bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Srivijaya, Kingdom of
Authors: Manguin Pierre‐Yves 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Kingdom of Srivijaya, at its peak, held sway over parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. After decades of controversies regarding its localization and power structure, archaeological and epigraphic research has now allowed for its history to be better apprehended. It was founded in the 670s at Palembang, in Malay‐speaking southeast Sumatra, after bringing together earlier autonomous proto‐historic polities under the control of this central city‐state. After capturing emerging markets for Sumatran aromatic resins and gold, its economy thrived for centuries on the control of long‐range Indian Ocean and South China Sea trading networks. It was renowned as a major center of Buddhist learning. After the shift of its capital to Jambi in the late 11th century, it progressively lost its stronghold on maritime trade to competition from unified Indian and Chinese dynasties, eventually disintegrating in the 13th century.
Karakhanid Khanate
Authors: Biran Michal 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The first Muslim Turkic dynasty ruled in Central Asia, from the Tarim basin to the Oxus, from the mid–late 10th century until the beginning of the 13th. The multi‐cultural khanate took pride in its Turkic past, maintained cordial relations with the Song and Liao dynasties in China, and took an active part in the silk roads trade. The period saw the beginning of the Turkification of the Iranian population in Transoxania, Semirechye, and the Tarim basin, a major expansion of Islam eastwards, and the emergence of Muslim Turkic literature.
Kara‐Khitan Khanate (Western Liao)
Authors: Biran Michal 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Kara‐Khitan Khanate or Western Liao (1124–1218) ruled in Central Asia in the period that preceded the rise of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan. Founded by Khitan refugees who escaped from north China when the Jurchen Jin dynasty vanquished the Khitan Liao dynasty (907–1125), the sinicized Buddhist nomads ruled over a mostly Muslim and sedentary population in rare harmony. The Kara‐Khitan multicultural empire combined Chinese, Inner‐Asian, and Islamic elements, a blend that served as a precedent for Mongol rule.
French Empire: 2. First or Napoleonic Empire
Authors: Dwyer Philip 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Twelve years after the execution of the King of France, Louis XVI, Napoleon was crowned emperor. Napoleon was not, however, solely responsible for this political turnaround. A number of influential men in his entourage encouraged Napoleon, who was at first reluctant, to embrace a monarchical system. A sizable proportion of the population supported the empire at its inception. In the first years of his rule, Napoleon was able to rally the nation around his person; many saw in him the possibility of peace and an end to the wars. It was the expansion of the empire across most of Western Europe, and the terrible toll brought about by continued warring, that tarnished his reputation. Ultimately, the empire failed, not because it was politically unworkable, but because Napoleon was unable to clearly define and limit his foreign political goals.
Aksum, Kingdom of
Authors: Phillips Jacke 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Kingdom of Aksum, centered in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, flourished in the first six centuriesad, with earlier roots in the last seven or eight centuriesbc. Its chronological parameters are variable and its greatest extent uncertain, but for several centuries the empire encompassed both sides of the southern Red Sea and so controlled all seaborne commerce between Rome/Byzantium and India/Indian Ocean. This likely was the ultimate basis of its supreme power, but it was underlined by control of an extensive network of inland commercial and/or political relationships with ancient Egypt, Nubia, and regions further south in Ethiopia. It boasted its own language and script, and minted its own coinage. The Persian historian/philosopher Mani (3rd centuryad) named Aksum as one of the four great empires of his day, the others being Persia, “Sileos” (location uncertain), and Rome, but this important empire is little known today. Most of what we do know is based on archaeology and external (mainly Classical) documents, together with its own religious and royal inscriptions. The empire declined but likely did not cease with the rise of Islam in Arabia and its subsequent dominance of the Red Sea. Much still remains obscure, but Aksum and its empire is becoming elucidated through ongoing archaeology and inscriptional research.
French Empire: 9. Indian Ocean
Authors: Allen Richard B. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractSerious attempts to establish a French empire in the Indian Ocean date to the mid‐18th century when the Compagnie des Indes tried unsuccessfully to conquer parts of southern India. French occupation of the strategic Mascarene Islands of Réunion and Mauritius during the late 17th and early 18th centuries laid the foundations for the acquisition of the Comoros, Djibouti, and Madagascar as colonial possessions during the second half of the 19th century. These three colonies achieved independence during the 1960s and 1970s while Réunion remains an overseas administrative district of metropolitan France.
