bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Consumption, Provisioning and
Authors: Southerton Dale 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Provisioning refers to the social and economic organization of the delivery and consumption of goods and services. There are two principle conceptual applications. The first refers to modes of provision – recognizing the many “modes” through which goods and services are provisioned (e.g., state, household, communal) and correcting for overemphasis on just one mode (markets); each mode has significant implications for how consumption is accessed, delivered, and experienced. The second refers to “systems of provision” – emphasizing the need for “vertical” analyses of particular goods or services by exploring the relationships between the many factors that shape its production and consumption, which contrasts with “horizontal” analyses that identify processes of consumption generically and extrapolate key features to be applied across a range of goods and services. After a discussion of some of the limitations of these approaches, the significance of provisioning in current debates about sustainable consumption is considered.
Convenience Sample
Authors: Clark Roger 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
A convenience sample is a nonprobability sample that involves a group of elements that is easily accessible to a researcher. Convenience samples are the most popular type of nonprobability samples used by publishing social scientists. They share with other types of nonprobability samples – for example, purposive, quota, and snowball samples – the problem of not being technically generalizable. Nonprobability samples, including convenience samples, do not meet the basic assumption of inferential statistics: that an estimate can be made of the chance that members of the population have been included in the sample. Nonetheless, research using convenience samples can be very useful for establishing the plausibility of relationships among variables, a desirable step for theory‐building.
Convivium (Who Is Friends with Whom?)
Authors: Volker Beate 
Published: September 2017

AbstractFriendship as a relationship is sociologically interesting because there is no institutional surrounding or embeddedness of friendships: While social institutions certify the start and the end of a marriage, friendships can be started, changed, or broken without notifying any other party. This entry reviews the most important theories and empirical findings on adult friendships and friendship networks.
Crime, Radical/Marxist Theories of
Authors: Sims Barbara , Goforth Craig Davidson 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
As a subset of critical theory, Marxist or radical theory challenges mainstream criminological theory to focus less on the crimes of the powerless and more on the crimes of the powerful. It does so by examining structural and economic inequalities produced by forces associated with capitalism, and argues for policies directed at reducing the social harm that disproportionately affects those groups on the margins of society.
Disneyization
Authors: Polesana Maria Angela 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Disneyization is a term coined by Alan Bryman (1999), who had been influenced by the concept of
McDonaldization
introduced by George Ritzer (1993). This concept aims to explain how the values governing the actions of these two multinational corporations establish models and a set of processes that have influenced a wide range of companies and organizations around the world. Both represent revolutionary changes in consumer environment, which have a significant impact on consumer behaviour and social life. The Walt Disney Company, in particular, founded in 1923 by Walt Disney and his brother Roy, is a complex and branched global industrial system with the following business segments: media networks, studio entertainment, consumer products and interactive media, parks and resorts. The parks in particular are the expression of Walt Disney's ideology aimed at creating “the happiest place on earth” through the construction of worlds based on entertainment and spectacularization, theming, hybrid consumption, and simulation. These tools are used to promote the consumption of goods through enchantment and are governed by strict control mechanisms in order to prevent the entry of any undesirable element of reality which may disturb happiness and order.
Education, Adult
Authors: Bills David B. , Kosyakova Yuliya 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Adult education is an increasingly important component of the educational systems of many nations and comprises a growing share of the total volume of educational attainment. In this entry, various conceptualizations of adult education are discussed and its relationship to lifelong learning is explained. The increasing relevance of adult education for persistent patterns of social inequality is examined and some of the challenges and benefits in conducting comparative studies of adult education are indicated.
Emotions and Social Movements
Authors: Yang Guobin , Pace Jonathan 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The study of emotions in social movements and collective action has been a growing field for about two decades. It gained new momentum after 2011, with the global protest wave of the “Arab Spring” and Occupy Wall Street and the explosion of social media use in these protests. This entry begins with a general discussion of the social character of emotions and their manifestations in social movements. It then traces the historical background for the rise of a sociology of social movement emotions. Finally, it reviews important works that appeared before and after the “Arab Spring” and Occupy Wall Street movements and highlights new trends of research since 2011.
Ethnic Cleansing
Authors: Duško Sekulić  
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term ethnic cleansing refers to an organized campaign to forcibly transfer a specific ethnic population out of an area. The term ethnic cleansing started to be widely used in connection with the events associated with the dissolution of the Yugoslav state in the 1990s. Although the term is a recent invention it describes an age old practice. Forced resettlements, deportations, and bringing the population of a loyal group to replace the resettled ones can be found among states practicing territorial conquests and imperial expansion.
