bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Discovery of the Higgs Boson
Authors: Gagnon Pauline 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
Finding a Higgs boson is like making maple syrup, where one must boil a huge volume of sap from maple trees to extract a few drops of syrup. The sugar represents the signal, and water the background. Likewise, physicists must sort billions of events, collected with the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, to extract the signal, namely events bearing the characteristics of the Higgs boson, from the background. Each event corresponds to a snapshot taken by one of these detectors when protons traveling at nearly the speed of light collide. The energy released materializes to produce new particles such as Higgs bosons. Particle physicists use advanced statistical methods and computer-generated simulations to disentangle events containing a Higgs boson from all other types of events. This data analysis work is like extracting a needle from millions of bales of hay.
What Does Basic Research Put on Our Plates?
Authors: Gagnon Pauline 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of fundamental research in physics is to increase human knowledge and answer some of the profound questions that human beings have always raised about their origin and fate. It also stimulates technological development through various spinoffs and applications, and it helps train a highly specialized workforce. CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, is an example of international collaboration and contributes to world peace by bringing together thousands of scientists of 101 different nationalities who are working toward a common goal. Fundamental research in physics has also deeply modified our daily life. Even though not all scientific discoveries find immediate applications, without fundamental research, we would be without medical imaging, the World Wide Web, electronics, computers and mobile phones. Its economic impact is also tremendous: the branch of industry based on physics and technology generates 15% of the global wealth in Europe and employs 13% of its workforce.
Diversity in Physics
Authors: Gagnon Pauline 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
More women now undertake careers in physics than ever, but still only 17.5% of the scientists sent by universities and institutes worldwide to conduct research at CERN are female. Why is this so, and how could the situation be improved? Easily applicable changes are proposed to attract and retain not only women but also a broader diversity of people in science, since women are not the only underrepresented group in the field. Science has everything to gain by being more inclusive in terms of gender, race, sexual orientation, religion and physical ability since diversity brings more creativity, which is essential to science. Owing to its position as a scientific and international leader, CERN has the ability and a moral obligation to set an example at every level.
Sources and treatment of complexity
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The mathematical theory of dynamical systems can potentially address any complexity arising from the unique and stochastic nature of individual life histories, the interactions between individuals, the spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability of their environments, and the complexity of natural communities. Identification of individual states determining an organism’s response to its environment and the corresponding theory of structured populations provides general applicability for the theory of ecology. Deaths and births are stochastic events, but the expected behaviour of individuals still can be specified under well-defined conditions. Complex dynamics of interaction networks can be simplified by time-scale separations, because various environmental and population processes often have different temporal scales. The practical challenges for applied ecology call for fitting models to the plethora of empirical data supplied by automated data-collection technologies. The chapter closes, therefore, with a short introduction to maximum likelihood parameter estimation techniques and the related concept of model selection.
Exponential growth of unstructured populations
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The number of reproductive units is expected to grow exponentially in the absence of regulating feedbacks. The lack of feedbacks is a definitive assumption of any model predicting exponential growth, be it individual- or population-based, discrete or continuous, deterministic or stochastic. The exponential growth of a population can be characterised by its long-term per capita rate of increase (population growth rate, pgr) in any actual representation. Exponential growth with a constant pgr will occur whenever the stochastic changes in the environmental conditions—including modifying and regulating ones—affecting births and deaths are stationary in the long run. Case studies indicate that temporary periods of exponential population increase or decline must be regular in nature, and pgrs may show remarkable temporal and spatial invariance.
Competitive exclusion
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The principle of competitive exclusion states that in a population of reproductive units regulated by a single common factor all varieties but the one whose growth rate is highest at the extremal value of that factor will be excluded. This general pessimization rule has received several formulations since Darwin’s ‘survival of the fittest’, from Gause’s principle through K-selection to the P*-rule. Actual field and lab cases of competitive exclusion illustrate its validity and empirical value. Even though allelic fitness in diploid populations is inherently frequency dependent, usually directional (positive or negative) selection acts on alleles leading to competitive exclusion, the speed of which depends on their relative fitness (selection coefficient). In fluctuating environments the bet-hedging strategy is selected for. Modelling the spatial dynamics of an allele and invasion dynamics of a species is also similar. The chapter closes with an inventory of typical misconceptions of competition.
Ladin
Authors: Salvi Giampaolo 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external history, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Ladin and its dialects. Specific topics dealt with include: historical observations; phonetics and phonology; vowel system; consonant system; morphology of the nominal system; morphology of verb system; syntax of noun phrase; syntax of verb phrase; syntax of sentence structure.
