bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Leisure
Authors: Scraton Sheila , Watson Becky 
Published: September 2017

AbstractLeisure has traditionally been associated with work, as compensation from daily routines or residual time when other commitments have taken place. Since the 1970s leisure has been studied within its social context. Pluralist, Marxist, and feminist understandings of leisure have increasingly been replaced by analyses of leisure as a key site of cultural consumption. Leisure research has developed from large‐scale national surveys of participation to more micro, individualized accounts of leisure experience. Current research explores the increasingly complex and permeable boundaries between work and leisure, for example, through the concepts of serious leisure and volunteering. Leisure spaces are important sites of cultural consumption with current research emphasizing the body, empowerment and the construction of identity through leisure. There are areas of leisure that remain under‐researched including race, ethnicities and whiteness; masculinities; class; globalization and migration.
Luhmann, Niklas (1927–1998)
Authors: Rogowski Ralf 
Published: September 2017

AbstractNiklas Luhmann's social systems theory offers a new universal theory for the discipline of sociology that is rapidly gaining the status of the leading account of modern society in the social sciences and beyond. It views society as an autopoietic system of communications that is functionally differentiated into a number of self‐reproducing function systems. HisSocial Systems(1984, translated into English 1995), his eight volumes on the theory of society, and his various studies devoted to core sociological topics, including trust, power, risk, media, intimacy and love, and the ecological discourse, provide a challenging new account of the nature of modern world society.
Maruyama, Masao (1914–1996)
Authors: Seifert Wolfgang 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe work of Japanese historian of political thought and political scientist Maruyama Masao (1914–1996) – at the same time deemed to be one of Japan's outstanding social philosophers of the twentieth century – continues to be debated. After his death around a hundred volumes on Maruyama's work were published, in sociology and social philosophy, but equally in political science and in history of ideas; and the number of translations of his work, into western languages and also into other Asian languages, is growing. Maruyama's works continue to inspire sociologists and social scientists, even if he was not a sociologist himself. His essays offer important stimuli to comparative research, not only in contemporary history, but also in political sociology and research of political culture, even though the historical sources he used are more readily available today.
Materialist Feminisms
Authors: Isvan Nilufer 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMaterialist feminism is the outcome of engagements with the Marxist tradition. A materialist feminist research program is one that places special emphasis on the material conditions underlying gender inequality. Scholars within this tradition may vary in their definition of the line of demarcation and conceptual relationships between material and ideological spheres, but most would agree that the organization of production is central to material reality. Although all feminist scholars acknowledge the importance of women's economic status, materialist feminist approaches are distinguished by the centrality and causal precedence ascribed to material forces over ideational ones in explaining women's oppression.
Media and Consumer Culture
Authors: Kellner Douglas 
Published: September 2017

Abstract“Media and consumer culture” is the transdisciplinary category used to describe and understand the mediated experience of individuals and groups within consumer capitalist societies who are influenced and informed by a variety of different mediums. This entry presents a variety of discourses on the media and consumer society ranging from the critical theory of the Frankfurt School to British cultural studies to French theories including Roland Barthes, Henri Lefebvre, Guy Debord, Jean Baudrillard, and their contemporaries who develop novel analyses of the emerging forms of society and culture. The entry then engages the theorizing of media and consumer culture which stresses its proliferating global character and the rapid movement of signs and cultural symbols through multinational corporate channels.
Medical Sociology
Authors: Cockerham William C. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMedical sociology is a subdiscipline of sociology that studies the social causes and consequences of health and illness. It is a relatively new sociological specialty. What makes medical sociology important is the significant role social factors play in determining the health of individuals, groups, and the larger society. Social conditions and situations not only cause illness, but they also help prevent it. This entry examines the development of medical sociology from its inception until the present, including its major works and theoretical developments.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J.I. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term “meta‐analysis” can be used to indicate a literature review of a body of empirical findings as disclosed in a large number of focused research reports; a summary of replication research on a specific topic, often undertaken with precisely the same techniques; or a theoretical or methodological analysis of philosophical problems associated with approaches like “methodological individualism” or the ideal‐type method. Sometimes the term is used without a great deal of analytical precision. A meta‐metaparadigm called pragmatic sociology has been proposed but not widely accepted. Sometimes the attention paid to meta‐issues is regarded as too abstract, even by theorists, and too removed from empirical research. However, without good metatheory it is very hard to translate one paradigm or result into a different framework.
