bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rondinini paintings rediscovered: A self-portrait by Paul Bril and a ‘witchcraft’ by Pieter van Laer
Authors: Giometti Cristiano , Lorizzo Loredana 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
The Rondinini family is important for having developed a well-defined taste in collecting during the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries, with an interest in ancient sculpture and painting staged in their palaces and villas in Rome and its surroundings. The most eminent artists active in seventeenth-century Rome worked for them. The paintings presented here are the most relevant examples of a great number of works that have re-emerged during a collaborative research project conducted by the universities of Florence and Salerno on the family’s contributions to the history of collecting. The first is a signed self-portrait by the Flemish artist Paul Bril, a pioneer amongst the landscape painters active in Rome between the late 1500s and early 1600s – a work of large size for the artist (110.0 x 81.5 cm); the second is a ‘witchcraft crowded with figures’ painted by Pieter van Laer, an eminent Dutch painter and leader of the group of masters called the ‘Bamboccianti’.
New Questions and Answers about Embodied Social Inequalities
Authors: Beckfield Jason 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
How might the political-sociological concepts reviewed in Chapter 1 contribute to the distribution of population health? To connect the dots, the author begins this chapter with a reconsideration of several established facts about social inequalities in health. Next, he discusses new evidence that establishes relationships between political-sociological structures and processes described in the last chapter, and social inequalities in health. Disease is distributed unequally within populations according to socioeconomic position (SEP), even after controlling for the many behavioral and other factors that affect health and are also—variably across institutional contexts—correlated with SEP. A consideration of political sociology helps us to explain these facts. Moreover, the political-sociological context also shapes the distribution of resources that matter for health.
What is—or, for that Matter, isn’t—‘Experimental’ Semantics?
Authors: Jacobson Pauline 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines the currently fashionable notion of ‘experimental semantics’, and argues that most work in natural language semantics has always been experimental. The oft-cited dichotomy between ‘theoretical’ (or ‘armchair’) and ‘experimental’ is bogus and should be dropped form the discourse. The same holds for dichotomies like ‘intuition-based’ (or ‘thought experiments’) vs. ‘empirical’ work (and ‘real experiments’). The so-called new ‘empirical’ methods are often nothing more than collecting the large-scale ‘intuitions’ or, doing multiple thought experiments. Of course the use of multiple subjects could well allow for a better experiment than the more traditional single or few subject methodologies. But whether or not this is the case depends entirely on the question at hand. In fact, the chapter considers several multiple-subject studies and shows that the particular methodology in those cases does not necessarily provide important insights, and the chapter argues that some its claimed benefits are incorrect.
Axiomatization in the Meaning Sciences
Authors: Holliday Wesley H. , Icard Thomas F. III 
Published: August 2018

AbstractWhile much of semantic theorizing is based on intuitions about logical phenomena associated with linguistic constructions—phenomena such as consistency and entailment—it is rare to see axiomatic treatments of linguistic fragments. Given a fragment interpreted in some class of formally specified models, it is often possible to ask for a characterization of the reasoning patterns validated by the class of models. Axiomatizations provide such a characterization, often in a perspicuous and efficient manner. This chapter highlights some of the benefits of providing axiomatizations for the purpose of semantic theorizing. Three examples from the study of modality provide an illustration of these benefits.
Interpretation and the Interpreter
Authors: Glüer Kathrin 
Published: August 2018

AbstractAccording to Donald Davidson, “what a fully informed interpreter could learn about what a speaker means is all there is to learn; the same goes for what the speaker believes” (Davidson 1983). This is a foundational claim about the nature of semantic properties: these are evidence-constituted properties. They are determined by the principle of charity on the basis of data about the behaviour of the speaker(s). But what exactly is the role of the interpreter in the Davidsonian account of meaning determination? Is she merely a dramatic device or an essential element of the metaphysical picture? This chapter investigates whether David Lewis’s (1983) distinction between natural and unnatural properties can help in answering these questions.
Expressing Expectations
Authors: Crespo Inés , Karawani Hadil , Veltman Frank 
Published: August 2018

