bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Methodology of the History of Philosophy
Authors: Normore Calvin 
Published: September 2016

AbstractWhat are the methodological consequences of the fact that Philosophy has a history and that Philosophy incorporates the products of the history of Philosophy into its current practice? Is an internal ‘philosophical’ history of Philosophy possible and desirable or is the history of Philosophy best approached as a branch of Intellectual History and/or Cultural History. This chapter first sketches some of the history of the study of philosophy’s past and contrasts some widely employed ‘doxological’, ‘anthropological’, and sociological approaches to that study with the approaches employed in a particular, historically recent discipline, History of Philosophy. It argues that History of Philosophy has a distinctive methodological structure which poises it interestingly between the disciplines of History and Philosophy and which can be usefully compared with, but is quite distinct from, that of the History of Science.
Logical Empiricism
Authors: Pincock Christopher 
Published: September 2016

AbstractAt different times logical empiricists engaged one another in debates about the proper problems and methods for philosophy or its successor discipline. The most pressing problem focused on how to coordinate the abstract statements of the sciences with what can be experienced and tested. While the new logic was the main tool for coordination for Moritz Schlick, Hans Reichenbach, and Rudolf Carnap, there was no agreement on the nature of logic or its role in coordination. Otto Neurath and Philipp Frank countered with a sophisticated alternative that emphasized the social and political context within which science is done. All told, one finds in logical empiricism a high level of methodological awareness as well as a healthy skepticism about the appropriate aims and methods of philosophy.
Philosophy of Mathematics
Authors: Shapiro Stewart 
Published: September 2016

AbstractThis article examines a number of issues and problems that motivate at least much of the literature in the philosophy of mathematics. It first considers how the philosophy of mathematics is related to metaphysics, epistemology, and semantics. In particular, it reviews several views that account for the metaphysical nature of mathematical objects and how they compare to other sorts of objects, including realism in ontology and nominalism. It then discusses a common claim, attributed to Georg Kreisel that the important issues in the philosophy of mathematics do not concern the nature of mathematical objects, but rather the objectivity of mathematical discourse. It also explores irrealism in truth-value, the dilemma posed by Paul Benacerraf, epistemological issues in ontological realism, ontological irrealism, and the connection between naturalism and mathematics.
Analytic–Synthetic and A Priori–A Posteriori History
Authors: Weatherson Brian 
Published: September 2016

AbstractThis article focuses on the distinction between analytic truths and synthetic truths (i.e. every truth that isn’t analytic), and between a priori truths and a posteriori truths (i.e. every truth that isn’t a priori) in philosophy, beginning with a brief historical survey of work on the two distinctions, their relationship to each other, and to the necessary/contingent distinction. Four important stops in the history are considered: two involving Kant and W. V. O. Quine, and two relating to logical positivism and semantic externalism. The article then examines questions that have been raised about the analytic–synthetic and a priori–a posteriori distinctions, such as whether all distinctively philosophical truths fall on one side of the line and whether the distinction is relevant to philosophy. It also discusses the argument that there is a lot more a priori knowledge than we ever thought, and concludes by describing epistemological accounts of analyticity.
Intuitions
Authors: Weinberg Jonathan M. 
Published: September 2016

AbstractThis article examines the philosophical methodology of intuitions beginning with an argument developed by Max Deutsch and Herman Cappelen over the descriptive adequacy of what Cappelen calls “methodological rationalism”, and their own preferred view, “intuition nihilism”. Based on inadequacies in both accounts, it offers a descriptive take on intuition-deploying philosophical practice today via what it calls “Protean Crypto-Rationalism”. It then describes the epistemic profile of the appeal to intuition, listing four key aspects of the basic shape of intuition-deploying philosophical practice: primacy of cases, flexibility of report format, freedom of stipulation, and interpretation-hungry. It also considers several sources of error for intuitions featured in at least the informal methodological lore of philosophy, namely: misconstruals, modal confusions, pragmatics/semantics confusion, and “tin ear”. Finally, it explores the problem of methodological ignorance and inferential demand, particularly the typical practices of philosophical inference that operate on the premises delivered by appeal to intuitions.
Modeling
Authors: Weisberg Michael 
Published: September 2016

