bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Internet, Technology of
Authors: Klang Mathias 
Published: September 2017

Internet technology has developed in a rapid series of leaps to become one of the most fundamental communications infrastructures in modern society. When referring to the → Internet as a communication infrastructure it is important to remember that the Internet is in reality a technological base upon which a multitude of software applications rely in order to provide users with the communication tools they desire. Despite this, it is important to realize that the Internet is not a single thing. It is a name that collects a cluster of technological innovations, groups of infrastructure(s), applications, and social organizations, which we commonly refer to as the Internet. The Internet is not one innovation, but a rapid series of steps, innovations, and collaborations within the field of communication technology. In addition, the Internet as a phenomenon is constantly evolving technically.
Interorganizational Communication
Authors: Doerfel Marya L. 
Published: September 2017

Interorganizational communication (IOC) emphasizes relationships organizations have with external constituents as opposed to relationships that occur internally. IOC research considers issues like information flows, information sharing, reputation, cooperation, competition, coalition building, and power. IOC theoretical developments are substantially multidisciplinary. Communication researchers often emphasize the understanding of who communicates with whom and about what. Economists and sociologists tend to see linkages in terms of some exchange with limited interest in the content of communication within that exchange. This emphasis by communication scholars reflects the assumption that interorganizational relationships are enacted by individuals' communicative actions (→ Organizational Communication).
Interview as Journalistic Form
Authors: Clayman Steven E. 
Published: September 2017

Within journalism, the interview is traditionally known as a tool for gathering story material (→ News Sources), but it is also a finished news product in its own right, a basic form journalists use to package → news for public consumption. This mode of news presentation was marginal in the newspaper era, when verbatim interviews only occasionally appeared in print, but has become more prominent since the advent of broadcasting and the emergence of public affairs programs organized around live or taped interviews. In moving from the backstage to the frontstage of journalistic practice, the interview has become a key component of the public face that journalism presents to the world.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation and Volition
Authors: Hartmann Tilo 
Published: September 2017

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and volition are important constructs in research on → selective exposure to media. Building on recent psychological theories of action (Gollwitzer 1990; Heckhausen & Kuhl 1985), media exposure results if a person develops an (intrinsically or extrinsically motivated) intention and invests sufficient volitional effort to carry out the intention.
Issue Management in Politics
Authors: Kiousis Spiro 
Published: September 2017

Issue management in politics refers to the process by which politicians, campaigns, parties, and other political groups identify, prioritize, develop, and convey positions on key issues. A fundamental early step in effective political issue management involves formative research where groups investigate the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of target audiences concerning policy preferences and problems. Some of the major research techniques used to gather such information include → Surveys, focus groups, content analysis, and in‐depth → interviews (→ Research Methods; Content Analysis, Qualitative; Content Analysis, Quantitative; Interview, Standardized; Interview, Qualitative). These same approaches are also used to evaluate the success of communication efforts for issue management purposes.
Journalism
Authors: Barnhurst Kevin G. , Owens James 
Published: September 2017

Journalism is a constellation of practices that have acquired special status within the larger domain of communication through a long history that separated out news sharing from its origins in → interpersonal communication. Telling others about events in one's social and physical surroundings is a common everyday activity in human cultures, and news as a → Genre of such interactions has the primary characteristic of being new to the listener. A main difficulty for sharing intelligence is ascertaining truth, or, put the other way round, distinguishing intelligence from gossip (Froissart 2002; → Rumor; Small Talk and Gossip; Truth and Media Content). Telling about events, supplying novelty, and, from the process, discerning factual truth are the main rudiments that came to define journalism as a cultural practice.
Journalism Education
Authors: Becker Lee B. 
Published: September 2017

Journalism education is instruction for work in the news departments of media organizations, both print and electronic. The instruction can take place before journalists enter the workforce, during early employment, and at later career stages. It can involve practical training in the skills of the journalist and broader education about the context of that work (→ Professionalization of Journalism). The training can cover reporting (information gathering and evaluation), writing (language use and storytelling techniques, including photography and graphics), and editing (including story presentation and integration into the news format) skills. Education about the context of journalism can include topics such as the social setting and impact of news, journalism history and law, and news ethics.
Katz, Elihu
Authors: Livingstone Sonia 
Published: September 2017

