bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Misdemeanors
Authors: Myrick Amy 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
“Misdemeanor” is legal term for a grade of criminal offense under a criminal charging system that classifies crimes according to seriousness. Felonies are more serious than misdemeanors and carry more severe formal penalties. In many jurisdictions, the punishment for misdemeanors excludes incarceration in prison. The distinction between misdemeanors and felonies has implications in several areas of sociological inquiry, among them crime statistics, policing strategies, court studies, mass incarceration, collateral consequences including criminal records, and the moral and symbolic distinction between how the law treats major and routine criminal acts.
Anarchy: An International Relations Perspective
Authors: Holmes Marcus , Campbell Michael 
Published: September 2017

AbstractIn the context of international politics, “anarchy” designates the absence of a sovereign authority above that of nation‐states in the international system. The assumption of anarchy is often the starting point for theories of international politics. In the context of international relations, anarchy does not necessarily imply a lack of order or chaos inherent in the system, indeed the international system exhibits a tremendous amount of routine and stability over time, but rather a condition of the system with which nation‐states must deal. Because under anarchy there is no authority above that of states, each state enjoys sovereignty and has the ability to decide for itself and to take its own course of action.
Structural Adjustment
Authors: Bockman Johanna 
Published: September 2017

AbstractStructural adjustment policies and programs are economic reforms that the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank require highly indebted countries to implement as a precondition for further loans. In 1980, in response to the emerging worldwide debt crisis, the World Bank extended its first structural adjustment loans, specifically to Bolivia, Kenya, Philippines, Senegal, and Turkey, which the International Monetary Fund supported through its own related loan programs. Sociologists, activists, politicians, and protestors worldwide have criticized structural adjustment for undermining democracy and for its social, political, and economic costs. Many sociologists view the profound restructuring of economies caused by these policies as a key building block of neoliberal globalization.
Popular Music across the Life Course
Authors: Adams Rebecca G. , Harmon Justin T. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAlthough popular music subcultures among youth have been studied extensively, and recently researchers have examined the continued involvement of these same fans in these subcultures as they age, a life‐course perspective has not been brought to bear on this topic. In this entry, the authors outline the questions that might be addressed by using a life‐course perspective to study music consumption and production. In so doing, the authors distinguish between the developmental and life‐course perspectives and between cohort and aging effects. Most research on the role of music in people's lives focuses on a specific age group: adolescents, young adults, midlife adults, young‐old adults, and old‐old adults. Here these findings are combined and used to describe what we know about the connection between music consumption and production with social relationship development and involvement, identity formation and maintenance, and the establishment of well‐being across the life course. In conclusion, the authors discuss future directions for research on popular music consumption and production across the life course including methodological issues, theoretical issues, and gaps in the literature.
Social Stratification
Authors: van Leeuwen Marco H.D. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSocial stratification relates to a fundamental aspect of human societies: the way people are ranked, from high to low; how this varies between societies; and what determines the ranking. Such ranking is known to have enormous consequences for lifestyles and life chances from cradle to grave, and beyond – to the next generation. Stratification systems tend to be rather stable over time, even in the face of momentous political upheavals and social and economic transformations. After introducing the topic, the entry discusses why sociologists regard occupation as a means to observe social strata, and how they observe those strata, using a social class taxonomy, through measures of social status (prestige, socioeconomic, dual elite, and interaction), or by using microclasses. Also discussed are contrasting theories on the determinants of social stratification and its universality, in particular modernization and status maintenance theories.
McAdoo
,
H
arriette Pipes (1940–2009)
Authors: Dodson Jualynne E. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In the field of family studies, particularly research on African American life, Harriette Pipes McAdoo was an academic groundbreaker. She was University Distinguished Professor at Michigan State University and the first African American to be elected to membership on the Board of Directors of the Groves Conference on Marriage and the Family. Her transformative ideas centered on conceptualizing US African American families and other racial/ethnic families of color, beyond the standard “deficit orientation” that permeated most academic considerations of the topics. McAdoo's perceptive and skilled use of quantitative research, coupled with her prolific publications, countered that orientation and introduced academic communities to the strengths, and the social processes of strength, used by black families to protect, nurture, educate, and ensure the survival of their members. She helped provide a new, more reflective language for describing family life and furnished US social policy with a new vocabulary, including African American families' extended and kinship relational patterns and the gender inclusivity of parenting males and females. In so doing, she not only expanded the field of family studies but also contributed to sociology, psychology, education, social work, among others.
