bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Future of the Materials Initiative, National Laboratories, and Technology Policy
Authors: Bromley D. Allan 
Published: August 2016

Following D. Allan Bromley's plenary lecture at the 1991 MRS Fall Meeting, the MRS Bulletin conducted a telephone interview with him on December 27. The following is an edited version of that interview. Bromley is Assistant to the President for Science and Technology and also Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP). His plenary address is published in the Bulletin's Material Matters column this month.Bulletin: You have obviously managed to sustain excellent relations with the administration while also being an effective spokesperson for science. During your term in office, both the FCCSET (Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering, and Technology) and PCAST (President's Council of Advisers on Science and Technology) committees have been revitalized. Could you briefly describe the impact of their increased effectiveness?Bromley: I think the best way to do that is to indicate what they're doing now. The FCCSET was established in 1976 at the same time that the OSTP was put in place through joint action of the administration and Congress. The charge to the Council was that of integrating and coordinating issues that transcend the boundaries of any single agency, so it focused on interdisciplinary and multi-agency programs. In the early days, however, it did not function as had been intended because the members were at too low a political level. Decisions reached in the Council could, later in the budget process, be disowned by more senior people in the agencies. Having recognized that problem and with strong support from President Bush, I was able to reconstitute the FCCSET so that its members now consist of secretaries or deputy secretaries from all the relevant agencies, as well as heads of independent agencies like EPA, NSF, and NASA.
Pulsed Laser Deposition History and Laser-Target Interactions
Authors: Cheung Jeff , Horwitz Jim 
Published: August 2016

The laser, as a source of “pure” energy in the form of monochromatic and coherent photons, is enjoying ever increasing popularity in diverse and broad applications from drilling micron-sized holes on semiconductor devices to guidance systems used in drilling a mammoth tunnel under the English Channel. In many areas such as metallurgy, medical technology, and the electronics industry, it has become an irreplaceable tool.Like many other discoveries, the various applications of the laser were not initially defined but were consequences of natural evolution led by theoretical studies. Shortly after the demonstration of the first laser, the most intensely studied theoretical topics dealt with laser beam-solid interactions. Experiments were undertaken to verify different theoretical models for this process. Later, these experiments became the pillars of many applications. Figure 1 illustrates the history of laser development from its initial discovery to practical applications. In this tree of evolution, Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) is only a small branch. It remained relatively obscure for a long time. Only in the last few years has his branch started to blossom and bear fruits in thin film deposition.Conceptually and experimentally, PLD is extremely simple, probably the simplest among all thin film growth techniques. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of this technique. It uses pulsed laser radiation to vaporize materials and to deposit thin films in a vacuum chamber. However, the beam-solid interaction that leads to evaporation/ablation is a very complex physical phenomenon. The theoretical description of the mechanism is multidisciplinary and combines equilibrium and nonequilibrium processes. The impact of a laser beam on the surface of a solid material, electromagnetic energy is converted first into electronic excitation and then into thermal, chemical, and even mechanical energy to cause evaporation, ablation, excitation, and plasma formation.
Novel Materials Applications of Pulsed Laser Deposition
Authors: Cotell Catherine M. , Grabowski Kenneth S. 
Published: August 2016

The successful use of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) to fabricate thin film superconductors has generated interest in using the technique to deposit thin films of other materials. The compositional fidelity between laser target and deposited film and the ability to deposit films in reactive gas environments make the PLD process particularly well suited to the deposition of complex multicomponent materials. Cheung and Sankur recently provided an excellent review of the PLD field, including a table of over 100 elements, inorganic and organic compounds, andsuperlattices that have been laser evaporated. Over 75 of these materials were deposited as thin films.The goal of this article is to provide an introduction to some of the newer applications of PLD for thin film fabrication. Four classes of materials are highlighted: ferroelectrics, bioceramics, ferrites, and tribological materials. Ferroelectric materials are structurally related to the high-temperature superconducting oxides and therefore are a direct extension of the recent superconducting oxide work. Bioceramics are dissimilar in structure and application to both ferroelectrics and superconducting oxides, but they are complex multicomponent oxides and, therefore, benefit from the use of PLD. Ferrites, also complex, multicomponent oxides, represent another exciting, but only lightly explored opportunity for PLD. In contrast, tribological materials are typically neither complex nor multicomponent. Nevertheless, interesting structures and properties have been produced by PLD. A few of the more important ones will be discussed. These different types of materials demonstrate the diversity of capabilities offered by PLD.
Materials Manufacturing
Authors: Eagar Thomas W. 
Published: August 2016

