bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Communications and the Internet
Authors: Mueller Milton 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the transformative effect of the Internet and the rise of computer technology on international organization of communications. It begins by describing the liberalization of telecommunication services, which provides the essential point of departure for understanding the contemporary situation. It then identifies key international organizations involved in Internet governance. This survey of organizations is heavily biased towards entities that are involved in Internet operations and governance. The next section puts this collection of organizations into motion by describing their power struggles over the control of the Internet. Along the way, the chapter invokes several theories of organization, such as regime theory, principal-agent concepts of delegation, and theories of networked governance derived from transaction cost theory.
Lawmaking
Authors: White Nigel D. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines whether organizations, in exercising their autonomous competence, can produce laws in their own right, irrespective of whether their output feeds into the traditional sources of international law — treaties, custom or general principles. Examples are taken from practice, such as health law, space law, counter-terrorism law, to demonstrate how organizations make laws and whether it is possible to identify those by the form, content, and method of adoption. It is argued that the resolutions produced by international organizations have their own separateness from traditional sources. The recommendations and regulations of many organizations are not fully binding in a classical international legal sense, but they are often accepted as law at their inception and acted upon by member states, especially in technical areas. The idea of ‘soft’ law encapsulates the legal effect of resolutions before they may mature into treaties or custom, but it does not fully capture their legislative nature.
Dispute Settlement
Authors: Crook John R. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter considers two broad categories of dispute settlement: roles and procedures that seek to resolve disputes on non-legal grounds, and those involving application of legal principles and procedures. While legal writers tend to equate ‘dispute settlement’ with settlement through legal procedures, other non-legal procedures such as diplomatic negotiations, mediation, and good offices are more often used. Indeed, it is generally recognized that negotiation is the simplest and most frequently used mode of international dispute settlement. However, the line between these two categories can be far from clear, and settlement of a dispute can involve both legal and non-legal processes.
Information Gathering, Analysis, and Dissemination
Authors: Coicaud Jean-Marc , Le Blanc David 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the relationship between international organizations (IOs) and information. It is organized in four parts. Part I explains why mandates provide the best analysis category for information management by IOs. It also gives examples illustrating the different categories of information managed by IOs. Part II briefly surveys common ways by which IOs gather, analyze, and disseminate information. Part III identifies criteria by which the ‘performance’ of IOs in the gathering, analysis, and dissemination of information might be assessed. Part IV concludes the chapter with an overview of some of the opportunities and challenges facing IOs with respect to information production and dissemination.
Relations with the Private Sector
Authors: Kell Georg 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter maps out the broad developments that have shaped UN-private sector relations. Political and market-led changes have greatly influenced the UN-private sector relationships from the founding of the UN in 1945. The conviction that peace and prosperity, on the one hand, and trade and investment, on the other, are mutually supportive, and can only be built on the foundations of rule-based interdependence, were soon overshadowed by Cold War ideological battles and statist views on growth and development. But following the launch of the UN Global Compact in 2000, cooperation with the private sector became politically acceptable and institutionally supported. Although the UN was initially ill-prepared to work with the private sector, lacking skills and required operational infrastructure, a decade of experimentation and learning by doing has brought about numerous changes at the intergovernmental, institutional, and operational levels.
General Assemblies and Assemblies of States Parties
Authors: Karns Margaret P. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
In December 2012, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) replaced the United Nations Environment Programme's Governing Council with the larger, universal membership United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). This major step for UNEP demonstrates the continuing strength of an idea that took root in the mid-19th century, namely the importance of assemblies of all member states as primary governing bodies in intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). This chapter provides an overview of these assemblies, their purposes, and workings. It also touches on the somewhat different phenomenon of assemblies of state parties to international treaties. It begins by looking at the antecedents of the concept of general assemblies.
Parliaments
Authors: Høyland Bjørn 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
International organizations (IOs) often have a parliamentary body amongst their governing institutions. But these bodies often lack the powers associated with national level equivalents. The European Union has empowered its parliamentary body with substantive powers. The European Parliament (EP) elects its members by general direct elections; has been empowered with substantive legislative and budgetary powers; and its support is required for the executive, the European Commission, to take office. As the EU is unique in its empowerment of its parliamentary body, this chapter discusses to what extent its model should be adopted by other IOs. It is organized as follows. The first section presents a list of IOs with a parliamentary body along with the level of empowerment of this body. The second section discusses the role of direct elections and full-time parliamentarians as a means to empower the parliamentary body. The third section traces the development of the legislative powers of the EP and how it is organized in order to increase its formal powers. The fourth section describes the evolution of the budgetary powers of the EP. The final section deals with the EP's power to control the executive.
