bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Organizational Culture
Authors: Weaver Catherine , Nelson Stephen C. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter argues that attention to organizational culture, in addition to other explanatory factors, can greatly enrich how we understand and explain the complex forms, functions, and dynamics of international organizations (IOs) in the world today. It begins by conceptualizing organizational culture in a way that is amenable to observation and analysis. It then demonstrates how and when culture matters, and how much culture matters, especially in relation to factors such as political power and material interests. Finally, it discusses problems of measurement and inference in the study of IO cultures. Not only is it important to make the case for why we must pay attention to organizational culture in the study of IOs, but we must also make a clear and persuasive case for how we study organizational culture.
Responsibility
Authors: Klein Pierre 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the regime of responsibility of international organizations (IOs). It considers issues such as the applicability of circumstances precluding wrongfulness to IOs; the interplay between the responsibility of IOs and that of their member states; and the problems raised by the implementation of responsibility when conduct of IOs is at stake. It concludes that responsibility of IOs will to a large extent remain an essentially theoretical concept as long as the scope of primary obligations incumbent upon IOs is not significantly clarified and remedies open to individuals victims of internationally wrongful acts committed by organizations are not established.
International Administrative Tribunals
Authors: Villalpando Santiago 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter focuses on international administrative tribunals, which are part of the internal systems of administration of justice put into place by international organizations (IOs) to settle employment disputes. Without them, staff members would have no other recourse. IOs are generally granted immunity from municipal jurisdiction, thus their employees are, in principle, unable to turn to national tribunals. The chapter begins by tracing the evolution of internal justice systems in IOs. It then discusses the institutional components of administrative tribunals. These components vary, depending on the needs of each organization and the choices made at the time of their creation. They have, however, a number of common features.
Legitimacy
Authors: Zaum Dominik 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the importance of legitimacy for international organizations (IOs), and their efforts to legitimate themselves vis-à-vis different audiences. It advances three main arguments. First, it argues that in most IOs the most important actors engaging in legitimation efforts are not the supranational bureaucracies, but member states. Second, legitimacy and legitimation serve a range of purposes for these states, beyond achieving greater compliance with their decisions. Instead, legitimacy is frequently sought to exclude outsiders from the functional or territorial domains affected by an international organization's authority, or to maintain external material and political support for existing arrangements. Third, one of the most prominent legitimation efforts, institutional reforms, often prioritizes form over function. IOs engaged in what the development economist Matt Andrews has called ‘isomorphic mimicry’, where reforms are not aimed at changing the underlying political structures and dynamics, but at signalling to important and powerful audiences to encourage their continued material and political support.
Accountability
Authors: Koenig-Archibugi Mathias 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the issue of accountability in relation to international organizations (IOs). The research questions deserving most intense theoretical and empirical attention are, first, who should be accountable to whom and, second, to what extent they actually are. It outlines some approaches to answering these questions; highlights the most promising one; and sketches the contours of a possible solution to a major problem that plagues that approach. The chapter shows that the selection and design of IOs plays a special role in overall assessments of accountability. The most persuasive answer to the first question remains some version of the principle that everyone who is affected by a political decision should be able to influence that decision. Even under conditions of global interconnectedness, this does not mean that everyone should have a say on any decisions taken anywhere else: decision-makers should be accountable to specific constituencies in proportion to the power they wield over those constituencies.
Transparency
Authors: Tallberg Jonas 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the issues of transparency and openness in relation to international organizations (IOs). It begins by introducing and exemplifying the three most prominent theoretical approaches in the study of transparency and openness: rational choice institutionalism, sociological institutionalism or constructivism, and normative democratic theory. It then shows how existing scholarship has explored transparency and openness empirically in three domains: the sources, patterns, and consequences of transparency. It argues, first, that research on transparency and openness has largely developed in response to real-world developments in global governance. As IOs have undergone a revolution in transparency and openness, scholars have sought to understand the origins of this transformation and its implications. Second, multiple theoretical approaches to the study of transparency and openness have evolved in parallel. A particular feature of the evolving theoretical agenda is the exploration of transparency and openness through both positive and normative perspectives. Third, the empirical study is comparatively stronger in uncovering the sources of growing transparency and openness, than in systematically assessing their effects. Fourth, this is a field that has witnessed a methodological development from extensive reliance on qualitative case studies to quantitative large-n research.
Surgical Management of Anterolateral and Posteromedial Incisural Tentorial Meningioma
Authors: Talacchi Andrea , Biroli Antonio , Medaglia Stefano , Locatelli Francesca , Meglio Mario 
Published: November 2017

Abstract

BACKGROUND
Tentorial meningiomas are a broad and consistent category of tumors but their definition is still unclear and their classification uncertain.

