bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Rise of Macedon, 359–336
BC
Authors: Anson Edward 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Before Philip's accession in 359
bc
, Macedon had been a kingdom whose considerable potential was repeatedly undermined by dynastic squabbling or interventions by neighbors or southern Greek cities. Philip consolidated royal power internally, played his various enemies off against each other, secured control of lucrative mines, created a powerful army, and used diplomacy to further his ambitions. Athenian influence in the north was removed while Philip's authority expanded into central Greece. Eventually Athens and Thebes sank long‐standing suspicions to oppose Philip at Chaeronea, only to be crushed by Macedonian might. Philip was assassinated before he was able to pursue his ambitions against Persia.
The Illyrian Wars, 229–219
BC
Authors: Erdkamp Paul 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

The First Illyrian War began in 229
bc
, following Illyrian aggression and complaints of piracy from Italian merchants. The Illyrians generally avoided pitched battles, but the Romans were successful in taking their fortresses and were able to impose a humiliating peace in 227. The regional influence of the Illyrian Queen Teuta was gradually supplanted by that of Demetrius of Pharos. The Romans continued diplomatic activity in the region as a sign of continuing interest, and several communities placed themselves under Roman protection. Ten years later, however, Demetrius was beginning to threaten these communities and had allied himself with king Antigonus of Macedon. The Second Illyrian War began in 219. Demetrius placed his confidence in the fortresses of Dimale and Pharos, but the former was taken in only seven days. Demetrius was then lured out of Pharos; after the destruction of his forces, he fled to Macedon. The Romans swiftly reestablished their influence in the region.
The Second Punic War, 220–202
BC
Authors: Owens Eddie 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The Second Punic War saw Rome's very existence challenged by its greatest enemy, the brilliant Carthaginian general Hannibal, who led his army across the Alps to challenge Roman control of Italy. In spite of four great victories, Hannibal could not force the Romans to negotiate. Instead its massive resources enabled Rome to campaign in Spain, the Balkans, and Sicily while denying Hannibal opportunities for further victories. Ultimately Roman determination prevailed and, when Scipio transported a Roman army to North Africa, Hannibal was summoned home after 15 years, where his first defeat ended the struggle.
The First Macedonian War, 215–205
BC
Authors: Erdkamp Paul 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Philip of Macedon allied himself with Hannibal in 215
bc
. While the latter rampaged through Italy, Philip would seek to overthrow the Roman protectorate of Illyria. While it is doubtful whether Macedonian forces were ever intended to join the Italian campaign, the Roman fleet made sure that Philip's forces were confined to Greece. The Romans allied themselves with the Aetolian League, whose rivals, the Achaean League, joined Philip. A proxy war spread to mainland Greece, and Philip was thus forced to concentrate on a war with several fronts. In 206, the Aetolians, who had borne the brunt of the war, signed a secret peace with Macedon. The Romans tried to reopen the land front but were unwilling to attack the Macedonians directly and peace was soon signed. The Romans, however, continued to resent Philip and the Aetolians.
Philopoemen in the Peloponnese, 221–192
BC
Authors: McKechnie Paul 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In the Peloponnese in the late third century, the Achaean League was engaged in opposing Sparta's attempts to reassert its authority over its neighbors, especially Megalopolis and Mantinea. Achaean efforts were often commanded by Philopoemen and were frequently supported by the Romans when they happened to have an army in the Balkans.
The Second Macedonian War, 200–197
BC
Authors: Erdkamp Paul 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

After the inconclusive end of the First Macedonian War with Rome, Philip, knowing the Romans resented the peace, began to strengthen his fleet, but after a series of defeats he conceded dominance at sea to his Greek opponents. He turned instead to besiege Abydos, but, just before its capture, a Roman ambassador arrived with an ultimatum that Philip should submit his quarrels to international arbitration. War was declared in summer 200
bc
, but Roman invasions of Macedonia were hampered by logistical problems. In November 198 a conference between the warring parties was held at Nicaea, but both parties desired a decisive engagement. The two armies met by accident at Cynoscephalae in a hard‐fought action that ultimately resulted in a crushing Roman victory. Philip surrendered shortly afterward.
The War against Antiochus
III
, 191–188
BC
Authors: Erdkamp Paul 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