The behavior of successful manufacturing companies has changed in response to the accelerating pace of technological development in recent years. Manufacturing firms are under greater pressure than ever to bring new products and processes to market rapidly, with lower costs and higher quality than achieved in the past. In addition, the establishment of a global economy no longer dominated solely by the United States has required firms to expand their outlooks and horizons. Successful firms must take a multinational view, understanding and serving local customer needs while maintaining the efficiency of a global enterprise. This requires greater flexibility in manufacturing and distributing new products.As the business environment for materials manufacturing changes, so too does our measure of materials performance. Traditionally, materials scientists and engineers have emphasized processing, structure and properties, and the way they come together to produce performance of a product in a given application. However, as shown by Figure 1, there are several additional dimensions to performance. In particular, successful commercial performance depends not only on the physical properties of the material but also on our ability to shape it into a useful object in an economical and timely manner. Without shape, the product cannot serve its intended function, and without economical production, the product's usefulness is limited to fewer, higher value applications. Achieving more rapid and more consistent commercial success from advanced materials requires emphasizing not only the process by which the material is made but the process by which the material achieves its geometry and function, while at the same time maintaining the ability to bring these materials to market rapidly at an economical price. Indeed, the cost delay in commercializing a new material can be the key to success or failure.
Aqueous Surface Chemistry and Corrosion of Minerals
Authors: Casey W.H. , Eggleston C. , Johnsson P.A. , Westrich H.R. , Hochella M.F. 
Published: August 2016

Nature is generous with complexity. The number of thermodynamic variables necessary to describe even simple stream chemistry can easily number to a hundred. Nevertheless, research on Earth materials remains exciting because of the vastness of geologic time and the huge scale of global processes. For example, even simple ion-exchange experiments have profound implications when considered in the context of global cycling of elements. Sodium exchange from seawater onto the 1.83 × 1016 g of river-borne clays removes 20–30% of the yearly sodium addition to the ocean. Research on Earth materials, although complex, is rewarding through the scale of the potential result.The surface chemistry of minerals is important for understanding natural mineral transformations and also because surface reactions help control the migration and degradation rates of pollutants in natural waters. These pollutants range from organic herbicides and pesticides, which leak past reactive soil horizons into groundwaters, to acid rain and heavy-metal leaching from mine tailings, sewage sludge, or coal fly ash. The importance of characterizing mineral surface chemistry is clear when one considers that 0.5 to 2% of usable groundwater in the United States is thought to be contaminated.This article reviews some simple surface chemistry of oxide and silicate minerals in water. We focus on the kinetics of mineral corrosion because this subject is interesting to both geochemists and materials scientists. The surface properties that make some solid oxides relatively inert to acid corrosion, for example, are also manifested in the rates of natural mineral weathering.
Materials Science of the Earth's Deep Interior
Authors: Navrotsky A. , Weidner D.J. , Liebermann R.C. , Prewitt C.T. 
Published: August 2016

Man has walked on the moon, sent probes to or near the surfaces of Mars and Venus, and dispatched vehicles to fly near comets, asteroids, and the outer planets and their moons. In contrast, a journey to the center of the Earth remains as unattainable and fictional as in Jules Verne's day. We know the interior of our planet from several types of evidence: direct sampling of rock brought to the surface by geologic process from depths no greater than 200 km, remote sensing especially by seismology (the study of natural or anthropogenic sound waves passing through the Earth), inferences from the chemistry of meteorites and from other geochemical arguments, and laboratory and computational simulations of the conditions at depth. The laboratory study of Earth materials at high temperatures and pressures is the subject of this review. In a sense, the basic question of deep earth geophysics is a peculiar sort of inverse problem in materials science; rather than determining the properties of a given material, one seeks to find materials, under constraints of natural elemental abundances, which have properties consistent with seismological and other geophysical observations.What are the “hard facts” about planet Earth as a material system? Its radius and mass are well constrained, as are pressure and density as a function of depth (see Figure 1). Its vertical temperature distribution is less well known, but it is clear that the interior is hot, with temperatures in the mantle reaching perhaps 3000 K and in the core perhaps 6000–7000 K.
Response of a Material: From Single Ions to Experimental Times and Fluences
Authors: Brown W.L. , Ourmazd A. 
Published: August 2016

