bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
F
ukutake,
T
adashi (1917–1989)
Authors: Shoji Kokichi 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
As an advocate of sociology as a real science, Fukutake insisted that sociology should contribute positively to social development and that studies of social policies should be an applied field of sociology. Conducting field surveys in Japanese farming villages, he did a structural analysis that contrasted the conservative northwest with the enlightened southwest and revealed pyramidal family structures in the former and horizontal mutual aid systems in the latter. He also pointed out the “contradictory character” of peasants' attitudes, which made it difficult for them to realize their own situations and not to vote against their own interests. As an advocate of Japan's postwar modernism, he insisted that all people, peasants included, should be liberated from the old consciousness they had been deeply indoctrinated with and should become independent individuals, able to construct a truly democratic society. As rapid economic growth changed Japanese society, Fukutake wrote some enlightening introductory books on it and continued until his last moment his activities as an advocate of reforming the social welfare system, including university co‐operative associations in general.
Crowdsourcing
Authors: Halford Susan , Tinati Ramine 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
“Crowdsourcing” describes the diverse practices of online‐distributed knowledge production whereby the Web is used to host collaborative platforms that focus large volumes of information, from multiple users, toward specific tasks. Sometimes described as the “wisdom of the crowd” or “collective intelligence,” crowdsourcing was originally conceived as a model for business innovation. It has now been taken up by a range of organizations and users – from business to government, charities, and NGOs – and has come to describe different models of practice, ranging from tightly prescribed human computational tasks to looser forms of collective data‐gathering. Usually undertaken voluntarily, crowdsourcing raises questions about participants' motivation, data quality and sustainability, and also broader questions about the politics of knowledge production – as citizens rather than experts come to play a greater role in generating knowledge about our world – and the changing nature of labor markets, as salaried professionals are replaced by unpaid volunteers.
Bounded Rationality
Authors: Bögenhold Dieter 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

The famous formulation of
bounded rationality
goes back to Herbert Simon, who contributed widely to decision theory. His principal research question is: How do human beings reason when the conditions for rationality postulated by neoclassical economics are not met? The concept of bounded rationality takes into account three facts: that agents often act in ways that could be characterized as nonrational behavior driven by emotions; that access to information is limited, since people do not share the same bits of the information that is necessary for deciding among alternatives; and that, even in a situation of equally shared information, human beings are characterized by cognitively diverse and also limited skills. Among others, D. Kahneman in economics and J. Elster in sociology conducted further pioneering work on bounded rationality. Recent research programs on well‐being and happiness, emotions and (ir)rationality can be seen as following in the footsteps of earlier ideas of bounded rationality.
“I” and “Me”
Authors: Cook Gary A. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe distinction between “I” and “me” as dimensions of human self‐consciousness was first set forth by William James in his classicThe Principles of Psychology. Somewhat more than a decade later, George Herbert Mead began to employ this distinction in his early essays on functional and social psychology. But when a set of his course lectures on social psychology at the University of Chicago was published posthumously asMind, Self, and Society, Mead's readers were confronted with passages that seemed to embrace not only the Jamesian version of the “I” and “me” distinction but another version as well. As a result, a good deal of confusion and controversy has resulted among those who have attempted to make use of this distinction as a tool for sociological analysis.
R
owntree,
S
eebohm (1871–1954)
Authors: Freeman Mark 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Seebohm Rowntree (1871–1954) was a British pioneer of poverty research and industrial psychology, best known for his poverty surveys of the city of York. A businessman and social reformer from a notable Quaker family, Rowntree is often seen as an important figure in the history of empirical sociology, although many of his methods and approaches have since been subject to considerable challenge and debate. Rowntree is thought to have devised the first “poverty line” and to have invented the concept of the “poverty cycle.”
Inequality, Inverted U‐Curve Hypothesis
Authors: Royce Daniel 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
In the over half a century since its inception, the inverted U‐curve hypothesis cautiously articulated by Simon Kuznets in 1954 has gone through a spectacular rise and fall, having first skyrocketed to universal acclaim as an indubitable socioeconomic law, then having endured a period of substantial criticism before eventually giving way to the world‐systems approach. Arguably one of the most influential claims ever made on inequality and development, Kuznets's U‐curve hypothesis relied on the dualistic nature of development as its core assumption in accounting for the curvilinear behavior of the growth–equity trade‐off. Promptly adopted by the post‐World War II developmentalist regime, Kuznets's U‐curve served as justification for presenting the rising poverty and inequality as inevitable byproducts of successful and ultimately egalitarian economic development. The account of the universal acceptance and eventual refutation of the inverted U‐curve hypothesis suggests the overarching role of social and political contexts in both the production and the appropriation of social science models.
Life Expectancy
Authors: Bruckner Tim A. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Life expectancy measures the mean age of death for a specified population. Scientists use this summary measure to test hypotheses regarding causes of population health and to compare the mortality experience across regions, defined subgroups, and time. A life table, which includes age‐specific death rates over the entire life course, provides the key measurements to estimate life expectancy. In countries with reliable data, life expectancy shows an upward trend from 1850 onward. Scholars attribute this increase to two processes: the decline in the burden of infectious diseases and infant mortality (1850–1950), and, from 1950 onward, the subsequent reduction of mortality rates at older ages. The unabated increase in period life expectancy in most countries since 1950 has led to much theoretical and empirical research regarding the future of human lifespan. Much research also focuses on identifying the causes of divergent life expectancies across countries, racial–ethnic groups, and males and females.
Queer Materialism
Authors: Morton Donald 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
“Queer materialism” is a recently developed concept that arose in the wake of several fundamental changes brought about by poststructuralist cultural theory: one was a re‐understanding of materialism itself; another was the revalencing of the notion of the queer. In poststructuralism, the material force shaping all subjects (including queer ones) and their behavior is neither Epicurus's matter in motion nor Marx's economic system, but language. Whereas “queer” was once a term of opprobrium, it has been revalenced – through a “discursive reversal” – as a positive identity that, by its very nature, unsettles the normative system of gender and sexuality. “Queer,” moreover, has come to be used not only as a noun but also as a verb – “to queer”: all aspects of culture and society can be “queered.” Queer materialism points to marginal sexualities and genders as having a resistant material impact on the dominant elements of society. They “matter.”
Protestant Ethic
Authors: Kalberg Stephen 
Published: September 2017