Immigration and the Labor Force
Authors: Duleep Harriet 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry examines how immigrants fare in their adopted country's labor market and their effect on the native‐born workforce. Illuminating the first issue requires measuring immigrant earnings growth. When no assumptions are imposed, an inverse relationship between immigrant entry earnings and earnings growth emerges: recent immigrants in the United States and Canada have low initial earnings, relative to natives and earlier immigrant cohorts, but high earnings growth, a pattern that is consistent with high levels of human capital investment. Viewing the decision to migrate in terms of source‐country constraints, as opposed to immigrant ability, generates a model that emphasizes the selection of immigrants with more or less transferable skills and varying degrees of permanence. To measure immigration's effect on the native‐born workforce, two analytical strategies – reaching opposing conclusions – have been used. Cross‐area analyses find little evidence of any detrimental immigration effect; whole‐economy analyses find large detrimental effects. The entry ends proposing a third strategy.
Moral Entrepreneur
Authors: de Young Mary 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
A moral entrepreneur takes on the task of protecting society from alleged threats to its moral order. Whether as a rule‐creator or as a rule‐enforcer, a moral entrepreneur uses public fora, the international media, and social media to advance an agenda. More than just a “meddling busybody,” a moral entrepreneur plays a significant role in the social construction of a social problem, the fomenting of a social movement, as well as in a moral crusade or a moral panic, and in moral regulation initiatives. The moral entrepreneur has been of interest to sociologists ever since Howard Becker coined the term more than a half‐century ago.
New Middle Classes in Asia
Authors: Embong Abdul Rahman 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

The middle class has become a very important social force, influencing the direction of social and political change and governance as well as consumption patterns in the contemporary world. Middle‐class growth and expansion underwent three phases, with the first phase being in Europe after the Industrial Revolution, followed by the second centered on Europe, North America, and Japan following World War
II
, while the third phase is centered on Asia in the early twenty‐first century. This reflects a historic shift with the base of consumption moving from the West to the East, with Asia now producing the world's largest middle class. Given their different experiences of development, the middle classes in Japan, China, and India make important case studies.
Politics and Sport
Authors: Houlihan Barrie 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Four overlapping definitions of politics are presented (as institutions of government, social relations, decision‐making processes and outcomes) and the implications for the study of sport are examined. The implications of Lukesian and Foucauldian conceptualisations of power for the study of sport politics are discussed. The domestic and foreign policy motives for government involvement in sport are explored with particular emphasis on the sport as a nation‐building resource and as a soft power diplomatic resource. The entry concludes with the identification of a series of current research priorities which includes the analysis of government strategies of intervention in the policy area, the problem of accountability and governance in relation to international federations, and management of relations between sport organizations and commercial interests.
Positive Deviance
Authors: Heckert Druann Maria 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The substantive area of deviance has focused on the negative and consequently positive deviance is an important and not yet fully tapped concept. Specifically, positive deviance suggests overconforming behavior that has been positively evaluated. While positive deviance has been marginalized, theoretical explanations are beginning to emerge. Furthermore, some recent studies have provided empirical examination of positive deviants.
Public Sphere
Authors: Delanty Gerard 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe concept of the public sphere has become a key term in sociology since it was introduced by Jürgen Habermas as a sociologically pertinent concept. The public sphere refers to the space that exists in modern societies between the state and society. The notion of the public sphere has changed considerably since Habermas's conception. It is today generally seen as a plural condition: there is not one single or ideal public sphere, but many. The public sphere is the space of debates, democratization and the ongoing contestation of power.
Refugee Movements
Authors: Robinson Courtland 
Published: September 2017

AbstractRefugee movements are defined as the involuntary migration of people across international borders as a result of generalized conflict and disorder or more particularized threats of persecution and physical insecurity. The concept of “refugee” is generally treated as one category within a broader typology of forced migration, which includes involuntary movements both within and across international borders and encompasses other categories such as internally displaced persons (IDPs), development‐displaced persons, and trafficked persons. In mid‐2013, the number of refugees was estimated at 11.1 million people, the majority of whom were from Asia and the Pacific, Africa, and the Middle East. Of these, just under half are female and about 46 percent are under the age of 18. About 5 percent of refugees are older adults (60 and older), most of whom are women. While millions of refugees continue to live in camps and settlements, where many have lived in protracted situations for at least five years (and often far longer), two thirds of the persons of concern to UNHCR now live outside of camps and half live in cities.
