bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Authors: Malanczuk Peter 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (‘ASEAN’) is Southeast Asia’s primary regional organization (see also → International Law, Regional Developments: South and South-East Asia; → Regional Co-operation and Organization: Asian States; → Regional Co-operation and Organization: Pacific Region). It promotes economic and political cooperation among its members as well as regional peace and security. Established in 1967, ASEAN’s five original members were Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. They were joined by Brunei in 1984 after it had gained independence from the United Kingdom, Vietnam in 1995, Laos and Burma (Myanmar) in 1997, and finally Cambodia (delayed by its internal political struggle) in 1999. Thus, ASEAN presently includes ten States with rather different cultures (for example, Indonesia has the world’s largest Muslim population), political systems (for example, democracies, monarchies, communist party, and military regimes) and levels of economic development (for example, poor Cambodia and rich Singapore).
Brazilian Loans Case and Serbian Loans Case
Authors: Sander Gerald G 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Both the Case concerning the Payment in Gold of the Brazilian Federal Loans issued in France (France v United States of Brazil) (‘Brazilian Loans Case’) and the Case concerning the Payment of Various Serbian Loans issued in France (France v Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) (‘Serbian Loans Case’) dealt with the contractual fulfilment of loans agreement obligations under municipal law between French bond holders and the Brazilian State on the one hand and the Serbian State on the other hand (→ Debts). Of particular interest was how the → Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) determined its jurisdiction (→ International Courts and Tribunals, Jurisdiction and Admissibility of Inter-State Applications) and whether the French State has a right to represent and protect its nationals before the Court, even in civil law matters (→ Diplomatic Protection; → International Courts and Tribunals, Standing). Further, the question arose whether the Court, when ruling on a case and using municipal law, is obliged to take into account what the municipal courts have already said on the matter (→ International Law and Domestic [Municipal] Law).
Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CAEMC/CEMAC)
Authors: Savadogo Louis 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The establishment of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (‘CEMAC’) fell within the scope of the Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa (1980–2000) as adopted by the Conference of Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity (‘OAU’) (→ African Union [AU]), held on 28 and 29 April 1980. With this instrument, they instructed the Secretary General of the OAU ‘to appoint, as quickly as possible, a Drafting Committee, at ministerial level, to prepare the draft of the treaty establishing the African Economic Community’. This process would involve two stages. The first, during the 1980s, would seek to strengthen the existing economic communities and to establish other economic groups in various regions of the continent (Central Africa, East Africa, West Africa, and North Africa). The second, during the 1990s, would pave the way for the establishment of an African common market (see also → Regional Cooperation and Organization: African States).
Central American Court of Justice (CACJ)
Authors: Virzo Roberto , Insolia Andrea 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Since 1821, the year independence was won from Spain (→ Decolonization: Spanish Territories), some countries in the Central American isthmus have attempted to give birth to → confederations of States and have signed various agreements aimed at fostering regional integration (→ International Law, Regional Developments: Latin America). Among these is one of the treaties of Washington of 20 December 1907, the Convention for the Establishment of a Central American Court of Justice, creating the previous → Central American Court of Justice (1907–18), which effectively operated between 1911 and 1917, and the Charter of the Organization of Central American States (‘ODECA’) signed in Panama City on 12 December 1962.
Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru Case (Nauru v Australia)
Authors: Schrijver Nico J 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
On 19 May 1989, Nauru instituted proceedings against Australia before the → International Court of Justice (ICJ) in respect to a dispute over the rehabilitation of certain phosphate lands in Nauru (see also → Pacific Islands). The Pacific coral island of Nauru, from 1888 onwards administered by the German Reich until occupied by Australian forces in 1914, was granted as a class ‘C’ mandate under the mandate system of the → League of Nations to ‘His Britannic Majesty’ in 1920 (Mandate for the Island of Nauru, (signed 17 December 1920) 113 BSP 1111; see also → Colonialism; → Mandates). Pursuant to the Nauru Island Agreement of 2 July 1919, concluded between Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom to discharge performance of the mandate and to reconcile the conflicting claims of the three parties over the extensive deposits of high-grade phosphate that were discovered on the island in 1900, the administration of Nauru was vested in an administrator, alternatively to be appointed by each of the three → governments, although de facto always by Australia (Nauru Island Agreement (signed 2 July 1919) 113 BSP 151).