AbstractMax Weber's Protestant ethic thesis addresses a macrosociological theme of central importance: the rise of modern industrial capitalism. Cultural factors, heretofore neglected, must be acknowledged, he insists. To him, a “Protestant ethic” called forth amethodicalorientation of believers toward work, profit, and wealth, and this ethic “co‐participated” in the formation of a geographically expansive “spirit of capitalism.” In turn, a thrust was set in motion by this spirit that played a causal part in giving birth to modern capitalism. Weber also takes cognizance of the pivotal role played by the Protestant sects in America. This entry examines further Weber's focus upon ethical conduct in a multivolume corollary project that emphasizes amultitudeof causal factors. Finally, common criticisms of “the Weber thesis” are noted, together with the wide‐ranging impact of this work.
Greeley,AndrewM.(1928–2013)
Authors: Hout Michael 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAndrew M. Greeley was an American sociologist of religion, Catholic priest, and popular author best known in sociology for his theory of the religious imagination. Greeley argued that people find meaning in religious beliefs because they learn them from family members and people in their community whom they know and trust. He developed this theory late in his career, after many empirical studies of belief, practice, ethnicity, education, and politics.
Ontology
Authors: Aspers Patrik 
Published: September 2017

AbstractOntology – or, to use the older term, metaphysics – is a branch of philosophy concerned with what there is, how it is, and what forms of being there are. Though early sociologists were acquainted with philosophy, most contemporary social scientists have discussed ontology from what is best described as an extension of epistemic questions or as an empirical field of study. It is difficult to see that sociologists' attempts to study ontology have resulted in quality improvements in sociological research. Philosophical ideas as developed for example by Martin Heidegger represent a largely unexplored potential for social scientists who are interested in ontology.
IndianDiaspora
Authors: Khadria Binod 
Published: September 2017

