bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Education
Authors: Mueller Anna S. , Pattison Evangeleen 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Education plays a fundamental role in society, both because it determines individuals' life chances and because it has the power to reproduce or ameliorate inequality in society. In this entry, research within the sociology of education is reviewed that examines both how schools are shaped by the society in which they are embedded and how schools affect the distribution of opportunities and the intergenerational transmission of social status. The entry begins by discussing theoretical perspectives on education, and then discusses the beginnings of universal education and how universal education varies between developed and developing countries. Finally, the major developments for sociological research on education are reviewed, with an emphasis on explanations for inequality in educational opportunities, including school desegregation, public versus private schooling, charter schools, tracking, summer learning gaps, social and cultural capital, the role of adolescent culture in achievement, and issues related to higher education. Though the structure of education and the distribution of educational opportunities in society continue to evolve as economies and cultures shift, education plays a pivotal role in perpetuating socioeconomic inequality and, for the lucky few, providing opportunities for social mobility.
Elective Affinity
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J.I. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Weber argues that there is an “inner affinity” (
innere Verwandtschaft
) between several things, especially between (1) a this‐worldly asceticism of sects (e.g., Quakers, Mennonites) and (2) the underlying “spirit” (
Geist
) of modern capitalism. Rather than hedonism, among Protestants there is an ascetic outlook, an estrangement from joy, as indicated by Benjamin Franklin's maxims. The modifier “elective” is a vestige from Albertus Magnus, Scholasticism, Galileo, and the Latin of chemists such as T.O. Bergman:
attractio electiva simplex
or
affinitas electiva
. On its own, the German term
Verwandtschaft
means “affinity,” but the classical Latin phrase “elective affinity” had an impact on Goethe (Adler, 1990). The term “elective affinity” (
Wahlverwandtschaft
) became a title for one of Goethe's romantic novels about marriage and “chemical” erotic attraction.
Eurocentrism
Authors: Alatas Syed Farid 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The term “Eurocentrism” originated in the nineteenth century. Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that one's own ethnic group or society is superior to others'. Other groups are assessed and judged in terms of the categories and standards of evaluation of one's own group; European, and generally western concerns, culture, politics, and values are focused upon to the exclusion of others. Eurocentrism is a modern phenomenon and cannot be dissociated from the political, economic, and cultural domination of Europe and, later, United States. Europeans have tended to be seen as the sole originators of sociology, although recent scholarship is attempting to redress the balance and identify more diverse sources of social theory and sociology in general.
Fatherhood
Authors: Dermott Esther 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Fatherhood is a social institution and includes the rights, duties, responsibilities, and statuses associated with being a father. The study of fatherhood is interdisciplinary; it draws from and contributes to debates in sociology, but also psychology, psychoanalysis, history, geography, geography, sociolegal, studies and policy studies. In line with its broad range of disciplinary perspectives, fatherhood researchers use a wide range of methodological approaches. Assessing the extent to which ideas of fatherhood and fathering practices have changed and the consequences of changes that have taken place is a major focus of discussion. Other foci include: describing the components of contemporary fatherhood and developing understandings of the relationships between fathers and children; examining the role of paid work in relation to “good” fatherhood including how fathers achieve work–life balance; describing the diversity of contemporary fatherhood; and examining the role of policies and legal frameworks in supporting or undermining dominant formations of fatherhood.
Globalization, Consumption and
Authors: Langer Beryl 
Published: September 2017

AbstractGlobalization is not one process but many, and its implications for consumption are contradictory. Consumer culture produced by global corporations undermines the viability of “local” products and threatens cultural diversity, while the movement of people around the globe circulates cultural difference and generates hybridity. Inequalities in the relations of production and consumption of global consumer culture raise questions of human rights and social justice, while resource consumption and the generation of waste associated with global consumer culture threaten environmental sustainability.
Globalization, Culture and
Authors: Robertson Roland 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe idea of global culture involves the reformulation of traditional, social‐scientific, conceptions. The key problem in the analysis of global culture concerns the relationship between homogenizing, or standardizing, forces in relation to heterogenizing ones. Recent scholarship suggests the greater importance of the latter in contrast to the older emphasis on homogeneity. In general, the idea of world, or global, culture is given particular attention. Presently, global culture is the site of considerable conflict as a result of massive geopolitical shifts in the shaping of the world. The relationship between cultural clashes within societies and such clashes between societies is given particular attention, along with the ways in which contemporary capitalism has, somewhat paradoxically, accentuated the significance of culture on a worldwide basis. Running through this entry are the themes of religion, cultural diffusion, and the relativization of specific cultures.
