bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Divisions du jour et mesures horaires en allemand
Authors: Soltész Joseph A. 
Published: February 2018

A Sémantèse. Toute tentative de représentation et de mesure du temps présuppose qu’on s’est donné les moyens de les réaliser. A ces fins, se sont d’abord imposés à l’homme les phénomènes facilement et concrètement observables que sont les cycles naturels: l’incessante alternance du jour et de la nuit a permis la définition du concept de journée, le cycle lunaire celui de mois, le retour périodique des saisons celui d’année.On n’a pas à insister sur les avatars qui, dans l’histoire des civilisations, ont abouti à conférer à ces mots une valeur, une DURÉE stable. On se contentera d’observer que les progrès réalisés dans cette voie ont toujours été liés à ceux de l’astronomie. Ainsi, par exemple, fut-on de plus en plus en situation d’expliquer rationnellement les variations de la durée du jour ou de la course apparente du soleil, de corriger certaines inexactitudes (durée exacte de l’année solaire grâce à l’invention de l’année bissextile), de revoir la notion de mois (qui ne se calcule plus d’après le cycle lunaire), etc… Ce bref et très incomplet excursus montre à suffisance combien, dans l’esprit de l’homme, la représentation du temps est tributaire de la représentation spatiale.
French Phonology and Morphology revisited
Authors: Creore Jo Ann 
Published: February 2018

Sanford Schane’s monograph French Phonology and Morphology, published in 1968, was the first extensive treatment of that subject in a generative framework. Although its merits and faults have been discussed at length in reviews, the scarcety of subsequent contrasting analyses within the same framework would seem to imply that Schane’s study is essentially correct within that framework and/or that the subject matter itself holds no further theoretical interest for generative phonologists. The present paper challenges both of these implications. The discussion focuses on Schane’s formulation of the underlying vocalic system of French. Schane’s assumptions about phonological grammars, his analysis, and his methodology are open to question. Section 1 of this study discusses the concept “rule of grammar” as developed by Schane and considers possible alternatives. Inconsistencies of Schane’s analysis are illustrated in Section 2, while Section 3 demonstrates that the data which should offer the strongest support for Schane’s analysis in fact fail to do so. To the extent that Schane represents current phonological theory and practice, the criticisms voiced here have, of course, a wider application.The discussion focuses on Schane’s formulation of the underlying vocalic system of French. Schane's assumptions about phonological grammars, his analysis, and his methodology are open to question. Section 1 of this study discusses the concept “rule of grammar” as developed by Schane and considers possible alternatives. Inconsistencies of Schane’s analysis are illustrated in Section 2, while Section 3 demonstrates that the data which should offer the strongest support for Schane’s analysis in fact fail to do so. To the extent that Schane represents current phonological theory and practice, the criticisms voiced here have, of course, a wider application.
Essai sur l’imparfait latin et français
Authors: Tiffou Etienne 
Published: February 2018

IL ne saurait être question dans un article de faire un historique de la critique sur les problèmes soulevés par l’imparfait; on trouvera dans Imbs (1960) un état satisfaisant de la question, auquel on pourra se reporter avec profit. Notre but est d’essayer d’éclairer l’ambiguïté que l’on dénote dans l’imparfait en français. Pour ce faire, nous n’avons pas, du moins consciemment, voulu nous situer dans un système de linguistique particulier. Nous nous sommes contenté de donner une interprétation assez générale pour rendre compte des valeurs les plus insolites du temps que nous nous proposons d’étudier, et qui parfois semblent entrer en contradiction les unes avec les autres.D’une façon générale on caractérise l’imparfait comme ayant une valeur aspectuelle, c’est-à-dire comme un duratif passé, ou comme un passé inachevé, et accessoirement comme un itératif. Mais ces valeurs ne recouvrent pas toutes celles de l’imparfait et sont même en quelque sorte accessoires. L’opposition qu’il y a entre Il y a dix ans je travaillais comme garçon de course à Paris et Il y a dix ans j’ai travaillé comme garçon de course à Paris n’exprime pas seulement une opposition duratif-non duratif. Il est évident que là n’est pas la différence essentielle entre ces deux exemples. On sent le caractère complexe de l’imparfait, mais l’opposition de ces deux phrases ne permet pas de bien le cerner.
The measurement of interference in old texts
Authors: Danesi Marcel 
Published: February 2018

