bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inclusion Compounds Containing Polymers
Authors: Zhong Zhi , Gao Yang , Guo Baohua , Xu Jun 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Inclusion compounds formed between host and guest molecules via noncovalent interaction exhibit novel properties and functions compared to the constituting species. The focus in this encyclopedia article is on the inclusion compounds containing polymers, as either hosts or guests. Among the hosts, the small molecular hosts can be divided into two categories: the small molecular hosts with intramolecular cavity, such as cyclodextrins (CDs) and cucurbiturils (CBs); the others with intermolecular cavity, such as urea, thiourea, choleic acids, deoxycholic acids, perhydrotriphenylene, tris(o‐phenylenedioxy)cyclotriphosphazene, some small molecular drugs, etc. Depending on the size of the cavity and the intermolecular interactions, chains of polyolefins, polyethers, polyesters, conjugated polymers, and ionic polymers can be accommodated in the cavities to form inclusion compounds. Besides the small molecular host, there are also many inclusion compounds with polymer chains as hosts, among them amylose, poly(
l
‐lactic acid), stereoregular polystyrene, linear
d,l
‐peptides, oligophenylacetylenes, and poly(ethylene oxide) are reviewed. Finally, applications of inclusion compounds containing polymers in the fields of separation, stereocontrolled polymerization, sensors, drug and gene delivery, nucleating agents, gels, self healing materials, molecular rotor, and molecular wires, are introduced.
Supramolecular Chemistry
Authors: Cragg Peter J. 
Published: December 2016

AbstractSupramolecular chemistry has its origins in the supermolecule, a term used by Nobel Laureate Jean‐Marie Lehn from the early 1970s when referring to a well‐defined chemical species comprised of several components. The realization that supermolecules could in turn form larger molecular assemblies led to the shift in emphasis from super‐ to supramolecular in the literature to more accurately describe the complexity of systems involved. Supramolecular chemistry has since advanced to include complexes between molecules with complementary binding sites (molecular recognition), multicomponent complexes (supramolecular assemblies), the programmed interactions between large molecular assemblies (molecular tectonics), and even the directed assembly of three‐dimensional solids (crystal engineering and metal–organic frameworks).This article sets out the concepts and aims of supramolecular chemistry, illustrates some of the early development in the field, considers the synthesis and structures of individual supramolecular synthons as well as supramolecular assemblies, and concludes with an assessment of current and anticipated applications in materials science, medicine, the interface with biology, molecular computing, nanomaterials, and nanomachines.
Noah‐MP‐Crop: Introducing dynamic crop growth in the Noah‐MP land surface model
Authors: Liu Xing , Chen Fei , Barlage Michael , Zhou Guangsheng , Niyogi Dev 
Published: December 2016

AbstractCroplands are important in land‐atmosphere interactions and in the modification of local and regional weather and climate; however, they are poorly represented in the current version of the coupled Weather Research and Forecasting/Noah with multiparameterization (Noah‐MP) land surface modeling system. This study introduced dynamic corn (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max) growth simulations and field management (e.g., planting date) into Noah‐MP and evaluated the enhanced model (Noah‐MP‐Crop) at field scales using crop biomass data sets, surface heat fluxes, and soil moisture observations. Compared to the generic dynamic vegetation and prescribed‐leaf area index (LAI)‐driven methods in Noah‐MP, the Noah‐MP‐Crop showed improved performance in simulating leaf area index (LAI) and crop biomass. This model is able to capture the seasonal and annual variability of LAI and to differentiate corn and soybean in peak values of LAI as well as the length of growing seasons. Improved simulations of crop phenology in Noah‐MP‐Crop led to better surface heat flux simulations, especially in the early period of growing season where current Noah‐MP significantly overestimated LAI. The addition of crop yields as model outputs expand the application of Noah‐MP‐Crop to regional agriculture studies. There are limitations in the use of current growing degree days (GDD) criteria to predict growth stages, and it is necessary to develop a new method that combines GDD with other environmental factors, to more accurately define crop growth stages. The capability introduced in Noah‐MP allows further crop‐related studies and development.
Plant Macro‐ and Micronutrient Minerals
Authors: Grusak Michael A , Broadley Martin R , White Philip J 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

All plants must obtain a number of inorganic mineral elements from their environment to ensure successful growth and development of both vegetative and reproductive tissues. A total of 14 mineral nutrients are considered to be essential. Several other elements have been shown to have beneficial functions. A plant's ability to obtain adequate amounts of essential minerals depends critically on the availability of these minerals in the soil. Mineral deficiencies impact plant growth by affecting key components of photosynthesis and/or metabolism. The occurrence of deficiency symptoms throughout the plant can differ from older to younger leaves, depending on whether the mineral can be mobilised in the phloem from older senescing tissues to young growing regions of the plant. Mineral fertilisers are used widely in agricultural systems to support crop yields. In addition, fertilisers can be used to ensure that crops are of sufficient quality in terms of their mineral composition.

