bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Science, Mathematics and Architecture
Authors: Walker Matthew 
Published: March 2017

AbstractIn the period covered by this volume, the disciplines of architecture and science were far closer than they are today. According to the seventeenth‐century author John Evelyn, not only was architecture part of science and mathematics, it could, in theory, represent the apogee of those practices. As all writers on architecture in this period agreed, it was amongst the most useful applications of mathematical and scientific knowledge. Yet architecture's place amongst the early modern sciences was a complicated and contested one and the analysis of the early modern science/architecture relationship comes with many potential pitfalls. These problems primarily stem from the insecure disciplinary status of both science and architecture in the period. As we shall see, it is no exaggeration to say that science, as a coherent intellectual category, did not exist before the nineteenth century. Add to this the problems of defining architecture as a profession in the period and the task of the historian becomes doubly difficult. This chapter will carefully set out these problems in some detail before introducing the reader to various ways in which historians have attempted to overcome them. Much of the discussion will focus on the final years of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century. This was a critical period in the histories of both science and architecture, but it also represented the apex of their intellectual relationship. Later into the eighteenth century, architecture retained its close allegiance with surveying, building technologies and engineering but perhaps lost forever its affinity with more pure forms of science.
Villa Albani (1757–1759)
Authors: Schijvens Lauran 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Veduta della Villa Albani
by Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–78) depicts a view—from around 1763—of the Roman villa of Cardinal Alesandro Albani. The image gives the viewer the opportunity to experience the scenography of the contemporary Villa Albani in the best possible way. The Villa Albani is a unity of buildings and garden in which nature and culture interact. Piranesi's building portrait emphasizes both these aspects by the way it shows the palace and the terraced sculpture garden of the cardinal whose most important adviser was Johann Joachim Winckelmann, for whom observation and knowledge were essential in the creation and presentation of a prestigious collection.
Petit Trianon (1761)
Authors: Armstrong Christopher Drew 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Located amidst greenhouses, farm buildings, and a splendid botanical garden, the Petit Trianon is a small palace built for Louis XV as a retreat from the rigid protocols of Versailles. The royal architect Gabriel began the design in 1761 and construction was carried out between 1762 and 1768. The Petit Trianon came to be closely associated with Marie‐Antoinette, who replaced the botanical garden with an extensive, English‐inspired landscape. The building is regarded as a masterpiece of French neoclassical architecture.
École De Chirurgie (1769–1774)
Authors: Wittman Richard 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The construction of Jacques Gondoin's École de Chirurgie in Paris (1769–74) presents an external façade characterized by dramatic horizontal extension, eager visual transparency, and, most of all, by many, many columns. It was originally intended to form one side of a new square, on which Gondoin envisaged a deployment of the classical orders that would have presented the square's proposed trio of buildings—debtor's prison, church, and surgery school—as an allegory of body and spirit, secularity and religion. The dense planning of the surgery school itself accommodated myriad functions on two levels around an oblong rectangular court, in an arrangement that recalled both local and historical architectural models. Mainstream Paris guidebooks and accounts by Gondoin's fellow architects lavished the building with praise, counting it among the best of the century in Paris. More politicized critics, however, including Louis Sébastien Mercier, resented what they saw as the unnecessary and disproportionate lavishness of the building, and the inordinate expense it had entailed.
Barrières
and Tax Wall Paris (1785)
Authors: Armstrong Christopher Drew 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In the early 1780s, the chemist Lavoisier conceived the idea of building a new tax wall around Paris as a means to increase royal revenues. With the backing of the minister of finance, the city of Paris approved the plan in May 1784. The architect Ledoux was chosen to design 42 new entries, which were largely built between 1785 and 1791. Designed in a severe neoclassical style, only eight of the original buildings survive at four sites around the city.
Realism in Nineteenth‐Century British Architecture
Authors: Brittain‐Catlin Timothy 
Published: March 2017

