bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ghurid Sultanate
Authors: Thomas David C. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Ghurid Sultanate rose to prominence in Central Asia during the middle of the 12th century. For a short period, the seasonally nomadic Ghurids filled the void between the declining Ghaznavids and Seljuks, and the ascendant Khwarazm‐Shahs and Mongols. At their peak, they held sway over a large empire, stretching over 3000 km. During this period, they aggrandized their summer capital of Firuzkuh (modern Jam, in the province of Ghur in central Afghanistan) and built magnificent, isolated religious structures. The Ghurids’ florescence, however, was short‐lived – soon after the death of their charismatic sultan, Ghiyath al‐Din, disunity, the overstretched nature of their military resources, and the lack of a robust, coherent imperial administrative structure resulted in the demise of the dynasty and their empire. Their Mamluk successors in India, however, went on to form the Delhi Sultanate.
Orientalism
Authors: Nash Geoffrey 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Orientalism is a term first used in the late 18th century to refer to scholarly study of the East and a style in the arts. In the same period the British East India Company was expanding its control of the Indian subcontinent, while in Islamic domains Napoleon's expedition to Egypt of 1798 was followed by French colonization of Algeria beginning in 1830. The British decision to demote Eastern languages and culture in India in favor of education in Western knowledge signaled the emergence of an imperialistic sense of Western superiority. As orientalism became institutionalized in Europe, it contributed to imperialist governance in the East. However, the extent to which orientalists individually and collectively were responsible for buttressing imperialist ideology was not fully debated until the publication of Edward Said's
Orientalism
in 1978.
Songhai Empire
Authors: Amoah‐Boampong Cyrelene 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Songhai Empire was the largest of the three West African empires in the Western Sudan. The empire bore the same name as its prominent ethnic group, Songhai. It thrived between the mid‐15th and late 16th centuries largely due to the leadership of two great rulers, Sunni Ali and Muhammad Ture. In the late 16th century Sultan Al‐ Mansur of Morocco invaded and conquered the Songhai Empire through the use of superior firearms. Songhai refused to submit. Subsequently, the empire was divided into smaller principalities, which remained independent until 1898, when the French subjugated them.
America, United States of: 1. Continental expansion after 1776
Authors: McColley Robert 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe people of the newly independent United States continued along the imperial path of their colonial days, engaging in foreign trade, attracting immigrants, marrying early, and claiming as much land as possible. With or without enslaved Africans, Americans continued to penetrate and cross the Appalachian Mountains, creating their first western state in 1792. By 1800 settlements had reached the Mississippi and, by 1803, beyond. By purchase, pressure, or war, Indian nations dissolved or moved west. The United States claimed land on the basis of treaties with European powers and, after a swift, aggressive war, by purchase from Mexico. The United States had its present boundaries by 1854, except for Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867.
Neo‐Sumerian (Ur III) Kingdom
Authors: Garfinkle Steven J. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Neo‐Sumerian period (2112–2004
bce
, also known as the Ur III period) is one of the best‐documented centuries in antiquity. The dynasty united the city‐states of southern Mesopotamia into a single powerful kingdom that extended from the Persian Gulf up through most of southern Mesopotamia. The large administrative archives from this kingdom attest to its active military campaigns, but they also highlight the ephemeral nature of the kingdom's successes. The royal household did not establish sovereignty over neighboring societies and cultures; therefore, the Ur III state was not an empire.
Religion and empire
Authors: Strathern Alan 
Published: January 2016

AbstractPolitical elites have always looked to religion in order to access ideological, social, magical, or administrative power. But imperial expansion often generates acute dilemmas regarding the management of this relationship. Religion can be used to preserve important distinctions between the ruling group and their various subject populations (differentiation), or to unite them as a shared moral community (integration). Each strategy presents both opportunities and risks, and imperial elites such as the Mexica, Ottomans, Mughals, Ming and Qing dynasties, Portuguese, Spanish, and British have deployed variants of them both. Meanwhile emperors such as Ashoka, Alexander, or Akbar have sought spectacular ways of establishing sacred authority among diverse religious groups at the same time. While religion was the most powerful means of acquiring legitimacy in the premodern world, the “world religions” in particular also presented norms by which imperial powers could be judged and found wanting. Empires were therefore vulnerable to the sting of righteous rebuke and the threat of religious rebellion.