Creoles
Authors: Bollée Annegret , Maurer Philippe 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external histories of Romance creoles, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Ibero-Romance-based creoles and French-based creoles. Topics dealt with include: vowels; consonants; morphosyntax of noun phrase (plural formation, determiners, subject pronouns, object pronouns, adjectives), verb phrase (tense, aspect, mood; copulas; (give/directional) serial verbs), and of sentence (word order, object marking, verb doubling in contrastive focus constructions, valency changing operations, interrogative and focus constructions).
Prosodic structure
Authors: Marotta Giovanna 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter surveys some of the principal aspects of Romance prosodic structure. It covers the role of syllable structure in conditioning the distribution, quantity, and quality of stressed and unstressed vowels and the development of consonantal segments; phonotactic constraints; the role of the sonority hierarchy in segmental change; stress); length; and aspects of intonational patterns. Specific topics dealt with include: vowel quantity and syllable structure; consonant quantity; phonological processes and syllable structure (onset; s+C clusters; nucleus: vowels, diphthongs; coda); stress; rhythm; intonation (statements, narrow focus, yes-no question; wh-questions, imperatives).
Inflectional morphology
Authors: Maiden Martin 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter provides a comparative overview of Romance inflectional morphology of the nominal and verbal domains. It covers the distinction between roots, stems and inflectional endings; patterns of allomorphy; syncretisms; extended and cumulative patterns of grammatical exponence; suppletion; empty morphs and their distribution; the major distinctions between nominal and verbal paradigms; tense (synthetic future and conditional), aspect, mood (imperative and subjunctive), person and number marking on verbs; gender, number and case marking on nouns and adjectives; inflection classes (neutralization and creation)s; diachronic conservatism; cross-linguistic unity and disunity; non-finite forms; infinitives; gerunds; inflected non-finite forms; productivity.
The structure of the nominal group
Authors: Giusti Giuliana 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is to provide a comparative overview of the structure of the nominal group, including the distribution, combinatorial possibilities, and ordering of components such as articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, possessives, dependent genitives, adjectives; argument structure; agreement; and the marking of definiteness and specificity. Specific topics dealt with include: functional features on nouns; object referring nouns; event/result nouns; relational nouns; proper names; functional features on adjectives; relational adjectives; descriptive adjectives; determiner-like adjectives; direct vs indirect modfication; determiners; inflectional properties of determiners; demonstratives; articles; quantifiers; possessives; possessive adjectives; left periphery of the nominal group.
The structure of the clause
Authors: Cruschina Silvio , Ledgeway Adam 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is to provide a comparative overview of the principal aspects of the structure of the clause, including combinatorial possibilities and ordering of various components such as subjects, objects, adjuncts, and verbs; periphrastic formations; illocutionary and discourse particles; structure, categories, and discourse functions of the higher and lower left peripheries (complementizers, V2, topic, focus, illocutionary force). Specific topics dealt with include: overview of clause; sentential core; lower left periphery; inflectional domain; adverb classes and positions; verb positions; restructuring; higher left periphery; complementizers; illocutionary force, clause types, and sentence particles (declaratives, interrogatives, exclamatives, imperatives), verb second, topic and focus in the left periphery.
Sociolinguistic variation
Authors: Jones Mari C. , Parry Mair , Williams Lynn 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is to provide a comparative overview of some of the principal aspects of sociolinguistic variation in Romance, covering phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical variation among different groups of the speech community according to sociolinguistic variables such as age, gender, class, education, medium and register; the role of the nature, organization, and cohesion of particular social groups and networks in driving socially-determined variation and linguistic innovations; high and low prestige variants; normative forces, and reactions to, standardization. Specific topics dealt with include: French; Italo-Romance; Spanish; variationist studies; sociolinguistic models and categories; regional sociolinguistic variation; sociolinguistic variables; historical sociolinguistic variation; recent standardizing and convergence trends; forms of address; standards and norms; national norms; regional norms.
