bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Communications in Process Control (Part 1)
Authors: Matthews P. R. 
Published: November 2015

The last decade has seen many new measurement and control techniques developed. This has been principally due to the development of low cost electronic circuits and, more recently, the microprocessor. As a result of this rapid development the instrument and process control engineer is faced with the arduous task of interfacing new and old equipment with differing transmission and communication requirements. The situation is further complicated by the numerous transmission and communication techniques that are available and the usual dogma of finding differing communication interfaces at either end of the connecting cable. This paper provides an insight to the array of transmission and communication techniques currently in use and looks at new techniques which are being developed. The application of the transmission and communication techniques to process control systems is a subject which is now under careful scrutiny as the establishment of an effective transmission and communication configuration can result in an appreciable cost advantage and increased transmission efficiency. A number of these configurations (networks) are discussed.
Pipeline Instrumentation: The British Gas National Transmission System
Authors: Gilbert P 
Published: November 2015

The transmission and distribution system operated by British Gas plc is the largest integrated pipeline system in Europe. The whole system comprises a national transmission system which carries gas from five terminals to the twelve gas regions. Each region in turn carries the gas through a regional transmission system into a distribution grid and thence onto its customers. The national, regional and distribution system all present the instrument engineer with different technical challenges because of the way in which they have been built and are operated, however, it is simplest to characterise them by their process conditions. The operating pressure is highest in the national transmission system being up to 75 bar, in the regional transmission system the pressure is usually less than 37 bar, and in the distribution grid it is less than 7 bar. In general, the pipe diameters decrease from the national system downwards, and the measured flowrates are lowest in the distribution grids. This paper is concerned only with instrumentation on the national transmission system. The discussion will cover current technology which is typical of that being installed at present, and concentrates on the more commonly found instrumentation. The paper begins with a brief history of development of the national transmission system and a description of how it is operated. This is followed by a discussion on the application of computers to the control of unmanned installations. A section concerning the measurement of pressure and its application to the control of the system comes next. The main part of the paper contains an analysis of high accuracy flowmetering and the paper concludes with some comments on developments in instrumentation and their application to changing operation of the national transmission system.
Intrinsic Safety Rules OK for Process Instrumentation — Part 1
Authors: Hutcheon I C 
Published: November 2015

The technique of intrinsic safety was originated in England for mine signalling, following a serious mine disaster in 1913. The first surface certificate was issued in 1936 and the first formal standard in 1945, but it was not until the 1960s that the technique came into its own for process measurement and control, with the development of the shunt-diode safety barrier based on the Zener diode. This paper outlines the development of the technique and describes some typical applications of the shunt-diode barrier and its more recent companion, the isolating interface device. It also looks briefly at the new IS instruments being made possible by advances in low-power semiconductor technology.
Effects of Fluoride on Caries Development and Progression Using Intraoral Models
Authors: Wefel J.S. 
Published: November 2015

This paper reviews the use of Intraoral model systems to help elucidate the role of fluoride and. its mechanism of action in caries prevention. The Intraoral models currently in use were found to be of three general types. The most widely used system has consisted of a removable appliance that relies on the use of dacron gauze or a recessed sample to enhance plaque formation. Similarly, the banding model of Øgaard requires the presence of orthodontic band material to produce a plaque accumulation niche for demineralization, while the crown single-section technique relies mainly on placement of the sections in plaque-retentive areas (below contact points). In general, the models may be used for the assessment of food cariogenicity, an evaluation of de- and re-mineralization, and measurement of fluoride incorporation into enamel or root substrates. On evaluation of lesion initiation and progression in vivo, it is apparent that few non-destructive in vivo techniques are available that offer the sensitivity of laboratory-based analysis. Thus, the use of Intraoral models that allow lesion formation and progression to occur in the oral environment, but can be measured with the sensitivity of in vitro techniques, has been extremely important. Although the magnitude of the fluoride dose, the longevity of fluoride in the oral environment, and the time required for remineralization are different from those found in vitro, it is apparent that the presence of fluoride in the aqueous phase is now thought to be of primary importance. Mechanistically, the presence of fluoride will both inhibit demineralization by acid and promote remineralization under more neutral conditions. Thus, one of fluoride's major contributions is to affect the rates of lesion formation and progression. It was concluded that low-concentration fluoride agents with a high frequency of application would best fulfill the above needs.
Fluoride in Dental Plaque and its Effects
Authors: Tatevossian A. 
Published: November 2015