Extracurricular Activities
Authors: Mueller Anna S. , Shifrer Dara 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Extracurricular activities are optional activities offered by the school that complement the academic curriculum and enhance the school's sense of community. Extracurriculars offer opportunities for leadership, travel, skill development, and social engagement and integration within the school. There is growing evidence that adolescents involved in extracurricular activities are generally happier and healthier than their uninvolved peers. In particular, research suggests that extracurricular participation positively influences adolescents' psychosocial development, problem and risk behaviors, relationship formation, and, perhaps most importantly, their academic achievement.
Education, Social Functions of
Authors: Kantzara Vasiliki 
Published: September 2017

AbstractEducation as an institution is related in multiple ways to organized society. The education system has been established recently in human history and, since then, has found itself in a reciprocal relationship with other societal institutions and with society as a whole. In the sociology of education, in particular, this relationship has been analyzed by employing the term “function.” The most important functions of education are socialization and qualification: New members of society are socialized into the mores and codes of the dominant culture and equipped with qualifications testifying to the knowledge and skills necessary for their subsequent social roles as citizens. At a broader scale, education contributes to social integration and cohesion and guarantees societal continuity, but it also helps to reproduce existing hierarchies and inequalities in future generations. Education, one could argue, oscillates between degrees of societal preservation and transformation.
Environmental Problems
Authors: Dunlap Riley E. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
While long in existence, environmental problems became recognized as such in the 1960s, and the 1970 Earth Day in the United States and the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment transformed “environmental quality” into a major social issue both nationally and internationally. The nature of such problems and their evolution over time is analyzed by distinguishing among three functions that the environment (technically ecosystems) serve for human societies – supply depot, waste repository, and living space. Human overuse of these three functions generates problematic conditions and increasing competition between the functions. In recent decades the resulting problems have grown in geographical scale and complexity, illustrated by human‐caused global warming, and many analysts suggest that human use of the global ecosystem is now exceeding sustainable limits.
Families and Childhood Disabilities
Authors: Green Sara E. , Wilbers Loren , Darling Rosalyn Benjamin 
Published: September 2017

AbstractResearch over the past 50 years has documented many social barriers encountered by parents raising disabled children including difficulties obtaining diagnoses, accessing information and services, and managing stigma. Parents are often forced to embark on an individual search for information and appropriate services and to fight for scarce resources. Despite the challenges, parents highlight the benefits of raising disabled children.
Family and Community
Authors: Hilliard Betty 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
From the earliest days of sociology, family and community have been central concerns of the discipline. This entry traces the relationship between these aspects of society in simple and in modern societies at both a theoretical and an empirical level. It finds that the dense interpenetration of family and community associated with earlier societies is no longer an indispensable feature of community. Geographical and social mobility, the growth of individualism and the expansion of choice offered by the internet have impacted on the nature of engagement in family and community. Changing orientations in research into family and community are identified. Both family and community remain central values in western cultures, albeit with changing conceptualizations of each.
Feminist Disability Studies
Authors: Casper Monica J. , Talley Heather Laine 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry traces the development of feminist disability studies (FDS), including its mutual emergence from feminist studies and disability studies. It explores tensions between the two fields and the ways that “disability” is often elided within feminist studies and “gender” and “women” are often left out of disability studies. Pointing to connections between feminist disability studies and fields such as critical body studies, symbolic interaction, critical race and ethnic studies, and fat studies, the authors show how FDS makes possible new analytical strategies and representations. Importantly, they explore how FDS can benefit from sociology, including attention to structural constraints on lived embodiments and representations. Encompassing both early and new feminist disability studies scholarship, the authors note potential connections and disjunctures between academia and activism. They also raise questions about new trajectories in FDS, including connections to queer theory and transgender studies.
Feminist Methodology
Authors: Naples Nancy A. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractFeminist methodology has been developed in response to concerns by feminist scholars about the limits of traditional positivist methodology. Feminist social scientists have raised questions about separation of theory and method, gendered biases inherent in positivism, and hierarchies that limit who can be considered the most appropriate producers of theoretical knowledge. Feminist methodology includes an array of methods, approaches, and research strategies and offers a broad vision of research practice that can be used to study a wide range of topics and to explore everyday life and social processes and structures and multiple scales and sites of analysis.
