bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Papuan contact and its impact on Malayo-Polynesian languages of Island Southeast Asia
Authors: Schapper Antoinette 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Papuan languages were present on and around the island of New Guinea before speakers of Austronesian languages dispersed across Island Southeast Asia. Interactions with speakers of Papuan languages are widely acknowledged to be important for understanding the diversification of the Austronesian family. This chapter discusses the impact of Papuan languages on the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia, paying particular attention to debates and issues encountered in the literature. It is argued that lexical transfer from Papuan languages has been little recognized, let alone examined, in the scholarship to date as a result of entrenched ideas concerning Austronesian dominance, a lack of lexical reconstruction for Papuan language families, and complexities arising from the borrowing of lexical forms back and forth between languages. By contrast, the transfer of numerous structural features from Papuan languages to Austronesian languages in the Papuan contact zone is considered uncontroversial. At the same time, the chapter warns against ascribing structural innovations in the eastern MPSEA languages to Papuan substrate or contact with a Papuan language without specific arguments to support that directionality of transfer. The chapter concludes by overviewing debates concerning the timing of Papuan features entering the Austronesian languages and their value for Austronesian subgrouping. Linguists of different persuasions have variously interpreted the same data as supporting the reconstruction of Papuan features to high nodes in the Austronesian family, or as indicating multiple transfers of the same Papuan feature into Austronesian languages at different times.
The languages of the central and southern Philippines
Authors: Kaufman Daniel 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a typological overview of the languages of the central and southern Philippines, including a comparative look at their phonological, morphological and syntactic patterns. This group, which includes well known languages such as Tagalog and Cebuano, shares certain morphosyntactic retentions from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP), which makes it a viable unit for typological generalizations, despite not constituting a unique node in the Malayo-Polynesian family tree. At this point in our understanding, a reconstruction of Proto-Philippine morphosyntax would in fact not appear any different from a reconstruction of PMP morphosyntax. The languages discussed in this chapter, in particular, have been considered to be among the most grammatically conservative Austronesian languages spoken outside of Taiwan. For example, most retain a full four-way voice system with both an independent and dependent paradigm and a full set of case markers, which are required on most arguments. The Bilic languages, whose overall typology diverges sharply from other languages in this geographical group, are treated here, as well, with a focus on their innovations.
Phonotactics and morphophonology
Authors: Donohue Mark 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines phonological variation in the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia in terms of a number of phonological traits relevant to the area: nasal substitution, and templaticity of root structure (in terms of syllable shape, number of syllables, and adjustments to root shapes). We examine a range of ways in which nasal-final prefixes interact with roots with different initial consonants, showing that both voicing and place are relevant to a description, and that different languages afford us the opportunity to examine different rankings of constraints on phonological processes. We observe geographically-constrained patterns of root and syllable structure, whereby onset size and coda length show different distributions, with languages around or near the Java Sea lacking complex onsets, and languages near the Banda Sea lacking codas. Longer roots tend to be found in the east of the area, while short average word length (from a global perspective) is not prevalent in the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia, where two-syllable roots dominate the phonological landscape (unlike Taiwan). Processes of sesquisyllabic epenthesis and metathesis emphasise that the preference for two-syllable structures is synchronically instantiated in many languages.
Spatial orientation
Authors: Holton Gary , Pappas Leah 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter surveys spatial orientation systems across the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia. Although spatial orientation has been studied extensively in Oceanic languages, relatively less attention has been paid to orientation in the non-Oceanic languages. We delineate five broad types of spatial orientation systems: seaward-landward, coastal, riverine, elevational, and cardinal. Seaward-landward systems are found throughout the region but have been augmented with additional axes of orientation in many languages. Coastal systems are primarily found in South Sulawesi and Halmahera. Riverine systems are common in Borneo but can be found in other regions as well. Cardinal systems predominate in western Indonesia and through much of the Philippines. Mixed and hybrid systems, including elevation systems, are common in Sulawesi.
