bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perceived Reality as a Communication Process
Authors: Kosicki Gerald 
Published: September 2017

Beyond one's own direct experiences of the world, humans rely on communication to form impressions about the rest of reality. This fact makes communication a key to how people form their perceptions of reality. There is a rich literature grounded in communication dealing with the role of mass communication in forming individual‐level judgments as well as public opinion about conditions in the world (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality; Social Perception). This literature, which ranges over the areas of entertainment, news media, media effects, and various social indicators, is impressive in its breadth and depth (e.g., Bryant & Zillmann 2002).
Personal Communication by CMC
Authors: Walther Joseph B. 
Published: September 2017

Computer‐mediated communication (CMC) includes → electronic mail, group discussion systems, real‐time chat, personal blogs, micro‐blogs (→ Blogger), conversational components of online games (→ Computer Games and Reality Perception) and date‐finding sites (→ Online Relationships), and interactive aspects of web‐based participatory platforms such as → social network sites (→ Intergroup Contact and Communication; Network Organizations through Communication Technology). Through these platforms people send messages either to a defined individual or set of recipients, or to a space where many people may read and reply to others' messages. Much CMC is used for professional pursuits, yet even there personalizing features help users relate to one another, which may enhance both the instrumental and interpersonal aspects of such communication. A great deal of CMC is used specifically for personal goals and activities. In some ways CMC is a simple alternative to other forms of communication (→ Online Media), with some socio‐technical features that alter communication dynamics (→ Human–Computer Interaction). In other ways CMC offers significant opportunities that enhance communication in personal settings by allowing users to contact a large field of potential communication partners, reducing aspects of human interaction that impede communication effectiveness in conventional interaction. CMC can enhance personal communication by allowing users to enhance messaging in ways that conventional interaction does not as readily afford, facilitating new relationships and relational maintenance.
Personalization of Campaigning
Authors: Brettschneider Frank 
Published: September 2017

Election campaigning is considered to be personalized if it focuses on the top candidates and their personal qualities more than on political issues. The personalization of campaigning is part of the personalization of politics as a whole (→ Political Personality in Media Democracy). Moreover, the personalization of voting behavior and that of media coverage play an important role (Brettschneider 2002). Yet the personalization of election campaigns receives the bulk of criticism. Some observers see in it a dangerous trend toward depolitization. Politics, according to them, is increasingly meaningless, issues are marginalized, and elections are turned into mere beauty contests, designed by → spin doctors who are practically “packaging” their candidates for the media (Franklin 2004).
Piracy
Authors: Bettig Ronald V. 
Published: September 2017

The origin of the term “piracy” dates back to the thirteenth century when rogue seamen who intercepted merchant and military vessels to rob them of their cargo were known as “pirates.” In the early eighteenth century, the term took on a new meaning, referring to the unauthorized use of intellectual property. Images of the swashbuckling pirate are still reproduced in →
Popular Culture
today: in movies (→ Film as Popular Culture), → Television programs, romance novels, and theme parks. By the late 1900s, the term had been loosened from its original meaning and become the primary descriptor of the unauthorized use of copyrighted works, patents, and trademarks (→ Trademarks in the Media; Copyright). By the early years of the twenty‐first century, the most common usage of the term piracy had come to signify unauthorized uses of intellectual property via the → Internet and sale of CDs, DVDs, and computer software on the black market. While seafaring pirates pilfered material property to keep or resell, piracy of intellectual property involves the infringing appropriation of immaterial goods, including creative and intellectual works.
Planned Social Change through Communication
Authors: McLeod Douglas M. 
Published: September 2017

Planned social change is the result of an intervention by a change agent (an individual or organization that seeks to induce change) in order to transform the nature of human communities, most often as a response to some perceived problem such as health risks, environmental crises, political instability, economic hardships, underdeveloped infrastructures, and recovery from natural disasters. Thus, there are a variety of contexts in which planned social change is practiced including → Health Communication, political transformation, crisis management (→ Crisis Communication), technological innovation, and → modernization. Across each of these areas, the predominant goal is to improve the quality of life and the standard of living within a given social system. Ostensibly, the goal of planned social change is the betterment of society, though there may be no consensus on which goals of the campaign are most important and indeed whether they are socially desirable at all.
Political Language
Authors: Jarvis Sharon E. 
Published: September 2017

