather to determine more exactly when in the 14th century the destruction took place.The greatest help towards answering this question will come from a closer definition of the style of pottery in use at the time of the catastrophe. The author has been working on this problem over the last three years by studying the considerable amount of unpublished sherd material in the Stratigraphical Museum established by Evans at Knossos. A comprehensive publication of this material will of necessity take some time to complete. Meanwhile it is hoped that it would be generally helpful to illustrate some eight of the pots which the author has been able to have reconstructed from these sherds; at the same time it is proposed briefly to outline the circumstances in which they were originally found according to the excavation reports.
The Vix Burial
Authors: Megaw J. V. S. 
Published: January 2016

One of the best known and most quoted finds in western Europe must be that of the ‘princess's burial’ of Vix discovered early in 1953 not far from Châtillon-sur-Seine below the Celtic stronghold of Mont Lassois (Latisco). The contents of the grave are such that classical no less than prehistoric archaeologists have had cause to add to the still increasing literature on the site [I].Recently, discussion has ranged over two of the foremost problems concerning the Vix burial: first, the question of date and provenance for the greatKrateror mixing bowl, at more than 5 feet tall the largest extant bronze vessel of the Greek Archaic period. Second is the matter of the route taken by Greek and Italic imports into Western Europe from their place of manufacture—whether via the Alps or through the entrepôt of Marseilles, founded as Massalia by Phocaian settlers in about 600 B.c.—a debate which has continued since first opened in these pages more than 35 years ago [2]. Ancillary to these two points is the question as to the reasonwhycostly objects made their way into the heart of Celtdom, to what end, with what exchange in mind—what in fact was the status of those native nobles whose graves and settlements have produced the basic clues for such tantalizing investigations?
Moonshine on Stonehenge
Authors: Atkinson R. J. C. 
Published: January 2016

The astronomical significance of Stone- henge has been the subject of intermittent debate and speculation ever since 1740, when Stukeley [I] first observed that the axis of the sarsen structure and of the Avenue pointed at least approximately to the sunrise at the summer solstice. Apart from Sir Norman Lockyer [z], however, few professional astronomers concerned themselves with this question, until the appearance in,Natureof the two articles by Gerald S. Hawkins, Professor of Astronomy at Boston University, in 1963 and 1964 [3]. The first of these claimed the discovery of a number of additional alignments of astronomical significance, marked by pairs of stones and other features of the site; and the second suggested that the Aubrey Holes had been used as a neolithic 'computer' for the prediction of movements of the moon and of eclipses. Subsequently these theories received much wider publicity, in Britain as well as in the United States, through a CBS television programme,The Mystery of Stonehenge,which provided a superb example of partiality and tendentiousness in the presentation of an academic controversy.Professor Hawkins has now elaborated his ideas in a book whose title,Stonehenge Decoded, leaves no doubt of his confidence in the rightness of his conclusions-a confidence explicity echoed in his text. 'There can be no doubt that Stonehenge was an observatory; the impartial mathematics of probability and the celestial sphere are on my side' (p. vii). 'I think I have demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that the monument was deliberately, accurately, skilfully oriented to the sun and the moon' (pp. 146-7). 'I think I have put forward the best theory to account for the otherwise unexplained holes' (p. 147). 'I think there is little else in these areas that can be discovered at Stonehenge'(p. 147).
The Function of the Yoke Saddle in Ancient Harnessing
Authors: Littauer Mary Aiken 
Published: January 2016

Dr Watson's review of Dr von Dewall's Pferd und Wagen im Frühen China in your June issue raised a very interesting question, a hitherto unexplored aspect of which is indicated, if never developed, in the book.Dr Watson writes that the author ‘Rather surprisingly, sees no problem in the perennial
question of the plac—hest or neck—on which the yoked horses took the load, and assumes
that the system of traces kept the point of draught low and protected the horses from the
choking effects of a band around the neck.’ Dr von Dewall referred to a girth (Bauchgurt) rather than to traces (which did not then exist) as performing this function, but was
over-optimistic in believing it could be successful. But she does assign a role, although a not
entirely correct one, to the yoke saddle: ‘Die Jochgabel auf dem Nacken der Pferde, an der
ein Brustblatt angesetzt haben muss, das von Brust und Schulter die Zugkraft abnahm, war
damit ein wichtiges Verbindungsglied in diesem Zugsystem’ . The saddle is an element of the
harness long neglected in the literature and, although it could never completely have removed the pressure from the throat (‘breast’ is a euphemism), I hope to demonstrate that it
would permit the withers and particularly the
upper shoulder to absorb some of this-at least
when the horse was in certain positions.
British Strip Lynchets
Authors: Macnab J. W. 
Published: January 2016