Executive Heads
Authors: Chesterman Simon 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The executive head of an international organization (e.g. president, secretary-general, managing director, or some other title) exists in a curious limbo. He or she is entrusted to lead an organization that may employ tens of thousands of people and administer a budget in the billions of dollars. At the same time, however, his or her ability to operate independently of member states may be severely constrained by the powers entrusted to the office or tight constraints over finances. This tension is evident in the United Nations (UN), where the Secretary-General heads the Secretariat and is nominal commander-in-chief of 100,000 peacekeepers but is formally appointed as the organization's ‘Chief Administrative Officer’. This chapter examines the appointment of executive heads and the formal functions ascribed to them. It then turns to the question of how the various officeholders have implemented those functions in practice, focusing on the ability to operate independently of member-state interests.
High-Level Panels
Authors: Thakur Ramesh 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter first situates international organizations (IOs) in the context of the changing nature of international diplomacy, including in particular summits and conferences as modes of contemporary diplomacy. It then describes the proliferating number and types of high-level panels as instances of commission diplomacy. Third, it discusses the ideational, normative, institutional, and operational impacts of panels. Finally, it provides a menu of the ingredients for successful commission diplomacy, including the different types of norm actors. The factors that determine the success and failure of high-level panels include their structural and operational features; the quality of leadership provided by their chairs; the breadth, depth, and diversity of expertise of their members; the organization of adequate financial and personnel resources to enable the necessary research and consultations to be undertaken; mission clarity and focus; and the full range of follow-up dissemination, advocacy, and championing of the recommendations. While their operational impact can be diffuse, uncertain, and spread thinly over considerable periods of time, they can be important agents of change in global governance for projecting the power of ideas and processing them into new and improved policy, normative, institutional, and operational outcomes.
International Adjudicative Bodies
Authors: Giorgetti Chiari 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
One of the most important developments in international law is the multifaceted growth of international dispute resolution. There are more parties who prefer to use international law mechanisms to resolve their disputes, and more international actors have more fora available to them to which they can bring their disputes. At the heart of this development are international adjudicative bodies, a diverse group of international bodies that have a common dispute settlement function the outcome of which is binding on the parties. This chapter examines how, when, and over whom these bodies can exercise their function, as well as the nature and enforceability of their decisions.
Membership and Representation
Authors: Mathias Stephen , Trengove Stadler 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter explains the membership practices in international organizations (IOs). It focuses on criteria for membership, rights and obligations of membership, suspension, expulsion, and withdrawal. In addition to setting out the legal criteria in an international organization's constitutive treaty relating to membership, it also discusses how these criteria have been applied in practice and how decisions that are political in nature have been made within the established institutional and legal framework. The chapter focuses on three different types of IOs: the universal, represented by the United Nations (UN); the regional, such as the European Union (EU) and African Union (AU), where membership is restricted to countries from a particular geographic area; and the specialized agencies which, while fulfilling a limited and technical function, are often open to universal membership.
Privileges and Immunities
Authors: Reinisch August 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
International organizations (IOs) require a broad range of privileges and immunities in order to carry out their tasks independently from any interference by the domestic law and courts of host or other states. Recently, the growing scope of activities of IOs coupled with a heightened rights-awareness of those who might be negatively affected by broad privileges and immunities of IOs has raised questions about the legitimacy of sweeping privileges and, in particular, of often de facto absolute immunity from the jurisdiction of domestic courts. This chapter outlines the development of privileges and immunities of IOs. It focuses on how the standard of ‘functional’ immunity has been applied in practice. It also assesses future perspectives concerning the challenges to and continued justification of such a ‘preferential’ legal position.