Rizal, José (1861–1896)
Authors: Alatas Syed Farid 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
José Rizal, Filipino thinker and activist, may be considered the first systematic social thinker in Southeast Asia. While the bulk of his writings does not fall under social sciences, it is possible to extract a sociological theory from his work. This would be a theory that explains the nature and conditions of Filipino colonial society and the requirements for its emancipation.
Sadomasochism
Authors: Hekma Gert 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Sadomasochism or SM refers to sexual pleasure derived from pain or humiliation. Published discussions on the subject led it to being acknowledged as a psychiatric concept in 1891. SM received little attention from the social sciences until 2005, with only a few notable historical studies conducted. The number of studies since then has quickly grown, mainly with regard to “leather” sexual subcultures and communities. Main topics being discussed include gender, race, sexual orientation, sex work, power, violence, play, transgression, relation to mainstream culture in terms of pathology, prejudice, secretiveness, acceptance, and transgression.
Scientific Racism
Authors: Blatt Jessica 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Science has a long and fraught history of entanglement with the social myth of biological race. The modern sciences of biology and physical anthropology were founded on the conviction that the human species was divided into discrete racial groups with distinct characteristics and capacities. Advances in these very sciences, however, have shown that, while human populations differ biologically, population‐level differences are both relatively trivial and impossible to map onto conventional racial divides. Genetic research, similarly, has yielded no statistically significant patterns of variation by race. However, this is not a simple story of scientific progress, in which bad ideas are systematically displaced by better ones. The rise and partial retreat of scientific racism is an eminently political story.
Sexual Cultures in Russia
Authors: Healey Dan 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The wholesale rejection of (or call to sublimation of) sexuality is an enduring feature of Russian intellectual life. Russia's hybrid condition, combining European and Asian geography, cultures, and histories, makes it a complex national tradition to study, and sexuality in Russia reflects that complexity. The country's often violent historical experience and its significant divergence from the familiar currents of European religious, cultural, and intellectual life have marked Russian approaches to sexuality.
Sexual Politics
Authors: Waites Matthew 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSexual politics was defined by the feminist Kate Millett in 1970 as encompassing the contestation of power‐structured relationships with respect to sex, gender, and sexuality, and in relation to the social system of patriarchy. Sexual politics thus politicized sociology in its approach to such inequalities, particularly in what was considered private or personal life. The women's liberation movement and the gay liberation movement brought new sets of concerns about power relationships into the social sciences. In more recent years sexual politics has broadened to encompass a range of issues including transgenderism, intersex status, pornography, sadomasochism, sexual violence and abuse, and pedophilia. Queer politics has emerged as one approach, with associated queer theory, focused on challenging the privileged status of heterosexuality. Globally sexual politics is increasingly structured by the effects of sexual nationalisms deployed by governments, which selectively deploy gender and sexuality. International organizations including the Commonwealth thus increasingly become sites of struggle for transnational activists and movements in sexual politics. However, some argue that homonationalisms in some more wealthy countries selectively affirm certain human rights, and engage international institutions, in ways which maintain inequalities of power between the global north and global south.
Slavery
Authors: Coates Rodney 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Slavery is defined as the forced labor of one group by another. The institution of slavery, in which the slave is considered merely a piece of animate property or chattel, was first developed by the Greeks. Brutality, including whipping, humiliation, and alienation, has been part of slavery from its inception. Stripped of their human dignity and title, slaves were forced to abandon their family, culture, and personhood, as their very being was owned by another. A direct result of European imperialistic expansion, the modern system of slavery employed even harsher methods of exploitation, humiliation, and degradation.
Social Theory and Sport
Authors: Clair Jeffrey Michael , Adam Wasserman Jason , Milner Adrienne 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Although sociologists have examined the institution of sport in relation to other social institutions and analyzed inequality in sport empirically, theoretical work in the field of the sociology of sport is limited. Examples of theoretical contributions include utilizing Bourdieu's perspective to discuss sport within a framework that takes into account history, social class, and prevailing economic systems. Sociologists have also applied feminist theory, critical race theory, Marxist theory, and social learning theory to understand inequities in sport. However, there are several substantative areas of theoretical thought that could improve the way sport is understood. Specifically, the political nature of sport, sport as art, and the moral assumptions embedded in sport should be examined. The political nature of sport includes understanding the intersection of sport and global politics and the similarities between sport and war. Sport as art includes understanding the creativity, competancy, spontaneity, and emotional qualities of sport. Moral assumptions embedded in sport include understanding how sport embodies and impresses assumptions about human nature and moral order. In order to fully understand the relationship of sport and society, a greater development in these areas and further application of dominant social theories to the field is necessary.