B
ogue,
D
onald (1918–2014)
Authors: White Michael J. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Donald J. Bogue was a leading figure in the field of demography. Whilst his scholarly work began with urbanism, he made notable contributions to the subjects of fertility, family planning, migration, and population distribution. His contributions to the field ranged from scholarly articles, to textbooks, to how‐to manuals for practitioners in low income countries, to the inauguration of the flagship journal in American demography.
Commons, Informational
Authors: Stalder Felix 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Commons are resources managed by a community for joint use. Since the late 1990s, new types of commons have emerged online. The core of these informational commons is created in four overlapping settings at the center of the information economy: free software, free culture, access to knowledge, and open data. Commons differ sharply from market‐based or command‐based modes of production, not the least through the relative absence of exclusive property rights, and the emphasis placed on cooperation rather than competition as the main driver of development. Thus, informational commons is one of the highly dynamic and contested areas in the information society.
Bottom Billion
Authors: Collier Paul 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThebottom billionrefers to the populations of a group of countries at the bottom of the world economy. It challenges and disaggregates the concept of “developing countries,” arguing that countries such as Chad and China are no longer meaningfully similar. The entry summarizes the explanations offered for the divergence of the bottom billion from the majority of mankind and the proposed policy remedies, and discusses academic and policy responses.
Race and Mental Health
Authors: Cummings Jason L. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMedical sociologists have long been interested in the relationship between race and health, noting that racial minorities, relative to whites, experience a higher burden of disease, disability, and death. Despite racial inequities in physical health and mortality, however, differences in mental health/mental illness between whites and nonwhites are lower than expected and, in many cases, demonstrate either that minorities have better mental health or that there is no difference at all. Although our knowledge regarding race and mental health has grown over the past few decades, it remains limited in part because of a range of conceptual and methodological issues including but not limited to the lack of available data to monitor smaller minority populations and the extent to which discrete psychiatric measures and continuous mental health outcomes lead to conflicting conclusions regarding the nature of racial/ethnic variations in mental health. This entry highlights several key issues in the field of race and mental health, including modern conceptualizations of race/ethnicity and mental health; classic and contemporary findings regarding racial/ethnic variations in mental health; and central explanations for the observed disparities in mental health across race and ethnicity.
Accounts, Deviant
Authors: Goode Erich 
Published: September 2017

AbstractDeviant accounts are linguistic devices intended to exonerate the narrator for putative wrongdoing. Sociologists have identified at least half a dozen types of deviant accounts, including excuses (a denial of responsibility), exceptionalization (denial that the act belongs to a generic class of wrongful behaviors), justifications (explaining why a generally wrongful act had to be committed and hence, why it is not so wrongful), and normalization (denial that an entire class of actions that are regarded as wrongful are wrongful at all). Though accounts are not causes of deviance, they comprise a fundamental and nearly universal feature of non‐normative behavior.
Alcohol and Crime
Authors: Sung Hung‐En 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAlcohol is the most widely abused psychoactive substance in the United States. The term “alcohol‐related crime” refers to violations of laws regulating the sale or use of alcohol and also covers criminal activities that involve alcohol use. Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol‐specific offenses in the United States. There is a close association between alcohol and violent crimes. About 20 percent of violent crimes involved an offender who had been drinking according to victimization data. At the macro‐level, alcohol availability and alcohol consumption are associated with violent crime. Yet at the microlevel, alcohol increases the risk of violent behavior only for certain individuals and under some social situations or cultural influences. Alcohol use typically co‐occurs with domestic violence, but the role of parental alcohol abuse in the perpetration of child abuse has not been conclusively established. Alcohol is also a contributor to nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces. A particular alcohol‐organized crime connection was seen after 1919's constitutional ban of alcohol, which led to a corrupt and lethal market for bootlegged liquor. The mere co‐occurrence of alcohol use and violence does not prove that alcohol causes violence; the causal pathways remain to be determined.
