bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Urban Regional Regeneration
Authors: Granger Rachel C. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis entry traces the shifting balance in the political and definitional significance of regeneration. The role of a more proactive regeneration is examined as a significant area of activity that has emerged and dominated the regeneration landscape for the last two or three decades. While the entry begins by considering what regeneration means, how it evolved, and how it is interpreted, case study material is presented to assess the impact of the physical transformation of places through urban renewal, to the wider needs of urban and regional areas. This provides an important framework for discussing the contemporary critical issues and dilemmas now facing practitioners, and how this shapes the postrecession landscape.
Urban Social Movements
Authors: della Porta Donatella , Subirats Anna 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis entry addresses urban social movements as an actor of growing importance in urban governance. After describing urban social movements, the entry reviews some of the main interpretations of the conditions for the development of urban social movements as well as their characteristics in the most recent waves of protests. Issues of spatiality in social movement activities are also discussed. Finally, some suggestions for better integration of research on urban social movements in the broader field of contentious politics are put forward.
Urban Underclass
Authors: Perelman Mariano D. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

The concept
urban underclass
has been used to describe a group of individuals that are below the working class and are unemployable – that is, people who cannot earn their living by selling their labor. The concept is linked to marginalized ways of living in marginalized places of living (such as ghettos). The concept gained relevance at the end of the 1970s and over the following decade, especially in the United States. The concept has been used in different forms and has been defined in distinct ways. Scholars agree that there is no precise definition of the objects, processes, and problems it describes. New studies have brought fresh perspectives to the understanding of poor people's lives and contribute to an understanding that does not blame the poor for their condition. They suggest a structural and subjective scale in the understanding of urban poverty.
Urban Warfare
Authors: Spesny Sara León 
Published: April 2019

AbstractUrban warfare refers to a range of military operations conducted in cities. Cities have a political, economic, social, and cultural significance that are determinant in warfare tactics. When compared to other landscapes, the sociopolitical and infrastructural specificities of cities make them the most challenging of war operations. Urban violence has shaped the dynamics of cities around the world in different forms. As with all conflicts, urban operations have different origins, related to political, religious, drug‐war, racist, nationalistic, or terrorist and counterterrorist motives. Urban warfare impacts the political, economic, social, and urban aspects of cities, generating shifting dynamics. But beyond infrastructural and urban transformations, contemporary urban operations account for new local nonstate and international actors, such as increasing privatized parties and humanitarian organizations. Certain trends such as globalization, increasing connectivity, but also transnational terrorism and new conflicting parties make war and violence especially relevant to think about in contemporary urban landscapes.
Welfare Capitalism
Authors: Benassi David , Mingione Enzo 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The term “welfare capitalism” is used in two ways. On the one hand, it refers to the critical interpretations of the controversial impact of capitalism on social protection. From this point of view, the diffusion of capitalism creates a deficit of social protection. On the other hand, welfare capitalism is at the center of the field of study that has tried to explain the diversified features of the welfare state in different national contexts. Here, we explore the historical transition from preindustrial to industrial society and the link between capitalism and welfare. We then discuss different lines of interpretation of capitalist development and the consolidation of the welfare state in Western countries after World War II. Finally, we discuss the current relevance of the concept in a context of postindustrial transformations where social and economic change, globalization, and financialization are changing the connection between capitalism and welfare.
White Flight
Authors: Dilworth Richardson , Gardner Todd 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