Feminist Standpoint Theory
Authors: Naples Nancy A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Feminist standpoint theory is a broad categorization that includes somewhat diverse theories ranging from Hartsock's feminist historical materialist perspective, to Haraway's analysis of situated knowledges, Collins' black feminist thought, Sandoval's explication of third world feminists' differential oppositional consciousness, and Smith's everyday world sociology for women. Knowledge generated from embodied standpoints of subordinates is powerful in that it can help transform traditional categories of analyses that originate from dominant groups. However, as many feminist standpoint theorists argue, it remains only a partial perspective. Given standpoint theory's emphasis on a process of dialogue, analysis, and reflexivity, the approach has proven extremely vibrant and open to reassessment and revision. As a consequence, standpoint theory remains an extremely important approach within feminist theory.
Fertility: Adolescent
Authors: Cooksey Elizabeth 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAdolescent fertility rates have declined significantly throughout most countries of the world over the past few decades. Adolescent fertility still remains of concern, however, especially when girls in their early teens have babies. This entry presents information on the magnitude of recent declines, mortality and morbidity risks faced by adolescents who get pregnant and either abort or carry their babies to term, health and developmental risks to children born to young mothers, and some of the social and economic causes and consequences of early motherhood.
Fetishism
Authors: Hekma Gert 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Fetishism was coined as a medical term in 1888 by Alfred Binet. The concept now most commonly refers to a sexual preference for certain body parts, objects, situations, acts, or abstractions. Under the contemporary framework of cultural studies, the concept is imbued with a power to break down conventional object–subject dichotomies when discussing sexuality, going beyond orthodox categorizations such as homosexual and heterosexual. While some scholars maintain that all sexuality is to some degree based in fetishes, surveys indicate that some 10–25 percent of respondents indicate enjoying fetishes, including those in the realm of sadomasochism.
Game Theory
Authors: Diekmann Andreas 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Game theory (
GT
) is a branch of mathematics to model strategic decisions of two or more actors. It is, so to say, the mathematics of social interaction and a “unifying language for the social sciences.”
GT
is an important tool for modeling the dynamics of social interactions in a precise manner. There are now many extensions to classical game theory, including a large variety of social dilemma games, games with incomplete and asymmetric information, signaling models, repeated games, evolutionary game theory, and behavioral game theory. These models are very helpful for theory development in sociology, the precise description of different types of social interactions, and policy‐related issues of institutional design.
Genocide
Authors: Karstedt Susanne 
Published: September 2017

AbstractGenocide has been termed the crime of the twentieth century, and the Holocaust of the European Jews by the German Nazi regime will forever be its defining event. This entry first gives an overview of the legal definition of genocide as a crime by the international community in the wake of the Holocaust, as well as other terminologies. Estimates of victims and perpetrators for mass atrocities and genocide across the past decades are presented. Two main explanatory approaches that shaped theorizing and research over the following decades are outlined: the structural and psychosocial perspective, and the strategic or actor perspective. As the contours and contexts of contemporary genocides and mass atrocities have profoundly changed, new terminology as well as explanatory perspectives developed. The entry gives a brief overview of recent terminological developments – “atrocity crimes” and “extremely violent societies” – and outlines a “relational perspective,” which combines contextual analyses on three levels: the international system; long term conflicts; and local and microdynamics of involvement, resistance, and victimization. As research and theorizing move out of the shadow of the Holocaust new perspectives for prevention, protection, and intervention are developed for the international community.
Homosexuality
Authors: Hekma Gert 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Homosexuality as a term was coined in 1869 in the fight against antisodomy laws and soon became a term describing a pathology. In the early twentieth century, the German homosexual rights movement began analyzing sexual practices. Around 1950 the work of Kinsey set new norms: homosexuality was a continuum of practices and fantasies rather than a special identity. Surveying (homo)sexuality thrived in the 1960s and later with the AIDS‐crisis. The Chicago School initiated research on gay urban cultures. Symbolic interactionism suggested concepts such as stigma and script to describe homosexuality. Coming out processes were studied. Foucault's perspective on the social construction of sexualities created a flourishing of studies on a great variety of topics: social history, gender and sexual variation, families of choice, and biological essentialism. Gay and lesbian or queer studies have become a booming field. Future themes might be sexual and gender identifications, erotic pleasures, and citizenship.