G
umplowicz,
L
udwig (1838–1909)
Authors: Soyer Mehmet 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Ludwig Gumplowicz was a pioneer social conflict theorist. He focused on the driving factors behind social conflict, highlighting racial hatreds as a major conflict factor. Moreover, Gumplowicz considered conflict to be a cycle that brought on the economic exploitation of others. Gumplowicz formularized that history is as a repetitive cycle consisting of groups attacking, suppressing, and absorbing each other. The state emerges as a means to subjugate inferior groups, and laws are formulated to help govern them. This cycle of inequality drives the continual formation of social groups. Gumplowicz theorized that war between social groups was influenced by the groups' desire to expand their economic dominance. War results in violence and aggression against the group being conquered. Furthermore, groups have motivations in subjugating and economically exploiting their conquered subjects. Gumplowicz theorized that the concept known as the state originated from one social group establishing dominance over another.
Health Lifestyles
Authors: Cockerham William C. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Health lifestyles are collective patterns of health‐related behavior based on choices from options available to people according to their life chances. Health lifestyles are becoming an increasingly common form of social behavior as individuals recognize they are ultimately responsible for their own health. The most common health lifestyle practices investigated by researchers are alcohol use, smoking, dietary habits, exercise, along with other practices. The early theoretical work of Weber and Bourdieu on lifestyles is examined, along with Cockerham's health lifestyle theory.
Hirschfeld, Magnus (1868–1935)
Authors: Plummer Ken 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Magnus Hirschfield was a pioneering German sex researcher and reformer at the center of many controversies. His work changed thinking on homosexuality, the “third sex,” and transvestism. He organized the Scientific Humanitarian Committee and was widely influential, but his work was much attacked from different angles and his Institut für Sexualwissenschaft closed down. Recently his work has been reclaimed as important.
HIV
/
AIDS
and Population
Authors: Brown Lisanne F. , VanLandingham Mark 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
As we enter the fourth decade of the global human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic, the dramatic demographic impacts seen in the first 30 years are finally moderating in those countries where treatment of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is widespread and effectively implemented. Antiretroviral therapy was not introduced on a wide scale in sub‐Saharan Africa until 2004. And it took a decade of scaling up and improvement for treatment to begin to show a significant effect on population size and structure in some regions.
Ford, Henry (1863–1947)
Authors: Crowley Martha 
Published: September 2017

AbstractHenry Ford (1863–1947) incorporated assembly lines, interchangeable parts, division of labor, and other innovations, enabling the Ford Motor Company to mass produce automobiles and dominate the automobile market for several years in the early twentieth century. Although highly productive, Ford's manufacturing process came at a considerable cost to workers. Ford instituted the famous “Five‐Dollar Day” in 1914 to stem the resulting high rates of absenteeism and turnover. Following economic recession and increases in worker activism, he reverted to more repressive and violent measures to quell resistance and thwart unionization.
Identity Control Theory
Authors: Burke Peter J. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Identity control theory explains the nature of identities, and how people develop, maintain, and change the multiple identities they hold as role incumbents (e.g., father, student, truck‐driver), as group or social category members (e.g., member of a church, family, race or gender category), or as unique individuals (e.g., dominant, intellectual). This entry describes these different types of identities, the process of identity verification through which these identities are maintained or changed, as well as the consequences of the verification process for the individual and for society.
Interaction Order
Authors: Jacobs Mark D. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe interaction order, produced by systems of enabling conventions that emerge to manage social situations of co‐bodily presence, is the central concept of Erving Goffman's sociology. It is analytically distinct from both macro‐ and microstructures. As a theoretical construct, it is a Simmelian–Durkheimian hybrid. Its influence extends directly over a broad and diverse range of contemporary theorists.
Institutional Ethnography
Authors: Grahame Peter R. , Grahame Kamini Maraj 
Published: September 2017

AbstractInstitutional ethnography (IE) is an approach to sociological inquiry associated with the work of the internationally recognized Canadian social theorist Dorothy E. Smith. Studies in institutional ethnography involve developing a problematic that explores how individuals' experiences in the everyday world are shaped by wider social relations. Local experience serves as the point of departure for studying relations of power within institutional complexes. IE's innovations are concerned with developing an ethnographic approach to studying phenomena of ruling that are more conventionally considered to be the province of macrosociologies. A key facet of this approach is the study of the role of texts in coordinating social relations.
