bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Radiotronic Waves
Authors: Calvillo Jonathan E. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter chronicles the history of Radiotron, a site of Hip Hop sociability that shaped a cohort of Hip Hop creatives and had a critical influence in concretizing West Coast Hip Hop. Radiotron, also known as the Youth Break Center, held meetings in the same building as the Radio Club, and grew in popularity following the closure of the club. Located across the street from MacArthur Park in Los Angeles, Radiotron drew a multiracial crowd, with a significant number of participants being Central American immigrants. At Radiotron, many youths perfected their Hip Hop performance skills under the tutelage of the center’s leadership and found refuge in the creative arts center from the perils of a community addled by disinvestment, overpolicing, gangs, and the crack epidemic. Radiotron became a hub of Hip Hop sociability for a younger set of creatives who ultimately represented the first generation of West Coast Hip Hop artists.
The Stage and the Crossfade
Authors: Calvillo Jonathan E. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the emergence of a Los Angeles Christian Hip Hop scene in the late 1980s during major shifts in Los Angeles Hip Hop. For a group of creatives, churches offered opportunities to sustain their Hip Hop performativity. Victory Outreach, a Latino Pentecostal church, gave birth to what was known as Holy Hip Hop. This chapter argues that the creative resonance emerging in congregational spaces helped to preserve the underground resonance characteristic of early Los Angeles Hip Hop. Likewise, the evangelistic impetus of this church movement helped to spread Hip Hop. As creatives spread the Christian message through Hip Hop, they also spread Hip Hop. Innovation was taking place in these spaces, as new artistic adaptations emerged, often motivated by outreach efforts. As many creatives sought refuge from the streets in church settings, Christian Hip Hop momentarily became a type of creative incubator.
Publication Policies and Practices
Authors: Hinkle Rachael K. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a broad overview of how selective publication operates, starting with an exploration of variation across space and time. Publication rates vary by circuit from only 6% in the Fourth Circuit all the way up to 81% in the First Circuit. The frequency of publication also varies over time, although less dramatically. These differences are not necessarily surprising considering that each circuit has their own set of rules that govern the publication decision. After detailing key overlap and divergence in rules across circuits and over time, the chapter goes on to evaluate whether circuit-level publication practices map onto differences or changes in formal rules. Finally, features of rulings themselves are presented to describe how published and unpublished rulings vary in terms of a range of features including length, clarity, complexity, and use of binding and persuasive precedent.
Invisible Work
Authors: Hinkle Rachael K. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Simply bringing more women and minorities to the bench does not guarantee that they experience the same level of power as their white, male counterparts. This chapter investigates two elements of how power is distributed. Published cases make law, which means participating in such cases and authoring such opinions are important metrics of judicial power. Female and minority judges wield disproportionately low amounts of power on both dimensions. Diverse groups often find a need to accommodate varying viewpoints, and women and judges of color are more likely to find themselves in such diverse groups. Consequently, nonpublication as a tool of compromise results in white men participating in a disproportionately high number of cases with policymaking published decisions. Even when participating in case where the ruling is published, judges from historically underrepresented groups find themselves less likely to be assigned to write the opinion. Yet they dissent more frequently.
The Future of Selective Publication
Authors: Hinkle Rachael K. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter outlines the empirical findings from throughout the book and discusses their normative implications by considering what light they shed on various proposed reforms to the norm of selective publication. Selective publication both generates and reveals disparities in power and privilege. Now what? The answer to that question is far from easy. Proposed reforms vary from as simple as unifying publication rules across all circuits to abolishing the distinction entirely. The former is unlikely to make much headway to reduce inequality, and the latter is likely to cause other problems without significant changes to staffing levels. The chapter concludes by proposing that the most promising avenue may be to seek a middle road by leaving the publication process in place but granting precedential status to all opinions regardless of publication.
Equity Will Not . . .
Authors: Bray Samuel L. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the “equity will not” doctrines, such as “equity will not enjoin a crime,” “equity will not protect personal rights,” “equity will not punish,” and “equity will not protect political rights.” It analyzes the formal structure of these doctrines (which is rule-exception). It also analyzes the two functions of these doctrines, namely their regulation of access to equity and their aid in preserving equity’s legitimacy. This chapter also briefly considers the “equity will not” doctrines’ current status, suggesting that most are still in use today, and concludes by arguing that they have enduring functions, even if their traditional scope may need to be adjusted.