Hyperconsumption/Overconsumption
Authors: Schulz Jeremy 
Published: September 2017

AbstractHyperconsumption and overconsumption refer to the central role played by the acquisition of goods and services in structuring the lives of individuals, the dynamics of social organization, and processes of ecological degradation affecting nature. Both of these terms encapsulates the proposition that market‐mediated acquisition and consumption can reach excessive levels with profound repercussions for individuals, society, and the natural world. This entry explores the history of these concepts as well as current understandings of the phenomenon's sources and consequences.
Inequalities in Marriage
Authors: Duncan Melanie L. , Shehan Constance L. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In heterosexual marriages, spouses often experience gender‐based differences in rights and responsibilities, particularly in the areas of power and decision‐making; access to and control over household resources; allocation of time to paid employment, household labor, and childcare; and likelihood of experiencing severe violence at the hands of their partner. A major source of these differences lies in the patriarchal authority that is culturally bestowed on men. Cultural and socioeconomic changes in the United States and other western nations are likely contributing to a decline in the role of patriarchy in shaping marital roles and responsibilities in heterosexual marriages. In same‐sex marriages, which are receiving increasing social support and legal recognition, inequalities that exist are typically attributable to other traits or behaviors of spouses. These social changes may result in an increase in marriages in which rights and responsibilities are distributed more equally.
Infertility
Authors: Greil Arthur L. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractInfertility is a term used by medical professionals to refer to the physical inability to conceive a child or to successfully carry a child to term. Most medical professionals consider a couple to be infertile if they have failed to conceive after 12 months of unprotected intercourse.Estimates of 12‐month infertility range from 3.5 to 16.7 percent in industrialized countries and from 6.9 to 9.3 percent in developing societies Individuals, but especially women, often experience infertility as a catastrophic role failure which can come to permeate every aspect of life. Ethnographic work suggests that stigma and suffering of infertility may be more pronounced in developing societies. From 42 to 76.3 percent of infertile women in industrialized societies report that they have been to a physician or a clinic to seek treatment. While reproductive impairments are actually more common among minority groups and those with lower incomes, whites and those with higher incomes are most likely to seek treatment. While the proportion of infertile women in industrialized societies has remained stable, the demand for medical treatment has increased in most industrialized societies. Treatment of infertility is often expensive, time consuming, and invasive.
Infotainment
Authors: Langman Lauren 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
One crucial aspect of modern life has been a concern with broader events and the people who live in social worlds beyond our local community or nation. Thus information about people and events from wars to disasters to sports that are typically outside our limited range of contacts has meant that people are interested in the news. But news has become a commodity that is provided by media organizations and consumed by audiences. There are a vast number of sources of information, from the more general and typically serious “hard news” outlets that provide carefully researched information about the economy, government, major political events, crises, and natural disasters that impact on people's lives, to those that supply lighter, “soft news” and celebrity gossip, typically of affairs, dysfunctional personal lives, and fashion choices.
Interpersonal Relationships
Authors: Orbuch Terri L. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In any relationship, two participants are interdependent, where the behavior of each affects the outcomes of the other. Most of the research on interpersonal relationships has focused on relationships that are close, intimate, and have high interdependence. In the 1960s the initial focus of research was on the interpersonal attraction process, primarily between strangers meeting for the first time. More recently, relationships have received considerable attention in sociology and the other social sciences. Research since 1980 illuminates several themes. First, an expanding body of literature demonstrates that relationships are vital to the physical and mental health of individuals. Second, current research emphasizes specific relational processes that are relevant at various stages of the life course of a relationship. A third new direction has been to concentrate on making the dyad the unit of analysis rather than the individual. Fourth, current research has emphasized the construction of meaning within relationships for relationship quality and stability. Last, a fifth new direction in relationship research has been to assess the larger environmental and structural conditions that can be harmful or beneficial for a couple's well‐being (e.g., socioeconomic status, ethnicity/race, social policies, sociopolitical factors), along with diverse family and couple relationships.
Kitsuse, John I. (1923–2003)
Authors: Groenemeyer Axel 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
John I. Kitsuse was one of the premier and most influential contributors to the social constructionist movement from the 1960s, which changed the way sociologists approached the study of social problems, normality, deviance, and control. He is primarily known as one of the founding fathers of the labeling approach to deviant behavior in the 1960s and for his contributions to the perspective of constructivism on social problems from the 1970s on.