bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
French Empire: 10. North America
Authors: Boucher Christophe 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The French colonial presence in North America spanned intermittently from 1541 to 1803. At its territorial height before the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), French hegemony extended from Newfoundland to the Rockies and from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. In all, France claimed over half the continent, including over 20 current US states. This vast domain had four areas: Acadia, Canada, the Upper Country, and Louisiana. The French called their North American holdings New France, an expression that betrayed their aspirations. The architects of French colonial expansion intended to create an improved society to serve the mother country. Contrary to expectations, French colonists adapted culturally and implemented policies dictated by local demands. The Seven Years War abruptly ended French claims in North America. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France kept only two tiny islands south of Newfoundland. In 1800, the French momentarily regained a foothold in North America, finally forfeiting their rights through the Louisiana Purchase.
Austrian Empire (to 1867)
Authors: Vushko Iryna 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThis entry presents the history of the Austrian Empire from its genesis to 1867. Its main focus is upon the political history of the empire, its consolidation in the 16th century, and its evolution through the middle of the 19th century. Topics include: marriage alliances and acquisition of territories; Reformation and Counter‐Reformation; the Habsburg monarchy or empire's status in Europe and its relationships with its neighbors, specifically the Ottoman Empire and Prussia; relationships between the Habsburg monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire; wars, the revolution of 1848, and the Austro‐Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The entry addresses differences in the status of different territories in the empire – most notably Hungary and Bohemia – attempts to impose centralization, and the resulting discontents. It concludes with a discussion of the federalization of the empire in 1867 tracing its roots back to the empire's creation in the 16th century.
Dutch Empire: 2. Africa
Authors: Worden Nigel 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Dutch African Empire was primarily commercial and was linked to wider Dutch colonial interests. It was divided into two distinct spheres. The Dutch West India Company (WIC) established trading posts and forts along the West African coast and traded in gold, ivory, and slaves. The Dutch trans‐Atlantic slave trade reached a peak in the later 17th century when the Dutch centered their activities on Elmina in modern Ghana but also traded in Angola. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) initially used African islands such as St. Helena and Mauritius as refreshment posts for its shipping between Europe and Asia but after 1652 focused on the Cape Colony for this purpose. The Cape subsequently emerged as a major settler colony in Africa, using slave labor from the Indian Ocean and integrally linked to the VOC empire in Asia.
China, imperial: 6. Yuan dynasty period, 1279–1368
Authors: Brose Michael C. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
When Khubilai created the Yuan Dynasty in 1279, after almost seventy years of campaigns by three generations of Mongol leaders, he reunited all of China for the first time in over three centuries. This was, however, the first time that non‐Chinese ruled China in its entirety. The Yuan state also forever changed China's social, political, and geographic landscape, not least because it was a hybrid of nomadic and Chinese customs and institutions. But Khubilai's completion of the conquest of China and his adoption of the Chinese dynastic model for his new state also spelled the end to the idea of a united Mongol Empire, already largely a fiction in his own lifetime.
Pergamon, Kingdom of (Attalids)
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Mysian city of Pergamon in western Asia Minor became one of the greatest Hellenistic cities under the Attalids (281–133
bce
). While initially only a minor regional power, Pergamon became a major player in Hellenistic affairs under the late Attalid kings who forged a relationship with Rome that benefited it but also turned it into a Roman client state.
Angevin Empire (French “Second” Angevin dynasty)
Authors: Drendel John 
Published: January 2016

AbstractCharles I, brother of the French King Louis IX, conquered southern Italy between 1266 and 1288 and established a dynasty destined to rule a vast Mediterranean empire almost entirely outside of the Kingdom of France. Despite the loss of Sicily in 1282, the Angevin Empire achieved its apogee in the middle of the 14th century under Robert I and Jeanne I, when Naples governed directly the county of Provence, southern Italy, and the western Peloponnesus, while collateral branches ruled Hungary and Poland. Angevin statecraft of the 14th century was unmatched in Europe, and Naples fostered a brilliant court culture. Dynastic quarrels exacerbated by the Great Schism led to political decline and the conquest of Naples by the Aragonese in 1435.
Martial race theory
Authors: Westwood Sarah Davis 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Martial race theory affected policies of military recruitment and conscription throughout the British and French empires. This ideology established a racial hierarchy based on climatic theories, physical qualities, and perceived behavioral characteristics, and colonial authorities sought to identify indigenous peoples in Asia and Africa naturally suited for military service. However, the classification of groups as inherently militaristic and their disproportionate presence in colonial forces was more often due to their acceptance of colonial authority instead of some innate fearlessness or capacity for violence.