Political language has been studied by sociolinguists, communication scholars, political scientists, historians, sociologists, anthropologists, psychologists, and marketing professionals (→ Language and Social Interaction; Political Communication). Shared assumptions across these fields are that (1) citizens come to know their political worlds through messages and symbols, and (2) political words do not have → meaning in themselves; rather their meanings are a function of contexts, speakers, audiences, and predispositions. Beyond these shared assumptions, specific fields have made unique contributions to what is known about political language.
Political Persuasion
Authors: Perloff Richard M. , Horowitz Edward , Pettey Gary 
Published: September 2017

Persuasion is an integral part of politics and a necessary component of the pursuit and exercise of power. Political persuasion is a process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behavior regarding a political issue through messages, in an atmosphere of free choice (Perloff 2003, 34). As the field of political communication has grown, so too has the number of studies exploring the processes and effects of political persuasive communication (→ Persuasion). Political persuasion involves the application of persuasion principles to a context in which most individuals possess the seemingly incompatible characteristics of harboring strong feelings about a host of issues, yet caring precious little about the context in which these issues are played out.
Politics in Popular Communication
Authors: Macey Deborah A. 
Published: September 2017

Political communication is an interdisciplinary field with roots stretching back to Aristotle and Plato, who debated the meaning of democracy and society (→ Political Communication; Rhetoric, Greek). Modern political communication research incorporates not only the field of communication, including → Journalism and rhetoric, but also political science, sociology, history, psychology, geography, and others (→ Rhetorical Studies).
Popular Music
Authors: Burnett Robert 
Published: September 2017

Music in various functions plays an increasingly important role both as an indicator of and as a medium for changes in society. Popular music is with us constantly; it is part of our everyday environment, and increasingly part of the aural or sonic soundscape that surrounds us. Not only do we listen to music in our homes and at concerts, but also as a background in cars, bars, airplanes, restaurants, and shopping malls. Our brains are constantly registering, monitoring, and decoding popular music. Popular music is one of the more powerful expressions of the → “culture industry” worldwide. Some would claim that popular music is the only truly universal “mass medium.” Certainly most people would agree that music speaks a universal language of → emotions. Popular music is now the lingua franca for a large segment of the world's youth population. It is probably fair to say that music is the most universal means of communication we now have, instantly traversing language and other cultural barriers (→ Popular Communication).
Positioning Theory
Authors: Zerfass Ansgar 
Published: September 2017

Positioning is an essential concept in → communication management, → Public Relations, and →
Marketing
communication. The process of positioning includes identifying, defining, and managing the → Perception relevant audiences have of a particular organization, product, person, or idea. Three lines of thought relevant to communication theory have emerged during the last decades: strategic positioning, positioning strategies, and discursive positioning.
Precision Journalism
Authors: Doig Stephen K. 
Published: September 2017

Precision journalism is the use of social and behavioral science → Research Methods to gather and analyze data, bringing a level of rigor to journalistic work beyond anecdotal evidence. Although it can be practiced without computers, precision journalism is usually a subset of “computer‐assisted reporting
,”
the catch‐all term for anything from using the Internet for gathering information to developing newsroom intranets for sharing information among reporters. Another common term is “database journalism,” which focuses on gathering and analyzing large collections of government data.
Public Relations Ethics
Authors: Bowen Shannon A. 
Published: September 2017

A core responsibility of communicators in public relations is to manage issues (→ Issue Management; Communication Management). Public relations holds the substantial moral responsibility of defining issues, communicating about those issues with publics and the media, and working to prevent and resolve problems between organizations and publics. This weighty responsibility includes deciding what concepts are related or unrelated to an issue, what facts are relevant or irrelevant, and what potential solutions exist. A moral responsibility to conduct these activities in an ethical manner is inherent in pursuits of such significance, and public relations professionals worldwide are therefore obligated to act with ethical rectitude by the very nature of their responsibilities (→ Corporate Social Responsibility).
Quantitative Methodology
Authors: Scholl Armin 
Published: September 2017

The results of polls tell us how many people intend to vote for a certain political party, watch TV more than four hours a day, or favor a certain TV program. We call methods of collecting and analyzing such data “quantitative methodology” because individuals' attributes are counted in large numbers. One can count not only single persons (→ Survey), but also propositions within texts, visual elements within pictures or sequences of film material (→ Content Analysis, Quantitative), or observed actions and overt behaviors (→ Observation). Counting people, words, the duration of a TV program, and so on is deeply rooted in our everyday lives and nothing artificial. Quantitative methodology joins these basic social phenomena but works out systematic (methodological) rules to a complex pattern of standards.
Reality and Media Reality
Authors: Morgan Michael 
Published: September 2017

