bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Association of Serum Autotaxin Levels with Liver Fibrosis in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C
Authors: Yamazaki Tomoo , Joshita Satoru , Umemura Takeji , Usami Yoko , Sugiura Ayumi , Fujimori Naoyuki , Shibata Soichiro , Ichikawa Yuki , Komatsu Michiharu , Matsumoto Akihiro , Igarashi Koji , Tanaka Eiji 
Published: April 2017

AbstractMetabolized by liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted enzyme considered to be associated with liver damage. We sought to clarify the diagnostic ability of ATX for liver fibrosis in 593 biopsy-confirmed hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients. The diagnostic accuracy of ATX was compared with clinical parameters and the established fibrosis biomarkers Wisteria floribunda agglutinin-positive Mac-2-binding protein, FIB-4 index, AST-to-platelet ratio, and Forn’s index. Median ATX levels were consistently higher in female controls and patients than in their male counterparts (P < 0.01). Serum ATX concentration increased significantly according to liver fibrosis stage in overall and both genders (P < 0.001). The cutoff values of ATX for prediction of fibrosis stages ≥F1, ≥F2, ≥F3, and F4 were 0.8, 1.1, 1.3, and 1.7 mg/L, respectively, in male patients and 0.9, 1.7, 1.8, and 2.0 mg/L, respectively, in female patients. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for ATX to diagnose fibrosis of ≥F2 (0.861) in male patients was superior to those of FIB-4 index and Forn’s index (P < 0.001), while that in female patients (0.801) was comparable with those of the other markers. ATX therefore represents a novel non-invasive biomarker for liver fibrosis in HCV-infected patients.
Semantics and Morphosyntactic Variation
Authors: Francez Itamar , Koontz-Garboden Andrew 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Systematic variation in form between semantic equivalents across languages is a key explanandum of linguistic theory. Two contrasting views of the role of lexical semantics in the analysis of such variation can be found in the literature: (1) uniformity, whereby lexical meaning is universal, and morphosyntactic variation arises from idiosyncratic differences in the inventory and phonological shape of language-particular functional material, and (2) transparency, whereby systematic variation in form arises from systematic variation in the meaning of basic lexical items. This volume contrasts these views as applied to the empirical domain of property concept sentences—sentences expressing adjectival predication and their translational equivalents across languages. Demonstrating that property concept sentences vary systematically between possessive and predicative form, the authors propose a transparentist analysis of this variation that links it to the lexical denotations of basic property concept lexemes. At the heart of the analysis are qualities: mass-like model-theoretic objects that closely resemble scales. The authors contrast their transparentist analysis with uniformitarian alternatives, demonstrating its theoretical and empirical advantages. They then show that the proposed theory of qualities can account for interesting and novel observations in two central domains of grammatical theory: the theory of lexical categories, and the theory of mass nouns. The overall results highlight the importance of the lexicon as a locus of generalizations about the limits of crosslinguistic variation.
Variation in the form of property concept sentences: The explananda
Authors: Francez Itamar , Koontz-Garboden Andrew 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
This chapter demarcates the empirical scope of the book, defining the key notions of property concept sentence and property concept lexeme, showing that property concept sentences vary in whether they invoke the morphosyntax of canonical predication or the morphosyntax of possession. We consider, at a descriptive level, how the nature of the property concept lexeme in a property concept sentence is tied to this variation. Facts from several languages of particular interest are surveyed, including Hausa, Bisa, Ulwa, and Huitoto. It is then shown that the same kind of variation as is observed in property concept sentences is also observed in comparatives.
Zoological Researches
Authors: Barnes Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Aristotle’s first period in Athens had lasted for twenty years. In 347 he suddenly left, probably for political reasons. During his travels, 347–35, he undertook most of the work on which his scientific reputation rests. He made or collected observations in astronomy, meteorology, chemistry, physics, psychology, and other sciences; but his scientific fame rests primarily on his work in zoology and biology. According to ‘Zoological researches’, his studies on animals laid the foundations of the biological sciences and were not superseded for over two millennia. His History of Animals is not flawless, but it is a masterpiece. Nowhere else does Aristotle show more vividly his ‘desire to know’.
Reality
Authors: Barnes Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Science is about real things. That is what makes it knowledge rather than fantasy. But what things are real? What are the fundamental items with which science is concerned? That is the question of ontology, to which Aristotle devoted much attention. One of his ontological essays, the Categories, is relatively clear; but most of his ontological thought is to be found in the more obscure Metaphysics. ‘Reality’ attempts to determine what Aristotelian substances are. The first and plainest examples of substances are animals and plants and perhaps also artefacts. In general, perceptible things — middle-sized material objects — are Aristotle’s basic realities and the things with which science is principally concerned.