After defeating Macedon, Flamininus announced the freedom of Greece in 196
bc
, and all Roman forces were withdrawn. The Seleucids under Antiochus became a focus for Greek dissatisfaction with Roman dominance but were keen to avoid direct confrontation. When an anti‐Roman faction gained control of Demetrias, the Aetolian League invited Antiochus to guarantee the freedom of Greece and arbitrate in its dispute with Rome. In late 192, the Aetolians massacred a unit of Roman soldiers and the Senate declared war. Antiochus attempted to defend the pass at Thermopylae, but his army disintegrated after the position was turned. Antiochus retreated to Asia, and the focus of the war shifted to naval domination of the Aegean. Rome eventually won the contest, despite the aid given to Antiochus by the fugitive Hannibal. Roman troops were now able to cross into Asia; the Aetolians, isolated from their allies, sued for peace. Antiochus was decisively defeated at Magnesia and forced to renounce all claims west of the Taurus.
The Maccabean War, 167–161
BC
Authors: Whitby Michael 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

In the 160 s
bc,
attempts by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV led to tensions in Judaea between those supporting integration with the Hellenistic world and Jewish traditionalists. The traditionalists were known as the Maccabees, after their leader's nickname (“Hammer”). Until 160 the Maccabees successfully resisted Seleucid attempts to reassert royal authority, being assisted by Seleucid dynastic rivalries, but the death of Judas Maccabaeus brought resistance to an end. Seleucid success was very brief, since fresh dynastic in‐fighting allowed the Jews to reassert their independence.
The Andriscus Uprising and the Achaean War, 149–146
BC
Authors: Erdkamp Paul 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Following the Roman reorganization of Greece and Macedon in the settlement of 167
bc
, unrest mounted. Around 150
bc
, Andriscus of Adramyttion, claiming to be Philip, son of Perseus, launched a revolt that quickly spread to all four Macedonian republics. The Senate's initial response was feeble, but the subsequent capture of Thessaly prompted the dispatch of a consular army, which routed the Macedonian forces. Andriscus was handed over to the Romans and eventually executed. Meanwhile, the Achaean League, compelled by the Romans to accept Sparta, mobilized and defeated Sparta's army. The Romans tried to settle the dispute with diplomacy, but the league ignored their overtures and was comprehensively defeated. The league was disbanded, Corinth was destroyed as a warning, and Greece and Macedon were turned into provinces.
The Numantine War, 154–133
BC
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

The Spanish town of Numantia, stronghold of the Arevaci, was first besieged by the Romans in 153
bc
to limit the growing influence of the tribe. The siege was unsuccessful and peace was renewed. In 143 the Arevaci took up arms against the Lusitanians, and in 141 and 140 the city was again unsuccessfully attacked. Despite these setbacks, the Romans secured a favorable peace. A new Roman commander renewed hostilities in 138, but to little effect. Morale was damaged, and, after more reverses in 137, a Roman general was captured with his entire army. Humiliatingly, the Numantines released their prisoners and concluded peace, prompting an angry Senate to disavow the agreement. In 134 Scipio Aemilianus arrived in Spain with fresh forces and reestablished discipline. A regular siege was begun, and the city was starved into submission after nine months.
The Jugurthine War, 112–105
BC
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

In a power struggle, Jugurtha succeeded in reuniting the kingdom of Numidia (northern Algeria), but in 112
bc
he made the mistake of slaughtering the Roman population when he took his rival's capital, Cirta. An outraged Senate sent out Calpurnius Bestia in 111, but he concluded peace so quickly that the Romans suspected bribery. Promised immunity, Jugurtha was summoned to Rome to explain himself, but he made a second mistake in assassinating a cousin resident in the city. He was forced to leave Rome, and in 110 the Senate ordered a second and equally futile invasion. In 109–108 a third campaign was launched by Metellus, who made steady but slow progress; his deputy, Marius, was given command in 107. Relaxing traditional rules on recruitment, Marius overran Numidia, now joined in its resistance by neighboring Mauretania. Following a series of defeats in 106, the Mauretanians betrayed Jugurtha, and hostilities ceased in 105. Jugurtha was taken to Rome and executed, and a new client king was installed on the throne.
The Roman Conquest of Southern Gaul, 125–121BC
Authors: Rawlings Louis 
Published: March 2017