Braverman, Harry (1922–1976)
Authors: Wood Stephen 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Braverman is renowned for his
Labor and Monopoly Capital
, which reinvigorated a Marxist theory of the capital labor process in which deskilling was a concomitant of the division of labor within capitalism. The assembly line pioneered by Henry Ford represents the hallmark of this development. Braverman contested the claim that with new technologies and the increasing importance of the service sector the deskilling process would decelerate. Taylorism, as “the explicit verbalization of the capitalist mode of production,” would, he argued, continue to dominate, even as new technologies and industries developed. Conception would continue to be divorced from execution in the labor process. A major criticism of Braverman's deskilling thesis is that Taylorism's concern for managerial control of labor need not be an end in itself, but alternative strategies involving increasing autonomy and reskilling may serve capital's fundamental goal of maximizing profits. A legacy of Braverman, however, is that attention to Taylorism and deskilling has not been confined to historical studies. Low skilled jobs remain and recent attention has focused on call centers, fast‐food chains, logistics warehouses and the mass production of sandwiches and other ready‐made foods.
Bureaucracy and Public Sector Governmentality
Authors: Clegg Stewart , Johnston Judy , Shearer Christine 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Bureaucracy is organization by rules, organized on hierarchical, centralized, and routinized lines. Increasingly, in public sector organizations, government by rules is being replaced by governmentality: forms of government that are more facilitative and less restrictive, and that rely on the constitution of a subject mentality by those who will govern themselves.
Burundi and Rwanda (Hutu, Tutsi)
Authors: Lemarchand René 
Published: September 2017

AbstractNo two other states in Africa have as much in common as Rwanda and Burundi in terms of size, social structure, language, and colonial experience; yet their trajectories since independence have been radically different. Both have experienced genocide, but the victims in each case belonged to different ethnic communities; they both went through the agonies of civil war, but emerged from this ordeal with strikingly contrasting political systems and approaches to ethnicity. A key issue in the reconstruction of their societies centers on how to reconcile the claims of the Hutu majority with the rights of the Tutsi minority. While Rwanda has outlawed public references to ethnic labels in an attempt to promote national unity, Burundi has institutionalized a power‐sharing formula based on the explicit recognition of ethnic identities. Rwanda's power holders are overwhelmingly Tutsi, unlike Burundi where power is broadly shared between Hutu and Tutsi. Yet elements of convergence should not be ignored: in the wake of recent presidential and legislative elections there is an unmistakable trend in both states toward authoritarianism and human rights violations.
Castoriadis, Cornelius (1922–1997)
Authors: Ablett Phillip 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry highlights the contribution to sociological theory of the work of Cornelius Castoriadis (1922–1997), the Greco‐French philosopher, economist, psychoanalyst, and post‐Marxist revolutionary. After growing up amid dictatorship and war in Greece, Castoriadis went to study philosophy in Paris, cofounding the libertarian‐socialist group and journalSocialisme ou Barbarie(1949–1967), many of whose ideas influenced the 1968 worker‐student uprising. As the journal's editor, Castoriadis initiated a series of thoroughgoing internal critiques of Marxist orthodoxy, advocating worker's self‐management, which he expanded into the radically democratic “project of human autonomy.” Castoriadis's mature work (exemplified inThe Imaginary Institution of Society), propounds an original ontology of indeterminate creativity to anchor his interdisciplinary and revolutionary critique of contemporary capitalist societies, offering a coherent alternative to both foundationalist social science and poststructural relativism. The interdisciplinary and political activist character of Castoriadis's writing has meant a slow reception in sociology but his conception of society as the contested institution of collective imaginaries in action has much to offer sociology's interpretive social action perspectives and critical theory. More recently, it has informed critical research in fields as diverse as sexual assault, civilizational analysis, urban social movements, aged care and mental health, disability, and the sociology of education.
Children and Divorce
Authors: Legette Kamilah , Fine Mark A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry provides an updated review of how children experience and respond to parental divorce. Scholars, particularly E. Mavis Hetherington and Joan Wallerstein, have reached quite different conclusions regarding how children adjust to divorce, and the entry begins with an attempt by Emery to reconcile the conflicting claims that scholars have reached. The entry provides new information on directions that divorce research has taken, including new trends emphasizing biological and genetic factors involved in children's divorce adjustment, gay and lesbian relationships and divorce, ethnic and racial differences in divorce adjustment, and the role that increased cohabitation rates have played in children's adjustment to divorce. The entry concludes with some suggestions for future research directions.
Connubium (Who Marries Whom?)
Authors: Bernardi Fabrizio , Comolli Chiara Ludovica 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The question “Who marries whom?” refers to patterns of partner choice. The tendency to marry (or to enter a long‐term relationship such as cohabitation with) a person who belongs to the same social group, or who is similar with regard to certain characteristics, is also known as homogamy. Sociologists have traditionally been interested in three individual characteristics that can be important in the choice of a partner: race/ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic resources. Studying patterns of partner choice is important because it allows us to evaluate the degree of openness of the boundaries of different ethnic, religious, and socioeconomic groups. The more frequent marriage between subjects who differ with respect to the characteristics of the group is, the more open the group.
