bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Exhibitions and expositions
Authors: Swift Anthony 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Exhibitions of empire proliferated during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly from the late 1870s until 1914. They were a key part of almost every international exposition until the 1960s, while entire exhibitions were devoted to celebrating empire. These imperial spectacles aimed to promote trade and commerce and to educate the public about natural resources and the value of empire, but they often emphasized the exoticism of foreign lands and peoples to stimulate visitor interest. Ethnographic exhibits and native villages inhabited by indigenous peoples were a popular feature of most international exhibitions from the 1880s, combining elements of anthropological science, education, propaganda, and spectacle in a narrative that justified contemporary racist perceptions. Imperial displays declined in number after World War I, although important imperial expositions were held in London in 1924–1925 and Paris in 1931. The last international exposition to have an important imperial component was the 1958 Brussels Universal and International Exposition.
Maratha Empire
Authors: O'Hanlon Rosalind 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Maratha Empire arose in later 17th‐century western India, as a movement of local small gentry, hill people, and peasant farmers under the warrior leader Shivaji Bhosle. At first drawn outwards to seek revenues to supplement their own relatively poor upland territories, the Marathas’ imperial horizons were dramatically enlarged during the 18th century as Mughal power in Delhi waned. Loosely allied Maratha chiefs established semi‐independent domains of their own in central and northern India, enabling the Marathas to play a dominant role as king‐makers and protectors of the Mughal throne by mid‐century. Dueling first with the Afghans, and then with the British East India Company to control the vacuum left by the Mughals, the Marathas were ultimately brought down by the Company, whose political cohesion, access to the resources of Britain's global empire, and growing ascendancy over India's military economy gave it key advantages in the contest.
Abbasid Caliphate
Authors: Nawas John 
Published: January 2016

AbstractAfter wresting power from the Umayyads, the Abbasid Caliphate reigned over a territory that extended from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the borders with China in the east. Heavily centralized at the outset, Abbasid supremacy continuously weakened as their income started to decline while losing power to local dynasties. The Abbasids ruled from 750 to 1258cefrom Baghdad, a city they founded as their capital. Their permanent contributions to humankind include preserving and building on the classical Greek heritage, and many important discoveries in the sciences and arts, as well as Islam as a religion.
Safavid Empire
Authors: Zarinebaf Fariba 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Safavid Empire (1501–1736) ruled over greater Iran and fought over the control of eastern Anatolia, Iraq, and the Caucasus (present republics of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and parts of Georgia) with the Ottoman Empire. The Safavids also tried to extend their rule into greater Khurasan and Central Asia. Religion and millenarian social movements in Anatolia played an important role in the rise of the Safavids to power after the disintegration of Aqquyunlu Iran in the late 15th century. The Safavids established Twelver Shi‘ism as the official religion of Iran and forcefully converted its predominantly Sunni population to Shi‘ism. This was a significant historical event that divided the Middle East into two camps between the Sunni Ottomans and the Shi‘ite Safavids, who fought for almost two hundred years over the control of borderlands and Islamic leadership. As a result of constant clashes, each state also became less tolerant of its Muslim minorities at times of heightened political conflict and war. The Safavids succeeded in making Iran a majority Shi‘ite country and spreading their influence into Iraq, Lebanon, eastern Anatolia, Herat, and parts of the Caucasus, while the Ottomans conquered Mamluk Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. The Safavids forged an alliance with Catholic Europe, Portugal, Venice, and the Habsburg Empire, which saw an affinity between Catholicism and Shi‘ism against the Ottomans. Tribal resurgence, economic decline due to continued wars with the Ottomans, and religious tensions led to the disintegration of the Safavid Empire. The Sunni Afghan tribes (former Safavid vassals) occupied Iran in 1721, and the Ottomans moved into western Iran in 1724. The Ottomans reached an agreement with Peter the Great of Russia to divide northern Iran and the provinces in the Caucasus among themselves while the Afghans occupied the rest of Iran.
Ifriqiya, medieval empires of (Aghlabid to Hafsid)
Authors: Amara Allaoua 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Byzantine province of “Africa” was conquered by Arab forces in the early wave of Islamic expansion from the east, and became the Umayyad province of Ifriqiya in 703ce. Although united in Islam, the history of Ifriqiya is one of constant religious schism and rivalry as well as marked cultural and ethnic divisions between the immigrant Arab and indigenous Berber populations and others, as well as distinct differences between the population, outlook, and economy of the coastal cities and the interior. In the turbulent world of medieval Ifriqiya the Aghlabids, viceroys from 800, acted as sub‐imperial agents of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. They were supplanted by the imperial‐minded Shia Fatimids whose ambitions for the caliphate saw them rise to the domination of all Islamic lands, before the native Zirid dynasty of Sanhaja Berbers assumed power over Ifriqiya. Further fragmentation saw a temporary conquest by the Almohads of the western Maghreb before the Hafsids re‐established a late flourishing of the empire of Ifriqiya which dissolved in the 16th century.
