bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Eighth and Ninth Centuries
Authors: Houghton H.A.G. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The scriptorium of Wearmouth–Jarrow was home to Bede and responsible for Codex Amiatinus, the most famous manuscript of the Vulgate. Gospel books were produced in the Insular regions of Britain, Ireland, and Brittany, including the Lindisfarne Gospels and Book of Kells. Regular contact between these areas and continental Europe also had an influence on the production of manuscripts and biblical scholarship. Numerous significant developments are associated with Charlemagne, including the Tours Bibles of Alcuin and his successors, Theodulf’s revision of the biblical text and the creation of minuscule script. Carolingian biblical scholars were responsible for a new, encyclopaedic form of commentary, drawing heavily on earlier Latin writers. The importance of the Bible in the liturgy is seen in the creation of lectionaries and missals.
The Tenth Century Onwards: Scholarship and Heresy
Authors: Houghton H.A.G. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Although the adoption of the Vulgate text of the New Testament was largely complete by the tenth century, a handful of witnesses continue to transmit Old Latin forms of individual biblical books. These include manuscripts associated with the heretical groups of the Cathars and Waldensians. Trends in book production spanned the Italian Giant Bibles (‘Atlantic Bibles’), associated with the reforms of Pope Gregory, to the tiny Irish pocket gospel books. The Paris Bibles of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries led to the development of an influential format and characteristic text. Revision of the biblical text moved on from individual scholars to groups associated with monasteries and schools who produced companion volumes of ‘correctoria’. Biblical glosses, in particular the Glossa ordinaria, formed an important part of teaching and commentary. Bilingual Greek–Latin manuscripts made a reappearance with the rediscovery of Greek tradition in the Renaissance.
The First Men
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter describes early encounters with native peoples and artefacts. These include Charles Darwin’s contact with the ‘savage’ Fuegians in Tierra del Fuego in 1832; Èdouard Lartet’s discovery of human bones and stone tools alongside the bones of extinct Ice Age mammals in 1852, while excavating a cave at Aurignac; the discovery of Palaeolithic rock paintings and engravings in Europe throughout the first half of the twentieth century; Abbé Breuil’s contributions to prehistory, including his analysis of the sequence of prehistoric cultures; and the discovery of clay sculptures by Comte Henri Bégouën’s two sons on his estate at Montesquieu-Avantès in the foothills of the Pyrenees in October 1912.
The Garden of Eden Moment
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter considers when, where, and how the ‘Garden of Eden moment’ occurred, i.e., human beings’ creation of symbolic representations of others through various forms of image-making such as cave paintings and rock art. It first considers evidence indicating that anatomically modern humans originated in Africa. It then describes two reports from Indonesia, published in 2014, that strengthen the growing impression that symbolic activity goes back deep into the past of Homo sapiens (and even beyond it). These reports suggest that we can expect future discoveries of depictions of human hands, figurative art, and other forms of image-making dating to the earliest period of the global dispersion of our species.
The Creation
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Galileo’s Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences. The book begins in a resolutely down-to-earth way by considering some of the everyday problems encountered in ‘the famous arsenal of Venice’—why beams snap and boats break their back. The study of the strength of materials is the first of the ‘two new sciences’ and appears at first sight to have nothing to do with Galileo’s more controversial works. The second of Galileo’s new sciences is the study of the motion of objects. Salviati, continuing his role as the spokesperson for Galileo’s own thoughts, continues to pursue his anti-Aristotelian agenda.
The Beautiful System
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter focusses on Sir Isaac Newton’s views about science and theology. His writings demonstrate that he saw his physical studies as having the same motivation as his theological ones. The publication of the second edition of Principia: The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy enabled Newton not only to extend the description of universal gravitation with the benefit of new data, but also to locate his account within a wider theological context. In a ‘General Scholium’, printed at the end of the third book, he writes, ‘This most beautiful system of the Sun and Planets could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful being’.
The Mystery of Mysteries
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter first presents Darwin’s descriptions about meeting John Herschel in 1836. It then details how Darwin consulted Herschel’s Preliminary Discourse in developing his theory on the origin of species. Herschel’s advice included writing out a sketch of the theory in a series of steps, ‘first giving the established facts about nature, followed by an analogy or extrapolation into theory, and then ending with the reasons why he thought that his view was correct or at least a worthwhile hypothesis’. When On the Origin of Species was published, Darwin stated in his opening sentence that his observations in South America ‘seemed to throw some light on the origin of species—that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers’, quoting from the letter that Herschel had written more than twenty years earlier.