One difficulty with the interpretation of strip lynchets has been caused by our traditional viewpoint: we have stood in the valley and looked up at them. In Asia terraces do start at the foot of hills and are constructed upwards. Perhaps unconsciously we have believed that strip lynchets were created in the same way. The uniqueness of these terraces may lie in their construction from the top of the escarpment downwards. Many difficulties are resolved when we stand and look at the terraces from above. Then we observe a flight of steps and perhaps it was down these that agriculture passed from downland to lowland.It is generally believed that in Britain there were two independent agricultural origins, that primitive farmers first cultivated the light soils of the chalk downlands and western hills, and only later, after a heavy plough had been introduced from abroad by invading peoples, were the heavy soils of the lowlands tilled. Rarely is it believed that lowland agriculture in Britain developed from downland agriculture, that agriculture had undergone continuous development and that one type had merged into the other.
What future for Stonehenge?
Authors: Chippindale Christopher 
Published: January 2016

Like many researchers since, William Stukeley in the mid-eighteenth century wondered why the site of Stonehenge had been selected for the Britons' most sublime temple. It was chosen, he decided, according to the ancient notion of placing temples 'in clean and distinct areas, distant from profane buildings and traffic' (Stukeley, 1740, 11) (Pl. xxiia). Two hundred years on, Stonehenge is set about with traffic, busy main roads running past on both north and south sides, and profane buildings have appeared—the Larkhill military complex on the northern skyline, and the Stonehenge car-park and visitors' facilities close by on the north-west.For several centuries now, Stonehenge has been among the most visited of British ancient monuments. Records of tourist day-trips from Salisbury via Old Sarum (still a favourite outing) go back more than 400 years (Folkerzheimer, 1562), and Stukeley (1740, 5) talked of its 'infinite number of daily visitants'.
History as a family tree, history as an entangled bank: constructing images and interpretations of prehistory in the South Pacific
Authors: Terrell John 
Published: January 2016

Twenty years' debate in English and Americanist circles about the fundamental aims of archaeology, and the methods that are to achieve them, has mostly been conducted in a framework of named schools – ‘new’, ‘processual’, and now also ‘postprocessual’ and ‘contextual’ – and in terms of their philosophical good standing (or lack of it).This paper addresses the fundamentals as they declare themselves in a different region, the Pacific, and sees that the heart of the matter lies more in the nature of history, the history of the Pacific itself, and the history of its study.
The steppes in the Late Palaeolithic
Authors: Praslov N. D. , Stanko V. N. , Abramova Z. A. , Sapozhnikov I. V. , Borzijak I. A. 
Published: January 2016

A set of papers on the human settlement of the steppes, epoch by epoch, is not complete unless it pays attention to the last glaciation, when periglacial steppe adaptations show remarkable cultural development, especially in the famous mammoth-bone houses. The subsistence basis depended - as a coincident paper in this issue (pages 719-32 above) shows – on an unusual and unusually early development of food storage, with all that implied for social evolution.Pressure of present commitments did not allow the writing of a new single paper on this time-period. Instead, we print here a collected set of five short contributions, by N.D. Praslov and colleanues that indicate well the evidence and the range of Soviet approaches to it. We thank Olga Soffer and George Frison for allowing us to draw on the outlines of papers given at the joint USSR-USA meeting on the Upper Palaeolithic-Palaeolndian held in the USSR in August 1989.
Space-time analysis of raw material utilization for stone implements of the Jomon culture in Japan
Authors: Yamamoto Kaoru 
Published: January 2016

Introduction
The materials from which tools are made reflect the intention of tool makers concerning function, use, size and shape of the tools. Even the materials of stone implements in prehistoric times must have reflected the intention of tool makers. Inada (1969: 4) pointed out that the technology of making tools reflects the interacting elements of materials and retouchments. It is a fundamental premise of this paper that understanding patterns of raw material utilization for stone implements is a key to the solution of questions concerning cultural tradition, cultural behaviour, culture areas and trade in the stone age.
On the importance of spatio-temporal differences in the intensity of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic settlement in Central Europe
Authors: Vencl Slavomil 
Published: January 2016

