bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lean, heavy, and disruptive projects
Authors: Davies Andrew 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
‘Lean, heavy, and disruptive projects’ considers how project management was transformed in the 1980s and 1990s to manage innovation in increasingly competitive global markets. The ‘lean’ product development approach was created by Honda and Toyota to develop a wider range of products faster and with fewer errors than their Western car manufacturer counterparts. Over the past two decades, lean development has spread to many industries experiencing rapid product obsolescence and shorter product life cycles. It has also been supported by the rise in digital technology. Different project management styles for different types of projects are discussed, including those for breakthrough innovations, as well as portfolio management and project team structures.
Lightness and colour
Authors: Rogers Brian 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
‘Lightness and colour’ considers visual perception and attempts to identify some of the characteristics of the patterns of light reaching our eyes that might contribute to the information we need for survival. It discusses trichromatic vision in humans; the problem of metamerism; and the implications trichromacy has for the ability to describe and differentiate colours, including intensity, hue, and saturation. The pick-up of particular perceptual characteristics—the lightness and colour of the surfaces that surround us—should not be thought of as ends in themselves, but rather as a contribution to a perceptual system that has evolved to allow us to act successfully in a particular ecological niche.
Perception of a 3-D world
Authors: Rogers Brian 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The ability to perceive the 3-D world has often been regarded as a task that poses particular problems for the visual system. However, ‘Perception of a 3-D world’ argues that we are particularly fortunate because there are multiple sources of information to tell us about the different aspects of the 3-D structure of objects. It discusses three of these sources of information—perspective, occlusion, and shading—and then explains motion parallax, optic flow, binocular stereopsis, eye vergence and depth constancy, vertical disparities and differential perspective, and primary and secondary depth cues. The effectiveness of these different sources of 3-D information is considered along with how they are all brought together.
Logic: A Very Short Introduction
Authors: Priest Graham 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Logic is often perceived as having little to do with the rest of philosophy, and even less to do with real life. Logic: A Very Short Introduction shows how wrong this conception is. It explores the philosophical roots of the subject, explaining how modern formal logic deals with issues ranging from the existence of God and the reality of time to paradoxes of probability and decision theory. Along the way, the basics of formal logic are explained in simple, non-technical terms, showing that logic is a powerful and exciting part of modern philosophy. It also covers the subjects of algorithms and axioms, and proofs in mathematics.
Validity: what follows from what?
Authors: Priest Graham 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
To tell someone that they are not being logical is seen as a criticism. Logic is the study of what counts as a good reason for what, and why. ‘Validity: what follows from what?’ explains how logic works in terms of premisses, inferences, conclusions, and validity of premisses. A valid inference is one where the conclusion follows from the premiss or premisses. A deductively valid inference is one for which there is no situation in which all the premisses are true, but the conclusion is not. How do we recognize inferences as valid or invalid? Is there some special insight contained within us or is it hard-wired into us through evolution?
Decision theory: great expectations
Authors: Priest Graham 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Pascal’s Wager is about choosing whether to believe in God or not. The argument concludes that the only logical course of action is to believe in God (if you don’t and God does exist then you are going to suffer after death). ‘Decision theory: great expectations’ is concerned with the topic of inductive (or practical) reasoning: about how one should act. Pascal’s Wager collapses if we consider the possibility of many gods, or a different God to the one we are to ‘believe’ in. The best course of action isn’t necessarily to decide according to the greatest expectation. There are situations where this definitely seems to give the wrong results.
Complex analyses of inverted repeats in mitochondrial genomes revealed their importance and variability
Authors: Čechová Jana , Lýsek Jiří , Bartas Martin , Brázda Václav 
Published: November 2017

Abstract

Motivation
The NCBI database contains mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genomes from numerous species. We investigated the presence and locations of inverted repeat sequences (IRs) in these mtDNA sequences, which are known to be important for regulating nuclear genomes.

Results
IRs were identified in mtDNA in all species. IR lengths and frequencies correlate with evolutionary age and the greatest variability was detected in subgroups of plants and fungi and the lowest variability in mammals. IR presence is non-random and evolutionary favoured. The frequency of IRs generally decreased with IR length, but not for IRs 24 or 30 bp long, which are 1.5 times more abundant. IRs are enriched in sequences from the replication origin, followed by D-loop, stem-loop and miscellaneous sequences, pointing to the importance of IRs in regulatory regions of mitochondrial DNA.