Since the earliest days of mass media, researchers, social critics, politicians, and the general public have been concerned about the extent to which media representations reflect or deviate from “reality.” Over the years, a great deal of research and public debate have revolved around the kinds of images of the world that are created and disseminated by media, and how they compare to the “real world” as revealed by official statistics or other objective indicators (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality).
Reciprocity and Compensation in Interaction
Authors: Patterson Miles L. 
Published: September 2017

Social interaction is a complex, yet often subtle, process through which humans transmit information, pursue social goals, and initiate and sustain relationships. Even in the current digital age with its various forms of remote communication, face‐to‐face interaction is still critical for our social and emotional well‐being. One way of characterizing the give‐and‐take between people in interactions is in terms of the relative changes partners make in their behavior over time; specifically, compensation and reciprocation. Compensation refers to a pattern of balancing or controlling the partner's behavioral intimacy by moving in the opposite direction. Thus, too much intimacy by one person precipitates avoidance and too little intimacy precipitates approach. In contrast, when a partner's behavioral intimacy is matched or intensified, the resulting pattern is described as reciprocation. On the verbal side of interactions, reciprocation or matching of self‐disclosure seems to be the dominant pattern. Although verbal communication is obviously important, nonverbal communication typically has a greater impact than the verbal on social judgments, interpersonal attitudes, and influence (Patterson 2002). In fact, most of the research and theory on compensation and reciprocation has focused on nonverbal communication. Consequently, this discussion examines the evolution of our understanding of compensation and reciprocation in nonverbal communication (→ Nonverbal Signals, Effects of).
Relational Control
Authors: Millar Frank E. 
Published: September 2017

Relational control is the most dynamic of the three dimensions of social relationships proposed by Millar and Rogers (1987) – the other two are trust and intimacy. Control represents the vertical “distance” between the persons in an ongoing interaction; it refers to the pattern of rights and obligations to define or direct and to defer or accept the other's assertions while constructing the continually re‐produced form of any interpersonal relationship. The temporal relevance of control is the present, since the right to direct and the obligation to accept the dyad's form varies by topics, social roles, and social settings. Functionally, control structures serve to regulate how each person acts toward and with the other and the dyad's ability to accomplish interdependent and individual goals (→ Social Interaction Structure). Subjective judgments about the vertical distance between persons are encapsulated in the notions of freedom and equity. Freedom concerns the possibility of one's own actions affecting the forms and outcomes of the relationship, while equity judgments concern the fairness of one's own rewards in comparison to the other's, considering the amount and type of one's contributions to the relationship (→ Social Exchange).
Rhetoric in Central and South America
Authors: Paglialunga Esther 
Published: September 2017

This entry presents an overview of recent rhetorical studies by scholars from universities in Central and South America, where there is a renewed interest in this field. Generally, rhetorical studies in Central and South America are concerned with the main theoretical notions of literary criticism in antiquity; the application of such notions to the analysis of Greek and Roman classical texts (→ Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman); the influence of classical rhetoric on Latin American thought and literature from the discovery of the New World; and → Discourse Analysis, especially according to modern linguistic theories.
Rhetoric, Epideictic
Authors: Haskins Ekaterina 
Published: September 2017

The term “epideictic” derives from the Greekepideixis, translated as “showing forth” or “display.” According to Aristotle's classification of rhetorical genres inThe art of rhetoric, epideictic → Discourse is concerned with topics of praise and blame, deals with the present, and is addressed to an audience of spectators, rather than judges (1358a–b). Epideictic relies on verbal amplification (auxesis) to portray desirable qualities of the object of praise and to depict the object of blame as base and dishonorable (1368a). AlthoughThe art of rhetoricidentifies epideictic as a distinct form or genre of rhetoric, it also notes that epideictic elements can be used in the other two main genres of oratory, when, for example, a deliberative speaker portrays a particular course of action as more attractive than others and a judicial orator's defense employs amplification to depict the accused in a favorable way (→ Rhetoric, Greek).
Rhetoric and Ethics
Authors: Arnett Ronald C. 
Published: September 2017

The field of communication has historical roots in the interplay of human speech and ethics (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline). Our journals record scholarly investigation of communication ethics beginning in 1934 with Pellegrini's
Quarterly Journal of Speech
essay, “Public speaking and social obligations.” The founding scholarly work on speech and ethics is Aristotle's
Nichomachean ethics
. Aristotle's public descriptive account of Homer's narrative responsiveness to Athenian virtues in action establishes the enduring heart of communication ethics –
responsiveness
, commencing with responsiveness to the Athenian polis.
Rhetoric and Psychology
Authors: Simons Herbert W. 
Published: September 2017