The term “white flight” originated specifically with regard to school desegregation. Though Supreme Court decisions such as
Brown vs. Board of Education
(1954) and
Swann vs. Charlotte‐Mecklenburg Board of Education
(1971) should ostensibly have decreased segregation in schools,
Milliken vs. Bradley
(1974) made it possible for white parents living in a central city in which there was a large black population to avoid integration by moving to an outlying suburban school district in which there were very few, if any, black children. Most available evidence suggests that this is in fact what happened; the massive migration of African Americans from the Southern states to Northeastern and Midwestern cities after World War II was matched by the migration of white Americans out of those same cities and into the surrounding suburbs. Yet more recently, whites are moving back into cities while an increasing number of blacks are moving into the suburbs.
World City
Authors: Machimura Takashi 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The concept “world city” appeared in the realm of urban studies in the 1980s, as a term that theorizes emerging urban hierarchy in the era of globalization. Although it was originally based on a critical theory that pointed out the contradictions faced by modern cities, its main idea soon became used as a convenient policy package by the world's urban policy‐makers for selling the objectives and strategies of cities. Both as an analytic and political model, the world city held significant influence within a short period; however, the theory also endured much criticism and brought about controversy. Yet as globalization increased in scale and power, capitalism overtook the “world city” vision. What was subsequently revealed was the rather dull figure of the city, falling behind an ever accelerating society. A rethinking of the meaning of the world city as a new urban experience may now be needed.
Digital Cities
Authors: Stollmann Jörg 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The term “digital city” – like “smart city” – is an umbrella term advocating the implementation and distribution of information and communication technology (ICT) in the city. Even though the term itself lacks a clear definition, at the beginning, the digital city discourse emphasized citizen involvement, coproduction, and knowledge‐sharing. Today, where processes of digitization are increasingly steered by ICT companies and government programs, a reevaluation of this discourse brings to the fore the common agenda behind contemporary citizen‐led or citizen‐oriented digital tools supporting a more democratic urban development.
Urban Education
Authors: Eizaguirre Santiago 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Urban education refers to areas of research that explore the contextualization of educational problems in urban settings affected by social segregation. The concept originated and is commonly used in English‐speaking countries, especially the United States. In European academic literature, and especially in non‐English‐speaking countries, its use has been less evident. This entry considers the evolution of the concept in the United States and its presence in specifically European research. The contribution sketches the main current lines of research that situate the concept in relation to the study of spatial segregation and school choice, learning strategies in vulnerable contexts, the role of families and the community in school performance, and the adaptation of teaching staff to urban challenges.
Berlin
Authors: Holm Andrej 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Berlin is the capital of Germany. Because of its history of urbanization, Berlin possesses a polycentric urban structure. In the nineteenth century, the city emerged as a European prototype of effective urban administration and municipal self‐government. From large Wilhelminian tenements to world heritage sites of the early communal housing estates to the modernist buildings of the postwar period in the West and the socialist housing estates in the East, Berlin's history is still present in the built environment. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the city's reunification, Berlin had to undergo a comprehensive transformation of its urban structure.
Jacobs, Jane
Authors: Breske Ashleigh , Hirt Sonia 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Jane Jacobs was a renowned American Canadian author and activist, best known for her “commonsense” contributions to urbanism and urban planning. Her book
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
is considered one of the most significant books on urban planning policy ever written. In this book Jacobs advocated mixed‐use principles, retrofitting urban neighborhoods, and participatory planning. She also coined some important terms such as “sidewalk ballet” and “eyes on the street” to describe elements of successful, safe neighborhoods. These terms are still in use today. Jacobs also wrote several other highly influential books on urbanist, economic, and political topics throughout her long career.
Moving to Opportunity (MTO)
Authors: Rosenblatt Peter 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe federal Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing demonstration program (MTO) was designed to test the potential of public housing to provide an opportunity for poor families to change their lives by moving to better‐off neighborhoods. The program offered families a chance to move to low‐poverty neighborhoods and used an experimental design with a control group that allowed researchers to test prominent theories about the role that neighborhoods play in shaping life outcomes for adults and children. While initial outcomes were mixed, more recent analyses suggest that moving out of high‐poverty neighborhoods at a young age can have significant impacts on future earnings and college attendance. MTO also shows the need to learn more about the mechanisms that drive neighborhood selection among low income households.
New Urban Sociology
Authors: Gottdiener Mark 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The concept of a “new urban sociology” refers to a paradigm shift in urban sociology that began in the 1970s and established a dominant approach. This approach emphasizes Marxist and post‐Marxist urban political economy (class, race, gender, agenda‐setting major businesses in commerce, banking, and real estate, and the involvement of government officials at all levels in influencing, if not determining, the outcomes of social activities in settlement space), the independent role of organized and constructed space itself, as first articulated by Henri Lefebvre, and the role of culture, symbols, signs, themes, and processes of signification in settlement space activities. This entry covers the content of the new paradigm, its applications, its differences from the previous paradigm in sociology, and the ways in which important new work applies the dominant paradigm to current and future conditions in urbanized settlement space.
Olmsted, Frederick Law
Authors: Abbott Carl 
Published: April 2019

