bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Floating-Roof Tanks: Design and Operation in the Petroleum Industry
Authors: Gallagher Terry A. , Desjardins Christian R. 
Published: October 2016

The floating-roof tank has been the most widely used method of storage of volatile petroleum products since the first demonstration b Chicago Bridge & Iron Company (CB&I) in 1923. There have been many changes and design improvements to that first pan-style-floating roof.
A floating roof is a complex structure. It must be designed to remain buoyant even when exposed to combined loads from varying process, weather and product conditions. There is a continued demand for improved floating-roof tanks to store a wide range of petroleum and petrochemical products in compliance with state and federal environmental regulations. Floating roofs are used in open top tanks (EFRT), inside tanks with fixed roofs (IFRT), or in tanks that are totally closed where no product evaporative losses are permitted for release to the atmosphere. This very special type of installation is referred to as a zero emission storage tank (ZEST). Products that might have been stored in basic fixed roof tanks must now utilize a floating roof to limit evaporative emissions to the atmosphere. High vapor pressure condensate service and blended heavy crude oils also present new design challenges to the floating roof tank industry.
This paper will review the most prominent styles of floating roofs from 1923 to the present. Design and operating limits for current da floating-roof structures are presented. New trends in environmental regulations and the potential impact on the design and operation of floating-roof tanks will be presented. Current maintenance practices and the effect on Life Cycle Cost Management of the storage syste are also reviewed.
Field Observations of Cyclical Pipe-Soil Interactions in Permafrost Terrain, KP 5, Norman Wells Pipeline, Canada
Authors: Burgess Margo M. , Wilkie Scott , Doblanko Rick , Konuk Ibrahim 
Published: October 2016

The Norman Wells pipeline is an 869 km long, small diameter, buried, ambient temperature, oil pipeline operated by Enbridge Pipeline (NW) Inc. in the discontinuous permafrost zone of northwestern Canada. Since operation began in 1985, average oil temperatures entering the line have been maintained slightly below 0°C, initially through constant chilling year round and since 1993 through a seasonal cycling of temperatures through a range from −4 to +9°C. At one location, 5 km from the inlet at Norman Wells, on level terrain in an area of widespread permafrost, uplift of a 20 m segment of line was observed in the early 1990s. The uplift gradually increased and by 1997 the pipe was exposed 0.5 m above the ground surface.
Detailed studies at the site have included field investigations of terrain and thermal conditions, repeated pipe and ground surface elevation surveys, and annual Geopig surveys. The field work has revealed that the section of line was buried in low density soils, thawed to depths of 4 m on-right-of-way, and not subjected to complete refreezing in winter. The thaw depths are related to surface or near-surface flows from a nearby natural spring, as well as to the development of a thaw bulb around the pipe in the cleared right-of-way. Icings indicative of perennial water flow occur commonly at this location in the winter.
The pipe experienced annual cycles of heave and settlement (on the order of 0.5 m) due to seasonal freezing and thawing within the surrounding low density soils. The pipe reached its highest elevation at the end of each winter freezing season, and its lowest elevation at the end of the summer thaw period. Superimposed on this heave/settlement cycle was an additional step-like cycle of increasing pipe strain related to thermal expansion and contraction of the pipe. A remedial program was initiated in the winter of 1997–98 in order to curtail the cumulative uplift of the pipe, reduce the increasing maximum annual pipe strain and ensure pipe safety. A 0.5 m cover of sandbags and coarse rock was placed over the exposed pipe segment. Continued pipe elevation monitoring and annual Geopig surveys have indicated that both seasonal heave/settlement and strains have been reduced subsequent to the remedial loading. Introduction of a gravel berm has also altered both the surrounding hydrologic and ground thermal regimes.
Fracture Control for the Alliance Pipeline
Authors: Eiber Bob , Carlson Lorne , Leis Brian 
Published: October 2016

