bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Segregation
Authors: Wolff Kristina B. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSegregation is both the informal and formal separation of one group or population from another. Often this division is based on markers of difference, where race, ethnicity, gender, social class, educational attainment, sexual orientation, disability, age, or religion is used as the foundation for justifying a split between groups and populations. De facto segregation, the division of groups based on identity, culture, and social lives, is the most common. Legal separation, such as different accommodations for people based on race, gender, or nation status is de jure segregation. The repercussions of these separations are vast, creating and supporting structural inequality within societies.
Sex Tourism
Authors: Wortmann Susan 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSex tourism is generally described as individual travel for the express purpose of obtaining a range of commercial sex‐related services from residents in a location where those services are either legal or readily available. Feminist scholars such as Enloe were instrumental in bringing academic attention to this phenomenon. Early studies tended to focus on the inequality, commodification, and exploitation of women and children from developing countries by Western men. The current expanding interdisciplinary body of scholarship reveals that sex tourism must be explored at both global and local levels from economic, industrial, and interactional perspectives.
Sexual Health
Authors: Lottes Ilsa 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe concept of sexual health first appeared in publications in the 1960s, but in the late 1980s the use of the term increased dramatically in a wide range of disciplines. The meaning and application of sexual health to public health varies depending on sociocultural, political, and historical contexts. At the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development and the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women, feminists, women's health advocates, and proponents of human rights presented a new approach to sexual health. This approach emphasized the need for women's empowerment, issues related to gender relations and inequality, justice for diverse sexualities, and the importance of adopting human rights/sexual rights frameworks in public policies and family planning programs. Other meanings and applications of sexual health are also described in this entry.
Shopping Malls
Authors: Langman Lauren 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Ever since people lived in permanent settlements, they came to markets, fairs, and bazaars to trade various foods, spices, adornments, and handicrafts – from rugs to pottery. With the rise of capitalism, itself based on a flourishing trade as markets expanded, a rising merchant class consumed more and more of the newly available goods. Consumption accelerated with capitalism, modernity, industrialization, and the mass production of consumer goods. One early moment in this transformation was seen in the arcades of Paris around 1822, when a more or less self‐contained collage of adjacent shops and stores erected glass roofs over its passageways, to protect shoppers from inclement weather. These arcades provided “phantasmagorias” of commodities for the growing and affluent urban classes.
Social Embeddedness of Economic Action
Authors: Mingione Enzo , Ghezzi Simone 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The concept of embeddedness expresses the notion that social actors exist within relational, institutional, and cultural contexts and cannot be seen as atomized decision‐makers maximizing their own utilities. Embeddedness is based on several assumptions about society: the actor is not an atomized individual; immediate utility cannot explain the full meaning of social relations; logics underlying the formation of institutions and their norms of behavior cannot be removed from the contexts of social interaction within which these institutions exist; convergent trends of transformation result in diverse processes of adaptation, which evolve from specific social, cultural, and cognitive configurations. The concept of embeddedness that followed from the work of Polanyi was revisited by Granovetter and has ever since been at the centre of the debates within the so‐called “new economic sociology.” At the core of this approach a number of important contributions illustrate the importance of social networks, social capital, the diversity of cultural and cognitive elements, and the social construction of markets. More recently, the concept of embeddedness, and in particular Polanyi's seminal idea of double movement, has been called for as an interpretative frame to explain societal transformation in the light of the recent economic crisis.
Social Movements, Nonviolent
Authors: Schock Kurt 
Published: September 2017