AbstractFunctionalism in nineteenth‐century Britain took a specific form: realism. This was an approach to design which emphasized the real, physical, nature of building materials and the practical function of a designed object from its smallest details to its overall form. Born from an early nineteenth‐century interest in the practical aspects of horticulture and architecture pioneered by John Claudius Loudon, and in the newly scientific approach to architectural history of John Britton, realism took off from 1836 with the ascent of the architect and designer A. W. N. Pugin. Pugin's texts, especiallyThe True Principlesof 1841, presented a theory of a rational, comprehensive architecture derived from an intimate knowledge of medieval buildings. This strongly appealed to architects who were facing new professional challenges and were frustrated by low building standards. Architects directly inspired by Pugin, including George Gilbert Scott, George Edmund Street, and William Butterfield, established the revived Gothic style and created an unprecedented international reputation for British architecture. A younger generation, from the 1880s onward, revived Puginian ideas especially in their rich designs for houses and interiors, but realism was eventually defeated by its own obsessiveness and detachment from the motives that had inspired it.
Viollet‐Le‐Duc's Rationalism
Authors: Bressani Martin 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
This chapter presents Eugène‐Emmanuel Viollet‐le‐Duc's quest for a rational architecture in terms of struggle and as a process of fusion, seeking an architecture “animated” by the structural conflict of a network of forces. The emergence of Gothic construction in the middle ages described by Viollet‐le‐Duc is the paradigmatic example: the slow and progressive liberation of the structural skeleton from the stone mass transforms the structure into an “elastic,” free entity as from a living, biological process. Similarly, his series of speculative projects using iron construction designed in the late 1860s renders palpable the action of support, resorting to oblique members that act as a structural crutch or prosthesis.
Between the Visible and the Legible: Iron and Reinforced Concrete in Fin‐De‐Siècle France
Authors: Legault Réjean 
Published: March 2017

AbstractWith its vast Galerie des machines and soaring Eiffel Tower, the 1889 Universal Exhibition in Paris epitomized the triumph of iron in architecture. Yet by the turn of the century, metal had already lost its revolutionary appeal, hidden as it was behind the stone façades of the 1900 Exhibition pavilions. Experiments with reinforced concrete construction had taken center stage and architects were now vigorously debating the impact the new building system would have on the future of architecture. With the immersion of an iron framework in a mixture of concrete, the original properties of these formerly distinct materials were suddenly put into question. Disrupting current doctrinal and stylistic discourses, this technical operation gave rise to unexpected arguments about what constitutes truth and the visible in architecture. Focusing on the period between 1889 and 1905, this chapter examines the conceptual transition from iron to reinforced concrete, a shift that set the stage for a dialectical confrontation between two modern materials that would have a lasting impact on French architectural culture.
“The Science of The Plan”: House‐Building and the Like, 1860–1930
Authors: Stalder Laurent , Denton Jill 
Published: March 2017

AbstractAs a technique of representation and a design tool, the plan acquired a central role in residential architecture in the latter half of the nineteenth century. It gradually superseded other representation techniques such as the cross section, elevation, or perspective, before becoming, in the twentieth‐century interwar period and along with photography, if not the most innovative then certainly the most favored one. However obvious the importance of the plan may have seemed around 1930, it was by no means as self‐evident a century earlier. In England, an independent tradition in planning emerged in the first half of the century, which would eventually be elevated by its protagonists to a so‐called “science of the plan,” and which finds its origins in the environmental theories of the nineteenth century.
Comfort: Architecture's Technological Dream
Authors: Teyssot Georges 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
During the nineteenth century, a shift in meaning of the notion of type took place, accompanied by the idea of an explicit inscription of habits and needs in space. A new correlation between the architectural type and the habitual was established. If only tentatively, aesthetics and planning could now be harmoniously reunited through the introduction of new habits in order to generate a collective way of living. As a result, the object of architecture became to moralize and to reform. The “dream” of this period was that of a purely technological solution for civil building and housing. It would further expand into the vision of the exact partitioning of living space, and of the invention of perfect machines for healing, controlling, and living. In fact, two genealogies began to merge: total sanitariness, which led to the exact quantification of fluids piped into buildings; and total technology, which aimed, through the use of new materials, at the precise programming and optimization of space. Numerous projects proposed the irrigation of the urban complex with fluids, reinforcing the idea of ventilation as the primary condition for the establishment of domestic comfort, and explicating the relevance of careful management of the flow of air, heat, and light. Two contrasting modes of subjectivity thus began to insinuate themselves into the world of things. On the one hand, transitoriness defined humans as mobile and nomadic; on the other, a deeply rooted individualism safeguarded the traditional notions of permanence and inalienable property and habitation. Underlying the thousands of proposals for housing in the nineteenth century, the idea of the circulation of goods and people was crucial, and dependent on the imperatives of mobility and decentralization. Traces of such “dream architecture” remained in the form of the features that would become an intrinsic part of twentieth‐century, “modernistic” architecture.
From Object to Field: The Uses of Photography by Nineteenth‐Century Architects
Authors: Sealy Peter 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In the decades following its public unveiling, photographs offered nineteenth‐century French architects a vast and invaluable archive for recording historic monuments and disseminating historicist motifs. The utility of photographs for architects, especially for those engaged in historic restoration such as Eugène‐Emmanuel Viollet‐le‐Duc, lay in their claim to irrefutable facticity. However, early architectural photographs often failed to live up to their promise of unmediated objectivity, because of too‐pronounced shadows, perspectival distortions, or simply blur. These defaults were often corrected through translations into engravings. While early architectural photographs often adhered to existing representational codes, especially the Beaux‐Arts distrust of perspectives, a new regime of “photo‐scopic” imagery emerged in the French architectural press around 1870. No longer surveying a building from an idealized or abstract viewpoint, this free photographic scanning dissolved the architectural object into a series of autonomous fragments. The viewer wanders through an infinite field of possible views, pausing at moments of heightened visual interest. Such images respond to a visual curiosity – or visual pleasure – in the dynamic comprehension of space rather than to any desire to comprehend a unified whole. Whether generated through photography or not, they are symptoms of a growing interest in spatial affect on the part of French architects and critics including Viollet‐le‐Duc, Charles Garnier, and Auguste Choisy.
Ornament and Expressive Lines: Nature and Symbol in Victor Ruprich‐Robert's
Flore ornementale
Authors: Ghoche Ralph 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