As Bott (1970: 217-19) points out, one of the most successful applications of computer to language research has been in the production of concordances—alphabetical lists of all the words in a written corpus followed by a reference system (i.e., page and line number) and a context (i.e., the line in which the word occurs). This valuable tool has greatly facilitated the description of the language of old texts.The literature on the synchronic problems related to languages in contact is abundant. However, the effects of borrowing on the formation of a language have not been studied in any detail mainly because (in our opinion) of the lack of appropriate analytical tools. Clearly, the diagnosis and examination of interference mechanisms in old texts is important not only for a complete historical description of a language at a particular stage in its development, but also as a means of understanding the nature of contact phenomena. With the advent of computer concordances this lacuna may soon be filled.
A note on reconstructions as evidence for linguistic theory
Authors: Hooper Joan Bybee 
Published: February 2018

G. L. Piggott’s paper “Implications of linguistic change for concrete phonology” does not present diachronic evidence in favor of a theory of phonology with abstract representations and derivations, as it claims, but rather reconstructs a hypothetical sequence of events. This reconstruction is based on a theory of phonology; that is, Piggott reconstructs a sequence of events that is consistent with the theory that he holds. It is not legitimate, therefore, to turn around and use this reconstructed situation as an argument for his theory. We return to this point below.A somewhat weaker point is in principle possible, and Piggott tries to make it also. This would be to show that some theory cannot provide an historical account of how a certain situation could have arisen. Note that all that is required here is that the theory provide sufficient machinery to produce a plausible reconstruction of a state of affairs. Piggott is quite correct in maintaining that this is a legitimate test of a theory. He argues that the theory he defends provides such an account of the examples he discusses, but that the theory of Hooper (1976), natural generative phonology, cannot provide such an account.
Old French Epenthesis and Syllabic Structure
Authors: Singh Rajendra 
Published: February 2018

In a provocative article in a recent issue of this journal, Walker (1978) accounts for Old French (OF) alternations of the type ancestre: ancessour, mendre: menour, prendre:prenons, and cosdre: cousons with a synchronic rule of consonant epenthesis given in (1) below:The purpose of this remark is to argue that even if OF can be said to have consonant epenthesis as a synchronic phonological process (for some convincing arguments to the contrary, see Morin 1980 [above in this volume]), Walker’s formulation of it leaves a lot to be desired.
Chapter I: The Aim, and the Method of Treatment
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert 
Published: February 2018

But that same Where (Space), with its brother When (Time), are from the first the master-colours of our Dream-Grotto; the Canvas (the warp and woof thereof) whereon all our Dreams and Life-Visions are painted.—CARLYLE, Sartor Resartus, 1830.When Kant in his investigation of the nature and validity of human knowledge in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) undertook an examination of the nature of Space and Time as the starting point in the discussion, he struck the path which all fruitful philosophical investigation has followed since. Since Space and Time are the two ‘forms’ within which the whole system of life and nature unfolds itself to the human mind, and are at the same time the ‘warp and woof on which man elaborates his mental sense-picture of the world, an examination of these two sense-forms should be the self-evident starting point in any true cosmic philosophy. Yet it seems to have taken something more than a century for the full significance of Kant’s method to sink into the general philosophical consciousness, and it is only in our own time that its fruits have begun to mature. What strikes one in the philosophical writings of the present century, whether starting from mathematics, or science, or pure speculation, is the common assumption in all of them that some exposition of Space and Time must form the foundation of any adequate treatment of the nature of the world, the human mind, and the structure of human knowledge. The title of Professor Alexander’s book, Space, Time, and Deity (1920), is symbolic of the modern point of view.
Chapter II: Two Old-world Theories of Language
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert 
Published: February 2018