This paper reviews the fracture control plan for the Alliance Pipeline, which is planned for operation in 2000. This natural-gas pipeline is 2627 km (1858 miles) long, running from British Columbia, Canada to Illinois, USA.
Interest in the fracture control for this pipeline results from its design, which is based on transporting a rich natural gas (up to 15% ethane, 3% propane) at a relatively high pressure 12,000 kPa (1740 psi). This break from traditional pressures and lean gases, which frequently are constrained by incremental expansion, is more efficient and more economical than previous natural gas pipelines. Use of higher pressures and rich gas requires adequate fracture control for the line pipe, fittings, and valves. This fracture control has been achieved for the Alliance Pipeline by specifying high-toughness steels, in terms of both fracture-initiation and fracture-propagation resistance for the line pipe, fittings and heavy wall components.
While beneficial from an economics viewpoint, the need for higher toughnesses raised concern over the validity of the fracture control plan, which was based on existing and new technology. The concern focused on fracture arrest using high toughness steels. The concern was associated with characterizing fracture arrest resistance using Charpy V-notch impact toughness, the most commonly used method to measure fracture arrest resistance. Developments were undertaken to address problems associated with the use of higher-toughness steel and these were validated with full-scale pipe burst tests to demonstrate the viability of the fracture control plan.
The solution involved extending existing methods to address much higher toughness steels, which provided a significantly improved correlation between fracture arrest predictions and experimental results. In the burst tests, data was collected to validate the Alliance design and also to extend the database of fracture arrest data to assist future pipelines. Data such as the pressure between the pipe and soil as the gas escapes from the pipe, the sound levels in the atmosphere, the movement and strains in the pipe ahead of the running fracture were instrumented in the test and the available results are presented.
Simulation of Dynamic Ductile Failure in Pipelines
Authors: Pokutylowicz Norman , Luton Michael J. , Petkovic Ruzica A. , Nemes Jim A. , Yue Steve 
Published: October 2016

A finite-element method computer simulation was constructed in order to assist in determining what material properties affect the resistance to dynamic ductile failure in pipelines. Such failure is caused by stable axial tearing that involves a substantial amount of plastic deformation, and is driven by the kinetic energy of the expanding gas. Various semi-empirical relationships exist in the literature to predict the toughness required for resistance to the propagation of a dynamic ductile failure, but these tend to be ineffective when applied to higher strength grades of steel. The present finite-element model is composed of two main sub-models. The gas decompression algorithm is based on analytical expressions and calculates the gas pressure throughout the pipe as the ductile fracture propagates. The material-response algorithm determines the behaviour of the material under the changing loading conditions. It simulates the material response, including rate-dependent yield as well as anisotropy of yield and work hardening. The model is validated by using comparisons with published data from the literature.
This paper focuses on a description of the different components of the model and their interaction. In addition some observations from the various simulations are discussed.
Characterizing Dynamic Crack-Resistance of Pipelines Using Laboratory-Scale Practices
Authors: Leis Brian N. 
Published: October 2016

The consequences of a dynamic fracture in a gas-transmission pipeline require that they be designed to avoid such incidents with great certainty. Because of the complexity of this fracture process, the only certain approach to determine fracture-arrest conditions involved full-scale experiments. As time passed empirically calibrated balance equations between the crack-driving conditions and the line-pipe steels crack-arrest capabilities were developed. Such models worked well until the introduction of high-toughness line pipe, for which to full-scale test predictions were non-conservative, and increasingly so as toughness increased. Problems with early CVN-based models led to development of alternative schemes.
This paper presents results of experiments done to evaluate plausible alternatives to the CVN practice, which rely on an impact test identical to or adapted from the drop-weight tear-test (DWTT). As this practice is comparable to that of the CVN practice save for using an up-scale specimen geometry, results are presented and contrasted for these test methods, for pipe grades from B to X70, and toughness from less than 10 J in excess of 300 J. Data are analyzed to reveal trends not typically reported for such testing. It is shown that there is no essential difference between data developed from the CVN and DWTT practices, provided the results are compared at similar levels of impact-machine excess-energy capacity. Further, it is shown that non-conservative predictions of full-scale test behavior for higher-toughness steels can be traced to using the early CVN-based models at toughness levels well outside the range of their empirical calibration.
Participative Risk Management in the Construction of Onshore Pipelines
Authors: Barboza Tania S. , Borges Carlos Alberto , Neto Aluisio S. Xavier 
Published: October 2016

Accidents related to production, processing, storage and transportation of oil and its by-products have been studied extensively because of their social and environmental impacts. However, accidents relating to construction of oil facilities have been largely ignored by researches, perhaps because such accidents involve a smaller group of people and result in smaller-scale environmental impacts.
Pipeline construction projects are particularly unique. As opposed to construction of processing plants, pipeline construction covers a very long reach, often involving varying site conditions. Consequently, there are more environmental issues, many of which vary from place to place along the pipeline route as a result of the differing soil, drainage, vegetation and exposure conditions.
The variable conditions, exposure and consequences of accidents along a pipeline route result in many challenges related to risk management. Specifically, risk management is difficult as a result of transportation along the pipeline corridor, multiple access routes to the pipeline corridor, unique culture and social issues in various parts of the country, and remote working conditions. Major issues are moving work sites; crossing of different areas of the country with several typical cultural and regional aspects; multiple work sites and the isolation of workers in small groups. These factors make risk management particularly important, but easy to ignore.
In this paper we discuss the major potential risks in every phase of the pipeline construction. The paper describes the company’s process for managing risk during pipeline construction. It identified the limitations of traditional safety management systems in coping with the critical problems related to environmental and safety issues.
Many company are using integrated management systems as the major tools to control risk. Such systems cover health, safety and environmental issues (HSE).
PETROBARS, as the largest Brazilian oil company and one of the leading oil companies in the world, has adopted the HSE system. The system focuses on employee participation in implementation of the HSE system.
A Comprehensive Approach to Monitoring Pipeline River and Stream Crossings
Authors: Sorensen Michelle L. , Malcovish Craig D. 
Published: October 2016