Strong Objectivity
Authors: Naples Nancy A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The notion of strong objectivity was first articulated by feminist philosopher Sandra Harding in 1987. Strong objectivity builds on the insights of feminist standpoint theory, which argues for the importance of starting from the experiences of those who have been traditionally left out of the production of knowledge. By starting from the lived experiences of women and others who have been traditionally outside of the institutions in which knowledge about social life is generated and classified, more objective and more relevant knowledge can be produced. It is argued that knowledge produced from the point of view of subordinated groups may offer stronger objectivity because of the greater motivation of these groups to understand the views or perspectives of those in positions of power.
Subcultures, Deviant
Authors: Berard T.J. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Deviant subcultures are sets of cultural traits that differ from social norms, or groups that display such traits. Subcultural analyses of deviance and crime have been an important dimension of sociology and criminology since the 1950s, providing insight into the group nature of much delinquency, deviance, and crime; the transmission of values conducive to deviance; and the many ways cultural variation relates to the nature and explanation of deviance, implicating social control and status relations as well as social problems. Subcultural analysis has become increasingly interdisciplinary, contributing not just to the understanding of gangs, street crime, organized crime, drug use, and criminal recidivism, but also culture, inequality and status, youth and generational relations, self and identity, music and fashion. The breadth of subcultural analysis contributes to the understanding of deviance and crime, benefiting from consideration of issues including self and identity, schooling and socialization, leisure and consumption, social control, and the ecological and cultural dimensions of inequality. The deviant subcultures literature is an ongoing interdisciplinary and international endeavor, contributing to the understanding of both deviance and culture by exploring how the distinction between the deviant and the conventional overlaps with other cultural distinctions such as those of status and social identity.
Supermarkets
Authors: Isaacs Bronwyn Alison 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Supermarkets are among the most ubiquitous and homogeneous of urban retail spaces. Changes within the supermarket industry have played a role influencing nutrition, as well as social and cultural life, especially as supermarket chains and corporations spread internationally and adapt their retail formats to cater to different consumer lifestyles. Over the past decade, researchers in sociology and other social science disciplines have developed a new critical perspective on the social and economic power of supermarkets. This literature pays increased attention to the globalization of supermarkets, as well as market centralization and the new regulatory responsibilities of supermarket corporations, which include the monitoring of food safety standards. Sociologists also analyze supermarkets as social and cultural authorities, examining the ways supermarkets operate as food educators and the ways in which consumer practices communicate class identity and cultural capital.
Symbolic Classification
Authors: Ghezzi Simone 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Symbolic classification refers to the process of classifying and ordering by means of which individuals are able to make sense of the natural and social world. This process occurs in different and locally defined ways, and therefore it varies cross‐culturally. Individuals are always inclined to impose an order on the objects of the natural and the social environment that surrounds them. They do so by means of models of categorization which are culturally and socially determined. Such categories are cast in concrete images that we may call symbols, which are, by definition, polysemic and relativistic because they convey different meanings. Durkheim and Mauss, alongside Hertz and Granet, were among the first scholars to reflect on the ways human beings come to classify symbolically by means of a system of categories. More recently Douglas, Alexander, and Heritier have moved away from the structural problem and have used symbolic classification to focus on issues of practice.
Surplus Value
Authors: Beamish Rob 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Determining the source of social surplus was the most important scientific and political question addressed by classical political economists. Marx accepted British political economists' argument that a product's value is based on the amount of socially necessary, simple, abstract labor that is required for its production, measured as time. Marx's theory of surplus value stems from his theory of value and has four key elements: all commodities exchange as equivalents of value; workers do not have direct access to the means of production but are free to sell their ability to work (or labor power) in order to survive; like every commodity, labor power has a value; and workers and employers exchange equivalents with workers agreeing to work a specified period of time in return for their labor power's full value (employers do not create surplus value by paying workers below their value). The key to surplus value is the unique ability of labor power, in a system of equivalent exchange, to produce, throughout an entire workday, more value than the value exchanged with the worker (the bearer of labor power). According to Marx, labor power is the sole source of surplus value and thus workers and their labor power are the source of social surplus in capitalist societies.