Over the past five decades, Elihu Katz (born in New York in 1926) has made a major contribution to the analysis of mass communication. Best known for the concept of the “two‐step flow of mass communication” (→ Two‐Step Flow of Communication) and for the theory of → “uses and gratifications” obtained by media audiences, Katz's work examines the relation between the individual and the group in the process of mass media influence, contributing to the understanding of the active television viewer, the diffusion of innovations (→ Diffusion of Information and Innovation), → Media Effects, → public opinion, and media imperialism. Professionally, Katz has divided his time between America (first the University of Chicago, later the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Southern California, then the University of Pennsylvania) and Israel (where he founded the Communications Institute at the Hebrew University, headed the Institute of Applied Social Research, and directed the task force charged with introducing television to Israel in the 1960s; → Communication as an Academic Field: Middle East, Israel).
Knowledge Interests
Authors: Wessler Hartmut 
Published: September 2017

The term “knowledge interests” (
Erkenntnisinteresse
) was coined by German philosopher and social theorist → Jürgen Habermas in his work
Knowledge and human interests
(Habermas 1968/1987). Habermas distinguished three kinds of knowledge interests constitutive for particular object domains and their scientific investigation. According to him, the interest of
control through prediction
is constitutive of the natural sciences, while the interest of
hermeneutical understanding
characterizes the humanities. The social sciences, in turn, follow the knowledge interest of
emancipation
in that they create awareness of the contingency and changeability of the social world and thus of societal alternatives (Jensen 1995, 93–95).
Observation
Authors: Quandt Thorsten 
Published: September 2017

Observation is a very “natural” way of gathering data and information – probably everybody can identify situations where humans are scrutinizing their surroundings. Selltiz et al. note: “We are constantly observing – noticing what is going on around us … ; as long as we are awake, we are almost constantly engaged in observation. It is our basic method of getting information about the world around us” (Selltiz et al. 1967, 200). However, these everyday observations are not sufficient for social research, since their informational basis stems from unclear viewpoints, undocumented (re)constructions of the observer, and random events. So in order to become a scientific technique, an observation study has to follow some rules – most notably, it has to be systematic in both its planning and recording phases. This does not mean that it has to be standardized; however, even if an observation study collects information in an open way, it has to follow a clear research strategy.
Operationalization
Authors: Sargent Weaver Stephanie Lee 
Published: September 2017

Operationalization is the process of translating abstract things into concrete, measurable variables (→ Measurement Theory). It is one of those things that is more easily said than done. It is quite simple to explain to someone the purpose and importance of operational definitions for variables and even to describe how operationalization generally takes place. But a researcher will quickly appreciate some of the subtle difficulties involved when he or she attempts to operationalize a complex variable. Operationalization is how researchers define things by what they do. In other words, the “operations” are the procedures or steps one must go through in order to observe the concept being defined (Babbie 2001; Katzer et al. 1998). To get to this point in the research process, we must first look at how research begins.
Order of Presentation
Authors: Schenk Michael 
Published: September 2017

The effectiveness of a communication depends on a variety of factors. Among those concerning organization and procedure, order of presentation forms one of the major factors that influence the impact of communication on an → audience. It is to → Carl I. Hovland and team's credit that appropriate research questions and → experimental designs have been developed to test and acknowledge this effect (→ Persuasion; Media Effects). “Order” refers to two aspects of variation: “(1) the order of presenting a series of communications, and (2) the order of presenting the various elements within a single communication” (Hovland 1957; → Media Effects, History of).
Organizational Crises, Communication in
Authors: Sellnow Timothy L. 
Published: September 2017

Advancing technology, global connectivity, and ethical lapses have resulted in an escalation in the frequency and intensity of organizational crises over the past two decades. Commensurate with the increase in crisis events, academic research in crisis communication has expanded, focusing predominantly on the role of communication in predicting, managing, and resolving crisis events (→ Disasters and Communication).
Organizational Culture
Authors: Keyton Joann 
Published: September 2017

Organizational culture is the “set(s) of artifacts, values, and assumptions that emerge from the interactions of organizational members” (Keyton 2005, 1). These interactions create a social order or a communication construction of the organization. Thus, symbols, messages, and meaning create a continuous communication performance at work (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts; Meaning). This is why it is frequently stated that an organization
is
culture rather than an organization
has
a culture (Smircich 1983). While the popular view of organizational culture is often that it is comprised of organizational members' shared assumptions, communication scholars have demonstrated that multiple shared patterns of organizational artifacts, values, and assumptions exist and are constantly being created and recreated through member interactions (→ Organizational Communication).
Organizational Discourse
Authors: Fairhurst Gail T. 
Published: September 2017

