bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Broadcast Journalism
Authors: Conway Mike 
Published: September 2017

Broadcast journalism extends news to radio and television. The first broadcast journalists came from other media including newspapers, news and photo magazines, theater newsreels, motion pictures, documentary films, and radio (→ Television News), and the mix of media influenced the development of broadcast journalism. For example, job titles came from newspapers (reportersandeditors) and from motion pictures (directorsandproducers), along with some original coinages (such asanchor).
Business Discourse
Authors: Carl Walter J. 
Published: September 2017

Studies of business discourse examine how the work of a business institution gets accomplished through talk and texts. Academic and practitioner interest in business discourse has emerged in a social context where business institutions, notably corporations, have a powerful presence in the world. Close attention to business discourse is predicated on the following suppositions: that people spend a significant portion of their lives in business institutions, that this work gets accomplished primarily through talk and texts (especially as managers and in a knowledge economy), and that there are better and worse ways to practice discourse. The study of business discourse is international and approached from multiple disciplines and perspectives, including various forms of → Discourse Analysis – such as → action‐implicative discourse analysis, discursive psychology, and critical discourse analysis – conversation analysis and ethnomethodology, organizational communication, management theory, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, genre analysis, ethnography, and narrative analysis.
Cartoons
Authors: Lent John A. 
Published: September 2017

Cartoons can be simply described as humorous drawings, separated into political or editorial, which use → caricature, humor, and satire to comment on current affairs and influence → public opinion, and social or gag, which poke fun at daily life and its problems or merely illustrate jokes. Although political cartoons normally are found in daily → Newspapers, where they often support editorial views, they have also appeared in → magazines, on → Television, and as broadsheets and → posters. Gag cartoons typically are in general interest magazines, some of which (e.g.,
Saturday Evening Post, Collier's, Esquire
, and
New Yorker
in the US) were famous for them, and in cartoon/humor periodicals (most notably, the long‐lived
Punch
of the UK and
Mad
in the US).
Cognitive Science
Authors: Bailenson Jeremy N. , Fox Jesse 
Published: September 2017

Cognitive science is the study of mind, and is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses psychology (→ Psychology in Communication Processes), philosophy, computer science, education (→ Learning and Communication), neuroscience, anthropology, and linguistics. The intellectual origins of the field can be traced back to the 1950s, when researchers first began to use formal mathematical representations and computational structures to model theories of mind (→ Cognition). Cognitive science became an “official” field in the late 1970s; in 1976, the first issue of the journalCognitive Sciencewas printed, and the first meeting of the Cognitive Science Society took place in 1979.
Communication as an Academic Field: Latin America
Authors: Martín‐Barbero Jesús 
Published: September 2017

In Latin America communication studies started during the late 1960s, and were characterized by two very different conceptions. On the one hand, there was the
functional paradigm
, from the United States (where many Latin American professors had been trained), which related the study of communication to the
diffusion of innovations
, and which was part of a development policy primarily for the rural sector (→ Functional Analysis; Diffusion of Information and Innovation). On the other hand, there was the
theory of dependence
, developed by Latin American economists and sociologists, which asserted that mass communication was part of the process that included the domination Latin American countries had to put up with (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories; Dependency Theories).
Communication Management
Authors: Brønn Peggy Simcic 
Published: September 2017

For some, communication management is a special way of managing; for others it is the steering of all communications in the context of the organization; for yet others it is the same as → Public Relations (PR), i.e. managing communication itself. This entry features the second approach, i.e., communication management as the steering of all communications in the context of the organization (→ Organizational Communication; Corporate Communication).
Communication Modes, Asian
Authors: Zhang Yan Bing 
Published: September 2017

Communication in its simplest form refers to the ongoing process of sharing and understanding meaning (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts; Communication: History of the Idea). Many intercultural communication problems stem from the different ways that messages are composed, transmitted, and interpreted. Human beings depend on a variety of philosophical, social, psychological, and institutional standards or criteria of conduct to arrive at reasonable, appropriate, and meaningful modes of communication. Asia is very heterogeneous. Each Asian culture has its unique philosophical traditions, ethics, and morals for appropriate social behaviors and conduct. Confucianism, however, is one of the most prevalent practices in Asian cultures. Although communication is unique within each Asian culture, systematic similarities in communication (e.g., indirect, implicit, polite, and formal communication) have been observed across the Asian cultures (Gao et al. 1996).
Consensus‐Oriented Public Relations
Authors: Burkart Roland 
Published: September 2017

