bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Co‐Provider Marriages
Authors: Helms Heather M. , Wood Claire 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Co‐provider marriages in which husbands and wives jointly provide shelter, food, and clothing for their families have existed for centuries. The extent to which both spouses' breadwinning efforts have been recognized, however, has varied over time. Currently, 65 percent of married couples in the United States are dual earners. Often overlooked are the meanings dual‐earner spouses ascribe to paid employment, and husbands often retain the psychological responsibility to provide. Dual‐earner couples in which both spouses assume responsibility for breadwinning have been termed “co‐providers.” In contrast to research that assumed similar attitudes between spouses, contemporary husbands and wives in dual‐earner marriages are likely to have discrepant provider role attitudes. The extent to which dual‐earner husbands and wives in the United States view wives' paid employment as essential varies among couples and often between spouses and has important implications for spouses' role‐related stress, division of housework, and marital satisfaction.
Separation, Marital
Authors: Brown Kristina S. , Halpin Jennifer 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marital separation is a legal status that a married couple agrees to that outlines the rights and responsibilities of each spouse as the couple enters into separation. Legal separation is especially important if a couple does physically separate, as it protects each spouse in the case of eventual divorce. Separation and divorce have different legal implications, statuses, and responsibilities. Along with filing marital separation papers with the courts, couples are also advised to proceed with separating all of their assets including debt. If children are involved, working out legal and physical custody, deciding on financial arrangements, and developing a parenting plan are also important. Not all separations end in divorce. However, if the couple proceeds with divorce rather than reconciliation, any agreements made during the marital separation can set a precedent in divorce proceedings.
Romantic Love
Authors: Arosio Laura 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Romantic love is a distinct kind of love that is based on the notion of mutual attraction and on personal feelings between partners that bond them as a couple. In contemporary western culture, romantic love is regarded as the bedrock on which individuals base the choice of their partner and the factor that implies and sustains the formation and consolidation of their union. The ideal model of the family held up by romantic love is nuclear and neolocal, heterosexual and lifelong, and organized around clearly defined roles and gender differences. In fact, the ideal of romantic love creates the conditions for overturning the model of family and marriage that it engenders. The late twentieth century would appear to uphold the spread of a different kind of love, coupled with the emergence of new types of family forms.
Single Parenthood
Authors: Obreshkova Evgeniya , Goulart Pedro 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Single parenthood has been increasing within the developed world and it has been affecting traditional roles and changing relationships. Scholars have made efforts to understand the existing various types of single parenthood, as well as its causes and its consequences. The majority of single parents are women who are in charge of their children, but there are an increasing number of male parents. Desertion, widowhood, separation and divorce, or simply preferring to be alone have been pointed as potential causes. Single parenthood has often been associated with higher probability of unemployment and insufficient income, and also potentially affects the educational and socialization outcomes of children. Nonetheless, families and societies have found ways to adapt to these changes. Whether social policies address these issues adequately and how these policies are conceived are disputable matters.
Cohesion, Marital
Authors: Doane Michael J. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Marital cohesion refers to the degree of connectedness, togetherness, and emotional bonding between marital partners. Cohesion in marriages is related to positive relationship qualities, including greater relationship satisfaction and lower hostility between partners. Also, marital cohesion is positively related to individual well‐being, such as higher levels of self‐esteem. Yet, extremely high levels of cohesion may be unhealthy for marriages, reflecting too much dependence between partners. An optimal level of cohesion in marriages is defined by balancing healthy levels of both separateness and togetherness. Marital cohesion is included in research on both the dyadic adjustment process and the circumplex model of marital functioning. Previous research has focused on studying cohesion at the individual level, and future work should seek to model cohesion at the dyadic level (i.e., describing how cohesion functions between relationship partners).
Orphans
Authors: Schmeeckle Maria 
Published: March 2016

AbstractOrphans are usually defined as children under the age of 18 who have lost one or both parents to death. Social orphans are children who have living parents but who are not under the care of these parents. There is worldwide concern for orphans, many of whom have lost parents due to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which is particularly acute in sub‐Saharan Africa. Contemporary orphanhood reflects global inequalities. While the highest number of orphans are in Asia, proportions are highest in Africa and they are rising. After surviving parents, extended families provide the most significant alternative living environment for orphans. Community‐based support, institutionalization, and international adoption are other options for orphan care. A few orphans head their own households, and orphans sometimes take responsibility for siblings. International agencies such as the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) are shifting their focus from specific subpopulations of children (such as orphans) to a more systematic and comprehensive approach to child protection.
Household Labor
Authors: Train Kelly Amanda 
Published: March 2016