Palatalization
Authors: Repetti Lori 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter provides a structural overview of the varieties of palatalization found in Romance varieties today as well as considering diachronic issues. It covers the emergence in Romance of a new order of palatals, both fricatives and affricates, due to original yod, and how new, secondary sources of palatalizing yod developed from asyllabic high vowels; diatopic differences in the palatalizing effects of front vowels, in the susceptibility of different underlying segments, in the palatalization of consonantal clusters, and in the palatalizing effects of postconsonantal laterals; positional differences in conditioning different palatal outcomes; morphologization of palatal/non-palatal alternations; recent waves of palatalization. Specific topics dealt with include: Latin yod and its effects; morphological consequences of palatalization by yod; consonant + front vowel palatalization; velar stop + front vowel; velar stop + a; non-dorsal consonant + front vowel; morphological consequences of front vowel palatalization; consonant + consonant palatalization; consonant + lateral; velar stop + coronal consonant.
Sandhi phenomena
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter addresses some of the most important issues in Romance internal and external sandhi phenomena. It covers intervocalic sibilant voicing in affixation and compounding; devoicing of word-final obstruents; sibilant/vibrant neutralizations; vowel prothesis and paragogic vowel harmony; consonantal assimilations and dissimilations, epenthesis, apocope, and elision; liaison; rafforzamento. Specific topics dealt with include: phonologically-conditioned sandhi; vowel-edge phenomena; vowel hiatus; vowel-edge sandhi adjacent to pause; consonant-edge phenomena; left-edge sandhi; lenition with voicing and opening; lenition with fricativization or detensing with voicing; right-edge sandhi; assimilation-based sandhi; syllabification-based sandhi;morpho-syntactically and lexically conditioned sandhi; raddoppiamento fonosintattico; liaison; clitics; sandhi in verb phrases; sandhi in (preposition +) noun phrase; suprasegmental sandhi.
Writing Systems
Authors: Finbow Thomas 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter addresses some of the most important issues in the development and nature of Romance writing systems. It covers evidence for Romance phonology in subliterary and/or late Latin orthography (cf. also Wright’s work on reading Latin as Romance); emergence of major area-specific innovations, along the diachronic and synchronic axes, in adapting Latinate orthography to represent the expanded segmental inventories of Romance; rise and fall of diacritic conventions; phonemic, allophonic and diasystemic representations; competing orthographic traditions, and alphabets; stability, spelling reforms, and the role of academies; emergent and unstable systems. Specific topics dealt with include: Latin alphabet; late Latin and early Romance; two-norm hypotheses; single-norm hypothesis; logographic Latin; textual zones for developing Romance; selecting representational conventions; Romance diacritic conventions; Romance writing in other scripts; Judaeo-Spanish; aljamía; Romanian and Moldovan; Romance written with the Greek alphabet; levels of written representation; developing written traditions; stability, reform and regulation; regulatory bodies; spelling reform.
Number
Authors: Maiden Martin 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter addresses some of the most important issues in the expression of number in the Romance nominal system. It covers the origin of the plural inflectional endings (particularly ‘sigmatic’ vs ‘vocalic’ endings, and remnants of Latin nominative plural desinences); the fate of the Latin neuter plural endings (with especial attention to the so-called ‘neuter’ or ‘ambigeneric’ nouns of Daco-Romance and Italo-Romance); ‘collective’ plurals in Romansh and their morphological status; root allomorphy and suppletion in plural formation; neutralization of number distinctions (invariance); analogical effects of plurals on singulars (and vice versa).
Tonic pronominal system: morphophonology
Authors: Cappellaro Chiara 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter isurveys some of the most important issues regarding the morphophonological properties of Romance tonic pronouns. It covers person, number, gender, case, and animacy distinctions and markedness restrictions; cumulative exponence and syncretisms; overabundance; suppletion; tonic versus weak distinctions); allomorphic variations and concomitant positional restrictions; demonstratives as sources of tonic pronouns. Specific topics dealt with include: aspects of person marking from Latin to Romance; third person pronouns; morphological competition in the history of Romance personal pronouns; competition due to ‘case’ loss; competition due to loss of semantic contrast between ipse and ille; first and second person marking; third person marking; non-canonical phenomena in Romance third person markers; canonical inflection; syncretism; suppletion.
Auxiliary selection and participial agreement
Authors: Loporcaro Michele 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The main goal of this chapter is to critically address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance auxiliary selection and past participle agreement, covering such areas as auxiliary splits licensed by verb class, person, tense, and mood; triple auxiliation; behaviour of different classes of reflexive; transitive-unaccusative splits in Romance participle agreement; stability and parameters in Romance participle. Specific topics dealt with include: features involved in Romance past participial agreement (target of past participial agreement; conditions on participial agreement; exceptional cases); variation in auxiliary selection; relevance of TAM for perfective auxiliation; a syntactic gradient for perfective auxiliation; mixed auxiliation systems:u, binary, or triple; perfective auxiliation at the syntax-semantics interface; some exceptional cases.