AbstractNonviolent social movements rely primarily or entirely on methods of nonviolent action to promote change. The focus here is on social movements that directly challenge authorities or hegemonic structures, and that do so – by choice or owing to limited options – only or primarily through methods of nonviolent action, such as protest demonstrations, marches, boycotts, strikes, occupations civil disobedience, and constructive programs. In the early twentieth century Mohandas Gandhi was instrumental in merging elements of “pragmatic” and “principled” strands of nonviolence and nonviolent resistance. Gandhi drew from and transcended these traditions by linking together mass‐based campaigns with nonviolent discipline and strategizing. Nonviolent social movements proliferated during the course of the twentieth century, propelling democratization and various issue‐related movements, such as the labor, women's, peace, and environmental movements. The crucial variable in determining the outcome of nonviolent struggle is not violent repression, as is commonly assumed, but rather the presence or absence of dependence relations that can be leveraged by challengers to undermine the opponent's power, and the creation of alternative relations that counter hegemonic cultural, economic, and political structures.
Sociology
Authors: Delanty Gerard 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSociology is a form of social inquiry that takes wide‐ranging forms. As is the case with many disciplines, it is contested and there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes sociology. As a social science, sociology can be described as evidence‐based social inquiry into the social world and informed by conceptual frameworks and established methodological approaches. Sociology is the only science specifically devoted to the study of society in the broad sense of the term, meaning the social world and the open field of the social. Like many of the social and human sciences it does not have a clearly defined subject matter. Sociology is a versatile and resilient discipline that takes many forms. One of its enduring characteristics is that it brings to bear on the study of the social world a general perspective born of the recognition that the sum is greater than the parts.
Sociology in Medicine
Authors: Usher Carey L. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Sociology in medicine is a label distinguishing the work of the medical sociologist based upon the goals, setting, and disciplinary context of the work. Sociology in medicine is applied work that is motivated by the medical establishment rather than by sociological inquiry. The sociologist in medicine works within the medical system, typically with other health practitioners, using a foundation of sociological knowledge to study health and illness or medical issues. Sociology in medicine has been criticized for straying too far from the parent discipline. This distinguishing term was first published by Robert Straus in 1957.
Sports Heroes and Celebrities
Authors: Jackson Steven 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The terms hero and celebrity are increasingly being used interchangeably, but they are fundamentally different. There are some clear distinctions between the two concepts and the challenge is to ascertain how and why they have become conflated. This entry examines the meaning, significance, and types of heroes and why sport remains such an important site for their identification and development. In turn, we need to understand how changes toward a media saturated, consumer driven society have created a blurring of heroes and celebrities.
Status
Authors: Kantzara Vasiliki 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term “status” originates from Latin and denotes standing in society. Status refers to valued social positions that originate from legal‐political entitlements and command of economic resources, and is accompanied by a particular lifestyle. Status thus indicates the location of individuals and groups on the social hierarchy of honor and prestige. In addition, status groups may form communities to ensure their members' interest, and for this reason may ally or come into conflict with other groups. Some sociologists have attempted to measure socioeconomic status, taking education and profession into consideration, while others have explored aspects of status crystallization, coherence, or inconsistency. Currently, status is employed to explain an array of issues ranging from achievement in education to health condition. Issues pertaining to relations between different status groups that relate to citizenship rights claims, for instance, and may denote status threat responses, remain largely unexplored.
Stereotyping and Stereotypes
Authors: Pickering Michael 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Stereotyping involves the representation and evaluation of others in ways which ratify and endorse unequal social relations. It does so by making such representations appear fixed and unchanging as well as in stark contrast to the identities of those who engage in and perpetuate them. Stereotypes diminish the social standing of those targeted, reducing them to a particular attribute or disposition that either demeans them or confines them to achievement only in association with this attribute or disposition. This acts as a distancing mechanism, radically separating those stereotyped from those among whom the stereotypes circulate and are reproduced. Stereotyping always occurs within a two‐way, but one‐sided relationship and operates in favor of the existing status quo.
Stratification in Transition Economies
Authors: Róbert Péter 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry discusses the drivers of social stratification in the former communist “transition economies.” These societies are defined by their move from an autocratic/totalitarian political system to a parliamentary/multiparty democracy and from a planned to a market economy. Theoretically, this realignment involves social devices that affect social inequality. Practically, continuity and discontinuity with the communist past are important when considering political power groups, ideologies, and economic transformation. In the last 25 years, former communist countries have moved in various directions. The process has involved a maze of sometimes converging, sometimes diverging paths that have led to various forms of capitalism. The mechanisms affecting social stratification have included the rise of (or decline in) meritocracy, changes in access to economic and human capital resources, the growing role of social contacts and network capital, the expansion of the education system, and the growing variety of employment opportunities.
