bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Deep learning for tumor classification in imaging mass spectrometry
Authors: Behrmann Jens , Etmann Christian , Boskamp Tobias , Casadonte Rita , Kriegsmann Jörg , Maaβ Peter 
Published: November 2017

Abstract

Motivation
Tumor classification using imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) data has a high potential for future applications in pathology. Due to the complexity and size of the data, automated feature extraction and classification steps are required to fully process the data. Since mass spectra exhibit certain structural similarities to image data, deep learning may offer a promising strategy for classification of IMS data as it has been successfully applied to image classification.

Results
Methodologically, we propose an adapted architecture based on deep convolutional networks to handle the characteristics of mass spectrometry data, as well as a strategy to interpret the learned model in the spectral domain based on a sensitivity analysis. The proposed methods are evaluated on two algorithmically challenging tumor classification tasks and compared to a baseline approach. Competitiveness of the proposed methods is shown on both tasks by studying the performance via cross-validation. Moreover, the learned models are analyzed by the proposed sensitivity analysis revealing biologically plausible effects as well as confounding factors of the considered tasks. Thus, this study may serve as a starting point for further development of deep learning approaches in IMS classification tasks.

Availability and implementation
https://gitlab.informatik.uni-bremen.de/digipath/Deep_Learning_for_Tumor_Classification_in_IMS.