This chapter examines the work of Victor Ruprich‐Robert (1820–87), an architect and leading reformer of ornament during the Second Empire, and situates it within the crisis of meaning in ornamentation in mid‐nineteenth‐century France. Particular attention is given to
Flore ornementale
, Ruprich‐Robert's major work on ornamental design, first published in 1866, and republished in expanded form in 1876. The chapter locates the main ideas set forth in the book at the intersection of new ideals in philosophical aesthetics and the natural sciences.
Constructing Emotions: The Scientific Aesthetics of Architecture in France 1860–1900
Authors: Thibault Estelle 
Published: March 2017

AbstractIn late nineteenth‐century France, the ambition of founding a “science of architectural aesthetics” cut across an array of miscellaneous writings, articles, and more or less known works that at times were correlated to teaching endeavors. The period during which aesthetics became an autonomous discipline in France, be it at the Académie des sciences morales et politiques or at the Collège de France, provides the background for these discourses. Under the heading of scientific aesthetics, architects, historians, and critics called upon a mix of expression theories, sensorial physiology, and social psychology in order to better comprehend the beholder's emotional reactions to buildings. Between scientific exploration and theoretical fiction, these fields aided in the codification of the visual language of architecture and the reduction of its forms to an abstract set of components with affective significance. This formalist reflection was compared to old stylistic categories while stimulating speculation on the architecture of the future.
The Tectonics of the Soul: Animist Survivals in Nineteenth‐Century Architecture and Ornamentation
Authors: Papapetros Spyros 
Published: March 2017

AbstractFollowing the emergence of theories of tectonics and the novel theorization of ornament based on principles of the natural sciences, mid‐nineteenth‐century architectural discourses were informed by a resurgence of interest in animism. These animist descriptions were a veritable amalgam of earlier philosophical theories of the soul from Aristotle to the early modern medical philosopher Georg‐Ernest Stahl and ethnographic accounts of the religious beliefs of non‐Western cultures granting agency in natural or manmade objects, including trees, buildings, implements, and bodily ornaments. The epistemological impact of animism was implicitly catholic, expanding from imaginative theories of tectonics, such as the study of ancient Greek “tree worship” by the preeminent theorist of tectonics Karl Boetticher to the emerging discipline of architectural history, including the first monographic descriptions of non‐Western monuments, such as the study of “tree and serpent worship” retraced on the heavily ornamented façades of two Indian monuments by “world” architectural historian James Fergusson.
What American Architects Learned in Paris, 1845–1914
Authors: Zanten David Van 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The Beaux‐Arts system of architectural composition aimed at clarity and was admired for achieving it, especially in Anglo‐American corporate and administrative design at the turn of the twentieth century. But Paris teaches lessons beyond conceptual simplicity, and the experience of architectural education in that city embraces a number of complexities, first in that a number of the most creative products were especially cognizant of France and French language so that they were more catholic and subtle in what they took away – Hunt, Richardson, Sullivan – and second in that not all Americans attended the École des Beaux‐Arts once there but, like William Le Baron Jenney and Theodore Link, the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures or, like Louis Millet, the École des Arts Décoratifs. This raises the fundamental issue of what Americans went to the École to achieve in the first place, which seems to have been a specific professional consecration that the graphic reasoning of “Beaux‐Arts” composition bestowed back across the Atlantic.
Structural Expression and Functional Representation in American Architecture 1850–1910
Authors: Siry Joseph M. 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
From the mid‐1800s on, American architects worked with the competing priorities of structural expression of new materials or methods of construction, and the question of how best to represent a building's social function in its exterior, often via eclectic adaptation of historical forms. This chapter examines this issue with reference to Richard Morris Hunt's Griswold House, Newport, Rhode Island; James Bogardus and cast iron architecture in New York City; Frank Furness’ Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and the Furness Library, University of Pennsylvania; Henry Hobson Richardson's Trinity Church, Boston, and Marshall Field Wholesale Store, Chicago; Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan's Wainwright Building, St. Louis, and the Carson Pirie Scott Building, Chicago; McKim, Mead, and White's Pennsylvania Station, New York City; and Frank Lloyd Wright's Robie House, Chicago. These memorable works of American architecture from the mid‐nineteenth to the early twentieth century vary widely in type, construction, and context, but they all exhibit some degree of conceptual tension between structural expression as an attribute of modernity, and functional representation that engages earlier architectural styles or conventions. An ideal historiography embraces both of these perspectives, such that inconsistencies within works between apparent modernity and retrospection find a place in our accounts.
Dismembering and Remembering the Virtuous Mughal City in Nineteenth‐Century British India
Authors: Kavuri‐Bauer Santhi 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In nineteenth‐century India, Mughal architectural sites went through a critical transformation that changed their relationship with and symbolic importance to the city of Delhi. This chapter traces how these structures that once ordered and represented the ethos of the Mughal city were resignified to represent the power and positivism of British imperialism. It first describes how the buildings functioned as constitutive parts of a virtuous Islamic city. Then it describes the circumstances that led to the sites being wrested from the Mughals by the East India Company. Finally, it focuses on the period that followed the Uprising of 1857 when the imperial practices of archaeology, conservation, and tourism separated the Mughal architecture of Delhi from the urban network and emptied them of their cultural meaning, limiting their meaning to archaeological specimens, historical monuments, and tourist destinations.
Of Emperor and Empire: Architectural Constructions of Imperial Japan
Authors: Tseng Alice Y. 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the major building projects that directly served the imperial institution and the imperialist mission during the reign of Emperor Meiji of Japan (1868–1912). Recognizing the ideological centrality of the emperor in the construction of modern Japan as Imperial Japan allows for the assessment of what may otherwise appear to be a varied amalgam of architectural functions, styles, and expressions as an integrated body of works with a shared agenda. The buildings examined – imperial residences, shrines and mausolea, and parks and museums – when understood as conscious built forms expressive of Imperial Japan, vividly demonstrate the complex, and at times contradictory, sets of inspirations and aspirations that were frequently cross‐cultural and cross‐temporal.
Glass House at Cologne: Bruno Taut
Authors: Breitschmid Markus 
Published: March 2017