Suburbs
Authors: Friedman Judith J. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In the United States, suburbs are defined as areas in urban use that surround a city. Incorporated places with their own governments fill much of this land. The size of the suburban area around cities varies, in part because of differences in when each city stopped annexing adjacent land. The suburban areas around cities have always been diverse in population and in economic activities, despite a common reputation for being residential and middle‐class. Their population diversity is increasing, in part because immigrants are more likely to move directly to the suburbs. Diversity in economic activities and in residential property values among the suburban municipalities of a given city creates substantial differences in the ability to fund local services.
Symbolic Interaction
Authors: Hall Peter M. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Symbolic interaction is a theoretical perspective that has roots in pragmatism with its emphasis on activity, processes, and dissolving dualisms. The perspective has two branches, social psychology and social organization, which have been merged into interactionism. The works of G.H. Mead, Herbert Blumer, and Everett Hughes have been foundational. The conceptual apparatus builds from joint action and situations to social worlds and social orders. A major strategy of practitioners is to transform structures into processes. Interactionists have studied a range of topics including identity, emotions, gatherings, power, mass media, and social problems. Dramaturgy remains an interest of many interactionists. Recent attention has been given to the body, the senses, sexualities, inequality, time, and space. Symbolic interaction has seen a major increase in international adherents across Europe and Asia.
Spokespersonship
Authors: Pels Dick 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In modern communication‐ and media‐driven cultures, spokespersonship has increasingly become professionalized, offering an indispensable vehicle for advocating the identity and interests of persons, groups, and institutions. But, on a deeper level, we all act as spokespersons, by “presenting” that which is not immediately at hand (persons, things, ideas) in current face‐to‐face situations. All such representational acts crucially depend on belief and credit, and hence on the authority and credibility of the spokesperson. Representation therefore comes with a permanent risk of usurpation: spokespersons may take the place and appropriate the power of “their” subjects and objects. A critical theory of spokespersonship must be on permanent alert for such “identitarian” forms of representation and the symbolic power yielded by them.
Sexism, Sexual Harassment, and Sexual Assault: Toward Conceptual Clarity
Authors: Harris Richard J. , Firestone Juanita M. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSexism and sexual harassment have been used to keep individuals in their place within many organizational models. A sexist environment is one that facilitates both environmental and individualized sexually harassing behaviors; in such climates assault is far more likely to occur. Active policy efforts to reduce sexist and harassing behaviors can make a major difference in the likelihood of such events. This suggests that a focus on environmental harassment might be very effective because such public, visible actions are identifiable and subject to policy intervention.
Trust
Authors: Cook Karen S. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The issue of trust is central to theories of social order, and attempting to understand trust has become a major enterprise in the social sciences. Trust fosters (although is not essential to) co‐operation and reduces the need for monitoring and sanctioning. Trust is most likely to emerge in ongoing social relations and much less likely to emerge in settings in which the parties are strangers. Global networking and the rapid progress of technology impacts the formation of social contacts and therefore trust relationships.
Variables, Independent
Authors: Delucchi Michael 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Quantitative methods are used in sociology to identify causal relationships that explain human social behavior. This requires sociologists to specify the independent variable (cause) and the dependent variable (effect). The independent variable produces the effect in a causal relationship and must occur in time before the dependent variable. An independent variable is the treatment (or stimulus) within a quantitative study design that is hypothesized to affect the dependent variable. Only the simplest sociological research includes just one independent variable, whereas most studies contain multiple independent variables hypothesized to predict a single dependent variable. These other variables, referred to as control variables, are a special type of independent variable included in sociological studies because they represent other potential causes of the dependent variable.
Video Games
Authors: Hunsinger Jeremy 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThis entry introduces issues in the political economy of video games using both historical and contemporary evidence. It shows that video games can be understood in myriad productive ways in sociology. It demonstrates the significance of video games across all sectors of our lives, as they replace prior forms of education, training, play, and other activities. As video games extend further into our social worlds, human subjectivities are changing in relation to them. These changes will have ramifications throughout the social world in which we live, work, learn, and play.
Advertisement Campaign Management
Authors: Kanso Ali M. 
Published: September 2017

