bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
History of Bacteriology
Authors: Kreuder‐Sonnen Katharina 
Published: August 2016

AbstractBacteriology was established in the 1880s as the science of disease germs. However, experimental explorations in the world of microorganisms had started already in the seventeenth century, and botanists and zoologists in the eighteenth century had tried to structure and classify the world of the invisible living organisms. With the German physician Robert Koch the science of microorganisms moved into the realm of medicine. Koch identified several bacteria as the causes of infectious diseases and he contributed greatly to the stabilisation of distinct bacterial species. Medical bacteriology promoted laboratory medicine and Louis Pasteur in Paris developed techniques to attenuate microorganisms in order to produce vaccines. Antibiotics became widely available only after the Second World War. Bacteriology has also developed in relation to agriculture, water (pollution) and biotechnology. Non‐medical approaches to the micro‐world contributed to a broader understanding of microorganisms not only as pathogens but as essential entities in ecological life cycles. At the turn of the twenty‐first century, reductionist views of host–parasite relation gave way to more complex, process‐orientated and environmentalist approaches.Key ConceptsFirst experimental encounters with microorganisms took place using microscopic techniques in the seventeenth century.Classification of microorganisms was discussed by zoologists and botanists since the mid‐eighteenth century.A causal linkage between microorganisms and disease was established only in the last third of the nineteenth century.Medical bacteriology developed around the laboratories of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur and had tremendous effects on public health as well as on conceptions of the body and disease.Robert Koch's bacteriological thought style implied a reductionist approach to infectious disease.Broadly applicable antibacterial therapeutic remedies (antibiotics) became widely available only in the second half of the twentieth century.Bacteriology has also developed in relation to agriculture, marine biology, water pollution, bacterial genetics and biotechnologies.Environmentalist and evolutionary approaches to microorganisms and host–parasite relation prevailed at the turn to the twenty‐first century.
Meta‐Analysis and Systematic Reviews in Ecology
Authors: Hillebrand Helmut , Gurevitch Jessica 
Published: August 2016

AbstractResearch synthesis provides the methodological and statistical tools for the scientific integration of results of ecological research, and consists of methods and standards for systematic review and meta‐analysis. Systematic reviews use scientific approaches for searching and selecting publications, and meta‐analyses provide the statistical tools to quantitatively summarise study results. These tools can be used to synthesise the outcomes from many different kinds of ecological studies, including both experimental and observational studies taken from published literature, and the outcomes of studies conducted across different systems by coordinated research groups. Based on the rationale for such synthesis efforts, the article presents the types of effect sizes used as well as statistical analyses to test hypotheses.Key ConceptsSystematic reviews and meta‐analyses are essential for generalising the outcomes of ecological, conservation and evolutionary studies.Meta‐analysis is the basis for evidence‐based decisions and conclusions in conservation and fundamental ecologySystematic review is a set of scientific methods for searching, inclusion and reporting results in research syntheses.Meta‐analysis provides the statistical methods for the quantitative synthesis of the results of different studies.Meta‐analytic methods offer ways to model and account for heterogeneity in the outcomes of different studiesMeta‐analyses offer the potential to resolve apparent discrepancies in study results and to reconcile longstanding scientific controversiesMeta‐analysis has altered the way ecologists and evolutionary biologists develop general insights beyond the specific contexts of individual studies.
Predictive Genetic Testing: The
H
untington Disease Model
Authors: Tibben Aad , Bijlsma Emilia 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Predictive or presymptomatic genetic testing enables individuals at risk for a hereditary late‐onset disease to learn about their genetic status before symptoms have appeared. The predictive testing protocol for Huntington disease (HD) safeguards the interests of test candidates and has served as a model for other diseases. Most people seen for genetic counselling regarding HD are the asymptomatic children of an affected parent. Predictive testing provides the opportunity to get relief from the anguish of being at risk, to have prenatal tests or preimplantation genetic testing in order to have children free of the disorder, and to make informed plans for the future regarding marriage, education, professional career and finances. The common experience has been that tested individuals found relief from their prior psychological distress and that they benefited psychologically. Having children proved to be an additional stress factor for partners.

Key Concepts

Predictive testing provides the opportunity to get relief from uncertainty and prepare better for the future.

Preimplantation genetic testing enables couples to have a pregnancy without the burden of termination after an unfavourable prenatal test result.

At 55 years of age and being not symptomatic, there is still a 25% empirical chance of being a carrier of the Huntington's gene.

The Huntington disease CAG repeat length accounts for roughly 50–77% of the variation in the age of onset.

Predictive testing requires informed consent by the individual at risk and the provision of psychological support.

Predictive testing for adult‐onset disorders without treatment options should not be offered to children and adolescents.