OBJECTIVE
To report the clinical and surgical characteristics of tentorial hiatus meningiomas based on a revised classification of tentorial meningiomas.

METHODS
We reviewed the records of 14 patients who had undergone microsurgical removal of incisural tentorial meningioma. Two tumor subgroups, anterolateral (AL) and posteromedial (PM), were distinguished according to their site of attachment: the middle third and the posterior third of the tentorial free margin, respectively. Clinical presentation, radiological findings, surgical approaches, extent of resection, and outcome were compared.

RESULTS
The 2 subgroups differed by tumor size (larger in PM), incidence of the direction of growth (infratentorial in PM), and hydrocephalus (only in PM), as well as by some clinical aspects. Surgical approach depended on tumor location: lateral (pterional, subtemporal, and retromastoid) for AL lesions; medial (occipital or supracerebellar infratentorial) for PM lesions. Total removal (Simpson grade I-II) was performed in 64% of cases and complications occurred in 14%. Stereotactic radiosurgery was performed in cases of incomplete resection. At a mean follow-up of 104.5 mo, clinical improvement with low recurrence (9%) was achieved.

CONCLUSION
Reallocation of tentorial edge meningiomas is the premise to compare treatment and further improve the approach case-by-case. In spite of their deep site, good outcomes can be achieved in both AL and PM tentorial meningiomas. Also of note is the indolent behavior of residual tumor.
Identifying Critical Genes, Neurotransmitters, and Circuits for Social Behavior in Invertebrates
Authors: Certel Sarah 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This article examines the use of invertebrates to investigate the genetic and physiological mechanisms that regulate social behavior. A central goal in behavioral neuroscience is to understand how genes encode behavior and how environmental factors influence the expression of these relevant genes. In pursuit of this goal, many scientists who study behavior use a combined ecological, molecular, genomic, and physiological approach. This article discusses the distinct strengths of an approach, species, or finding in the context of two related but unique social behaviors: aggregation and aggression. It considers the genes that control aggregation and aggression by drawing on insights from C. elegans and Drosophila, respectively. It also describes the neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and receptors that regulate aggregation and aggression.
Church
Authors: DeVille Adam 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The chapter traces developments in ecclesiology through the twentieth century, as the ecumenical movement unfolded, and raises questions about the relationship between the church and the communion of the Persons of the Trinity, and about the nature of the Church as eucharistic and sacramental. Further more practical questions about authority, primacy, and synodality (or conciliarity) are also examined in light of the work of multilateral ecumenical dialogues (especially within the World Council of Churches), and bilateral dialogues, particularly the Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) and the international Roman Catholic–Orthodox theological dialogue. Considerable progress has been made on all these questions, but new issues have recently arisen, and these are briefly treated, including questions of imperfect communion, of the ordination of women and of those in same-sex relationships, and questions of geographical scope relative to jurisdiction and canonical territory.
Morals
Authors: Root Michael 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Ethics has rarely in the past been a cause of church-dividing dispute, but recently it has developed into a source of contention. The early ecumenical movement sought to give an agreed moral witness. Conferences at Stockholm (1925), Oxford (1937), and Geneva (1967) developed a tradition of ecumenical moral reflection within the World Council of Churches. Profound changes came to this tradition as emphasis shifted after 1967 towards a ‘contextual liberation ecumenism’, focusing on solidarity with liberation movements of the oppressed. More recently, ethics has been taken up in ecumenical dialogues. Dialogues have discussed specific moral issues (e.g. divorce, war, homosexuality) as well as more general questions of the relation of ethics to the unity of the church. While some dialogues have reported a fundamental agreement of ethical outlook, some recent dialogues have found significant differences, extending from questions related to sexuality to broader issues of the sources of ethical teaching.
Covenants
Authors: Kingston Gillian 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter explores the notion of covenant as an instrument which may facilitate closer and more binding relationships between or among churches wanting to commit to each other in a further step on the road to complete unity. The history of the term is outlined, noting its origin with the World Council of Churches. Several recent covenant relationships in different parts of the world are examined, with comments on their development and documentation. It is observed that a leading motivation in the establishment of covenants has been that of mission, while a significant challenge has been varying theologies of ministry. Particular note is taken of the covenant between the Methodist Church in Ireland and the Church of Ireland (Anglican), in which these churches are formulating legislation to facilitate interchangeability of ministries.
Polysynthesis in North America
Authors: Mithun Marianne 
Published: November 2017