Total plaque fluoride is in the range 5–10 mg/kg (ppm) on a wet-weight basis. The variability of literature data on plaque fluoride is partly ascribed to analytical problems, many assays being close to or below the concentration detection limit of the fluoride electrode. A change in classification of plaque fluoride compartments is necessary, since recent work indicates that there are two pools of plaque F: <5% of the total F is in plaque fluid as the free ion, and the large remaining portion of total plaque F is designated as bound F, with the total F being >95% extractable by cold 0.5 mol/L perchloric acid. Sources of plaque fluoride include the diet, saliva, and crevicular fluid; enamel is unlikely to be a regular source for plaque F unless it is either coated daily with labile fluoride compounds, such as calcium fluoride, or released by demineralization. The location and nature of plaque bound F are not established, but the present evidence is consistent with an intracellular location. Bound F may be released by acids produced in plaque during sugar fermentation, but it is unlikely to reach ion concentrations high enough for sufficient time periods to exert significant inhibition of plaque acidogenesis. Epidemiological evidence showing correlations between pooled plaque F concentrations and caries prevalence in the plaque donors does not exclude the possibility of coincidental effects of water F on both caries and plaque F concentrations. The action of F in reducing caries has been considered to depend on a multiplicity of effects on enamel and dental plaque, but the range of F concentrations used for such effects in dental plaque spans five orders of magnitude. Of these, only F effects in enhancing enamel remineralization and reducing the solubility rate for enamel mineral appear likely to be of practical importance. Cationic fluoride preparations containing metal ions can reduce plaque formation in the short term, but the effect is manifested mainly by the cation rather than by the F. However, progress has been made in formulation of rinse solutions which can raise plaque fluoride levels (as well as calcium and phosphate) long enough to reduce plaque acidogenicity and its potential to demineralize enamel during fermentation.
Evaluation of Topical Fluoride Preparations
Authors: Mellberg J.R. 
Published: November 2015

For practical reasons, evaluation of topical fluoride products must depend upon clinical and laboratory assessments. While not always a good predictor of clinical efficacy by itself, fluoride uptake is the most commonly used laboratory test. A consideration of the relationship between possible anticaries mechanisms of fluoride, different product types, and the meaning of various kinds of fluoride uptake data suggests that both the amount of fluoride taken up by early lesions and the amount of ambient fluoride present at a cariogenic site may play key roles in determining the efficacy of a product. While formulations applied annually or semi-annually probably depend on fluoride deposition, those used daily might not. There are no clear data supporting the superiority of one fluoride compound over another, even for infrequently used products, although there are significant differences among them in fluoride uptake by enamel. This suggests that fluoride uptake in vivo at a cariogenic site might actually be different from that suggested by in vitro data, or that larger differences are required for a clinical effect to be observable. Clinical data support the conclusion that a large increase in the fluoride concentration of a product will somewhat increase its Anticaries effectiveness, although the increase will not be linearly related to concentration. There also are no obvious differences in clinical effectiveness caused by the addition of gelling agents to topical solutions. Fluoride varnishes are clinically effective but have not been shown to be superior to topical solutions or gels. The abrasive, humectant, and thickener systems used in most prophylaxis pastes reduce both fluoride uptake and clinical effectiveness, even though, in some cases, the components may be chemically compatible. Precleaning prior to a topical application appears unnecessary, but a delay in rinsing after the application and longer application times appear beneficial. Mouthrinse formulations essentially differ only in fluoride source, concentration, and pH. Higher fluoride concentrations are likely to provide greater benefits, but pH differences probably will not. The stannous ion in SnF2 rinses is unstable, and its effect on anticaries activity is unknown. This review of the composition of topical fluoride products emphasizes the lack of clear evidence for the making of definite scientific judgments regarding relative clinical efficacy. Future efforts should be directed toward the development of test models that utilize the natural oral environment, so that more precise and valid comparison of compositions may be made.
Driving Records of Methadone Maintenance Patients in New York State
Authors: Babst Dean V. , Newman Sanda , Gordon Norman , Warner Allan 
Published: November 2015