AbstractThis article focuses on the methodology of modeling and how it can be applied to philosophical questions. It looks at various traditional views of modeling and defends the idea that modeling is a form of surrogate reasoning involving two distinct steps: indirect representation of a target system using a model and analysis of that model. The article considers different accounts of model/target representational relations, defending an account of similarity. It concludes by presenting several examples of the use of models in philosophy, suggestions for philosophers new to modeling, and an assessment of the relationship between thought experiments and models.
Faith and Reason
Authors: Zagzebski Linda 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
This article examines the potential conflict between faith and reason, with emphasis on the relation between beliefs arising from revelation and beliefs arising from reason. It analyses the reasonableness or unreasonableness of faith, focusing on the conditions that make believing what one is told reasonable, or unreasonable, and the sense of reasonable intended when applied to faith. In order to have a method for determining the reasonableness of a belief, it considers two kinds of epistemic reasons: theoretical and deliberative. The chapter argues that trust in ourselves when we are epistemically conscientious is more basic than either theoretical or deliberative reasons, and more basic than any norms of reasoning. It concludes by considering the place of faith in the epistemically conscientious person and suggesting that faith has a component of belief on the word of God which does not conflict with reason directly, but which can be reasonable or unreasonable.
Ordinary Language Philosophy
Authors: Baz Avner 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
The article presents, clarifies, defends, and shows the contemporary relevance of ordinary language philosophy (OLP), as a general approach to the understanding and dissolution of at least very many traditional and contemporary philosophical difficulties. The first section broadly characterizes OLP, points out its anticipation in Immanuel Kant’s dissolution of metaphysical impasses in the ‘Transcendental Dialectic’ of the Critique of Pure Reason, and then shows its contemporary relevance by bringing its perspective to bear on the recent debates concerning the philosophical ‘method of cases’. The second section responds to a series of common objections to, and misunderstandings of, OLP.
Philosophical and Conceptual Analysis
Authors: King Jeffrey C. 
Published: September 2016

AbstractThis article examines the main lines of contemporary thinking about analysis in philosophy. It first considers G. E. Moore’s statement of the paradox of analysis. It then reviews a number of accounts of analysis that address the paradox of analysis, including the account offered by Ernest Sosa 1983 and others by Felicia Ackerman (1981, 1986, 1991); the latter gives an account of analysis on which properties are the objects of analysis. It also discusses Jeffrey C. King’s (1998, 2007) accounts of philosophical analysis, before turning to views of analysis that are not aimed at addressing the paradox of analysis, including those associated with David Lewis, Frank Jackson, and David Chalmers. In particular, it comments on Lewis’s argument that conceptual analysis is simply a means for picking out the physical state that occupies a certain role, where formulating what that role is constitutes a conceptual analysis of the relevant notion.
The Methodology of Legal Philosophy
Authors: Langlinais Alex , Leiter Brian 
Published: September 2016

AbstractThis article examines methodological debates in legal philosophy by focusing on two (related) methodological claims in H. L. A. Hart’s 1961 book, The Concept of Law: that Hart’s theory is both general and descriptive, and an exercise in both linguistic analysis and descriptive sociology. It considers what these claims reveal about Hart’s theoretical ambitions and methodological commitments, and what light they shed on debates in legal philosophy since then. In particular, it discusses the most important elements of Hart’s theory, such as the union of primary and secondary rules in law, the “rule of recognition” as a social rule, and the relationship between legal and moral norms. It also explores several objections to Hart’s approach to the problems of legal philosophy, including one that questions the fruitfulness of the methodology of conceptual analysis. Finally, it analyzes the argument of Hart and all legal positivists that legal systems are social constructs.
Why Medical Schools Should Embrace Wikipedia: Final-Year Medical Student Contributions to Wikipedia Articles for Academic Credit at One School
Authors: Azzam Amin , Bresler David , Leon Armando , Maggio Lauren , Whitaker Evans , Heilman James , Orlowitz Jake , Swisher Valerie , Rasberry Lane , Otoide Kingsley , Trotter Fred , Ross Will , McCue Jack D. 
Published: September 2016

Problem
Most medical students use Wikipedia as an information source, yet medical schools do not train students to improve Wikipedia or use it critically.

Approach
Between November 2013 and November 2015, the authors offered fourth-year medical students a credit-bearing course to edit Wikipedia. The course was designed, delivered, and evaluated by faculty, medical librarians, and personnel from WikiProject Medicine, Wikipedia Education Foundation, and Translators Without Borders. The authors assessed the effect of the students’ edits on Wikipedia’s content, the effect of the course on student participants, and readership of students’ chosen articles.

Outcomes
Forty-three enrolled students made 1,528 edits (average 36/student), contributing 493,994 content bytes (average 11,488/student). They added higher-quality and removed lower-quality sources for a net addition of 274 references (average 6/student). As of July 2016, none of the contributions of the first 28 students (2013, 2014) have been reversed or vandalized. Students discovered a tension between comprehensiveness and readability/translatability, yet readability of most articles increased. Students felt they improved their articles, enjoyed giving back “specifically to Wikipedia,” and broadened their sense of physician responsibilities in the socially networked information era. During only the “active editing months,” Wikipedia traffic statistics indicate that the 43 articles were collectively viewed 1,116,065 times. Subsequent to students’ efforts, these articles have been viewed nearly 22 million times.