On the Form and Justification of Some Private Law Rights, Liberties, and Powers
Authors: Essert Christopher 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
In this chapter I investigate the form and justification of private law rights, liberties, and powers, with particular attention to similarities and differences across the distinctions between some departments of private law. In contrast to a popular reductive account of private law relations on which these incidents are disconnected, each to be understood and justified in its own terms, I suggest a way of thinking about them as different aspects of the law’s realization of certain abstract moral ideas. This understanding discloses the deep and pervasive connections that the incidents have to each other within the context of particular relations as well as, more interstitially, across and between the departments of private law.
Private Law’s Choice of Private Law
Authors: Gold Andrew S. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Interstitial private law helps separate private law fields one from another (e.g., tort, contract, fiduciary law) while determining which field should prevail in cases of overlap. This chapter will argue that the resulting differentiation of legal fields is valuable for multiple reasons. One major consequence is that these fields are more modular, and this modularity cuts down on delineation costs and information costs. Yet we have reason to care about a field’s modularity even if our primary concern is not with economic benefits. This is not just because handling complexity can help with other goals, such as advancing the rule of law or providing corrective justice more effectively. It is also because modular structures, at both mid-level and micro-level, can help contribute to the existence and meaning of special relationships that the law helps constitute.
General Customs and Legal Institutions
Authors: Rose Carol M. 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the relationship of general customs to the law, using the example of the widespread use of racial real estate covenants to discriminate against minority residents in the United States. For several decades in the first half of the twentieth century, the private law of property covenants combined with evolving real estate practices to produce an emerging customary pattern of residential discrimination. At mid-century, however, racial covenants were ruled constitutionally unenforceable. This brief history illustrates the ways in which law and custom can mutually and dynamically reinforce each other, but it also shows that law and custom may diverge as a customary practice and becomes so widespread as to draw scrutiny. Moreover, it illustrates that once in place, a customary practice can long outlive its legal supports, as has been the case—unfortunately—with the only gradually diminishing pattern of residential segregation in American metropolitan areas.
Expropriation and Nationalization
Authors: Ruzza Alice 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The law of expropriation and nationalization in times of peace developed in consonance with the evolution of the status of → aliens in the host State. Until the 18th century, varying rules and standards applied to aliens in host States (→ History of International Law, Ancient Times to 1648; → History of International Law, 1648 to 1815); progressively, however, protection was afforded to foreigners and their property, and in the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century various treaties incorporated the principle of equal protection of alien property (→ Hague Peace Conferences [1899 and 1907]; → History of International Law, 1815 to World War I). Judicial pronouncements also recognized such protection under → customary international law (→ German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia Cases; → Norwegian Shipowners’ Claims Arbitration), paving the way for the emergence of the concept of international → minimum standards of treatment.
International Law, Regional Developments: Africa
Authors: Mensah Thomas A 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Major developments in international law in Africa have occurred in three main areas, namely: regional and sub-regional integration; the law for the promotion and protection of → human rights; and the enhancement of the judicial process in → international criminal law. In all these areas progress has been made in the adoption of conventions and agreements and the establishment of institutions at the continental and regional levels or by individual governments.
Solidarity Rights (Development, Peace, Environment, Humanitarian Assistance)
Authors: Minnerop Petra , Roht-Arriaza Naomi , Aminzadeh Sara C 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Karel Vasak coined the term ‘solidarity rights’ in an article written for the UNESCO Courier in 1977. He suggested that after the international recognition of → human rights of the so-called ‘first generation’, ie civil and political rights in the traditional sense and following the acknowledgement of human rights of the ‘second generation’, ie economic and social rights it was time to recognize the specific needs of the new States emerging from the process of → decolonization and of the total → interdependence of all States in the contemporary world by establishing rights embodying the solidarity of the → international community.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Authors: Schoiswohl Michael 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The United Nations Development Programme (‘UNDP’) is a programme and fund of the → United Nations (UN) established in 1965 by and under the authority of the UN General Assembly (‘UNGA’). Headquartered at the UN in New York, it operates as the UN’s development network with activities in about 170 countries and territories and a workforce of about 7,000 staff, along with 10,000 service contractors and United Nations Volunteers. Stressing the linkage between peace and development, the → United Nations Charter tasks the UN to promote ‘higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development’ (Art. 55 UN Charter).