Counselling test candidates at 25% risk to get Huntington disease requires a family system approach.

The predictive test candidate's beliefs about causation and emotional, social and cultural issues may affect the perception of the information that is given in genetic counselling.
Genetic Counselling Profession inEurope
Authors: Paneque Milena , Moldovan Ramona , Cordier Christophe , Serra‐Juhé Clara , Feroce Irene , Bjørnevoll Inga , Lambert Debby , Skirton Heather 
Published: August 2016

AbstractGenetic healthcare has developed as a specialty in Europe over the past five decades and initially services were provided by medical specialists. However, due to changes in awareness of the psychosocial impact of genetic conditions, the amount of new options available to families and the consequent workload increase, clinical genetic services are now frequently provided by multidisciplinary teams. In many European countries, nonmedical genetic counsellors are working as part of the clinical team, providing both information and support for individuals and families at risk of or are affected by genetic conditions. Many genetic counsellors have a background in nursing or other health profession or have completed a Master level degree in genetic counselling. The European Board of Medical Genetics has supported genetic counselling as a profession in Europe through the development of standards of competence, promoting educational pathways for practitioners and managing a registration system for genetic nurses and genetic counsellors.Key ConceptsAwareness of human heredity was advanced in the nineteenth century through the work of Mendel and Galton.Specialist clinical genetic services were established in Europe in the mid‐twentieth century.Genetic counselling is a task that may be undertaken by appropriately trained practitioners from a range of health professions.Professional genetic counsellors are (nonmedical) practitioners with a background in one of the health professions or have undertaken a Master degree in genetic counselling.Genetic counsellors provide information, discuss options, support adjustment and facilitate the client to make decisions.Genetic counsellors are specially trained to offer the client psychological support.There are disparities in the ways in which genetic counsellors work in different European countries.In Europe, where different health and educational systems exist in each country, a uniform standard of competence is needed to ensure patient safety.The European Board of Medical Genetics has developed standards of competence and is promoting educational pathways for practitioners.The European Board of Medical Genetics assesses practitioners and registers those who are assessed as competent.
Microsatellites
Authors: Hoffjan Sabine , Epplen Jörg T 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Microsatellites are short, in‐tandem arranged repetitive deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) elements which are widespread in eukaryotic and prokaryotic genomes. The basic unit lengths of microsatellites (or simple DNA sequence repeats) comprise up to six (or eight) nucleotides, and these motifs are perfectly reiterated from 5 to more than 100 times. Longer and more imperfectly reiterated periodicities border on the definitions of the so‐called minisatellites. Microsatellites have been utilised as markers for population genetic studies, forensic and relatedness testing, investigations on genetic diversity and the identification of genetic traits. However, microsatellite expansions are also involved in human diseases. Lynch syndrome, a hereditary tumour predisposition disease, is characterised by microsatellite instability due to defective mismatch repair, promoting tumourigenesis. Furthermore, microsatellite expansion diseases are rare, but interesting model diseases characterised by diverse pathogenetic pathways. Hence microsatellites exhibit a broad spectrum of biological relevance ranging from neutral or selfish to pathogenic elements.

Key Concepts

Microsatellites exhibit perfect tandem repetition of short nucleotide motifs.

Microsatellites represent most variable components throughout most genomes.

The biological significance of microsatellites ranges from selfishness and molecular marker for a small genome region to disease‐causing mutations when expanded, respectively.
Genetic Counselling forMuslim Families ofPakistani andBangladeshi Origin inBritain
Authors: Shaw Alison 
Published: August 2016