AbstractNorth America is generally regarded as an area rich in polysynthetic languages. Structures usually associated with the type are indeed pervasive, but the variety they show indicates that neither polysynthesis itself, nor any of the characteristics typically cited, is monolithic or criterial. Each property shows varying degrees of development and robustness, none of which is predictive of any of the others. Nevertheless, a survey of the languages shows that the characteristics do tend to co-occur, and furthermore that particular semantic and structural patterns of development can be seen in major linguistic areas, suggesting that language contact may play a role in shaping the type.
Polysynthesis and Language Contact
Authors: van der Voort Hein , Bakker Peter 
Published: November 2017

AbstractPolysynthetic languages have been involved in a variety of language contact situations. In cases of occasional contacts, polysynthetic languages have been simplified, both by learners (approximate varieties) and native speakers (foreigner talk). Such simplified versions can be the source also of a number of pidgins based on polysynthetic languages. Those pidgins did not inherit the morphological complexity of the source languages, but instead use pronouns for person marking and largely analytic structures. Sometimes unanalyzed complex verbs are used, where the original meaning of the affixes does not play a role. The widespread idea that polysynthetic languages do not display lexical borrowings, but use internal word-building devices instead, should be qualified: loanwords are quite common in polysynthetic languages. In codeswitching, verbs stems rarely combine with foreign elements. Borrowing of pattern is more common than borrowing of matter, and areal diffusion of grammatical traits may lead to the proliferation of polysynthesis.
The Acquisition of Murrinhpatha (Northern Australia)
Authors: Forshaw Bill , Davidson Lucinda , Kelly Barbara , Nordlinger Rachel , Wigglesworth Gillian , Blythe Joe 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter reports on initial findings of an ongoing large-scale research project into the acquisition of Murrinhpatha, a polysynthetic language of the Daly River region of the Northern Territory of Australia with complex morphology. The complex verbal structures in Murrinhpatha, which can contain a large number of morphemes and bipartite stem morphology discontinuously distributed throughout the verbal template, raise a multitude of questions for acquisition. In this chapter we focus particularly on the acquisition of the complex predicate system in the verb, and the acquisition of subject-marking categories and tense/aspect/mood. Our findings are based on the language development of five Murrinhpatha acquiring children aged from 2;7–4;11 years.
The Acquisition of Polysynthetic Verb Forms in Chintang
Authors: Stoll Sabine , Bickel Balthasar , Mažara Jekaterina 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn first language acquisition research so far little is known about the affordances involved in children's acquisition of morphologies of different complexities. This chapter discusses the acquisition of Chintang verbal morphology. Chintang is a Sino-Tibetan (Kiranti) polysynthetic language spoken in a small village in Eastern Nepal by approximately 6,000 speakers. The most complex part of Chintang morphology is verbal inflection. A large number of affixes, verb compounding, and freedom in prefix ordering results in over 1,800 verb forms of single stem verbs and more than 4,000 forms if a secondary stem is involved. In this chapter we assess the challenges of learning such a complex system, and we describe in detail what this acquisition process looks like. For this we analyze a large longitudinal acquisition corpus of Chintang.
Polysynthesis and Complexity
Authors: Dahl Östen 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe notion of polysynthesis has been linked up with that of complexity from the very start. A discussion of the relationship between these two concepts is thus highly motivated, also in view of the recent increased interest in questions relating to complexity among linguists. The chapter discusses different ways of understanding and measuring complexity and how these can be applied to polysynthetic languages. Other topics treated in the chapter are how complexity develops over time in polysynthetic languages, the question of to what extent the notions of maturation and non-linearity as defined in Dahl (2004) are relevant to the synchrony and diachrony of polysynthesis, and how the complexity of constructions in polysynthetic languages compares to functionally equivalent constructions elsewhere.
Innu (Algonquian)
Authors: Drapeau Lynn 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter is devoted to Innu (aka Montagnais), a member of the Algonquian language family, spoken by roughly 13,000 people in eleven communities scattered over Northeastern Québec and Labrador in Canada. The language forms part of the Cree-Innu-Naskapi dialect continuum (Quebec and Labrador) with ties to the other Cree dialects spoken west of Québec, all the way to the Rocky Mountains in Alberta.The chapter aims at providing a broad description of the main features of the language from a functional typological viewpoint with special emphasis on the aspects that are of interest to the study of polysynthesis (head-marking, word-formation processes including incorporation of nominals, identification of participants on the verb, and the referentiality of incorporated nominals).
CADDO
Authors: Chafe Wallace 
Published: November 2017