Adam’s first task was giving names to natural Appearances: what is ours still but a continuation of the same?—CARLYLE, Sartor Resartus, 1830.What is now usually known as the ‘external divine-origin theory’ of language—a misnomer which arose from erroneous theological expositions of the narrative given in the early chapters of Genesis—has still an interest for the modern student; first, because of the prolonged influence which it has had upon language theory in the Western world; and second, because of certain significant facts regarding language which an understanding reader still finds in that old story of language origin, to say nothing of the poetic attractiveness of the story itself.
Chapter IV: Herder and the New World
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert 
Published: February 2018

In Being’s floods, in Action’s storm,I walk and work, above, beneath,Work and weave in endless motion!Birth and Death,An infinite ocean;A seizing and givingThe fire of living.’Tis thus at the roaring Loom of Time I ply,And weave the living Robe of Deity.GOETHE, Song of the Earth-Spirit, Faust, 1774.If pressed for an exact date of the true beginning of the scientific investigation of language, one would naturally think of the date of the publication of Johann Gottfried Herder’s prize essay on the Origin of Language, 1772. In passing from Rousseau’s essay to Herder’s—although they are separated by only twenty-two years, and by the distance between Paris and Strassburg—we step clearly over the threshold from medievalism into the new world of free philosophical investigation, into an atmosphere as clear as that in which Plato and Aristotle worked. Herder’s essay on language is the starting point for all the scientific work that has since been done on that subject, and has thus a very important historical significance in addition to its permanent scientific value. Its full significance, however, can be fully appreciated only in relation to the general scientific and philosophic thought of the time, and it will be necessary to digress for a few pages to describe the intellectual atmosphere in which Herder worked in the latter half of the eighteenth century in Germany.
Chapter III: The Organic Hypothesis
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert 
Published: February 2018

It is a long way from granite to the oyster; farther yet to Plato and the preaching of the immortality of the soul. Yet all must come as surely as the first atom has two sides.—EMERSON, Nature, 1841.How can purposive forms of organization arise without a purposive working cause? How can work full of design build itself up without a design and without a builder?—KANT, The General History of Nature, 1755.But there can be no reasonable doubt that living matter, in due process of time, originated from non-living; and if that be so, we must push our conclusion farther, and believe that not only living matter, but all matter, is associated with something of the same general description as mind in the higher animals. We come, that is, to a monistic conclusion, in that we believe that there is only one fundamental substance, and that this possesses not only material properties, but also properties for which the word mental is the nearest approach.—JULIAN HUXLEY, Essays of a Biologist, 1926.The organic hypothesis holds that the world was at no time of its evolution a merely purposeless mechanical world, in which matter was prior to mind in the time order. The real original world was already and always a world of matter, life, mind, and purpose, actual or latent. Matter on this hypothesis is regarded not as an independent substance in its own right, but as the means or material through which the life and mind of the world works itself out from its potential to its actual destiny. The life-force, or mind-force, or whatever we may call it in its earlier stages, works within the sensuous material of the world, and gradually shapes and moulds this material first into what we now call inorganic formations, and then, in the ripeness of time and environment, into those organic forms in which the lifeprinciple rises into recognizable living shapes, and emerges into actual objective existence.
Chapter V: Animal Intelligence and Expression
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert 
Published: February 2018