The driving records of methadone maintenance patients are examined for two main interrelated reasons: first, methadone maintenance is growing in use as a treatment modality for heroin addicts and acceptance of such patients into the mainstream of life is partially dependent upon the public's awareness of their ability to function normally and safely while medicated; and second, a key factor in employability, and hence, continuing rehabilitative improvement for many such patients, lies in obtaining a driver's license and automobile insurance. More than 1,500 patients admitted to the methadone maintenance program initiated by Drs. Dole and Nyswander were matched against the 11 million records in the New York State Department of Motor Vehicles files. The search, on an exact match basis, produced 448 patients with driving records. A sample of New York City regular male drivers in the same period (182 cases) was also drawn for comparison purposes. When a comparison was made within specific age groups, it was learned that the accident and conviction rates were about the same for methadone maintenance clients as for a sample of New York City male drivers within the same period. In addition, the clients' accident and conviction records were no more serious than the sample of regular drivers. The findings from this study are consistent with those from other related studies, which are discussed. This suggests that methadone maintenance clients should at least be given serious consideration in their efforts to obtain a driver's license or automobile insurance as they strive to support themselves.
A Holistic Model for Drug Treatment Evaluation
Authors: Treffert Darold A. , Sack Michael , Krueger Ann C. , Florek Michael 
Published: November 2015

Increasingly, and appropriately, drug dependency is being viewed as a problem with people rather than simply a problem with chemicals (Treffert, 1971). Comprehensive, multi-dimensional, “different strokes for different folks” approaches have largely replaced single entity, uni-dimensional programs (Glasscote, et al., 1972). As evident and as commendable as that movement and direction is in the treatment area, evaluation efforts are still locked into the use of a single, uni-dimensional, and solitary measure—the presence or absence of drug use or abuse following discharge. If it makes sense to look beyond drugs in treatment, then it makes sense as well to look beyond the return to drug use or abuse as the sole measure of effectiveness of drug programs. This paper describes a holistic, multi-dimensional, evaluation approach to measuring effectiveness of drug treatment programs which does not ignore, but does not focus entirely upon, the return to drug use or abuse as the sole measure of effectiveness. This evaluation tool has been in use for twelve (12) months in the Tellurian Community, a 38 bed residential treatment program for the seriously dependent drug abuser.
Patterns of Drug Use: An Epidemiologic Overview
Authors: Warheit George J. , Arey Sandra A. , Swanson Edith 
Published: November 2015

This paper presents data on the prevelance of drug use among 1633 randomly selected respondents living in the southeastern United States. The general use of a wide variety of drugs including vitamins, birth control pills, and medications prescribed for specific physical illnesses are reported with a specific focus on the prevalence and frequency of alcohol and psychotropic drug usage. The analysis presents the findings controlled for race, sex, age, and socioeconomic factors. It was found that 53.3% of the sample were taking some kind of drug at the time of interview. Of the total sample, 26.6% were taking non-prescription drugs, 28.8% were using drugs prescribed for some specific somatic illness, 10.6% were taking drugs usually classified as psychotropic, and 14.0% reported taking drugs which could not be positively identified (and therefore were labelled undifferentiated). Many of these persons were multiple users. Also, approximately two-thirds of the sample indicated they had drunk alcohol at some time in their lives with 15.3% reporting frequently drinking. The highest rates of general drug use were found among females of both races, the elderly, and the poor. White females were the most likely to have used a psychotrope at some time in their lives although these medications were more likely to be taken episodically by this group than by blacks, the elderly and the poor, who tended to be frequent users once the drug was prescribed. The most frequent alcohol users were among white, male, middle-aged, and upper socio-economic groups. When the authors compared their results with those of a number of other researchers, they found general agreement in most areas, although some variations were evident.
A Review of 127 Drug Abuse Prevention Program Evaluations
Authors: Schaps Eric , DiBartolo Russell , Moskowitz Joel , Palley Carol S. , Churgin Shoshanna 
Published: November 2015

This review examines outcome evaluations of 127 primary drug abuse prevention programs issued between 1968 and 1977. Included were studies which measured program effects on drug use, intentions to use drugs, and/or attitudes toward drug use. The studies were gathered through an extended search, and they may represent the largest collection of prevention program outcome evaluations currently available. As part of the review process, detailed summaries of all studies were prepared. Each study was described along 70 programming and research dimensions. The descriptive data were subjected to various cross-tabular and correlational analyses. This article describes characteristics of the prevention programs, program settings and target populations, research methods, and the evaluation reports themselves. Trends over time in programming and research practices are also identified. The most important findings concern program effectiveness. Overall, the 127 programs produced only minor effects on drug use behaviors and attitudes. However, in a substudy of the ten best-researched, highest-intensity service programs, effectiveness was judged to be more substantial. The best of the available evaluations are tentatively encouraging about the efficacy of “new generation” prevention programs. The review concludes with recommendations for prevention policy making, program planning, and program evaluation.
Nobody's Clients: Females, Alcohol and Skid Row
Authors: Moore Harvey A. , Yegidis Bonnie 
Published: November 2015