Causes
Authors: Barnes Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Material objects change, and their changes are caused. The scientist’s world is full of causes, and scientific knowledge requires the capacity to state causes and to give explanations. We should expect Aristotle’s scientific treatises to contain many causal pronouncements and explanations, and his philosophical essays to include some account of the nature of causation and explanation. ‘Causes’ introduces Aristotle’s doctrine of the ‘four causes’: the material cause; the formal cause; the motive cause and the final cause. Aristotle does not admit causeless events into the natural world. But he accepts that not all events are amenable to scientific understanding; for not everything exhibits the sort of regularity which science requires.
Aristotle’s World-Picture
Authors: Barnes Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
According to ‘Aristotle’s World-Picture’, Aristotle was a remarkable scientist and a profound philosopher, but it was as a philosopher-scientist that he excelled. The elements of the sublunary world are four: earth, air, fire, and water. Our earth is naturally at the centre of the universe. Beyond it lie the moon, the sun, the planets, and the fixed stars, attached to a series of concentric spheres. Aristotle argued that the physical universe is spatially finite but temporally infinite. The celestial spheres, and the bodies they carry, are quintessential and divine; but they are moving divinities. Beyond them, incorporeal and outside the universe, is the changeless source of change: the ‘unmoved mover’.
Variety within early Confucianism
Authors: Gardner Daniel K. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Variety within early Confucianism’ considers two very different, early interpretations of the Confucian tradition that have influenced education, social practices, and intellectual tradition throughout imperial Chinese history: that of Mencius (fourth c.bce) and of Xunzi (third c.bce). Both followers of Confucius agree that: (1) man is morally perfectible; and (2) to achieve moral perfection man must undertake a self-cultivation process. But for Mencius, the source of man's moral potential is internal, found in man's nature itself; for Xunzi, man's nature is evil and he must look externally to his environment and culture to find moral resources to redirect his recalcitrant human nature.
Confucianism in practice
Authors: Gardner Daniel K. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Confucianism in practice’ shows how Confucianism was played out in everyday family life, in the moral education of peasants and elite alike, and in the administration of the state. Premodern Chinese society and politics were heavily guided by Confucian principles. Prior to the thirteenth century, civil service examination candidates were expected to demonstrate mastery of the Five Classics. In 1313, with the growing influence of the Zhu Xi school, the government decreed the Four Books would now serve as the basis of the examinations. Despite undergoing frequent change and reform, the system remained intact for nearly fifteen hundred years and was a powerful force in shaping and sustaining China's cultural and social norms.
Does God exist?
Authors: Bowker John 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Does God exist?’ looks at ways in which philosophers and theologians have tried to answer that question in careful and precise language. In contrast, poets and believers use far more vivid and descriptive language to speak of God and to speak to God in prayer and worship. How are the two ‘languages’ related to each other? And do they tell us the truth? That question leads to a consideration of some of the major arguments for and against God, and to the reason why the arguments often lead to judgements of probability and not to conclusive demonstration.
The religions of Abraham
Authors: Bowker John 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The religions of Abraham: Jewish understandings of God’ looks at Judaism in detail and the foundations in the Biblical period in order to show how the distinctive Jewish understandings of God came to be established, and how also those early characterisations of God were already beginning to be changed and developed within the Biblical period itself. The ways in which the first and foundational characterisations began to be, from the earliest days, developed and transformed are considered. The most obvious are the developments of the rabbis, of Kabbalah, of Maimonides, of the Hasidim, and of liturgy and prayer.
The religions of Abraham
Authors: Bowker John 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The religions of Abraham: Muslim understandings of God’ looks at Islam, which began historically with the life and work of Muhammad (570–632). From the Muslim point of view Islam began long before that with the purpose of God in Creation that people should live according to Din. In Muslim belief the Quran is the uncorrupted, complete, and final revelation transmitted from God through Muhammad into the world. But the Quran has to be interpreted and applied. Of decisive authority in doing this were the many Traditions, known collectively as Hadith, recording the things that Muhammad said and did. On the basis of Quran and Hadith, different schools of Sharia emerged.
Modelling future climate
Authors: Maslin Mark 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Modelling future climate’ is about understanding the fundamental physical processes of the climate system. Modelling future climate considers the carbon cycle, cooling effects, carbon emissions, and the complex three-dimensional general circulation models that examine and further our understanding of the global climate system and which are used to predict future global climate. Over 40 climate models were used in developing the IPCC projections for the 2013 report. The three main realistic carbon emissions pathways suggest the global mean surface temperature could rise by between 2.8°C and 5.4°C by 2100 and predict an increase in global mean sea level of between 52 cm and 98 cm in this timeframe.