Key Concepts

Plants require 14 essential mineral elements to grow and complete their life cycle.

Some mineral elements are required in greater quantities (macronutrients) than others (micronutrients).

Other mineral elements have been identified as having beneficial or even essential roles for some plants.

Mineral nutrients have many functions, including structural, metabolic, osmotic and signalling roles.

Mineral nutrients are taken up in ionic form by plant roots from the soil solution.

When a plant has insufficient mineral nutrients, deficiency symptoms occur in different tissues, depending on whether the mineral can be mobilised in the phloem from older senescing tissues to young growing regions of the plant.

Mineral and organic forms of nutrients are applied as fertilisers in agricultural systems to sustain crop yields and quality.
5′‐
UTRs
and Regulation
Authors: Mignone Flavio , Pesole Graziano 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

The 5′‐untranslated region (UTR) consists of the leading part of a cellular messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) from the 5′ end to the translation start codon AUG. Precursor mRNA is posttranscriptionally modified by the removal of introns and by the addition at the 5′ end of a 7‐methyl‐guanylate cap structure, which has a crucial role in translation initiation and regulating transcript stability. 5′‐UTRs and 3′‐UTRs are deeply involved in posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression through specific motifs or RNA base modifications that can affect mRNA stability, subcellular localisation, nuclear export, tissue specificity and efficiency of translation.
5‐UTR regulation of translation is modulated by several cis‐acting elements that may also interact with trans acting factors such as proteins or microRNAs. The best studied elements are secondary structures that affect ribosome scanning efficiency (i.e. iron‐responsive element), internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) and upstream open reading frames (uORFs).

Key Concepts

5′‐UTRs are involved in posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression.

Elements located in 5′‐UTRs interfere with ribosome scanning and modulate translation of main AUG.

Secondary structures can interfere with ribosome scanning and can be stabilised or destabilised by protein or RNA interaction.

Upstream open reading frames (uORFs) may modulate translation efficiency regulating ribosome leaky scanning and translation reinitiation.

Alternative spliced mRNAs or usage of alternative TSSs (transcription start sites) may produce transcripts with different 5′‐UTRs modulating translation efficiency.
Autophagy Signalling
Authors: Simon Hans‐Uwe , Friis Robert 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Autophagy comprises several evolutionarily conserved mechanisms for transport and uptake of proteins and even cytoplasmic organelles into the lysosome. Macroautophagy sequesters cytoplasmic elements, sometimes with elegant selectivity and sometimes just in bulk, into double membrane vacuoles which are subsequently fused with lysosomes for degradation. In mammals, such recycling of protein aggregates and malfunctioning organelles allows macroautophagy to facilitate recovery of constituents for new protein synthesis or ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production, but provides also for selective removal of signalling proteins (e.g. signalphagy) and serves as an effective mechanism for quality control on whole organelles (e.g. mitophagy). Autophagy signalling includes both numerous options for its regulation by posttranslational modifications, for example phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and acetylation/deacetylation, as well as by transcriptional upregulation with many transcription factors. Autophagy shares functional components with other pathways and stands always balanced between different cell fates: quiescence, that is a temporary cell cycle arrest, senescence or cell death by apoptotic or nonapoptotic mechanisms.

Key Concepts

Basal autophagy is always present in most cell types, but can be intensified or diminished by posttranslational mechanisms affecting levels of ‘free’ autophagy‐related proteins and transcriptional regulation of their genes.

Autophagy is used as a process for compensation of nutritional imbalances and thus is responsible for adjustments to anabolic/catabolic metabolism as well as ox/redox balance and mitochondrial function.

Autophagic flux means that the receptor/adaptor proteins, for example p62/SQSTM1, which are responsible for bridging of polyubiquitinated cargo proteins or organelles to LC3, are thus themselves subject to continuous degradation.

A close integration with physiological needs regulates autophagy initiation and the expression of the required autophagy‐related and lysosomal proteins.

Autophagy is involved with the determination of cell fate, quiescence, senescence and/or cell death and can play a part in oncogenic cell selection and tumour progression.
Use of
DNA
Identification in Human Rights Work to Reunite Families in
L
atin
A
merica
Authors: Penchaszadeh Victor B 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) identification serves many purposes, including the preservation and defence of human rights. In Argentina, a military dictatorship disappeared 30 000 dissidents, including 500 babies born in captivity and, after their mothers' assassination, were appropriated by families associated with the repression. After return to democracy, search, localisation, DNA identification and family reunification were state policies and so far 120 individuals had their identity restituted and families reunited. When after a gruesome civil war in El Salvador caused 75 000 deaths and hundreds of missing children, a DNA database of families with disappeared children was developed and DNA testing of hundreds of people with unknown identity lead to identification and reunification of 265 youngsters with their families. In Brazil, DNA identification of hundreds of individuals who were stranded from their relatives during compulsory isolation of patients with leprosy in Brazil, identified 158 pairs of individuals who did not have know they were siblings. In conclusion, the use of DNA identification as a tool to redress and repair human rights violations is a novel and valuable application of human genetics.