AbstractEstablishing a patient's ethnicity, family history of genetic disease and family history of parental consanguinity is relevant for ascertaining risk in genetic counselling. In the United Kingdom, rates of congenital anomaly are highest among Pakistani children. Fewer congenital anomalies have been reported among British Bangladeshi children. Parental consanguinity is a risk factor for congenital anomaly. In ascertaining consanguinity, genetic counsellors need to avoid stigmatising Pakistani and Bangladeshi patients on the basis of any presumed or actual consanguinity. The focus should be on establishing risk, explaining the pattern of inheritance of an identified genetic condition and offering strategies for risk management. In the case of autosomal recessive conditions, it is important to clarify the difference between being a carrier of a recessive condition and being affected by that condition. Patients' prior understandings of illness causality and modes inheritance, their religious beliefs, language use and aspects of their family structure can also influence their access and responses to genetic counselling. These factors are not static markers of Bangladeshi or Pakistani ethnicity but vary within and between families, across generations and from one case to another. Genetic counsellors need to be aware of the range of ideas that patients may bring to a genetics consultation without presuming that any particular set of ideas will apply in any given case.Key ConceptsParental consanguinity elevates the risk of autosomal recessive conditions.When ascertaining consanguinity, clinicians should avoid giving an undue negative emphasis to cousin marriages.Some patients' understandings of genetic inheritance may depart from Mendelian principles.Eliciting patients' understandings of the causes of genetic illness and mechanisms of inheritance is important for effective genetic counselling.Patients may not know that autosomal recessive conditions are caused by inheriting a mutation in the same gene from both parents – the mother and the father.Patients may not appreciate the importance of establishing carrier status for managing risk for known autosomal recessive conditions in the family.Gender, status and position within their family can influence a patient's access to and interpretation of genetic risk information.Some Islamic rulings permit termination of pregnancy for an abnormal fetus in the first 120 days of conception.The relevance of Islamic opinions in reproductive decisions varies between individuals, depends on circumstances and can change over time.
Behaviour Genetics: A Critical Perspective on the Role of Genes in Behaviour
Authors: Järvilehto Timo , Lickliter Robert 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Much effort in behavioural genetics has been motivated by the hope that one day aspects of human behaviour will be explicable in genetic terms. This hope is based on the assumption that the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to behaviour can somehow be partitioned. However, recent advances in genomics, epigenetics, cellular and developmental biology and developmental psychology have made it clear that such partitioning is biologically implausible. The functional significance of genes or any other influence on phenotypic development can be understood only in relation to the organism–environment system of which they are a part. Genes and environments are neither alternative nor independent causes for behavioural development.

Key Concepts

Genes, in and of themselves, cannot produce any behavioural outcome.

The function of a gene cannot be separated from the multiple contexts and environments in which it functions.

Contrary to the assumptions of behavioural genetics, genes and environment do not make independent contributions to behavioural development.

Behaviour without genes is as impossible as is behaviour without an environment.

It is not possible to meaningfully estimate the risk of getting a given disease only on the basis of genetic factors.
Myxobacteria
Authors: Hartzell Trish 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Myxobacteria are Gram‐negative, rod‐shaped bacteria that are nearly ubiquitous in the biosphere. They forage on living and dead decaying material including bacteria and eukaryotic microbes. As such, myxobacteria appear to play an important role as scavengers cleaning up biological detritus in the environment. Isolates belonging to different genera can be distinguished by the shape of their vegetative cells, motility, pigments, as well as by the type of fruiting bodies and spores produced during their developmental cycle, which is a unique feature of this group. The ability to manipulate myxobacteria genetically combined with their complex processes including synthesis of secondary metabolites, foraging and predation, TraA‐dependent kin‐recognition, outer membrane exchange, fruiting body development, phase variation and gliding motility – makes them excellent research subjects.

Key Concepts

Social interactions in the myxobacteria are important for swarming, feeding and development.

Kin recognition and sibling killing involve a cell surface receptor, TraA.

Phase variation yields cells with specialised functions.

Predation involves release of hydrolytic enzymes that allow myxobacteria to feed on other microbes.

Myxococcus cells use small molecules (signals) to communicate and coordinate the fruiting body construction.
Biotic Homogenisation
Authors: Olden Julian D , Comte Lise , Giam Xingli 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Biotic homogenisation is the process by which species invasions and extinctions increase the genetic, taxonomic or functional similarity of two or more locations over a specified time interval. Recent years have witnessed enhanced interest and research effort in the study of biotic homogenisation across taxonomic groups and geographic regions, with the first article published over 20 years ago. Despite sustained interest, past research efforts have been unevenly distributed with regard to taxonomic groups and ecosystems. Biotic homogenisation of vertebrate and plant communities have been studied the most, while invertebrates have received little attention. Concurrent with heightened quantification of biotic homogenisation, is continued clarification on the significant ecological, evolutionary and social consequences of this phenomenon. Biotic homogenisation is now considered one of the most prominent forms of biotic impoverishment worldwide, and it will likely continue to increase in response to anthropogenic forces associated with growing human populations.

Key Concepts

In the wake of continued human‐driven species invasions and extinctions, the process of biotic homogenisation has rapidly emerged as a topic of interest in conservation biology.

Biotic homogenisation is the process by which species invasions and extinctions increase the genetic, taxonomic or functional similarity of two or more locations over a specified time interval.

This is a unique research challenge, because it is a multifaceted process that subsumes many aspects of the modern biodiversity crisis, including species invasions, extirpations and environmental alteration.

Current knowledge of the patterns, mechanisms and implications of biotic homogenisation is highly variable across taxonomic groups, but in general is most complete for freshwater fishes, birds and plants.

