bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cities in Latin America
Authors: Davis Diane E. , de Durén Nora Libertun 
Published: September 2017

AbstractUrban Latin America has changed dramatically over the latter half of the twentieth century. From 1950 to 1980 Latin American cities showcased high rates of migrant absorption, overurbanization, and national state domination of local politics and decision‐making. Urban growth concentrated in a few cities, reinforcing conditions of primacy and growing demands for urban servicing to meet the needs of an industrial economy primed for national economic growth. By 1990, decentralization policies devolved political decision‐making to smaller jurisdictions, giving local authorities more sway in urban servicing and policy‐making but also increasing municipal pressures to generate public sector revenues to finance local urban development. Since 2000, economic globalization has opened consumer and investment markets to make cities sites for real estate development and high‐end services, with these transformations occurring alongside a shrinking industrial economy and rising un‐ and underemployment. Today, Latin America's largest cities are modern and economically dynamic metropolises with architecturally iconic high‐rises and gated communities that could rival those seen in any major city of North America or Europe. Even so, they host a range of social problems associated with income inequality, structural unemployment, persistent housing informality, and violence, all of which hold the potential to negatively affect urban quality of life.
Development: Political Economy
Authors: Boatcă Manuela 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The emergence of the idea of development in the West is closely linked to the evolutionary worldview taking shape in Europe as of the eighteenth century. Both notions have been constitutive for sociology as a discipline. Like evolution, development has taken on a variety of meanings. Their common denominator is the idea of continuous, orderly social change that proceeds in several clearly demarcated stages and entails an improvement of living conditions. Yet whereas most evolutionary theories implicitly are theories of development, the reverse does not apply. Massive criticism directed at evolutionism in the first half of the twentieth century, ultimately leading to its temporary discredit as an academic endeavor, prevented a resumption of the issue of development until the postwar era. During the 1950s, development again became central to both social scientific concerns and policy‐making. By the end of the twentieth century, growing skepticism toward classical development theory and modernization approaches led to more attention being devoted to the issue of underdevelopment both by scholars and policy‐makers. The entry synthesizes approaches to development from modernization theory and dependency approaches through world‐systems analysis and postdevelopment approaches.
Direct Action
Authors: Moore Kelly , Woolley Kyle 
Published: September 2017

AbstractDirect action is strategic political activity that is designed to draw attention to or change political and cultural relationships by bypassing extant political institutions and processes. Direct action uses physical and virtual means that are outside of existing political institutions; it is often used by groups that are prohibited from or have limited access to legal or full participation in institutionalized political activities. Examples of direct action include vigils, blockades, wildcat strikes, demonstrations, the occupation of buildings and other spaces, and the destruction of property.
Drag Queens and Drag Kings
Authors: Rupp Leila J. , Taylor Verta 
Published: September 2017

AbstractDrag queens and drag kings are men, women, and transgender people who perform femininity, masculinity, or something in between. Different styles of drag, across the United States and around the world, call attention to the performativity of gender and play a part in community building for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. Drag queens have a long history, while drag kings are a more recent phenomenon. In black and Latino communities, what is known as “ballroom” features competitions in a variety of categories where individuals aim for “realness.” Much of the scholarship on drag has focused on the question of how such performances reify or challenge gender and sexual binaries.
Drugs, Drug Abuse, and Drug Policy
Authors: Wincup Emma 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term “drug” has been used to define substances which are prohibited under criminal law. In addition to outlawed substances, the term can also refer to alcohol and tobacco, solvents and prescribed medication. Drug policy is likely to be confined to illegal drugs. Drug use can be defined as a law and order, social, medical, and public health problem.
Emotion: Social Psychological Aspects
Authors: Wasson Leslie 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
People may perceive emotion as residing in the individual and composed of some portion of personal subjective experience. However, certain common patterns of emotional experience exist. Shared social definitions of emotions are generally recognized, and these can be evoked or referenced in socially appropriate situations. These emotion norms then become incorporated into the definition of the situation. While psychology and psychiatry have investigated emotions as internal to the individual, sociology has contributed a social, interactionist analysis of emotion, or affect, to scholarly discourse. This entry delineates some of the theoretical and empirical work, both classic and contemporary, occurring in the sociology of emotion.