Key Concepts

DNA technology by itself is not good or bad; its ethics depends on the objectives for which it is used and the voluntary consent on those to whom it is applied.

Forced disappearance and abduction of children with suppression of their identity are crimes against humanity.

International law of human rights obligates states to solve crimes against humanity, find and prosecute perpetrators and provide reparations to victims.

While in general genetic tests should be voluntary, according to international law of human rights, they could be imposed to a nonconsenting individual if needed to solve a crime against humanity.

The right to know the truth about one's own identity should guide DNA identification.

The use of DNA identification for the defence of human rights should be protected by the state.
Hsp110
Chaperones
Authors: Sousa Rui 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Hsp70s are a diverse family of chaperones that execute a variety of proteostatic and protein processing reactions. They include the eukaryotic Hsp110s, which function as nucleotide exchange factors for other Hsp70s and thereby regulate association of Hsp70s with their protein substrates. Hsp110s also display protein substrate‐binding domains that shield misfolded proteins from aggregation. Through these activities, Hsp110s contribute to a range of protein processing reactions including recovery from stresses such as heat or ischemic shocks, protein aggregation inhibition and aggregate solubilisation, prion propagation and assembly/disassembly of polymeric protein complexes. These functions result in Hsp110s, contributing both positively and negatively to multiple disease etiologies. Positively, because they inhibit degenerative diseases associated with protein aggregation and negatively because these same activities stimulate cancer proliferation and allow cancer cells to survive the stress of radiologic and chemotherapies. Consequently, Hsp110s are targets of therapeutic approaches that aim to both stimulate and inhibit their activities.

Key Concepts

Hsp70s are proteins that bind other, often misfolded, proteins so as to either inhibit interactions made by those proteins, break up protein:protein associations or move proteins between cellular compartments.

ATP binding causes Hsp70s to release their bound protein substrates, while ADP causes them to hold tightly to those substrates.

Hsp110s cause Hsp70s to release ADP so that they can then bind ATP, which then causes the Hsp70 to release its bound protein substrate. In this way, Hsp110s regulate Hsp70:substrate associations.

The crystal structure of an Hsp110:Hsp70 complex reveals how Hsp110 induces nucleotide exchange and why it is so effective at doing so.

Hsp110s are also able to bind directly to misfolded proteins to block their aggregation, but cannot unfold and refold these proteins as canonical Hsp70s can.

Hsp110s strongly stimulate the ability of canonical Hsp70s to solubilise protein aggregates
in vitro
.

Hsp110s are induced by stresses such as heat or ischaemic shocks and assist cellular recovery from such traumas.

Hsp110s inhibit protein aggregation and help solubilise protein aggregates
in vivo
.

Hsp110 roles in aggregate solubilisation and aggregation inhibition makes stimulation of their activities a goal for treatment of degenerative diseases associated with protein aggregation.

Hsp110 activities support cancer cell growth and therapeutic resistance and make Hsp110 inhibition a goal in cancer treatment.
Inorganic Radiopharmaceuticals for Imaging and Therapy: Current Trends and Future Directions
Authors: Bhattacharyya Sibaprasad 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
Currently, there is great interest in the field of biomedical research for developing target‐specific radiopharmaceuticals using metallic radionuclides for noninvasive diagnosis of disease and radiotherapy of cancers. It is a multidisciplinary field of science, involving radiometal production, chelate design, bioconjugation, specific targeting, imaging, and therapeutic applications. This article briefly reviews the chemical aspects and clinical applications of inorganic radiopharmaceuticals from a historical perspective to future directions.
Luca
Authors: Nice Alex 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Luca (mod. Lucca) was a town located in Ligurian or Etruscan territory on the Auser River (mod. Serchio) about 20 km inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea. In 56
bce
the so‐called ”Conference of Luca” defined the First Triumvirate's subsequent commands.
Hebrew language and script
Authors: Morgenstern Matthew 
Published: December 2016

