bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ethnic Media and their Influence
Authors: Appiah Osei 
Published: September 2017

Ethnic media are media vehicles (e.g., specific programs, publications, promotional pieces) that carry culturally relevant messages designed for and targeted to a particular ethnic group. Studies have demonstrated the rapid growth and success of ethnic media in North America and throughout the world (Deuze 2006; Gross 2006; Ojo 2006). In the past, media planners were guided by the assumption that they could capture ethnic minority audiences using the same general messages and mainstream media that appealed to majority audiences (Askey 1995). However, given the current extent, growth rates, and buying power of ethnic minority members' media use patterns, and better understanding of this, there has been a greater effort to target ethnic minorities with culturally relevant media and messages (→ Ethnicity and Exposure to Communication). In fact, research suggests that ethnic media rather than mainstream media may be the most effective way to reach and persuade minority groups (La Ferle & Lee 2005).
Experiment, Field
Authors: Weaver James B. 
Published: September 2017

Research utilizing experimentation is increasingly being conducted in venues outside the research laboratory (→ Experiment, Laboratory; Experimental Design). Such projects, when they involve the manipulation of an independent variable in realistic circumstances, are called “field experiments.” Natural experiments, involving research conducted in realistic circumstances where the researcherdoes notmanipulate the independent variable, are discussed elsewhere (→ Experiment, Natural).
Fairness Doctrine
Authors: Youm Kyu Ho 
Published: September 2017

The Fairness Doctrine, from its inception in the 1940s to its demise in the 1980s, epitomizes American broadcast law in flux. In adopting the broadcast policy, the → Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of the United States intended broadcast licensees to make reasonable effort to discuss controversial issues
and
to do it fairly by affording equal treatment to conflicting viewpoints. But the doctrine was abolished in 1987 by the Reagan administration, which thought it had outlived its usefulness (→ United States of America: Media System; Radio Broadcasting, Regulation of; Television Broadcasting, Regulation of).
False Uniqueness
Authors: Ostman Ronald E. 
Published: September 2017

A person expresses false uniqueness, an inaccurate social comparison, when that individual perceives that differences between his or her own attitudes, abilities, and behaviors and those of others are larger than they really are (Suls & Wan 1987). This difference is thought especially prevalent when one's own behavior is desirable and the individual estimates the prevalence of others exhibiting, or willing to exhibit, the same or similar behaviors (Monin & Norton 2003) (→ Pluralistic Ignorance; Pluralistic Ignorance and Ideological Biases). The result is an underestimate of how common one's desirable attributes and successful behaviors are in relation to those of others and one essentially casts oneself in the role of “better than thou.”
Feedback Processes in Organizations
Authors: Waldron Vincent R. 
Published: September 2017

Engineers have linked the concepts of feedback and enhanced performance since the time of the industrial revolution, but the term “feedback” was coined only in 1948 by cybernetic theorist Norbert Weiner. In this early work, feedback was a
signal
which indicated a discrepancy between the
goal
of a system and its current state (→ Cybernetics). Based on feedback, systems could recalibrate and improve performance. Research on the concept expanded rapidly as managers came to believe that effectively communicated feedback could increase the motivation and performance of individual employees. Given this understanding, researchers worked to understand the psychological mechanisms people used to encode performance signals and adjust their work output. However, by the 1980s, it became obvious that the cybernetic model was only modestly successful in accounting for the complexity of human feedback processes. Further progress would come when researchers addressed such neglected factors as the linguistic qualities of feedback messages, relational and cultural context, interactivity, and the construction of meaning (Cusella 1987; Fairhurst 2001).
Feminist Communication Ethics
Authors: Steiner Linda 
Published: September 2017

Feminist ethics is concerned with how people can live together with others in healthy, productive ways and how we can build social or political structures to support this. As a way of thinking and acting that is fundamentally transformative and concerned with human good, feminism is itself normative. Its resistance to codification and preference for contextualization mean that its applications for communication and media are implied, rather than explicit; feminist philosophers, especially ethicists, rarely focus on media per se. Nonetheless, feminist ethics – derived from feminist insights and theories – is highly relevant to communication and media, as practices and as subjects of research (→ Ethics in Journalism; Ethics of Media Content).
Festinger, Leon
Authors: Donsbach Wolfgang 
Published: September 2017

