bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The composition and nutritional value of some tropical and sub-tropical by-products
Authors: Morgan D. E. , Trinder H. 
Published: June 2019

This paper discusses the composition and nutritional values of a limited number of materials of tropical or sub-tropical origin encountered in advisory work. These products have emerged in recent years chiefly as minor components of compounds and to a lesser extent as ‘straights’. These by-products are olive pulp, grape pulp pellets, grape seed meal, dried coffee residues, citrus pulp pellets, cocoa shell meal, extracted cocoa meal, shea-nut pellets and shea expeller meal, guar meal, illipe meal and cassava meal. Other foods such as cereal by-products and sugar cane molasses are discussed elsewhere, whilst materials that may originally have been by-products of oil extraction such as soya, ground nut and palm kernel, etc., are now such significant parts of the modern sophisticated feed compounding industry that it may be unfair to classify them as by-products in the usually accepted sense. In any case information on them is well documented and readily available and hence they will not be discussed here.The by-products listed above form only a small proportion of the imported feeding stuffs bill but nevertheless can be of economic and nutritional significance in isolated circumstances. Some idea of their overall monetary significance is as follows. The total quantity of imported feeding stuffs other than cereals in 1977 was 1 495 973 tonnes. Of the above list of by-products, only olive pulp and grape residues are listed separately on official lists and each account for less than 1% of the total. Olive pulp imports were 33 457 tonnes and grape residues 11 276 tonnes. Undefined residues from oil extraction, which presumably includes some of the above listed products, amounted to 58 791 tonnes, whilst ‘Other products of vegetable origin’ would account for some other imported products totalling 45 013 tonnes.
The use of by-products in animal feeds
Authors: Wilson P. N. 
Published: June 2019