AbstractThis chapter addresses a variety of topics: (i) conditionals (there is a third kind of conditionals, somewhere between indicatives and counterfactuals); (ii) relative gradable adjectives (how do they get their evaluative force?); and (iii) generic sentences (why aren’t they all equally general?). What these topics have in common is that one cannot explain the meaning—not even the logical properties—of the expressions concerned without explaining how they affect people’s expectations. This can best be done in a framework in which the meaning of a sentence is not equated with its truth conditions but with its (potential) impact on the intentional state of an addressee.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
The Second Law. The definition of entropy, and its mathematical properties. The Clausius inequality, and the criterion of spontaneity of change in an isolated system. Worked examples of heat flow down a temperature gradient, and the adiabatic expansion of a gas into a vacuum. Combining the First and Second Laws, with worked examples, such as phase changes. Introduction to the Third Law of Thermodynamics. Introduction to T,S diagrams.
Order, information and time
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
This chapter broadens the reader’s appreciation, and understanding, of entropy. Starting with the reader’s intrinsic recognition of the difference between an ‘ordered’ and a ‘disordered’ state, this chapter introduces the concepts of microstates, macrostates and thermodynamic probability, leading firstly to the Boltzmann equation, and then to the relationships between entropy and the flow of time, entropy and information, and Maxwell’s demon. Finally, this chapter introduces the less familiar topics of ‘thermoeconomics’ - the application of the principles of thermodynamics to economic systems – and ‘organodynamics’ – the idea that high-performing teams are systems which maintain a high degree of order, and low entropy, over time, without breaking the Second Law.
Electrochemistry
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
This chapter explores electrochemistry, from the fundamental observations associated with the Daniel Cell to redox reactions and the Nernst equation. As throughout the book, all the discussions are based on rigorous first principles, with each step carefully explained, and deduced logically from previous material. Topics covered include electrodes and electrode potentials, half-cells and half-cell reactions, electrochemical cells, the electromotive force, standard reversible electrode potentials, oxidising and reducing agents, redox reactions, and the half-cell Nernst equation, and the full reaction Nernst equation.
Degradation of organic matter
Authors: Kirchman David L. 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
The aerobic oxidation of organic material by microbes is the focus of this chapter. Microbes account for about 50% of primary production in the biosphere, but they probably account for more than 50% of organic material oxidization and respiration (oxygen use). The traditional role of microbes is to degrade organic material and to release plant nutrients such as phosphate and ammonium as well as carbon dioxide. Microbes are responsible for more than half of soil respiration, while size fractionation experiments show that bacteria are also responsible for about half of respiration in aquatic habitats. In soils, both fungi and bacteria are important, with relative abundances and activity varying with soil type. In contrast, fungi are not common in the oceans and lakes, where they are out-competed by bacteria with their small cell size. Dead organic material, detritus, used by microbes, comes from dead plants and waste products from herbivores. It and associated microbes can be eaten by many eukaryotic organisms, forming a detritus food web. These large organisms also break up detritus into small pieces, creating more surface area on which microbes can act. Microbes in turn need to use extracellular enzymes to hydrolyze large molecular weight compounds, which releases small compounds that can be transported into cells. Fungi and bacteria use a different mechanism, “oxidative decomposition,” to degrade lignin. Organic compounds that are otherwise easily degraded (“labile”) may resist decomposition if absorbed to surfaces or surrounded by refractory organic material. Addition of labile compounds can stimulate or “prime” the degradation of other organic material. Microbes also produce organic compounds, some eventually resisting degradation for thousands of years, and contributing substantially to soil organic material in terrestrial environments and dissolved organic material in aquatic ones. The relationship between community diversity and a biochemical process depends on the metabolic redundancy among members of the microbial community. This redundancy may provide “ecological insurance” and ensure the continuation of key biogeochemical processes when environmental conditions change.
The nitrogen cycle
Authors: Kirchman David L. 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
Nitrogen is required for the biosynthesis of many cellular components and can take on many oxidation states, ranging from −3 to +5. Consequently, nitrogen compounds can act as either electron donors (chemolithotrophy) or electron acceptors (anaerobic respiration). The nitrogen cycle starts with nitrogen fixation, the reduction of nitrogen gas to ammonium. Nitrogen fixation is carried out only by prokaryotes, mainly some cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria. The ammonium resulting from nitrogen fixation is quickly used by many organisms for biosynthesis, being preferred over nitrate as a nitrogen source. It is also oxidized aerobically by chemolithoautotrophic bacteria and archaea during the first step of nitrification. The second step, nitrite oxidation, is carried out by other bacteria not involved in ammonia oxidation, resulting in the formation of nitrate. Some bacteria are capable of carrying out both steps (“comammox”). This nitrate can then be reduced to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide during denitrification. It can be reduced to ammonium, a process called “dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium.” Nitrogen gas is also released by anaerobic oxidation of ammonium (“anammox”) which is carried out by bacteria in the Planctomycetes phylum. The theoretical contribution of anammox to total nitrogen gas release is 29%, but the actual contribution varies greatly. Another gas in the nitrogen cycle, nitrous oxide, is a greenhouse gas produced by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and archaea. The available data indicate that the global nitrogen cycle is in balance, with losses from nitrogen gas production equaling gains via nitrogen fixation. But excess nitrogen from fertilizers is contributing to local imbalances and several environmental problems in drinking waters, reservoirs, lakes, and coastal oceans.
The RcvP Model
Authors: van der Hulst Harry 
Published: August 2018

