bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aging and Message Production and Processing
Authors: Kemper Susan , Schmalzried RaLynn 
Published: September 2017

Aging affects many aspects of → Message Production and processing. The nature of conversation changes: unlike young adults, dyads of older adults mix talk about the past with talk about the present which may help them achieve a shared sense of → meaning and personal worth. Conversations with older adults are often marked by “painful self‐disclosures” of bereavement, ill health, immobility, and assorted personal and family problems which may maintain “face” by contrasting personal strengths and competencies with past problems and limitations, and coping with personal losses and difficulties. Older adults tend to adopt a “not‐listening,” “disapproving,” or “over‐protecting” style when interacting with young adults. Older adults are perceived as more rigid and negative in their speech which may provide a reason for avoiding conversations with older adults (Nussbaum & Coupland 2004; → Intergenerational Communication).
Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory
Authors: Nishida Tsukasa 
Published: September 2017

William B. Gudykunst (1985) extended Berger and Calabrese's (1975) → uncertainty reduction theory to explain the reduction of uncertainty in intergroup encounters as the first step in developing anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory. He developed a model of intergroup communication by integrating URT and social identity theory in several stages. Gudykunst and Hammer (1988) also developed a version of the theory that used uncertainty and anxiety to explain intercultural adjustment. This version contained 24 axioms. Uncertainty involves the inability to predict or explain others' attitudes, behavior, and feelings. Anxiety involves feelings of being uneasy, tense, worried, or apprehensive.
Appraisal Theory
Authors: Nerb Josef 
Published: September 2017

The evening news on TV presents extensive coverage of an oil spill just off the Spanish coast. The audience sees the sinking of an oil tanker in a severe storm, learns that it has leaked tens of thousands of tons of heavy fuel oil, and watches pictures of birds fighting a hopeless fight for survival as their feathers are agglutinated. It will be mentioned that at the moment the cause of the accident is still obscure. To analyze the effects of this media coverage on the audience it will be crucial to know what kind of cognitive processes and emotional reactions are likely to occur (→ Emotions, Media Effects on; Information Processing). For example, the identification of a clearly responsible human agent is likely to elicit anger and anger‐congruent cognitions, whereas the recognition that matters were out of anyone's control more often leads to predominantly sad reactions. “Appraisal theories of emotions” offer a more complete and systematic linkage between such cognitive evaluations of a situation and emotional reactions (see Scherer et al. 2001, for an overview).
Arrangement and Rhetoric
Authors: Craig Christopher 
Published: September 2017

The category of arrangement (Greekoikonomia,taxis; Latindispositio) in classical rhetoric includes both the “natural” ordering of the parts of a speech and the changing or truncating of that order to adapt to specific circumstances. While it may also embrace the ordering of premises in arguments, those concerns are fully treated under invention rather than arrangement. Similarly, the most basic level of arrangement, that of individual words and clauses, is properly subsumed under style (→ Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman; Style and Rhetoric).
Attitude Functions
Authors: La France Betty H. 
Published: September 2017

The functional approach to → attitudes specifies that people hold attitudes because those attitudes serve a purpose. Functions address the psychological motivations
why
individuals hold their attitudes. Initial theorizing about attitude functions assumed that an attitude served a primary function (→ Functional Analysis). Shavitt (1990) demonstrated that although certain attitude objects (e.g., air conditioners) lend themselves to one primary function, other attitude objects (e.g., American flag) are more likely to be served by multiple attitude functions. Understanding
why
an attitude forms offers an insight into the process of attitude change. Although several functions have been identified, the conceptualizations scholars offer are similar to the functions established by Smith et al. (1956), Katz (1960), and Herek (1987).
Caricature
Authors: Knieper Thomas 
Published: September 2017

A caricature is an exaggerated and distorted image of a person or thing, which is characterized by visual likeness, immediate recognizability, and pictorial wit, irony, or satire (→ Visual Representation). This visual burlesque can be insulting or complimentary. It is not uncommon that a caricature offends the sensibilities of a depicted person. Caricatures can serve editorial, illustrative, entertainment, or commercial purposes, as part of political cartoons, illustrations for books and articles, standalone artwork, or use in publicity and advertisements (→ Advertisement, Visual Characteristics of; Book; Cartoons; Political Communication). Caricatures can be standalone drawings or well‐integrated depictions in a broader context. For example, caricatures of politicians can be one part of an editorial cartoon that comments on a political issue (→ Political Media Use).
Cartography
Authors: Naismith Jacqueline 
Published: September 2017