AbstractPart of the prestige of the Glass House rests upon the renown of the man who designed it, Bruno Taut, an architect with a particularly ambitious vision for the future of architecture. Yet Taut's reputation derives in no small degree from the Glass House itself and the prominent place it continues to hold in the history of modern architecture. The most obvious and exceptional fact about the Glass House is implied in its seemingly lapidary name, as glass is chiefly responsible for the architectonic expression andStimmungthat made it exceptional. However, the architect himself called it “my ‘Glass House,’ the lightest possible concrete structure” and was thus pointing to a duality of the building that is pervasive in every aspect of it, for example, in its spatial dramaturgy. Described by contemporaries as an “overwhelmingly beautiful” structure, the aesthetic characteristic of the building consists of the duality of a matter‐of‐fact objectivity and a quixotic utopianism. Thereby, Taut's Glass House serves as a primary expression of the architect's search for the “cosmic character of architecture.”
Monument to the Third International: Vladimir Tatlin
Authors: Anderson Richard 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Conceived in 1919, Vladimir Tatlin's Monument to the Third International remains a powerful and enigmatic icon of the artistic and architectural innovations that followed the October Revolution. The project was at once central to architecture's development in the post‐revolutionary period, but Tatlin operated only on the periphery of the productive experiments undertaken by the Soviet architectural vanguard during the 1920s and early 1930s. His Monument to the Third International was widely recognized as having initiated a new approach both to the monument as a building type and to architecture as such. To some, this project for a towering skeleton of steel appeared as a logical consequence of Tatlin's exploration of material properties; to others it was a design overburdened with symbolism.
Brick Country House Project: Mies Van Der Rohe
Authors: Dodds George 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The image of a building, at times, attains a status above and beyond the physical artifact represented, wherein the depiction of what could have been is given equal status to or privileged over what was built. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's oeuvre is chockablock with such instances – both intentional and not. The canonical Berliner Bild‐Bericht photographs of his German Pavilion for the Barcelona International Exposition (1928–29) are the most celebrated of these, while the drawings of his “Project for a Brick Country House” are arguably the most influential of his early Weimar experiments (1921–25). Yet, typical of the uncertainty that surrounds much of Mies’ avant‐garde work of the 1920s, little is known with certainty of the genesis of the brick villa project: not its client, if there was one; not its site, if there was one; not even the year in which the drawings were made. Moreover, while they have influenced generations of architects, their resonance in Mies’ own architectural production is relatively limited, and short lived.