Leon Festinger was one of the most important figures in modern psychology and contributed several theories that are still important today for our understanding of the communication process, particularly the individual's exposure to communication and processes of opinion formation and judgment (→ Cognitive Dissonance Theory; Exposure to Communication Content; Social Comparison Theory). Born in 1919 in Brooklyn, New York, as the son of Russian immigrants, Festinger received his first training in psychology at the University of Iowa under the famous German‐born social psychologist Kurt Lewin. After World War II he followed Lewin as an assistant professor to the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. There, in a group of other avant‐garde psychologists, Lewin and Festinger developed the standards for modern experiment‐based research on perception and group dynamics. It was during his time at MIT that Festinger authored his theory of informal social communication (1950), in which he described the influence of group pressure on the individual's attitudes and behaviors.
Freedom of Information
Authors: Halstuk Martin E. 
Published: September 2017

At the dawn of the twenty‐first century, dozens of nations that had newly adopted democracy joined the world's established democracies in experiencing a sea change in governance with the rise of transparency. This global movement is grounded in the accountability principle that, in an open and free society, citizens have a right of access to government‐held information, so they can hold government responsible for its actions and make informed decisions pertaining to self‐rule. As of 2009, a public right of access to the vast stores of information gathered by governmental administrative bodies has been created in at least 72 nations under the general rubric of “freedom of information” (or FOI) laws. From 2000 to 2009 alone, 37 nations passed FOI laws (→ Communication and Law).
Group Decision‐Making, Functional Theory of
Authors: Gouran Dennis S. 
Published: September 2017

The functional theory of group decision‐making, while relatively recent as a formal theory, has origins dating well back into twentieth century (Gouran et al. 1993). One significant origin is the adaptation of American philosopher John Dewey's
method of reflective thinking
for use in the teaching of group discussion by speech teachers (Dewey 1997, 1st pub. 1910; → Speech Communication, History of). In Dewey's characterization, the method consists of five steps: (1) a felt difficulty; (2) its location and definition; (3) suggestion of possible solution; (4) development by reasoning of the bearings of the suggestion; and (5) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection; that is, the conclusion of belief or disbelief. Early on, teachers interested in communication in groups converted these steps into a standard agenda for conducting decision‐making and problem‐solving discussions (see, e.g., Ewbank & Auer 1941). The presumption was that following these steps and cultivating the corresponding habits of mind would lead to better decisions (→ Group Communication; Group Communication and Problem‐Solving).
Hostile Media Phenomenon
Authors: Gunther Albert C. 
Published: September 2017

The hostile media effect refers to a perceptual bias in which partisans – people highly involved with an issue or interest group – tend to see media coverage of that issue or group as unfairly slanted against their own position (→ Involvement with Media Content; Bias in the News; Balance). Thus, for example, groups on opposite sides of a controversial issue, such as supporters and opponents of abortion, will each judge news stories on the abortion issue to be biased in favor of the rival point of view.
Iconography
Authors: Müller Marion G. 
Published: September 2017

Iconography is both a method and an approach to studying the content and meanings of visuals (→ Visual Representation). In its colloquial use, the term “iconography” describes the motif of a particular picture or a specific group of artworks. A general distinction can be made between religious, mainly Christian iconography and secular or political iconography. In the context of visual research “iconography” is used to describe a qualitative method of visual content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative).
Information Literacy
Authors: Livingstone Sonia , Van Couvering Elizabeth 
Published: September 2017

New information and communication technologies (ICTs) pose significant challenges for their users. They require the rapid development and continual updating of diverse skills, competences, and knowledge, from the most familiar to the brand new, and from the most basic to the highly sophisticated. In academic research, these skills and knowledge requirements are increasingly brought together under the rubric of information literacy. By using the term “literacy,” the skills needed to operate ICTs are related to the ability to read and write, although the concept is still being developed (→ Human–Computer Interaction).
Intergroup Communication and Discursive Psychology
Authors: Potter Jonathan 
Published: September 2017

Relationships and communication between social groups of all kinds is an increasingly pressing topic in a globalized world in which there are conflicts of resources, religions, and ideologies. Discursive psychology's distinct contribution is to try to understand this topic through studying how discourse works in the practical settings in which intergroup issues become live (→ Discursive Psychology). These might include major public events such as a parliamentary debate on migration and asylum, institutional interaction such as where the police interview a suspect who has been accused of racist violence, and everyday talk, such as conversations about politics and nationality over a family meal.
Journalism: Group Dynamics
Authors: Reinemann Carsten 
Published: September 2017

Several factors shape journalists' everyday news decisions, their general concepts of what is newsworthy (→ News Factors; News Values), and their understanding of quality (→ Quality of the News), as well as long‐term changes in reporting. One of the most important factors is the close interaction and frequent communication among journalists, or
co‐orientation
. Co‐orientation comprises several kinds of dynamic processes within journalism. In the era of 24‐hour news channels, the Internet, and shortening production cycles (→ News Cycles), the dynamic processes within journalism are not only occurring faster but are also becoming more important.
Journalism, History of
Authors: Nerone John 
Published: September 2017