The goal of truth lies in a single point from which we can survey all sides and discover that no animal can invent language, that no God must invent it, and that man as a human being can and must invent it.—HERDER, Origin of Language, 1772.Since these animal cries have purposive significance similar to that of language, in what respect do they differ from language? I shall try to give a definite answer to this question.First, they are inarticulate while language is articulate. And what precisely does ‘inarticulate’ mean? It means (1) that these cries are not explicitly articulated sounds with clear-edged beginnings, middles, and endings, as are the word-sounds ‘h-a-p’ and ‘h-o-p,’ or ‘d-i-g’ and ‘d-i-p,’ so that one sound can be clearly and definitely differentiated from another; and (2), as a corollary to this, the sounds have no conventional meanings; that is, they are not invested each with an arbitrary and definite connptation quite apart from any natural sound-suggestion which they may have, so that one sound stands exclusively for one thing, another sound for another thing, as do the words of language like ‘wolf and ‘bear.’ In other words, the animals’ cries are natural cries as distinguished from the conventionalized sounds which we call words, and they have the characteristic vagueness or indefiniteness of significance which all natural sounds have. In this respect of natural vagueness of significance the cries of animals resemble the mechanical sounds in nature, though differing from these in expressing purpose.
Chapter XI: Last Step : Translation of Language from Time to Space
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert 
Published: February 2018

Words are fleeting in pronunciation, but permanent when written down.—BACON, Advancement of Learning.Statues of brass or marble will perish; and statues made in imitation of them are-not the same statues nor the same workmanship, any more than a copy of a picture is the same picture. But print and reprint a thought a thousand times over, and with material of any kind, carve it in wood or engrave it on stone, the thought is eternally and identically the same thought in every case. It has a capacity of unimpaired existence, unaffected by change of matter, and is essentially distinct and of a nature different from everything else that we know of or can conceive.—THOMAS PAINE, The Age of Reason.And now we come to the final step in the making of language. By the conventionalization of sound in oral speech, which is the actual language, man accomplished two things. First, he changed the vague suggestiveness of natural sounds into perfectly defined, articulated, limited sound symbols, that can be clearly differentiated from one another by the ear, as ‘rat,’ ‘cat.’ Second, by conventionalization he transformed the pure time symbols into space-time symbols, as in the sentence, ‘The bird sings,’ where ‘bird’ is a representation of space, ‘sings’ of time, though both are carried from the lips of the speaker to the ear of the listener upon the common substratum of sound, that is, time.
Traduction et ponctuation
Authors: Spilka Irène V. 
Published: February 2018

Si la traduction peut bénéficier des enseignements de la linguistique théorique, il est possible qu’à son tour, de par son ancrage dans la pratique quotidienne des langues en contact, elle parvienne à éclairer certains problèmes de langage. C’est donc un regard de traducteur que nous jetons sur la ponctuation.Longtemps celle-ci est demeurée l’affaire des grammairiens, des typographes et des pédagogues qui s’efforcèrent d’en régler l’usage, mais elle intéresse aujourd’hui les linguistes, habitués à observer, décrire, classer, expliquer, éventuellement désireux de rationaliser des habitudes fondées davantage sur la tradition que sur des principes explicites. La revue Langue française y consacre en effet une livraison, dirigée par Nina Catach, dont en guise d’introduction nous présenterons quelques articles susceptibles d’intéresser les traducteurs.Les auteurs anciens et modernes ne s’entendent guère sur la définition de la ponctuation. Selon Nina Catach, il faudrait retenir deux définitions, l’une “extensive,” l’autre limitée aux signes “intérieurs au texte, en général explicites, discrets, formant système” (1980:19), et qui sont “communs au manuscrit et à l’imprimé” (1980:21). La “ponctuation de mots” (blanc, apostrophe, trait d’union, trait de division) et la “ponctuation de texte” (alinéas et paragraphes, par exemples) viendraient alors compléter la “ponctuation de phrases” (virgule, points, etc.). La ponctuation ainsi comprise s’inscrit dns le cadre de l’ “orthotypographie, qui recouvre tous les aspects de l’orthographe …relevant essentiellement de l’autorité des ateliers d’imprimerie, et qui sont explicitement traités comme tels dans les codes et manuels typographiques” (1980:20).
Tlingit: An Object-Initial Language?
Authors: Dryer Matthew S. 
Published: February 2018