AbstractHousehold labor largely remains “women's work” and the responsibility of women, regardless of women's increased involvement in the paid workforce. Men in the early twenty‐first century are increasingly involved in direct interaction with and care of their children, and perform some household duties such as cleaning, cooking, and so on, as well as “male tasks” such as repairs and outdoor work. Nonetheless, women are often held responsible for the bulk of housework, money work, child care, eldercare, care for disabled family members, and emotional work. Men are generally able to choose when they perform household labor, as well as which tasks and to what extent they will perform these duties.
Divorce Rates, Measurement of
Authors: van Vleet Bethany L. , Bodman Denise Ann 
Published: March 2016

AbstractAccurate and precise rates for marriage and divorce are important in helping researchers and policymakers to understand relationships and relationship dissolution. Typically, data related to divorce are gathered through formal governmental collections, such as census records or court data and surveys, but the quality and extent of the data vary. A number of common methods are used to determine divorce rates, including current marriage to current divorce ratio, crude divorce rate, refined divorce rate, longitudinal cohort analysis, and life tables; however, each has significant weaknesses.
Unemployment and Families
Authors: Rosino Michael 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Economic phenomena such as unemployment affect individuals within families, relationships within families, and family systems as a whole. Unemployment often manifests in economic pressure, which creates both financial strain and psychological stress. However, the specific effects of unemployment are moderated by individual family characteristics such as race, social class, and gender ideology as well as the wider social context. Families who have access to substantial social and economic resources may experience little or no stress as a result of unemployment. Additionally, families with more flexible divisions of gendered household labor can more easily adapt to unemployment. Studies employing family stress and coping models have illuminated important techniques for coping with the stress of unemployment including pragmatic reframing, mutual support, and open communication.
Deinstitutionalization of Marriage
Authors: Walker Laquitta M. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The deinstitutionalization of marriage is understood as the decline of marriage as societies have become more accepting of different forms of and alternatives to marriage. The changes in the social norms surrounding what was once the primary mode of family formation have arisen as a result of several social forces including the rise in cohabitation both before marriage and as an alternative to marriage, the increase in age at first marriage, the rise in divorce, the increase in out‐of‐wedlock childbearing, and the increase in the acceptability of same‐sex marriages.
Childhood Socialization
Authors: Aransiola Joshua O. 
Published: March 2016