Negation
Authors: van der Auwera Johan , Olmen Daniël Van , Vossen Frens 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter surveys the expression of standard negation, existential negation, negative indefiniteness and prohibitive negation in a data set of 207 Malayo-Polynesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. Standard negators are etymologically heterogeneous, but formally homogeneous in the sense that they are typically unbound and preverbal. This positional preference is associated with a universal ‘Neg Early’ principle. To explain postverbal and circumverbal negators we discuss the ‘Jespersen Cycle’ as well as language contact. There is a lot of evidence for deriving standard negators from existential ones – through the ‘Negative Existential Cycle’. Negative existential constructions (‘there is not’) are presented in a five-way typology together with positive existential constructions. Negative indefiniteness (‘nobody’) is discussed together with positive indefiniteness (‘somebody’) and special attention is paid to existential strategies (‘there is (not) a person’). The prohibitive negators are overwhelmingly dedicated – and thus different from standard negators. Like standard negators they are typically unbound and preverbal. Exceptions are explained in terms of the ‘Jespersen Cycle’ and language contact too.
Phasal polarity
Authors: Veselinova Ljuba , Asplund Leif , Klok Jozina Vander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes the encoding of phasal polarity in the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Southeast Asia. Phasal meanings have to do with the existence or non-existence of a particular situation at specific points in time related to other points in time: ALREADY expresses that an (expected) situation has come to exist; NO LONGER expresses that a situation has ceased to persist; STILL expresses that a situation continues (despite expectations that it should have stopped); and NOT YET expresses that a situation has not come into existence (despite expectations that it would). These expressions are logically related via negation, where the negative expressions can be analyzed as the internal or external negation of a positive expression. The encoding of each phasal polarity concept is discussed in terms of its morpho-syntactic status, the oppositions it forms as well as its geographical distribution across the area. We also note that internal negation is demonstrably preferred for the encoding of the negative concepts. Furthermore, negation—although the most common—is not the only possibility for yielding a negative phasal polarity concept. Continuative expressions show a very high context sensitivity and can be interpreted either as positive or a negative continuative depending on the kind of predicate they co-occur with. This context dependency has not been sufficiently discussed so far and should be highlighted more clearly in theoretical models of the phasal polarity domain.
Personal pronouns
Authors: Adelaar Alexander , Hajek John 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the semantic features of free personal pronouns in Malayo-Polynesian languages of South East Asia and their outliers (henceforth MPSEA). It follows the changes that they have undergone, taking Proto-Malayo-Polynesian pronouns as a reference point. It discusses their number, person and clusivity distinctions and their arrangement into paradigms as well as other pronominal features such as social register and the dual use of the historical 1pl.incl pronoun *kita. MPSEA pronoun systems show much uniformity and diachronic stability. They usually distinguish singular versus plural number. Dual, trial and quadral number also occurs, while some systems have lost the pronominal number distinction. In some languages the interplay between dual number and clusivity calls for a paradigmatic alignment involving a minimal versus augmented distinction rather than a singular versus plural one. It has also led to different historical interpretations of the dual inclusive pronoun. MPSEA languages generally distinguish 1st, 2nd and 3rd person and often have generic and reflexive pronouns. Loss of pronominal distinction and change of original referent also occur. The chapter also addresses status, formality and pronoun avoidance, pronominal use of proper names and of terms expressing kinship, profession, rank or ethnicity, and the source of some pronouns. Attention is given to ‘imposters’ (other categories used in place of pronouns) which in languages like Indonesian behave syntactically different from those in English, and to the need to abandon a rigid division of nominals into nouns and pronouns.
Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)
Authors: Ouaissa Rachid 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Arab Maghreb Union (‘AMU’), a regional association of the five North African States and comprising Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania and Tunisia, was founded on 17 February 1989 during a summit meeting in the Moroccan city of Marrakech (→ Regional Co-operation and Organization: African States). This was the precursor to a unified Maghreb following the example of the European Union (‘EU’ see also → European Union, Historical Evolution). All Member States are also members of the → League of Arab States (LAS) and the → African Union (AU), with the exception of Morocco. The idea of a unified Maghreb originates from the → national liberation movements of the 1930s. Two conventions of the Arab Maghreb, organized by the leaders of the Algerian, Moroccan and Tunisian nationalist movements, took place in Cairo in 1945 and 1947.
Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (AALCO)
Authors: Ranjan Shikhar 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (‘AALCO’) is an intergovernmental regional organization working in the area of law. It is a forum for consultation on matters of common concern to its Member States. Its work is of an advisory nature and consists in providing the governments of Member States with assistance in matters of international law in the light of the particular interests of the countries in Asia and Africa. It is one of the basic functions of AALCO to co-ordinate the viewpoint of the Asian and African States on important issues of international law. With the end of World War II, the → decolonization process began, resulting in many independent States, particularly in Asia and Africa, emerging as sovereign entities. These new States, having been victims of unequal position and passive objects of the traditional system of international law, protested against the traditional prescriptions of international law.