IntroductionThe well-known fact that the sources of evidence concerning the pre-Neolithic period are seriously incomplete has not yet been analysed sufficiently, being concealed by the intensive interaction of very complex and variable factors. It is obvious, though, that even an imperfect attempt to quantify this problem could contribute to an explanation of the causes for the striking differences between the volume of archaeological source material from adjacent territories, or show the limits of attempts at a historical interpretation of the interrelationships between pre-Neolithic cultures. Unlike the post-Mesolithic period, the sources of the pre-Neolithic foraging societies suffer from reduced field visibility:1 first of all, they are not usually indicated by colour contrasts in the feature fillings;2 as a rule, they are reduced only to residues made of the most resistant materials;3 because of the mobility of small hunter-gatherer groups, only limited accumulations of finds occur in temporary camps, both in extent and in volume, easily escaping attention;4 Palaeolithic finds lie deeper under the present-day surface and are discovered less frequently than the remains of later periods;5 the Palaeolithic record was, over tens of thousands of years – this partly under the extreme Pleistocene conditions – subjected to destruction more frequently than the post-Palaeolithic romains;6 the intensity of the sedimentary and denu-datory processes differs regionally, and in other ways.
The earliest wheel-turned pottery in the Carpathian Basin
Authors: Romsauer Peter 
Published: January 2016

The Carpathian Basin and its chronologyThe Carpathian Basin (FIGURE 1), irrespective of its peripheral parts, was divided in the Hallstatt period into two major cultural–geographical units, with the river Danube forming the border line. Significant changes occurred in the whole region at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The development of local groups, reaching a climax about the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, was interrupted. In the broader East Alpine region this break is documented by the desertion of the majority of fortified and open settlements, and is marked by the end of burials under barrows and in flat cemeteries (Romsauer in press; Teržan 1990: 120–21). Approximately in the same period objects of Scythian origin come into use in the Great Hungarian Plain, and the Vekerzug group formed with its specific manifestations in material culture, settlement pattern and burial rite. Its traces are distributed practically all over the Plain and reach southwestern Slovakia. The earliest finds are dated to the mid 6th century BC – about 560 BC (Párducz 1974: 330; Dusek 1974: 405). The independent development of the Vekerzug group was terminated by historical Celtic expansion at the beginning of the La Tène B2 phase, dated, in general, to the mid 4th century BC (Bujna 1982: 377f., 397f.). During its 200 years of existence, the Vekerzug group acted as an important cultural link between the regions within the reach of the expanding Classical world.
Early Phase of Lusatian Culture barrow burial ground in Lower Silesia at Mikowice, Opole Voivodship site 1
Authors: Kłosińska Elżbieta 
Published: January 2016

To the west of the village of Mikowice (which lies 40 krn southeast of Wrocław) inside a large wooded tract on an extensive kame plateau a dozen or so barrow fields were discovered (FIGURE 1) in the 1920s-30s. The two largest burial grounds (the ‘western’ and ‘eastern’ fields) comprise some 3 to 4 score tumuli (FIGURE 2) .The ‘western’ burial ground has for many years attracted the attention of archaeologists. Following a meticulous recording and preparation of a contour plan of the site between 1926 and 1934 (Hellmich 1938: 226–28), 11 features were excavated under the supervision of L.F. Zotz, G. Raschke, K. Tackenberg and K. Petersen of Breslau (modern Wroclaw) (Zotz 1930: 81–4; 1934: 108–12). The excavations had a rescue character as intensive extraction in adjacent sand pits was seriously damaging the cemetery, having reduced the surviving number of barrows to 24.
Effect of changes in lipid classes during wilting and ensiling of red clover using two silage additives onin vitroruminal biohydrogenation
Authors: GADEYNE F. , DE RUYCK K. , VAN RANST G. , DE NEVE N. , VLAEMINCK B. , FIEVEZ V. 
Published: January 2016