Sasanian Empire
Authors: Daryaee Touraj , Rezakhani Khodadad 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Sasanian Empire was the dominant power in the region between Oxus and Euphrates during the period of late antiquity. The empire was founded in 224
ce
after the defeat of the Arsacid (Parthian) Dynasty and continued until 651
ce
, when the conquering armies of Islam invaded. The period had significant political, social, economic, and cultural effects on the history of medieval Iran and determined the course of much of the subsequent history of the Near East. Military competition with the nomadic powers in the east and northeast, as well as the Roman Empire in the west, was also a significant feature of the period, largely defining the extent of the medaeval Iranian world, whose basis was formed under the Sasanians in the political‐ideological concept of Iranshahr (“the Empire of Iran”).
Roman Empire: 4. 395–476
Authors: Potter David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The government of the Later Roman Empire, especially in the west, was shaped by the redefinition of the emperor's role in government. A succession of child emperors weakened the political fabric of the western empire as the decline in the significance of the imperial office heralded a concomitant reduction in the efficiency of the other organs of imperial government and the empire's gradual dissolution into a collection of Germanic successor states.
Roman Empire: 3. 180–395
Authors: Potter David 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Between 180 and 395 the Roman Empire acquired a new political system, a new administrative structure, and a new religion. The changes stemmed from efforts of emperors in the early 4th century to bring an end to the chronic infighting that had rendered the empire incapable of dealing with external threats that in earlier centuries it had contained with relative ease. The key agents of change were the emperors Diocletian and Constantine.
French Empire: 6. Africa
Authors: Chafer Tony 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
France's African empire was an incoherent and disjointed construct, assembled in an ad hoc manner with no preconceived plan over a period of nearly one hundred years. The process started with the seizure of Algiers in 1830 and culminated with the addition to the empire of parts of the former German colonies of Kamerun and Togoland in 1919 under the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I. The legal status and arrangements for administering the territories varied enormously, with the north of Algeria treated as part of metropolitan France, Tunisia and Morocco as protectorates, and France's sub‐Saharan African empire as colonies. The main focus here will be on the colonies of French West Africa (Afrique Occidentale Française, or AOF) and French Equatorial Africa (Afrique Equatoriale Française, or AEF), which were the part of the French African empire that came under the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies. Sections are devoted to colonization, colonial rule, the colonial economy, the ‘”civilizing mission”, the world wars and decolonization. A short final section will be devoted to Algeria since, although it was not formally a colony, it was nonetheless a vitally important part of the French African empire.
Dahomey, Kingdom of
Authors: Cameron Monroe J. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Kingdom of Dahomey rose to power on the Slave Coast of West Africa during the tumultuous Atlantic Era (16th–19th centuriesce). In the 17th century, polities across this region maintained political control largely through ceremonial rites that incorporated Atlantic wealth as symbols of power. Dahomey, in contrast, developed a powerful bureaucracy that maintained a heavy hand in broader political and economic affairs, profiting substantially from the mercantile and agricultural activities of a wide range of players across the kingdom. Yet, political expansion in Dahomey was a dynamic and fraught process. As domestic and Atlantic commercial sectors expanded and shifted over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, Dahomean political institutions transformed dramatically to profit from a variety of new economic opportunities, not the least of which was the destabilizing shift from an export economy based on human captives, to one dependent on agricultural production in the early 19th century.