AbstractThe Romans’ expansion in southern Gaul was intended to help its ally Massilia and open a land route to Roman possessions in Spain. In 121bcthe Allobroges were defeated at Vindalium, and a Gallic confederation was routed on the banks of the Isara. Around 118, the Cimbri and Teutones began their great migration, and in 113 they plundered tribes allied with Rome. After defeating the Romans at Noreia, by 110 the Cimbri and Teutones had entered Gaul, requesting leave to settle. They were unsuccessfully attacked again, and by 107 had been joined by Helvetian tribes. While pursuing these, a Roman army was ambushed and ignominiously surrendered at Aginnum. In 105, facing an even larger tribal confederation and suffering from divided command, the Romans were defeated at Arausio, causing panic in Italy. Marius was elected consul in the emergency, but the tribes turned on Spain instead. They marched on Italy in 102, but the Teutones were decisively defeated by Marius’ reformed army at the river Arc. The Cimbri could not be prevented from crossing the Alps, but in 101 they were brought to battle at Vercellae and again wiped out by Marius.
Campaigns against Pirates, 103–67
BC
Authors: Matyszak Philip 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Rome's military and diplomatic elimination of potential naval rivals, achieved without a corresponding increase in its own sea power, allowed piracy to flourish. Rome's first attempts to suppress piracy in the Illyrian War of 229
bc
suggested that land campaigning against pirates’ bases was a viable strategy, but it brought few results over the following decades. In 102 a poorly resourced and ultimately unsuccessful war was launched against the Cicilian pirates. In 78–74 a second, more serious, campaign was fought against them, but successes were not consolidated and the pirates expanded their operations to Crete. Some attempts were made to clear the island of piracy, but an inconclusive land war was followed by a hasty treaty. The campaign was resumed in 74 but degenerated into a series of sieges. In 67, following further depredations, Pompey was irregularly elected to suppress piracy throughout the Mediterranean. The seas were temporarily swept clear, but piracy was only reduced to tolerable levels, not eliminated.
The Social War, 91–87
BC
Authors: Matyszak Philip 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

The Social War was fought by the Italians not to free themselves from Roman rule but to be fully assimilated into the Roman state with citizen rights. In 91
bc
the Roman tribune Livius Drusus was murdered after attempting to grant Italians citizenship. The communities of central and southern Italy broke out in open revolt, but without the element of surprise. In the beginning of 90 the Romans lost several fortresses to treachery, but, though the Marsi ambushed and killed a consul, they could not exploit their success. The Samnites, meanwhile, attempted to destroy the Latin colonies that encircled them, but a stalemate soon ensued. In 89, fearing the spread of the revolt, the Romans offered to grant citizenship to all who wanted it, effectively removing the motive for the rebellion. Asculum continued to resist, but, after beating off several attempts to invest the town, its commander despaired of victory and committed suicide. The Marsi fought a final battle near the Fucine Lake, killing another consul, but Roman concessions ultimately extinguished their resistance. In the south, Nola held out until the embers of the Social War were subsumed by a new conflict between Sulla and Marius.
The Mithridatic Wars, 89–66
BC
Authors: Matyszak Philip 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

After Mithridates, king of Pontus, intervened in Cappadocia, the Bithynians and Cappadocians appealed to the Senate. In 89
bc
the Senate's representative was persuaded by Nicomedes of Bithynia to provoke a war, but the combined Roman and Bithynian forces were defeated. Disaffected Greek states flocked to Mithridates. In the campaigns of the First Mithridatic War, the Romans, led by the renegade general Sulla, drove the Pontic forces out of Greece. A brief peace was concluded in 85, and Sulla returned to Rome to face his enemies. War again flared up in 83 but ended inconclusively after a Roman defeat, Sulla ordering his lieutenant to withdraw. In 73 Nicomedes died, supposedly leaving his kingdom to Rome. Mithridates launched a preemptive invasion, and hostilities resumed. Lucullus eventually succeeded in driving Mithridates into Armenia, but mutinies prevent him from finishing the war. Pompey assumed command in 66 and succeeded in outmaneuvering his opponent, destroying his army at the battle of Dasteria. Pontus was annexed, and, though Mithridates fled to the Crimea, he committed suicide following a coup.
Marius versus Sulla, 83–82
BC
Authors: Matyszak Philip 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

