bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Technology and Cognitive Bias
Authors: Heyer Rebecca 
Published: December 2015

AbstractA range of forensic identification technologies have been introduced to assist forensic examiners to search through the large amounts of data with which they are faced. These technologies have been introduced based on the assumption that a human–technology partnership will be more effective than either the human or technology alone. However, human performance in the field of forensic comparison is highly variable and humans by their very nature are susceptible to bias. Contrary to depictions in popular media, forensic identification technologies are not perfect either. While they are highly accurate and improvements in their performance are consistently being realized, they are susceptible to error and a range of variables can impact on their accuracy. This article outlines how the technical performance realities of forensic identification technologies can interact with an examiner's own biases to influence decision outcomes. It also demonstrates how decision making can be biased by the way in which information is presented to examiners by the technology, and potentially lead to erroneous decisions being made. The article concludes with a discussion of how increasing awareness, practical training, adjustments to workflow, and interface design that is sensitive to the cognitive capabilities of users can help to minimize such biases.
Firearms – Bullet and Cartridge Case Identification: A Brief History of Firearms Identification
Authors: Heard Brian J. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
This article discusses a history of Forensic Firearms Identification including equipment and techniques used, the difference between class and individual characteristics, and the life expectancy of said markings. Problematical markings and possible solutions for the visualisation of these stria are covered as well as accidental mismatches with manufacturing marks. The importance of the Daubert trilogy in testing the credibility of expert witnesses in US Courts of Law is discussed. The criteria for the concept of consecutively matching stria (CMS), its use, misuse, and history are discussed in detail.
Neuropsychological Assessment: Child
Authors: Tramontana Michael G. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Child neuropsychological assessment is examined as a tool in the evaluation of brain abnormalities in children. How it differs from other diagnostic methods is carefully reviewed, as are the special challenges involved in the assessment of children versus adults. There is an overview of different clinical applications and of the major test methods and approaches currently available. There is also a critical analysis of key conceptual and practical issues in the field.
Right to Treatment
Authors: Christopher Sheresa , Vitacco Michael 
Published: December 2015

AbstractThrough a series of court cases, the right of mental health patients to receive treatment for their mental illness is well established. For instance, in Wyatt v. Stickney (1972) and O' Connor v. Donaldson (1975) the need for the state to provide treatment services was made explicit. Yet, within this treatment availability model, maintaining and protecting the rights of the consumer remains paramount. Relying on therapeutic jurisprudence, an appropriate balance can be provided between the right to treatment and mandated treatment. The article delineates both controversies and challenges associated with a right to treatment in juvenile offenders, sex offenders, and prisoners.
Gallium: Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Banger Kulbinder K. 
Published: December 2015