Over the last 30 years there has been spectacular growth in the UK broiler industry (Richardson, 1976), intensification in the UK pig industry and a move to larger herds and higher yields in the cattle industry. These trends have meant that farmers have bought more livestock feed both as compounds and as straights. Parallel to these changes, the move from ‘target’ to ‘least cost’ formulation by the compounder and computerized home mixer has increased the ability to deal with different raw materials and to utilize these successfully in compounded diets (Wilson, 1975).In spite of all these technical advances, livestock still depend on large quantities of cereals and other raw materials which are potential food for man (Wilson, 1977) as illustrated in Table 1. This is in spite of the fact that, over the past 15 years, the general trend-line in the ‘carry over’ stocks of world grain has been downwards (Brown, 1977). It follows that, in considering future feeding policies for livestock, there are good reasons why prudent steps should be taken to find and utilize alternative sources of both energy and protein for animal feeds. Holland has been more successful in this respect than the UK (De Boer, 1978) as instanced by the increasing imports of cassava which in part replaces European-grown barley and wheat (Walters, 1978).
Thermoregulation in neonatal ruminants
Authors: Rowan T. G. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractThis review is directed to thermoregulation in ruminants relative to weather and husbandry conditions of the United Kingdom in which the principal ruminant species are cattle and sheep. The main thermoregulatory demands for neonates, but not necessarily for older animals, are posed by cold rather than heat. Thermoregulation is critical to the survival of neonatal ruminants. On many farms, neonatal deaths are, for example, 20% of lambs born. Neonatal ruminants are precocial compared with many altrical neonatal mammals and have well developed thermoregulation which allows them to maintain homeothermy in many environments. However, at birth the neonatal ruminant moves from a very stable thermal environment, of similar temperature to its core body temperature, to a variable thermal environment which is 10 to 50°C colder than its core temperature. At birth the coat is wet and energy losses can be very high. To maintain homeothermy, heat production can usually be increased 3- to 5-fold above resting heat production. However, there are only limited quantities of tissue substrates available for this and the early intake of sufficient colostrum by the newborn is essential to continued heat production and survival. Nutrition in early and late pregnancy also affects the viability of, at least, young lambs: placental insufficiency may cause chronic prenatal hypoglycaemia and hypoxaemia which, postnatally, inhibits spontaneous respiration and restricts heat production. In calves, dystocia may cause acidosis and decreased heat production.The principal thermoregulatory mechanisms and some factors which affect their efficiency in newborn calves and lambs are presented, with consideration of the limitations of lower critical temperatures.
Behavioural aspects of neonate survival
Authors: Lawrence A. B. , O'Connor C. E. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractThe postnatal period is the most dangerous phase of life and survival depends on the neonate behaving appropriately from birth. Consequently, many aspects of neonate behaviour are often near to being fully formed at birth. However, experience will often be required to shape the expression of the behaviour and improve its effectiveness. The immediate problems facing the neonate will be related to the overall reproductive strategy of the species. In pigs, sibling rivalry will be critical in establishing and maintaining fidelity to a teat, and this early conflict is probably most important for survival. The teat order that succeeds this early rivalry is probably not, however, the result of competition over the most productive teats but because of certain intrinsic advantages of teat fidelity that maximize growth. In sheep the need to quickly follow and solicit sucking only from the dam makes learning to recognise the mother a priority. Recent results suggest that the ability of the neonate lamb to recognize its mother has been under-estimated and that failure of lambs to recognise their mothers can make a significant contribution to mortality rates. Survival in any species is, however, not simply a matter of appropriate neonate behaviour but may depend critically on the quality of the interaction between the mother and offspring. It is difficult to determine the end of the neonate period given the often protracted nature of weaning. As weaning progresses there is a shift to bonding with siblings and peers and to an extent these relationships take over some of the social functions of the mother-infant relationship such as avoidance of predators. Lastly, experiences gained during the neonate period can have long-term effects on behaviour such as diet selection, social preferences and responses to fear with important implications for farmed livestock.
Diets for young pigs
Authors: Hardy B. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractIn the United Kingdom, the majority of pigs are weaned at 3 to 4 weeks of age. Prior to weaning the main source of nutrients is milk produced by the sow. After weaning, suitable complete diets need to be given that are compatible with the physiological state of the digestive system and supply adequate nutrient inputs to achieve maximal growth with minimum digestive upset. The weaning process, however, imposes considerable stress on the piglet which frequently results in a retardation of growth, often accompanied by problems associated with diarrhoea.The challenge to the commercial nutritionist and the pig producer is to achieve sufficiently high nutrient intakes to reach the maximum growth potential. Improved understanding of the digestive physiology of the weaned pig and better estimations of the nutrient requirements of genetically improved stock has led to the development of appropriate diet specifications. There is a perpetual need to reconsider the most suitable food ingredients to use in diet formulations to meet these nutrient specifications, due to economic circumstances. The food ingredients need to be highly digestible, extremely palatable and to contain no anti-nutritive factor or antagonist to the digestive process. The food form and method of feeding can greatly influence food intake post weaning. The piglet weaning weight to age relationship can also affect the subsequent food intake, growth rate and incidence of problems associated with diarrhoea.There are continual changes and developments within the animal food and pig production industries that affect nutrition of the young pig. These include genetic selection for prolificacy, development of outdoor pig breeding systems, ‘green issues’ including welfare and use of food additives, use of enzymes and probiotics and improvements in food production technology. In the development of diets for young pigs all these aspects need to be considered in achieving an optimal solution in terms of nutrition, management and economics.
Probiotics and other prophylactic agents
Authors: Andrews A. H. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractThere are many agents which can assist in ensuring neonatal survival and growth. The most important is still colostrum and although there are many substitutes available, the best of which will be prepared from colostrum of the same species (cattle, sheep and goats), or where this is impracticable, from plasma or serum (horses, pigs). Other agents which can enhance viability include antibiotics, probiotics, vitamins, minerals, the lactoperoxidase system, lactoferrin, lysozyme, hyperimmune sera, vaccines, acidifiers, enzymes and oligosaccharides. Many probiotic products are available containing different organisms which may be live or dead. Probiotics have been available for many years as nutritional supplements. However, results obtained with them have been variable and often of dubious validity. There is at present a trend to suggest such products have therapeutic or prophylactic activity. Thus it would appear that they are developing along the reverse route to that of antibiotics which initially were used for therapy or prevention, only later to be used as food additives and growth promoters. It is likely that any successful probiotic will need to meet criteria laid down by proponents of their use in human beings 50 years ago. These include that they contain live organisms capable of multiplication in the alimentary tract and of a strain indigenous to the species. A large number of organisms will be required daily and the diet of the animal will need to be defined. It would appear that treatment should commence as soon as possible after birth.As therapeutic claims are often directly or indirectly implied it would seem justified that probiotics should be registered and criteria for their evaluation discussed. Results of recent trials with oral colostrum substitute and injection of hyperimmune serum are used to illustrate the type of trials likely to be required for probiotics.Other methods of enhancing survival are discussed.
An information system to manage hypothermia in newborn lambs
Authors: Stott A. W. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractManagement information can be used as a substitute for other business resources. Sheep farmers may find such substitution provides a means to maintain incomes as the price of information falls relative to other scarce resources during the severe cost price squeeze they are currently experiencing.To illustrate how management information may be obtained and used, a multivariate regression technique is described. This is applied to data on the physiological responses of newborn lambs to cold exposure. It shows that an increase of one standard deviation in total body insulation provides a significantly greater direct response in cold resistance in lambs bred for high cold resistance (HCR) compared with lambs bred for low cold resistance (LCR). The countervailing correlated drop in peak metabolic response to cold exposure did not show a significant between-line difference. This information suggests that HCR lambs give a metabolically more efficient response to cold exposure than LCR lambs. Subsequent research has provided physiological evidence to corroborate these findings.The cold resistance of lambs has been shown to be related to lamb survival in the field. Information obtained about the response of individuals or groups of lambs to cold exposure by methods such as those described here may suggest more cost-effective steps that managers should take in order to exploit to the full the varying abilities to resist cold. This in turn should improve enterprise gross output by reducing lamb mortality. It should also reduce costs by ensuring that steps to control cold exposure or alleviate its symptoms are provided only when necessary.
Reducing lamb mortality in hill sheep
Authors: Waterhouse A. , Roger L. C. , Ashworth S. W. 
Published: June 2019