Supplementary information
Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Slow Waves in Cortical Slices: How Spontaneous Activity is Shaped by Laminar Structure
Authors: Capone Cristiano , Rebollo Beatriz , Muñoz Alberto , Illa Xavi , Del Giudice Paolo , Sanchez-Vives Maria V , Mattia Maurizio 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Cortical slow oscillations (SO) of neural activity spontaneously emerge and propagate during deep sleep and anesthesia and are also expressed in isolated brain slices and cortical slabs. We lack full understanding of how SO integrate the different structural levels underlying local excitability of cell assemblies and their mutual interaction. Here, we focus on ongoing slow waves (SWs) in cortical slices reconstructed from a 16-electrode array designed to probe the neuronal activity at multiple spatial scales. In spite of the variable propagation patterns observed, we reproducibly found a smooth strip of loci leading the SW fronts, overlapping cortical layers 4 and 5, along which Up states were the longest and displayed the highest firing rate. Propagation modes were uncorrelated in time, signaling a memoryless generation of SWs. All these features could be modeled by a multimodular large-scale network of spiking neurons with a specific balance between local and intermodular connectivity. Modules work as relaxation oscillators with a weakly stable Down state and a peak of local excitability to model layers 4 and 5. These conditions allow for both optimal sensitivity to the network structure and richness of propagation modes, both of which are potential substrates for dynamic flexibility in more general contexts.
Tropical Geometric Compactification of Moduli, II: A
g Case and Holomorphic Limits
Authors: Odaka Yuji 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
We compactify the classical moduli variety Ag of principally polarized abelian varieties of complex dimension g, by attaching the moduli of flat tori of real dimensions at most g in an explicit manner. Equivalently, we explicitly determine the Gromov–Hausdorff limits of principally polarized abelian varieties. This work is analogous to [50], where we compactified the moduli of curves by attaching the moduli of metrized graphs. Then, we also explicitly specify the Gromov–Hausdorff limits along holomorphic families of abelian varieties and show that these form special nontrivial subsets of the whole boundary. We also do the same for algebraic curves case and observe a crucial difference with the case of abelian varieties.
Modular finite W-algebras
Authors: Goodwin Simon M , Topley Lewis W 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Let ${\mathbb{k}}$ be an algebraically closed field of characteristic p > 0 and let G be a connected reductive algebraic group over ${\mathbb{k}}$. Under some standard hypothesis on G, we give a direct approach to the finite W-algebra $U(\mathfrak{g},e)$ associated to a nilpotent element $e \in \mathfrak{g} = \textrm{Lie}\ G$. We prove a PBW theorem and deduce a number of consequences, then move on to define and study the p-centre of $U(\mathfrak{g},e)$, which allows us to define reduced finite W-algebras $U_{\eta}(\mathfrak{g},e)$ and we verify that they coincide with those previously appearing in the work of Premet. Finally, we prove a modular version of Skryabin’s equivalence of categories, generalizing recent work of the second author.
Classical Neumann Problems for Hessian Equations and Alexandrov–Fenchel’s Inequalities
Authors: Qiu Guohuan , Xia Chao 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Recently, the 1st named author together, with Xinan Ma [12], has proved the existence of the Neumann problems for Hessian equations. In this paper, we proceed further to study classical Neumann problems for Hessian equations. We prove here the existence of classical Neumann problems for uniformly convex domains in $\mathbb {R}^{n}$. As an application, we use the solution of the classical Neumann problem to give a new proof of a family of Alexandrov–Fenchel inequalities arising from convex geometry. This geometric application is motivated by Reilly [18].
1867: Confederation
Authors: Vipond Robert 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The Constitution Act, 1867 is one of the world’s oldest national constitutions in existence. This chapter explores the possibility that the longevity of Canada’s written constitution reflects design decisions made by its architects in the 1860s. It argues, more specifically, that the Canadian Constitution is characterized by “constitutional ambivalence”. It shows how this ambivalence became lodged in the design of three pillars of the constitutional order—federalism, democracy, and minority rights—and it explains how this ambivalence provided flexibility to adapt to environmental changes. It also shows how, when constitutional ambivalence was not present, for example with respect to the locus of sovereignty and Aboriginal rights, the effect was predictably de-stabilizing.
The Executive, the Royal Prerogative, and the Constitution
Authors: Forcese Craig 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
The royal prerogative is the residue of power once exercised by the Crown. In modern Canadian law, some historic prerogative powers have been codified as part of Canada’s written constitutional law. Others persist in a form governed by constitutional conventions. Most others have been displaced by legislation, through the exercise of parliamentary supremacy. Exactly what is required before this displacement by statute arises is, however, an area of considerable uncertainty in Canadian law. What is clear is that the royal prerogative remains a source of executive authority in several special subject areas, especially defence and foreign relations. Some exercises of the remaining prerogatives constitute matters of high policy, whereas others may affect the interests and rights of individuals. Where exercises of the prerogative do affect interests and rights, the prerogative has been treated no differently than any other exercise of executive power. Specifically, it has been subject to judicial review.
Parliamentary Sovereignty in Canada
Authors: Lovell John 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Despite a federal division of powers and entrenched constitutional rights provisions, parliamentary sovereignty is accepted in Canada as a significant legal phenomenon. The traditional understanding inherited from Britain is that Parliament remains legally free at all times to make or change any legal rule that it wants. This chapter recounts the story of how that understanding has been adapted to the Canadian constitutional context. It also discusses Canadian experience with the problem of a Parliament binding its successors, including certain qualifications that are now brought to the uncompromising view attributed to constitutional scholar A.V. Dicey. Finally, it examines the question of what official bodies, in addition to courts, are recognized by Canadian law as being able to decide that a statute is invalid.
Contending Sovereignties
Authors: Webber Jeremy 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter examines the manner in which questions of sovereignty have arisen in relation to the Indigenous dimensions of the Canadian Constitution. After a brief discussion of the foundation of Indigenous rights in the Canadian Constitution, it reviews the debate over whether Indigenous peoples possess an inherent right of self-government and the treatment of that demand in constitutional negotiations and before the courts. It explores the ways in which Indigenous ‘sovereignty’ has been discussed by the courts and, in one striking instance, by the BC legislature. And it examines the various meanings attached to ‘sovereignty’, determining which ones are in issue in Indigenous/non-Indigenous relations in Canada.
From Dualism to Cooperative Federalism and Back?