AbstractThis article is based on the original article written by Barronet al., which provides an overview of the inorganic chemistry of gallium and its compounds. While the structure has remained the same, the sections have been updated to include areas of current studies in this field. In addition, the use of various Ga‐related alloys as either binary or ternary semiconducting material for bulk, thin film, and nanotechnology is reported. The chemistry of Ga inorganic and coordination derivatives is also reviewed and discussed.
Manganese Proteins with Mono‐ and Dinuclear Metal Sites
Authors: Dzul Stephen , Stemmler Timothy L. , Penner‐Hahn James E. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Although manganese is not as widely recognized in bioinorganic chemistry as iron and copper, it nevertheless plays an essential role in several key biological processes. Consequently, manganese concentrations are tightly regulated in most cells. Several Mn‐specific transporters have been identified and a novel Mn‐regulatory protein has been characterized. Manganese‐activated enzymes are proteins that have relatively weak affinities for Mn; in many cases, these are isolated without any metal bound. Manganese‐activated enzymes are especially important in hydrolytic reactions and appear, in at least some cases, to have physiologically significant changes in activity that respond to changes in Mn concentration. The best‐characterized Mn proteins are redox‐active enzymes, where Mn typically cycles between the Mn(II) and Mn(III) oxidation states, although some Mn(IV)‐containing species are known.
Single‐Walled Carbon Nanotubes: Functionalization by Intercalation
Authors: Shiozawa Hidetsugu , Pichler Thomas , Pfeiffer Rudolf , Kuzmany Hans 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
The article reviews recent progresses in functionalization of single‐walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). We describe detailed studies of electronic, chemical, and structural properties of intercalated and filled carbon nanotubes using state‐of‐the‐art spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. Intercalation with alkali metal allows one to finely tune the electron doping level of SWCNTs. A photoemission study of potassium intercalation compounds of SWCNT bundles unveils a transition of the metallic ground state of an SWCNT bundle from a Tomonaga–Luttinger liquid state to a Fermi liquid state. In turn, the filling of SWCNTs with fullerenes and organic molecules facilitates a reality of nanochemistry using carbon nanotubes as a nanoreactor. Spectroscopic and microscopic studies of the interconversion of encapsulated fullerenes and organic molecules show catalytic and noncatalytic processes for the inner tube growth from different filling precursors. Unique atomic wires and clusters can be created inside SWCNTs. We present that such chemical reactions of the encapsulated molecules result in the evolution of doping and bonding properties of the carbon nanotube host.
Status as Strategic Metals
Authors: Kramer Deborah A. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Throughout US history, light metals have played a vital role in defense applications in everything from aircraft and ships to missiles, satellites, and batteries for electronic communications equipment. Especially since World War II, the need for these metals has been recognized, and various actions have been taken to ensure a readily available supply of sufficient quantities of these materials. Aluminum, beryllium, and magnesium have been included in the National Defense Stockpile (NDS) that was established after World War II to ensure a ready supply of these materials. This article looks at the changing uses for aluminum, beryllium, lithium, and magnesium in defense applications, the history and current status of the NDS as a means of ensuring sufficient mineral supplies, and future trends.
Resource Sustainability
Authors: Atwood David A. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
In an analysis of the sustainability of elements, abundance must be considered alongside, and integrated with, other considerations such as the costs for production, environmental effects, and social impacts. This article outlines the basic concepts and components that must be considered for the sustainability of the lighter metals. This article attempts to provide an inorganic chemistry evaluation of the metals within the following metallurgical classifications: (i) non‐ferrous metals (Mg and Al), (ii) specialty metals (Li and Be), and (iii) common metals (Na, K, and Ca), and integrate them generally with the terminology of “Endangered Elements.”
Interrelationships between the Lightest Metals
Authors: Boyde Nicholas C. , Hanusa Timothy P. 
Published: December 2015

AbstractAs defined here, the “lightest” metals are those pretransition metals of lowest atomic number; that is, lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, and calcium (atomic no. 3–20); they have relatively low densities (0.53–2.70 g cm−3), but are not a set of the least dense metals. This article considers various attributes that link these metals together, starting with their primordial nucleosynthesis, and the problem of the cosmic abundance of lithium. It is believed that the relatively low natural abundance of both lithium and beryllium on the Earth is ultimately a consequence of peculiarities in their formation. Apart from these two, however, the “lightest” metals are extremely common elements on the Earth: Al is the most abundant metal in the crust (over 8% by weight), and the metals Ca, Mg, Na, and K constitute the fifth through eighth most abundant elements in the crust. It is perhaps not surprising that their ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+) are the most encountered metal species in biological systems.Although long used in the form of their compounds, the metals were not isolated as the free elements until the early nineteenth century (the last produced was beryllium, in 1828). They have been recognized as sharing similar chemical properties since the time they were discovered, leading to the articulation of the “(iso)diagonal rule”, which highlights the similarities between lithium and magnesium compounds, and between those of beryllium and aluminum. The metals' mechanical properties vary considerably; the stiffness of beryllium (it possesses the smallest Poisson ratio of any bulk element) leads to its supporting the highest velocity of sound of any metal; in contrast, lithium, sodium, and potassium are so soft that many of their elastic properties are difficult to measure accurately. Various alloys of the metals have extremely important properties, from the aluminum–magnesium alloys used in the aerospace industry to the beryllium copper alloys used to make nonsparking tools. Essential to life and indisputably important to modern society, the range of applications of “the lightest metals” can only be expected to grow during the twenty‐first century.
Low Oxidation State Chemistry
Authors: Hill Michael S. 
Published: December 2015