Asia-Paciﬁc Economic Co-operation (APEC)
Authors: Grote Rainer 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (‘APEC’) is an intergovernmental grouping of (as of 2017) 21 economies of the Pacific Rim committed to economic co-operation and trade liberalization. Its origins go back to the Pacific Economic Co-operation Council (‘PECC’ → Regional Co-operation and Organization: Pacific Region) which was established in 1980 as a non-governmental forum of academics, business leaders, and government officials with the purpose of disseminating information and exchanging views on trade, technology, and investment in the region. The success of this regional consultation mechanism paved the way for regular meetings of senior officials and government ministers on trade and related issues, beginning with the meeting in Canberra in 1989. The proposal for expanded Asia Pacific economic co-operation originally came from Australia which feared that its economy would be left behind by the movement towards greater regional economic co-operation especially in Europe and North America, but conceivably also in East Asia where Malaysia was advocating plans for the formation of an East Asian Economic Caucus (see also → International Law, Regional Developments: East Asia).
Burundi
Authors: Hamann Hartmut , Berger Antje C 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
With an area of less than 28,000 square kilometres and a population of more than 11 million inhabitants (2016), Burundi is a small and densely populated landlocked country in the Great Lakes Region of Eastern Africa (→ Great Lakes Region, Africa). The population comprises around 85% Hutu and 14% Tutsi. Following its independence on 1 July 1962 from → United Nations (UN) trusteeship (→ United Nations Trusteeship System) under Belgian administration, Burundi suffered from a highly violent non-international armed conflict, culminating in the 1972, 1988, and 1993 massacres (→ Armed Conflict, NonInternational) as well as the preand post-election violence in 2015–2016. From an international law perspective, the striking features of Burundi today are the late response of the → international community to the Burundian civil wars, regional peace initiatives which led to the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi of 28 August 2000 (‘Arusha Agreement’ or ‘Arusha Agreement 2000’), the first → peacekeeping activity of the new → African Union (AU) in 2003, subsequent UN peacekeeping from 2004 to 2006, and the fact that mechanisms of transitional justice are still not in place (→ Transitional Justice in Post-Conflict Situations), perpetuating a culture of impunity.
Calvo Doctrine/Calvo Clause
Authors: Juillard Patrick 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The historical and geographical circumstances surrounding the development of the Calvo Doctrine and of the Calvo Clause may help better understand both. Carlos Calvo (1824–1906) was born in Buenos Aires, at a time when Argentina had just achieved independence from Spain. Preservation of its → sovereignty was thus one of the main concerns of the new nation, as it continued to be for quite a while, a shown by the Drago Doctrine (1902) (→ Debts; see also → Drago-Porter Convention [1907]). These concerns came to be shared by other Latin American States, and gave rise to other Latin American doctrines, such as the Estrada Doctrine (1930) (→ Doctrines; → International Law, Regional Developments: Latin America; → Recognition).
Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ)
Authors: Byron Dennis , Malcolm Christopher 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The Caribbean Court of Justice (‘CCJ’) has been established with original as well as appellate jurisdiction (Art. III (1) Agreement Establishing the CCJ; (‘CCJ Agreement’)) and with final decision-making capacity (Art. III (2)). In establishing the CCJ, the contracting parties have been convinced that it ‘will have a determinative role in the further development of Caribbean Jurisprudence through the judicial process’ and have been made aware that this constitutes ‘a further step in the deepening of the regional integration process’ (preamble CCJ Agreement).
Central America
Authors: Grote Rainer 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In geographical terms, Central America comprises the region which stretches from the Isthmus of Tehuatepec or the trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the North to the Isthmus of Panama in the South. It forms a narrow isthmus which is surrounded by the Pacific in the west, the Caribbean Sea in the east, and the Gulf of Mexico in the North. The geopolitical concept of Central America does not fully coincide with the geographic designation. In the south Panama—which had originally been a possession of the Viceroyalty of New Granada—became a part of Greater Colombia after independence. It did not obtain independence until 3 November 1903, when a Panamanian junta declared independence from Colombia, a few days before it concluded the Hay–Buneau Varilla Treaty with the US which granted the latter the land rights and other privileges necessary to establish and operate the → Panama Canal under its own authority. In the north, the region of Chiapas, which had been a province of the Captaincy-General of Guatemala during the colonial period, opted to remain with Mexico when a shortlived union between Mexico and the Central American provinces collapsed in 1823.