Availability and implementation
Data were produced using Palindrome analyser, freely available on the web at http://bioinformatics.ibp.cz.

Supplementary information
Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Indigenous Constitutionalism
Authors: Borrows John 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter examines aspects of Canada’s constitution related to its Indigenous roots. It explores the different ways in which Indigenous peoples in Canada possessed constitutional structures prior to European arrival. Indigenous constitutionalism has provided standards through which Indigenous societies have resisted or engaged with the broader Canadian state. Traditions of Indigenous constitutionalism are varied and diverse because they developed in diverse ecological spaces over vast epochs of time. This vast range of Indigenous constitutional practices has contributed to Canada’s broader constitutional order in many ways. Inuit, Métis, Mikmaq, Haudenosaunee, Anishinaabe, Cree, Secwepmec, and Gitksan constitutional traditions are reviewed to illustrate these themes.
Constitutional Debates in French Canada, 1764–1774
Authors: Morin Michel 
Published: November 2017

AbstractAfter 1760, constitutional debates occurred in French Canada on issues ranging from the contestation of royal authority to the consolidation of constitutional rights or colonial autonomy. In this regard, our main source of information is the bilingual Quebec Gazette, which reported on legal developments in France, England, and the American colonies. Contrary to what is generally assumed, these discussions predated the American Revolution. The Chapter also examines the assimilation of British constitutional principles by the educated members of the Francophone elite. Many of them were eager to obtain an Assembly in which Catholics could sit. They believed that the Capitulation of 1760 protected property and seigneurial rights, as well as inheritance and matrimonial laws. In the end, the request for an Assembly was shelved in order to obtain religious equality. Meanwhile, British officials declared that Canadians had no appetite for an Assembly, creating a lasting and misleading impression.
The Section 35 Duty to Consult
Authors: Newman Dwight 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the duty to consult doctrine, which is a particularly significant doctrine under Canada’s section 35 Aboriginal rights clause that is triggered hundreds of thousands of times a year. Since a series of cases in 2004, this doctrine has taken a particular proactive form in which the honour of the Crown leads to government duties of consultation when government decisions potentially impact on Aboriginal or treaty rights. This chapter explains the purposes and origins of this duty, considers its relationship to developing international norms on consultation and FPIC (free, prior, and informed consent), and considers a number of controversies that have emerged on the scope of its application. The chapter also examines the complex relationships of the duty to consult to administrative law contexts before turning to some final comments on potential future directions for the duty.
Métis Constitutional Law Issues
Authors: Chartrand Larry 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter provides a review of some of the leading cases on Métis rights and jurisdiction. In terms of rights, the chapter reviews the Powley decision, critiques its determination of Métis identity, and contrasts this with the Métis right to self-determination and membership determination of Métis communities. This chapter also examines the recent Daniels case and the implications of finding that Métis are “Indians” for the purposes of section 91(24) of the Constitution, which is said to allocate power to legislate over Indians to the federal Parliament. The chapter questions this understanding and in particular the plenary nature of section 91(24) as a head of power and argues that it should be understood differently from all the other heads of power allocated between provincial and federal authority under sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution. This chapter also critically examines the definition of Métis adopted by the Supreme Court of Canada in Daniels as overly broad, resulting in problems of Métis identity legitimation and the preference for a race-based definition of Métis Indians as opposed to a political community definition of Métis.
Interpreting theCharter
Authors: Harrington Joanna 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter examines the judicial approach to the interpretation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Attention is paid to the general interpretive techniques developed by the courts to determine both the content of Charter rights and their limitations, while also considering the judicial use of internal and external interpretive aids, including both foreign and international law, such as the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It is also argued that the national context plays an important role, with the interpretive role of the court ultimately to be guided by a sense of balance in protecting rights and recognizing their limitations.