In a Strange Land
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter considers the origins of the poem The Epic of Gilgamesh, which tells the story of the adventures of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, and his friendship with the wild man Enkidu. The version of Gilgamesh discovered by George Smith dates from the seventh century bc and was apparently written by a ‘master scribe and incantation priest’ called Sin-leqe-unnini. Smith conjectured that it was a retelling of a much older story, and some 90 years later he was proved right. The chapter also asks whether there is any evidence within Genesis that suggests a knowledge or awareness of Mesopotamian stories and religions.
Ariadne’s Thread
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter returns to the argument in Part One of the book, which suggested that it was ‘the Garden of Eden moment’ (the period when early humans were first propelled into a cognitive world that required some kind of priority scheme to navigate) that promoted the capacity for ultimate curiosity to centre stage in human life. Ultimate curiosity, the impulse to see beyond the rim of the physical world, is a continuous driver for new discoveries within the physical world. The resulting entanglement of what we now call ‘religion’ and ‘science’ has been the basis of the Ariadne’s thread that has been followed through the rest of the book.
The Works of the Lord
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter presents the views of James Clerk Maxwell. For instance, in his inaugural lecture at King’s College London, he claimed that ‘As physical science advances we see more and more that the laws of nature are not mere arbitrary and unconnected decisions of Omnipotence, but that they are essential parts of one universal system in which infinite Power serves only to reveal unsearchable Wisdom and eternal Truth’. He also believed that people should ‘not be led into other men’s ways of thinking under the pretence of studying science’, and that the quest to comprehend the world as a meaningful whole could never be considered an achieved state.
Weak interactions
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter starts with a recap of both the weak interaction model from Fermi’s theory of beta decay (with no spin) and the pictorial way of understanding interactions using Feynman diagrams. An introduction is given to both this use of Feynman diagrams and the formal method of calculating matrix elements with Feynman rules. The weak interaction is then considered using the Dirac equation to include spin-half fermion effects, using the decay of the tau lepton as an example. Weak interactions with quarks, including Cabibbo mixing, the Glashow–Iliopoulos–Maiani (GIM) mechanism, and the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa (CKM) matrix, are then covered. The chapter then gives a step-by-step approach to the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces in the Glashow–Salam–Weinberg (GSW) model of electroweak unification, leading to the predictions of the Standard Model on the properties of the weak neutral current and to the existence of W and Z bosons.
LHC and BSM
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter starts with a review of the Standard Model (SM) cross sections at LHC energies. The resulting challenges for LHC physics are discussed with an emphasis on the trigger systems required. A brief review is given of some of the many SM measurements at the LHC. The fundamental problems with the SM, particularly the hierarchy problem, are explained. Supersymmetry (SUSY) is explained as a natural solution to the hierarchy problem. R-parity is introduced to explain the absence of rapid proton decay. R-parity-conserving SUSY naturally provides a dark matter candidate. Some of the experimental searches for SUSY particles are described. The astrophysical evidence for dark matter is considered. Complementary methods for searching for dark matter using the LHC, underground experiments, and satellites are described. Finally, the cosmological evidence for dark energy is considered and the resulting difficulties with the small value of the cosmological constant are described.
What Science Contributes
Authors: Shneiderman Ben 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Science is a glorious quest, requiring persistence in challenging existing beliefs so as to advance understanding of the natural world that surrounds us. Scientific revolutions, often called paradigm shifts, occasional reconfigure the science roadmaps that guide research. Science remains a miraculous seed that sets down roots, and sends up flowers. The seed contributions of scientists to understanding the natural world have produced a remarkable forest of inspiring impacts. But the future seeds of science will more regularly sprout into studies of the made world, so that scientists can play important roles in addressing twenty-first century problems.
The Ideal Bose Gas
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter describes the mechanism of Bose–Einstein condensation in the simplest ideal Bose gas case. An explicit expression for the critical temperature is derived in the analytically soluble case of a gas confined in a box. Various thermodynamic quantities are calculated above and below the critical temperature. Emphasis is given to the isothermal compressibility which diverges below the critical temperature. The behaviour of the off-diagonal one-body density matrix is discussed. Results for the fluctuations of the single-particle occupation numbers are derived in both the canonical and grand canonical ensembles.