Colombo Plan (CP)
Authors: Wortmann Martin 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Colombo Plan for Co-operative Economic and Social Development in Asia and the Pacific (formerly in South and South-East Asia) was intended to be a cooperative framework plan between the older and newer → commonwealth countries in order to enable primarily South and South-East Asian States to help themselves through bilateral development agreements, focusing on both technical and capital assistance (see also → International Law, Regional Developments: South and South-East Asia; → Regional Co-operation and Organization: Pacific Region). The idea for the Colombo Plan goes back to a meeting of foreign ministers of the Commonwealth held in Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in January 1950. It was a response to the deteriorating economic situation due to the huge damages caused by World War II in several South and South-East Asian countries. In some of the respective → developing countries, the living standards were even lower in 1950 than they were in 1940. The Colombo Plan, as it was worked out in 1950, initially comprised three regional members—Ceylon, India, and Pakistan—and four donor members from outside the region—Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. They decided to set up a permanent Consultative Committee composed of representatives from the Member States, and scheduled the first meetings in Sydney and London for the same year.
Commercial Arbitration and Mediation Center for the Americas (CAMCA)
Authors: Ernst Andrea 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Commercial Arbitration and Mediation Center for the Americas (‘CAMCA’) is a tri-national joint creation by the four leading national → arbitration institutions in North America. The American Arbitration Association, the British Columbia International Commercial Arbitration Centre, the Centre d’arbitrage commercial national et international du Québec, as well as the Cámara Nacional de Comercio de la Ciudad de México, launched the CAMCA to provide a counterpart to the → North American Free Trade Agreement (1992) (‘NAFTA’) in the area of private commercial arbitration (→ Commercial Arbitration, International). CAMCA was founded as an independent, private, non-profit organization on 15 March 1996, four years after NAFTA. NAFTA is an international agreement between Canada, the US and Mexico that is designed to eliminate trade barriers and expand investment and trade among the three countries (see also → Free Trade Areas; → Regional Trade Agreements). It provides for different dispute settlement proceedings that may be undertaken exclusively against States (→ North American Free Trade Agreement, Dispute Settlement).
Co-operation, International Law of
Authors: Wolfrum Rüdiger 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The term ‘law of co-operation’ has been developed as a counterpart to the term ‘law of coexistence’, the latter describing the traditional modern international law (Friedman 60–63; → Peaceful Coexistence). The main feature of such international law of co-operation is the obligation of States to co-operate with each other. The term ‘co-operation’ has never been defined by an international treaty or a resolution of an international organization. Even the Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (→ Friendly Relations Declaration 1970) proceeds from a preconceived terminology. An analysis, however, of this declaration demonstrates that the term describes the voluntary co-ordinated action of two or more States which takes place under a legal regime and serves a specific objective. To this extent it marks the effort of States to accomplish an objective by joint action (→ Joint Undertakings), where the activity of a single State cannot achieve the same result.
Decolonization
Authors: Khan Rahmatullah 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Decolonization is a process that signifies the attainment of independence of colonial territories, → mandates, trusteeship territories, non-self-governing territories, and the remnants in these categories. Thanks to decolonization, more than 700 million people have attained independence since World War II. Less than 1% of the world’s population now lives under colonial rule. In the beginning of the process there were 51 dependent territories. In the current count, their number is placed at 16 (Western Sahara, American Samoa [US], Guam [US], New Caledonia [France], Pitcairn [UK], Tokelau [New Zealand], Anguilla [UK], Bermuda [UK], the British Virgin Islands [UK], the Cayman Islands [UK], → Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas, → Gibraltar [UK], Montserrat [UK], St Helena [UK], Turks and Caicos Islands [UK], and the US Virgin Islands [US]). 11 of the enumerated 16 are administered by the UK; three by the US and one each by France and New Zealand. The status of the Western Sahara, Falkland Islands, and Tokelau is undetermined.
Decolonization: Belgian Territories
Authors: Baetens Freya 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
‘Belgian Africa’ consisted of the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo [→ Congo, Democratic Republic of the]) and Ruanda-Urundi (now → Rwanda and → Burundi). The ‘Congo Free State’ was acquired by King Leopold II at the conclusion of the → Berlin West Africa Conference (1884–85) on 5 February 1885 and thereafter run as a privately controlled corporate territory. After mistreatment of the local population caused significant public pressure and diplomatic manoeuvres, culminating in an international commission of enquiry, King Leopold II had to relinquish his personal control over the territory to the Belgian State in 1908 by the Colonial Charter (Loi sur le gouvernement du Congo belge), which governed the territory until Congolese independence on 30 June 1960.
