bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Decarbonizing Anthropogenic Activity: The Oil and Gas Industry is a Major Component of the Solution
Authors: Hastings Astley , Smith Pete 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The major challenge facing society in the 21st century is to improve the quality of life for all citizens in an egalitarian way, by providing sufficient food, shelter, energy and other resources for a healthy meaningful life, whilst at the same time decarbonizing anthropogenic activity to provide a safe global climate. This means limiting the temperature rise to below 2°C. Currently, spreading wealth and health across the globe is dependent on growing the GDP of all countries. This is driven by the use of energy, which until recently has mostly derived from fossil fuel, though a number of countries have shown a decoupling of GDP growth and greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector through rapid increases in low carbon energy generation. Nevertheless, as low carbon energy technologies are implemented over the coming decades, fossil fuels will continue to have a vital role in providing energy to drive the global economy. Considering the current level of energy consumption and projected implementation rates of low carbon energy production, a considerable quantity of fossil fuels will still be used, and to avoid emissions of GHG, carbon capture and storage (CCS) on an industrial scale will be required. In addition, the IPCC estimate that large scale GHG removal from the atmosphere is required using technologies such as Bioenergy CCS to achieve climate safety. In this paper we estimate the amount of carbon dioxide that will have to be captured and stored, the storage volume and infrastructure required if we are to achieve both the energy consumption and GHG emission goals. By reference to the UK we conclude that the oil and gas production industry alone has the geological and engineering expertise and global reach to find the geological storage structures and build the facilities, pipelines and wells required. Here we consider why and how oil and gas companies will need to morph into hydrocarbon production and carbon dioxide storage enterprises, and thus be economically sustainable businesses in the long term, by diversifying in and developing this new industry.
An Increasing Focus on the UK Oil & Gas Industry's Emissions Management
Authors: Thorne Robert , Mittal Raaghav 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
As a result of the 2016 Paris agreement, the challenge of climate change and the imperative of moving to a low carbon economy has intensified. This challenge has been added to the traditional objectives of affordable and secure energy sources. These three criteria are the basis for the Energy Transition. Increasingly, investors, consumers and policy makers are looking to energy businesses to reflect all these criteria as the basis of their company culture and objectives.
This paper looks to explore opportunities for the UK oil and gas industry to further align itself with the drivers set out above and continue to promote investment into a sector that is key to delivering the Energy Transition:
Improved communication of carbon reduction and mitigation efforts at both a national and global level Increased collaborative efforts aimed at reducing emissions resulting from exploration and production offshore The potential for UKCS oil & gas companies’ involvement in carbon mitigation and storage
Over recent years, the offshore UKCS oil and gas sector has focused on improving cost efficiency in its offshore operations. This implies a commitment to continuously improve environmental performance despite the challenges of doing so in a maturing oil and gas basin, where maximising economic recovery from fields requires greater effort. Notwithstanding these challenges, the overall long-term trends in environmental performance are improving as a result of efforts by the industry.
Moving forwards, the benefits of effective emissions management will continue to intensify, beyond the regulatory requirements of environmental protection, as a result of two key drivers:
To maintain investor and public confidence – reducing both the carbon footprint of operations and carbon intensity of products used by consumers, will help position companies for a lower carbon economy. The business case - EU ETS Phase IV is modelled to cost the sector £2.2 billion from 2021 to 2030 as the cost of allowances is projected to increase combined with the reduction in free allowances. Therefore, reducing emissions at installations will continue to be imperative for improved environment performance as well as the continued economic viability of the installation.
The sector must therefore continue to adapt to these ongoing fundamental changes that are taking place in energy supply more widely. As with any industry, businesses need to respond to shifting economic and societal demands and the consequent changes in energy needs. Hence, the effective management of emissions must proliferate through both operations (exploration, production and transportation of hydrocarbons), and use of the products delivered.