AbstractThe Indian Diaspora is now estimated to exceed 25 million people. Its genesis lay in the emigration of unskilled indentured labor to the British plantation colonies in early nineteenth century (for example, Fiji, Malaya, the Caribbean, Natal, and Mauritius), but it drew global attention when highly skilled professionals migrated to western developed countries in the late twentieth century. The Indian Diaspora represents various interest groups in India: regions, states, languages, religions, castes, and cultural identities find significant space in their associations and networks. In contrast to the highly skilled Indian diasporic communities well settled in the developed countries, the unskilled and semiskilled in the Gulf countries experience a high rate of turnover. Until the beginning of the twenty‐first century, there was an emotive concern in India about the highly educated knowledge workers supposedly “deserting the motherland” and an indifference to the large‐scale unskilled labor migration to the Gulf. Both these perceptions have since undergone a radical transformation.
Military–Industrial Complex
Authors: Hooks Gregory 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The military–industrial complex was made possible by the fusion of militarism and industrialization. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, military powers mobilized entire societies to produce munitions and wage war. Such pervasive mobilizations distorted economic development and compromised political and social institutions. In the twenty‐first century, a shift toward smaller and science‐intensive armed forces has reduced the footprint of military forces. But the dangers of militarism persist. In place of concerns over a pervasive military–industrial complex, twenty‐first‐century risks center on a smaller and more insulated military pursuing callous military interventions.
Instagram
Authors: Carroll David R. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Instagram, the world's largest and most influential photo sharing service, was created in 2010, acquired by Facebook in 2012, and claims more than 500 million monthly active users who have helped contribute more than 30 billion images using Apple iPhone or Android smartphones as of 2016. Known for its characteristic square aspect‐ratio format, nostalgic filter effects, and the reverse‐chronological scrolling feed of images that attract Likes and comments, Instagram has popularized the selfie, redefined the quantification of celebrity status, and enabled the hyper‐real construction of self‐image through social media. The service has been criticized for its policies that govern copyrights of user media and limit acceptable expressions of speech on the service. As the service introduces an advertising‐based business model, new controversies emerge from the surveillance required to target consumers and the service's support for compensated product endorsements without regulated consumer disclosures.
Social Media and Its Role in the
A
rab Spring
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
The Arab Spring was a wave of revolutionary protests, both violent and nonviolent, that started in Tunisia in 2010. Mass protests took place, giving rise to a domino effect across the Middle East and North Africa that also involved other countries in the Arabian Gulf. A chain reaction followed, the result of the so‐called demonstration effect of democratization, which occurs when, in a sequence of events, a political figure is inspired by the previous one, emulating seemingly successful tactics and deriving an additional benefit from the effect of amplification through the means of mass communication. This amplification in the case of Arab Spring was the result of the interaction between social media and traditional media.
Microcelebrity, Self‐Branding, and the
I
nternet
Authors: Marwick Alice 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Microcelebrity and self‐branding are two self‐presentation strategies adopted by individuals online to gain status and attention. Microcelebrity is the state of being well known to a niche group of people, and a practice whereby people present themselves as public personas, create affective ties with audience members, and view followers as fans. Self‐branding is a concept drawn from business self‐help literature that encourages individuals to present themselves as edited “personal brands” to potential clients or employers. Both represent the infiltration of marketing and consumer culture into individual self‐presentation, and are facilitated by social media technologies that make potentially broad audiences available to individuals.
Edge Cities
Authors: Manella Gabriele 
Published: September 2017

