bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Marital Stability
Authors: Mitchell Katherine Stamps , Plauche Hannah 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marital stability can be defined as remaining legally married without divorce, physical separation, or legal separation. Marital stability is related to but distinct from marital adjustment, marital quality, marital satisfaction, and marital success. Factors that are associated with decreases in marital stability include financial stress, low income, low educational attainment, unemployment, young age at marriage, parental divorce, dissimilarity to spouse, religiosity, and serial premarital cohabitation. Marital stability is generally associated with positive outcomes for adults and children.
Queer Families
Authors: Harder Brittany M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
A queer family is a family that takes on a collective queer identity or stance. While most queer families are considered queer based on the sexuality of one or all of their members, other families are considered queer based on their positions on gender, politics, or cultural practices. As the term itself suggests, queer refers to something other than what it considered “normal” – a complex set of ideas that stands opposed to heteronormativity and the rigid, “natural” treatment of identity. Therefore, the queer family differs from most traditional notions and cultural understandings of family. Queer families are diverse and differ in their formation, relationships, and experiences. Queer families are a heterogeneous group and require a deeper understanding in our efforts to understanding families and relationships.
Motherhood Penalty in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Eschenfelder Christine C. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Studies indicate American women who are mothers earn less than American women who do not have children. Researchers find a pay gap exists between mothers and nonmothers who are otherwise equal in qualifications, experience, and job duties. Some studies find the causes of the motherhood wage penalty vary at different wage levels; mothers may take jobs or stay in jobs that offer less pay because the jobs are more conducive to a family schedule. Lack of flexibility in the workplace is considered problematic for mothers working for pay. Racial differences in the motherhood penalty are noted. In addition to wage penalties, some researchers find mothers are often stereotyped as being less competent and less committed to their jobs than women without children. Suggestions for mitigating the motherhood wage penalty include more widely available maternity benefits, assistance with and availability of childcare, and public policy initiatives.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Authors: Vanmullekom Amy M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that there are approximately 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) each year in the United States. There are over 30 pathogens that can be transmitted sexually including those that are bacterial (e.g., chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis) and viral (e.g., herpes, human papillomavirus, human immunodeficiency virus). Adolescents and young adults aged 15–24 years are at the highest risk of acquiring STIs and as of the mid‐2010s account for nearly half of all new STI cases each year in the United States. There are group disparities in STI rates that cannot be explained by individual‐level behaviors and instead societal influences must be examined.
Propinquity
Authors: Alphonso Carla 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Mate selection is socially and culturally patterned instead of being random. A number of processes work to help potential partners find one another. Propinquity is one such process. Propinquity refers to the spatial nearness or geographic proximity of potential partners. Typically propinquity involves physical proximity although online technologies are broadening opportunities for meeting potential mates. Propinquity typically produces homogamy and also often leads to partners finding one another in the same schools, workplaces, religious organizations, or communities. For this reason, partners are often socially similar in terms of education, social class, religious affiliation, and the like.
Child Malnutrition (Chronic)
Authors: Baird Caitlin 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Chronic undernutrition in early childhood affects the development of multiple organ systems and has permanent and detrimental effects on adult health and human capital. Long periods of malnutrition during infancy manifest as a faltering in linear growth known as “stunting.” Stunting is strongly associated with metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and delays in cognitive development. This increased disease burden and decreased productivity in adulthood help to maintain the cycle of poverty in much of the developing world.
Life Span Developmental Psychology
Authors: Solodnikova Irina V. , Solodnikov Vladimir V. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractIncreased life span, the popularity of healthy lifestyles, changes in family functioning, and the transformation of professional careers in the advanced economies during the twentieth century led to the development of life span development psychology. Erik Erikson is considered to be a pioneer of this area. He developed a chart of personality development from birth to death. He had an optimistic view on personality and thought that a person could develop and progress at any age. His concept was an impulse for empirical studies of personality not only in childhood and adolescence (child psychology) but also in adulthood and old age. In the early twenty‐first century life span developmental psychology is an actively developing branch of psychology that studies all stages of personality development.
Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Andersen Judith P. , Papazoglou Konstantinos 
Published: March 2016

AbstractIntimate partner violence (IPV) refers to various types of abuse that may take place in heterosexual couples, LGBT couples, teen couples, and former intimates. Victims and perpetrators of IPV may come from all ages, ethnic groups, racial groups, religions, occupations, socioeconomic status levels, education levels, and geographical areas. Historically, women have been considered the property of or submissive to men. Moreover, traditional psychological theories focused on victims' or perpetrators' psychopathology. However, feminist theory has challenged the patriarchal norms of femininity and masculinity, which prescribe the power and control of men over women. Since the 1970s, numerous laws have been passed around the world defining IPV as a crime. In addition, policy and training programs, research projects, and advocacy organizations have been established to increase public awareness about IPV. In the United States, many states have developed police training programs incorporating practices for effective resolution of IPV cases and medical professional organizations have developed certain guidelines for IPV screening conducted by healthcare professionals.
Mate Selection
Authors: Brackett Kimberly P. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Mate selection is the process of choosing a partner with whom to form a marriage bond or long‐term marriage‐like relationship. While personal preference is a key component in the selection process, structural influences also exist. Among the explanations for mate choice are filter theories, social exchange, sociobiology, needs and values, and matching hypotheses. Studies in the sociological literature emphasize life course factors and variations by gender, race, class, culture, and specific personal traits. As the role of marriage in western culture changes, so do the goals of mate selection. Internet sites offer new opportunities for daters and for researchers.
Hinduism and Families
Authors: Ray Avishek 
Published: March 2016

AbstractWhile it is a commonly held belief that Hinduism valorizes family life, it is important to historicize Hinduism's association with the concept of the family. Given the pluralities in perceptions of both Hinduism and the family, it is necessary to understand why and in which sociopolitical milieux Hinduism has endorsed family life and how the archetypal imagination of the family in Hindu thought had subsequently been used as an apparatus to sustain the domain of identitarian politics.
T
aiwan, Families in
Authors: Chang Ching‐Yu 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, Taiwan has experienced countless social changes and several major social movements during the periods of Japanese occupation, Kuomintang government relocation in the 1940s, the 228 Incident and the White Terror in the 1950s and 1960s, and the introduction of feminism from western societies in 1970s. Taiwanese family culture reflects these changes. During colonial times, women received an education and were encouraged to work. Community bonding within military dependents' villages formed a unique culture among China mainland immigrants. As women's rights were promoted, many gradually began working outside the home. Gender equality and women's rights are now under the protection of laws. In contemporary Taiwanese society, a low birth rate, care work, and other family responsibilities are recognized to be major concerns. Migrant domestic workers and international marriages with women from Southeast Asian are recent phenomena.
Co‐Parenting
Authors: Rodriguez Yuliana , Helms Heather M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Co‐parenting refers to the way two adults work together in their parenting roles. Co‐parenting partnerships exist in all kinds of families, including married couples with children, divorced parents who have a shared child or children, people who have a child together but never married, or any two or more people who work together to raise a child. Healthy co‐parental relationships are characterized by co‐parents that support one another and provide their children with a sense of stability and security. Unhealthy co‐parental relationships consist of adults that undermine one another's parenting while also competing openly for the children's affection and loyalty. While the literature has revealed a variety of co‐parenting types, predictors of co‐parenting types, and links between co‐parenting and children's development, an understanding of co‐parenting in underrepresented groups (i.e., partners who are not white, middle‐class, or heterosexual) is needed.
Maternal Mortality
Authors: Kronenfeld Jennie Jacobs 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
One difficult with discussing maternal mortality is that the main world and US health agencies use slightly different definitions of maternal or pregnancy‐related deaths. According to criteria from the World Health Organization, the definition of maternal death is “the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.” Within the United States, one of the main health agencies dealing with maternal mortality is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's definition of a pregnancy‐related death is “the death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of pregnancy termination – regardless of the duration or site of the pregnancy – from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management, but not from accidental or incidental causes.” Although maternal death in the United States is much less common today than it was in 1900 and 1950, rates increased between 1987 and 2009. In contrast, across the world, maternal deaths have decreased and in developed countries they have decreased greatly over the past 100 years. Currently, the largest numbers of maternal deaths (over 90 percent) in the world occur in developing countries. In these countries, obstetrical hemorrhage is the most common cause of maternal death; the second most common cause is hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. The main causes of maternal death are slightly different for developed countries, where the most common cause is thromboembolism; unintended pregnancy and unsafe abortions of those pregnancies are also a significant cause of maternal death.