A number of early grammatical descriptions of Tlingit, a non-Athapaskan Na-Dene language spoken in southeast Alaska and in adjacent areas of Canada, describe the language as being OSV. Evidence is presented in this paper that Tlingit is not OSV.Until recent years, it was thought that of the six logically possible word orders of subject, verb, and object, only SOV, SVO, VSO, and VOS existed. (See for example Pullum 1977). Since then, however, evidence for the existence of object-initial languages has been presented by Derbyshire (1977) and Derbyshire and Pullum (1981). Almost all of the object-initial languages discussed by Derbyshire and Pullum are spoken in or near the Amazon basin in South America. There is to date no clear case of an object-initial language spoken outside of South America.
Serial Verbs and the Empty Category Principle in Krio
Authors: Nylander Dudley K. 
Published: February 2018

One of the principles of grammar introduced in Chomsky (1981) is the Empty Category Principle, which can be stated as follows:
(i)[α e] must be properly governed.Proper government, as defined by Chomsky, is of two types (see footnote 2). First, there is proper government by a lexical category of the [±N±V] type. In (2a), for example, the empty category (ei) is properly governed by the verb see, a lexical element of the [-N+V] type. Second, there is proper government by coindexation. In (2b), for example, the empty category in subject position (ei) is properly governed by the coindexed trace in COMP (ti).
Scale-and-Category analysis of Old English verbal groups
Authors: Cummings Michael J. 
Published: February 2018

The linguistic approach to historical grammar. Most published material on the subject of historical dialects of English takes little interest in syntax. In recent decades, however, a growing number of titles have attempted to approach the syntax of historical dialects from a structuralist viewpoint. Some of the best recent material uses a transformational model. It is the purpose of this paper to illustrate the application of the “Scale-and-Category” model to the Old English verbal group, and thereby to suggest the appropriateness of the Scale-and-Category model for a more complete synchronic description of Old English. The principles of Scale-and-Category grammar were published by Prof. M. A. K. Halliday in 1961. Since then a number of published works have described language on these principles, but the study to which this paper is most directly indebted is Prof. M. Gregory’s yet unpublished description of modern English.The principles of Scale-and-Category grammar were published by Prof. M. A. K. Halliday in 1961. Since then a number of published works have described language on these principles, but the study to which this paper is most directly indebted is Prof. M. Gregory’s yet unpublished description of modern English.
Morphemic classification of Old English adverb subsets
Authors: Peters R. A. 
Published: February 2018

The description of Old English adverbs found in OE handbooks and grammars is the traditional Greco-Roman one based on function, namely a listing of words that function as modifiers of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The result is a morphological classification based on syntactic function.In contrast, the classification of other OE parts of speech (verbs adjectives, pronouns, nouns) is based on paradigmatic sets marked by characteristic inflectional suffixes. One finds, therefore, inconsistency of classification and description. Whereas verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and nouns are identified as sets marked by morphemes of case, number, tense, etc., adverbs are identified as a set marked by function. However, it is possible to reclassify OE adverbs on a morphemic basis. This paper attempts to provide such an analysis, as well as a morphemic identification of characteristic subsets of OE adverbs.
Maintien duefinal dans l’évolution historique des mots du typefaireetmaireen français
Authors: Morin Yves-Charles 
Published: February 2018

Dans cet article nous présentons une nouvelle théorie pour rendre compte du maintien due[ə] final en ancien français dans l’évolution historique des mots suivants:Nous allons présenter d’abord les descriptions traditionnelles de ces évolutions, en précisant leurs limites, puis la solution de Fouché (1966), et enfin dans une troisième partie, notre propre solution.
A New View of to-Contraction
Authors: Frantz Donald G. 
Published: February 2018

All treatments of so-called to-contraction in English (Lakoff (1970), Bresnan (1971), Lightfoot (1976)) attempt to deal with this phenomenon entirely in terms of contiguity. The purpose of this squib is to point out that the major constraint on this phenomenon is rather one of subject coreference, and furthermore that this coreference condition is identical to that for a universal rule which I have called ‘equi-subject clause union’ (Frantz 1976).To illustrate, I will reconsider typical examples cited in discussions of this phenomenon, pointing out the relevance of coreference.