After ending the First Mithridatic War, Sulla returned to Italy in 83
bc
to challenge his opponents, now led by the son of his old rival Marius. The Marians had allied themselves with those Italians who had remained in arms after the end of the Social War and were encamped at the base of Mount Tifana, near Capua. Sulla attacked them in camp and routed their forces. The following year Marian forces in the south attacked Sulla, believing his army to be exhausted, but were again decisively routed. A second Sullan army commanded by Metellus eventually defeated the Marians in the north. Sulla settled down to besiege Marius in Praeneste. The last opponents in the field were the Samnites, still in arms following the Social War, who threatened Rome in an attempt to draw Sulla out before his forces could be united. Sulla arrived at Rome by a forced march, his forces winning a hard victory at the Colline Gate. Praeneste surrendered on news of the defeat and Marius committed suicide.
The Second Triumvirate, 43–31
BC
Authors: Matthews Stephen 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
After months of jockeying for advantage, Caesar's assassination produced a formal agreement between his heir (the young Octavian) and two of his experienced lieutenants (Antony and Lepidus) to punish the “liberators” and share authority in the Roman world. Revenge was soon secured, but this left the triumvirs eyeing each other's power. In the east, Antony was defeated by the Parthians, while his attachment to Cleopatra caused scandal. In the west, Octavian's lieutenants, especially Marcus Agrippa, gradually overcame challenges on land and sea until Antony was maneuvered into a conflict in which his declining resources were overcome.
German Campaigns, 55
BC–AD
16
Authors: Campbell Brian 
Published: March 2017

Abstract

Since Caesar's conquest of Gaul, the Romans had come into contact with German raiding parties from across the Rhine. In 17
bc
the Romans suffered an embarrassing defeat, and from 16 to 13
bc
Augustus stationed himself in Gaul, supervising preparations for a major campaign. The invasion was launched in 12
bc
with naval support and advanced as far as the Weser in 11
bc
, but it was forced to retreat soon after. In 9
bc
the Romans penetrated to the Elbe, and preparations were made to make the Roman occupation permanent. By
ad
6, the pacification of Germany between the Rhine and Elbe was so advanced that forces could be removed for a planned invasion of Bohemia. In 9, however, a field army under Publius Quinctilius Varus was wiped out and all Roman garrisons in northern Germany were overrun. The defeat caused a shift in policy, and Augustus decided to settle for control of the Rhine and its environs. Campaigning to restore the situation followed, including incursions across the Rhine in 14, 15, and 16. Feeling Roman prestige had been restored, the new emperor Tiberius ended these costly operations, and the Roman frontier settled on the Rhine.
The Year of the Four Emperors, 69
Authors: Campbell Brian 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
The Jewish revolt of 66 was partly nationalistic and partly inspired by religious feeling, exacerbated by the actions of the Romans. After the first attempt to suppress the revolt failed, the emperor Nero appointed Flavius Vespasianus (the future emperor Vespasian) to a special command. The conquest of Galilee began with the siege of Jotapata, commanded by Josephus, the future historian of the conflict. After Jotapata fell, Josephus chose to collaborate. The advance of the Romans precipitated the overthrow of moderate influences in Jerusalem, but Rome was itself convulsed by civil war, and the campaign languished for much of 69. Vespasian was himself acclaimed emperor in July, and in 70 he resumed the war under the command of his son, Titus. Jerusalem was captured after a brief but bloody siege, and the temple was destroyed. Mopping‐up operations followed, including the siege of Masada, which was finally stormed in 74.
Trajan's Parthian War, 113–117
Authors: Roth Jonathan P. 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In 114, Trajan reduced the kingdom of Armenia to a province. Chronological confusion in our sources makes it difficult to reconstruct the subsequent campaign; Trajan may have spent the following year pacifying Armenia or moved into eastern Mesopotamia. In 116 a fresh campaign seems to have been launched across the Euphrates. Adiabene was subjugated, and the Romans swung south, capturing the Parthian capital (Ctesiphon) and reaching the Persian Gulf. The Parthians recaptured territory behind the advance but were caught by detached Roman forces. When the Romans finally regrouped, the Parthians were defeated near Ctesiphon, and Trajan installed a puppet king. Hatra was unsuccessfully besieged, probably in 116. The Jews of Africa revolted between 115 and 117, requiring the diversion of major forces. Trajan left for Rome in 117, leaving Hadrian in command in the east, but died on the journey. Hadrian subsequently abandoned many of Trajan's conquests.
Lucius Verus and the East, 161–165
Authors: Roth Jonathan P. 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In 161 or 162 (the chronology of this campaign is uncertain), the Parthians attempted to install a new king in Armenia. Local Roman intervened but were defeated, and the eastern provinces overrun. Forces were taken from the German frontier, given competent generals, and placed by the emperor Marcus Aurelius under the nominal command of his colleague Lucius Verus. In 163 the Romans took Armenia and made preparations to invade Parthia. The Romans entered Mesopotamia in 165, taking cities including Nisibis and Dura‐Europos, which they retained following the peace. Mesopotamia's largest city, Seleucia, was sacked, and, after the capture of the Parthian capital (Ctesiphon), peace was agreed. The Romans withdrew without adding a new province to the empire but brought back a disastrous plague.
Marcus Aurelius and Europe,