Il‐Khanate Empire
Authors: Biran Michal 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Mongol khanate that ruled in West Asia (c.1256–1335) was founded by the grandson of Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan), Hülegü, after he had eliminated the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258. Despite this bloody beginning, the Il‐Khanate became a highly cosmopolitan state, having close connections with both China and Europe, and a composite administration and legacy combining Mongol, Iranian, and Muslim elements. In 1295 Il‐Khan Ghazan adopted Islam, which remained the state religion of the empire. Despite its short span, the Il‐Khanate saw an unprecedented efflorescence of arts and sciences, and earned a reputation for cultural splendor. It was also the period that gave rise to Iran as a separate entity inside the Muslim world for the first time since the Arab conquest of the 7th century, thereby laying the foundation for the modern nation‐state of Iran.
Germany: 2. Colonial empire
Authors: Biskup Thomas , Kohlrausch Martin 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The German Empire founded in 1871 possessed the fourth largest colonial empire in the period of high imperialism. Although Germany was a colonial power only between 1884 and 1919, Germans were engaged in colonial projects both before and after this period, which in turn had political, social, and cultural repercussions in Germany and its former colonies. For Germany, however, overseas possessions only ever formed part of a wider imperial imagination, which also encompassed Eastern Europe.
Chola (Cola) Empire
Authors: Mahalakshmi Rakesh 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Chola Empire was established in South India in the 9th century and flourished for almost 400 years. Its territorial extent, military strength, institutional structures, and monumental art attest to the power and authority of the dynasty. Starting from modest origins in the fertile uplands along the Kaveri River, the Cholas first extended and consolidated their rule over the entire Tamil macro‐region. Thereafter, they brought contiguous regions as well as far off places under their sway. In the annals of Indian history, the imperial grandeur of the Cholas remains an important reference point to assess the sociopolitical and economic institutions in the premodern period.
White Horde Khanate
Authors: May Timothy 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Also known as the Ulus Orda, the Aq Orda or White Horde was the eastern portion of the so‐called Golden Horde and was founded by Orda (d.1251), son of Jochi Khan, the eldest son of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan. Also known as the Blue Horde or Köke Orda, the territory stretched from the Ural River to approximately the Irtysh River in the east. Historically subordinate to the ruler of the Jochid domains in the west, the White Horde did eventually establish its own, albeit short‐lived, supremacy over the entire Golden Horde.
Languages and empire
Authors: Sèbe Berny 
Published: January 2016

AbstractOne of the defining aspects of the human species, language could not be left unaffected by imperial activities. The centrality of language to any human activity was reflected in the Greek wordlogos, which referred to both speech and reasoning. Revealingly, the Greeks referred disparagingly to those who did not speak their language asbarbaroi(barbarian). With cultural prejudices underpinning imperial expansion in many cases, and given the practical implications of any linguistic unification, all colonizers had to face the issue of managing local languages and, in many cases, acculturating indigenous populations with the imposition of their own lingua franca (especially to ease the performance of administration). It is certainly not a coincidence if all of today's major world languages played, at some point in history, an imperial role: the map of world languages illustrates the way in which many empires contributed to the spread of a major language. The spread of the colonizer's idiom was forceful in many cases, and accidental on a few occasions, but it was an unavoidable outcome of imperial activity.
French Empire: 1. General
Authors: Hodson Christopher 
Published: January 2016

AbstractFrom its beginnings in the 15th century, the French overseas empire grew to encompass vast regions of Africa, the Americas, and Asia before its near‐total extinction at the end of the 20th century. Colonialism abroad and state‐building at home evolved in tandem, binding the monarchies and republics of France to its settler populations, and to the indigenous and enslaved peoples who both constituted and challenged the empire.
Anthropology and empire
Authors: Prince Ruth J. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Although the development of anthropology was intimately tied to European empires, anthropologists only began to confront colonialism and their place within it after the 1960s. Anthropology's attention to symbolic and cultural orders and to the nonverbal, everyday, and ritual dimensions of human life produced nuanced accounts both of colonial power and of the agency of the colonized. While earlier works privileged colonial power and its resistance, anthropologists now approach empire as a field of tensions: both colonizers and colonized are objects of study, colonial and metropolitan spaces are intimately connected, and colonial situations are sites of fear, struggle, negotiation, and exchange.