Cartography is the visual representation and communication of data, geospatial information, and relationships in the form of printed and digital maps. The form of the map and the visual systems of map‐making are determined by technologies of production and reproduction. The mass reproduction of maps has encouraged the dissemination of geospatial information, statistical data, and shared cultural and scientific understandings throughout history (→ Statistics, Descriptive).
Celebrity Culture
Authors: Caravelli Jill 
Published: September 2017

Perhaps the most rapidly expanding facet of today's media landscape is celebrity culture; entertainers' work in the film, television, music, and fashion industries accompanies gossip about their personal lives in → magazines and → Newspapers, on → Television, and online (→ Internet). The major players in celebrity culture are known worldwide – today, there are few who do not know of American actors Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt, English power couple Victoria and David Beckham, Australian singer Kylie Minogue, or Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bündchen (→ Stars). The ability of celebrity culture to cross national and cultural boundaries as well as media outlets has made it an important issue in communication studies.
Censorship
Authors: Ahmed Sameer 
Published: September 2017

Generally speaking, censorship is the control of speech and other forms of human expression. For the most part, bodies that partake in censorship attempt to provide stability for and strengthen their control over certain individuals and groups under their authority. Censorship commonly takes place in the following areas: morally questionable material like pornography (→ Pornography, Media Law on), military intelligence, corporate secrets (→ Corporate Communication), government actions, and religiously objectionable material. Legally speaking, censorship involves the attempts of government agencies to restrict public forms of communication. These forms of communication include holding public meetings and protests, publishing books and other written materials, and providing viewpoints and information in → newspapers and → magazines, or on the → Radio, → Television, and → Internet.
Chaffee, Steven H.
Authors: McLeod Jack M. 
Published: September 2017

Steven H. Chaffee (1935–2001) was an internationally recognized mass communication scholar who had a crucial role in developing and shaping the field of communication during the last third of the twentieth century. He was born in Los Angeles on August 21, 1935. He received a BA in history (with distinction) from the University of Redlands in 1957, and an MA in journalism from UCLA in 1962. In 1965 he completed a PhD in communication at Stanford where he studied with → Wilbur Schramm and Richard Carter, who supervised his dissertation. He served in the US Navy as a public information officer (1958–1961) and worked as news editor and reporter for various Los Angeles newspapers (1961–1962).
China Central Television Channel 9 (CCTV‐9)
Authors: Jirik John 
Published: September 2017

CCTV‐9 is the global 24‐hour English‐language channel run by China Central Television (CCTV), the state‐owned broadcaster of the People's Republic of China (PRC; → China: Media System; Newscast, 24‐Hour). CCTV‐9 has a dual function: (1) to provide → news and information about China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao in line with government policy, and (2) to provide news and information about world affairs from a PRC perspective. CCTV‐9 is available globally via satellite, cable, and the Internet (→ Satellite Television; Cable Television; Internet). Its target audience is foreigners, both inside and outside the PRC. It plays a key role in
wai xuan
or “external publicity,” projecting for the PRC what Joseph Nye (2004) calls “soft power.”
Cinematography, History of
Authors: McKernan Luke 
Published: September 2017

Cinematography is the art of photographing motion pictures. All photographing of motion pictures is, in its broadest sense, → cinematography, but it is the special combination of aesthetics and technology that distinguishes the term. It is the art of the cinematographer that makes cinema compelling, the skillful blending of → Photography, lighting, composition, and the capture of motion that creates the essence of what is memorable in cinema. The cinematographer, also known as the director of photography (DP or DoP) or sometimes lighting cameraman, makes real a director's creative vision, establishing a sense of place, character, emotion, and drama, through the essential visualizing of the moment (→ Visual Communication).
Civil Rights Movement and the Media
Authors: Morris Aldon 
Published: September 2017

Racism was an enduring part of American life before the modern civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. This was especially true for the southern United States, where racism was rooted in all aspects of society. Southern blacks were severely exploited economically, where they were forced to toil at the bottom of the occupational structure. Blacks had no political power because they were excluded from the formal political process (→ Power and Discourse). Because blacks were believed to be racially inferior, they were segregated physically and made to live in the confines of resource‐starved communities (Morris 1984). Southern racial oppression was designed to humiliate blacks daily so that both races understood their respective places in the racial hierarchy.
Classroom Questioning
Authors: Gayle Barbara Mae , Preiss Raymond W. 
Published: September 2017