This paper explores several aspects of the problem of females found in skid row areas. It is apparent that this group forms a potential target population that has identifiable, unmet needs. However, the character, of female participation on skid row, possible relationships to alcohol or other substance abuse problems provide several possible choices for focusing services. Fifty-five years ago, Nels Anderson wrote, “Tramping is a man's game … Women do wander from city to city, but convention forbids them to ride the roads and move about as men do” (1923; p. 137). While conventions may have changed, our understanding of the female tramp remains rooted in an earlier era. Women on skid row have gone scientifically unnoticed because of faulty theory and faulty data. We are prisoners of a stereotype that directs our attention to the male parts of this subculture.
Drug Addiction and Criminality: A Model for Predicting the Incidence of Crime among a Treatment Population
Authors: Rosenthal Barry J. , Nakkash Kareem 
Published: November 2015

Although is has been posited that there is a causal relationship between drug abuse and crime, the determinative parameters of this phenomenon have not been adequately explored. Previous studies have failed to yield consistent results explaining the effects of drug abuse and subsequent treatment upon criminal behavior in terms of the direction and magnitude of the assumed relationship. Based on widely accepted methods for predicting the incidence of drug abuse among a treatment population (Hunt, 1976; Nakkash, 1977), the present study utilized this incidence technique to: (1) predict the expected incidence of crime among a drug abusing treatment population; (2) determine the impact of treatment upon the identified criminal activities; and (3) develop a probability model for determining the expected level of both drug abuse and crime subsequent to the treatment experience. The methodology modified the Incidence Model to include the variables of year of first criminal involvement, and number of crime-free and drug-free days before, during, and after treatment. The data used for this study was taken from two related sources: (1) the 1977 Client Oriented Data Acquisition Process (CODAP); and (2) the results from an Incidence, Prevalence and Cost-benefit Study conducted by Richard Katon Associates.
Substance Abuse among American Indian Youth: A Continuing Crisis
Authors: Weibel-Orlando Joan 
Published: November 2015

The endemic quality of alcohol abuse among American Indians is well documented. In the last decade, a growing body of research has also documented disproportionately high rates of alcohol as well as inhalant and drug use among American Indian youth. This article reviews the literature, to date, which specifically addresses this social and health problem. Beer drinking predominates and is disproportionately higher among American Indian youth than among Whites or any other ethnic minority youth group. Indian youths also use inhalants and marijuana at disproportionately higher rates. Their use of other types of street drugs, however, parallels the national norm. Factors such as peer group encouragement, laissez-faire child-rearing practices, conflicts between cultural ideals and behavioral realities, parental and community attitudes about drug use, and the concomitant adult drug use models all contribute to a cultural matrix which either exacerbates or retards drug use.
Progressivism and Drink: The Social and Photographic Investigations of John James McCook
Authors: Courtwright David T. , Miller Shelby 
Published: November 2015

John James McCook was a clergyman-turned-reformer who wrote and lectured extensively on alcohol, poverty, and kindred social problems during 1890–1924. He sought to show, statistically, photographically, and anecdotally, that alcohol generated massive social costs, and was therefore a fit object for strict regulation—but not necessarily prohibition. McCook thought drunkenness reprehensible, although he occasionally borrowed concepts and terminology from the inebriety movement, which held that alcoholism was a manifestation of mental disease. This article describes McCook's investigations, his developing thought on alcohol and alcoholism, and his views on alcohol policy, and relates them to the larger intellectual currents of Progressivism, as well as his individual circumstances. A representative thinker in a transitional age, McCook mirrors the many and often contradictory ideas Americans have entertained about alcohol during the last hundred years.
Outcome of a Police Media Campaign to Elicit Information from the Public about Trafficking in Victoria
Authors: Hendtlass Jane 
Published: November 2015

Operation Noah was a co-operative police-media effort to encourage the public to give the police anonymous information about drug traffickers, manufacturers and growers in Victoria. Although there were over 400 phone calls made to police only 22 individuals were charged with drug offences as a result. None of these were drug traffickers or manufacturers. There was a big discrepancy between the types of people alleged to be involved in drug distribution by respondents to the call for information and those reported by police during normal operational duties. Since the individuals nominated by the public conformed to the stereotype of a drug trafficker generally carried by the media in news and drama programmes and during Operation Noah, it is suggested that this contributed to the large amount of misinformation reported to police and the consequent failure of the Operation to achieve its nominated goal.