Proving International Crimes
Authors: McDermott Yvonne 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Proving International Crimes elucidates how international criminal tribunals have tackled the immense and complex task of proving international crimes such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The challenges posed by the scale and scope of these crimes and the distance in time and space between their commission and their prosecution are well known. Nevertheless, investigators, lawyers, scholars, and policy makers often look to the law and practice of international criminal tribunals to establish what standards need to be met in the collection, preservation, presentation, and analysis of evidence to prove international crimes. In providing a comprehensive account of the law and practice of evidence before international criminal courts and tribunals to date, as well as recommendations for future practice, this book aims to inform domestic, regional, and international accountability processes for atrocity crimes going forward. This book demonstrates that, as a consequence of the flexibility built in to the legal and procedural frameworks of international criminal courts and tribunals, the law of international criminal evidence is currently unpredictable and uncertain. To this end, it argues for the development of a coherent epistemic framework driven by two guiding principles: rectitude of decision and the highest standards of fairness.
The Burden of Proof and Standards of Proof
Authors: McDermott Yvonne 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter assesses the meaning of the burden of proof and the interpretation of the presumption of innocence in international criminal trials. It also analyses the ‘no case to answer’ or ‘decision on a motion for a judgment of acquittal’ procedure as a function of the presumption of innocence, and how Trial Chambers have interpreted the requisite standard of proof for such motions. It also analyses the varying standards of proof applicable at different stages in proceedings, with a particular focus on the law and practice of the International Criminal Court and the three standards of proof that apply therein: reasonable grounds to believe; substantial grounds to believe; and proof beyond reasonable doubt. This chapter concludes by assessing an argument that has recently gained traction in the scholarly literature, which is that the ‘beyond reasonable doubt’ standard of proof for conviction is too taxing and should be lowered. It argues against such a move, in light of the central tenets of rectitude of decision and the highest standards of fairness, as outlined in Chapter 2.
Weighing the Evidence as a Whole
Authors: McDermott Yvonne 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyses how the entire record of evidence is assessed by the Trial Chamber in determining whether the prosecution has proven the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt, an issue that has been subject to intensive judicial debate. It begins with an argument that fact-finding in international criminal trials is, by nature, a probabilistic exercise, because evidence is invariably incomplete, rarely conclusive, often ambiguous, frequently dissonant, and always with varying degrees of credibility and reliability. There will never be one clear and unambiguous conclusion, so it falls to judges to determine whether guilt has been proven to the standard of proof beyond reasonable doubt, which requires a high degree of probability. The chapter then examines the tribunals’ stated approaches to the evaluation of evidence, explaining that the debate between ‘atomistic’ and ‘holistic’ approaches may mask the real division between judicial approaches to the evaluation of evidence—that is, how much detail the Chamber needs to provide on precisely which evidence led it to establish which finding of fact or to find that a particular fact had not been proven. Lastly, it examines how formal logic and tools developed from argumentation theory and decision science may assist judges in evaluating the evidence and articulating their findings. It addresses some likely scepticisms around such an approach.
Lottocracy
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
Democracy is in trouble. But there is disagreement about what is going wrong and what we should do about it. Lottocracy argues that, perhaps surprisingly, the problem is with the heart of modern democracy: the election. Elections are failing as accountability mechanisms. Elections provide powerful short-term incentives, leading elected politicians to downplay long-term catastrophic concerns. Elections create divisions where none need exist. The most powerful among us take advantage of this to control who is elected, what policies are enacted, and which problems are ignored. Policy complexity, citizen ignorance, elite capture and manipulation, algorithmically reinforced echo chambers, intensifying partisan division and distrust, and the dissolution of political community combine to render modern electoral democracies incapable of helping us solve the urgent problems we face. What should we do? This book takes seriously the possibility that although electoral democracy has been better than all systems that have been tried, the basic mechanism at its core—the election—is broken, and unworkable under modern political conditions. But this book moves past the Churchillian shrug (“worst, except for all the others”), introducing a new form of democracy: lottocracy. Lottocratic systems include many new elements, but the most striking is the shift from using elected representatives to using representatives selected through lottery. The book introduces and discusses lottocratic systems, their potential advantages, and potential concerns. It also engages foundational philosophical questions, considering how rights of political participation, political equality, political power, considerations of accountability and legitimacy, and the nature of democracy itself are illuminated and reconfigured once we move past the electoral representative framework.