Kinsey, Alfred (1892–1956)
Authors: Plummer Ken 
Published: September 2017

AbstractKinsey was a pioneer of early research into sexuality and, though a biologist, he provided some of the earliest statements about how sexuality was shaped by social forces. In this entry Kinsey's sociological contribution to the study of sexuality is suggested; and some key findings and ideas outlined (such as the six‐point homosexual continuum). Kinsey's work was controversial but it has had significant impact upon modern culture. Critical problems, including those suggested by feminists, are also raised.
Knowledge, Sociology of
Authors: McCarthy E. Doyle 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The sociology of knowledge reflects and advances further a distinctly modern set of presuppositions about human knowledge: Knowledges develop out of particular sociohistorical circumstances and these circumstances inform what human beings know and their various ways of knowing. As a field of study it examines the social and group origin of ideas, arguing that the entire “ideational realm” (“knowledges,” ideas, ideologies, mentalities) develops within the context of a society's groups and institutions. But its theories also address broad sociological questions about the extent and limits of social and group influence through an examination of the social and cultural foundations of cognition and perception. Despite significant changes over time, classical and contemporary studies in the sociology of knowledge share a common theme: the social foundations of thought. Ideas, concepts, and belief systems share an intrinsic sociality explained by the contexts in which they emerge.
Marxism and Sociology
Authors: Steinmetz George 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMarx's thinking is based on a depth‐realist ontology and a methodology emphasizing contradictions, unintended consequences, and overdetermined causalities. Marxists argue that capitalist societies are organized around social classes defined in terms of unequal powers over the means and results of production. Class relations are understood as relations ofexploitationas well as domination. Capitalism is seen as dynamic, expansionist, and volatile, plagued by periodic bouts of primitive accumulation, decommodification, and crisis. Critics argue that links between social class locations and political practices and subjectivities are weak or extremely variable. Many twentieth‐century Marxists agree that capitalism's futures may not be socialist at all. Critics since the 1960s have rejected Marx's sometimes totalizing claims to explain all aspects of culture, politics, and social life. Recent approaches reconstruct Marxism along the lines of rational choice theory or as a theory of cultural hegemony, social regulation, or world‐systems and empires.
Mumford, Lewis (1895–1990)
Authors: Luccarelli Mark 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Lewis Mumford (1895–1990) was a journalist and independent academic who developed incisive and broad studies of urbanization and technological development and their impact on modernity. He authored
The City in History
and several other important studies. Mumford advocated both urban planning and technological modernization, but only within a broader cultural, social, and environmental context supported by landscape restoration, conservation, and community and regional development. He thought that cities, and whole urban regions, should be cultural centers, places of art and landscape, and places of social justice. He was an advocate of public housing. A humanist with an abiding interest in sociology and geography, Mumford was a founder of urban studies as a field.
Macrosociology
Authors: Boatcă Manuela 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAs a subfield of sociological analysis and theory, macrosociology deals with large‐scale, long‐term social processes, phenomena, and structures, such as social change, stratification, or the capitalist world economy. Conceptually, macrosociology is a relational term to distinguish the broad level of sociological analysis from the one characterizing microsociology, which studies small‐scale units and individual relationships, like social roles, interaction, or identities. The tension between the objects of study of macrosociology as opposed to microsociology has routinely been construed as a choice between the analysis of either structure or agency, respectively. The alternating prominence of one approach over the other in the history of sociology as a discipline has made it difficult to settle the debate for either side. Nevertheless, several attempts at bridging the divide by means of a theoretical synthesis have been undertaken since the 1980s. The entry reviews macrosociological approaches from modernization theory, dependency perspectives, and world‐systems analysis to globalization theories, and argues that recent works bridging the divide between Marxist and Weberian approaches, as well as between sociology and anthropology, allow for a renewed possibility of theoretical synthesis in the form of a global – rather than universal – sociology.
Organization Theory
Authors: Greenwood Royston 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Organizations are a central and unique institution within modern society and organization theory focuses upon understanding the variety of organizational forms through which collective efforts are accomplished. Emphasis is given to the relationships between organizations and their technical, resource, and institutional environments. Organizations are not necessarily passive recipients of environmental demands but are instruments through which contexts can be shaped. Organization theory addresses multiple issues, ranging from organizational design and governance, outcomes such as innovation and corruption, and the political and distributive implications of organizations.