Consensus‐oriented public relations (COPR) is a concept for planning and evaluating → Public Relations (PR). Especially in situations with a high chance of conflict, companies and organizations are forced to present good arguments for communicating their interests and ideas – in other words, they must make the public understand their actions (→ Corporate Communication; Crisis Communication). Therefore, in the viewpoint of COPR, understanding plays an important role within the PR management process (Burkart 2004).
Conversation Analysis
Authors: Beach Wayne A. 
Published: September 2017

Conversation Analysis (CA) is a primary mode of inquiry for understanding how people talk with one another in everyday casual encounters, as well as in more specialized institutional settings involving bureaucratic representatives (e.g., medical, legal, educational, corporate, government). Research materials are naturally occurring audio and video recordings, and carefully produced transcriptions, of a broad range of interactions comprising the social worlds of diverse speakers, relationships, activities, and events. Examples are: telephone conversations and face‐to‐face interactions among family members, friends, acquaintances, and service providers such as telephone emergency hotlines; interactions among young children, parents, and daycare providers; patient–provider interactions (→ Doctor–Patient Talk); news and broadcast interviews (→ Broadcast Talk). Giving priority to recordings and transcriptions is based on the recognition that detailed features and contingencies of interactional events cannot be intuited, nor adequately reconstructed, through field notes, interviews, or other forms of self‐reported information. Interactions that are “naturally occurring” are those that would take place whether or not a recording device were present, and are not significantly influenced by researchers prompting the origination, content, or length of the social occasion.
Co‐Orientation Model of Public Relations
Authors: Verčič Dejan 
Published: September 2017

Public relations (PR) is a strategic management function responsible for cultivation of good relations between an organization and its strategic constituencies (stakeholders and publics; → Stakeholder Theory; Grunig 2006). The ultimate goal of → Public Relations is social harmony. The co‐orientation model of public relations assumes that organizations prefer harmony to conflict and that they can use communication for that purpose (→ Organization–Public Relationships; Consensus‐Oriented Public Relations).
Corporate Communication
Authors: Cornelissen Joep P. 
Published: September 2017

Perhaps the best way to define corporate communication is to look at the way in which the function developed in companies. Until the 1980s, professionals responsible for communication within their organizations had used the term → “public relations” to describe communication with stakeholders (a term still used in academic circles across the world). This public relations (PR) function, which was tactical in most companies, largely consisted of communication to the press. When other stakeholders, internal and external to the company, started to demand more information from the company, communication professionals within organizations subsequently started to look at communication as being more than just PR. The roots of the new corporate communication function started to take hold. This new function came to incorporate a whole range of specialized disciplines including → corporate design (→
Design
), corporate → advertising, employee or internal communication, issues and crisis management (→ Issue Management; Crisis Communication), → media relations, investor relations, change communication, and → public affairs. An important characteristic of the new function was that it consolidated a range of communication disciplines and expertise into a single corporate communication or corporate affairs department. This department has a single mandate that is focused on the organization as a whole and on the important task of how an organization is presented to all its key stakeholders, both internal and external (→ Stakeholder Theory).
Cross‐Ownership
Authors: Edge Marc 
Published: September 2017

Cross‐ownership of media occurs when a person or company owns outlets in more than one medium (i.e., → newspapers, → radio, and → television) in the same geographical market. It is a business strategy driven by advances in technology and also a public policy issue due to concerns over increased concentration of ownership (→ Media Policy). Cross‐ownership is aimed at achieving economies of scope across multiple media. Costs may be reduced through the “synergy” of sharing of staff and content between outlets in different media, and revenues may be increased through the sale of multimedia advertising packages.
Cultural Studies: Feminist Popular Culture
Authors: Arthurs Jane 
Published: September 2017

The question of what counts as “feminist popular culture” arises from an engagement with foundational debates within → cultural studies as to the primary site for cultural reproduction and contestation (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). These debates are reflected in the competing definitions of → “popular culture” that circulate in the literature, namely: (1) the ideological products of mainstream commercial culture addressed to the mass audience, (2) an alternative, negotiated culture based on a “lived” sensibility of subordination and marginalization, and (3) an oppositional culture developed through the political consciousness necessary for a radical critique of the status quo (→ Critical Theory).
Culture and Communication, Ethnographic Perspectives on
Authors: Carbaugh Donal 
Published: September 2017