Environment, Sociology of the
Authors: Dunlap Riley E. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSociological work on environmental issues is traced through the development and evolution of the field of environmental sociology. After overcoming the larger discipline's reluctance to incorporate the physical environment into sociological analyses, sociologists have conducted a diverse and ever‐expanding range of work on environmental issues. The social construction of environmental problems was an early emphasis, leading to important insights concerning the processes by which various conditions come to be recognized and accepted as societal problems. In the 1990s, influenced by postmodernism, some sociologists adopted a strong constructivist orientation aimed at deconstructing issues such as global warming, prompting a critical reaction from scholars working from a realist perspective. The resulting debates led to a détente, but their legacy can be discerned in two current orientations toward the use of scientific indicators of ecological conditions. “Agnostics” tend to analyze environmental controversies, discourses, and science (especially climate science), while “pragmatists” employ measures such as ecological footprints, greenhouse gas emissions, and toxic waste inventories to analyze the causes and impacts of ecological deterioration. Analyzing solutions to environmental problems has become a major focus of the field, resulting in debates between optimistic proponents of ecological modernization and their more pessimistic critics from political economy and human ecology perspectives.
Expertise, “Scientification,” and the Authority of Science
Authors: Turner Stephen , McCreery Gregory 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Sociologists and social thinkers have long been concerned with the problem of the role of knowledge in society. In the 1940s and 1950s the sociology of science concerned itself with the related problem of the authority of science and with conflicts between science and democracy. In a world of complexities that are only understood by experts, the conflict between expert knowledge and democracy is still relevant today.
Exurbia
Authors: Crump Jeff 
Published: September 2017

AbstractExurbia is residential development on the fringe of metropolitan regions. According to recent estimates, low‐density exurban development covers 25 percent of the land in the United States. Exurban migration is driven by a desire to live in close proximity to nature. Exurban movers report that natural landscapes and more rural environments are important in choosing to live in exurbia. However, low‐density residential development results in “green sprawl” and disrupts the natural environment. During the housing boom of 2004–2007, many people, especially minority ethnic groups, purchased housing in exurban locations. Unfortunately, their search for a higher quality of life was based on predatory and subprime loans, and many fell victim to foreclosure during the Great Recession.
Electronic Markets
Authors: Lehdonvirta Vili 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe term electronic markets originally referred to intraorganizational procurement systems and exchanges, but today also includes consumer online marketplaces and smartphone apps. A popular view is that new information technologies have reduced transaction costs, making it increasingly economical to use markets instead of hierarchies to coordinate transactions. Sociologists have highlighted the social construction of electronic markets: how different interests, norms, conflicts and knowledges come to be reflected in electronic markets' institutional and material architectures, shaping market outcomes. In the sociology of work, electronic markets are noted for their role in value chain restructuring and the associated transformations of work and employment, such as vertical disintegration, portfolio work and the “gig economy.” In the sociology of consumption, critical accounts discuss electronic markets' ability to exploit psychological weaknesses and further the commodification of childhood, while celebratory accounts highlight the medium's ability to empower consumers by eliminating gatekeepers and enabling collaboration and information sharing; other issues include the experiential and cultural aspects of online marketplaces and the rise of virtual goods as a new category of consumption. Some electronic markets are blurring the boundaries between producers and consumers, provoking debates about “prosumerism,” “crowdsourcing,” and the “sharing economy,” where work remains nascent.
Fact, Theory, and Hypothesis: Including the History of the Scientific Fact
Authors: Turner Stephen , McCreery Gregory 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Although the terms theory, fact, and hypothesis are sometimes treated as though they had clear meanings and clear relations with one another, their histories and uses are more complex and diverse than might be expected. A fact is usually thought of as a described state of affairs in which the descriptions are true, but how something becomes a fact has been a major concern of sociologists of scientific knowledge. Hypotheses and theories can also be defined as rooted in what is or can be established as fact, which raises difficult questions.
Fantasy City
Authors: Hannigan John 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Fantasy city refers to an urban form located at the intersection of leisure, consumption, tourism, and real estate development. It is characteristically scripted, hard‐branded, active day and night, modular, solipsistic, and postmodern. Fantasy cities satisfy a preference by middle‐class consumers for sanitized environments of “riskless risk.” In recent years, the fantasy city model has faltered in North America and Europe because of too much competition and too little product differentiation, but it continues to thrive in Asia, the Middle East, and South Africa.