There are strict regulatory requirements for pipeline construction at river and stream crossings. The requirements for monitoring, surveillance and maintenance of existing crossings on the other hand are limited to a few lines in Section 10 of CSA Z662-99.
Systematic procedures for assessing stream channel stability are not readily available to the operators of pipelines. As a consequence, many monitoring and inspection programs focus more on detecting exposures than on preventing them.
In this paper, the AEC Pipelines Ltd. approach to monitoring river and stream crossings is reviewed and discussed. The program involves application of basic geomorphic concepts and use of aerial photographs to define channel characteristics at crossing sites and to determine which crossings may be subject to future channel instability or erosion problems. From these in-house evaluations, decisions are made to either proceed with more in-depth assessments by river engineering specialists or continue with routine aerial and ground surveillance. As part of the overall program, procedures for completing routine channel surveys and a checklist of data to be gathered during regular reconnaissance trips have been developed.
High Resolution Satellite Imagery: From Spies to Pipeline Management
Authors: Adam Steve , Farrell Mike 
Published: October 2016

In the past, high resolution satellite imagery was the domain of national security organizations. However, this has recently changed with the launch of Space Imaging’s IKONOS satellite. Launched on September 24, 1999 it is the world’s first commercial high resolution satellite, collecting data at 1-meter black/white and 4-meter multi-spectral.
2000 has the scheduled launch of at least two more commercial high resolution satellites. If these satellites are successfully launched, a buyer will be able to acquire imagery every day of the year (barring cloud cover). As an added convenience, an image user no longer has to buy a massive swath of imagery. For example, IKONOS scenes as narrow as 5km (3 miles) can be purchased. This development has opened the door for corridor applications and has been thoroughly and successfully implemented by TransCanada Pipelines in mapping over 1500km of their mainline.
Quality Control and Management of Inspection and Data Collection
Authors: Simmons Robert A. , Kania Richard 
Published: October 2016

Geographical Information Systems, Data trending, and Risk Assessment Software are now available to help pipeline operators execute safe, cost effective maintenance programs. However, to use these analytical tools effectively, large amounts of data pertaining to the integrity of the pipeline system and its environment are required. For this reason, pipeline rehabilitation programs have evolved into complex data collecting procedures, the success of which depends on the ability to efficiently obtain reliable, consistent and accurate information.
This article will describe new software technology and Quality Control programs, relating to inspection personnel, which have been developed to increase the efficiency and reliability of the information collected during a pipeline excavation.
The pertinent functions of software programs discussed will involve compatibility between databases, on site data validation, code calculations, communications and CAD drawings for a comparison with In Line Inspection results.
As well, the need for quality control or training programs will be discussed addressing both the theoretical and practical applications of pipeline integrity and it’s relevance to quality data collection. Previous projects using these approaches will be presented showing their effectiveness in significantly increasing the efficiency and accuracy of the information collected while reducing overall inspection time and cost.
The Use of GIS and Remote Sensed Data as an Aid to Pipeline Integrity
Authors: Glen S. 
Published: October 2016

