bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hydrogen Imbalance in Petroleum Source
Authors: Bhattacharya Swapan Kumar 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
The average molar hydrogen concentration relative to carbon is always higher in petroleum than the source organic matter and thus it becomes a serious concern for the theory of organic origin. On the other hand, abiogenic theory of petroleum generation do not have this problem because hydrogen is available even deep inside the earth either due to serpentinization or by chemical reactions of freshly cut ferromagnesian mineral surface with water. Although available hydrogen thus favours abiogenic theory for petroleum generation, but the field and other laboratory evidences in favour of organic origin are so convincing that it is very difficult to accept generation of petroleum other than the organic source. In this work attempt has been made to critically review this hydrogen imbalance problem within a fence of organic origin of petroleum.
Though the organic matter is deficient in hydrogen, yet it can generate petroleum if its deficiency is compensated by some other source. Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis, in which coal and organic biomass is catalytically converted to liquid petroleum using water gas as a source of hydrogen, experimentally supports the above statement. Many of the recent workers believe petroleum is generated from organic matter and the deficient hydrogen is made available from the subsurface water. This is further supported by hydrous pyrolysis and also by isotope exchange reactions with water.
In this paper critical review is made to understand the limitations of these supporting evidences. High pressure temperature conditions in FT synthesis cannot be a model for natural petroleum generation and thermodynamically it can be shown that it is nearly impossible to spontaneously convert dead organic matter to petroleum compounds. An alternate solution is proposed here suggesting petroleum is possibly generated using dominantly the lipids of organic matter that has higher H/C compared to petroleum.
Conversion of Olefins in LPG through hydrogenation
Authors: Gurumoorthi Gurulakshmanan , Vanjilingam Balaji , Digraskar Ganesh 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
The objective is to remove undesirable components namely olefins present in the Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stream in order to match the quality pertaining to environmental aspects and safety requirements which are achieved by processing the unsaturated hydrocarbons to the saturated hydrocarbon product. The principal reason for removing the olefins is that it certainly produces significant smoke based on the mole percent of olefin content when the fuel is burnt and that which is not desirable when it is being utilized by the end users inorder to provide a smoke free environment. Hence a detailed study and analysis which was carried out for hydrogenating the olefins to produce saturates have been discussed here. The complete analyses have been modelled and simulated using process modelling software hysys. The efficiency in terms of the final achievable product with respect to the throughput plays a vital role in the quality of saturated LPG product. The results are analyzed with respect to the feedstock composition of unsaturated LPG to the obtained saturated LPG product composition. This gas processing method of treating unsaturated LPG provides us a cleaner and safe environment by reducing the emission / smoke intensity levels while burning the fuel.

Description of the model
In order to mitigate the olefins in the LPG and achieve desired specification, it is intended to go for a Hydrogenation facility to saturate olefins. The feedstock comprises of known composition of the liquefied petroleum gas with identified mole percent of the unsaturated hydrocarbons. The complete model is carried out in the process modelling software, Hysys. Peng-robinson property package is used as the simulation basis.
Olefins in LPG entering into the feed vessel at a pressure of 26 bar and 40°C (Refer to Figure 1 for the schematic representation of the hydrogenation facility), is then pumped via feed pump to the equalizer. Fresh hydrogen stream is mixed at the equalizer for hydrogenation reaction to occur in the Hydrogenation reactor. Mixer upstream of the reactor ensures that proper mixing takes place for enhancing the reactivity of this two phase flow. The reaction is input for 98% conversion of the base components which are fed as input with appropriate stoichiometric coefficients. Hydrogenation reactor is loaded with specific metal based catalysts which have ability to convert olefins to saturated hydrocarbons. The exothermicity causes an increased temperature in the product. The flow in the reactor to be taken care to avoid channelling effects for more efficient conversion. There are two beds of reactor considered in the reactor. Each reaction continues until the specified conversion is attained or until a limiting reactant is depleted.