The long interlude: (12th century to 7th century bc)
Authors: Bryce Trevor 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
In the early twelfth century bc, the Greek and Near Eastern worlds were shaken by a series of catastrophic upheavals that brought the Bronze Age to an end. ‘The long interlude’ outlines the period of Babylonian history spanning the centuries from the fall of the Kassite dynasty in the mid-twelfth century to the rise of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom in the late seventh. In the course of these centuries, a number of dynasties rose and fell in Babylonia, most of them weak and short-lived, reflecting the frequent ebb and occasional flow of Babylonia’s political and military fortunes. Environmental factors, new tribal groups, and the preservation of Babylonian cultural traditions are discussed.
Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon
Authors: Bryce Trevor 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reached the height of its cultural, intellectual, and material splendour. Other cities of the kingdom also benefited greatly during his reign, especially in their material development. ‘Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon’ re-creates Nebuchadnezzar’s royal capital using evidence from the archaeological record. It describes the layout of the city and the design and structure of Babylon’s palaces and temples built by Nebuchadnezzar and his father, Nabopolassar. The twelve-day New Year festival, which celebrated the arrival of spring and Marduk’s triumph over the forces of evil, is also explained. Finally, the ‘Hanging Gardens of Babylon’ are considered. Were they real or simply a fantasy?
Babylonia in later ages: (6th century bc to 2nd century ad)
Authors: Bryce Trevor 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Babylon in later ages’ begins with Babylonia under Persian rule when Cyrus invaded in 539. He honoured, preserved, and maintained Babylon’s and Babylonia’s time-honoured traditions, cults, gods, and religious customs and sought to remove every trace of Nabonidus’s reign. Babylonia remained under Persian control until the year 330 when the final remnants of the Persian empire fell to Alexander the Great, who died in Babylon in 323. Then came the Seleucid empire under Seleukos, followed by control under the Parthians. Despite numerous changes in rule, the traditional elements of Babylonian religious life and some of the traditional elements of Babylonian intellectual life survived well into the first century ad.
Reasoning
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Why do different intellectual abilities tend to cluster together? Do we think in language? Why are human beings so intelligent? ‘Reasoning’ considers these questions by looking at the processes involved in non-verbal problem solving, spatial relations, thought, and language. Fluid reasoning, needed for IQ tests, depends on the dorsal executive system. Reasoning with verbal material involves the semantic system and also engages the parietal cortex. One reason for human intelligence is that humans are taught in a language, meaning that they inherit knowledge and understanding cumulatively. This is possible because of the expansion of non-primary areas in the human brain: the language areas, semantic system, and dorsal executive system, and in the prefrontal cortex.
The challenges of citizenship, 1848–1920
Authors: Ware Susan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘The challenges of citizenship, 1848–1920’ outlines the pressing issues of American life from the Civil War through to World War I. The activism of women such as Ida Wells-Barnet describes the struggle for African Americans to find political and economic justice after emancipation. Jim Crow segregation and hardening racial attitudes made free life for African Americans very difficult. The Civil War also acted as an important spur to industrialization. Immigration and female wage labor was central to this surge. The growth of higher education was an important precondition for women's new public engagement. The final push for suffrage, which was part of the larger Progressive era reform movement, is also described.
The world of eugenics
Authors: Levine Philippa 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Early in the twentieth century, a powerful union of science and social policy emerged in countries across the world. Eugenics was a movement committed to using the principles of heredity and of statistics to encourage healthy and discourage unhealthy reproduction. Throughout the twentieth century, but especially in the earlier decades, eugenics played a significant role in shaping government policy. ‘The world of eugenics’ outlines the links between eugenics and social reform and the differences between positive and negative eugenics. It discusses how Nazism and eugenics became so closely connected; the rise of eugenics in science and culture worldwide; the approach to eugenics by different religions; and finally the forms of resistance to eugenics.
Eugenic intelligence
Authors: Levine Philippa 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Nothing was more important for eugenicists than intelligence. A means to measure intelligence and identify feeble-mindedness was central to the policies that eugenics promoted. ‘Eugenic intelligence’ explains the definition and classification of feeble-mindedness that resulted in the segregation and incarceration of thousands of people. It outlines the origins of intelligence testing with French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in 1905 and the mass application of intelligence testing that informed the social policies of the early twentieth century. It also explores the belief that feeble-mindedness was the actual cause of undesirable social behaviors; explains the links between race and intelligence; and discusses the critics who rejected the principles behind intelligence testing and disavowed a purely hereditary understanding of intelligence.