Organizational discourse is a burgeoning area of study featuring the role of discourse and communication in organizational dynamics. While its rhetorical and literary roots date back to the ancient Greeks (→ Rhetorical Studies), a more recent impetus has been the analysis of professional talk in institutional settings, beginning in the 1970s, and the role of slogans, creeds, jokes, and stories as reflections of organizational culture in the 1980s (Putnam & Fairhurst 2001). From these early beginnings, organizational discourse analyses have taken on a number of forms.
Paperback Fiction
Authors: Gelder Ken 
Published: September 2017

There have been several “paperback revolutions” in fiction publishing, the first of which unfolded during the first half of the nineteenth century in the United Kingdom, Europe, and the United States (→ Fiction; Fictional Media Content). Cheap bulk postal costs encouraged American publishers to print royalty‐free foreign novels (those of Charles Dickens, for example) in lightweight large quarto or newspaper formats, offering cheap installments to subscribers. They could thus be claimed as periodicals, gaining access to third‐class postal rates and railroad distribution across the country. Schurman (1996, 63) notes that by the mid‐1840s in the United States, “paperback novels could be had through the mails at six cents each or sixteen for one dollar.” Park Benjamin had in fact issued what is generally taken to be the first paperbound full‐length novel in June 1840, Charles Lever's
Charles O'Malley
, a military romance. Smaller paperback quarto‐sized books followed, usually as part of an ongoing series of publications, like the Beadle Dime Novels of the 1860s and 1870s, with their sewn spines and woodcut cover illustrations.
Participatory Action Research
Authors: Jacobson Thomas 
Published: September 2017

Participatory action research (PAR) is a methodological approach to research that breaks with standard social scientific practice in a number of ways (→ Research Methods). In standard practice, research into the behavior of social groups is conducted by university‐trained scientists, while in PAR research is conducted by the social groups themselves with the assistance of university‐trained scientists. In standard practice, research into the behavior of social groups is conducted with an attitude of scientific objectivity (→ Objectivity in Science), while in PAR research processes are conducted with a less objectivist attitude. Finally, in standard social scientific practice, the primary aim of research is the accumulation of knowledge, while in PAR the primary aim of research is improvement of social conditions, or social change (→ Communication Strategies for Empowerment; Social Mobilization). Given the aim of improving social conditions, much of PAR is conducted in the conditions of developing countries (→ Development Communication). However, action research approaches have been found useful worldwide in a broad range of contexts including education, urban planning, environmental conservation, and others. Journals, handbooks, and collected works on the subject are readily available.
Party Political Communication
Authors: Jarvis Sharon E. 
Published: September 2017

Political parties are groups that organize to gain political office, control the governing process, mobilize majorities, organize dissent and opposition, and socialize voters. In democratic political systems parties have emerged as the natural evolution of like‐minded interests organizing for political influence. Election campaigns are one major battleground on which political parties compete for influence through political communication (→ Election Campaign Communication). Many election studies have compared the messages, advertisements, debate performances, issue preferences, and web pages of partisan candidates as well as the overall strategies of the parties themselves (→ Negative Campaigning; Political Advertising; Political Marketing; Issue Management in Politics; Televised Debates). In systems with primary elections, it is generally observed that campaign messages are more partisan in the intra‐party primary contest (featuring just candidates from one party) and more centrist during the general election campaign (featuring candidates from several parties).
Penny Press
Authors: Nerone John 
Published: September 2017

In the early to mid‐nineteenth century, in most western countries but especially those with press freedom, a cheap popular press appeared. The term “penny press” is associated with a famous generation of US newspapers that appeared in the 1830s, but the notion of penny publications has a longer lineage. The penny papers of the 1830s and their British counterparts have been credited with effecting a revolution in journalism, and in fact with the invention of journalism itself as well as of neutrality or objectivity (→ Journalism, History of; Objectivity in Reporting). This famous generation of penny papers also had successors that were spectacular in their own day but have escaped the attention of journalism historians. Echoes of the penny press formula – particularly the combination of sensational news with mass market appeal, large‐scale industrial production, and economies of scale – have continued to appear. The relationships between popular journalism and populism, on the one hand, and journalism, on the other, remain controversial.
Perceived Realism as a Decision Process
Authors: Shapiro Michael A. 
Published: September 2017