AbstractThe low oxidation state chemistry of the seven lightest metallic elements is described, with an emphasis on the introduction of bulky ligands to provide sufficient kinetic stability to allow the synthesis of well‐defined compounds, which are isolable under normal conditions of temperature and pressure. Although no stable low oxidation state compound of lithium has yet been described, a variety of sodium and potassium derivatives containing the alkali metal in the −1 oxidation have been unambiguously characterized. These “alkalides” display the general constitution, [LM]+[M]−(or [LM′]+[M]−in which the metals are dissimilar), where the stability toward disproportionation is provided by the presence of a cation‐encapsulating crown ether or cryptand ligand. In a similar manner, recent advances in Mg(I) chemistry that have allowed the synthesis of several stable compounds of the form LMg–MgL through the reduction of Mg(II) halide starting materials are dependent on the steric demands of chelating β‐diketiminato and guanidinato monoanions. A broad reaction chemistry, toward both organic and inorganic substrates, has begun to emerge for these soluble molecular two‐electron reductants that has allowed the isolation of a variety of unusual molecular types. No compounds of beryllium in an unambiguous oxidation state less than +2 have yet to be reported, however; Ca(I) is represented by a single paramagnetic “inverse sandwich” species in which the two alkaline earth centers are bridged by a sterically demanding arene dianion. In contrast to these relatively narrow advances for the lighter s‐block metals, aluminum displays a relatively rich low oxidation chemistry in which a plethora of formally Al(II) and Al(I) species have been described. The isolation of molecular Al–Al‐bonded compounds, which engage in similar two‐electron reduction reactivity to that now described for Mg(I), is again dependent on the selection of anionic supporting ligands with appropriate steric demands. Similarly, Al(I) species bearing a chemically active lone pair are now well precedented and have enabled the synthesis of a variety of oligomeric and monomeric species that are prone to oxidation to Al(III) or may be used as two‐electron bases toward a range of Lewis acid centers. Kinetically stabilized aluminum cluster species containing Al in formal oxidation states <1 have also been described through the reaction of metastable Al(I)X solutions with appropriately bulky ligands during the process of Al(I) disproportionation to Al(III) and metallic aluminum.
Cation–π Interactions
Authors: An Yi , Wheeler Steven E. 
Published: December 2015

AbstractCation–π interactions involving alkali metal cations are ubiquitous in modern chemical research, impacting everything from the structure of proteins to the activity of catalysis. Here, we survey the role of cation–π interactions involving alkali metal cations in chemistry, biology, and materials science, focusing on their structural and functional significance as well as means by which the strength of these noncovalent interactions can be tuned. In the process, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the nature of these interactions through applications of spectroscopy and computational chemistry.
Beryllium Metal Toxicology: A Current Perspective
Authors: Civic Terence M. 
Published: December 2015

AbstractInsoluble forms of beryllium comprise the entire commercial market for beryllium. As with many metals, the toxicity profile of soluble beryllium compounds differs from that of pure beryllium metal. However, this scientific fact is not generally recognized in assessments or reviews of beryllium metal toxicology. The literature does not generally reveal data for beryllium metal relative to genotoxicity, skin irritation, skin sensitization, or even oral toxicity. It is apparent that studies of toxicity endpoints observed in animals, including carcinogenicity, are almost entirely focused on soluble beryllium compounds with limited data on beryllium metal alone. It is also well known that the evidence relating to carcinogenicity of beryllium metal in humans is subject to uncertainty. This article is intended to provide the reader an evidence‐based perspective on beryllium metal toxicity and contrast that to the toxicity of soluble beryllium compounds.
Lithium‐Ion Batteries: Fundamentals and Safety
Authors: Buchmann Isidor 
Published: December 2015