AbstractFrederick Law Olmsted was a central figure in the modernization of the United States and in the development of its cities. His variegated career overlapped with many of the important events and trends of nineteenth‐century America – agricultural reform, slavery and the Civil War, conservation, the World's Columbian Exposition, suburbanization, and, most centrally, the development of urban parks. Key projects included Central Park in New York, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, the Fenway in Boston, the town of Riverside in Illinois, and the grounds of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Olmsted is considered to have created the first fully professional landscape architecture firm in the United States; and he contributed to the development of theories of urbanization and urban life.
Race Riot
Authors: Lorr Michael J. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Race riots are periods of hostility and instability, usually caused by a public occurrence that has explicit or implicit racializing or racist meanings. Some examples of contemporary race riots are the 2014–2015 Ferguson, Missouri riots and the 2015 Baltimore, Maryland riots in response to Freddie Gray's killing by the police. Both of these recent examples created and reinforced the Black Lives Matter movement and the countermovements Blue Lives Matter and All Lives Matter. Prior to these riots, the 1992 LA riots occurred after the acquittal of the police officers in the Rodney King trial and the race riots of 1968 resulted from the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. After race riots there is an outburst of interest in studying why they occurred. For example, the 1968 race riots resulted in the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, also known as the Kerner Commission Report.
Simmel, Georg
Authors: Langman Lauren , Purifoye Gwendolyn 
Published: April 2019

AbstractWhile cities have existed for millennia, with the rise of modern capitalism the city became the center for the new, rational, exchange economy based on profits measured by cash values. Georg Simmel was one of the first sociologists to study the nature of the modern city, not only in terms of its architecture and commerce, but in terms of the culture of urban life and its relationship to the everyday lives of its people. Perhaps most notably, given the density of the populations, the busy streets and markets, and, increasingly, the proliferation of artificial lighting, the typical demeanor of the dweller of the metropolis was a blasé indifference which served as a protective mechanism from the overstimulation of urban life. Simmel's observations on urban life, the nature of objective and subjective culture, and the unique kinds of interactions specific to the city influenced a number of American sociologists.
Sociability
Authors: García Marisol , Tegelaars Michiel 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Sociability refers to different forms of social interaction and human association. The concept, in both descriptive and normative senses, can be found in many branches of study. In sociology the concept occupied a central place in the work of Georg Simmel, who developed and presented it as a sociological ideal type. He saw sociability as a pure form of association in which individuals interact with their material interests and passions held in abeyance for the sake of the mutual enjoyment of each other's company. After him a good many scholars have elaborated on the concept, either extending, criticizing, or attempting to measure it. In cultural and social historiography the concept of sociability has been used to focus on the many places and occasions and ways in which people have come together, spontaneously and voluntarily, outside the formal institutions of their societies. Modern views of sociability incorporate the concept in the study of Internet‐mediated social relations, in urban planning, and in the formation of newer concepts such as social capital and social cohesion.
Social Disorganization
Authors: Walker Jeffery T. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
There is perhaps no theory of urban environment specifically related to crime that was more successful in establishing new knowledge in a variety of fields than social disorganization theory. Developed within the burgeoning study of the urban environment, social disorganization theory drew from the disciplines of sociology, biology, urban affairs, and criminology. The work of Shaw and McKay was among the most influential of its time and spawned a line of research that remains strong and is growing in the twenty‐first century.
Spatial Inequality
Authors: Fischer Mary , Li Angran 
Published: April 2019