Simple Frequency Dependence
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry , Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry 
Published: August 2016

AbstractThis chapter takes a first look at strategic interdependence, known to biologists as frequency dependent selection. It distinguishes positive interaction effects (increasing returns or synergy) from negative effects (e.g., congestion). The chapter introduces Maynard Smith’s famous Hawk‐Dove game, and goes on to show that there are only two other generic types of 2 × 2 games: dominant strategy (DS), illustrated with biological data on RNA viruses and economic examples drawn from eBay; and coordination (CO) games. Conditions for the prisoner’s dilemma are defined. The remaining sections show how these games represent edges of the state space in games with three alternative strategies. This includes data on male side‐blotched lizards that shows they play the true rock‐paper‐scissors: each edge game has a different dominant strategy, forming an intransitive loop around the 2‐dimensional simplex.
Social Games
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry , Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
The ways in which social structures can modulate strategic interaction are explored in this chapter. It covers Bergstrom’s model of assortative matching and Hadamard products of payoff matrices and adjustment matrices that provide a unified description of sexual selection. This new approach covers the transmission across generations via memes and genes, with or without crossover and recombination, and includes an example of haploid sexual selection drawn from Fisherian runaway. The approach could be expanded to include diploid sexual systems, thus linking population genetic models with game theoretic models. The chapter ends with a presentation of the Price equation in analyzing group structure and includes a biological example of cooperation. The last section extends the Price equation to continuous time.
Cellular Automaton Games
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
This chapter formalizes spatial strategic interaction as games on grids. It develops cellular automata examples ranging from Conway’s classic Game of Life to complex cooperation, and revisits several earlier examples of assortative and disassortative interactions in an explicit spatial framework. The chapter features simulations of viscous game dynamics with emergent features such as cooperative groups in public goods games, including density and frequency dependent interactions. Two-population versions of the cellular automata are developed (e.g., for the buyer-seller game). Esherichia coli bacteria provide an example of a spatial rock-paper-scissors game: a colicin-producing/colicin-resistant type is beaten by a colicin-resistant type, which is beaten by an undefended type, which is beaten in turn by the first type.
Speciation
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
Chapter 14 meditates on the classic theme of speciation. It first presents the idea of evolutionary branching in adaptive dynamics. The chapter then treats morph loss in the rock-paper-scissors game and two modes of mate choice: preference of males to maintain coadapted gene complexes versus preference for rare males to produce successful sons in the context of RPS cycles. It then presents cellular automata models that create boundaries between proto-species, based on Hamiltonian social fitness, preference for mates, and alternatively colored tags, the key trait used to mediate social interactions and mate preferences. It concludes with some standard bifurcation models and a repurposed Hotelling model as useful ingredients for further work.
Protein Analysis of Glioblastoma Primary and Posttreatment Pairs Suggests a Mesenchymal Shift at Recurrence
Authors: Wood Matthew D , Reis Gerald F , Reuss David E , Phillips Joanna J 
Published: August 2016

Abstract
Glioblastomas (GBM) are aggressive brain tumors that inevitably recur despite surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiation. The degree to which recurrent GBM retains its initial immunophenotype is incompletely understood. We generated tissue microarrays of paired initial and posttreatment GBM (3 pairs positive and 17 negative for IDH1 R132H ) from the same patients and made comparisons in the IDH1 R132H -negative group for immunohistochemical and gene expression differences between primary and recurrent tumors. In initial tumors, immunopositivity for Ki-67 in > 20% of tumor cells was associated with shorter progression-free and overall survival. Recurrent tumors showed decreased staining for CD34 suggesting lower vessel density. A subset of tumors showed increased staining for markers associated with the mesenchymal gene expression pattern, including CD44, phosphorylated STAT3, and YKL40. Recurrent tumors with the greatest increase in mesenchymal marker expression had rapid clinical progression, but no difference in overall survival after second surgery. Comparison of protein and gene expression data from the same samples revealed a poor correlation. A subset of tumors (15%) showed loss of neurofibromin protein in both initial and recurrent tumors. These data support the notion that GBM progression is associated with a shift toward a mesenchymal phenotype in a subset of tumors and this may portend a more aggressive behavior.