Multiples, Diffractions and Diffracted Multiples in the South China Sea: How Dense Does Our Acquisition Geometry Need to Be?
Authors: Quinn Rosemary , Comeaux Lynn 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
Multiples, diffractions and their multiples are a common feature of marine seismic data. In some areas of the South China Sea, the residual multiples are a significant problem as they are coincident with the reservoir section. In such cases, we need to devote additional resources to further attenuate the multiples, particularly the diffracted multiples. The challenge is to assess how much effort is sufficient and whether that effort is required during data acquisition, data processing, or both?
The work presented in this paper is the result of a real problem that we faced a couple of years ago when planning a seismic survey in the South China Sea. In the absence of 3D seismic data from nearby, the challenge was to demonstrate that 2D SRME would be inadequate in this area and that denser data acquisition would be required to attenuate multiples sufficiently to allow the 3D seismic data to be used for development drilling.
The requirement for 3D SRME in areas with rugose seabeds or other multiple generating interfaces is well-documented (van Borselen et al 2005, McHugo et al 2009 and Hung et al 2010 for example). That is one aspect of the challenge faced in the area of this case study: the seabed is locally steeply-dipping and there are shallow diffractors that generate structurally complicated multiples. Both of these factors indicate that 3D SRME would be more effective at attenuating multiples on data from this area than 2D SRME; this requirement was successfully argued using analogue data examples.
It is well understood that aliased multiples cannot be effectively attenuated during data processing. We used 2D lines where the seabed multiple was well-attenuated and only the diffracted multiples were troublesome to conduct a decimation test. Ambient noise was attenuated then traces were dropped without an anti-alias filter from 6.25m to give a trace spacing of 12.5m, 18.75m and 25m in the shot domain. This simulates the cross-line trace interval that would be achieved with 50m, 75m and 100m streamer spacing and dual source flip-flop acquisition geometry. Using this technique we were able to demonstrate that the minimum acceptable streamer spacing would be 75m, assuming that one pass of trace interpolation could be used prior to demultiple processing.

Introduction
The work presented in this paper is the result of a real problem that we were faced with a couple of years ago when planning a seismic survey in the South China Sea. The reservoir interval is contamined with residual multiples and diffracted multiples. The challenge we had was to demonstrate that not only was 3D SRME probably the solution to the problem, but also that we needed to acquire data more densely than had been done previously in the area. Both these options require significant additional expenditure, but the acquisition option is around 2 orders of magnitude more expensive than the processing option.
Malaysia East Belumut Field: Doubling a Marginal Field's Reserves by Understanding the Application of Enabling Technology
Authors: Ong Tee-suan , Lambert Mark , Goodin Barry John , Othman Mohamad 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
Successful application of enabling technologies in the phased development of Malaysia's marginal East Belumut field resulted in reserves doubling between Field Development approval in 2006 and post development in 2010. The field development has multiple challenges given the thin-oil column (46 feet) entirely within the transition zone, unfavorable crude quality, a large gas-cap and extensive bottom water, a large but low relief structure, and a shallow poorly consolidated sandstone reservoir.
Developing such a marginal field requires extensive reservoir simulation to plan the optimal well spacing, counts, lengths, vertical positioning of horizontal well or landing depths, and withdrawal rates. To implement the plan, drilling and geosteering technologies must achieve extended reach wells with long (greater than 6000 feet) open-hole horizontal sections. Completions require Stand Alone Screens (SAS) and Inflow Control Devices (ICD) to prevent sand production and to distribute the drawdown evenly along the entire well length. The ICD designs are modeled using segmented well simulation models with ICD configurations.
After the initial development, extensive field trials are conducted to measure well drawdown, water breakthrough timing, and water-cut increase. Production Logging Tools (PLT) coupled with tractor and tracer technologies are applied to confirm the entire horizontal section contributes to total fluid inflow. The field trial data is subsequently used for validating the simulation result and optimizing the next phase of development.