Next Steps
If other schools replicate and improve on this initiative, future multi-institution studies could more accurately measure the effect of medical students on Wikipedia, and vice versa.
AMPAkines Target the Nucleus Accumbens to Relieve Postoperative Pain
Authors: Su Chen , Lin Hau Yeuh , Yang Runtao , Xu Duo , Lee Michelle , Pawlak Natalie , Norcini Monica , Sideris Alexandra , Recio-Pinto Esperanza , Huang Dong , Wang Jing 
Published: September 2016

Abstract

Background
AMPAkines augment the function of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors in the brain to increase excitatory outputs. These drugs are known to relieve persistent pain. However, their role in acute pain is unknown. Furthermore, a specific molecular and anatomic target for these novel analgesics remains elusive.

Methods
The authors studied the analgesic role of an AMPAkine, CX546, in a rat paw incision (PI) model of acute postoperative pain. The authors measured the effect of AMPAkines on sensory and depressive symptoms of pain using mechanical hypersensitivity and forced swim tests. The authors asked whether AMPA receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a key node in the brain’s reward and pain circuitry, can be a target for AMPAkine analgesia.

Results
Systemic administration of CX546 (n = 13), compared with control (n = 13), reduced mechanical hypersensitivity (50% withdrawal threshold of 6.05 ± 1.30 g [mean ± SEM] vs. 0.62 ± 0.13 g), and it reduced depressive features of pain by decreasing immobility on the forced swim test in PI-treated rats (89.0 ± 15.5 vs. 156.7 ± 18.5 s). Meanwhile, CX546 delivered locally into the NAc provided pain-relieving effects in both PI (50% withdrawal threshold of 6.81 ± 1.91 vs. 0.50 ± 0.03 g; control, n = 6; CX546, n = 8) and persistent postoperative pain (spared nerve injury) models (50% withdrawal threshold of 3.85 ± 1.23 vs. 0.45 ± 0.00 g; control, n = 7; CX546, n = 11). Blocking AMPA receptors in the NAc with 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzo[f]quinoxaline-2,3-dione inhibited these pain-relieving effects (50% withdrawal threshold of 7.18 ± 1.52 vs. 1.59 ± 0.66 g; n = 8 for PI groups; 10.70 ± 3.45 vs. 1.39 ± 0.88 g; n = 4 for spared nerve injury groups).

Conclusions
AMPAkines relieve postoperative pain by acting through AMPA receptors in the NAc.
FUNDUS ALBIPUNCTATUS ASSOCIATED WITH CONE DYSFUNCTION
Authors: Kuehlewein Laura , Nasser Fadi , Gloeckle Nicola , Kohl Susanne , Zrenner Eberhart 
Published: September 2016

Purpose:
To describe a case of cone dysfunction associated with fundus albipunctatus.

Methods:
This report is an observational case report. The examination included multimodal imaging, electrophysiological recordings after standard and prolonged dark adaption, and disease targeted gene panel sequencing.

Results:
In this report, the authors present a 55-year-old Chinese male with findings on fundus examination, optical coherence tomography, and full-field electroretinography after standard and prolonged dark adaption consistent with fundus albipunctatus associated with cone dysfunction. Disease targeted gene panel sequencing revealed two heterozygous mutations in RDH5 (c.124C>T; p.Arg42Cys and c.500G>A; p.Arg167His).

Conclusion:
The authors report the case of a patient with ophthalmic findings characteristic for cone dysfunction in the setting of genetically confirmed fundus albipunctatus.
Opioid prescribing for patients with cancer in the last year of life: a longitudinal population cohort study
Authors: Ziegler Lucy , Mulvey Matthew , Blenkinsopp Alison , Petty Duncan , Bennett Michael I. 
Published: September 2016

Abstract
We linked UK cancer registry data with the corresponding electronic primary care medical records of 6080 patients who died of cancer over a 7-year period in a large United Kingdom city. We extracted all prescriptions for analgesics issued to each patient in the linked cohort during the 12 months before death and analysed the extent and duration of strong opioid treatment with clinical and patient characteristics. Strong opioids were prescribed for 48% of patients in the last year of life. Median interval between first prescription of a strong opioid and death was 9 weeks (interquartile range 3-23). Strong opioid prescribing was not influenced by cancer type, duration of illness, or gender but was adversely influenced by older age. Compared with patients who died in a hospice, those who died in a hospital were 60% less likely to receive a strong opioid in primary care before admission (relative risk ratio 0.4, CI 0.3-0.5, P < 0.01). The study provides the first detailed analysis of the relatively late onset and short duration of strong opioid treatment in patients with cancer before death in a representative UK cohort. This pattern of prescribing does not match epidemiological data which point to earlier onset of pain. Although persistent undertreatment of cancer pain is well documented, this study suggests that strategies for earlier pain assessment and initiation of strong opioid treatment in community-based patients with cancer could help to improve pain outcomes.
Low Rate of Adverse Events Associated With Inpatient Parenteral Prostacyclins
Authors: Awdish Rana L. , Mendez Michael P. , MacDonald Nancy , Yessayan Lenar , Jennings Jeffrey H. , Albujoq Kamelia , Hegab Sara , Cajigas Hector R. 
Published: September 2016