The Right to Protest, Freedom of Expression, and Freedom of Association
Authors: Cameron Jamie , Des Rosiers Nathalie 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Freedom of expression and freedom of association are guaranteed by section 2 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. These freedoms are closely related, conceptually and philosophically, but evolved in different directions under the Charter. Whereas section 2(b)’s guarantee of expressive freedom generated a rich jurisprudence across diverse issues, section 2(d)’s attention focused on associational freedom in the context of labour union activities. The authors draw on a pocket of section 2(b) case law on picketing and other labour-related expressive activities to bring these guarantees into comparison. In doing so, they comment on the Supreme Court of Canada’s interpretation of each guarantee, including the constitutionalization of key aspects of labour relations under section 2(d). In addition, the authors critique the Court’s jurisprudence, emphasizing the central importance of protecting protest and dissent activities under both guarantees.
International Organizations in World Politics
Authors: Pevehouse Jon C. W. , Borzyskowski Inken von 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter gives a broad overview of international organizations (IOs) in world politics, highlighting some important research areas, while suggesting future avenues for progress. It follows the logical progression of the life cycle of a state's interaction with an IO: what explains the decision to form IOs; what form do the IOs take once a decision is made to create one; which issues are taken to IOs/which IOs are joined if they already exist; how do they operate; and do they achieve their stated goals. This life-cycle approach to IOs helps elucidate many of the puzzles concerning IOs, while suggesting how the answers to the puzzles potentially interact with one another.
International Organizations, 1945–Present
Authors: Chimni B. S. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter primarily focuses on histories of post 1945 international organizations (IOs) told from different theoretical perspectives by political scientists and legal scholars. It is organized as follows. Section I discusses the mainstream history of IOs as told by liberal and neo-liberal scholars in the form of a narrative of progress. Section II briefly narrates three alternative stories about the role of IOs in the post 1945 period: third world, Marxist, and feminist histories of IOs. These histories i.e. mainstream and critical histories need not be read as mutually exclusive histories. In many ways these capture different dimensions of the history of IOs. Section III reflects on salient issues and themes that are the subject of current debates including the emergence of a nascent world state.
Non-Proliferation and Disarmament
Authors: Sidhu Waheguru Pal Singh 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the nuclear non-proliferation regime. It begins by tracing the history and evolution of the formal international organizations (IOs) and treaties — notably the 1968 Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) — that provide the foundation for the nuclear regime. It then tracks the origins of informal and ad-hoc arrangements — particularly the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) — and assesses their contribution to preventing nuclear proliferation. Next, it outlines the three contemporary challenges posed to the regime by states within the regime; states outside the regime; and non-state actors. The final section examines the diverse set of responses to these contemporary challenges and the effectiveness in addressing them. The chapter concludes by identifying the trends in the evolution of IOs to prevent nuclear proliferation.
Humanitarian Action
Authors: Weiss Thomas G. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter begins by defining some key terms, including humanitarian action, humanitarianism, humanitarian space, and humanitarian intervention. It then examines the history of humanitarian action in wars through the lenses of three historical periods: the 19th century until World War I; the early 20th century through the end of the Cold War; and the last quarter-century. Next, it describes the entities that exert influence on the ground from outside a war zone: international NGOs, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the UN system, bilateral aid agencies, external military forces, for-profit firms, and the media. Operating alongside, and sometimes in opposition to, external agents in a particular war zone are local actors, which include NGOs and businesses as well as the armed belligerents. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the coordination of the various moving parts of the international humanitarian system.
International Finance
Authors: Moschella Manuela 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The international financial architecture (IFA) can be viewed as a landscape crowded with different international bodies that share responsibilities for the prevention of global financial instability. These bodies include international organizations (IOs), such as the international financial institutions (IFIs) (e.g. the International Monetary Fund [IMF] and the World Bank), intergovernmental fora (e.g. the G7, G10, and G20), and transnational networks of regulators and supervisors (such as the Bank for International Settlements [BIS] and the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision [BCBS]). This chapter examines the dispersion of governance functions in the IFA. It focuses on the relationship between two key bodies — the Financial Stability Board (FSB) and the IMF — and applies the insights of the IO literature to illuminate the sources of organizational conflict between the two bodies. It argues that the problems in the FSB-IMF working relationship can be attributed to the different terms of their delegations, memberships, and organizational cultures. These factors, in turn, can be explained by the insights of the rationalist, realist, and constructivist frameworks.