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have been in use in some industries for over two decades. Some large scale database or GIS implementations have failed to deliver their full benefits because their scope has often been too wide. Such systems are generally multimillion dollar projects which in turn need ongoing support to maintain the database and administer the system. Where the general needs of a pipeline company are given precedence the specific needs of the integrity department can often be overlooked. As a result the company wide GIS is often of little value for the analysis and management of pipeline integrity data. Recent advances in computing power, software, communications and database design aided by new sources of geographical image data mean that the time is now right for a pipeline integrity specific Geographical Information System.
GIS allows the condition of a pipeline to be viewed in a geographical context and maximises the value of existing data sets. Specific pipeline anomalies can be related to geographical or environmental data such as soil conditions, hydrology, land slip or subsidence. A GIS system used in this way provides a valuable tool to help understand, explain, predict and avoid degradation of a pipeline asset.
New sources of geographical image data such as sub meter, multi spectral optical satellite imagery, synthetic aperture radar data from satellites and thermal data from aircraft systems, can be used to identify ground characteristics or leakage and provide frequent updates to enable change detection and surveillance to be performed. The GIS can be used as a risk assessment and data management tool, which will enable the full benefit to be extracted from each individual data source, ranging from ILI data to CP and corrosion growth data. This new source of information will be an essential aid to pipeline integrity in the new century.
Once implemented the system can be used to perform spatial queries to provide rapid access to the analysis results, confirm code compliance and prioritise corrective action and maximise the efficient use of the resources available.
Emerging Technologies for Pipe Joints
Authors: Abid Muhammad , Nash David H. , Webjörn Jan 
Published: October 2016

In recent years new technologies, novel products, improved services and better contracting procedures are emerging and showing great potential for increased performance and safety. This is increasingly evident for applications in sectors like offshore, petrochemical and refining, ship and submarine building, nuclear power, hydropower, oil and gas transfer lines where failures are can lead to hazards to life. One such technology is a non-gasketed pipe connection and is recognised by the authors as representative of an ‘emerging technology’. It is based on several un-orthodox principles and does consist not only of a pair of welding neck flanges, but of an all-inclusive entire system, comprising bolts, washers, nuts, wrenches, procedures and training.
This paper is based on two years of experimental and finite element studies [Ref 1,2] of both standard/conventional ANSI (gasketed) and modern non-gasketed flanged joints. This has led to a deeper understanding of the requirements for a successful assembly and long term usage. ANSI and VCF joints have been subject to internal pressure, axial and lateral forces, with these loads having been applied both singly and in combinations. Mode of load acting in the joint i.e. static or dynamic has been studied for both kinds of joints. Experimental and analytical results have been compared.
Some practical considerations on the use of important emerging technology i.e. non-gasketed pipe joints in comparison to conventional gasketed systems are presented. Of fundamental importance is an insight into the mechanism of the bolted joint showing the effect from an external load on a preloaded bolt. It is found that it can be made near zero hence, in a properly built, non-gasketed bolted joint a static mode rules, and therefore the stamina of such a joint is unlimited.
Other practical issues of fabrication, handling, surface damage and assembly, have been examined in the lab and on site and a summary of results is presented. In addition a probability risk assessment has been undertaken and results compared with the standard (conventional) ANSI type joints. In addition this paper demonstrates that the novel system is an efficient and well -engineered alternative to traditionally designed joints.
New Technology to Recycle and Rebuild Worn Polyurethane Pipeline Pigs
Authors: Bruce Graham D. 
Published: October 2016

SUNcast Polyurethanes Inc. has developed a proprietary process technology that makes it possible to rebuild worn Polyurethane (PU) discs, cups and solid cast pipeline pigs. The technology creates a completely secure bond between the virgin and cured cast elastomer PU enabling rebuilt parts to perform “as new”.
This paper addresses the mechanical characteristics of the bond possible with this technology and offers the results of a case study on a successful program to rebuild over fifty 24″ solid cast pigs for a crude oil pipeline.
Cast elastomer PU is an expensive thermoset polymer which has not been readily recyclable. SUNcast’s technology offers pipeline operators, contractors and inspection companies an opportunity to recycle what is now waste back into high performance pigging products at significant cost savings.
Gulf Water Injection Pipeline and Facilities De-Bottlenecking
Authors: Vargas K. J. 
Published: October 2016

Gulf Canada Resources Ltd operates oil processing and water re-injection facilities at Goose River, just South of Valleyview, Alberta. As the oil reservoir is drawn down, the water re-injection is a priority to keep oil production volumes up. The water re-injection pipelines & facilities are extensive & complex systems of headers & pumps at a production Battery, a fresh water Plant & two Satellites. All facilities & injection wells are interconnected by pipeline loops.
A study was undertaken to model the entire water injection system (pipelines & pumps), under a remote & Northern environment. The study included simulation of pipeline route information, flowrates, pressures & ground conditions at strategic locations such as wells & pump discharges. Based on existing conditions a model was configured & calibrated using actual field results. This model was then used to determine the best locations on the pipeline to install added pumping capacity to accommodate the new injection flow rates & pressures.
This paper describes the pipeline facilities and all the steps involved in optimizing the pipeline for water injection purposes. A full description of all facilities together with simulation & calibration techniques will be given in the paper.