What do we mean when we say a story is realistic? At first, that may seem simple. One possibility is that realism is a characteristic of the genre – news is real and a → soap opera is not. That explanation may work in many cases, but → fiction is intended to capture aspects of reality that are not easily depicted in the news. A soap‐opera depiction of a sexual infidelity may capture the emotional reality of that betrayal better than a documentary on the topic. Another possibility is that people think if something looks real, it is real. Certainly, appearance is a cue to realism. For example, each new generation of →
Video
game uses increased computer power to make the games look more realistic. But appearance of a video game or television show does not provide a complete picture of the problem. While young children tend to think that what looks real is real, adults know that what something looks like does not always reflect its true nature. No matter how realistic a dragon may look, an adult knows that dragons do not exist.
Perceived Reality: Meta‐Analyses
Authors: Hayes Andrew F. , Reineke Jason B. 
Published: September 2017

Meta‐analyses have been conducted within the last twenty years in four areas in the field of perceived social reality (→ Meta‐Analysis; Perceived Reality as a Social Process; Perceived Reality as a Communication Process). Their results will be summarized here. It has to be noted from the start, though, that any meta‐analysis summarizes only the existing literature at the time. The findings reported here should not be taken to reflect current knowledge or thinking in the area, but instead, only the state of knowledge as of the respective dates of publication of the meta‐analyses.
Perceived Reality as a Social Process
Authors: Swol Lyn Van 
Published: September 2017

Research on small group communication has a long history of examining how participation in groups affects perceived reality. Groups often create a
shared reality
in which to work, interact, and complete their tasks. As Herbert J. Simon (1976, 23) states, “A man does not live for months or years in a particular position in an organization, exposed to some streams of communication, shielded from others, without the most profound effects upon what he knows, believes, attends to, hopes, wishes, emphasizes, fears, and proposes.” There are three major approaches that address how the perception of reality is a social process within groups: social comparison theory, social proof, and shared mental models (→ Social Perception).
Personal Publishing
Authors: Brake David 
Published: September 2017

Personal publishing by an individual or small group – generally not for profit and generally not aimed at a mass audience or utilizing mainstream publishers – has occurred for centuries. In its early years it took the form of, e.g., small‐scale pamphleteering, the circulation of diaries within faith‐based or friendship communities, or the publication of books of family history or autobiography using the “vanity” press (publishers whose income comes primarily from authors). Because of the economics of publishing, however, these practices tended to be marginal. With the advent of the personal computer and inexpensive desktop publishing tools, small‐scale personal publication became easier and a variety of small‐scale magazines sprang up (→ Zines). It has been the diffusion of access to the Internet in recent years across much of the world (→ Digital Divide), however, that has enabled a flourishing of online personal publishing and inspired a greater academic focus on this area. This started with personal Internet home pages in the mid‐1990s and has continued in the form of the “weblog” (a site consisting of items published in reverse chronological order) and, most recently, of profiles on social networking services like MySpace and Facebook.
Perspective, Pictorial
Authors: Neiva Eduardo 
Published: September 2017

Perspective refers to the graphic representation on a flat surface of an optical sense of depth associated with natural stereoscopic vision (→ Visual Representation). This translation of three‐dimensional visual perception onto a two‐dimensional picture plane is accomplished through a variety of techniques for composing the pictorial space, including: (1) diminishing scale, (2) the occlusion of figures and shapes, (3) atmospheric blurring or color variation from foreground to background, and (4) the converging of parallel lines at vanishing points along an imaginary horizon line. From the fifteenth century in Europe, artists increasingly used a combination of such techniques to create formal systems of perspective designed to present the picture plane as a kind of window, through which one views a visible world implied beyond the plane of the picture frame (→ Painting). Tied to the notion that a picture could, and should, imitate natural appearances, European drawing, painting, and print‐making (→ Prints; Printing, History of) following the Renaissance conventionally organized the lines, shapes, and colors of the picture plane to appear to proceed outward from an observer's unique point of view. The viewer sees depicted objects and space from the single
perspective
of the viewer's unique position, as if the visible world was unified along the sight lines of this imagined observer. The representation of vision is stable and monocular. The point of view of the painter coincides with the beholder. Although recent polemical analyses have suggested that mirrors and lenses could have been used to produce the impression of perspective, Renaissance treatises advanced a conception of vision that followed mathematical projections and geometrical deductions, as illustrated in Dürer's engraving of a man drawing a lute (Fig. 1; Hockney 2001; Hockney & Falco 2003; Neiva 2005).
Persuasion
Authors: O'Keefe Daniel J. 
Published: September 2017

Persuasion is a communicative function that can be pursued in many different settings, ranging from face‐to‐face interaction to mass communication. Mass media persuasion takes three primary overt forms: commercial advertising (of consumer products and services), pro‐social advertising, and political advertising. On each of these subjects, there is extensive empirical research and theorizing (→ Strategic Communication).