Cultural Diversity
Authors: von Schorlemer Sabine 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Cultural diversity as a general concept has some early roots in the United Nations (‘UN’) system, most notably in the establishment of the → United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Since its foundation in 1945, UNESCO has aimed at ‘preserving the independence, integrity and fruitful diversity of cultures and educational systems of the States members’ (see Art. 1 (3) UNESCO Constitution). In the Mexico City Declaration on Cultural Policies (1982), UNESCO Member States declared that cultural identity and cultural diversity are inseparable (at para. 5). Another milestone in the development of the concept of cultural diversity is the UNESCO World Commission on Culture and Development Report ‘Our Creative Diversity’ of 1996. Being a major project of the World Decade for Cultural Development (1988–97), the report had a strong focus on creative potentials regarding the concept of cultural diversity as part of the overall notion of → sustainable development.
Developing Countries
Authors: Hirsch Moshe 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The vast gaps between developing and developed countries are of utmost importance for the → international community. Following the end of the → Cold War (1947–91), the division between developing and developed countries marks the deepest rift in the contemporary international system. This division often polarizes the normative positions of countries belonging to these distinctive groups, and it constitutes a source of numerous frictions regarding the structure and content of → international law (see also → Developing Country Approach to International Law; → Development, International Law of; → Development, Right to, International Protection). Consequently, the profound gaps between developing and developed countries inhibit co-operation in various spheres that are of long-term importance for both groups.
Development, Right to, International Protection
Authors: Marong Alhagi 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Efforts to define the right to development have continued for over two decades without reprieve (see also → Development, International Law of). Current discourse views the right to development as a human right with the human person as the central subject, in contrast to former claims of the right to development as a State-held right (→ Human Rights; → Individuals in International Law). The United Nations General Assembly (‘UNGA’) Declaration on the Right to Development of 4 December 1986 defines the concept as ‘an inalienable human right by virtue of which every human person and all → peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized’ (at Art. 1).
East African Community (EAC)
Authors: Kaahwa Wilbert TK 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The → East African Community (‘EAC’ ‘Community’) is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising → Burundi, Kenya, → Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda with its Headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania (see → International Organizations or Institutions, Headquarters; → Regional Cooperation and Organization: African States). The Community is a corporate legal entity founded by the Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (‘EAC Treaty’ ‘the Treaty’) which was signed on 30 November 1999 and which came into force on 7 July 2000. Prior to the coming into force of the Treaty, the EAC Partner States pursued the integration process on the basis of a 1993 Agreement for the Establishment of a Permanent Tripartite Commission for Co-operation between the Republic of Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania, and the Republic of Uganda.
Economic Development, Approaches to
Authors: Porrata-Doria Rafael A 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Since the 1940s, scholars have sought to articulate analytical perspectives to explain the causes of the relative poverty of underdeveloped countries and to identify the ways in which these largely pre-industrial economies could move out of poverty. These constructs seek first to identify the causes of the relative poverty of underdeveloped countries and secondly to specify how underdeveloped economies could achieve economic progress. In this manner, the field of development economics was formalized as an economic sub-discipline (Hunt 7).
Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)
Authors: Kembayev Zhenis 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
→ Regional integration processes in Eurasia, which trace their roots to → the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and subsequently continued in the framework of the → Eurasian Economic Community (EUrAsEC), have culminated in the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). On 29 May 2014, the three most advanced EurAsEC members, Belarus, Kazakhstan and → Russia (the Three), which have launched a → customs union on 1 January 2010, signed the Treaty on the EAEU (TEAEU). On 10 October 2014, the EurAsEC Member States signed a Treaty dissolving the EurAsEC, which ceased to exist on 1 January 2015. On the same day, the Three, on the one hand, and Armenia, on the other, signed a Treaty on the accession of Armenia to the EAEU. On 23 December 2014, a Treaty on the accession of Kyrgyzstan was signed.
European Community and Union, Association of Overseas Countries and Territories
Authors: Baetens Freya 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Historically, the list of overseas countries and territories (‘OCTs’) associated with European States was much longer, but most of these became independent sovereign States (mostly African, Caribbean, and Pacific States; ‘ACP States’) during the period of → decolonization. The remaining 25 OCTs are constitutionally linked with Denmark (→ Greenland), France (French Polynesia, Mayotte, New Caledonia and Dependencies, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, French Southern and Antarctic Territories, and Wallis and Futuna Islands), the Netherlands (Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Saint Eustatius, Sint Maarten), or the UK (Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, → Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas, Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena and Dependencies, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Turks and Caicos Islands).