The preceding article by Davies treated the behavior of single ions as they slow down in a solid, colliding with atoms of the solid and often transferring enough energy to initiate atomic displacement cascades. For a 200 keV As ion with a speed ~108 cm/s and a range in Si of ~ 2 × 10−5 cm, the cascade is completed in less than 10−12 s. The small volume excited in the cascade relaxes over 15 decades or more in time in a series of increasingly deliberate steps. The experimental evidence for most of these decades is indirect. No probes with sufficient spatial and time resolution exist to examine the spatial and temporal evolution of collision cascades created by individual incident ions. The first few decades in time have been followed in metals by molecular dynamics (MD) calculations and also approximated by continuum theory. The results of MD calculations for 5 keV cascades in Ni are shown in Figure 1. The behavior is in-terpreted as indicative of local “melting,” consistent with the concept of a “thermal spike” in the material. Extension of MD calculations to times of nanoseconds and longer is still prohibitively expensive in computer time, and application to covalently bonded systems, where the interatomic forces are much more complex than in metals, has not yet been reported.As Davies has noted, the atoms of the cascade rapidly lose their high vibrational excitation to atoms in the surrounding material, and in only a few picoseconds the system cools. This constitutes a very rapid thermal quench—slower only than the quench associated with deposition of individual atoms (or small atomic clusters) on a cold substrate. The quench may produce a small volume of material with a different phase than its surrounding. For example, a small volume of “hot” Si atoms may be highly disordered and may quench to produce a small amorphous Si region in a crystalline Si matrix.
Ion-Assisted Surface Processing of Electronic Materials
Authors: Picraux S.T. , Chason E. , Mayer T.M. 
Published: August 2016

Why are low-energy ions relevant to the surface processing of electronic materials? The answer lies in the overriding trend of miniaturization in microelectronics. The achievement of these feats in ultrasmall architecture has required surface processing capabilities that allow layer addition and removal with incredible precision. The resulting benefits of greater capacity and speed at a plummeting cost per function are near legendary.The ability of low-energy ions to enhance the precision of surface etching, cleaning, and deposition/growth processes (Figure 1) provides one basis for the interest in ion-assisted processes. Low-energy ions are used, for example, to enhance the sharpness of side walls in plasma etching and to improve step coverage by metal layers in sputter deposition. Emerging optoelectronic applications such as forming ridges for wave-guides and ultrasmooth vertical surfaces for lasers further extend piesent requirements, and low-energy ions again provide one tool to help in this area of ultraprecise materials control. Trends associated with the decreased feature size include the movement from wet chemical processing to dry processing, the continuing need for reductions in defect densities, and the drive toward reduced temperatures and times in process steps.How do the above trends focus interest on studies of low-energy ion-assisted processes? In current applications, these trends are driving the need for increased atomic-level understanding of the ion-enhancement mechanisms, for example, in reactive ion etching to minimize defect production and enhance surface chemical reactions.
High-Temperature Superconductors 1992: Bringing the Materials Under Control
Authors: Larbalestier David C. 
Published: August 2016

As I write, it is about six years since Bednorz and Müller sent off their amazing paper reporting superconductivity at about 30 K for a mixed phase sample in the La-Ba-Cu-O system. After an incubation period of a few months, during which only a handful of people paid any attention, the community suddenly woke up (literally overnight) to the realization that the discovery was genuine, when Kitazawa (Tokyo University) and Chu (University of Houston) confirmed the result at the 1986 Fall Meeting of the Materials Research Society. No need to repeat the stories of the next frantic couple of years: the Nobel Prize for the discovery, the tantalizing prospect of another prize for understanding the superconducting mechanism, the almost limitless prospects of new superconducting technologies which appeared in article after article, designed not just for scientists and engineers, but for the general public at large. Now, six years later, perhaps some perspective on the high-temperature superconductivity discoveries is possible.At the fundamental science level, the discoveries have indeed been spectacular. Many layered structures based on the CuO2 sheets have been discovered. The first advance was the Tokyo group's discovery of the structure and composition of the superconducting phase La2-xBaxCuO4-δ, where x is optimally about 0.15. Then came the Alabama/Houston discovery of superconductivity at 92 K in YBa2Cu3O7-δ, followed rather quickly by the discoveries of 110 K superconductivity in the Bi-Sr-Ca-Cu-O (BSCCO) system at Tsukuba and then 125 K in the Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O (TBCCO) system by the Arkansas group.
Control of Composition and Microstructure in High-Temperature Superconductors at the Atomic Level by Molecular Beam Epitaxy
Authors: Eckstein J.N. , Bozovic I. , Klausmeier-Brown M.E. , Virshup G.F. , Ralls K.S. 
Published: August 2016