Choson (Joseon) Korea
Authors: Karlsson Anders 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Choson dynasty ruled the Korean peninsula from 1392 to 1910. Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the primary belief system and exerted a strong influence over politics, society, and scholarship. Although a tributary to first the Ming and later the Qing, Choson considered themselves to be a civilized center in the region, superior to what they thought were barbarian neighbors. Against the background of late 19th century imperialistic rivalry in the region, in 1897 the status of the Choson ruler was raised from king to emperor, and the name of the state changed to the Great Han Empire (Taehan cheguk) to put it on equal footing with China and Japan.
China, imperial: 8. Qing or Manchu dynasty period, 1636–1911
Authors: Hang Henry Choi Sze 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Qing or Manchu dynasty was founded in 1636 by the Manchus, who were originally named the Jurchens, and the founders of the Jin dynasty. The rise of the Qing Empire started with a military conquest of China proper which eventually expanded into Inner Asia by relying on Han‐Chinese armies. As a result China, especially during Qianlong's long reign, reached the peak of Sino‐centrism that was based on the tributary system. This Sino‐centric worldview was challenged by the Western imperialist invasion beginning in the 1840s. The treaty‐port system became the new norm in the late Qing period and Qing Empire was eventually overthrown by Han‐Chinese revolutionaries in 1911.
Kakatiya Kingdom
Authors: Harijan Vikram 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Kakatiyas were powerful rulers of large parts of Deccan for almost 400 years (c.950–1323
ce
). The Kakatiya kingdom reached its high‐water mark in terms of political power and territorial expansion during the 12th and 13th centuries. During this period the whole of the Telugu country formed part of the kingdom, and the era was marked by new trends in political, administrative, military, taxation, and trade policies as well as agricultural, irrigational, religious, and cultural affairs. The Kakatiyas gave importance to three “T”s: namely, Tank, Temple, and Town. From the gender perspective also, the Kakatiyas did not lag behind their contemporaries and produced, like Razia Sultan (r.1236–1240) of the Delhi Sultanate, a great woman ruler Rudramadevi (c.1262–1295) who played a very significant role in the kingdom's history. Like Razia, she proved to be very successful despite the rigid patriarchal system which prevailed in South India at that time. The Kakatiyas were also great patrons of art and literature. Innumerable majestic temples were built, and their contribution to the development of Sanskrit and Telugu literature as well as Telugu language was no less significant and substantial.
Architecture, imperial
Authors: Leach Andrew 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Architecture has lent expression to imperial projects across history, both through the assertion of symbolic authority and in the mechanisms of its upkeep. Although architecture itself is an historically contingent term, buildings have played an enduring role in organizing imperial projects of all kinds and across a diverse geography, especially in those societies and cultures for which the city has been an important unit of social organization. This entry explores the relationship between architectural symbolism and architectural types as a significant relationship in the conceptualization of imperial architecture. It considers the archetypes of this relationship in the ancient world, as well as the model that Rome, in particular, served for subsequent European imperial projects. It suggests a relationship, played out in architectural terms, between architecture and religion, and architecture and nationalism, and concludes with reflections on the analogy architecture offers for understanding the endurance of architecture's role in the subtle imperialism of global capitalism.
Sub‐imperialism
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Sub‐imperialism as a theoretical construct remains so controversial that such an examination would merit its own entry. But its historical experience may be distilled thematically. The intrinsic nature of empire and imperialism so often lent itself so readily to delegation, devolution, and manipulation that different expressions of sub‐imperialism formed an integral part of the larger history of empire. This entry analyzes three expressions of sub‐imperialism in the context of modern empires.
Urartu, Kingdom of
Authors: Redgate A. E. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The kingdom that Assyria called Urartu and the Urartians called Bianili formed in the mid‐9th century
bce
, expanded rapidly, and fell in the mid‐7th century
bce
. External attacks by Cimmerians and Scyths and internal revolt, possibly under Armenian leadership, may have contributed. Its heartland was the Lake Van region, though its original base may have been in northwest Iran. Its security and prosperity depended on its physical geography, its fortresses, irrigation works, and centralized administrative system. War and economy entwined, and much use was made of deportees. The kingdom is notable also for, in religion, establishing the god Haldi as head of the pantheon, and for its royal inscriptions and the importance of its kings in state and society.