Abstract:
Parenteral prostacyclin is the most-effective therapy for patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Administration is complex, and administration errors are potentially life threatening. Hospital policies to minimize the risk to patients are necessary, but their effectiveness has not been well studied. We quantified the adverse event incident rate per at-risk patient day in a tertiary care hospital with an established parenteral prostacyclin policy. Patients on parenteral prostacyclin including new initiations from January 2003 to January 2013 were identified, encompassing 386 discrete admissions. Reports of adverse events were obtained from the inpatient risk feedback–reporting process and detailed chart review. Policy-divergent events were analyzed both categorically and by the degree of severity. Overall, 153 total policy-divergent events were identified. Data analysis indicated an incident rate of 45.9 per 1,000 patient days. In total, 21 of 153 potential errors reached the patient, translating to an incident rate of 6.3 per 1,000 patient days. Incident rate for “serious symptomatic” or “catastrophic” policy-divergent events was 3.3 per 1,000 patient days. Even with specific prostacyclin training and administration policy, there remains a small risk of adverse events in hospitalized pulmonary hypertension patients receiving parenteral prostacyclin.
Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials That Evaluate the Effectiveness of Hospital-Initiated Postdischarge Interventions on Hospital Readmission
Authors: Branowicki Patricia M. , Vessey Judith A. , Graham Dionne A. , McCabe Margaret A. , Clapp Alison L. , Blaine Kevin , O'Neill Margaret R. , Gouthro Julie A. , Snydeman Colleen K. , Kline Nancy E. , Chiang Vincent W. , Cannon Courtney , Berry Jay G. 
Published: September 2016

Abstract:
Under pressure to avoid readmissions, hospitals are increasingly employing hospital-initiated postdischarge interventions (HiPDI), such as home visits and follow-up phone calls, to help patients after discharge. This study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of HiPDI on reducing hospital readmissions using a systematic review of clinical trials published between 1990 and 2014. We analyzed twenty articles on HiPDI (from 503 reviewed abstracts) containing 7,952 index hospitalizations followed for a median 3 months (range 1–24) after discharge for readmission. The two most common HiPDI included follow-up phone calls (n = 14, 70%) or home visits (n = 11, 55%); eighty-five percent (n = 17) of studies had multiple HiPDI. In meta-analysis, exposure to HiPDI was associated with a lower likelihood of readmission (odds ratio [OR], 0.8 [95% CI, 0.7–0.9]). Patients receiving ≥2 postdischarge home visits or ≥2 follow-up phone calls had the lowest likelihood of readmission (OR, 0.5 [95% CI, 0.4–0.8]). Hospital-initiated postdischarge interventions seem to have an effect on reducing hospital readmissions. Together, multiple home visits and follow-up phone calls may be the most effective HiPDI to reduce hospital readmission.
State Variation in Enrollment Gap, Sexual Activity, and Chlamydia Testing Rate Among Young Medicaid Women
Authors: Tao Guoyu , Patel Chirag G. 
Published: September 2016

Objectives
To assess state variations in eligibility criteria based on enrollment length and sexual activity on chlamydia testing rates among Medicaid female enrollees aged 15 to 25 years and potential impact of the representatives of testing rates.

Methods
We used 2010 Medicaid Analytic eXtract to estimate and compare the overall and state-level prevalence of gaps in coverage of ≥ 2 consecutive months, service utilization associated with sexuality, and chlamydia testing rates among Medicaid female enrollees aged 15 to 25 years who had ≥ 1 month of the full scope of Medicaid benefits and had ≥ 1 health service claim. The chlamydia testing rate was calculated as the proportion of sexually active Medicaid female enrollees who received a chlamydia test in 2010.

Results
Of 5.7 million women aged 15 to 25 years enrolled in Medicaid in 2010, 42.3% had a 2-month gap of enrollment coverage in 2010. The proportion of women who had a 2-month gap varied from 26.1% to 73.2% across states. The proportion of women identified as sexually active was 59.8% among women who had a 2-month gap and 57.1% among women who had no 2-month gap. The chlamydia testing rate was 44.0% among sexually active women with a 2-month gap and 44.2% among sexually active women without a 2-month gap. Eleven states had ≥10% difference in sexual activity or chlamydia testing rates between women with a 2-month gap and women without a 2-month gap.

Conclusions
States which exclude a substantial proportion of Medicaid enrollees from inclusion in the chlamydia testing denominator may have less representative testing estimates because those excluded tend to be women aged 19 to 25 years.