At the end of 2010 the field has two and a half years of production history from two successful phases of development (14 wells drilled). A third phase of development drilling has begun in second quarter 2011 and it is expected the final well count for the final development will be 30 to 40 horizontal producers. The oil production build-up and rate are performing better than those envisaged in the original development plan. As a result the reserves have doubled since the initial development.

Introduction
East Belumut field is located 160 miles northeast of Terengganu, Malaysia near Vietnam and Indonesia (Figure 1). East Belumut's primary oil reservoir is a Tertiary-aged, areally extensive, highly porous and permeable oil reservoir. East Belumut is considered a marginal field development due to the initial low reserves. East Belumut is a particularly challenging development due to the thin 46-feet oil column, the low-gravity (23°API) high-viscosity (3cP) oil, and the productive interval being entirely within the oil-water transition zone. Furthermore, the field has a large but low relief structure, a shallow poorly consolidated sandstone reservoir and the thin oil column is sandwiched between an underlying bottom aquifer and a gas cap.
FLNG Development: Strategic Approaches to New Growth Challenges
Authors: Bunnag Maneenapang , Amarutanon Nunthachai , Nitayaphan Saranee , Aimcharoenchaiyakul Manit 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
Underneath the ground, the world still left a quarter of its natural gas resources (approximately 2 billion TCF) undeveloped or "Stranded" in offshore. Many gas fields were discovered in many decades ago, but the resources of those fields could not commercially be justified for the development so they were classified as marginal fields. One of the most promising solutions known as "Floating Liquefied Natural Gas or FLNG" is lately growing and foreseen as potential technical to monetize these marginal gas fields offshore and near-shore. We are well aware of the potential in FLNG technology and consider it as the one of the most important initiatives to lead our organization to achieve target growth.
Many challenges in developing FLNG, however, have been found from major players in the past decade. Although land-based LNG and offshore FPSOs are each successfully proven in operations, combining the two technologies into FLNG is complicated and face various technical challenges e.g. safety, ship motion, topside processing, hull & containment, offloading, integration, and operation. The critical aspect of FLNG is space constraint, which requires fully attention in order to deliver inherently safe and fit-for-purpose installation. Altogether, FLNG concept shall fulfill a good balance between efficiency and simplicity to safeguard the reliability of the facility.
Moreover, commercial aspect of FLNG is also highly challenging. With costly investment, FLNG project shall be carefully ensured if it is economic viable in every step of the project. The sensitivity of market, LNG price, and demand & supply shall be reviewed and taken into consideration prior to making the Final Investment Decision (FID).
Certainly, FLNG initiative still has a lot of queries. However, after years of study and development in all aspects of floating liquefaction, it finally leads to the key conclusion that today there is no technical issue as "show stopper" for FLNG; whereas economic is also promisingly attractive. We believe that we have started on the right track and in the right sequence as well as adopting a risk management in selecting the right size and the right technology for FLNG.
Heterogeneity of the Hydrocarbon Distribution in Tertiary Sediments of North-East Sarawak
Authors: Ramli Mohd Syamim , Padmanabhan Eswaran 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
There are tremendous spatial and temporal variability within the sedimentary rock types of the Belait (Early-Mid Miocene) and Lambir (Mid-Miocene) Formations in North Eastern Sarawak. With the current renewed interest in oil and gas exploration in this part of Malaysia, evaluating the distributions of hydrocarbon resources in both Formations will be of valuable interests for the industry.
The IR spectra of both Formations showed presence of aliphatic and aromatic components. Total organic carbon results for both Formations show that majority of the samples from the Belait Formation possess much higher percentage of organic carbon contents than the Lambir Formation. In comparing the E4/E6 values, it is observed that the high E4/E6 values give rise to more aromatic components and low E4/E6 values show strong presence of aliphatic peaks in the spectra. Positive relationship exists between the mean pore size and E4/E6 in the Lambir Formation, whereas, in the Belait Formation, the same trend is observed between the porosity and E4/E6 ratios.