Friendship during the Later Years
Authors: Adams Rebecca G. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Friends are important during later adulthood in many ways, contributing to psychological well‐being, physical health, and even longevity, and serving as sources of affection and social support. This entry discusses current and past trends in research on older adult friendships, including theoretical, substantive, and methodological content, critiques the current state of the literature in these areas, and suggests future agendas for each of them. Some of the main findings regarding friendship and aging are discussed, including the relationship between aging and involvement with friends as well as the homogeneity of friendships.
Gay Bashing
Authors: Smyth Michael A. , Jenness Valerie 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Often subsumed under the broader rubric of “hate crime,” gay bashing generally denotes the perpetration of violence against people identified as, or assumed to be, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and/or transgendered (LGBT). Although examples of this type of behavior range from acts of symbolic and rhetorical violence to ongoing bullying‐type behaviors, physical assaults, and homicide, selection of the victim based on perceived non‐normative sexuality and/or gender expression is common to gay bashing in all its manifestations. This type of violence is typically aimed not only at a primary target, but also at the entire group to which the target is thought to belong.
Gendered Professions
Authors: Loos Martina 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term “gendered professions” denotes that gender meanings are inscribed in the construction of professions. Professions represent a distinct category of occupational work, historically reserved for male‐dominated occupations like medicine and law, while women‐dominated occupations are defined as “semi‐” or “aspiring” professions. The concept of a profession is perceived as a means of improving occupational status and is assumed to be gender‐neutral. Social scientists have begun to explore the relation between gender and profession and have coined terms like “gendered work” and “gendering professions.” Professions are established and continue to change in a social context that draws mainly on a prevailing gender ideology, which results in gender discrimination in workplace practice as well as organizational structure. Women enter the professions in larger numbers and many reforms have created new opportunities for women's professional work, but gender‐based inequalities like occupational segregation, pay gaps, and career barriers remain.
Humor
Authors: Reay Michael 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Humor receives little attention in the social sciences relative to how often it appears in human interactions. It involves a wide range of phenomena at various levels of institutionalization, from accidental occurrences, through deliberate actions such as teasing and witty banter, to formal comedic performances, images and texts. Work in a number of disciplines suggests that it is typically caused by incongruous or contradictory experiences, that it involves implicit assumptions and messages, and that it can have consequences for social identities and power. These features make humor potentially relevant to sociology as an indicator of social contradiction, and as an element in strategies of domination, resistance, and coping.
Insecurity and Fear of Crime
Authors: Robert Philippe 
Published: September 2017

AbstractResearch on insecurity and fear of crime takes two main directions: the first one attempts to explain why the level of apprehension apparently exceeds actual risk (pointing to the mass media, to incivilities, or taking into account differential exposure or vulnerability). The second one breaks up the notion of fear of crime so as to reach more consistent categories (e.g., abstract concern and concrete fears).
Interaction
Authors: Lehn Dirk Vom 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Interaction is one of the foundational sociological concepts. It is often discussed together with organization and society and thereby defined as the “microlevel” of sociological analysis. Unfortunately it sometimes is seen as less important for sociological research than the study of the “meso‐” (organization) and “macrolevel” (society) of analysis. Those developing grand sociological theories like Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann, maybe not unsurprisingly, therefore devoted more space and time to the development of theories of society while neglecting the development of theories and concepts of interaction. However, beginning with Georg Simmel's studies in Germany in the late nineteenth century sociology has produced a substantial and diverse body of theories and research with interaction at its center, including studies conducted by the Chicago School of Sociology, and symbolic interactionism and the Iowa School, the analyses of social occasions by Erving Goffman, studies in ethnomethodology and conversation analysis and more recently research subjecting social situations to multimodal analyses. These studies demonstrate that interaction is key to all forms of social relationship. They elaborate on the importance of our understanding of interaction for policy development as well as for the design and deployment of novel technologies in complex work settings.
Internet
Authors: Slevin James 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The Internet is a global network of interconnected intelligent hardware and software systems that makes possible the digitized storage, retrieval, circulation, and processing of information and communication across time and space. From a sociological perspective, the Internet is not synonymous with a global information machine, as portrayed in some popular accounts. A sociological account of the Internet encompasses the constituent Internet technologies and attends to these as social phenomena. It also includes information and other content that is produced, transmitted, and received by individuals, organizations, and smart devices using the Internet. Finally, a sociological account includes the socially and historically structured contexts and processes in which the production, transmission, and reception of information and communication are embedded.