Authors: Gaudreault-DesBiens Jean-François , Poirier Johanne 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter documents the evolution from a dualist—“watertight compartments”—conception of Canadian federalism, to one that must acknowledge an increased number of intergovernmental cooperative ventures. It first examines Canada’s fundamentally dualist federal architecture before looking at the empirical reality of cooperative federalism which frequently challenges this structural dualism. It then considers how the rise of cooperative federalism influenced the evolution of the interpretive doctrines underpinning the law of Canadian federalism. Finally, it analyses the normative strength and scope of cooperative federalism, concluding that the impact of cooperative federalism in Canadian constitutional law remains tamed by the dualist conception of federalism that still underlies the Supreme Court of Canada’s federalism case law.
Criminal Law in the Federal Context
Authors: Carter Mark 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
Under section 91(27) of Canada’s Constitution Act, 1867 Parliament has jurisdiction over criminal law. The formal characteristics of this concept and its public purposes have developed to take it well beyond its classic concern with prohibiting and punishing immoral conduct. Section 91(27) now supports highly regulatory legislative frameworks addressing not only moral concerns but also areas of well-established provincial regulation such as health and the environment. At the same time, section 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867 allows the provinces considerable jurisdiction to regulate and to create offences in relation to matters that in other aspects fall within section 91(27). The subject of criminal law in the federal context involves unique challenges to the need to retain clear distinctions between federal and provincial powers, while demonstrating the “dominant tide” of federalism which attempts to maximize the operation of federal and provincial statutes without a primary concern for jurisdictional boundaries.
Minority Languages, Education, and the Constitution
Authors: Cardinal Linda , Foucher Pierre 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe chapter discusses minority education language rights in Canada. It argues that there are institutional constraints to the development of those rights, foremost amongst them constitutionalism and federalism. Minority education language rights concern the English-speaking minority in Quebec and the French-speaking minorities in the rest of the country. First, the chapter reviews minority education and language debates in Canada since 1867. Second, it explains how in the 1960s, English and French became the official languages of the Canadian government and how provinces started to address the schooling needs of their official language minority. Third, the chapter discusses the recognition of minority education language rights in the 1982 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom. It takes a positive lens in discussing minority language education rights but concludes that constitutionalism and federalism remain important factors in understanding the development and future of minority education language rights in the Canadian context.
Access to Charter Justice
Authors: Mathen Carissima 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter discusses how Canadian constitutional issues come before the courts. Its primary focus is on litigation arising under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Since the entrenchment of the Canadian Charter in 1982, traditional legal process doctrines, such as standing, intervention, costs, and reference opinions have seen significant expansion. Though initially cautious, Canadian courts have recognized that the ability to initiate constitutional claims is integral to the principle of legality. The mechanisms by which constitutional issues are judicially reviewed, and decisions regarding who may participate and how such litigation may be supported, are crucial determinants of substantive constitutionalism in Canada.
The Charter and Criminal Justice
Authors: Stuart Don 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter analyses the pervasive impact of the Charter on the Canadian criminal justice system. Active judicial interpretation of Charter rights has put in place distinctive constitutional standards of substantive law, including those of fault, and struck down oppressive laws for arbitrariness and overbreadth. Also examined are new standards for police powers to stop, search, detain and interrogate, fair trial rights such as the duty of full Crown disclosure, and for assessing mandatory minimum sentences. This chapter describes and welcomes a robust exclusionary discretion for evidence obtained in violation of the Charter. It is suggested that the Canadian Charter standards are no panacea and are sometimes too weak but that they have often provided a welcome balance to the expedient lure of law-and-order politics.
Equality and Anti-discrimination
Authors: Lawrence Sonia 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter considers the effect of section 1, the “justification” section of the Canadian Charter, on the doctrinal development of section 15, the equality section. It begins by describing the development of the section 15 substantive equality analysis, including the claim of a conceptually complete separation from the section 1 analysis of state justification. The chapter then identifies some features of section 15 which suggest that this separation is less than complete, including the existence of section 15(2), and anxieties over constraining government action. The chapter then turns to three post-2001 cases in which the Supreme Court of Canada found discrimination under the Charter but then held that discrimination was “justified” through section 1, and asks what these cases might reveal about the symbolic significance of a finding of discrimination and the Court’s struggle with institutional competence concerns in equality claims.
Social and Economic Rights
Authors: Jackman Martha , Porter Bruce 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter examines the status of socio-economic rights in Canada and the competing constitutional visions that confront Canadian courts in this area. The chapter presents the historical context and legislative history of the Canadian Charter as a source of socio-economic rights protection. It describes the Supreme Court’s approach to the Charter in light of Canada’s international human rights obligations and considers sections 7 and 15 with specific reference to the positive versus negative rights debate to which social and economic rights claims have frequently given rise. The chapter discusses recent challenges in two of the most active areas of current socio-economic rights litigation in Canada: housing and health. The chapter concludes by referring to the recommendations of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights for resolving the opposing paradigms that characterize this important area of constitutional rights.
Constitutional Interpretation
Authors: Beaulac Stéphane 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThe chapter addresses, first, the ontological issue of whether the interpretation of a constitution is fundamentally different than the construction of statutes. Based on a comparison of the Supreme Court of Canada decisions in constitutional interpretation, especially Charter cases, and the contemporary approach to statutory interpretation, endorsing Driedger’s modern principle, it is argued that a convergence of methodology has occurred. Second, recent developments in the domestic use of international law—that is interlegality—also show commonality in constitutional and statutory interpretation. The hypothesis is that recent case law on the operationalization of international normativity, far from supporting the end of the international/national divide, actually reaffirms the Westphalian paradigm. The contextual argument and the presumption of conformity, as interpretative tools, allow courts to be more flexible, indeed more permissive, in resorting to international law.
Canadian Constitutional Culture
Authors: Schneiderman David 
Published: November 2017