AbstractSocialization has been conceived as the lifelong learning process of adapting to societal norms and values. Thus the process starts immediately after the birth of a child through interaction with significant others in his/her life. The agents of socialization include the family, peer groups, schools, religious organizations, mass media, and sports. The tenets of six major theories of socialization – psychoanalytic, attachment, social learning, family system, social ecological, and evolutionary developmental theory – are discussed in this entry.
Hypogamy
Authors: Almanzar Josephine Marie 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Hypogamy is the act of marrying someone of a lower social and economic class than your own. Hypogamy has been found to be practiced more by men than by women. For men power and control is the one of the strongest attainments and what often leads them to pursue a hypogamous relationship. The idea of power and control is made possible by the gender roles and expectations that society has instilled in both men and women. Societal institutions have created deeply rooted systematic differences between men and women and an idea of how far women can go socially, professionally, and economically. Immigration and citizenship have influenced the goal of marriage, consequentially creating hypogamy on the personal level. Finally, social changes brought about by the feminist movement and World War II, for example, helped tilt the scale in favor of women in society and of hypogamy.
Concerted Cultivation
Authors: Hunt Andrea N. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The concept of concerted cultivation is attributed to Annette Lareau's groundbreaking ethnographic research on social class and childrearing patterns. Concerted cultivation refers to middle‐class parenting strategies that emphasize the accumulation of cultural capital. Parents are active in their child's education which is reinforced in the home. Children take part in numerous extracurricular activities and are taught how to negotiate relationships with teachers and the bureaucratic processes within the educational system.
Veneration of the Dead among the
I
gbo
Authors: Ebere Charles 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
One of the key pillars of the traditional religion of the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria is the veneration of the dead. It emanates from their worldview that the dead, whom they refer to as ancestors, have a direct impact on the lives of people in the community and consequently need respect from the living. It is a mutual interaction that helps them maintain their identity and invariably strengthens the living. The Igbo's acceptance of Christianity has not in any way diminished their belief in the potency of the dead. This is a development that warrants further investigation as to why they are caught between two spiritual worlds that profess different belief systems.
Father Role, History of
Authors: Puhlman Daniel J. , Pasley Kay 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Fathering has changed considerably over the past century. The father's role has moved from being the moral leader to the breadwinner, advancing into a sex role model and, most recently, becoming more nurturing and caring in regular family interactions. The role of the father has been reflected in the shifting ways that scholars identify and measure father involvement using various models that take into account these shifting roles. In addition, other factors such as family structure, father identity, and co‐parenting have been recently identified as having an important influence on contemporary father roles.
Divorce Statistics
Authors: Krywult‐Albańska Małgorzata 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
This entry provides an overview of issues involved in the collection of divorce statistics for selected world regions (mostly for modern industrialized countries). Matters discussed include sources of data on marital dissolution, the construction of indicators, and the implications of various methods of measuring divorce. Divorce correlates, which have an impact on divorce rates, are outlined. A general overview of trends with respect to marital dissolution is provided, pointing to a general increase in divorce rates in various countries. The final section discusses some implications of contemporary changes in the process of family formation for the collection of data on marital breakup.
Working‐Class Families in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Peoples Clayton D. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Working‐class individuals make up close to 40 percent of the working population in the United States. As such, working‐class families are a large and important demographic group worthy of attention. Working‐class families are in a unique – and potentially precarious – economic position: although they are not technically in poverty, they are by no means in a comfortable financial situation. They have lower pay and fewer benefits than their counterparts in the middle and upper classes and this presents some challenges like heightened psychological and/or familial distress. Recent economic shifts, such as the globalization of the economy and outsourcing, have served to exacerbate these challenges and have also led to changes in family structure (e.g., a shift away from the breadwinner–homemaker model). Scholars and practitioners should pay close attention to working‐class families in the future to ensure that the challenges and needs of this important demographic group are understood and addressed.
Stay‐at‐Home Mothers
Authors: Gemelli Marcella 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Stay‐at‐home mothers care for children in the home, generally without working for pay outside the home. Sociologists view stay‐at‐home motherhood, and motherhood in general, as a social construction, rather than as a biological or deterministic role. The number of stay‐at‐home mothers has fluctuated throughout the decades, reflecting changes in the economy, women's rights, women's educational attainment, and cultural attitudes.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Authors: Yeager Erica Owens 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Symbolic interaction theory focuses on the social production of shared experience via symbols. People interact with one another and, in so doing, continually recreate lived reality as experienced by participants. All knowable reality, including one's “self,” is given form and meaning via social exchange. The self develops in successive stages, and self‐sentiment relies on the interpretation of others' reactions. Shame and embarrassment feature heavily as well, as avoiding these unpleasant emotions is the foundational goal of social actors.
Feminist Perspectives on Families
Authors: Sharp Elizabeth A. , Blume Libby Balter 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Feminist perspectives offer a revolutionary critical lens for studying families and for challenging traditional understandings of sex, gender, sexualities, conceptualizations of families, and individuals' family roles. Feminist thought considers issues of power on individual, relational, familial, institutional, structural, and global levels, as well as the interplay of power across these levels. Praxis (i.e., applying research to promote social justice), reflexivity (i.e., critical questioning of research practices), and the use of a diversity of feminist approaches are distinctive features of feminist thought in family studies. Feminist perspectives expose essentialist binaries (e.g., men/women); critique restrictive gendered roles in families (e.g., the disproportionate amount of women's family labor); question biological determinism as well as the myth of separate private/public spheres; and challenge other notions, including: (1) that families are unmitigated safe havens; (2) that there is one monolithic family; and (3) that one type of family is optimal.
Denmark, Families in
Authors: Janning Michelle , Rytkønen Helle 
Published: March 2016

AbstractDenmark, like other Scandinavian countries, is unique in its approach to family policies and practices. With a majority of mothers in the paid workforce, a generous paid maternity leave policy, free healthcare and university education, acceptance of multiple family forms, a majority of children attending preschools with governmental stipends for families, and progressive policies on gender and sexualities relative to other countries, Denmark is known for being very liberal when it comes to family roles and policies. It is an affluent country where the welfare state plays a large role in family practices and norms and where there is less economic inequality between families than in other countries. Despite relatively low numbers of foreigners with a non‐European background living in Denmark, increases in immigration and accompanying issues of unemployment, crime, and the interface of cultural traditions have been a major issue at local and national elections in recent decades.
Children in Families
Authors: Huff Nichole , Stamper Katie , Kelly Jenell 
Published: March 2016