Leaving Home in the Transition to Adulthood
Authors: Goldscheider Frances , Torr Berna 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The transition to adulthood is not a simple biological aging process but, rather, a complex social process that differs over time and across societies. Recent increases in education, nonfamily living, and age at marriage in industrialized countries have combined to create a period of “emerging adulthood” among those aged 18 to 29. This entry highlights many of the key factors and trends relating to this period of transition to adulthood including changes in education, union formation, and the economy. Also highlighted are key differences by gender and race/ethnic group in the transition to adulthood. Finally, a historical example of changes in living with parents versus living independently for the United States is provided. These data highlight the increase in young adults living with parents during the Great Depression of the 1940s and the Great Recession of the 2000s and the decline in living with parents during the baby boom.
Materialism
Authors: Katz‐Fishman Walda , Scott Jerome , Gomes Ralph 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Materialism is the philosophy that explains the nature of reality and the world – physical, social, cultural, and so on – in terms of matter. Philosophical materialism stands in opposition to the philosophy of idealism – that ideas, thought, and mind are the essential nature of reality and the world of matter is a reflection of these. The economic, political, social, and intellectual ferment of the 1700s and 1800s gave rise to several streams of social thought informed by materialism and the scientific method. The most important are mechanical materialism and dialectical and historical materialism (i.e., historical materialism). Empiricism and positivism presented itself as science based in materialist methodology, but was rooted in philosophical idealism. Mechanical materialism analyzes social life and culture in terms of material conditions, but is static in its worldview and offers no theory of human agency or future beyond capitalism. Historical materialism critically analyzes capitalism and its antecedents, and views the capitalist system as a transient stage of social development that will be negated through contradictions and antagonisms that give rise to socialism and communism. Key materialist and historical materialist scholars of the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries are discussed, including those addressing the current systemic crisis of global capitalism.
Math, Science, and Technology Education
Authors: Suter Larry E. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry defines a sociological approach to the study of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education as an established body of research and outlines key areas of future research. Sociological research in STEM education is largely concerned with the causes and consequences of student interest in, and knowledge of, STEM fields. Educational sociologists examine how social institutions and the individuals' experiences within these institutions affect educational processes and social development through the development of research techniques. They examine careers and international cultural differences in educational practices and outline future areas of research that have been recently developed through modern technologies.
Media and the Public Sphere
Authors: Carpentier Nico 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe reflections on media and the public sphere draw heavily on the interpretation given by Habermas to the latter concept. The alternative models that have been developed, such as Nancy Fraser's counterpublics model, also build on the Habermasian approach, although the influence of a more Mouffean agonist approach is increasing. The field of communication and media studies uses the public sphere concept to make sense of the role of communication in noninstitutionalized politics characterized by three dimensions: the normative versus the neutralized‐descriptive, the media‐centric versus the society‐centric, and the structural(ist) versus the cultural(ist).
Multiculturalism
Authors: Modood Tariq 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Multiculturalism, or the political accommodation of minorities, became a major demand in the last quarter of the twentieth century, especially in Anglophone countries, particularly in relation to postimmigrant groups; by early into the twenty‐first century in Western Europe it was associated with Muslims, and as a result its demise was announced. Yet it is doubtful if Western Europe can integrate its growing Muslim population without some element of top‐down, if not bottom‐up, religiomulticulturalism.
Multivariate Analysis
Authors: Baur Nina , Lamnek Siegfried 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Multivariate analysis procedures are statistical analysis procedures used in quantitative research in order to analyze more than two variables. Multivariate analysis procedures can be classified in different ways. Two common ways are on what scale variables have to be measured in order to apply the model and what kind of theoretical model underlies the analytic procedure. Among the analytical problems multivariate analysis can address are (a) identifying latent classes; (b) causal analysis; (c) identifying patterns in time; (d) network analysis; (e) multilevel analysis; and (f) spatial analysis. All multivariate analysis procedures have in common typical analysis steps, namely framing the research question, selecting the right statistical model, verifying that assumptions and prerequisites, preparing data for the specific analysis, computing the model, and interpreting and presenting the results.