Abstract

Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal on the anode can in principle provide extraordinarily high energy densities, but it was discovered in the mid‐1980s that cycling such batteries produced unwanted dendrites on the anode. The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted research to a nonmetallic platform using lithium ions (Li
+
). Li‐ion batteries come in many varieties but differ most often in the cathode materials; common examples include lithium cobalt oxide (lithium cobaltate), lithium manganese oxide (also known as spinel or lithium manganate), lithium iron phosphate, as well as lithium nickel manganese cobalt (or NMC), and lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (or NCA). Originally, coal‐derived coke was used as the anode, but since 1997, most Li‐ion manufacturers have shifted to graphite to attain a flatter discharge curve; graphite stores lithium ions well when the battery is charged and has long‐term cycle stability. Although lower in specific energy than lithium‐metal, Li‐ion technology is safe, provided cell manufacturers and battery packers follow appropriate measures in keeping voltage and currents to secure levels. Li‐ion is a low‐maintenance battery type, an advantage many other chemistries cannot claim. The nominal cell voltage of 3.60 V can directly power cell phones and digital cameras, offering simplifications and economic efficiencies over multicell designs. Cost reduction, increase in specific energy, and the absence of toxic material have served to make Li‐ion the universally accepted battery for portable applications, first in the consumer industry and now increasingly also in heavy industry, including electric powertrains for vehicles.
Li‐Ion Batteries and Beyond: Future Design Challenges
Authors: Hwa Yoon , Cairns Elton J. 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
Light metals have been widely used as electrode materials for batteries owing to their low standard redox potential, their low equivalent weight, large specific capacity, and great abundance. Both primary and secondary cells including light metals as electrode material have influenced all aspects of our lives, e.g., electrically operated toys, power tools, and portable electronics such as cell phones, smart pads, and laptop computers. Among all battery systems, rechargeable lithium (Li) ion cells have been used most widely in recent years owing to their high specific power, high energy density, and ambient temperature operation. However, Li‐ion cells are facing difficult challenges in satisfying the emerging market for advanced applications demanding high‐performance rechargeable batteries for applications such as electric vehicles, high‐performance portable electronics, and large‐scale electrical energy storage systems. Unfortunately, current Li‐ion cells cannot satisfy demands such as low cost, much improved safety, larger energy density, faster charge/discharge rates, and longer service life, so intensive effort is necessary to develop the next generation of cells. In this article, the limitations of current Li‐ion cells and various advanced materials for each component of the Li‐ion cell, in addition to other promising candidates for cells beyond Li ion, such as the Li/S cell and Na‐ and Mg‐based rechargeable cells, and metal/air cells are discussed.
High‐Pressure Synthesis of Hydrogen Storage Materials
Authors: Saitoh Hiroyuki , Takagi Shigeyuki , Aoki Katsutoshi , Orimo Shin‐ichi 
Published: December 2015

AbstractDevelopment of safe, efficient, and low‐cost hydrogen storage is a key technological issue that must be realized to generate a hydrogen‐based nonpolluting energy cycle and ultimately a feasible hydrogen economy. Lightweight hydrogen storage is also desired for automotive applications. As hydrogen becomes extremely reactive under high pressure, high‐pressure synthesis is a powerful method for fabricating novel hydrides. In situ synchrotron radiation X‐ray diffraction measurements enable optimal synthetic conditions to be determined quickly. Theoretical calculations can be used to predict the thermodynamic stability of the target material before initiating a high‐pressure synthesis, and they also provide crystallographic and electronic structural information about the target material. This article covers high‐pressure synthetic studies of novel metal hydrides using a cubic‐type multi‐anvil apparatus. The experimental details of high‐pressure generation, hydrogenation of metals under high pressure and high temperature, and in situ synchrotron radiation X‐ray diffraction measurements are presented. Synthetic studies on aluminum‐based interstitial hydrides and lithium‐containing complex hydrides are offered as successful examples of high‐pressure synthesis. Aluminum‐based interstitial hydrides, which were thought to be difficult to obtain, are shown to be accessible using high‐pressure techniques. Theoretically predicted Li4FeH6has been synthesized under high pressure and high temperature. In situ synchrotron radiation X‐ray diffraction measurements reveal the reaction conditions required for its formation and its thermodynamic stability.
One‐Dimensional Nanostructure‐Enhanced Catalysis
Authors: Wang Sibo , Ren Zheng , Guo Yanbing , Gao Pu‐Xian 
Published: December 2015

Abstract
The increasingly severe concerns about energy shortage and environmental pollution pose great challenges to the sustainable development of the global ecosystem and to human welfare. In search of solutions, during the past decade, nanostructure‐based catalysis has emerged as a major approach that can provide efficient energy utilization, conversion, and storage, as well as environmental remediation and cleaning. Specifically, one‐dimensional (1D) nanostructures, usually in the form of nanorods, nanotubes, and nanowires, have drawn great attention in catalysis owing to their superior properties relative to other nanostructured counterparts. The fast development of synthetic methods for producing 1D nanostructured materials has greatly contributed to the successful discovery and rational design of various energy and environmentally relevant catalysts with high activity, selectivity, and stability. For instance, in 1D heterostructured catalysts, the populated active sites due to their high surface‐to‐volume ratios and tailored synergistic effects between dissimilar nanostructured components lead to significant enhancement of catalytic performance. Moreover, the generation of three‐dimensional (3D) assemblies of 1D nanostructures makes 1D nanocatalysis a promising technology platform for various cost‐effective and sustainable industrial applications. In this article, we systematically introduce the latest progress on the synthesis of 1D nanostructured catalysts and their applications for air pollutant removal, photocatalytic water treatment and splitting, and electrocatalysis for energy conversion and storage. The nanostructures described here often rely critically on compounds of the lightest metals as supporting materials, either as pure oxides (i.e., alumina) or as mixed metal species.