AbstractNeighborhoods reflect social inequalities, but also serve as locations for perpetuating inequalities because of the multiplex ways in which resources and opportunities are tied to spatial locations. This entry explores the theoretical perspectives and methodological techniques used to understand the relationship between social inequality and location in residential space. It also discusses some of the latest research on the intergenerational transmission of spatial inequality. It concludes by highlighting promising new policy directions to address place‐based social inequities.
Speakers' Corner
Authors: Roberts John Michael 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Speakers' Corner is located in the northeast corner of Hyde Park, London. This entry shows that its origins lie in Tyburn hanging tree, which, in early modern England, was also situated in the northeast corner of Hyde Park. Interestingly, many onlookers in the Tyburn crowd frequently rioted in favor of the condemned body, seeing the hanging spectacle as unjust. Tyburn therefore carved out a public space at Hyde Park for regular debate and discussion. While Tyburn was disbanded by 1783, nineteenth‐century social and political movements, for example Chartism, used this public space for radical forms of free speech. In 1872 the government passed the Parks Regulation Act, allowing people the right of “public address” in Hyde Park. Subsequent activists in the twentieth century subverted the meaning of “public address” by making it refer to a more inclusive and populist place for free speech, which gradually became known as Speakers' Corner.
Sunbelt
Authors: Rushing Wanda 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe sunbelt phenomenon resulted from a massive post‐World War II migration of people from the Northeast and Midwest to emerging metropolitan areas in the South and Southwest. As of 2015, all of the 11 large metropolitan areas in the United States with the greatest population gains are located in the sunbelt. These areas include four cities in Texas – Houston, Dallas, Austin, and San Antonio – and two in Florida – Tampa and Orlando. The emergence of a postwar economy based on high tech consumer electronics, research and development, aerospace, oil and gas extraction, and the growth of global tourism heightened interregional competition. The prospects of shorter and warmer winters and air‐conditioning‐cooled summers made the climate more welcoming to developing new industries and forms of prosperity in residential and industrial spaces. Population migration to the area has increased the national political power of Southern and Southwestern states. Although federal infrastructure investments laid the groundwork for the rise of the sunbelt, priming the South and the Southwest for postwar investment, these expenditures have fueled conservative opposition to government spending. The growth of binational cities on the sunbelt's border with Mexico and the influx of Latino/a immigrants have produced contentious debates about citizenship and foreign policy.
Code of the Street
Authors: Anderson Elijah 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Of all the problems besetting the poor inner city black community, none is more pressing than that of interpersonal violence and aggression. Simply living in such an environment places young people at special risk of falling victim to aggressive behavior. Although there are often forces in the community which can counteract the negative influences – by far the most powerful being a strong, loving, “decent” family committed to middle‐class values – the despair is pervasive enough to have spawned an oppositional culture, that of “the streets,” whose norms are often consciously opposed to those of mainstream society. Street culture has evolved what may be called a code of the street, which amounts to a set of informal rules governing interpersonal public behavior, including violence. At the heart of the code is the issue of respect – or “street cred” – loosely defined as being treated “right,” or granted the deference one deserves.
Weber,Max
Authors: Kemper Jan 
Published: April 2019

AbstractAlthough many textbooks name Max Weber as one of the field's canonical authors, what contemporary urban and regional studies actually owe him remains vague and contested. In contrast to other branches of social science, neither Weber's sociohistorical writing nor his sociotheoretical attempts launched an explicit or enduring Weberian tradition in research on cities, space, and society. Nevertheless, through his writings on the Western European medieval city or through his concept of class and social stratification, Weber has been influential. A “neo‐Weberian” strand in British urban studies, which flourished in the 1970s and 1980s, and, more recently, the discourse on the “European city” demonstrate that, despite the lack of a clearly formulated Weber paradigm in urban and regional studies, Max Weber's themes and concepts can be a point of departure for theoretical approaches to the city and for empirical methods of understanding urban social reality.
Broken Windows/Zero‐Tolerance Policing
Authors: Wolff Kevin T. , Intravia Jonathan 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Broken windows or zero‐tolerance policing is an aggressive policing strategy focused on enforcing minor crimes and public order offenses. Most commonly associated with the New York Police Department (NYPD), zero‐tolerance policing is often credited for the dramatic drop in serious crime that occurred in New York City during the 1990s. This entry begins by reviewing the theoretical propositions underlying this policing approach to crime and disorder. Next, the empirical findings related to the impact of zero‐tolerance policing on rates of crime are discussed. Following this, the potential for aggressive policing strategies to have unintended yet harmful consequences for both individuals and communities is summarized. The current entry ends with a discussion of future directions for policing more generally.
B
urgess,
E
rnest
Authors: Kivisto Peter 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Ernest Burgess (1886–1966) is chiefly known for his collaboration with Robert E. Park, the latter being viewed as the “ideas” person and Burgess considered the “details” person. While partially true, this oversimplifies the prominent role Burgess played in the institutionalization of sociology in America, his promotion of interdisciplinary work, and his contributions to injecting sociology into policy circles.
Global City
Authors: Jacobs Andrew J. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractGlobal citiesare expansive urban agglomerations of capital, firms, people, and infrastructure that have served as important centers of state authority, corporate governance, and culture. Moreover, each city‐region has its own unique political, economic, social, and geospatial context. Over the past 30 years, the growth patterns and functions of global cities have been chronicled in great detail by scholars. In addition, a torrent of studies have sought to uncover the primary determinants driving development outcomes in these vast conurbations. In the process, a hot debate has arisen over which areas should qualify as global cities and over the supposed convergence or continued diversity among them. As a result, those interested in studying the world's largest conurbations have a wide assortment of theories and empirical sites to choose from.