Nguni empires
Authors: Ndlovu‐Gatsheni Sabelo J. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractSocioeconomic and political changes in the 19th century resulted in the rise of expansive political formations, namely the kingdoms of Zwide (Ndwandwe), Dingiswayo (Mthethwa), Shaka (Zulu), Sobhuza (Ngwane), the Soshangane (Gaza), Zwangendaba (Ngoni), Mzilikazi (Ndebele), and a few others. The emergence of these kingdoms may be said to be a new sociopolitical phenomenon associated with the so‐calledMfecane. TheMfecanewas a time of political, social, and economic turbulence involving increased intra‐and inter‐Nguni warfare, violence, disruptions, and migrations, resulting in the bursting‐asunder of some of the pre‐existing political formations and the rise of new centralized political formations that existed as empires. These enlarged, centralized political formations, such as the Zulu under Shaka, incorporated people of various ethnicities, and sovereignty was exercised by the monarch over various conquered chieftaincies.
Norway, Kingdom of (13th–14th centuries)
Authors: Thomas Sarah 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The kingdom of Norway in the 13th and 14th centuries consisted of mainland Norway, plus the northeastern territory of Jemtland and the western island communities of the North Atlantic. The key trend of the period was the process by which these Norse communities became and remained part of the Norwegian kingdom, despite the increasingly distant rule from Sweden from the 1300s. The expansion of the Norwegian kingdom into the North Atlantic was achieved not by conquest, but through political maneuvering which led to the incorporation of territories with a similar Scandinavian culture and language. Ideologically the expansion was based on contemporary 13th‐century concepts of kingship current in Europe. This ideology argued that every territory, even those with more autonomy, should be firmly under the control of a king.
Imperialism, theories of
Authors: Etherington Norman 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Imperialism is a word that has shifted its meaning many times since first entering international political discourse in the nineteenth century. Theories of imperialism must thus be understood in the context of the historical eras in which they originated. During the period 1900–1920 theorizing was primarily concerned with explaining aggressive and warlike policies pursued by developed nations. After World War I theoretical debates focused more narrowly on the reasons why European colonial empires expanded in the late 19th century and continued to be valued by metropolitan governments. Following World War II there was less emphasis on territorial empire and more interest in inequality among nations and purely economic instruments of domination. In every era theories of imperialism have been closely linked to the ideological positions taken by their progenitors.
Spanish Empire: 3. The Americas
Authors: Schwaller Robert C. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Spanish Empire (1492–1898) was the first European empire to colonize the Americas. The empire would be built upon two of the largest American Indian empires in the Americas, the Aztec and Inca. At its maximal extent the empire would stretch from the Pacific Northwest of North America, through Central America and the Caribbean, and on to southern Chile and Argentina. The empire would encompass an amazing array of subjects including indigenous peoples of various ethnicities, Africans, Spaniards, and many individuals of mixed ancestry. The wealth produced by Spain's American colonies would fuel Spanish imperialism around the world and help foster the growth of the Early Modern global economy.
Migrants and migration
Authors: Harper Marjory 
Published: January 2016

AbstractMigration is integral to the genesis and development of empires. Migrants moved within, into, and beyond empires, in complex patterns of single and multiple relocations, short‐distance and global movement, permanent settlement, and return. Quantification is difficult because of incomplete statistics, but for European empires trans‐Atlantic destinations always dominated. Migration was frequently controversial, the main debate being whether the phenomenon enhanced or undermined the security and well‐being of host countries and communities. While sponsors favored empire settlement for reasons of social or economic engineering, migrants themselves were generally attracted by promises of individual or family betterment. Passage assistance was always part of antipodean schemes, and from time to time landlords, parish guardians, and charities helped to fund the migration of the destitute, women, and children, particularly to Canada. Although decisions were shaped, and planning facilitated, by a host of recruitment agents, personal recommendations and private subsidies by far carried the greatest weight.
Disease and medicine
Authors: Peckham Robert 
Published: January 2016

AbstractSince the sedentarization of human societies, interconnected pathways, linking disparate territories and peoples, have provided channels for disease to spread. Empire facilitated this globalization of infection, contributing to the transformation of disease ecologies. A shrinking world combined with environmental factors to shape imperial histories: from Antiquity to the contemporary world, where the legacy of imperialism continues to influence the global distribution of disease and access to healthcare. Particularly during the 19th century, empire was medicalized as Western biomedicine became intertwined with colonial rule and the assimilation of indigenous peoples into the institutions of the modern state. Empire also helped to foster trans‐national networks of disease surveillance, providing an incipient global system of disease prevention. Rethinking empire through the lens of disease and medicine serves to underscore the ecological dimension of empire and the constitutive interrelationship between politics, society, and the environment.
Nomads
Authors: Kradin Nikolay N. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractNomads, in the generally accepted meaning, are pastoralists who migrate together with their cattle. Nomadism is a specific type of economic activity and, at the same time, a specific pattern of culture. In total, there are around 40 million nomads around the world. Historically, the rise of nomadism is related to the emergence of the nomadic or steppe empires. In the period of modernization, pastoral nomadism failed to compete with the industrial economy. The emergence of firearms and artillery gradually eroded the military dominance of nomads over farmers, and nomads no longer played dominant roles in world history.