SUMMARYAlthough forage lipid is generally rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), recovery of these fatty acids (FA) in milk and meat of ruminant origin is generally low, due to microbial biohydrogenation (BH) taking place in the rumen. Since lipolysis is a prerequisite for BH, the latter process is expected to be enhanced when (conserved) forages contain lower levels of esterified FA (particularly polar lipids; PL). However, this was not observed in former studies with red clover (Trifolium pratenseL.). Furthermore, red clover inclusion in the herbivore's diet was associated with decreased rumen BH as compared with other forages. Differences in plant lipase activity during wilting and ensiling has been attributed to changes in disappearance from the PL fraction, but a potential role of microbial lipasesin silohas not yet been elucidated. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to assess whether BH of red clover FA is linked with PL levels of the (conserved) starting material and to clarify the possible role ofin silomicrobial activity on PL disappearance. In order to obtain sufficient variation in forage PL and microbial activity, laboratory-scale silages were made by wilting and ensiling damaged or undamaged red clover using molasses or formic acid as ensiling additive, while perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) was used as a control. Distribution of lipids within three lipid fractions (PL, free FA and neutral lipids) in forages was determined and BH calculated after 24 hin vitrorumen incubation. Results indicated microbial lipases in silages did not enhance FA disappearance from the PL fraction. A gradual decrease of FA in the PL fraction upon conservation was found, both in red clover and ryegrass, irrespective of the degree of damage. In red clover PL losses started from the wilting phase, while substantial PL disappearance from ryegrass only started upon ensiling. Proportions of PUFA remaining in the PL fraction after wilting and ensiling of red clover were positively correlated with PUFA BH, while this effect was not observed for ryegrass. Red clover PUFA seemed to be partially protected against ruminal BH, while disappearance of FA from the PL fraction did not seem to be hampered. Results indicated the encapsulation mechanism as a consequence of protein-bound phenol formation induced by polyphenol oxidase is still the most probable hypothesis to explain red clover's increased flow of PUFA across the rumen.
Sulzbacheromyces caatingae: notes on its systematics, morphology and distribution based on ITS barcoding sequences
Authors: SULZBACHER Marcelo A. , WARTCHOW Felipe , OVREBO Clark L. , SOUSA Julieth O. , BASEIA Iuri G. , MONCADA Bibiana , LÜCKING Robert 
Published: January 2016

AbstractSulzbacheromyces is a recently erected genus in Lepidostromatales, differing from Lepidostroma in the crustose thallus. After the initial discovery of S. caatingae, the only species to be found in Brazil so far, a large quantity of additional data and ITS barcoding sequences for this taxon from a much broader geographical range and different habitats was collected. Phylogenetic analysis under a maximum likelihood framework demonstrated that all specimens are genetically uniform, showing no variation in their ITS, suggesting that S. caatingae has a wide ecological amplitude beyond the Brazilian Caatinga and Atlantic Forest biomes. Detailed descriptions and illustrations of the species are presented, including a map showing the distribution of S. caatingae in the Brazilian semi-arid region and the north-eastern Atlantic rainforest.
Interwar Dictatorships, the Catholic Church and Concordats: The Portuguese New State in a Comparative Perspective
Authors: DE CARVALHO RITA ALMEIDA 
Published: January 2016

AbstractEstablished in 1933 by Oliveira Salazar, the Portuguese New State was a civil, nationalist, conservative and corporatist dictatorship. A concordat was established between the New State and the Holy See in 1940, yet the treaty did not favour the Catholic Church to the degree one might expect from a Catholic interwar dictator. The fact that the political legitimacy of the Portuguese regime was not dependent on sanctioning by the Holy See justifies this apparent inconsistency. The distinctive features of the Portuguese concordat were enhanced by the authoritarian, rather than totalitarian, nature of the regime. Salazar, more so than Mussolini or Franco, was constrained by political forces not in favour of Catholic privileges. In addition, the dictator himself defended a strict separation of church and state as prescribed by the Portuguese constitution. Nonetheless, Salazar regarded the concordat as an important propaganda instrument that, in association with the 1940 Exhibition of the Portuguese World, would allow the internal and external prestige of the regime to be increased.
From Neutrality to Membership: Sweden and the United Nations, 1941–1946
Authors: GÖTZ NORBERT 
Published: January 2016

AbstractSweden's relationship with the United Nations fluctuated considerably between 1941 and 1946. This article examines how the Nordic country's own security interests were sometimes viewed as compatible and sometimes at odds with membership of the United Nations. The discussions surrounding Sweden's accession to the United Nations and actions of its first delegates to the international organisation are explored at length. So too is the discrepancy between Sweden's reputation for neutrality and its enthusiastic support for the United Nations, on the one hand, and its internal debates and policy decisions during the 1940s, on the other. Finally, the article explores the ways in which Sweden used the United Nations as an arena in which to manifest both its indifference to security alignment and its exceptionalism in world affairs.