India, Families in
Authors: Manohar Namita N. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractFamily is one of the three key social institutions in Indian society. The Indian joint family is an ideal type associated with an elite minority. While, historically, joint and nuclear families have coexisted in India, even in globalized India, where households might be autonomous, family obligations continue to unfold in an extended context across households. Women's increased labor force participation in globalized India is shifting gender relations in families, although their paid labor has not substantially changed household labor arrangements. The dialogue between traditional and contemporary family and gender practices manifests in increasing attentiveness to family violence, of which dowry‐related violence dominates legal and social discourse. Indian families are simultaneous sites of support and inequity.
Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Ellialti Tuğçe 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Child sexual abuse is typically defined as any sort of sexual contact between a child and an adult (or significantly older teenager), including sexual solicitation of, or exposure to, a child by an older person. It may include unwanted and inappropriate physical contact with the child's genitals; sexual touching, manipulation, or fondling; penetration in terms of vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse or attempted intercourse; as well as exposing children to sexual images or forcing them to watch pornography or to witness adult sexual acts. Child sexual abuse can vary along a number of dimensions, including pattern, frequency, duration, age at onset, and relationship of victim to perpetrator. Experience with and exposure to sexual abuse in childhood are particularly associated with long‐term psychological effects and profoundly shape victims' lives well into adulthood by increasing the probability of negative psychological outcomes such as poor self‐esteem, lack of a sense of control or agency, and associated mental disorders. The level of harm may be affected by multiple factors such as duration and frequency of abuse, use of force, and penetration, and the social stigma of child sexual abuse often compounds the psychological harm to children.
Sexually Bounded Primary Relationships (SBPRs)
Authors: Scanzoni John 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe sexually bounded primary relationship (SBPR) is a broad umbrella construct that, in the west, subsumes situations, whether straight or gay/lesbian, ranging from boyfriend–girlfriend, boyfriend–boyfriend, or girlfriend–girlfriend residing in separate households to cohabiting couples, to legally married couples. These situations characterize couples that explicitly or tacitly commit themselves to practicing sexual monogamy. These relationships are also characterized as “primary” because they are infused with several crucial socioemotional features. Up till now, most observers have believed that marriage is qualitatively different in kind, and not simply in degree, from its nonlegal counterparts, but what if, in the upcoming generations, the legal/nonlegal distinction were to decrease in significance and be replaced by increased attention to the dynamics within the SBPR, such as negotiations that facilitate or impede the autonomy of each partner, particularly the woman's?
Family Stability
Authors: Dorius Cassandra 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The dramatic transformation of family life since the mid‐twentieth century has led to a variety of new and complex family forms. As a result, researchers have begun to focus on the importance of family stability in understanding the health and well‐being of children and adults. Research suggests that children growing up in stable households – whether the parents are consistently married, cohabiting, or single – do better than children who experience relationship transitions such as divorce, separation, or the formation of new partnerships. Further, as exposure to family instability increases, child and adolescent well‐being declines across a broad range of indicators, including emotional, behavioral, social, health, and academic outcomes. Although the effects of family instability can be transitory, the negative consequences may last beyond childhood. Theoretical approaches to studying family stability often include social stress, family systems, and boundary ambiguity theories and the incorporation of the life course perspective.
Delayed Childbearing
Authors: Zsembik Barbara , Gui Tianhan 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Delayed childbearing is a social phenomenon in which women are delaying having children. This trend can be observed in both developed and developing nations. The reasons for delayed childbearing vary greatly, including the development of contraceptive use, improvement in women's educational levels and employment, and changes in family policies. Delayed childbearing also has a series of macro and micro consequences, such as lower fertility rate, higher risk of congenital defect, and a greater generation gap between parents and children.
Family Demographic Patterns
Authors: Dorius Cassandra , Murphy Shannon 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Family demographers study population level characteristics and process that influence the composition and structure of families and households, as well as the relationships between family members. Using the first and second demographic transitions theories as a guide, demographers explore changes in mortality, fertility, marriage, divorce, cohabitation, and childbearing, among other topics. Recent shifts toward cohabitation, nonmarital childbearing and increasingly complex family forms are discussed, along with an overview of how these changes reflect diverging destinies for American youth.