Empires in world history: characteristics, concepts, and consequences
Authors: MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThis introduction seeks to provide a schematic map for the 420 entries on empires, as well as the themes that connect them, which are to be found in this Encyclopedia. It supplies and debates a possible definition of empires, as well as considering the various ways in which they were generated out of simpler social and political formations. It also analyzes their complex characteristics, in terms of both similarities and differences. It outlines a number of themes under the following headings: Repertoires of Power; Economies and their Environments; The Yearning for Expansion; The Necessity of Mobility; Empires of Information; Empires and Anxiety; Cultures of Display and Concentrations of People and Power; Modern European Empires; Information about and Theories of Empires; Ideologies and Fantasies of Empires. These sections are not of course exhaustive, nor can they hope to cover the rich diversities of empires across more than four millennia, but they indicate signposts through which empires can be explored and potentially understood.
Kadamba Kingdom
Authors: Mahalakshmi R. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Kadambas were a dynasty that first appeared around 345
ce
in the locality of northwestern Karnataka, initially around Talagunda in modern Shimoga district, in southwest India. Initially, their control appeared limited to the area immediately around Banavasi, which was their political center in this early period, but later extended to all of northern Karnataka and the Konkan. They appear to have been absorbed into the Chalukyan political system by the middle of the 6th century
ce
and once again appear as independent rulers in the second half of the 10th century, when they had spread across the western Deccan, particularly the Konkan coast. There were at least two different groups claiming Kadamba lineage, located around Hangal in Dharwar district (including Karwar and Shimoga districts), and Goa (including Karwar, Dharwar, and Belgaum districts) in the 11th century.
Venetian Empire
Authors: Fusaro Maria 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Between 1204 and 1797 the Republic of Venice ruled over a commercial and maritime empire, founded on control of the sea lanes which connected the Levant to Europe. Its size varied over time, but its core territories stretched across the Po valley in northeastern Italy, including parts of Istria and Dalmatia, and several islands in the Ionian and Aegean seas. The Venetian patriciate ruled for centuries over this multi‐ethnic and multi‐religious set of populations through a complex and ultimately centralized governance structure, which had its center in Venice – the
Dominante
.
Cinema and empire
Authors: Chapman James 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe advent of cinema coincided with the zenith of modern imperialism and the new medium played a major role in disseminating images and ideologies of empire. The entry covers the changing representation of empire in cinema from the early imperial pageants of the silent period to the emergence of the Anglo‐American cinema of empire in the 1930s and its transformation after World War II. The focus is on British and American films about the British Empire, though reference is also made to the representation of empire in films from India, Germany, Italy, and France, and to the rise of anti‐colonialist “Third Cinema” in the 1960s and 1970s.
Mixtec Empire
Authors: Joyce Arthur A. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Archaeological and ethnohistoric research in Oaxaca, Mexico, shows that a powerful Pacific coastal empire dominated by Mixtecs developed during the Late Postclassic period with its political seat at the city of Tututepec. The Mixtec codices (indigenous screenfold manuscripts) record the founding of Tututepec by a highland Mixtec group led by the famous noble, Lord 8 Deer “Jaguar Claw.” Ethnohistorical documents record that Tututepec came to dominate a coastal empire reaching 25 000 sq. km. Archaeological research shows that Tututepec grew into a powerful city covering nearly 22 sq. km and that commoners benefited economically from the success of the empire.
African kingdoms and empires
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
While Western scholars have often dismissed African political history as inconsequential, the range of scale and complexity of African state formations is actually quite varied. While most Africans did indeed live in states that were small by European or Asian standards, some lived in vast empires such as Sokoto that encompassed millions of people. Even the so‐called “stateless” societies (now referred to by most scholars as polycephalous) had politics at the village or multi‐village level that were quite intricate and complicated. Between these two extremes existed a wide range of city‐states, small monarchies, and medium‐sized empires. For better or for worse, Africans have been adept at building empires when the material and social conditions permitted it.
Persian Empire, later (Afsharid to Qajar)
Authors: Garthwaite Gene R. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

While the collapse of Safavid rule over Iran occurred in 1722, the essential elements of the Safavid state and empire continued until 1926 with the emergence of the Pahlavi dynasty under the leadership of Riza Shah. Both the reigns of Nadir Shah Afshar (1736–1747) and then the Qajars (1796–1926) should be seen as Safavid successor states. While the Shi'i
ulema
(Islamic legal scholars) underwent profound changes as an institution from the 18th through the 20th centuries, it accepted the political role of the monarch. Beginning in the 19th century, however, and in reaction to territorial losses in the Caucasus and western Afghanistan, the ulema led populist movements against continued misrule and Russian and British encroachment on Iran's national sovereignty. Nationalism and calls for the end of autocracy resulted in the constitutional movement in the early 20th century, and following World War I and in the face of fragmentation, the modern Pahlavi nation‐state emerged in place of the universalism implicit in empire.