Depositional Behaviour of Highly Macro-Crystalline Waxy Crude Oil Blended with Polymer Inhibitors in a Pipe with a 45-Degree Bend
Authors: Makwashi Nura , Barros Delcia Soraia , Sarkodie Kwame , Zhao Donglin , Diaz Pedro A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Production, transportation and storage of highly waxy crude oil is very challenging. This is because they are usually characterised by high content of macro-crystalline waxes, predominantly consisting of n-alkanes (C18 to C36) that which could cause costly deposition within the wellbore and production equipment. The accumulation of deposited wax can decrease oil production rates, cause equipment breakdown, and clog the transport and storage facilities. Currently, different polymeric inhibitors have been utilised in the oil and gas field to mitigate and prevent wax deposition. However, as of today, there is no distinctive wax inhibitor that could work effectively for all oil fields. One of the objectives of this work is to study the efficacy of a blended commercial wax inhibitor - pour point depressant on wax deposition mitigation in a flow rig designed with 0 and 45-degree bends in the pipeline.
Standard laboratory techniques using high-temperature gas chromatography (HTGC), rheometer rig, polarized microscope and elution chromatography were employed to obtain n-paraffin distribution, oil viscosity, WAT, pour point and SARA fractions. Series of experimentation were carried out with and without the inhibitor in a straight pipe test section. The severity of wax deposition in the pipeline built-in with a 45-degree bend is compared with a straight pipe. The blended inhibitor was tested at concentrations of 500, 1000, and 1500-ppm, under laminar and turbulent conditions. The crude oil sample was found to be naturally waxy with wax content of 19.75wt%, n-paraffin distributions ranges from C15-C74, WAT and pour point of 30°C and 25°C respectively. The severity of wax deposition in the test section is 43% higher in 45-degree bend compared to straight pipe. However, the severity of the deposition was reduced to 12.3% at extremely low temperature and flow rate. Nonetheless, better inhibition performance was achieved at 25 and 30°C. The wax thickness was reduced from δwax ≈ 0.36mm at 5 l/min to δwax ≈ 0.132mm at 7 l/min at constant coolant temperature (25°C) and 1500-ppm, whereas, no wax deposition was observed at 11 l/min. Mechanisms such as molecular diffusion due to frictional pressure losses, shear dispersion and gravity settling due to momentum change and hydrostatic, alongside with thermal difference are the main drivers for wax deposition in both straight and bend pipe. Whereas, the interaction mechanisms such as the nucleation, alongside with adsorption, co-crystallization, and solubilisation between the new blended inhibitor and the wax crystals provide an improved inhibition performance in the system even at extreme cases.
Solutions for Seal Gas Leakages Recovery in Methane Compression: Integration into Processing Lines or Gas Valorization Systems
Authors: Conforti Filippo , Scarbolo Luca , Cipriani Sergio , Falsini Matteo 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Recovery and valorization of wasted gas associated to methane processing (i.e. leakages from rotating equipment and flared gas) has usually been avoided due to the inherently limited amount of gas of these streams. Moreover, the technical complexities are further enhanced when applied to aging infrastructures and old compression unit designs, making the solution complex and less cost-effective.
However, emission control regulation is progressively limiting the atmospheric release of gases from the hydrocarbon production and processing. These requirements have triggered the development of new technical solutions to limit even small gas streams typically neglected in the past. Typical examples of small leakages tolerated in gas processing are associated with the Dry Gas Seals (DGS) primary vents. The limited amount of gas released did not justify a recovery system, leaving flaring as the only viable option.
In this paper, the technical solutions for compressor DGS primary vent recovery are presented, with further discussion on the integration into the gas process. Financial sustainability of the solutions is also presented, with the analysis of two selected cases. The presented solutions are designed to reflect the positive impact of wasted gas reduction, contributing to reaching environmental sustainability targets in oil and gas.
Integrating First Principles-Based Approaches into the Routine Design Practice for Offshore Consequence Analysis and Operational Troubleshooting Assessments
Authors: Plikas Tom , Shah Umesh , Ghorbani Hamid , Sharpe Iain , Massey Kent 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Significant advancements in physics-based model development, software workflow practices, multi-core processing and cost-effective cloud computing has enabled the adoption of high fidelity, three-dimensional (3D) modeling such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD), finite element analysis (FEA), and other first principles-based analyses into normal engineering design practices. Historically, integration of these tools into the standard engineering workflow was challenging due to the excessively long turnaround times to deliver any results.