Studies of culture have been conducted in a variety of productive ways in several academic fields; one might say the same about studies of communication, while also saying as much for ethnographic studies (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication). Adding this variety, that is, all three of these, together can create an unwieldy assortment of theories and research reports. Saying something about them all would be a difficult task, indeed. However, examining a subset of these that stand at the nexus of all three concerns, that is, identifying studies of communication that highlight cultural variability, and do so ethnographically, is a more manageable pursuit, and one that this entry undertakes, with special attention to intergroup and intercultural dynamics. It will be shown that this type of study has provided a very detailed and deep look at actual intercultural encounters.
Emic vs Etic Research
Authors: Lindlof Thomas R. 
Published: September 2017

Derived from anthropological research,
emic
and
etic
describe two broad approaches to analyzing language and culture. The emic–etic duality has influenced the ways in which fields as diverse as personality psychology, consumer behavior, organizational science, and intercultural communication study cultural systems. The terms also refer to distinctive research strategies, particularly in the context of ethnographic fieldwork (→ Field Research).
Free Flow of Information
Authors: McAnany Emile G. 
Published: September 2017

The free flow of information has been a key policy as well as a political aspect in the US government's approach to → international communication since World War II. There has often been a conflation of the term between a principle of democratic governance found in many national constitutions and United Nations agencies' charters (→ UNESCO), and the political principle of promoting free trade status to the export of news and entertainment content across national boundaries (→ Cultural Products as Tradable Services). The historical review of the term “free flow of information” made by Schiller (1981) showed that the US Associated Press (AP) news agency had for decades before World War II argued against the European cartel of British, French, and German → news agencies that controlled the dissemination of international → news. At the end of World War II, the US emerged as the dominant economic and military power and began to promote the free flow policy as a universal principle of democracy for other nations. The US was among those nations that proposed and approved the inclusion of rights to free speech and information flow in the United Nations charter. As the Cold War got started in the late 1940s, the issue of free flow took on a whole new character, making it into an enduring political factor that included both the issue of government control of information and the export of news and entertainment to other countries.
Grassroots Media
Authors: Brooten Lisa 
Published: September 2017

Grassroots media are small‐scale, developed by and accessible to members of a local community or group, and conceptualized as a key tool in the process of social change (→ Community Media). They have developed out of concerns with problematic representations of women and other marginalized peoples in mainstream media, as well as limited → access to the media and political participation for marginalized groups, especially women, around the world. Women's movements worldwide have thus worked to develop grassroots media that are conceptualized and based locally and that operate very differently from mainstream commercial or state‐run media. The goals of feminist grassroots media are varied, but generally involve the desire to strengthen the self‐confidence of women and other marginalized peoples, and to empower them to challenge, change, and take charge of the media and their representations. Another increasing concern encouraging the development of grassroots media in the era of global capital is the protection and preservation of local cultures and cultural diversity.
Health Literacy
Authors: Kontos Emily Zobel 
Published: September 2017

The association between education and health outcomes has been well documented, and education has historically been used as an indicator for socioeconomic status in epidemiological studies (Pamuk et al. 1998). Researchers hypothesize that education may protect against disease by influencing lifestyle behaviors, problem‐solving abilities, and values. Other researchers have demonstrated a strong association between education and health by exploring three explanations for this association: (1) education influences work and economic conditions; (2) education influences social psychological resources; and (3) education supports a healthy lifestyle (Nielsen‐Bohlman et al. 2004). Although the demonstrated evidence of the association between health and education is strong, the explanations for this association and the underlying mechanisms have not been extensively studied. In the past decade, researchers, mainly rooted in the US, have begun to unpack education in an effort to investigate the factors that may more precisely predict poorer health outcomes and help to explain aspects of disparity (→ Health Disparities, Communication in). Literacy, specifically health literacy, emerged as a distinct area of research and construct to be examined as one possible pathway for the link between education and health.
Informational Utility
Authors: Knobloch‐Westerwick Silvia 
Published: September 2017