Political Opportunities
Authors: Meyer David S. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Political opportunity theory and political process accounts of protest movements emphasize the influence of the world outside a movement on the emergence, development, claims, and ultimate impact of a social movement. The wisdom, creativity, and outcomes of activists' choices, briefly their agency, can be understood only by looking at the political context and the rules of the games in which those choices are made, that is, structure. Although the theory has been defined and specified with great variety, depending on a case, cumulative development has slowed. Returning to a curvilinear conception of the influence of opportunities on outcomes will help build theory. Recent research on repression and grievances, often in the context of undemocratic or less capable states, has added additional richness to the concept and will aid in theoretical development.
Primary Groups
Authors: Elliott David L. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractPrimary group is a concept principally characterized by intimate, face‐to‐face, and geographically local social ties that tend to be enduring and to provide primary socialization and social support. Three main conceptual dualities – primary versus secondary groups, strong versus weak ties, and the psychological drive for safety versus the drive for competence and efficacy – along with the role of all of these in the development of the modern institution of individual personages, help to place the concept of primary group in its historical and theoretical context. These three dualities are closely related to each other, and each pair of dualities has been found to be mutually reinforcing and to have attributes that vary by context and penetrate across the dualities. Primary groups were central to Charles Horton Cooley's sociology, while Georg Simmel emphasized their connection with secondary groups, which includes both formal organizations and social circles.
Prestige
Authors: Kantzara Vasiliki 
Published: September 2017

AbstractPrestige originally referred to a conjuror's trick. In the social sciences, however, prestige denotes the honor, respect, and esteem attained by individuals and groups for their skills and achievement. Prestige as a symbolic value constitutes a form of social evaluation. Research has focused on an array of aspects, from professional prestige to prestige as a social control system. The impact of prestige is multifaceted. At a societal level prestige reproduces the existing social hierarchy, but it may also facilitate upward social mobility when individuals are judged by their achievement and not according to their origin. Today, prestige is expressed as respect and may indicate trust, which in turn structures and regulates much of relations at local and international levels.
Qualitative Methods
Authors: Wasserman Jason Adam , Clair Jeffrey Michael 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe tension between qualitative and quantitative methods is at the heart of much discourse about the state and direction of the discipline of sociology. Qualitative methodology refers to ways of conducting sociological inquiry using empirical practices such as observation and interview. Qualitative researchers typically use in‐depth interviews or participant observation in order to get a detailed picture of the populations they are investigating. This entry provides a definition and explanation of qualitative methods; elucidates its contrast with quantitative methods; explains underlying epistemological considerations that are at the heart of methodological disputes; suggests that the fundamentally different pursuits of these methodologies nullify conflict; and concludes by suggesting some future challenges that qualitative methodologists should attempt to address.
Secondary Data Analysis
Authors: Schutt Russell K. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Secondary data analysis is the method of using pre‐existing data to answer a new research question. Pre‐existing data useful to social scientists for secondary analyses may be generated by social science surveys, by government agencies and institutions at all levels, both national and international, and by private for‐profit and nonprofit organizations. Data collected for one purpose and then reanalyzed by the same researcher or research team to address a different research question can also be considered to involve secondary analysis. Thousands of large‐scale data sets are now available. The US Bureau of the Census and comparable agencies in many other nations conduct a decennial population census; many social scientists and many government agencies deposit data sets in the archive maintained by the University of Michigan's Inter‐University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR); many large survey projects funded by the US government make the resulting data available on their own Web sites. Qualitative data obtained from intensive interviews, observations, or documents are also increasingly being archived for reanalysis. Secondary data analysts benefit from some important advantages but also face some unique challenges. Problems can be lessened by reviewing data features and quality before deciding to develop an analysis of secondary data.
Secularization
Authors: Dobbelaere Karel 
Published: September 2017

AbstractSecularization expresses the advancing “emancipation” of the secular from institutional religion in modern societies. These societies are primarily differentiated along functional lines that overlay the prior forms of segmentary and social class differentiation and have developed different subsystems (e.g., economy, polity, family, and education). These subsystems perform their own particular function. As far as institutional religion is concerned, they claim their autonomy and reject religiously prescribed rules. This is not a mechanical process but the result of conflicting viewpoints between politicians, professionals, persons, and clergy. The presentation in this entry is analytical and discusses studies of secularization on the societal (macro), organizational (meso), and individual (micro) levels, indicating the reciprocal impact of changes on these levels.