Portuguese Empire: 2. Africa
Authors: Oliveira Pedro Aires 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
In the context of Portuguese overseas expansion (15th–20th centuries), Africa took on particular importance in the last hundred years (c.1880–1975), when the boundaries of the Lusitanian areas on the continent were finally established and the metropolis undertook more systematic efforts in terms of human occupation and economic exploitation of the territories under its jurisdiction. However, although the types of physical ownership and imposition of colonial structures of domination in areas that would later constitute independent countries evolved through a somewhat slow process, it would be limiting to refer to the existence of a Portuguese “African empire” merely by going back to the time of the “Scramble.” A more multifaceted concept of empire (including an institutional dimension dictated by the center and more ambiguous and informal modalities of influence generated in the periphery) must be called upon in this analysis to understand the longevity and the idiosyncrasies of the Lusitanian presence in Africa.
Mongol Empire, Great
Authors: Lane George 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
After uniting the Turco‐Mongol tribes and being declared Great Fierce Khan, Chinggis began his conquests of the settled lands. After conquering Northern China he looked west for trade but was forced into conflict. On his death his empire stretched from China to Russia and his sons continued the expansion. In China and Iran multicultural regimes were founded and trade links were established from Europe to China.
Seljuk Sultanate of Anatolia (Rum)
Authors: Peacock A. C. S. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

Emerging in the wake of the Turkish invasions of the Middle East in the 11th century and the resulting collapse of Byzantine power in Asia Minor, the Seljuk Sultanate of Anatolia (1081–1307
ce
) rose to become the major Muslim power in the eastern Mediterranean by the early 13th century, a position enhanced by the sultanate's control of important east–west trade routes. The Mongol invasions of the mid‐13th century, however, reduced the Seljuks to the status of a Mongol protectorate, until eventually in the early 14th century the Mongols abolished even the puppet sultanate. Nonetheless, as the first major Muslim state in Anatolia, the Seljuks of Anatolia exercised a significant influence on the formation of Ottoman institutions and dynastic ideology.
Golden Horde Khanate
Authors: Vásáry István 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
No English‐language monograph exists on the history of the Golden Horde Khanate. After a treatment of the Mongol origins of the Golden Horde, the western campaign of 1236–1241, which laid the territorial foundation of the new Chinggisid state founded by Batu Khan, is analyzed. The first 100 years of the political history of the Jochid realm, with special emphasis on Berke Khan's reign (1257–1266), Prince Nogai's separatist policy of the 1290s, and the golden age of the Horde during Uzbek Khan's rule (1313–1342), is then discussed. After the political anarchy of the 1360s, Toqtamish Khan succeeded in restoring the empire, but the western campaign of Timur Leng (Tamerlane) inflicted a serious blow on the Golden Horde from which it could not recover, and it finally disintegrated into local khanates (Kazan, Kasimov, Crimea, Astrakhan, Great Horde, and Nogai Horde) in the 15th century. Subsequently, the following themes are touched upon: state and society; economy and trade; worldviews, religions, and cultures.
Byzantine Empire: 3. 1204–1461
Authors: Carr Mike 
Published: January 2016

AbstractDespite the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade and the subsequent fragmentation of the Byzantine Empire, the Crusaders were never able to achieve a total conquest of all Greek territories. Instead, three Byzantine successor states were set up at Nicaea in Asia Minor, at Arta in Epiros, and at Trebizond on the coast of the Black Sea, all of which regarded themselves as the true inheritors of the Byzantine imperial tradition. In 1261 the emperor of Nicaea was able to recover Constantinople from the Latins, and this restored empire, along with the other successor states, survived until the 15th century, when they eventually succumbed to the rising power of the Ottoman Turks.