Decolonization: British Territories
Authors: Sullo Pietro 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Black’s Law Dictionary (eighth edition) defines → decolonization as ‘[t]‌he process by which a colonial power divests itself of sovereignty over a colony—-whether a territory, a protectorate or a trust territory—-so that the colony is granted autonomy and eventually attains independence’. Some scholars contend that the use of the term ‘process’ to design the phenomenon of decolonization is not proper, as the latter was the product of a multitude of often chaotic events which were not coordinated (Betts). By generalizing and simplifying the phenomenon known as ‘decolonization’ can be described as the liquidation of the colonial empires that European and some non-European countries had established over non-contiguous overseas territories from the 15th century onwards (→ Overseas Territories, Australia, France, Netherlands, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States of America).
Decolonization: Dutch Territories
Authors: van Aggelen Johannes 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
When Japan occupied the Netherlands East Indies in March 1942, the territory had been a Dutch colony for more than three centuries (→ Colonialism). In the spirit of the → Atlantic Charter (1941), Queen Wilhelmina, then in exile in London, launched a plan for a post-war commonwealth of the Netherlands, Indonesia, Suriname, and the Netherlands Antilles. At the → Potsdam Conference (1945) the Anglo-American chiefs of staff agreed to transfer jurisdiction over the Netherlands East Indies to the South-East Asia Command under Lord Mountbatten. On August 1945 he became responsible for the fate of 128 million people living in territories devastated by war and with collapsed civil administrations. The task of the Command was, inter alia, to organize the → repatriation of enemy forces after the Japanese → surrender, to liberate Allied → prisoners of war, and to maintain order until the territories had been returned to the respective authorities.
Economic Community of Central African States
Authors: Savadogo Louis 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The establishment of the Economic Community of Central African States (‘ECCAS’ ‘Community’) falls within the scope of the Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa: 1980–2000, adopted by the Conference of Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity (‘OAU’ see also → African Union [AU]), which met on 28 and 29 April 1980. This document entrusted the Secretary-General of the OAU with the task of setting up ‘as quickly as possible, a Drafting Committee, at ministerial level, to prepare the draft of the treaty establishing the African Economic Community’
Francophonie
Authors: Rabbat Paul 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Credited to French geographer Onésisme Reclus (1837–1916), the term ‘francophonie’ was coined in the latter 19th century for the purpose of designating the geographical areas occupied by States/peoples having in common the usage of the French language. Bolstered by its use in the 1962 landmark publication ‘Esprit’, ‘francophonie’ superseded alternate appellations describing the same reality such as ‘Francitude’, ‘Commonwealth francophone’, and ‘Commonwealth À la française’. Nowadays the term ‘Francophonie’ is commonly employed as the colloquial short form for the International Organization of the Francophonie (Organisation internationale de la Francophonie [‘OIF’]), an intergovernmental organization having legal personality under public international law (→ Subjects of International Law).
International Law, Regional Developments: Latin America
Authors: Marotta Rangel Vicente 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The main factors that play a decisive role in characterizing Latin American States and the entire region are chiefly related to geography, economy, cultural values, and a common historic background. The term ‘Latin America’ dates back to the 1850s, with some precedents as early as 1836. Since then, it has referred to 19 Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking countries of North America, Central America, South America and the West Indies. The Latin American States are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, → Cuba, → Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Lubanga Case
Authors: Sullo Pietro 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The case concerning Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo is the first case adjudicated by the → International Criminal ICC (ICC) through three decisions delivered respectively on 14 March (Judgment), 10 July (Decision on Sentence), and 7 August 2012 (Decision on Reparations). Lubanga, a former rebel leader active in the Ituri Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo (‘DRC’ → Congo, Democratic Republic of the), was found guilty on 14 March 2012 of the war crime of enlisting and conscripting of children under the age of 15 years and using them to participate actively in hostilities from 1 September 2002 to 13 August 2003 within the meaning of Arts 8 (2) (e) (vii) and 25 (3) (a) Rome Statute. On 10 July 2012, he was sentenced to a total of 14 years of imprisonment.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) (previously known as the Organization of the Islamic Conference)
Authors: Mahmoudi Said 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (‘OIC’) (formerly the Organization of the Islamic Conference) is an international organization, but differs from other international organizations by basing its membership on a religious identity (→ International Organizations or Institutions, Membership). Its members are States predominantly from Asia and Africa. Its existence has been justified as a response to the need for solidarity between the Muslim populations of the Member States to achieve political and economic strength.
Pacific Community
Authors: Blatt Henning 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Pacific Community is an international organization of 26 independent, self-governing, and dependent territories in the Pacific, headquartered in Nouméa, New Caledonia. Established in February 1947 as the South Pacific Commission, today’s Pacific Community is the region’s largest scientific, technical, and research development organization. After World War II, all territories in the → Pacific Islands region (with the exception of Tonga) were colonial possessions of Australia, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.