Elamite Kingdom
Authors: Basello Gian Pietro 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Several dynasties reigned from Susa (modern Shush in the lowlands of southwestern Iran), extending their power as far as Anshan (the Persepolis area in the highland Fars province) and the shores of the Persian Gulf from the 3rd millennium to the 6th century
bce
. A common Elamite civilization, characterized by its own language, customs, and monuments, is recognized by scholars today, as formerly by the neighboring Mesopotamian kingdoms for which Susa was an eastern hub. Periods of dependence are also attested, especially under Akkad and Ur III dynasties in the second half of the 3rd millennium, while a prolonged struggle with the Neo‐Assyrian armies characterized the first half of the 1st millennium. The 2nd millennium represented the phase of major influence over Mesopotamia, culminating in the ousting of the Kassite dynasty from Babylon. The role of Elam, especially its administration and culture, in the formation of the Achaemenid Empire has been increasingly emphasized in recent years.
Gurjara‐Pratihara (Pratihara) Empire
Authors: Pal Sayantani 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Gurjara Pratiharas were one of the most powerful dynasties of early medieval India. They occupied western India, an area frequented by Arab travelers. The Gurjara Pratihara dominion was known as Al‐Jurz to the Arabs, who regarded them as one of the three most powerful Indian ruling dynasties, the other two being the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. All these powers came to be engaged in a conflict known as the “tripartite struggle” for the possession of the city of Kanauj in the Ganga‐Jamuna doab, the region between these two important rivers in northern India. In this conflict the Pratiharas ultimately emerged as the most successful, establishing their authority over the city and the area.
Vishnukundina Empire
Authors: Mahalakshmi R. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Vishnukundins were a dynasty ruling in the eastern Deccan in the 5th and 6th centuries
ce
, who played an important role in the geopolitics of the Deccan through their military campaigns and matrimonial alliances. The extent of their control has been conjectured on the basis of the provenance of their coins through the present‐day Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra regions. Their patronage of Buddhist and brahmanical institutions is known through their endowments and construction activity, although no monument can clearly be dated to this period.
Hungary, medieval Kingdom of
Authors: Sutt Cameron 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The medieval kingdom of Hungary formed after the nomadic Magyar tribes settled in the Carpathian Basin. Under Stephen I, the tribes were united and a Western‐style Christian kingdom was established. The Hungarian kingdom was the major power in southeastern Europe, and Hungarian kings exerted various forms of hegemony over their neighbors, but they never incorporated their conquests into the kingdom itself. With the arrival of the Ottoman Turks into the region, the balance of power shifted in the region, and Hungarian kings took increasingly defensive stances toward the Ottomans. The Hungarian kingdom was finally defeated and divided by Ottoman advances in the 16th century.
Partition of Africa
Authors: MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe European partition of Africa (sometimes known as the Scramble for Africa) was an extraordinary phenomenon. Based on various interests in Africa that went back to the 17th century and which developed in the late 18th and early 19th, it seemed to break out with particular virulence in the 1880s and 1890s. For a whole variety of internal and external reasons, the entire continent, with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia, was parceled out among imperial powers. It is essential to view these events from the perspective of Africans as well as from those of the various European states involved. The reasons are complex and remain difficult to disentangle, but the establishment of colonies was transforming for African societies. Yet the striking thing is just how brief the period of Europe rule was to be with a retreat taking place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s.
Swedish Empire
Authors: Lindegren Jan 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Swedish Empire around the Baltic was acquired and lost by war during the period 1560–1720. At the beginning, the wars were relatively small affairs fought out in different border regions, but from the 1620s this ceased to be the case. In the following century about one out of every third man reaching the age of 15 in Sweden lost his life in the conflicts. Swedish rule in its provinces was in many ways hampered by the necessity of upholding existing privileges, and as a result society ossified, with one short‐lived exception: serfdom in Estonia and Livonia was abolished by the Swedes at the end of 17th century. Sweden itself, however, underwent a series of major changes which totally undermined the will to defend the empire at any cost, or at all, and so it was sold at a fairly good price between 1719 and 1721.
Parhae, Kingdom of
Authors: Nanhee Ku 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Parhae was one of the strongest kingdoms in northeast Asia from the late 8th century to the early 10th century and was founded in 698
ce
after the fall of the Kingdom of Goguryeo (Koguryǒ). It developed rapidly and ruled the northeast region of China and the modern‐day Primorye (coastal) region of Russia through the reigns of 15 kings for 229 years. Parhae was founded by Tae Choyǒng who was a Goguryeo commander who participated in the anti‐Tang revolt of the Khitan (Qidan) in Yingzhou, and who led the migrants of Goguryeo and the Malgal (Mohe) to found Chin, later Parhae. King Mu (r.718–737) and King Mun (r.737–793) expanded the borders of the state and consolidated the administration and control of outlying tribes at home, using successful diplomacy with Tang China and Silla in particular to uphold Parhae's position. The state was invaded by the Khitan under Taizu, founder of the Liao dynasty of imperial China.