The history of journalism, inclusively defined, encompasses the history of news and news media, including, among other things, the history of print, broadcast, and computer technology; of news work, news routines, and news workers; and of news organizations, including newspapers and other media outlets as well as wire services and feature syndicates. Defined more narrowly, the history of journalism refers to the emergence of a set of values and explanations that discipline, regulate, and justify news practices (→ Journalism). Journalisms are socially constructed (→ Constructivism), and appear in different guises at different times in different national cultures in reference to different media. The history of journalism examines their construction in national and international settings, as well as anticipating their future prospects.
Korean Cultural Influence
Authors: Lee Kwang‐Suk 
Published: September 2017

South Korea has emerged as a center of pop culture throughout Asia: its scope of cultural influence encompasses Eurasia (e.g., Uzbekistan, Mongolia, and Russia), East Asia (e.g., China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and Japan), Southeast Asia (e.g., Cambodia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia), and even extends beyond Asia. Korea's cultural products – notably, its blockbuster movies, television programs, → fashion, and → popular music – have become favorites among Asians and even among Latin Americans. The so‐called “Korean wave” (or
Halryu
, a term first coined by Chinese reporters in 1999) refers to the growing appeal of Korean →
Popular Culture
in other Asian countries (Koh et al. 2005), while the Korean government's rhetoric of the “digital Korean wave” is an attempt to ride the wave of Korea's cultural influence by simultaneously promoting Korea's high‐tech electronic companies such as Samsung Electronics (→ Samsung Corporation).
Observational Learning
Authors: Bandura Albert 
Published: September 2017

Observational learning is concerned with the acquisition of attitudes, values, and styles of thinking and behaving through observation of the examples provided by others (→ Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs, Media Effects on). Psychological theories have traditionally emphasized learning from direct experience. Natural endowment provides humans with enabling biological systems but few inborn skills. These must be developed over long periods and altered to fit changing conditions over the life course. If knowledge and skills had to be shaped laboriously by trial‐and‐error experiences without the benefit of modeled guidance, human development would be greatly retarded, not to mention exceedingly tedious and hazardous.
Online Media
Authors: Schweiger Wolfgang 
Published: September 2017

The term “online media” refers primarily to technical communication media where digital content is transmitted from any kind of server to distant receivers via the → Internet (TCP [transmission control protocol]/IP [Internet protocol]) or other digital networks, for example, mobile services, and presented on a computer or a comparable terminal device (notebook, PDA [personal digital assistant], or mobile phone). Not all kinds of digital media are online media: multimedia CDs, DVDs, DVD players, mp3 players, or media applications on standalone computers are referred to as “offline media,” as content is stored at the place where it is presented. In opposition to broadcasting media (→ Radio; Television), where analog or digital content is broadly transmitted (via terrestrial or satellite broadcasting or broadband cable; → Cable Television; Satellite Television) to all receptive devices, in online media a client computer requests specific content from a server that, in turn, directly – that is, from point to point – delivers the content. According to this technical definition, online media facilitate a broad variety of different forms of computer‐mediated communication (→ Internet, Technology of). They can be described along several dimensions dealing with (1) basic aspects of communication structure, (2) aspects of exposure and user interaction, and (3) theoretical and institutional aspects of mass media.
Participative Processes in Organizations
Authors: Harrison Teresa M. 
Published: September 2017

A core concept in organizational communication, participative processes refer to a wide range of efforts aimed at initiating or enhancing the involvement of employees in decision‐making activities to which they would otherwise not have access by virtue of their positioning within an organizational hierarchy (→ Organizational Communication). Participative processes are generally discussed in opposition to or as a way to ameliorate problems associated with the routine functioning of bureaucratic hierarchy, that is, traditional top‐down organizational structures (→ Bureaucracy and Communication; Organizational Structure). Top‐down hierarchies allocate tasks, responsibility, and authority across positions in an organization in ways that control and coordinate organizational processes (→ Control and Authority in Organizations), but that may also inhibit flows of information and expertise, alienate employees, and, in so doing, diminish the organization's abilities to solve problems.
Participatory Communication
Authors: Servaes Jan 
Published: September 2017