One important aspect of student–teacher classroom interaction involves the process of asking and answering questions. The proficient use of questioning in the classroom is often recognized as a significant tool for managing classroom discourse and motivating student participation in the learning process. Many of the published studies in this area pragmatically advise teachers about the process of designing and executing questioning strategies that enhance student comprehension and recall of course materials. Other studies investigate the efficacy of teacher and student questioning practices. Although there is considerable disagreement regarding the outcomes of, and explanations for, effective classroom questioning, all researchers concur that educational questions are one of the fundamental tools teachers use to promote learning (→ Pedagogy, Communication in; Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction; Learning and Communication).
Code as Law
Authors: Murray Andrew D. 
Published: September 2017

In 1999 Professor Lawrence Lessig, then Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, later Director of the Edmond J. Safra Foundation Center for Ethics at Harvard University, opened his new book,
Code and other laws of cyberspace
, with a chapter entitled “Code is law.” This short but complex phrase has, since then, found itself at the heart of a thorough interdisciplinary debate on how new media technologies and, in particular, the Internet have altered the configuration of centers of regulatory power and the application of regulatory control mechanisms. “Code is law” is, as a result, one of the most deceptively complex and debated phrases in contemporary regulatory theory (→ Internet Law and Regulation).
Coffee Houses as Public Sphere
Authors: Allan Stuart 
Published: September 2017

The notion of a → “public sphere” is useful when thinking about the spaces available for public discussion and debate – and thus the formation of → public opinion – in different societies). The writings of → JürgenHabermas (1989; 1992) have proven to be especially valuable in this regard. It is Habermas' contention that under ideal conditions the public sphere serves as a discursive realm situated between the purview of the state on the one hand, and the economic dictates of the marketplace on the other, for public deliberations over social issues (→ Discourse; Argumentative Discourse). In his words, the public sphere represents a space for “rational‐critical debate” among citizens, where “a time consuming process of mutual enlightenment” may take place “for the ‘general interest’ on the basis of which alone a rational agreement between publicly competing opinions could freely be reached” (Habermas 1989, 195). This normative conception of open and free relations of communication, where people can engage in reasoned dialogue about the conduct of social life as equals, highlights a range of intriguing questions for communication scholarship.
Commentary
Authors: Djerf‐Pierre Monika 
Published: September 2017

A commentary is a genre of journalism that provides interpretations and opinions on current events, rather than factual reporting (→ news). Interpretations may include evaluating the motives behind actors' behaviors, interpreting the wider scope and meaning of events, and assessing the ramifications and significance of facts. It also includes speculation, such as forecasting future events and foreseeing the behaviors of actors in the news. Opinions, on the other hand, mean promoting or advocating specific standpoints, ideals, or policies.
Communication Apprehension: Intervention Techniques
Authors: Hazel Michael , Hsu Chia‐Fang , Ayres Joe 
Published: September 2017

Communication apprehension (CA) intervention techniques are systematic, empirically grounded methods employed in a variety of settings to reduce communication‐related anxiety, most commonly in public speaking contexts, where many speakers experience → stage fright. Communication scholars have developed, adapted, and tested a variety of effective methods to treat → speech anxiety due to its pervasive nature and deleterious effects. Although most contemporary CA theories view → communication apprehension as being a multidimensional construct comprised of interrelated cognitive, affective/physiological, and behavioral components, different interventions emphasize one component over the others. That is, some theorists viewed speech anxiety as stemming primarily from thoughts, internal dialogue, and/or images associated with public speaking (e.g., Ellis 2001). Others emphasized the physiological consequences of autonomic nervous system activation. And still others underscored the lack of public speaking skills as the primary reason people experience speech anxiety (e.g., Kelly 1997). Thus, treatments are typically categorized as cognitive, affective, or behavioral in nature, and instructors and counselors employ either one or a combination of the treatments outlined below.
Communication Apprehension and Social Anxiety
Authors: Booth‐Butterfield Melanie 
Published: September 2017

Communication anxiety/avoidance is one of the most studied phenomena in the field of communication. Communication apprehension (CA) is defined as “the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with others” (McCroskey 1984; → Communication Apprehension). CA is problematic when anxiety reaches levels that interfere with goal attainment (→ Goals, Social Aspects of).
Communication Modes, African
Authors: Hecht Michael L. , Ndiaye Khadidiatou 
Published: September 2017