Armenia, Kingdom of (ancient)
Authors: Redgate A. E. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Armenia, emerging from the Achaemenid Empire (331
bce
) and ended by Sasanian Persia (428
ce
), was entangled with several empires, functioning in its later centuries as a buffer state and theater of rivalry between East and West, though briefly having an empire of its own in the 1st century
bce
. Originally much bigger than the modern republic, including the lands of the earlier kingdom of Urartu, it was a fraction of that by 428. The early centuries saw some centralization of power and administration, subordination of native dynasts, transfers of population, and encouragement of urban life, the later centuries a lack of bureaucracy and difficulty controlling the aristocracy. Devices that buttressed royal authority included the royal hunt. Strengthening the crown may have been one motive for conversion to Christianity (early 4th century). It did not do so, but conversion nevertheless protected Armenian identity from absorption by Rome or Persia.
Mataram, Sultanate of
Authors: Horton William Bradley 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
A kingdom centered in South‐Central Java between the 16th century and 1755, when it was formally divided, Mataram has its roots in the mid‐16th‐century kingdoms of Pajang and Pengging, with legends ascribing its founding to Kyai Gedhe Mataram and expansion to his son Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga (r. c.1584–1601). Mataram reached the peak of its power under Sultan Agung in the early 17th century, based on his political ability and continual military exploits. However, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was also aggressively expanding throughout the Indonesian archipelago, and had located its headquarters on the northwest coast of Java. The reign of Amangkurat I and the wars for succession over the next hundred years drew the VOC into Javanese affairs, and allowed them to intervene in the shrinking kingdom of Mataram. The division of the kingdom in 1755 is conventionally considered the end of Mataram.
Empires from the viewpoint of the colonized
Authors: Coller Ian 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Between 1500 and 1950, most human societies on the planet fell under the control of European colonial regimes, whether for a few years or for several centuries. No total view of the myriad responses to empire on the part of the colonized is possible: the impact of empire itself varied dramatically, as plural and overlapping systems were applied in differential ways. The multiplicity of colonial arrangements might touch colonized people directly, indirectly, or hardly at all. By the end of the 19th century, however, untouched areas were shrinking rapidly. The effects of economic globalization and cultural convergence accompanied colonial expansion to create a more complex imperial world order that helped to naturalize racial and cultural hegemony. The distinctiveness of European colonial empire was in its creation of a stable, indeed, legally rigidified category of the colonized “native,” excluded from rights, political participation, and even from history itself. However, viewed from another perspective, colonized peoples have been very much the agents of history and key to the transformation of the modern world.
Japan (Sengoku period)
Authors: Eason David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Historians of Japan generally use the label
sengoku
to refer to a distinctive period of time that spanned from roughly the mid‐1400s until the closing decades of the 1500s. Characterized by political instability and near‐incessant warfare, this era witnessed the violent rise and fall of numerous influential warrior families. At the same time, the resulting struggle for survival also created conditions that encouraged various institutional innovations. Still, the development of detailed land surveys and standardized military musters did not make Japan an empire. Rather, it is only by examining one particularly ambitious late 16th‐century leader's attempts to combine these policies with notions of national superiority and shortsighted plans to subjugate both Korea and China that connections between the process of reunification and the drive to empire begin to become clear.
Slavery, institution of
Authors: Nwachuku Levi A. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Slavery is an old institution. Its practice has varied in time and place. Prior to the era of empire building, slavery was largely a domestic practice confined to the given community. A slave was not a commercialized commodity. A slave was regarded as a human being, but was placed in a very low social status. More often than not, the slave status was passed on to the future generation of the enslaved. Slavery as an institution began to attract global attention between 1500 and 1850 when Western European powers created empires in Africa and in the Caribbean islands. The United States, Britain's off‐shoot born in the last quarter of the 18th century, became the epicenter of international involvement in the institution of slavery. The Western powers were not the only benefactors of the slave institution. The Muslims also participated in the slave business. By the 16th century, a slave began to acquire a new definition, as anyone who could be bought and sold for money, and whose labor was economically valuable. This definition revolutionized the institution. Slaves became a profit‐making commodity. European nations became active participants in a business which stripped individuals of their human value and denied them their natural right to freedom.
Assimilation and empire
Authors: Sèbe Berny 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Assimilation has been, over the centuries, one of the major ways of conceptualizing the relationship between center and periphery within imperial systems. It can be described as the attempt to integrate (through the use of force if necessary) conquered or colonial territories and populations into the political, sociocultural, and often economic mold of the conquering power. Assimilation has been practiced for political, military, religious, or cultural reasons since Roman times, with the Spanish, Portuguese, and French Empires often placing it at the center of their colonial strategies, though the British Empire also practiced it (especially for legal matters). The early Muslim conquest of the Mediterranean, or the Japanese assimilation of the Korean peninsula, offer examples of cultural or religious assimilation implemented by non‐European powers.