Adolescence
Authors: Dennison Renée Peltz 
Published: March 2016

AbstractAdolescence, roughly the second decade of life, is a time of great change. Adolescents undergo many changes as they transition between childhood and adulthood, which include significant biological, cognitive, social, and psychological growth. Biologically, adolescents go through puberty – which involves significant physical changes including a growth spurt, the accentuation of sex‐specific physical characteristics, and the development of the ability to conceive children. Cognitively, adolescents experience a significant shift in how they think which gives them new competency in areas such as abstract thinking, hypothetical thinking, and metacognition. Psychologically, adolescents face a series of challenges in developing a sense of autonomy, identity, and self‐image – which may contribute to some adolescents developing emotional or psychological problems. Finally, socially adolescents increasingly value peers, and undergo a series of experiences which serve to complete their transition from being viewed by society as a child, to being viewed by society as an adult – a process often referred to as social redefinition.
International Year of the Family
Authors: Smith Suzanna 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe International Year of the Family (IYF) draws global attention to the global importance of families in caring for their members, and for social and economic development and environmental resource conservation. IYF emphasizes the importance of solid scientific information to better understand family needs, and strong social policies to assist families as they confront obstacles and challenges across the life cycle. The overarching perspective that family‐supportive policies are vital to family well‐being and child development has guided IYF activities for the past two decades.
National Council on Family Relations (
NCFR
)
Authors: Cheesebrough Charles R. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The leading professional association for family researchers and educators since 1938, the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR) supports the advancement of family studies/family science through its scholarly journals, academic conference, and member resources. The NCFR is a multidisciplinary organization which comprises members from many additional fields – including sociology, anthropology, human development, social work, and family therapy – who contribute to understanding and strengthening families.
T
ender
Y
ears
D
octrine
Authors: Hartenstein Jaimee L. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Tender Years Doctrine was a family law principle that began in 1881 and held that children should remain in their mother's care following a divorce as mothers are best equipped to meet the children's needs. The Tender Years Doctrine was determined to discriminate against, and violate, the rights of fathers and other caretakers. Currently, the Best Interests of the Child Standard is applied when determining custody arrangements for children. Additional research is needed to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of child inclusion in custody arrangement, shared parenting, and child support decisions.
Gender
Authors: Barglowski Karolina 
Published: March 2016

AbstractSince the end of the twentieth century, gender perspectives have become dominant in social sciences and focus on a range of topics that investigate the social positions and life chances of men and women in various societies. Main fields for investigation are gendered division of labor markets, household division of labor/caregiving, male hegemony/patriarchy and hegemonic masculinity, sexuality, and a more recent global perspective on gender. Quite recently queer theories and intersectionality have become prominent paradigms within gender studies. Both approaches indicate the power of the binary classification of people into men and women and focus on the ways gender and sexuality shape identities and subjectivities, and their variation over time in a given culture. Intersectionality draws attention to the social processes through which gender is shaped by other social categories, such as race/ethnicity and class. Gender is also a significant category for policy with gender equality becoming a core value, and even an indicator, for the “development” of societies.
Gender Identity
Authors: Gianesini Giovanna 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis entry presents a schematic overview of the development of gender identity as a multidimensional construct and a fundamental aspect of identity construction. Gender identity encompasses an individual's biological sex (genitalia), knowledge of membership in a gender category (core gender identity), felt compatibility with one gender group (gender compatibility), felt pressure for gender conformity (gender typing and gender roles), and sexual orientation (heterosexuality, homosexuality or bisexuality). The salient phases, characteristics, and determinants of gender identity development and the distinctions among the different constructs are presented. Gender identity represents a psychological achievement and covers a wide spectrum of gender‐fluid characteristics, whose determinants are scientifically known to be both biological (genetic and hormonal) and social cognitive (parenting, stereotyping, gender roles). Low gender compatibility and discontent with one's own gender are some of the possible factors associated with gender identity disorders and gender variance phenomena such as transsexualism.
Journal of Marriage and Family
Authors: Raley R. Kelly 
Published: March 2016

Abstract

The Journal of Marriage and Family
, which is affiliated with the National Council on Family Relations, has been the leading peer‐reviewed family research journal for over 70 years. It is an interdisciplinary journal that includes contributions from sociology, psychology, demography, economics, anthropology, history and human development and family sciences. This entry discusses its history and scope.