AbstractHebrew was the language spoken and written in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and subsequently in the Second Commonwealth, and the national language of the Jewish people. It was initially written in the Phoenician script, but this later developed into a distinct national script. This old Hebrew script, however, is not the direct ancestor of the familiar square script in which Hebrew is now written.
Obnuntiatio
Authors: Erker Darja Šterbenc 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Obnuntiatio
was an announcement of unfavorable signs of the gods by which ancient Roman magistrates and priests obstructed proceedings of the popular assemblies. The announcement of dire omens (
omina
: e.g., lightning, thunder) had to be made in person to the presiding magistrate before the assembly took place. The procedure was a religious counterpart to the veto of the magistrates. It was a religious device by which controversial laws or decisions were averted. The absence of an
obnuntiatio
during legislative or elective assemblies expressed approval by the gods and citizens of the laws passed and persons elected.
Aegeus
Authors: Cursaru Gabriela 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
Mythical king of Athens, Aegeus was the eldest son of Pandion II and of Pylia, or was secretly adopted by Pandion. Shadowed by Poseidon, Aegeus is just a secondary figure in the Athenian myth. This parallelism between Aegeus and Poseidon was explained by either a “rationalistic” version of the myth or by the close connection between Aegeus and Poseidon Aigios in the Athenian cult. Aegeus was one of the eponymic heroes of Attica and gave his name to the Aegean Sea.
Religion
Authors: Vecoli Fabrizio 
Published: December 2016

Abstract
Religion is a concept impossible to define successfully, for it has emerged from a typically western, and specifically Latin linguistic tradition. The concept must then be deconstructed and its historical evolution traced. Three Latin etymologies were put forth by ancient authors, each of which correspond with major paradigms for understanding the phenomenon: religion as cult (ritual), religion as personal or inner relationship with the divine, religion as return to the authentic spiritual essence of human nature. After its formation and evolution within Latin culture (pagan or Christian), the Reformation, the Industrial Revolution, colonialism and postcolonial deconstructionism represent other essential stages in the development of the concept of religion as we understand it today. The question that remains unanswered concerns the autonomy of its object: between reductionism and essentialism, the question of the nature of religion never ceases to arouse the interest of researchers.
Diogenes of Oinoanda
Authors: Hammerstaedt Jürgen 
Published: December 2016

Abstract

Diogenes of Oinoanda published in his old age, probably in the early second century
ce
, a huge Greek inscription on the wall of a stoa in his Lycian native city. Seven inscribed courses of stone presented treatises on Epicurean physics and ethics, letters of Diogenes himself and (allegedly) of Epicurus, philosophical maxims, and defense of old age. The three hundred known fragments are a unique source of Epicureanism in Roman times.
Epithets, divine (Greece and Rome)
Authors: Lebreton Sylvain 
Published: December 2016

AbstractDivine epithets are a fundamental feature of Greek and Roman religions. Cult‐epithets, even more than poetic ones, are of the highest interest to understand how ancient polytheisms worked. Along with theonyms, they form a double system of divine denomination which allowed worshipers to define which divine protection they expected. Their distribution among gods and goddesses is very instructive about the links between deities, as well as between the different figures of a single divine power.
Prodikos of Keos
Authors: Mayhew Robert 
Published: December 2016

AbstractProdikos of Keos was a Greek sophist living primarily in the fifth centurybce. No works of his are extant, though his famous Herakles‐speech is preserved in some form in Xenophon'sMemorabilia. In addition to the defense of virtue in this speech, he was also known in antiquity for making fine linguistic distinctions, and for his rejection of the traditional Olympian gods.
Fabrication of isocyanate‐based polyimide foam by a postgrafting method
Authors: Sun Gaohui , Wang Wenpeng , Zhang Chao , Liu Lianhe , Wei Hao , Han Shihui 
Published: December 2016

ABSTRACTDensity and flame retardancy controlled isocyanate‐based polyimide foam was prepared by a postgrafting method. The first solution containing prepolymer that was synthesized by dianhydride and overdose isocyanates was added into the second solution containing dianhydride derivatives, water, catalysts, and surfactants. The possible reactions during preparation are discussed. The obtained Fourier transform infrared spectra indicate that an increased amount of imide rings was generated with increasing molar ratio of the anhydride/isocyanate groups. The size and walls of the cells became smaller and thinner with less carbon dioxide (CO2) escaping into the air during the first solution preparation process, as shown in scanning electron microscopy images. The thermogravimetric analysis curves demonstrated that the 5% weight loss temperature (T5%) was greater than 289 °C, and the residual weight retention at 800 °C was more than 45%. In addition, differential thermogravimetry curves demonstrated that the thermal stability decreased with more byproducts in polyimide foams. The limiting oxygen index increased gradually from 30.63% ± 0.56 to 48% ± 0.50 with increasing molar ratio of the anhydride/isocyanate groups. Meanwhile, the density of obtained polyimide foams ranged from 38.31 kg/m3 ± 0.90 to 99.53 kg/m3 ± 10.85. When the molar ratio of anhydride/isocyanate groups ranged from 0.4 to 0.8, the prepared isocyanate‐based polyimide foams all exhibit both great flame retardancy and lower density. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017, 134, 44240.