Kierkegaard on Love
Authors: Lippitt John 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter offers an overview of some key themes in Kierkegaard’s writings on love. After a brief discussion of love in Either/Or and Fear and Trembling, it concentrates on Works of Love. It explores the centrality of divine love and the distinction between love of the neighbor and “preferential loves” such as erotic love and friendship, arguing that for Kierkegaard preferential loves at their best are infused with neighbor-love. It goes on to argue that Kierkegaard’s “vision” view of love anticipates aspects of contemporary such views, such as that of Troy Jollimore. But for Kierkegaard, agapic neighbor-love (and not just erotic love and friendship) requires attention to the particularities of the person loved, so neighbor-love is not just generalized benevolence. Finally, the chapter briefly sketches how the foregoing insights may be applied to the task of distinguishing proper from improper self-love.
Polysynthesis in the Arctic/Sub-Arctic
Authors: Fortescue Michael 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe North American and north-eastern Siberian Arctic and Sub-Arctic contain a large contiguous area of highly polysynthetic languages belonging to three language families, Eskimo-Aleut, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Na-Dene. These contain some of the most extreme and yet diverse polysynthetic languages in the world; between them they cover three of the main sub-types of polysynthesis, respectively the suffixing-only, the noun-incorporating, and the templatic type. There has been contact influence between all three (especially between Eskimo and Chukotian), but they do not form a canonical language area as regards the diffusion of polysynthesis. The polysynthetic profile of the principal languages concerned is sketched, as well as those of somewhat less highly polysynthetic Aleut, Itelmen, and Tlingit.
Patterns of Innovation and Retention in Templatic Polysynthesis
Authors: Vajda Edward J. 
Published: November 2017

AbstractPolysynthetic verb morphology can be extraordinarily complex, with interacting subsystems arranged in phonological and morphological layers, some of which are more readily transparent on the synchronic level. Historical-linguistic comparisons demonstrate that this type of structure can be surprisingly persistent across time, with slow phonological attrition being one of the primary causal agents. Metathesis and reanalysis of morphemes and morpheme positions was also noted as an important agent of change. This chapter examines what is known about the historical layering of two distinct, but possibly genealogically related prefixing verb morphologies: Yeniseian and Athabaskan, both of which have developed different strategies of expressing agreement with subjects and objects, layering these grammatical markers between lexical morphemes and markers of tense–mood–aspect. Phonological fusing of certain sets of adjacent markers renders the pre-root portions of both morphological templates particularly challenging for assigning morpheme glosses. Historical reasons for this evolution are identified and assessed.
Is Polysynthesis a Valid Theoretical Notion?
Authors: Givón Tom 
Published: November 2017

AbstractWhile Ute (Numic, Uto-Aztecan) currently has “free” word-order, most of its morphology conforms to a historical OV syntax, with postpositions pronouns, pre-nominal genitive modifiers, and predominantly suffixal verbal morphology,with most exceptions to the latter easily attributed to pre-verbal incorporation of object, instrument, adjective, or adverb stems. Ute also displays an extensive array of complex verbal stems, most commonly two-verb combinations. Of the two combined verbal stems, the second usually loses its original valence, exhibits semantic bleaching, and otherwise bears the traditional marks of grammaticalization. While the process of complex-verb creation is extensive, long-standing, and still ongoing, its diachrony is far from clear. This chapter describes Ute complex verbs, then reviews the potential candidates for the diachronic source-constructions that gave rise to these complex lexemes. While an unambiguous identification of “the” source-construction is not yet possible, the phenomenon as a whole represents a clear trend from syntax to lexis.
Polysynthesis in the Acquisition of Inuit Languages
Authors: Allen Shanley 
Published: November 2017

AbstractIn this chapter, I begin by briefly outlining the structure of Inuit (Eskimo) languages and the challenges they present for child language development. In the bulk of the chapter, I review the existing literature on the first language, impaired, and bilingual acquisition of Inuit languages (i.e. Inuktitut and West Greenlandic) from ages 1 through 16 years. Structures covered include nursery vocabulary, word-internal derivational morphology, verbal and nominal inflectional morphology, other complex morphology, noun incorporation, passive, causative, valency alternations, argument realization, and tense and aspect. I also briefly cover aspects of language socialization, narrative acquisition, and the effects on Inuit language acquisition of increasing use of majority languages. I conclude with a summary of our knowledge so far and directions for further research.