AbstractCaddo is a member of the Caddoan language family, which includes also Wichita, Kitsai, Pawnee, and Arikara. Its verbs are typically polysynthetic, with a base composed of a variety of elements that include incorporated noun roots and various derivational prefixes and suffixes. This base is accompanied by pronominal prefixes expressing person and number and their role as agents, patients, or beneficiaries. Unusual is the division of these pronominal prefixes into realis and irrealis sets that have scope over an entire event or state. The base is followed by suffixes expressing tense and aspect. Caddo is not only polysynthetic but also highly fusional as a result of extensive sound changes that have obscured morpheme boundaries as well as resemblances between different parts of a paradigm. Morphological analysis requires the internal reconstruction of an earlier stage of the language when the composition of a verb was more transparent.
Purepecha, a Polysynthetic but Predominantly Dependent-Marking Language
Authors: Chamoreau Claudine 
Published: November 2017

AbstractPurepecha (language isolate, Mexico) has one relevant characteristic that leads to identifying it as a polysynthetic language: productive verbal morphology (in particular locative suffixes). Purepecha is a predominantly dependent-marking language, as its pronominal markers are enclitics, generally second position enclitics. But, in some contexts Purepecha shows head-marking characteristics. Today, pronominal enclitics exhibit variation, tending to move to the rightmost position in the clause; they may encliticize to the predicate itself, showing a head-attraction or polypersonalism strategy and making Purepecha more polysynthetic. But this language lacks noun incorporation. Purepecha has three types of non-finite clause: two subordinate clauses (non-finite complement clauses and purpose clauses) and a syntactically independent clause (the chain-medial clause). This seemingly inconsistent situation (characterized by a correlation of different properties, some of which have not been identified as polysynthetic) calls for addressing the typological classification of Purepecha among the polysynthetic languages.
Tariana, an Arawak Language from North-West Amazonia
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y. 
Published: November 2017

AbstractTariana, the only Arawak language spoken in the Vaupés River Basin linguistic area, has developed numerous polysynthetic patterns, as a result of areal diffusion neighbouring East Tucanoan languages. Tariana is spoken in a situation of obligatory societal multilingualism, based on linguistic exogamy. Special features of Tariana shared with other polysynthetic languages include variable order of morphemes, ‘recursive affixing’ (similar to Eskimo-Aleut languages), templatic structures of nouns and verbs, and multiple serial verb constructions which behave as single word structures with respect to derivational processes. Most of these patterns are absent from Baniwa and other closely related Arawak languages, and also from one of the two extant dialects of Tariana under strong influence from Baniwa.
Polysynthesis in Lakondê, a Northern Nambikwaran Language of Brazil
Authors: Wetzels Leo , Telles Stella 
Published: November 2017

AbstractLakondê, together with Mamaindê and Latundê, belongs to the Northern Nambikwara branch of the Nambikwara linguistic family spoken in Northwestern Brazil. The language is head-marking, predominantly suffixal, and of great derivational productivity. It has an elaborate system of nominal classifiers; it is incorporating, with nuclear arguments integrated in the morphology of the verb. Lakondê has two ways of incorporating nouns: one is prefixal when the incorporated morphemes represent body parts; the other is suffixal, involving nominal classifiers. When the incorporation occurs in dynamic verbs, the integrated classifier morphemes assume the role of direct object. The verbal template provides for more than thirty morpheme positions, which, from the point of view of their function, can be categorized as argumental, adverbial, evidential, and TAM. Flexional suffixes may function as nuclear arguments and dispense with the lexical realization of the subject and the object. With these characteristics Lakondê may be classified as a typical polysynthetic language.
Koryak
Authors: Kurebito Megumi 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe present chapter focuses on verbal polysynthesis in Koryak, a member of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family and aims to show how a polysynthetic holophrase is formed in this language. The result of the examination reveals that the language owes the major driving force in promoting verbal polysynthesis to incorporation, especially noun incorporation (NI). In NI, polysynthetic incorporative stems are derived through NP incorporation, multiple nominal incorporation, double P-argument incorporation (though not always accepted), and adverbial incorporation. Denominal verbal affixes which express concrete verbal meanings such as ‘make’, ‘go gathering’, and ‘look for’ can also derive polysynthetic holophrases by (quasi)-incorporating one or more modifiers and adverbial stems. The polysynthetic stem thus formed is enclosed and shaped into a polysynthetic holophrase by verbal inflectional categories such as aspect, mood, and agreement in person and number with the core argument.