This entry examines the fields of rhetoric and psychology, each from the perspective of the other, and both from the meta‐perspective of a psychologist‐turned‐rhetorician who retains equal measures of respect (and disrespect) for both. Rhetoric and psychology each study → Persuasion but from radically different approaches that reflect their contrasting origins in the humanistic and scientific traditions of communication studies (→ Communication Theory and Philosophy). With a view toward advancing consideration of the issues that divide rhetoric and psychology, we can imagine their representatives as engaged in a conversation of sorts on questions of relative worth to their students, to the general advancement of knowledge, and to each other (→ Psychology in Communication Processes; Rhetorical Studies).
Rhetoric, Roman
Authors: Hall Jon 
Published: September 2017

Roman rhetoric aims to present practical and theoretical guidelines for effective verbal → persuasion. In ancient Rome such precepts found an application most regularly in speeches made in the criminal and civil courts, but they were relevant also to debates on political policy in the senate and at popular assemblies. All of these oratorical activities were traditionally restricted in ancient Rome to men of the elite classes. The main principles of Roman rhetoric derive largely from earlier Greek rhetorical theory, which achieved impressive levels of sophistication during the fourth centurybce, and which formed the major focus of formal education in the Hellenistic world (→ Rhetoric, Greek). As these Greek‐speaking communities were gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire from the second centurybceonwards, the value of rhetorical training came to be appreciated by members of the ruling elite, although the process of acceptance and integration took considerable time. The first teachers of rhetoric in Rome essentially reproduced the existing Greek system; it is not until 92bcethat we hear of Latin being used as a language of rhetorical instruction in the city. Over the next 50 years or so, formal training in rhetoric finally became established as a central feature of upper‐class Roman education.
Rhetoric of the Second Sophistic
Authors: Whitmarsh Tim 
Published: September 2017

“The Second Sophistic” is the name given by Flavius Philostratus (c. 170–245
ce
) in his
Lives of the sophists
(481, 507) to the rhetorical style current in his day. The sophistic culture described by Philostratus involved highly educated members of the Greek elite improvising public declamations, often in the personae of famous figures from Greece's historical or mythological past. The primary emphasis was upon the re‐enactment of key moments of military or political significance: most themes were drawn from the times of either imperial Athens (fifth century
bce
) or the conquests of Philip and Alexander (fourth century
bce
). This historical emphasis was matched at the level of diction, morphology, and style by the revival of the “Attic” dialect used by classical Athenian writers such as Thucydides, Plato, and Demosthenes (→ Rhetoric, Greek).
Rhetoric and Semiotics
Authors: Lyne John 
Published: September 2017

Semiotics is the study of → signs and signification, including both linguistic and nonlinguistic signs (→ Linguistics; semiotics; Sign Systems). The American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), who coined the term and did innovative work in the area, regarded it as the study of that which supports inferences; that is to say, of how signs enable interpretive inference to other signs. Peirce held that all we know or experience comes to us through the mediation of signs. He did not hold that all signification is solely the product of social convention or of language proper, maintaining that signs serve as tools for scientific investigation as well as for the exploration of human creations (→ Language and Social Interaction). One consequence of this view is that all inquiry is semiotic inquiry. Another lineage of semiotics, usually designated by the term “semiology,” grows out of a tradition of European → structuralism traced back to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, and carried forward by such writers as → Roland Barthes, Roman Jakobson, and the anthropologist Claude Lévi‐Strauss. In this tradition, emphasis is placed on the social structuring of meaning and the rendering of cultural forms as texts. In contrast to Peirce, this tradition places emphasis on the arbitrariness of signs and on binary structures of meaning.
Rhetoric and Social Thought
Authors: Charland Maurice 
Published: September 2017

Aristotle defines rhetoric as the art of determining the available means of persuasion in a particular case. This can be interpreted in a number of ways. When considered narrowly, the study of rhetoric can be equated with the psychology of → Persuasion or with informal logic. However, when that definition is read along with the rest of the
Rhetoric
, as well as the
Ethics
and the
Politics
, and in the context of the rhetorical instruction given by the Sophists and Isocrates, rhetoric is better understood as the theory and practice of civic → Discourse (→ Rhetoric, Greek).