Defining communication in Africa as well as the African diaspora is a complex task involving both cultural commonalities and differences. African communication itself reflects a complex mix of cultural values from the cultures and traditions spread across the vast continent (→ Communication as an Academic Field: Africa; Africa: Media Systems; Communication Law and Policy: Africa). While some traditional values have been fervently preserved throughout the continent, the myriad of outside influences, including European colonizers and religious crusaders, cannot be ignored. Similarly, Hecht et al. (2003, 9) explain that African‐American communication builds from a “cultural amalgam of the cultural traditions, values, and norms of the indigenous African slaves as well as the European settlers who laid claim to what we know now as the United States.” Understanding African and African‐American communication involves a thorough analysis of this cultural amalgam, understanding the worldviews through cultural codes (e.g., values and norms), processes (e.g., communication patterns and practices), and sense of community. We begin with a discussion of African‐American communication.
Communication Modes, Hispanic
Authors: Alemán Carlos Galvan 
Published: September 2017

It is widely accepted that communication, whether presented as a manner of acting, a style of conversing, or a fashioning of language, functions in many
modes
to bring individuals to some awareness of each other as members of a collective. This conceptualization of modes as
signifying forms of social activity
is in contrast to the more general notion of
channels
or means of communication (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts; Communication: History of the Idea; Communicator Style).
Communication Strategies for Empowerment
Authors: White Robert A. 
Published: September 2017

“Empowerment” generally refers to development approaches that “enable” the beneficiaries, especially the poor and marginal and excluded groups such as women, to take initiatives to solve their own problems of poverty, exclusion, and chronic dependency (Narayan 2005; → Dependency Theories; Development, Gender, and Communication). The role of government and nongovernmental agencies is to encourage and support local organization efforts, help local groups define their own needs, and respond to requests for training and other technical or capital assistance. Beneficiary groups are expected to initiate → participatory communication within their communities, establish communication networks with other beneficiary groups, and build cooperative linkages with government and nongovernmental agencies. Because personal and social isolation is so much a part of social passivity and exploitation, communication strategies of organization, networking, group communication, and community media are central to empowerment methods (→ Citizens' Media).
Computers and Display Programs in Education
Authors: Downing Joe R. 
Published: September 2017

Communication instructors use two broad categories of display programs in their classrooms. The first category is whiteboard technology (→ Classroom Instructional Technology). When delivering a lecture, instructors make notes on the whiteboard using a special stylus. The text is digitized, so the whiteboard subsequently becomes the display program. Instructors can email these digitized notes to their students or post their lecture notes to courseware packages like Blackboard (→ Course Organization Programs in Education). An
interactive whiteboard
represents the latest technology in this area. In class, students can use their laptop computers, which are connected to a local wireless network to collaborate on a project. The group's output is displayed on the interactive whiteboard.
Conflict and Cooperation across the Life‐Span
Authors: Zhang Yan Bing 
Published: September 2017

Conflict is pervasive and has been examined extensively in various relationships and communication contexts (Hocker & Wilmot 1991; Putnam & Poole 1987). Communication scholars, however, have only recently begun to investigate this phenomenon from a life‐span perspective, suggesting that communication among people at different ages deserves special attention. Nussbaum (1989) argued that people of different ages not only experience life events in unique historical contexts, but also develop different physical, cognitive, and psychological selves (→ Development Communication). In line with the life‐span perspective, recent research on intergenerational communication in conflict situations has demonstrated several key factors influencing individuals' conflict styles, including age, age stereotypes, and cultural values. From the life‐span perspective, the focus of this article is to explore the nature of conflict, conflict styles, intergenerational conflict management, and how younger and older adults differ in their perceptions and attributions of conflict and conflict‐management styles.
Constructivism
Authors: Lindlof Thomas R. 
Published: September 2017

Constructivism refers to the philosophical perspective that human beings actively participate in creating their psychological selves and social worlds. Translated to the social sciences, where it is often known as “social constructivism” or “constructionism,” Constructivism is commonly considered to be a paradigm of its own (→ Paradigm), with epistemological tenets and methods of inquiry that contrast sharply with those of objectivist science (→ Communication Theory and Philosophy).
Constructivism and Interpersonal Processes
Authors: Burleson Brant R. , Bodie Graham D. 
Published: September 2017

As Phillips (2000) observes, the term → constructivism is associated with numerous doctrines and positions in the social sciences, but in the communication discipline constructivism is most associated with a theory of individual differences in communication skills developed by Jesse Delia and his colleagues at the University of Illinois in the 1970s. Although constructivism originally focused on individual differences in interpersonal competence, it has been applied to numerous communication events and behaviors. It has served as the foundation for theoretical and empirical analyses of relationship development and maintenance, cultural influences on communication, language acquisition and communicative development, socialization processes, and communication instruction. It has also been applied to numerous communication events and processes in business, families, education, health‐care, mass media, and politics (for reviews, see Delia 1987; Applegate 1990; Gastil 1995; Coopman 1997; Burleson & Caplan 1998; Burleson 2007).