Ignorance and the Voter Influence Dilemma
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on a problem for electoral democracy due to the large size and scale of modern political communities: ignorance and the voter influence dilemma. The large scale of political communities increases the complexity of political problems, the complexity of the institutions and policies required to address those problems, and the division of labor—epistemic and otherwise—that comes with living in a political community of that size. Furthermore, in large political communities, individuals make a very small difference to electoral outcomes, and they know this. The size also means that people do not know each other personally. Accordingly, this scale and size create an additional background condition: broad citizen ignorance about facts relevant to politics and to solving moral-political problems that arise in those communities. This gives rise to a dilemma for electoral representative democracy. Either (a) the elected representatives are responsive to the views of the citizens or (b) they are not. If (a), then we should expect poor performance along both epistemic and agential dimensions, as representatives follow us, the ignorant, as we wander in darkness. The chapter considers two theories—information shortcut theory and retrospective voting theory—that offer a sunnier picture, but argues that neither is plausible given the empirical evidence. If (b), then the mechanism of electoral accountability has broken down, and we will see capture of elected officials by the powerful, along with attendant distortions in the political sensibility of electoral institutions. The available evidence seems to suggest this is our situation.
Short-Term Bias
Authors: Guerrero Alexander 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes the way in which elections create a short-term bias, and the implications of that bias for the sensibility of electoral political systems. Elections lead elected officials to focus on the near term—on those problems that they can get immediate credit for addressing, or which they will be blamed for not addressing before the next election. Given that the urgency of political problems is not simply a function of their near-term proximity, this fact about elections has significant consequences for the moral-political problem-solving capacity of electoral representative government. It affects which problems get attention and are the focus of political action. But it also leads to significant epistemic distortion in what voters and elected representatives come to believe about the problems that we face. This concern about short-term bias can be seen to affect political response to many political problems, with climate change providing a particularly clear example.
How will we win
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter examines how military strategy and domestic politics were linked during the war. It begins with a historical view of the two dominant approaches to military strategy in Britain during the Edwardian period; liberal militarism, focussed on small, professional, high-tech forces and a ‘nation in arms’ approach that called for the creation of mass Continental-style armies. It outlines how both Neville Chamberlain and later Winston Churchill continued the tradition of liberal militarism. The chapter then describes the alternative ‘People’s War’ strategy advocated by some socialists, including George Orwell, during the war. This argued for the creation of a mass democratic citizens army and the liberation of colonial subjects. After describing Conservative critiques of this strategy, the chapter turns to the different emphasis groups of Conservatives placed on tanks, bombers, and naval warfare as the key to Britain’s military success and the ideological and political reasoning behind their preferences.
We will win
Authors: Kowol Kit 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
The chapter examines the end of Churchill’s all-party Coalition and the Conservative campaign during the 1945 general election. Issues examined include the intellectual background behind Churchill’s call for a referendum on continuing the Coalition, links between the 1945 campaign and those of 1931 and 1935, Churchill’s Gestapo speech, the Laski controversy, and the Labour Party’s success in portraying itself as the ‘national’ party.
The “Happy Thirties?”
Authors: Navarro Jaume 
Published: September 2024

Abstract
After the first uneventful presidency of William Henry Bragg (1922–31), Robert Millikan’s election to the General Assembly (GA) in 1931 promised to introduce some momentum to the union. But the Great Depression shattered all plans, especially the proposed next GA and major international conference in physics due to take place in Chicago in 1933 during the “Century of Progress International Exposition.” The lack of funds watered down that meeting, after which there was a general feeling that “the Union might disintegrate if it did not hold a meeting which would demonstrate that it had both vitality and a real work to perform.” And yet, Millikan’s presidency was not only an attempt to keep the union alive in spite of economic and political turmoil, but also to use it as an opportunity to promote American physics on the international stage.