Eugenic reproduction
Authors: Levine Philippa 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Driven by the dream of improving humanity down the generations, the management of reproduction was the core activity for which eugenicists strived. Although they had many different visions, eugenicists all agreed that their central task was to create for the future a fitter world through healthier reproduction. ‘Eugenic reproduction’ outlines the policies employed worldwide to further this aim: marriage laws; encouraging reproduction through incentives designed to secure healthy and stable population growth among the fit; sex education to inspire responsible reproduction; artificial insemination; birth control; abortion; euthanasia; and sterilization. Sterilization remains the most widely recognized of negative eugenic measures. It was most notably implemented in the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia.
Eugenics after 1945
Authors: Levine Philippa 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Eugenics after 1945’ clearly shows that the Nuremburg trials did not spell the end of eugenics, though they did tarnish its reputation considerably. Eugenic policies were simply renamed. The urge to improve, to direct, and to control human reproduction in an age of genetic expertise is unlikely to see eugenic desires and aims dissipate. Eugenics remains a movement yielding a variety of views and positions, many of them truly benevolent in intention if not always in application. The emphasis in modern eugenic practice is on individual choice and consumer preference. Proponents of the new reprogenetics hail the prospect of individuals choosing to enhance and improve their offspring, but what about those without the means to participate?
Black holes and spin-offs
Authors: Blundell Katherine 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
Black holes influence and interact with their surroundings. Plasma lobes exhibited by some active galaxies are created by jets that are squirted out from the immediate surroundings of a black hole, outside the event horizon. When the jets impinge on the intergalactic medium, shock waves form within which spectacular particle acceleration occurs, and the energized plasma which originated from near the black hole, billows up and flows out of the immediate shock region. As the plasma expands, it imparts enormous quantities of energy to the intergalactic medium. ‘Black holes and spin-offs’ describes the powerful luminosity of quasars, their synchrotron radiation, and the much smaller microquasars.
Complex physical systems (CPS)
Authors: Holland John H. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Complex physical systems’ considers the characteristics of complex physical systems (CPS), which are often geometric (specifically, lattice-like) arrays of elements, in which interactions typically depend only on effects propagated from nearest neighbors. The elements of a CPS follow fixed physical laws, usually expressed by differential equations—Newton’s laws of gravity and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism are cases in point. Neither the laws nor the elements change over time; only the positions of the elements change. CPS show several properties: self-organized criticality, self-similarity, scaling, and power laws. Examples of these properties—such as, snowflake curves, fractals, networks, dynamics, and symmetry-breaking—are discussed.
Ideas
Authors: Dobson Andrew 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Ideas’ explains the key ideas driving environmental politics. It begins with The Limits to Growth (1972) that questioned the long-term future of the Earth as a life-support system for humans. The concepts of ecological modernization, moral extensionism, ethics and the environment, deep ecology, and anthropocentrism are considered. It goes on to explain the ideology of ecologism and how it can be distinguished from conservatism, liberalism, socialism, feminism, and environmentalism. A central belief of ecologism is that aggregate growth must be reduced, and that this is very unlikely to be achieved by efficiency gains alone. The other core belief turns on the question of why (if at all) we should value the non-human natural world.
Mythology and history
Authors: Ansari Ali M. 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Mythology and history’ describes the combined mythological and historical narratives that have had a powerful influence on contemporary Iranian identity. The mythological dynasties and stories were first written down in the 10th century by Abul Qasem Ferdowsi, in his epic poem Shahnameh, which has endured through the Muslim conquest and European Enlightenment due to its ethical function. Real historical figures, including Khosrow I and the Sasanian dynasty, are also described. The legacy of the ancient world for modern Iran can be discerned in four distinct areas: language; religion; and history; all of which contributed to the fourth: a distinct culture and ethical world view, based on an idea of justice.
Changing perspectives
Authors: Luck Martin 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
It is now more realistic to see hormones as a collection of biologically active chemicals, each of which just happens to cause one cell to change its behaviour in response to another, rather than individually identifiable chemical signals, secreted in one place in the body and acting in another. The endocrine system and hormones have evolved to become extremely complex. ‘Changing perspectives’ shows that there are abundant examples of how contemporary understanding of hormones has been exploited to detect, prevent, treat, and cure disease. Hormones have also been used to improve human and animal performance, and, in the case of sport, sometimes abused. Future hormone research and potential future applications may challenge our ethical views.
Genes of small effect
Authors: Slack Jonathan 
Published: April 2017

Abstract
‘Genes of small effect’ considers unidentified genes whose variants collectively affect some characteristic of interest. Many aspects of living organisms depend not on the action of a few genes, but on the actions of many, each having a small effect on the overall characteristic. This assumption has been used successfully to inform the breeding of agricultural animals and plants. But some of the concepts have also been very controversial when applied to human beings. The heritability—the proportion of the variance in a population attributable to genetic variation—of human height, serious mental illness, and IQ is considered along with results from genome wide association studies.