Carthaginian Empire
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: January 2016

AbstractFrom the 7th centurybceCarthage acquired dominance over the other Phoenician colonial cities in North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, together with the territories around them. After about 450 she also mastered her own fertile hinterland called Libya (modern northern Tunisia). Mediterranean‐wide trade, including with Rome, and revenues from the empire made Carthage a major power. A military power more than a naval one, Carthage warred repeatedly with the Greek states of Sicily, especially Syracuse, between 500 and 270bce.Defeated by Rome in the First Punic War (264–241), she lost her Sicilian and other island territories, but conquered a new land empire in Spain. The Second Punic War under Hannibal's leadership (218–201), however, deprived her of this and restricted her to Libya, with her own destruction by Rome following in 146bce.
Client states
Authors: Harrington Jack 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
“Client state” is one of the most widely used terms to describe the dependence of a smaller power to another. The origins of the term, in the modern historiography of the Roman Empire, reveal its use to describe the extra‐legal obligations that weaker and more powerful states can enter into. Most expanding empires have taken on clients. If imperialism persists today, long after the decolonization of the mid‐20th century, it is through empires of client states.
Neo‐colonialism
Authors: A. Nwachuku Levi 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Neo‐colonialism was born on the praxis of colonialism. In its operation it is, in a sense, a replacement word for imperialism. It has become a term that is used to describe the post relationship of imperial powers to their former colonies.
Following the end of World War II, colonial powers began to re‐assess the political and economic rationale for continuing to keep their colonies. In 1945, George Padmore of Trinidad with W. E. B. DuBois of the United States organized the Fifth Pan‐African Congress in Manchester, Britain. Some African future political independence advocates were in attendance. They include Hastings Banda from Malawi, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana (Gold Coast). They became the presidents of their independent nations. The conferees at the congress called upon the colonial powers to grant their colonies political independence.
The irony of the Imperial Powers fighting a war of liberation in Europe but keeping their colonial empire un‐liberated fueled the colonies' desire to end colonialism. But soon after they realized that their former masters still had a hegemonic relationship with them, in spite of their being independent. In 1965, Kwame Nkrumah, who became Ghana's first president, coined the word neo‐colonialism to describe the influence of the former imperial nations on the ex‐colonies in the areas of economy, language, culture, and political philosophy.
It is not entirely accurate to assign neo‐colonial practice to only those European nations who hegemonize many parts of the world and built empires as their national policy. In the contemporary context, powerful nations which did not necessarily own empires participate in neo‐colonial practice in non‐developed nations. Business, corporations, and military complexes have collectively influenced the dynamics of institutions in the underdeveloped world. Excluding the influence of China in the economy of African colonies, one could rightly describe neo‐colonialism as a form of “Westernization” of the underdeveloped world.
Iran, Imperial State of
Authors: Randjbar‐Daemi Siavush 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Imperial State of Iran (initially Persia) existed from 1925 to 1979 under the Pahlavi dynasty of Shah Reza Khan Mirpanj – until he was exiled following the Anglo‐Russian invasion1941 – and his son Mohammed Reza Pahlavi until he was deposed in 1979. They restored central rule over the disparate regions of the state and attempted to exert territorial claim to Bahrain and other islands in the Persian Gulf and to project power abroad. Internally their authoritarian rule, which appealed to ancient Persian imperial power and historical legitimacy, was used to impose modernizing policies which antagonized traditional conservative and liberal opinion and which, together with a deeply unpopular alliance with the West, led to the popular revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic in 1979.
Cultural genocide
Authors: Treglia Gabriella 
Published: January 2016

AbstractCultural genocide, or ethnocide, is the attempted destruction of a group's culture, religion, and identity. It is a coercive act imposed by a dominant group upon a weaker or minority group. Cultural genocide has been associated with imperialism and with settler‐colonialism. It is particularly associated with forced religious conversion and with forced assimilation policies, including child removal and the outlawing of cultural expression.