Cavalry and empires
Authors: Kradin Nikolay N. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Cavalry is the military branch which consists of armed cavaliers. The cavalry replaced the expensive and clumsy chariots. The role and place of cavalry changed in the history of ancient, medieval, and modern empires. It was a part of the dramatic rivalry between offensive and defensive armament in human history. A decline of the cavalry has actually coincided with the period of the collapse of empires and emancipation of colonies. It was related to the development of the quick‐firing gun and motorization of all armies in the 20th century.
Kyrgyz Khaganate
Authors: Kradin Nikolay N. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Kyrgyz Khaganate was a polity that existed in the Minusinsk area and Tuva between the 6th and 13th centuries. The Kyrgyzes resided in the area of the upper Yenisei River in the southern Minusinsk Depression and in Tuva and the Sayan mountains. The prosperity of the Kyrgyz Khaganate was related to the wars of the mid‐9th century, when Kyrgyzes occupied and burnt the capital of the Uyghur Empire, Karabalghasun, and killed thechaganof the Uyghurs. Their control reached the Karluks in Zhetysu (“seven rivers”) and Eastern Turkistan in the west, and the Kurykans in the Baikal area to the east. To the southeast they controlled the Mongolian steppes.
Rouran (Juan Juan) Khaganate
Authors: Kradin Nikolay N. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The first evidence of the Rouran dates from the beginning of the 4th century
ce
. In 402 they established their empire of the steppe which, as the Rouran Khaganate, occupied a vast territory. In the west it extended to the River Ili and the Tarim depression, in the east to the boundaries of the Khitans and Koguryo, in the north to Lake Baikal and the upper reaches of the Amur, and in the south to the great Gobi Desert. After the crushing defeat of the Rouran Khaganate in 555, the surviving population migrated to Pannonia where they are known as the Avars.
Mitanni Kingdom
Authors: McMahon Augusta 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The Mitanni Kingdom of the mid‐2nd millennium
bce
encompassed much of northern Mesopotamia from around 1540 to 1340
bce
. Mitanni kings maintained diplomatic relations with the Hittite kings of Anatolia and the pharaohs of Egypt. Their kingdom's population encompassed a variety of ethnicities, or language groups. Archaeological excavations have explored towns with provincial palaces, temples, and houses, but the Mitanni capital, Washshukanni, has not yet been located.
Lombard Kingdom
Authors: Gasparri Stefano 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Lombards arrived in Italy in 569ce. The progress of the invasion was slow, and the territorial framework was only established in the first half of the 7th century. After the conquest, there was a sharp decline in the quality of life as Roman cities were transformed to adapt to the standards of a simpler society. But the merging of Lombards and Romans proceeded rapidly, and was completed after the conversion of the Lombards to Catholicism (between 650 and 700). In the 8th century the kingdom faced papal opposition in a conflict that was political, not religious, in nature. This papal policy met with the energetic support of the kings of the Franks, and in 774 their king Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and became King of the Lombards.
Genoese Republic
Authors: Skinner Patricia 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The history of the expansion of Genoese interests in the medieval period is richly documented through the city's annals, originating in the late 11th century, and through the registers of transactions kept by notaries within the city and in its colonies in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These, and various treaties, demonstrate that Genoese settlements and commercial ventures were often initiated and dominated as quasi‐private enterprises by ambitious individuals and family groups, some of whom can also be traced as the leading figures in the factional Genoese politics at home. The Genoese colonial adventure arguably offered an alternative to political exile for some, replicating the laws and customs of the home city. Genoa's empire developed from a relatively local, Tyrrhenian base (in intense rivalry with Pisa) to an international network spanning the Mediterranean and Black Sea, necessitating cooperation, if not friendship, with the rival Venetians.
Umayyad Caliphate
Authors: Judd Steven C. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractThe Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) was the first Islamic dynasty. Muʿawiya ibn Abi Sufyan established himself as caliph in Damascus after his victory over ʿAli ibn Abi Talib in the civil war that followed the murder of ʿUthman ibn ʿAffan in Medina. Muʿawiya and his successors expanded the territory under Muslim rule dramatically. At their peak, the Umayyads ruled an empire stretching from Spain to the frontiers of China and India. The Umayyads made significant contributions to the development of the Islamic faith and to the spread of the Arabic language throughout the region. Dynastic crises, revenue shortfalls, and the limitations of an empire based on conquest ultimately led to their demise at the hands of the Abbasids in 750.