Informal empire
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
This entry deals with nominally independent societies and countries dominated by external interests and states. Informal empire is the term used to describe the economic, political, social, and cultural influence imperial and great powers have over weaker states or societies without the establishment of formal political control or sovereignty. In many ways, it has been a more frequent form of international relations than formal empire, and formal empires themselves often exert powerful influence over nominally independent states and peoples. Prior to the rise of Western imperialism, powerful states like the Ottoman Empire and Imperial China had substantial informal empires. Informal empires have had a profound effect on many “semi‐colonial” societies such as Persia/Iran, Mexico, Argentina, Cuba, Nicaragua, Thailand, China, and the states of the Persian/Arabian Gulf. The end of formal European empires led to the creation of new informal ones during the Cold War and beyond.
Revolts, colonial
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: January 2016

AbstractColonial revolts were a frequent occurrence in nearly every empire in history. They played a crucial role in both the forms empire took and the formation of the identity and culture of populations subjected to colonial rule. Rebellions against colonial rule took many forms, ranging from small insurrections of only a few dozen insurgents to massive uprisings involving hundreds of thousands of combatants. This entry discusses cases in the ancient world and then gives examples of colonial revolts from the Early Modern period, particularly those of indigenous peoples or enslaved populations of African descent. The global empires created by European states after 1450 faced frequent rebellions, as did continental empires like the United States and Russia. The numerous revolts that broke out in European empires after 1945 ultimately led to the end of those empires by the 1970s.
Exploration and empire
Authors: Etherington Norman , MacKenzie John M. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
All empires develop a worldview embracing the horizons of their actual and aspirational power. Exploration generally involved efforts to push these horizons further outwards, sometimes through the enterprising journeys of traders, travelers, and geographers interested in what lay beyond their immediate world, and of the military in search of further conquests. Exploration is a characteristic of the Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and Asian worlds with further maritime explorations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. European explorations of northern Europe, the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea were prosecuted by medieval Norsemen, while there were also exploratory journeys in Asia in the same period. Modern European exploration is dated from the late 15th century, building to a climax in the 19th. By this time exploration was ideologically charged, closely bound up with the extension of western empires, of white settlement across the world, as well as the development of all forms of scientific study.
Rustamid Imamate
Authors: Aillet Cyrille 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Rustamid Imamate (777–909ce) is still considered the symbol of a vanished Golden Age and the model for an anti‐absolutist and collegial form of government by today's Ibadis. It was also one of the first autonomous Islamic states in North Africa and its capital, Tâhart (northwestern Algeria), achieved prosperity during the 9th century thanks to its pioneering role in trans‐Saharan trade.
Financial institutions
Authors: Dilley Andrew 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The histories of finance and empire have been intimately entwined. This entry charts the evolution of financial institutions from the late 15th to the 21st century. It focuses on global centers (Amsterdam, London, Paris, and New York especially) and their activities, considering their relationship with European states and empires. First it charts the emergence of a distinctive bundle of financial institutions in Early Modern Europe. Then it examines the changing nature of finance between 1815 and 1914. This period saw far more extensive export of European financial institutions and European capital, processes long suspected of being strongly connected with imperialism. Finally it considers the 20th century, a period in which financial power ceased to be solely concentrated in Europe and in which new financial devices reconfigured relations between finance and states.
Kazakh Khanate
Authors: Lazzerini Edward J. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Kazakh Khanate was created in 1456 by two Chinggisid princes – Karay and Janibek – who broke from the Shaybanid ruler, Abu'l‐Khayr Khan, and moved their clans north from the Syr‐Dar'ia River in Central Asia. After the collapse of Shaybanid rule, the Kazakh tribes had spread across the northern steppe and came to be distinguished from other tribes – increasingly identified as Uzbeks – that remained south of the Syr‐Dar'ia. The ambition of Kazakh khans almost always exceeded their ability to unify the tribes under their nominal control, given the great authority wielded by local and regional subordinates. Terrible conflict with Oirot Mongols that led to repeated destruction of Kazakh resources kept them on the defensive as they grew weaker and weaker in the 17th and 18th centuries, just at the time that the Russian Empire was moving southward into Kazakh lands. The official end of the Khanate is dated 1848.