In the context of → information seeking through mass media use, the concept of informational utility has been developed to predict which information items an individual will attend to and which will be ignored. The concept of utility of information emerged in the discussion about cognitive dissonance (→ Cognitive Dissonance Theory), and related predictions were corroborated in a few empirical investigations as early as the 1960s (e.g., Canon 1964; Freedman 1965). A more detailed elaboration of informational utility, though without specific empirical exploration, was provided by Atkin (1973). He suggested four domains of informational utility and conceptualized information to potentially meet needs of surveillance, performance, guidance, and reinforcement. Information needs were taken to result from uncertainties in how to respond to everyday environmental requirements. Thus, information is needed for adaptation to the environment, cognitive adaptation (surveillance), behavioral adaptation (performance), affective adaptation (guidance), and sometimes defensive adaptation (reinforcement). Cognitive adaptation (surveillance) has attracted most attention in subsequent research.
Labor in the Media
Authors: Martin Christopher R. 
Published: September 2017

When labor is in the news media, it reveals – perhaps more than any other subject – the economic, political, and professional conflicts between the practice of → Journalism and the business of media. The problem of the news media's coverage of organized labor is that the news media are both the social institutions designated to practice democratic communication, and capitalist entities designed to generate profits for their corporate executives and stockholders (→ Commercialization of the Media; Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media). As the literature reveals, all too often the news media fail to act as independent storytellers about labor, and instead align their journalism with the generally anti‐labor interests of multinational corporations, which often include the news media themselves and their advertisers (→ Advertising).
Language Attitudes in Intergroup Contexts
Authors: Cargile Aaron Castelan 
Published: September 2017

Although there is no consensus as to what
precisely
an → attitude is, language attitudes may be defined as embodied dispositions toward various and wide‐ranging language behaviors (e.g., intensity, politeness, rate, accent, dialect; → Language Varieties). Correspondingly, language attitude research represents a broad‐scale, multidisciplinary effort to assess diverse reactions to language behaviors (Cargile & Bradac 2001). Within intergroup contexts, language attitudes often represent the indirect expression of prevailing intergroup attitudes and relational norms. Thus, both a response in Catalan to a query made in Spanish and the characterization of mainstream US English speakers as “intelligent” by African‐American respondents epitomize the terrain of language attitudes in intergroup contexts.
Language and Social Psychology
Authors: Noels Kimberly A. 
Published: September 2017

Social psychology is conventionally defined as the scientific study of how the actual or imagined presence of others influences an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The social psychology of language (SPL) concentrates on the role of language in the dynamics between individuals and their social world; language use is argued to affect and be affected by both psychological and social variables. Scholarship in SPL has incorporated aspects of the broader discipline, including a theory‐ or variable‐driven approach, along with its preferred quantitative methods, particularly survey techniques and laboratory experiments (→ Survey; Experimental Design). Unlike mainstream social psychology, SPL has also welcomed contributions from other disciplines, including communication studies, sociolinguistics, anthropology, and other disciplines. Correspondingly, constructivist perspectives and qualitative methods, which are better recognized in these other disciplines, have found a receptive community in SPL (→ Qualitative Methodology; Constructivism). Furthermore, SPL scholars herald from around the world, and different “schools” of scholarly activity have developed in many regions, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Europe, Australasia, and the United States. Because of the range of perspectives that inform SPL, it cannot be said that any single paradigm characterizes this field of inquiry; indeed, a hallmark of research in this area is its variety of theoretical and methodological approaches.
Language Varieties
Authors: Meyerhoff Miriam 
Published: September 2017

The term “language varieties” covers “language” and “dialect.” A variety may be characteristic of a particular social group, or associated with a particular speaking style across groups of speakers in a community (→ Communities of Practice). “Variety” makes no direct or indirect assertions about the relative status of the linguistic system being described (“dialect” often refers with negative overtones to nonstandardized varieties).
Latitude of Acceptance
Authors: Kunczik Michael 
Published: September 2017

Social‐judgment theorists (Sherif & Hovland 1961) assume that → attitudes concerning important topics are bipolar. People have an internal reference scale. The initial attitude on an issue with high ego‐involvement influences the reaction to a communication representing a different view (→ Involvement with Media Content). The discrepancy of a communication from one's own position is decisive for the amount of change achieved by a source because message discrepancy affects the perception of the quality of a message. More discrepant messages are perceived as being more unfair, more illogical, more boring, etc. In order to explain whether a person will change toward or away from a position advocated by a source, Sherif and Hovland (1961) segmented an attitude on a pro and contra issue into three parts (assimilation‐contrast theory): latitude of acceptance, latitude of non‐commitment (zone of indifference), and latitude of rejection (→ Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs, Media Effects on; Cumulative Media Effects; Hovland, Carl I.).