Byzantine Empire: 1. 330–650
Authors: Kaldellis Anthony 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

The early Byzantine Empire is the same as the later Roman Empire in the east, the part that did not fall. As a phase of Roman history, it begins with the foundation of Constantinople in 330
ce
and ends with the Arab conquests of the 7th century. It is defined by an intensive degree of bureaucratic, fiscal, and legal regulation of many aspects of life; the gradual acceptance by most of the population of a Roman identity and the normative values of a common culture; and Christianization, which gradually drove paganism to extinction. The early Byzantine Empire was not driven by conquest, except during the ambitious reign of Justinian, who recovered North Africa and Italy from the barbarian kings.
Science, imperial
Authors: Goss Andrew 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Imperial rulers have expanded, stabilized, and controlled empires by means of knowledge. Detailed and precise knowledge of the imperial territories have allowed imperial rulers to master the complexity, scale, and diversity of empires. This knowledge – initially in the form of cosmologies and geographies of the empire's cosmos, its nature, and its people – took up a position on a continuum of official and esoteric information, created by priests, scribes, historians, philosophers, and other scholars, that was valued by imperial elites. The value of empirical science lay in its ability to order the empire, creating maps and calculations that would guide rulers in handling future political and social problems. Institutions of imperial science date back to the early Babylonian Empire and the Han dynasty, and reached their zenith during the time of European territorial empires between 1700 and 1900.
Music and empire
Authors: Irving David R. M. 
Published: January 2016

AbstractMusic and empire have an entangled relationship: just as empires have influenced the development and practice of music throughout much of the world, music has performed vital functions in empires throughout history. Music is deeply embedded within the political, religious, and economic processes of empires, symbolizing power across large distances and shaping ideas, practices, and beliefs. Music is a potent vehicle for the spread of ideology: it has been used to exert political and social control, but also as a tool for resistance. Within empires incorporating multiple ethnic groups, the performance, study, and teaching of music has been used to highlight cultural differences, or to enforce assimilation and standardization. Networks of transport, trade, and communication within and between empires have facilitated and precipitated the movement and circulation of musicians, instruments, ideas, and practices; the cross‐cultural adoption, adaptation, and/or mixing of these elements is a typical consequence of empire.
Xianbei Empire
Authors: Miller Bryan K. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract

During the 2nd to 3rd centuries
ce
, nomadic groups under the name Xianbei grew dramatically in power in the wake of the collapsing Xiongnu Empire along the northern frontier of the Chinese Han Empire. Historians have traditionally considered these Xianbei groups as forming a polity that became the successor state of the Xiongnu in the steppes. However, close analyses of written and material records reveal drastically different iterations and spreads of Xianbei power during the last centuries of the Han dynasty that call into question the existence of an early Xianbei Empire of the steppes. Instead, this early era of the Xianbei may be seen not as constituting an empire but as laying the foundations for subsequent Xianbei states of northern China during the 4th to 6th centuries.
Algiers, Ottoman Regency of
Authors: Naylor Phillip C. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The Regency of Algiers maintained an Ottoman presence in the western Mediterranean for over 300 years. At its height during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Regency's leaders and corsairs possessed significant autonomous power protecting and promoting Ottoman interests and their own, while preying on European (and later American) shipping. The Regency also constructed numerous public works beautifying Algiers. Infamous for its privateers, captives, and ransoms, the Regency also exported grain, a transaction of which became a source of contention that led to the French conquest of the Regency in 1830.
Bulgarian Medieval Empire (First and Second)
Authors: Angelov Alexander 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
The First and Second Bulgarian Empires emerged on the Danube in the eastern Balkans. The process commenced in 680/681 when Bulgar warriors crossed the Danube and settled in the former Roman province of Moesia (modern northern Bulgaria). The First Bulgarian Empire fell in 1018 when Byzantium annexed its territory. The successful rebellion of the Asenevtsi family in 1185 established the Second Bulgarian Empire with its capital at Turnovo. Weakened by internal strife and foreign attack, it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1371–1422. Having adopted Eastern Christianity, both polities sought to secure independent patriarchates. Medieval Bulgaria served as an important cultural conduit between the Byzantine and Slavic worlds. The development and establishment of Old Church Slavonic and the Cyrillic script are among the major contributions of the medieval Bulgarians to the Eastern Orthodox liturgy and to Slavic philology and writing.
Counterinsurgency
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: January 2016

Abstract
Empires tended to invite counterinsurgency by their very nature, imposing as they did control by one group over others. But until the 19th century insurgency remained very local, confined by factors such as distance, terrain, climate, and the difficulty of spreading people and ideas across space. That made it difficult to draw any clear distinction between the practice of governing an empire and any specific measures we might call counterinsurgency. Imperial counterinsurgency leaned towards military coercion. The Industrial Revolution and the rise of such ideologies as nationalism and communism changed the problem, connecting insurgencies to the wider world. But empires tended still to fight back by methods that revolved around military coercion. Popular opinion notwithstanding, imperial counterinsurgency rarely strayed far beyond whatever degree of coercion was required to maintain control over people and territory.