Participatory communication stresses the importance of cultural identity of local communities and of democratization and participation at all levels – international, national, local, and individual. However, the point of departure must be the community. It is at the community level that the problems of living conditions are discussed, and interactions with other communities are elicited (Servaes 1999; 2003). It points to a strategy, not merely inclusive of, but largely emanating from, the traditional “receivers” (→ Models of Communication). Paulo Freire (1983, 76) refers to this as the right of all people to individually and collectively speak their word: “This is not the privilege of some few men, but the right of every (wo)man. Consequently, no one can say a true word alone – nor can he say it for another, in a prescriptive act which robs others of their words” (→ Freedom of Communication).
Peace Journalism
Authors: Roberts Nancy L. 
Published: September 2017

Peace journalism is an attempt at persuasive communication, usually by a social movement, to advocate in favor of ending war and violence. Journalism that advocates reforms such as social justice, the abolition of slavery, woman suffrage, and, most centrally, international peace has flourished in the United States, partly because of the press freedom the First Amendment of the US Constitution affords (→ Freedom of the Press, Concept of). Perhaps not surprisingly, most of the research to date on peace journalism has focused on US subjects and concerns (Roberts 1991, 1995).
People‐Meter
Authors: Webster James G. 
Published: September 2017

A people‐meter is an electronic device that records when media are being used and who is using them. It is the preferred method of audience ratings companies that provide “third‐party” estimates of audience size and composition to various clients (→ Audience Research; Rating Methods), and the principle means of national television audience measurement around the world. People‐meters are constantly being enhanced and adapted to capture other forms of media use.
Planned Behavior, Theory of
Authors: Cappella Joseph N. 
Published: September 2017

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is one of a class of related theories of behavior change. The theory was developed by Icek Ajzen (1985, 1991) as an extension of the theory of reasoned action (TRA; Fishbein & Ajzen 1975; → Reasoned Action, Theory of), itself a model of behavior change. The TRA originated as a solution to the problem of attitude–behavior correspondence (→ Attitude–Behavior Consistency). In brief, the problem is the commonly observed fact that people can have attitudes toward a behavior that are favorable or unfavorable but not act on those attitudes in a consistent way.
Pluralistic Ignorance
Authors: Daschmann Gregor 
Published: September 2017

There are several definitions of pluralistic ignorance – in the fields of psychology, sociology, and communications the term is not used uniformly. But despite the differences in details, they all share a focus on the same phenomenon: the inaccuracy with which most people perceive or judge → public opinion or at least the distribution of opinions in social groups (→ Social Perception).
Popular Culture and the News Media
Authors: Bybee Carl R. 
Published: September 2017

While there may be some debate over whether Russia's or Canada's version of “Naked News” came first, for many social observers the beginning of serious news delivered by naked women or women in the act of stripping indicates a crisis in the practice of journalism. To say that the boundary between → Journalism and entertainment has been breached, if not swept away, is for many not a debate at all. It is a simple observation of the dramatic transformations in the practice of journalism that have taken place in the so‐called “modern” western industrial democracies (→ Infotainment; Quality of the News).
Prejudiced and Discriminatory Communication
Authors: Ruscher Janet B. , Wallace Devin L. 
Published: September 2017

Prejudiced and discriminatory communication is studied in a wide range of social science disciplines, including communication, sociology, anthropology, and social psychology. Some forms, such as hate speech, are explicit, and they are recognized easily by an audience as reflecting prejudiced viewpoints. Other forms are more implicit: neither the speaker nor the audience may be aware that the speaker holds prejudiced views, even though independent evidence demonstrates that such views indeed are held. The conditions under which prejudiced views are expressed, as well as the forms that these communications take, are the subject of this entry (→ Social Stereotyping and Communication; stereotypes).
Presence
Authors: Hartmann Tilo 
Published: September 2017

Presence, in its broadest sense, is a media user's state that is characterized by the illusion of nonmediation. If present, media users are temporarily unaware of the mediated origin of their experience. Their thoughts, feelings, and behavior tend to react to the media content as if the portrayed scenery, persons, or objects were real, because the general artificiality of media imitation produced by human‐made technology is not recognized (International Society for Presence Research 2001; → Media Equation Theory).
Priming Theory
Authors: Iyengar Shanto 
Published: September 2017

The priming effect refers to media‐induced changes in voters' reliance on particular issues as criteria for evaluating government officials. The more prominent any given issue in the news, the greater the impact of voters' opinions about that issue on their evaluations of government. The priming effect creates volatility in public opinion, especially during election campaigns (→ Public Opinion, Media Effects on; Election Campaign Communication). As casual observers of the political scene, ordinary citizens only notice events and issues that are in the news; those not covered by the media might as well not exist. What is noticed becomes the principal basis for the public's beliefs about the state of the country. Thus, the relative prominence of issues in the news is the major determinant of the public's perceptions of the problems facing the nation (see, e.g., Iyengar and Kinder 1987).