Superfluidity
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter presents a general discussion of the phenomenon of superfluidity, starting from the famous Landau criterion for the critical velocity. The Landau expression for the normal (non-superfluid) component of the gas, expressed in terms of the elementary excitations of the system, is derived. The relationship between Bose–Einstein condensation and the phenomenon of superfluidity is outlined, with special focus on the role played by the phase of the order parameter, whose gradient fixes the velocity of the superfluid. The chapter derives the hydrodynamic equations of superfluids at both zero and finite temperatures and discuss the solutions for first and second sound. The formalism of quantum hydrodynamics is presented, with an application to the Beliaev decay of phonons and to the calculation of the fluctuations of the phase. It also discusses the consequences for superfluidity on the rotational properties and the spatial structure of vortex lines.
Linear Response Function
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter develops the formalism of linear response function, dynamic structure factor, dynamic polarizability, and sum rules. The behaviour of the density response function in a superfluid is discussed and analytic results at finite temperatures are shown in the case of the ideal and weakly interacting Bose gases. Sum rules are used to derive general inequalities holding at both zero and finite temperatures. The Hohenberg–Mermin–Wagner theorem and its generalization to zero temperature, based on the use of the uncertainty inequality, are explicitly discussed in the case of Bose systems.
Thermodynamics of a Trapped Bose Gas
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter is devoted to the thermodynamic behaviour of an interacting trapped Bose gas. It developes the Hartree–Fock theory for nonuniform interacting Bose gases at low temperatures, and discusses the problem of the shift of the critical temperature caused by interactions and also the thermodynamic behaviour of the trapped gas below the critical temperature. The chapter outlines general procedures, which do not only hold for Bose gases, to determine the equation of state of uniform matter, starting from the knowledge of the density profile in the trap. Finally, the chapter discusses some properties of the collective oscillations of a trapped Bose gas at a finite temperature.
Tan Relations and the Contact Parameter
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter is devoted to the derivation of various thermodynamic relations, known as Tan relations, involving the so-called contact parameter. This physical quantity, which determines the behaviour of the momentum distribution of an interacting gas at large momenta, plays a crucial role in characterizing various thermodynamic quantities, like the dependence of the energy on the scattering length (sweep theorem), the relation between the energy and the momentum distribution, the behaviour of the static structure factor at large wave vectors, and the virial theorem in the presence of harmonic trapping.
Quantum Mixtures and Spinor Gases
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter discusses the behaviour of quantum mixtures, including spinor gases. It considers mixtures of different atomic species and discuss the conditions for miscibility and the role of the interspecies interaction concerning both the equilibrium and the dynamic properties of the mixture. The inclusion of Rabi coupling between different spin states and the consequences of blocking the relative phase of two condensates are discussed. The chapter also considers the realization of artificial gauge fields using spin-orbit coupling induced by Raman transitions, and it investigates the nature of the new emerging quantum phases and their dynamic behaviour, including the occurrence of a characteristic rotonic structure and of stripes. Finally, the nature of quantum mixtures of bosons and fermions is discussed.
Dipolar Gases
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe last chapter of the volume addresses the question of dipolar gases, which exhibit peculiar long-range and anisotropic two-body interactions. Dipolar interactions of both magnetic and electric nature are discussed. The long-range nature of the force and its anisotropic behaviour affect the conditions of stability of the gas in the presence of harmonic trapping in a peculiar way, giving rise to stable as well as to metastable configurations. The long-range and anisotropic nature of the dipolar interaction is also the origin of a series of novel dynamic phenomena, such as the anisotropic propagation of sound and the possible emergence of rotonic excitations in quasi-two-dimensional configurations. Some key features of dipolar Fermi gases, like the deformation of the Fermi surface, are also outlined.
Envy, Poison, and Death
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: March 2016

AbstractAt the heart of this book are some trials conducted in Athens in the fourth century bce. In each case, the charges involved a combination of supernatural activities, including potion-brewing and cult activity; the defendants were all women. Because of the brevity of the ancient sources, and their lack of agreement, the precise charges are unclear; the reasons for taking these women to court, even condemning some of them to die, remain mysterious. This book takes the complexity and confusion of the evidence not as a riddle to be solved, but as revealing multiple social dynamics. It explores the changing factors—material, ideological, and psychological—that may have provoked these events. It focuses in particular on the dual role of envy (phthonos) and gossip as processes by which communities identified people and activities that were dangerous, and examines how and why those local, even individual, dynamics may have come to shape official civic decisions during a time of perceived hardship. At first sight so puzzling, these trials come to provide a vivid glimpse of the sociopolitical environment of Athens during the early to mid-fourth century bce, including responses to changes in women’s status and behaviour, and attitudes to particular supernatural/religious activities within the city. This study reveals some of the characters, events, and local social processes that shaped an emergent concept of magic: it suggests that the legal boundary of acceptable behaviour was shifting, not only within the legal arena, but also with the active involvement of society beyond the courts.