Sport: 2. Modern empires
Authors: Taylor Matthew 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe spread of sport in the modern world has been closely connected to the growth of European and non‐European empires. Sport often served practical purposes, in helping colonial officials and expatriates settle in new environments. It also played a significant role in the imperial mission of colonial governments and the ideologies of administrators, educators, and missionaries. Yet sport rarely remained isolated in colonial enclaves. It could become a key site for colonial resistance and for the celebration of an independent local identity; at other times, it was a vehicle for reinforcing imperial connections and loyalty to the colonial power. If sport was sometimes implicated in anti‐colonial struggles, sporting relationships forged during the age of empire often survived the process of decolonization.
Oyo (Yoruba) Empire
Authors: Ogen Olukoya 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Pre‐colonial West Africa was home to a number of great empires. One of the most prominent of these was the ancient Oyo Empire. This was unarguably the greatest kingdom established by the Yoruba people of southwestern Nigeria. The empire had a strong army and for a long time was able to exert its dominance over several Yoruba towns and such kingdoms as Dahomey, Nupe, Borgu, and so on. It was not until the late 18th century that it began to face a series of crises that paved the way for its decline. The empire eventually fell in the early 19th century following a full‐scale invasion launched on its capital by Fulani jihadists. This invasion led to the widespread dispersal of the inhabitants of Oyo and their resettlement in other parts of Yorubaland such as Ogbomoso, Osogbo, Ibadan, Modakeke, and so on.
Dependency theory
Authors: Paul Abhijeet 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Dependency theory, first developed in the 1950s, is based on the paradigm of underdevelopment visible in the poor nations belonging to the so‐called Third World. On this view, from systematic imperial and neo‐colonial exploitation of raw materials and resources from the poor countries well into the 20th century, a long history of dependency of the poor over the rich has emanated. Critics of the theory have since argued that with the emergence of the developmental state in the 1960s, the impact of they theory has gradually waned. And in the wake of globalization and the emergence of the so‐called “post‐colonial” nation‐state since the late 1980s or so, dependency theory seems to have been made redundant.
Race and empire
Authors: Cleall Esme 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Race has been one of the key categories that colonial powers have used to think and speak about difference. Because racial difference is not concrete or biological, what “race” means changes over time, place, and context and its meaning intersects with other ways of thinking about difference, such as gender, class, and disability. Despite these contingencies, its understanding as something natural, rather than socially constructed, lends immense power. Complexion, IQ, religion, language, and behavior have, amongst many other things, been used as “evidence” of racial difference. Race can denote perceived “biological” difference (such as physical characteristics) or “cultural” difference linked to ethnicity and shared heritage; the relationships between these two “registers” of race are constantly shifting. Race has long been used to justify European colonialism, including the trans‐Atlantic slave trade, and has continued to be a formative category after decolonization.
China, imperial: 3. 220–c.580
Authors: Blitstein Pablo Ariel 
Published: January 2016

AbstractAfter the fall of the Han dynasty in 220ce, the Chinese world started a period of political fragmentation which lasted until the Sui dynasty unified the territory in 589. This period was characterized by two main transformations. On the one hand, there was an overhaul of the ruling elites: they came to be identified with a limited number of eminent families (shizu) who controlled the imperial power. On the other hand, new populations entered into the social and institutional landscape of the empire, and some of them even established their rule on large parts of the former Han territory. These populations brought new customs, doctrines, and forms of rulership that left a deep mark in imperial institutions. Without understanding the radical transformations that took place between the Han and the Sui dynasties, it would be impossible to grasp the political, social, and intellectual landscape of later times in Chinese imperial history.
Phrygian Kingdom
Authors: Newington Sam 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThis brief overview explains how Phrygia became established geographically and as an empire with global reach. At its peak in the late 8th centurybce, Phrygia dominated much of Anatolia and confronted the powerful states of Urartu and Assyria in the east. The mythological tales and the historical perspectives offered by writers such as Herodotus and Cicero are acknowledged, though emphasis is given to the topographical landscape that evidence Phrygia as an empire. Major cities with highly advanced urban infrastructure emerged during the Phrygian heyday, which informs us of the imperial status that Phrygia aspired to and achieved.