Consumption, Critical/Responsible
Authors: Sassatelli Roberta 
Published: September 2017

AbstractConsumer practices in consumer capitalist societies are increasingly reflexively addressing mainstream circuits of commercialization, with consumers being voluntarily engaged in alternative, responsible, or critical consumption. Each of these labels tends to stress a particular aspect of consumer practice as being different from mainstream commercialism, showing consumers' commitment to the welfare of others and to the environment and expressing consumers' capacity to think critically about their lifestyle and the world of goods. In broader terms, critical consumption indicates protest initiatives such as boycotts and campaigns against multinational powers, as well as affirmative initiatives such as various forms of responsible purchase, exchange, and lifestyle. Despite their many differences, an overarching cultural theme may be identified in critical consumption initiatives: Consumer choice is portrayed as neither universally good nor a private issue but as a matter of responsibility with political potential. We may consider critical consumer practices as hints that profit‐driven markets can be transformed to take into account collective goods and responsible pleasures, as well as mementos of how difficult such change may be, entailing not only consumer practices but also their political regulation and the organization of the economic structure at large.
Demographic Data: Censuses, Registers, Surveys
Authors: Mather Mark , Cortes Rachel 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Population censuses, registers, and surveys are the primary sources of demographic data, including information about the size, composition, and characteristics of a population or population subgroups. A census is an enumeration of all households in a well‐defined territory at a given point in time. Population registers are systems of continuous registration, maintained by certain countries, to keep demographic records of individuals. Surveys are used to collect detailed data on a particular subject from a sample or subset of the population. All three sources of data – censuses, registers, and surveys – are often used to monitor changes in population size and composition. In recent years, technological advances have led to a rapid increase in the availability of demographic data from unofficial sources, especially through online social networks and other Web‐based applications. These “big data” sources provide many new opportunities for research and marketing, but also present challenges in terms of accessing the information, using it effectively, and protecting confidentiality.
Developmental State
Authors: Williams Brad 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Rather than relying solely on market forces, the developmental state strongly influences the course and pace of economic development by directly intervening in the development process. At the heart of the developmental state was the economic bureaucracy whose interventionist policies were credited with rapid economic growth in East Asia. The developmental state's reputation suffered following the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s, exposing it to criticisms of corruption and cronyism. However, the developmental state's adaptive qualities, in the form of the People's Republic of China, helped it withstand the pernicious effects of the 2008 global financial crisis at a time of failure for neoliberal Anglo‐American capital.
E
llis,
H
avelock (1859–1939)
Authors: Weeks Jeffrey 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Havelock Ellis was a pioneering British sexologist, critic, and essayist who was to have a major impact on the conceptualization of sexuality in the twentieth century. His intellectual formation was in the radical cultural and political fervent of London in the 1880s, though he himself tended throughout his life to avoid public controversies as best he could. More privately, however, his influence proved to be immense, both through his publications and his extensive correspondence with luminaries throughout the world. His major achievement was the multivolumed
Studies in the Psychology of Sex
published between the 1890s and the 1920s. The first volume, on sexual inversion, was a major contribution to the rethinking of homosexuality, while subsequent volumes described and categorized a vast array of sexual variations, and explored the nature of female sexuality.
Empire
Authors: Cox Lloyd 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The analysis of empire and imperialism has been reinvigorated since the early 2000s, largely in response to the United States' shift to a more muscular and unilateralist foreign policy. Routine comparisons are now made between the contemporary United States on the one hand, and the Roman, British and other empires on the other. This entry clarifies the terminological and conceptual issues at stake in these debates, as well as giving some historical depth to the development of empires from antiquity to modernity. Finally, it considers some of the more influential explanations of empire that have been proffered, paying particular attention to the critical reception of these ideas.
Expectation States Theory
Authors: Berger Joseph , Wagner David G. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Expectation states theory is a theoretical research program concerned with processes by which social actors draw status and other information from their environment and organize that information into expectation states that determine their interaction with others. It encompasses areas as diverse as status organization, justice, and rewards, legitimation, the construction of status differences, and the role of significant others in self‐evaluation. The program also includes extensive application to the understanding and alleviation of gender and other status‐based inequalities.