Pacific Islands
Authors: Van Dyke Jon M , Broder Sherry 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Pacific, the world’s largest ocean, contains many of the world’s largest → fish stocks and its smallest countries. Most of these isolated → islands were under colonial domination from the mid-19th century or earlier until about the 1970s, when most became independent. New Zealand (Aotearoa) and Australia participate in many Pacific regional organizations and activities and are generally viewed as partners, but they play separate and distinct roles in the region because of their larger size and differences in culture and history.
Phosphates in Morocco Case
Authors: Menzel Jörg 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The decision of the → Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) in the Phosphates in Morocco Case is one of the last decisions delivered by that Court before it stopped operating in 1939. The case was about certain alleged rights of Italian citizens to explore phosphate deposits in the then-French protectorate of Morocco (→ Protectorates and Protected States), but it was decided solely on the ground of lack of jurisdiction ratione temporis, with Italy’s claim against France therefore being rejected.
Timor Island Arbitration
Authors: Hilpold Peter 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In the Arbitral Award Rendered in Execution of the Compromis Signed at The Hague, April 3, 1913, between the Netherlands and Portugal concerning the Subject of the Boundary of a Part of their Possessions in the Island of Timor (‘Timor Island Arbitration Award’) issued on 25 June 1914 by Judge Lardy, important statements were made with regard to treaty interpretation (→ Treaties; → Interpretation in International Law), the relevance of → maps in the determination of frontiers (→ Boundaries), and with regard to the significance of the principle of → equity in international law.
United Nations, Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
Authors: Röben Volker 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Economic and Social Council (‘ECOSOC’ or ‘Council’) has the broad mandate of coordinating the economic, social, and development work of the UN that the Charter envisages in Art. 55 (c). The General Assembly (→ United Nations, General Assembly; ‘UNGA’) and the world conferences have been re-orientating the role of ECOSOC towards implementation of the 2030 sustainable development goals (‘SDGs’). The Charter-defined status as a limited membership principal organ, its competence and powers, and its functions enable ECOSOC to discharge this role.
Introduction
Authors: McDermott Yvonne 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter sets the context for the book by demonstrating that evidence issues have been at the heart of recent controversies in international criminal law, particularly before the International Criminal Court. It explains the importance of a comprehensive treatment of the law of evidence and proof in international criminal law at this time. It explores the nature of international criminal evidence, highlighting four key features that guide international criminal tribunals’ treatment of evidence: the flexibility and discretion afforded to Chambers; the free assessment of evidence; the centrality of fairness; and the search for the truth. This chapter discusses some of the unique challenges of proving international crimes and provides an overview of the structure of the remaining chapters.
Deliberation and Discussion
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the role of deliberation and discussion within lottocratic institutions, focusing particularly on potential benefits and concerns about deliberation within the agenda-setting phase, learning phase, and other parts of the lottocratic legislative process. The chapter draws a distinction between three different forms of lottocracy: wild lottocracy (with no rules or structure concerning deliberation), quiet lottocracy (with no deliberative components at all), and reflective lottocracy (with thoughtfully structured deliberation, informed by empirical study of deliberation). An argument is made that, in most political contexts, reflective lottocracy is likely to result in improved political sensibility, on the grounds that well-structured deliberation will help with learning and retention; provide an opportunity for SILL members to learn from each other by sharing evidence and experiences; present an opportunity for moral learning; break down social divisions; and promote trust, common purpose, understanding, and empathy across social lines and lines of disagreement. The chapter notes that deliberation can go awry in a number of ways, but that there is empirical evidence that many harms—harms of disrespect, harms to communality, and harms of sensibility—can be mitigated or eliminated by thoughtful design of deliberative structures. The chapter concludes by suggesting that there should be a structural assembly focused on monitoring and overseeing the rules and procedures regarding deliberation and discussion to ensure that they are functioning well.
Drawing the Line between Pure and Applied Physics
Authors: Martin Joseph D. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The categories of pure and applied science—and by extension, pure and applied physics—have a complicated relationship. They have sometimes been complements, sometimes opposites, and routinely at the center of debates about how scientific labor should be both divided and rewarded. Their presence in the name of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) indicates how these categories reflected the union’s aspiration at its founding. As the union evolved, and became more global, the question of the pure–applied distinction and its role in the organization’s mission became more fraught. This chapter explores how, and with what consequences, IUPAP managed the pure/applied distinction as its significance evolved through the last hundred years.