Variability in these geochemical patterns indicate that there are differences in the quality of hydrocarbon between the Formations. The study shows that the variation of aromatic and aliphatic bonds found in the samples suggests differences in terrestrial origin and marine origin and a complicated depositional pattern temporally and spatially. Variability in the kerogen type discussed above indicates differences in the quality of hydrocarbon between the Formations. Heterogeneity within the same samples here suggests that different rates of migration might occur within the reservoir quality rocks of the Lambir Formation. This indicates differences in show type between both Formations. This study reemphasizes the importance of FTIR in current emerging trends in hydrocarbon research.

Introduction
North-West Borneo has been producing oil and gas since the 1903 with first onshore well drilled around Miri area in 1910 (Liechti et. al., 1960). Common rock Formations in this area includes Belait Formation (Mid - Upper Miocene), Lambir Formation (Lower - Upper Miocene), Tukau Formation (Lower Oligocene) and the Mid-Miocene Miri Formation (Figure 1).
The Belait Formation which is found in the North Eastern Sarawak has been interpreted as coastal and coastal plain deposits from a range of sedimentary environments associated with a relatively large delta (Wilford, 1961) or as fluviatile (Hutchinson, 2005). Towards the coast the environment changes into fully marine, and accordingly the Belait Formation merges gradually into the more marine Lambir or Miri Formations or the uppermost part of the Setap Shale Formation (Liechti et. al., 1960). The Formation consists predominantly of sandstones and alternating shales with minor limestone and marl in some places (Haile, 1957; Liechti et. al., 1960; Hutchinson, 2005).
Evaluation Of The South Makassar Basin Using An Integrated Multi-Discipline Approach
Authors: Courel Romain , Begg Paul , Kim Michelle Eui Kyong , Kokoh Leo , Nasif Khifni 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
The deepwater South Makassar basin is located offshore South Sulawesi in water depths averaging 2000m and is an under-explored region that was only drilled at its periphery. Talisman operates the Sageri, South Sageri and Sadang PSCs located in the central part of the basin.
This basin belongs to the South-Eastern margin of the Sundaland geological province. Tertiary sediment deposition occurred due to a rifting period of Eocene age, during which crustal extension created a tilted basement blocks topography, filled with continental to shallow-water syn-rift clastic sediments composed of volcanics, sands, coals, and shales. Carbonate development followed as more marine conditions prevailed by mid Eocene time. Rifting terminated at the end of the Eocene and the water depth increased, resulting in the progressive drowning of most carbonate buildups.
Ultra-deepwater conditions were then rapidly established in the central part of the basin, where sedimentation never caught up with the high subsidence resulting in a thick, shaly Neogene overburden section.
Talisman conducted a regional study to support the exploration of the South Makassar basin. However there was no data to calibrate the thermal state of the central deepwater area, which remained unknown due to the different nature or thickness of its crust.
A seabed data acquisition campaign including heat flow measurements provided the necessary calibration. The heat flow was then mapped using the BSR (Bottom Simulating Reflector) horizon, showing lateral variations within a range of 50 to 75 mW/m2, overall higher than in the adjoining North Makassar basin (30 - 60 mW/m2).
Results of the basin model indicate a significant present-day gas generative window in the centre of the basin and less mature kitchens in the southern grabens toward the south Platform. The primary structural traps are in place and receiving early hydrocarbons since the Mid-Miocene, but the migration/trapping efficiency is unknown.
The South Makassar is one of the remaining high potential frontier areas to be explored within Indonesia. Talisman's methodology to apply a regional multi-disciplined analysis to this basin has led to an early qualified evaluation of its petroleum system. This has allowed for timely business decisions to be made and as a result Talisman is in a strategically good position for the exploration of this basin.