Lamb mortality is high in hill farming systems. This is not a new phenomenon. Orr and Fraser (1932) reported losses of lambs between birth and weaning of over 30% and indeed an annual ewe death rate of up to 24%.Poor nutrition, of both macro- and micro-nutrients, is a prime cause of this problem exaggerated by difficult environmental conditions at the time of birth. Improved nutrition during late pregnancy was believed to be the most important (Wallace, 1948) and nutrition during mid pregnancy received scant attention. However, applied experiments with mid-pregnancy feeding of hill ewes (Milne, 1984; Waterhouse and McClelland, 1987) showed very significant effects of better nutrition during this period. The present paper summarizes the implementation of improved mid-pregnancy nutrition in a monitored systems study, associated with changes in management in late pregnancy made possible by assessment of foetal numbers from ultrasound pregnancy scanning.
5.1 The ARC System for Assessing the Nitrogen Value of Feeds for Ruminants
Authors: Smith R. H. 
Published: June 2019

The system put forward by a working party of the Agricultural Research Council is fully described in a recent publication (ARC, 1980) and will be outlined only briefly here. Most attention will be given to considering the usefulness of the system, some of its limitations and probable ways of future development.It is proposed in the scheme that a diet should be formulated in terms of metabolizable energy needed for the required performance. This energy intake largely determines the maximum amount of microbial growth possible in the rumen per day and therefore the amount of N that has to be made available to the microorganisms to achieve this growth. This is referred to as the rumen degradable nitrogen (RDN) in the diet (the crude protein equivalent (RDP) = RDN x 6.25) and its utilization forms the first in a chain of events relating the N compounds eaten with the compounds deposited in the animal's body or products. All the events in the chain are affected by a variety of factors and some of these will be discussed later but, in order to demonstrate the principle of the scheme, average values derived from the literature and given in ARC (1980) will be assigned to them.
6.2 Assessment of Protein Degradability of Forage
Authors: Filmer D. G. 
Published: June 2019

A new system for calculating the protein requirements of ruminants has been proposed by the Agricultural Research Council's sub-group on protein evaluation (Roy, Balch, Miller, Ørskov and Smith, 1977; ARC, 1980) to replace the now largely discredited Digestible Crude Protein (DCP) and Available Protein system.There is little need to discuss the theory of the new system here as a number of excellent publications are now available outlining the new approach (e.g. Miller, Balch, Ørskov, Roy and Smith, 1977; Wilson and Strachan, 1981). Suffice to say that the new system requires the description of dietary crude protein in terms of rumen degradable protein (RDP) and undegradable protein (UDP) requirement for a specific energy input necessary for a particular level of production. Therefore, one of the important aspects of implementation of the new system is a description of the degradable/undegradable protein contents of feedstuffs. This not only applies to cereals, cereal by-products and protein concentrates used in the animal feed trade but also to the on-farm forages which may make up a considerable proportion of the diet of the dairy cow. It is this latter dietary component that is under consideration here but, in the first instance, it is worthwhile examining the importance of degradability overall, before considering the various aspects of forage protein degradability in particular.
7.2 The Effect of Forage Species and Stocking Rate on Protein Supply to the Duodenum of Cattle
Authors: Losada H. R. , Cammell S. B. , Beever D. E. , Austin A. R. 
Published: June 2019

Whilst the quantity and nature of the forage available to grazing ruminants is known to vary quite dramatically throughout the growing season, there are still surprisingly few data on the energy and protein value of such materials and, consequently, supplementation of such diets to maintain high levels of animal performance remains empirical.The recent development of portable equipment for the continuous intraruminal infusion of digesta markers (Corbett, Furnival, Inskip, Perez and Pickering, 1976; Evans, Hayes and Beever, 1981) and the automatic collection of duodenal digesta from T-piece cannulated cattle (Evans, Skelton and Beever, 1981) have, however, provided reliable means by which the flow of nutrients to the small intestine can be measured in grazing sheep (Corbett, Furnival, Inskip and Pickering, 1982) and cattle (Ulyatt, Beever, Thomson, Evans and Haines, 1980). The work reported in this paper is a continuation of the study commenced by Ulyatt et al. (1980), with the objective of this experiment being to examine the digestion of pure swards of perennial ryegrass and of white clover throughout the season when offered at two allowances to young growing cattle.
9.8 The Role of Forbs and Shrubs in the Nitrogen Intake of Grazing Livestock in the Accra Plains
Authors: Fianu F. K. 
Published: June 2019