AbstractThe role of children in families has experienced distinct changes over the past century. Many family researchers consider childhood to be socially constructed, and both childhood and its prominence in the empirical study of human development have undergone a paradigm shift in recent decades. Family scientists, educators, and mental and medical healthcare providers now stress the significance of family life in the normative development of children. A family system, or lack thereof, has the potential to impact one's biopsychosocial health. Most crucial in this impact is the psychological, social, and emotional progression of a child. “Family” is largely a system‐defined concept, generally consisting of a set of people who share a relationship (e.g., blood, adoption, covenant). Families typically consist of kinship networks that may include multiple generations and varying systemic structures. The focus of this entry is on the evolving role of children in family life.
Global Gender Gap Report
Authors: Black Carol F. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Global Gender Gap Report, published annually since 2006, is an evaluation of the gender gap in four main categories in countries worldwide. Scores range from 0 to 1, with a perfect score of 1 meaning there is no gender gap in that category. The four categories measured are economic participation and opportunity; educational attainment; health and survival; and political empowerment. There is also an overall composite score. The report measures levels of gender gap, and not levels of attainment in each category. Iceland, Finland, Norway, and Sweden share the top four spots every year, meaning that they have the least amount of gender gap. Political empowerment shows the greatest gender gap by far of any the four categories worldwide. Health and survival, based on sex birth ratios and life expectancy, shows the least gender gap. As well as inspiring innovative projects toward gender equity, the Global Gender Gap Report has also generated scholarship.
Greatest Generation
Authors: Sturdevant Katherine Scott 
Published: March 2016

AbstractJournalist Tom Brokaw coined the epithet “Greatest Generation” in 1994 to describe those born between 1901 and 1924 who survived the Great Depression and World War II. The parents of the baby boomers, they are popular culture heroes and, particularly, male role models. What they offered to and expected from their children largely determined the nature of the latter, the most populous generation of Americans. As the Greatest Generation has aged and died, society has honored them with movies, museums, and monuments. Historians have recorded their oral history. Analyzing them helped spawn study of generational theory and intergenerational relations. Further investigation of their influence should inform social history and sociology about the generation's experiences and influence on women and families; sexuality, marriage, and divorce; race and gender; civil rights movements; aging, death, and dying; and the long‐term effects of war, including posttraumatic stress, which went undiagnosed for many World War II veterans.
L
iberia, Families in
Authors: Guseh James S. 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
Liberia is a poor developing country with a population of 4.2 million. Fourteen years of civil war (1989–2003) have had a devastating impact on the development of Liberia. About 200,000 lives were lost and a million people displaced. Its economic infrastructures were also destroyed. Liberia is moving toward sustainable development but still faces the effects of the war. Sixty‐four percent of the population live below the poverty rate. The total fertility rate is five children per woman, and the infant mortality rate is 76.9 per 1000 live births. Youths constitute 64 percent of the population. This youth bulge reflects the demographic transition, that is, declines in birth rates followed by declines in death rates, bringing about rapid population growth. Youths lack basic needs, such as access to employment and education. Unless these needs are met, Liberia faces continued poverty, higher incidence of violence, and democratic erosion.
Family Development Theory
Authors: Rago Marina 
Published: March 2016

AbstractFamily development theory is a framework for studying family functioning and its relations across time. Family relations are observed by both an internal perspective, which draws attention to the relationships between family members, and an external perspective, which refers to the links within the social context in which the family lives. Essentially this theoretical approach examines the main transition periods that characterize each member of a family during his/her personal lifetime and the critical events that affect the family as a whole. These changes shape the family life cycle. Principles of interdependence, moments of relational collision, boundaries, resilience, communication processes, and task performance are constant elements of the family life cycle. Across the family life cycle, each family develops basic competencies, patterns of functioning, and capabilities to foster the growth of its members and its own equilibrium in order to protect itself from major disruptions in the face of crisis.
U
nited
N
ations Perspectives on Families
Authors: Köse Burak 
Published: March 2016

Abstract
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is the document to begin with for any exploration of how UN perspectives on family took shape and changed over time and of how they affected policies and debates on family in general. A historical review of UN documents shows how family and family‐related issues have been discussed and handled within the United Nations and how UN perspectives on family have evolved in conjunction with changing international politics, social and economic conditions, and cultural understandings, as well as amid the competing viewpoints of member states and organizations in the United Nations.