Quantification of Pore Structure in a Miocene Carbonate Build-up of Central Luconia, Sarawak and Its Relationship to Sonic Velocity
Authors: Bashah Nor Sara Izzati , Pierson Bernard J. 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
Carbonate rocks frequently exhibit velocity-porosity relationships less predictable than those found in siliciclastics because of complex and heterogeneous pore structures. Traditional pore-type classifications describe these pore structures but are inadequate for correlations to the rock's physical properties.
In this preliminary research, velocity measurements of 20 core plugs of a Miocene carbonate platform in Central Luconia, Sarawak were made under dry-saturated condition at variable confining pressures and at effective pressures of 20MPa. The cross plot of measured velocity and porosity shows scattering along the Wyllie's time average equation. The large scattering in most cases will result in large uncertainties in seismic inversion and calculations of porosity volumes.
Digital image analysis (DIA) of thin section images were used to derived quantitative pore geometric parameters. Four DIA parameters proved to best describe several aspects of the pore system: dominant size (DOMsize), perimeter over area (PoA), roundness (?) and aspect ratio (AR). Combination of porosity, microporosity and these four geometric parameters improves coefficient of determination (R2) velocity estimation from 0.9219 to 0.9974.

Introduction
The Central Luconia Province is a broad and stable continental shelf, characterized by extensive development of Late Miocene carbonates. About 56 carbonate build-ups are proven to contain commercial quantities of non-associated gas in carbonate reservoirs. The Central Luconia Province contains about 40% of the total non-associated gas reserves of Malaysia (Yamin and Abolins, 1999).
Carbonate rocks frequently exhibit velocity-porosity relationships less predictable than those found in siliciclastics because of complex and heterogeneous pore structures. Traditional pore-type classifications describe these pore structures but are inadequate for correlations to the rock's physical properties.
This research aimed at verifying the inadequacy of porosity prediction from sonic velocities in Miocene carbonate reservoirs of Central Luconia and at investigating the main causes for the deviations between measured and calculated porosity. A total of 20 core plugs of a Miocene carbonate platform from a well in one of the carbonate platform of Central Luconia, Sarawak, were used for this preliminary verification.
Investigating the Effect of Polymer Gels Swelling Phenomenon under Reservoir Conditions on Polymer Conformance Control Process
Authors: Tu Tho N. , Wisup Bae 
Published: May 2016

Abstract
High water cut and water influx into production wells has become a serious problem in producing oil. Polymer gels treatment has been applied widely for near well bore regions to reduce water production. In water shut - off process, effective permeability, permeability reduction after gels treatment plays an important role for evaluating the level of reducing water cut. However, under complex reservoir conditions including pH, salinity, high pressure, and temperature, the polymer gels behavior is significantly affected by those parameters, such as pH affects to the gel strength; the difference in salinity concentration between formation water and polymer solvent (water) causes swelling phenomenon by osmotic pressure. Moreover, due to the presenting of reservoir crude oil, the shrinking phenomenon of polymer gels is taken into account. The swelling and shrinking phenomenon affect extremely on blocking porous media.
Laboratory experiments are carried out to perform these behaviors in batch system which is able to work at reservoir conditions. Two types of polymer with high and low molecular weight are used; chromium acetate is used as cross-linker agents. Several gels samples are tested in ambient and reservoir conditions (high pressure, high temperature, difference in salinity and pH) to investigate polymer gels behavior. These polymer gels samples are used in injecting into the sand-pack cores. Disproportional permeability reductions are measured with each polymer type.
Experiment results showed that the percent of increment in volume reaches 25 % (within 72 hours) with high salinity of polymer solvent (3%) and low salinity of formation water (0.5%). The lowest increment occurs when differential salinity is 0 % and 0.5 %. Moreover, water permeability is reduced strongly (67% of reduction) while it has less effect to oil permeability (17.5% of reduction) after polymer gels treatment. These investigations are important in evaluating the effectiveness of water shut-off process.