Free ranging cattle in the Accra Plains of Ghana have an almost all grass diet during the rainy season when lush grass abounds (Fianu, 1966). Depending on the ecological status of the grassland, the prominent species include Andropogon gayanus, Brachiaria falcifera, Panicum maximum, Schizachyrium schweinfurthii and Vetiveria fulvibarbis. On bush fallows, grasses of lower successional status, e.g. Chloris and Digitaria spp., are grazed.At the start of the rainy season (March-April), the young herbage may contain as much as 2.8% N. As the plant matures, however, the N content declines rapidly below critical levels, e.g. 0.95-1.3% at 18 weeks (Fianu and Winch, 1980) and 0.6-0.8% at 38 weeks (Lansbury, Rose Innes and Mabey, 1965).Such mature grass is burnt in the dry season to induce a more nutritious flush but hard grazing and slashing also induce equally nutritious regrowth (Fianu and Winch, 1980).
Energy requirements and responses: a UK perspective
Authors: Reynolds C. K. , Beever D. E. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractOngoing improvements in the genetic merit of United Kingdom (UK) dairy cows as well as changes in the national milk market will increase awareness of and provide focus on the importance of balanced nutrition, particularly with respect to energy and protein. Within the UK, energy is rationed according to the metabolizable energy (ME) scheme, proposed in the 1960s and implemented in the late 1970s. Whilst a significant improvement over previous rationing systems, deficiencies in the scheme have been identified. These relate to an inability to predict animal response including the importance of nutritionally induced changes in milk composition, and to represent adequately body tissue mobilization in early lactation and the control of nutrient partitioning during the phase of tissue repletion. Some of these issues are addressed in this paper. These include the problems likely to occur in formulating rations for dairy cows producing in excess of 50 kg milk per day during significant parts of the lactation, which leads to an appraisal of some of the concepts embodied in the current ME system. By reference to appropriate experimentation, the importance of recognizing the nutrient composition of ME as well as the significance of nutrient metabolism in the portal drained viscera and the liver is established. The rôle of added fat within the diet is discussed, whilst the quantitative importance of mobilized body tissue to whole body energy metabolism and the interaction between specific nutrients is recognized. Finally, it is concluded that a complete revision of the ME system is unlikely at this stage and therefore it will be prudent to deploy available resource to modify the existing ME model in line with some of the inconsistencies and weaknesses that have been identified.
Protein and energy requirements and responses : a United States perspective
Authors: Satter L. D. , Dhiman T. R. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractA comparison of UK (Agricultural Research Council; ARC) and USA (National Research Council; NRC) feeding standards for dairy cows is made. The two standards appear similar in terms of food energy required for milk production, even though the ARC uses metabolizable energy and the NRC uses net energy. The two systems have the same basic approach to calculating protein supply, although ARC incorporates information on level of food intake in calculating rumen microbial protein synthesis and in estimating undegraded food protein. The maintenance requirement for protein is much less with the ARC system because NRC assigns a large maintenance charge to metabolic faecal nitrogen. The result is that ARC has lower dietary protein recommendations than NRC. Milk production response to incremental additions of energy (grain) or protein diminishes as the point of maximum response is approached. The most profitable level of energy and/or protein supplementation	is often	below	the supplementation level required for maximum milk production. More emphasis must be given to lactation studies for information to improve accuracy of the feeding standards and for construction of milk response curves to incremental additions of supplements.
Welfare considerations in future selection and management strategies
Authors: Webster A. J. F. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractThis paper considers the welfare implications of breeding, feeding and managing dairy cows for increased productivity. The physiological demands of lactation for the high genetic merit dairy cow are exceptional, less in their intensity and more in their duration. Most welfare problems can be attributed less to productivity per se than to systems of feeding, milking and management that are unsuitable to the genotype of the high yielding cow. These include the inadequacies of wet grass silage as a staple food and the abnormal restriction of cows to twice-daily milking. It is also necessary to consider welfare problems that may arise from the application of new technologies to increase milk yield or to increase the rate of genetic progress. These may be related to the process itself or to its consequences. It is proposed that the commercial exploitation of these new technologies should be controlled by legislation similar to that for the protection of animals used for scientific purposes which applies a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether the cost to the animal can be justified in terms of any potential benefit to society.