AbstractThe theory of phonological structure (called ‘Radical CV Phonology’) is first outlined in Chapter 2. This theory is a development of Dependency Phonology. The chapter introduces a theory of elements and minimal vowel representations based on the Successive Division Algorithm. Other topics of relevance are underspecification, markednes, and enhancement. The model of Radical CV Phonology functions as the theoretical background of the set of elements that are active in the harmony systems that will be analyzed in Chapters 4–10 and is, as such, of interest to readers who want to know why we have these particular elements.
Case studies of African tongue root systems
Authors: van der Hulst Harry 
Published: August 2018

AbstractThis Chapter presents a variety of case studies of tongue root harmony in African languages. These case studies are arranged according to language family membership. The cases selected are those which have occupied a significant place in the theoretical literature. The objective is to demonstrate that the theory developed here can handle the cases that other theories have been built on: Niger-Congo (Yoruba), Nilo-Saharan (Maasai, Turkana), Afro-Asiatic (Somali, Kera) among many others. The RcvP model demonstrated that it can deal with all harmony patterns that were discussed, including most extra complications that individual systems exemplify.
London
Authors: Roberts Richard 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
At the onset of the Global Financial Crisis in 2007 London was one of the two foremost global financial centres, along with New York. London experienced a 12 per cent fall in wholesale financial services jobs in 2008–9, but a recovery got underway in 2010 and London’s wholesale financial services sector staged a wavering advance. But now there were new challenges, in particular the avalanche of financial regulation coming from the UK, the EU, the US and the G20. Fintech engendered new uncertainties. The impact of Brexit was uncertain, but mostly expected to be negative, at least in the short-term. Furthermore, there was growing competition from Asian and other financial centres. Nevertheless, London remained pre-eminent as one of the two largest global concentrations of wholesale financial services activity and at the top of the Global Financial Centres Index.
Peace Pervades (Numa20.4–5)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O. 
Published: August 2018

AbstractIn a passage of summation like that from near the end of the Timoleon—see ch. 4—Plutarch lyrically depicts the peace brought to Italy (no less) by the early king of Rome Numa. The language rises; the imagery can be compared with poetic depictions of peace and prosperity. The passage can be compared, on either side, with the more down-to-earth depiction in Dionysius of Halicarnassus and with the extravagant adventures in imagery of a passage in Plutarch’s De Fortuna Romanorum. The philosophical implications of the passage in the Life are made clear, particularly through connection with Plato’s Republic.
The Terrible Retreat (Nicias26.3–6)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O. 
Published: August 2018

AbstractFor his treatment of Nicias, Plutarch’s most important Greek source is extant: Thucydides, seen as a supreme classic of Attic prose, in one of the most powerful parts of his work. One can see in detail how Plutarch transforms Thucydides’ non-rhythmic and very individual style to make his own climactic passage, on the Athenian retreat from Syracuse. The Thucydidean intertext is still meant to be perceptible after its Plutarchan metamorphosis. Plutarch is acutely aware that the reader will be comparing him and his great original; his treatment is perhaps more ambitious than he claims. The depiction here is reshaped to increase the emphasis on Nicias, and to achieve for him a temporary ethical redemption.
Cornelia Blames Herself (Pompey74.5–75.2)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O. 
Published: August 2018

AbstractAfter another major battle, that of Pharsalus, the response of husband and wife is compared: the defeated Pompey and his wife Cornelia. The wife’s speech is more emotional and more densely rhythmic; the husband is in a sense philosophical, but in fact fails to grasp political and philosophical reality, as he blithely ignores entropy. Rhythm helps to point up his error. The characters are compared; they also have ideas of their own biography. It is likely that Plutarch is reshaping and developing a moment in Livy; his development of Livy can be compared with Lucan’s. Homer is also probably an important intertext for both Plutarch and Lucan, in his presentation of marriage and of people’s narrative conception of their own lives.
A Father Struggles (Heliodorus 10.16.1–2)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O. 
Published: August 2018

AbstractEmotional conflict is elaborately and heroically portrayed in another part of Heliodorus’ finale. Contrast between the sexes, and some humour, enter in too. The king Hydaspes is torn between fatherly and patriotic urges. A wealth of imagery and bold use of language absorb the attention without rhythm—not that such means are lacking to rhythmic writers, but the impact of the whole is different: more sweeping, less sharply defined. The differences from Chariton are salient, and Chariton’s rhythm is much involved in them.
More Tears in Achilles Tatius (7.4.3–6)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O. 
Published: August 2018