Introduction: Overview and Approach
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter establishes the focus of the book: that is, the trials of three women (Theoris, Ninon, and Phryne) in fourth-century Athens on charges relating to ritual activities. The evidence for these events seems muddled and is confusing; the trials have not received much attention from contemporary scholars. This chapter argues that these trials may provide us with insights into society in fourth-century Athens. The variety of information given about the trials offers a starting point for a historical investigation into the role of, and attitudes towards, women and magic at this time. The chapter then provides an overview of the structure of the book, describing what will be discussed in each of its four parts.
Introduction: ‘A Relish for the Envious’
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This chapter asks how phthonos acquired its social force, and focuses on speech—of various different kinds and genres. Starting again with the figure of Socrates as an example, it analyses the powerful role of speech as a form of potion or spell for bewitching others. This power was not unique to Socrates: across a range of writers we see rhetoric and the associated skills of sophistry linked with supernatural power. But the idea that words could have supernatural power did not apply only to the polished formulations of professional speakers, but also to less formal forms of speech. It is to these casual, everyday forms of verbal ‘poison’ that this chapter of the book turns; in particular, to the gossip that itself concerned the creation, possession, and employment of pharmaka, natural and supernatural.
Gossip…In Private
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThis chapter continues the examination of different genres of gossip, and the role and pathways of gossip in and through ancient society. This case study looks at ‘private’ forms of gossip, that is, the expression of individual suspicions in funerary epitaphs, curse and confession inscriptions. It examines the theories, first, that these texts provided some kind of experience of justice for situations where there was no other form of legal redress, and, second, that they achieved a form of social containment through the release of negative emotions. It argues that rather containing anxieties, we can imagine these texts doing precisely the opposite: as well as expressing the anguished state of the individuals who set up these texts, it seems likely that these vivid, public expressions of desperation would also heighten the anxiety of other members of the community.
Semi-Formalism
Authors: Nanay Bence 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
According to aesthetic formalism, only formal properties are relevant to aesthetic evaluation—all aesthetically relevant properties are formal properties. The chapter argues that although formalism is not tenable, we can give an account of the properties relevant to aesthetic evaluation that captures the formalist intuitions without falling prey to the influential objections against formalism. It calls this account semi-formalism. According to the semi-formalist, the properties relevant to aesthetic evaluation are semi-formal properties—aesthetically relevant properties are semi-formal properties. And semi-formal properties are very different from and more inclusive than formal ones: they are properties that depend constitutively on formal properties.
Uniqueness
Authors: Nanay Bence 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The concept of uniqueness has played a very important role in the history of aesthetics, but it is not clear in what sense uniqueness is an important feature of the aesthetic domain. This chapter argues that uniqueness does play an important role in the aesthetic domain, but not in the way it has generally been understood: what is unique is not the artwork itself or the application of aesthetic concepts, but it has to do with a feature of some of our aesthetic experiences: distributed attention. Distributed attention is an important feature of both some of our aesthetic experiences and of perceptually treating something as unique: our eye is unprompted in both cases. Finally, it is pointed out that this way of thinking about the unprompted eye as a feature of some aesthetic experiences is not to be confused with the much criticized concept of ‘innocent eye’.
Introduction
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa Andreas , Harzsch Steffen , Purschke Günter 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
One of the most important characters of metazoans is the presence of a nervous system and the ability to react and act to external stimuli. Therefore, the nervous system has always received special attention by biologists. As there have been significant advances in methods and strucural knowledge since the important books by Hanström in 1928 and by Bullock and Horridge in 1965, it seems appropriate to summarize the current information on the nervous system of invertebrates. Since these last reviews methodological advances have been made mainly through the use of immunohistochemistry and confocal laser scanning microscopy, transmission electron microscopy as well as serial sectioning tomography, however, further methods are currently being explored. This contribution sets out to provide a systematic overview over the organization of the nervous systems in invertebrates integrating the latest findings. In a phylogenetic context, these new data provide new insights into the evolution of metazoan nervous systems. The general overview is supplemented by seletced chapters that explore the function of the nervous system.