C

. 165–180
Authors: Roth Jonathan P. 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Little is known about the European campaigns of Marcus Aurelius. In 167, waves of Germanic tribes overran a Pannonian frontier stripped of troops for the Parthian campaign. The barbarians reached northern Italy but withdrew before advancing Roman forces. As further tribes rampaged through the Danubian provinces, a major counteroffensive was launched in 170. After hard fighting, the invaders were driven out by the end of 171. The following year the Romans crossed into German territory; though miracles were occasionally required to extricate the army from its difficulties, by 175 the major tribes were suing for peace. Raiding resumed in 178, but in 179 the major tribal confederacy was comprehensively defeated. Marcus Aurelius died in 180; his son Commodus made peace with the Germans.
The Civil Wars of 193–195
Authors: Roth Jonathan P. 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
Following the assassination of Commodus in 192, the praetorian guard sold the empire to Didius Julianus. Preferring to choose their own candidate, the eastern legions proclaimed Pescennius Niger emperor, while those in Pannonia chose Septimius Severus. Severus marched on Rome, routing Didius, and turned on Niger' forces, besieging Byzantium and driving Niger' field army out of Asia Minor. In 194, Niger was killed and his forces defeated at the battle of Issus. Severus proceeded to invade Parthia. The Parthian campaign was inconclusive, but, despite the death of Niger, Byzantium did not capitulate until 196. Later that year, Clodius Albinus revolted. Severus marched by a circuitous route into Gaul, defeating his opponent at the close‐fought battle of Lugdunum.
The Rise of the Sasanids and the Battle of Hormizdagan, 224
Authors: Hartmann Udo 
Published: March 2017

Abstract
In the early third century, declining Parthian authority was challenged by the Sasanids, subordinate rulers on the Iranian plateau. In 224 Ardashir defeated the last Parthian king and soon imposed his control over the whole kingdom, projecting himself as the favored champion of Zoroastrian religion and embarking on aggressive diplomacy against the Romans.
The Tetrarchy, 284–305
Authors: Hartmann Udo 
Published: March 2017

AbstractDiocletian was proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions in 284. After winning sole power, he began a fundamental reform of the empire to secure its borders and end the numerous usurpations that had destabilized imperial rule. Accordingly, he divided authority among a college of four rulers. The first major battle of his reign was fought in 285 against Carinus, the son of the previous emperor. Though victorious on the field, Carinus was assassinated shortly afterward. In the winter of 286–287 or 287–288, Carausius set up a secessionist “Britannic empire.” Though initial efforts to remove him were unsuccessful, a series of reverses in 293 led to his assassination and replacement by Allectus. In 296 Britain was invaded and the usurper killed. In the same year, the Persians invaded Armenia. Rome's initial response was a failure, but in 298, while Diocletian put down an Egyptian rebellion, his deputy (Galerius) won a crushing victory in Armenia. Much of the Parthian royal family was captured and the king fled eastward. In 298 peace was concluded and the Tigris made the border between the two empires.