Economic Relations and Integration
Authors: Schimmelfennig Frank 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter deals with issues of regional economic integration in a comparative perspective. It is divided into two parts: a conceptual and a theoretical part. The conceptual part starts with a definition and typology of economic integration. It then presents features of institutional design that capture the institutional variation and development of regional economic integration. This conceptual apparatus has been used recently to map regional economic organizations and describe their variation and development. The theoretical part begins with economic theories of integration, which have, however, little to say about the political process of integration and the role and effects of institutions and organizations. It then moves on to political theories of economic integration, which have mainly been developed in the context of European integration: intergovernmentalism, supranationalism, and constructivism.
Development
Authors: Malone David M. , Medhora Rohinton P. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter develops the hypothesis that the ‘golden age’ of international development organizations may be coming to a close, in part perhaps as victims of their own success. Even if they do not disappear, a recasting away from traditional poverty alleviation in poor countries to provision of global public goods (financial stability, climate change mitigation, and more controversially, security) is likely to accelerate. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the results of the immediate post-war period, in particular the Bretton Woods organizations, the UN system, and the regional development banks. Section 3 considers the parallel emergence of the foundations, the large NGOs with a global reach, and the more recent ancillaries to the established official organizations, such as the vertical funds and trust funds. Section 4 examines a constellation of international developmental actors, highlighting the transition that each sub-group within it is undergoing. Section 5 concludes that the prognosis for organizations caught in this transitional stage in global economic governance is uncertain. The challenge will be for the global community to craft what the 2013 Human Development Report calls ‘coherent pluralism’.
Labor
Authors: Langille Brian 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines ‘labor’ as an issue which international organizations have attempted to regulate over the last century by using legal and other techniques to construct modes and structures of governance. It begins by setting out the five reasons why the terrain of labour is especially difficult for IOs to negotiate. It then considers how these reasons both structure and complicate the competing narratives of the labour issue, in the context of the roles and actions of prominent IOs as well as significant events and debates. It is argued that the long-held narrative about international labour standards as a necessary cost to be paid in order to either to constrain markets in the name of fairness, or to avoid radical social outcomes, is today inadequate. Rather, a new, alternative account is needed: that labour law can be, and is best seen, as holding positive value for both the creation of real human freedom, just societies and economic progress.
Use of Force
Authors: Weller Marc 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter begins by explaining how international organization has always remained firmly wedded to the aim of controlling violence or war. It goes on to discuss the establishment of the League of Nations as an organization against war, which was followed by the creation of the United Nations organization as a system of collective security. It then considers the hierarchies within the organizations in relation to the use of force. While the UN Security Council enjoys primary responsibility in relation to international peace and security, it does not enjoy exclusive responsibility. First, there is the issue of the UN's own organs in relation to this issue area. Then there is the question of organizations external to the UN. The chapter argues that the present system of international organization for the maintenance of international security remains incomplete or at times dysfunctional. This applies to the lack of comprehensive compulsory dispute settlement; the problem of representation and the veto in the Security Council; and allegations of double standards which allow some issues to be addressed, but not others.
Secretariats
Authors: Piiparinen Touko 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the traditional, ‘Weberian’ bureaucratic powers of the international secretariats of international organizations (IOs). It argues that globalization is opening up new, post-Weberian power bases for secretariats and IOs at large which were not envisaged in Weber's time. These new power bases include emerging global networks of cooperation between secretariats and other actors involved in global governance, which further reinforce the bureaucratic powers of secretariats by enabling them to exchange expertise and specialized information, best practices, and lessons learned in a flexible and swift manner. The chapter draws upon an in-depth case study of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Secretariat to illustrate the way in which secretariats exert the aforementioned Weberian and post-Weberian powers in practice.
Financing and Budgets
Authors: Katz Cogan Jacob 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
International organizations require funds to operate, a basic and anodyne fact that has manifold and fundamental consequences. The means by which organizations are financed and the methods by which budgets are decided shape the character of the organization, its relations with and between its member states, and its policy outcomes. Consequently, formal and informal decisions and practices concerning the design of financing mechanisms and the allocation of budgets necessarily entail constitutive choices about an organization's operation and its forms of governance. This chapter describes the means by which organizations acquire resources and the methods they use to decide on expenditures. In so doing, it also considers the implications for organizations of those chosen means and methods.