AbstractA further passage shows the imagination and craft of Achilles Tatius taken to a still greater degree, as he depicts the hero Cleitophon at the terrible crisis of believing his beloved to be dead. The narrative is suspended as the writer develops, at remarkable length, a psychological and physiological observation on delayed effects. Where Heliodorus had heaped up imagery with abundance, Achilles develops with skilled organization a single line of thought and imagery, developing it and enriching it as he goes. Rhythm plays a vital part in this remarkable union of tight order and inventive imagination. The expansion and the deployment of science have a Plutarchan element; but the fantasy and the tautness create something quite different out of rhythm.
Virtual Work & d’Alembert’s Principle
Authors: Mann Peter 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses virtual work, returning to the Newtonian framework to derive the central Lagrange equation, using d’Alembert’s principle. It starts off with a discussion of generalised force, applied force and constraint force. Holonomic constraints and non-holonomic constraint equations are then investigated. The corresponding principles of Gauss (Gauss’s least constraint) and Jourdain are also documented and compared to d’Alembert’s approach before being generalised into the Mangeron–Deleanu principle. Kane’s equations are derived from Jourdain’s principle. The chapter closes with a detailed covering of the Gibbs–Appell equations as the most general equations in classical mechanics. Their reduction to Hamilton’s principle is examined and they are used to derive the Euler equations for rigid bodies. The chapter also discusses Hertz’s least curvature, the Gibbs function and Euler equations.
Autonomous Geometrical Mechanics
Authors: Mann Peter 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines the structure of the phase space of an integrable system as being constructed from invariant tori using the Arnold–Liouville integrability theorem, and periodic flow and ergodic flow are investigated using action-angle theory. Time-dependent mechanics is formulated by extending the symplectic structure to a contact structure in an extended phase space before it is shown that mechanics has a natural setting on a jet bundle. The chapter then describes phase space of integrable systems and how tori behave when time-dependent dynamics occurs. Adiabatic invariance is discussed, as well as slow and fast Hamiltonian systems, the Hannay angle and counter adiabatic terms. In addition, the chapter discusses foliation, resonant tori, non-resonant tori, contact structures, Pfaffian forms, jet manifolds and Stokes’s theorem.
Lagrangian Field Theory
Authors: Mann Peter 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
In this chapter, Hamiltonian field theory is derived classically via a Hamiltonian density, using the zeroth component of a 4-momentum density. In field theory, space and time are considered to be on equal footing but, in the canonical formalism, time is treated as being special and therefore, by definition, it is not covariant. Consequently, most field theoretic models are built on Lagrangian formulations. A covariant canonical formalism is the subject of the de Donder–Weyl formalism, which is briefly discussed as a covariant Hamiltonian field theory. In addition, the chapter examines the case of a generalised Poisson bracket in the continuous form for two local smooth functionals of phase space.
Differential Geometry
Authors: Mann Peter 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
This chapter is key to the understanding of classical mechanics as a geometrical theory. It builds upon earlier chapters on calculus and linear algebra and frames theoretical physics in a new and useful language. Although some degree ofmathematical knowledge is required (from the previous chapters), the focus of this chapter is to explain exactlywhat is going on, rather than give a full working knowledge of the subject. Such an approach is rare in this field, yet is ever so welcome to newcomers who are exposed to this material for the first time! The chapter discusses topology, manifolds, forms, interior products, pullback and pushforward, as well as tangent bundles, cotangent bundles, jet bundles and principle bundles. It also discusses vector fields, integral curves, flow, exterior derivatives and fibre derivatives. In addition, Lie derivatives, Lie brackets, Lie algebra, Lie–Poisson brackets, vertical space, horizontal space, groups and algebroids are explained.
The Elements of Relativity
Authors: Wittman David M. 
Published: August 2018

Abstract
Relativity is a set of remarkable insights into the way space and time work. The basic notion of relativity, first articulated by Galileo, explains why we do not feel Earth moving as it orbits the Sun and was successful for hundreds of years. We present thinking tools that elucidate Galilean relativity and prepare us for the more modern understanding. We then show how Galilean relativity breaks down at speeds near the speed of light, and follow Einstein’s steps in working out the unexpected relationships between space and time that we now call special relativity. These relationships give rise to time dilation, length contraction, and the twin “paradox” which we explain in detail. Throughout, we emphasize how these effects are tightly interwoven logically and graphically. Our graphical understanding leads to viewing space and time as a unified entity called spacetime whose geometry differs from that of space alone, giving rise to these remarkable effects. The same geometry gives rise to the energy?momentum relation that yields the famous equation E = mc2, which we explore in detail. We then show that this geometric model can explain gravity better than traditional models of the “force” of gravity. This gives rise to general relativity, which unites relativity and gravity in a coherent whole that spawns new insights into the dynamic nature of spacetime. We examine experimental tests and startling predictions of general relativity, from everyday applications (GPS) to exotic phenomena such as gravitomagnetism, gravitational waves, Big Bang cosmology, and especially black holes.