The idea of engineering the detailed microstructure of materials by controlling the chemical synthesis process at an atomic level is particularly interesting for high-temperature superconductors (HTS) and many other oxide compounds. The prospect of integrating such materials as superconductors, ferroelectrics, and compounds with interesting magnetic properties into samples with atomic precision and perfect heterojunctions would seem to open the door to many novel possibilities. These materials, while complex, fundamentally have planar crystalline structure, and thus allow for the possibility of molecular and even atomic layer engineering. The “zoology” of phases that has been discovered in the study of naturally occurring HTS compounds is by now quite complex and illustrates this theme. While CuO2 planes are universally important for superconductivity, there is much more flexibility and variety in the other kinds of layers that act to complete the crystal structure. Examples of such “other” layers include alkaline earth oxides like SrO and BaO, copper oxide “chain” layers and rock-salt-like (BiO)2 bilayers, to name a few important ones. Moreover, families of very similar polytype phases have also been identified, in which members of each family differ principally in the number of copper oxygen planes within each formula unit.This great richness of structure sets a pattern that invites the imagination to devise new materials and heterostructures and has motivated the development of synthesis techniques that control growth at the level of the submolecular—atomic layers. For instance, with adequate control of the growth process, highly metastable phases, such as Bi2Sr2Ca7Cu8O20, can be synthesized and their properties measured.
Critical Current Properties and Microstructures of Ag-Sheathed Bi-Based Superconducting Wires
Authors: Kato T. , Hikata T. , Ueyama M. , Sato K. , Iwasa Y. 
Published: August 2016

Since the first report of superconductivity in the Bi-Sr-Ca-Cu-O (BSCCO) system by Maeda et al., an enormous quantity of material work has been reported on the Bi system. The Bi-2223 phase exhibits a zero-resistivity temperature of around 110 K and this is the highest critical temperature outside the 125 K critical temperature found in the Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O system. The layered BSCCO phases cleave easily, making it possible to align grains by a deformation process.The powder-in-tube method is one of the fabrication processes that permits grain alignment and the achievement of high critical current density. This tendency is particularly strong for the 2223-BSCCO phase.In this paper, we report on the relation between the critical current density (Jc) and the microstructure in silver-sheathed Bi-Pb-Sr-Ca-Cu-0 (2223) wires produced by the powder-in-tube method.
Old and New World Spanish Majolica Technology
Authors: Olin Jacqueline S. , Myers J. Emlen 
Published: August 2016

Majolica pottery is an earthenware covered with lead glaze opacified and whitened by adding a small percentage of tin oxide. The technology of majolica production, a Muslim contribution, was introduced into Spain and then diffused to the Western Hemisphere in the course of colonization very soon after the Spanish arrival in Mexico in 1521. (See Table I for Majolica production sources and excavation sites.)In the 1980s there were two references on the organization of majolica production in both Spain and the New World. Descriptions of the layouts of the potters' workshops, of the sources of the clays, how the kilns were used, and how the glazes were made are taken from historical and ethnographic sources. These authors also discuss the interesting and important effect of the presence of Italian potters in both Seville and the New World. However, little has been written based on archaeologically excavated material from Seville, the main source of supply to the New World, or from known Puebia or Mexico City production.In the 1970s a project involving neutron activation analysis of Spanish majolica ceramics was developed through the cooperative efforts of Malcolm Watkins and Richard Ahlborn of the National Museum of American History, Charles Fairbanks of the University of Florida, and Jacqueline Olin. Neutron activation analysis provides precise simultaneous determination of the concentrations of up to 35 elements. Two chemically distinct groups of ceramics were identified among sherds excavated at New World sites. They could be stylistically divided between Spanish and Mexican production with some important exceptions.
Quantitative Rutherford Backscattering from Thin Films
Authors: Chu W.K. , Langouche G. 
Published: August 2016

Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) is probably one of the most frequently used techniques for quantitative analysis of composition, thickness, and depth profiles of thin solid films or solid samples near the surface region. It has evolved in the past few years from an obscure nuclear technique into a major materials characterization technique. This is primarily due to its simplicity, versatility, and the amount of information it can produce in a short time. Because of its quantitative feature, RBS analysis often serves as a standard for other techniques. The purpose of this article is to introduce the topic to a broad community of materials researchers. Readers who want a more rigorous treatment of the topic for utility purposes can refer to a monograph.In the early 1960s, several of the low-energy atomic and nuclear physics laboratories started to use their accelerators to do research in solid-state physics. This activity opened up a fertile interdisciplinary area called ion-solid interaction, which impacts materials research significantly.
Data Compilation, Analysis, and Access: The Role of the Computer
Authors: Westbrook J.H. 
Published: August 2016

History is replete with examples of the enormous impact of data compilations in all fields of science and technology. The advantages and opportunities such aggregations confer include:• convenience of access,• condensation and homogenization of raw data,• formats tailored for the application,• perception of patterns,• detection of errors,• definition of gaps and inconsistencies, and• basis for formulating and testing theories.The opportunities in materials science, and specifically in the subfield of alloy design, are no fewer than in other fields of science. Indeed, as I have remarked in a review of the history of the development of understanding and application of intermetallic compounds, breakthroughs in this field have usually come about not from “a new technique, a unique experimental observation, or an abstruse theory… Rather it was the amassing of a critical volume of experimental data in the literature which permitted an individual with great insight to perceive an underlying pattern not previously apparent.”