AbstractHow might one explain Canadian constitutional practices that have produced outcomes that are, within limits, heterogeneous and pluralistic? The chapter inquires into this question by tapping into constitutional culture, referring to dominant understandings of the fundamental norms that guide relations between citizens and states and between institutions of the state. Contemporary constitutional culture, it is argued, is partly the product of choices made in the past by Imperial and early Canadian authorities. Taking a genealogical approach to Canadian constitutional culture, the chapter examines three episodes in Canada’s constitutional past that help to frame discussions about the constitutional present. Each illustrates the difficulty of governing those who are different; of aspiring to homogeneity while necessitating some heterogeneity in practice. They are representative samples of the waves of accommodation and assimilation that have been recurring features in Canada’s constitutional story and illustrative of the basic elements that make up Canadian constitutional culture.
Feminist Constitutionalism in Canada
Authors: Baines Beverley , Rubio-Marin Ruth 
Published: November 2017

AbstractThis chapter examines the Canadian Constitution through feminist lenses. It proposes a feminist framework to evaluate constitutional law. Feminist constitutionalism aims to promote women’s agency and to protect their rights fully. Feminist constitutionalism examines women’s agency in constitutional law. It also examines critically the interpretation of traditional rights, the impact of constitutionally structured diversity, and the approach to equality rights. Feminist constitutionalism pays attention to the constitutional protection of women’s reproductive rights and sexual autonomy (domains of autonomy neglected by classical constitutionalism); it also aims to ensure women’s equal rights within the family, and to promote women’s socioeconomic development and democratic rights. This chapter develops the idea of feminist constitutionalism and uses this framework to evaluate critically some aspects of Canadian women’s constitutional experience.
Supranational Organizations
Authors: Lindseth Peter L. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the legitimacy of supranational organizations (SNOs). Taking the European Union (EU) as the leading exemplar of the type, an SNO can exercise a whole range of rulemaking, adjudication, and enforcement powers with a comparatively high degree of independence from intergovernmental or national control, at least within the scope of authority delegated to the supranational level. However, as the Eurozone crisis has demonstrated, Europe still depends on the strongly legitimated institutions of outright ‘government’ at the national level. Institutions of supranational ‘governance’, exercising delegated power in a delegated, administrative sense, are simply not yet equal to that task.
Trade
Authors: Trachtman Joel P. 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter discusses the functions of international organizations for trade and the corresponding structures. It focuses on the structure of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It begins by describing the functions of the law of international trade, and explains how international organizations may be designed to advance these functions. It then explains the organizational structure of the WTO, which responds to its functions as a facilitator of trade liberalization negotiations; as an occasional forum for secondary law-making through consensus decision-making or amendments to its treaty; as a monitor of national openness to trade; and as a forum for mandatory dispute settlement. The remainder of the briefly addresses the issue of overlap between the concerns of the WTO and those of other international organizations and explains the functions and structure of free trade areas and customs unions.
Monitoring Processes
Authors: Betz Timm , Koremenos Barbara 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
In the practical world of policymaking and implementation, knowledge about a treaty partner's compliance with the terms of an agreement is essential. Without information about the behaviour of the other party, each side has good reasons to defect from the agreement; anticipating this dynamic, both parties may fail to reach an agreement in the first place. This chapter presents a survey of formal monitoring provisions in a random sample of international agreements which covers and is conditional on four issue areas: economics, environment, human rights, and security. It shows that monitoring provisions are indeed an important feature of international agreements: almost six out of ten agreements incorporate some form of explicit monitoring provision. In the coincidence of uncertainty about behaviour and incentives to defect, states are willing to cede sovereignty by involving external entities, such as intergovernmental organizations, in the monitoring process. International organizations may be especially important information providers in cases where private actors are either less reliable or less able to reveal non-compliance.
Relations with Other International Organizations
Authors: Chazournes Laurence Boisson de 
Published: November 2017

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the relationships between international organizations (IOs). IOs may exchange information or participate in their respective fora of discussion. They can establish institutional arrangements to implement a given activity and provide a framework for common purposes. They can also receive logistical, material, or financial aid from each other for operational purposes. The establishment of public-private partnerships allows IOs to work with non-state actors to achieve goals. The latter contribute by mobilizing resources. Due to the specific character of the European Union (EU), its relationship with other IOs is unique and they have had to accommodate the EU through various modes of adaptation. Lastly, relationships with other organizations may give rise to complex forms of collaboration. The topic of responsibility sheds light on the difficulty of apprehending these relationships.