Abstract

Edge cities are settlements with a very high concentration of office, business, retail, and entertainment spaces and activities. These settlements are located outside the traditional city downtowns. Most of them are in former rural or nonurban areas, close to motorway intersections or other major streets; others are close to important international airports. Many authors consider edge cities as one of the suburbanization forms. The first examples emerged in the United States in the mid‐twentieth century: The first use of the expression “edge city,” however, dates to 1991 – by the journalist Joel Garreau in his book
Edge City: Life on the New Frontier
.
Sociology of Hip‐Hop Music
Authors: Laybourn Wendy M. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Sociological research on hip‐hop examines the content and context of the genre from its 1970s origins in the Bronx in New York City to its commercialization, entry into mainstream popular culture, and global reach. This area of research investigates the lyrical content of the music, the sociohistoric and local contexts of its origins and subgenres, the effect of the music and concurrent imagery on consumers, and its mainstream reception.
Race/Ethnicity and Wealth in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Brown Joey 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
This entry focuses on the relationship between race and wealth within the United States from a social inequality and social problems perspective. First, it introduces the topics of race and wealth, conceptualizing their intersection as one that is grounded in social inequality. It also details how wealth has been conceptualized and measured. Next, the distribution of wealth in the United States along racial and ethnic lines and patterns of wealth inequality are described. It then discusses economic and sociological explanations for the racial wealth gap. Finally, some consequences and currently proposed remedies to redress racial wealth inequality in the United States are presented.
Race and Sports
Authors: Foy Steven L. 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAmerican sociologists studying race and sports often focus on racial differences in access to sports; differences in how various racial groups are represented in sports; and racial differences in treatment of sports participants. (Similar processes operate globally but are not addressed here because of space constraints.) Although a number of barriers to diverse sports participation have diminished, differences in representation across racial groups and specific sports persist among athletes, management, owners, and sports viewers and via team names and mascots. Further, treatment within sports contexts differs by racial group in accordance with prevailing stereotypes and discriminatory norms.
Race and Elite Spaces
Authors: Lesser Emma , Hughey Matthew W. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Secret and elite organizations, in the form of Greek‐letter organizations, mutual aid societies, and civic orders, together possess a storied and often romanticized place in popular culture. While much has been made of these groups' glamorous origins and influence – such as the Freemasons' genesis in King Solomon's temple or the belief in the Illuminati's control of modern geopolitics – there has been little research on the role of race and ethnicity in organizing and perpetuating these cloistered orders. These orders are both a cause and consequence of colonization, segregation, and subjugation, and their varied roles function as catalysts and impediments to developing personal excellence, creating fictive kinship ties, and fostering racial uplift, nationalism, and social cohesion.
Race and Education
Authors: Fox‐Williams Brittany N. , L'Heureux Lewis‐McCoy R. 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Access to quality education in the United States is unequally distributed along racial and ethnic lines. Since education is a key driver of social mobility, the unequal distribution of high‐quality education means inequality in educational outcomes and future opportunities will likely persist. This entry describes issues pertaining to race and education at primary, secondary, and postsecondary levels, addressing the themes of access, achievement, attainment, and institutional experiences by race and ethnicity.
Race and Masculinity
Authors: Brown Melissa 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Masculinity refers to the qualities and characteristics ascribed to men. This entry summarizes sociological research on race and masculinity that employs qualitative methods to address research questions. This includes research on Asian men, Latino men, and black men. Findings reveal how hegemonic masculinity affects men of color in the workplace, in the criminal justice system, and over the life course.
Authoritarianism
Authors: Palma Esperanza 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Since the 1970s systematic research on authoritarianism within comparative politics has been developed. Within this field, authoritarianism has been understood as a modern type of political regime that contains personal dictatorships, military governments, and hegemonic parties. After the third wave of democracy, which started by the end of last century, different research agendas were outlined that included the relationship between the type of authoritarianism and the paths to democracy, the conditions of regime change, the risks of breakdown in newly established democracies, and the possibilities of democratic consolidation. More recently, debates on authoritarianism have been revitalized by the Arab Spring and the new conflicts opened up by regime breakdown and by a new research agenda on the persistence of authoritarian forms of power at the subnational level in new democracies, in particular in Latin America.
Authority and Legitimacy
Authors: Turner Stephen , MCreery Gregory 
Published: September 2017

AbstractAuthority is often defined as legitimate power, and contrasted to pure power. In the case of legitimate power, compliance is voluntary and based on a belief in the right of the authority to demand compliance. In the case of pure power, compliance to the demands of the powerful is based on fear of consequences or self‐interest. But, beyond this, there is considerable disagreement and variation of usage.
Bataille, Georges (1897–1962)
Authors: Hancock Black Hawk 
Published: September 2017

Abstract
Georges Bataille was a librarian, author, philosopher, sociologist, and a founding member of the College de Sociologie. His work was heavily influenced by Marx, Freud, Nietzsche, Kojeve, and the Marquis de Sade. His writings took on various genres and traversed a great number of themes from aesthetics, eroticism, and transgression, to philosophy, economics, and politics. Bataille was attracted to violence and the disruption it could cause capitalism and bourgeois values. He expressed this fascination through bodily “limit experiences,” such as cruelty, eroticism, transgression, subversion, sacrifice, and excess, that were beyond rational thought. For Bataille, these were all ways to gain personal “sovereignty,” where rationality was suspended as one abandons oneself to the objects of one's desires. While largely ignored during his lifetime, Bataille remains a central figure in French intellectual history for the influence he had on succeeding generations of scholars including Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Jean Baudrillard.
Branding and Organizational Identity
Authors: Higgins Matthew 
Published: September 2017

AbstractIssues of branding and organizational identity have traditionally straddled the business disciplines and have received increasing attention since World War II. Branding and organizational identity refer to a process through which a pattern or a structure is ascribed to a group of individuals and recognized as unique, autonomous, and relatively stable in space and time. Organizational identity is a concern with what and who the organization is, and branding is primarily concerned with how the organization is represented to key stakeholders.