Biotic homogenisation is an important dimension of the modern biodiversity crisis having significant ecological, evolutionary and social implications.
MicroRNA
s in Cancer
Authors: Munker Reinhold , Shackelford Rodney , Calin George A 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Initially considered an epiphenomenon, micro ribonucleic acids (also called miRNAs) and other small noncoding RNA molecules are now considered major players in cell biology. MiRNAs regulate gene expression through effects on translation, transcription and chromatin modification. Multiple miRNAs are dysregulated in human cancer and affect cellular proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis and tumour invasion and the phenotype of cancer cells. Virtually every cell type and cancer has a specific miRNA expression pattern. This unique miRNA expression pattern allows the classification of specific cancer types and often gives prognostic information. Profiling based on miRNAs may be more specific and robust than profiling based on mRNAs. MiRNAs can be studied in virtually all tissues including plasma. More work is required, but miRNAs have already improved our understanding of the pathogenesis of cancer and tumour progression and appear promising as novel diagnostic biomarkers. Finally, they may be of value in the development of new genetic treatments.

Key Concepts

MicroRNAs regulate gene expression.

MicroRNAs are important in the pathogenesis and progression of human cancers.

MicroRNAs can function as tumour suppressors and as tumour promoters (oncomirs).

Cancers of different origin have specific microRNA expression patterns, allowing molecular characterisation.

MicroRNAs can serve as biomarkers for cancer and may become useful for the treatment of cancer.

MicroRNA analysis may give prognostic information and be of use in subtyping histologically similar tumours into less and more clinically aggressive categories.

Exosomes contain microRNAs and processing enzymes and mediate some of the biological effects of microRNAs.
Microbial Pathogen Effectors in Plant Disease
Authors: Pelgrom Alexandra JE , Van den Ackerveken Guido 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Microbial plant pathogens use secreted effector proteins for successful infection of their host. This evolved state is rather exceptional as most microbes do not cause disease in the vast majority of plant species. An important primary activity of effectors is to interfere with a range of plant immune processes to evade and suppress pathogen detection, or to block immune signalling and downstream responses. Furthermore, effectors can enhance disease susceptibility by altering cellular processes and modulating host transcription. For most of these activities, effectors specifically target plant proteins that are central in these processes. An advanced virulence strategy is the post‐translational modification by effectors of plant targets to change their activity or stability. The knowledge gathered on the molecular mechanisms underlying effector‐triggered susceptibility of plants provides great potential for novel approaches of resistance breeding.

Key Concepts

Pathogens secrete and/or translocate effector proteins to promote plant disease.

Besides their primary role in promoting disease, effectors or effector‐modified plant proteins can be recognised by resistance proteins to activate an effector‐triggered immune response.

Many effectors block pathogen‐associated molecular pattern (PAMP)‐triggered immunity and/or effector‐triggered immunity.

Other effectors rewire signalling pathways and reprogramme the plant cell to promote pathogen growth.

Certain effectors can affect the activity or function of host proteins by post‐translational modifications e.g. (de)phosphorylation or targeting for proteosomal degradation.
Biofortification of Edible Crops
Authors: White Philip J 
Published: August 2016

Abstract

Humans require sufficient amounts of at least 18 mineral elements for normal development and well‐being. Unfortunately, many people's diets lack sufficient iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, iodine and selenium. Mineral malnutrition can be addressed by dietary diversification, mineral supplementation, food fortification or the biofortification of edible crops. Biofortification can be achieved by two complementary strategies. The ‘genetic’ strategy, which includes breeding and genetic manipulation of crops, aims not only to increase the acquisition of mineral elements and their accumulation in edible portions but also to improve their bioavailability by altering concentrations affecting uptake by the gut. The ‘agronomic’ strategy, which includes effective soil management and fertiliser applications, aims to increase the phytoavailability of mineral elements. Using these strategies, staple crops can be adequately biofortified with minerals currently lacking in people's diets. Furthermore, biofortification appears to be a cost‐effective approach to alleviating mineral malnutrition, reaching urban and rural populations in developed and developing nations.

Key Concepts

Human diets must supply sufficient quantities of 18 essential mineral elements.

Many people's diets lack sufficient iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, iodine or selenium.

One strategy to combat mineral malnutrition in humans is biofortification of edible crops.

Biofortification increases the bioavailable concentrations of essential minerals in produce.

Agronomic biofortification strategies include effective soil management and fertiliser applications.

Genetic biofortification strategies employ the selection, breeding or genetic manipulation of crops.

Crop genotypes can be developed with greater acquisition and accumulation of minerals in edible portions.

Crop genotypes can be developed with reduced concentrations of antinutrients, such as phytate or oxalate, or greater concentrations of promoter substances, such as ascorbate, β‐carotene, protein cysteine and various organic acids and amino acids, to improve the bioavailability of minerals.

Biofortification is a cost‐effective strategy to alleviate mineral malnutrition and can reach both urban and rural populations in developed and developing nations.