The Northern Hokan Area
Authors: Jany Carmen 
Published: November 2017

AbstractA number of languages indigenous to Northern California display structural similarities which raise interesting questions about possible contact effects on features of polysynthesis. In particular, the coding of grammatical relations and patterns of verbal compounding and lexical affixation reveal an undeniable areal distribution. The presence of these same features also defines the languages examined in this chapter (Chimariko, Shastan, Karuk, Yana, Atsugewi, Achumawi, and Pomoan) as polysynthetic. While other chapters in this volume are based on a single language family, the present chapter covers a hypothetical genetic grouping of languages spoken in a geographically contiguous area where structural similarities stem from language contact rather than from genetic affiliation.
The Languages of the Daly River Region (Northern Australia)
Authors: Nordlinger Rachel 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter surveys the polysynthetic characteristics of the languages of the Daly River region of Australia’s Northern Territory. Although they are not all closely related, these languages share many typological features typical of polysynthesis, including the encoding of core arguments in the verbal word; noun incorporation; applicatives; and complex templatic verbal morphology. In addition the Daly languages exhibit complex verbal predicates composed of two discontinuous stems, one functioning broadly to classify the event type and the other providing more specific lexical semantics. These properties are surveyed across a range of Daly languages, considering both their similarities and their differences, and the implications they have for a cross-linguistic typology of polysynthesis.
The Polysynthetic Profile of Yimas, a Language of New Guinea
Authors: Foley William 
Published: November 2017

AbstractYimas is a language of the Lower Sepik family of six languages spoken along the lower reaches of the Sepik River in the northern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. All six languages are quite morphologically complex head-marking languages, but Yimas is the most complex and cross-linguistically a good candidate for categorizing as a ‘polysynthetic language’. It has eight prefix positions preceding the verb stem and five following it, and is a ‘triple agreement language’, that is, it exhibits pronominal agreement affixes for all core arguments of a ditransitive verb. Yimas also makes heavy use of incorporation: a wide array of adjuncts are incorporated into the verb, and in most cases,non-incorporated alternatives are not available. However, Yimas differs from what has been claimed to be typical of polysynthetic languages in its heavy usage of subordination and nonfinite nominalization. This chapter addresses the place of Yimas in an overall typology of polysynthesis.
Adyghe (Northwest Caucasian)
Authors: Testelets Yakov G. , Lander Yury 
Published: November 2017

AbstractAdyghe, a polysynthetic language of the West Caucasian family, shows the typological characteristics of ergativity, left-branching word order, and the flexibility of the lexical categories. Its word has a high degree of morphological complexity and consists of five ordered morphological zones, within which the order of affixes can vary, and recursion is possible. The information encoded in the predicate includes the argument structure, causation, and various aspectual and modal characteristics. Many meanings can be expressed, either with a combination of morphemes, or a combination of words, or with both simultaneously. There are structural asymmetries at the clause level and the principle C violations in cross-clausal syntax—the phenomenon that has been recorded also in many polysynthetic languages of America.
Executive Functioning and Health
Authors: Williams Paula G. , Tinajero Ruben , Suchy Yana 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This review provides an overview of research on associations between the multi-component, cognitive construct executive functioning (EF) and health. Executive functioning is defined, and issues related to measurement are detailed. The categories of potential mechanisms by which EF may be associated with health and disease are described. Key research examining EF and health behaviors, stress processes, and chronic illness is reviewed with a focus on function (behavioral performance), as well as neuroanatomical research where relevant. Across these domains, there is evidence that EF is associated with health and illness in reciprocal, feed-forward fashion across the life span. Critical limitations of the current literature are noted, along with important future directions.
Character Strengths and Mindfulness
Authors: Shogren Karrie A. , Singh Nirbhay , Niemiec Ryan M. , Wehmeyer Michael L. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of character strengths and mindfulness. Character strengths are specific psychological processes that define broader virtues, which are core characteristics that have been identified and valued by moral philosophers and religious thinkers throughout time. The chapter focuses on the contributions of the VIA Inventory of Strengths to research and assessment in character strengths, and the application of this framework to further strengths-based approaches to disability. Mindfulness has been described not only as a practice, but also as a state, a trait, a process, and an outcome. The chapter examines research, practice, and the application of mindfulness to disability contexts. A discussion of areas of connectivity between character strengths and mindfulness and a look at future directions for research and practice in character strengths and mindfulness in disability conclude the chapter.