The key to unified and successful advertising campaigns is solid management. Each advertising campaign contains visible as well as unseen aspects. To the average consumer, a campaign is a series of advertising messages that look or sound alike. To the practitioner, a campaign embodies a wide range of activities that may include brainstorming, consumer → Surveys, or media analysis. What distinguishes one campaign from another is the degree to which each aspect is connected and whether or not the effort achieves measurable objectives. A campaign may start out as cohesive but at the end the messages may lose focus due to lack of careful planning and strategic execution (→ Advertising Strategies).
Agenda‐Setting Effects
Authors: Weaver David H. 
Published: September 2017

One of the most oft‐cited approaches to studying media effects that emerged in the early 1970s is known as the agenda‐setting effect (or function) of mass media. First tested empirically in the 1968 US presidential election by University of North Carolina journalism professors Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw (McCombs & Shaw 1972), this approach originally focused on the ability of the mass media to tell the public what to think
about
rather than what to think. This was a sharp break from previous media effects studies that had focused on what people thought (their opinions and attitudes) and on behaviors such as voting and purchasing various goods and services (→ Media Effects, History of).
Antitrust Regulation
Authors: Brown Duncan H. 
Published: September 2017

As a neo‐liberal approach to media policymaking has spread, many nations have relied more heavily on competition and the marketplace to shape the structure and output of their electronic media industries. The result has been a greater reliance on antitrust laws designed to maintain a competitive marketplace rather than industry‐specific regulations (→ Media Policy; Media Economics). Indeed, this faith in the marketplace to produce optimal outcomes has been so great that it has often led to a view that promoting competition is virtually the only concern policymakers should have. But there has also been a countervailing force at work. In an era of growing media globalization and regionalization, many governments have seen the need to allow media corporations to grow in order to compete in this new global media economy. The result has often been a reluctance to apply antitrust laws as rigorously as in the past (→ Globalization of the Media; Media Conglomerates).
Apologies and Remedial Episodes
Authors: Kotani Mariko 
Published: September 2017

Apology is an action in which one admits the wrongful nature of an act and one's responsibility for it in dealing with some type of problematic situation; for instance violations of social expectations, offenses, rule‐breaking behaviors, social predicaments, and embarrassment. The concept can be traced back toapologia, the speech of self‐defense identified in Greek rhetoric. The first scholar to give much attention to this action in face‐to‐face settings was → Erving Goffman, who treated it as part of a remedial interchange. The remedial interchange is a sequence of exchanges in which one tries to change the meaning of an action that is potentially offensive to one that is acceptable through the uses of such acts as excuses, justifications, and apologies (→ Accounting Research).
Attitudes
Authors: Roskos‐Ewoldsen David R. 
Published: September 2017

Attitudes have long been a focus of study by social scientists. In the first edition of theHandbook of social psychologyin 1935, Gordon Allport referred to attitudes as an indispensable concept for social psychology. Today, attitudes have become an essential concept for the social sciences. Attitudes, defined as an evaluative response to an object or thing, are critical to the study of → Persuasion; person → Perception; reactions to politicians, racism, and stereotyping (→ stereotypes); responses to the media; and so on. This entry will provide an overview of the nature of attitudes and how to measure them, summarize the tripartite model of attitudes, and review recent research on explicit and implicit attitudes.
Catharsis Theory
Authors: Glaab Sonja 
Published: September 2017

Catharsis theory has played an important role in the discussion about the effects of violence in the mass media for many years (→ Violence as Media Content, Effects of). The term “catharsis” is derived from the Greekkatharsiswhich means cleansing, purging, or purification. In the form the theory is used in communication research, it implies that the execution of an aggressive action under certain conditions diminishes the aggressive drive and therefore reduces the likelihood of further aggressive actions. The crucial point in catharsis theory is that the observed aggressive action does not necessarily need to be executed in reality – it can instead take place in the actor's fantasy or in the media (symbolic catharsis).
Central America: Media Systems
Authors: Priess Frank 
Published: September 2017

Geographically, Central America includes parts of Mexico (→ Mexico: Media System), i.e., the southern part of the Tehuantepec Isthmus, but traditionally it is composed of the countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. With the exception of Belize, which is a small country with about 300,000 inhabitants that did not gain its independence from Great Britain until 1981, all were Spanish colonies. The current Panamanian territory was part of Colombia until 1913. All of these countries gained their independence between 1821 and 1859. Of 43 million Central Americans, 13 million live in Guatemala. The geographic position of Panama and the political stability of Costa Rica have allowed both of these countries to develop economically, but the rest of the countries in the region display extreme poverty, particularly evident in areas inhabited by indigenous groups. After several decades of internal turmoil, civil war, and dictatorships, Central America has recovered its essence. Since the 1980s, it has recovered its peace. Even though democracy and competitive elections are now a fact within the isthmus, the influence of remote times still prevails.
Change Management and Communication
Authors: Zorn Theodore E. 
Published: September 2017

Change management in the context of organizations is the process of planning, directing, and controlling a transition from one set of organizational conditions to another. Change management has been studied for many years in the management and organization studies disciplines. It has not traditionally been considered a communication process, although models of change management typically have included communication as a component of effective change management (→ Organizational Communication; Strategic Communication).