Three Case Studies are subsequently presented where 3D modeling analysis was used early and seamlessly in the engineering design process to solve problems related to consequence analysis and equipment operational performance:
Case 1) Risk assessment of pilot flame extinguishment due to inert gas discharge from the flare of an FPSO,
Case 2) Jet dispersion analysis from HP/LP flare to assess hydrocarbon and H2S concentrations at critical locations on the platform, including results comparison between CFD results and a conventional dispersion tool – Flaresim, and,
Case 3) Solving a fatigue induced cracking problem on the cooling water circuit of a heat exchanger using an integrated workflow consisting of CFD modelling of the cooling water, stress analysis using FEA, and structural integrity assessment per ASME BPVC VIII Division 2.
The modelling results from these case studies were generated in timeframes similar to those using conventional engineering calculation methods, and thus allowed for prompt integration into the engineering design process without impacting project schedules and delivery. Moreover, the costs to perform these modelling analyses were not substantially greater than the costs associated with conventional calculation methods, thereby providing high value to the engineering projects.
Developing Nanocomposite Gels from Biopolymers for Leakage Control in Oil and Gas Wells
Authors: Yudhowijoyo Azis , Rafati Roozbeh , Sharifi Haddad Amin , Pokrajac Dubravka , Manzari Mehrdad 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Crosslinked polymer gels have been widely used to overcome water and gas coning problem in the petroleum industry. Recently, nanoparticles are identified to have a potential of reinforcing the polymer gel systems by improving physical bonding and heat transfer properties in the gel structure. In this study, silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide nanoparticles were introduced to xanthan gum polymers that were crosslinked by chromium (III) acetate, to create polymeric nanocomposite gels with higher shear strengths. The gelation time and gel strength have been selected as main parameters to evaluate the effect of nanoparticle types and concentrations on the nanocomposite gels performance. The gelation time is measured until the onset of gelation or the moment when apparent viscosity starts to increase at 60°C. The gel strength is represented by the storage modulus (G’) after 24 hours of gelation at 60°C. Both parameters were measured by a rheometer, through constant shear rate and oscillatory tests respectively.
The addition of 1000 and 10000 ppm of silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanoparticles into a solution of 6000 ppm xanthan gum polymers that are crosslinked with 50000 ppm chromium (III) acetate caused insignificant changes in gelation time. Similar result was also reported when 1000 and 10000 ppm of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) nanoparticles was introduced into the polymer system. This suggests that when SiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles are introduced to xanthan/chromium (III) Acetate system for field application, no additives would be required to prolong or shorten gelation time to counter the nanoparticles addition. To analyse the gel strengths, the results from the oscillatory test were averaged throughout the frequency range, and it was shown that the addition of SiO2 nanoparticles decreases the average storage modulus from 75.1 Pa without nanoparticles, to 72.3 Pa at the nanoparticles concentration of 1000 ppm. However, the average storage modulus increased to 83.0 Pa and 94.7 Pa at higher nanoparticles SiO2 concentrations of 5000 ppm and 10000 ppm. The same trend was observed for the nanocomposite gels that were produced by Al2O3 nanoparticles. Similarly, the storage modulus decreased initially to 70.8 Pa at the concentration of 1000 ppm, then it increased to 89.9 Pa and 109.4 Pa at nanoparticles concentrations of 5000 pm and 10000 ppm, respectively. Hence, the nanoparticle-enhanced biopolymer gels showed insignificant changes of gelation time, and at the same time, they demonstrated up to 45% improvements in the gel strength properties when the nanoparticles concentration is higher than 5000 ppm.
In conclusion, the nanocomposite gels demonstrated reinforced bonding properties and showed higher gel strengths that can make them good candidates for leakage prevention from gas wells and blocking of water encroachments from aquifers into the wells.
A Fractal Approach to the Modelling and Simulation of Heterogeneous and Anisotropic Reservoirs
Authors: Glover Paul W. , Lorinczi Piroska , Al-Zainaldin Saud , Al-Ramadhan Hassan , Sinan Saddam , Daniel George 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
New reservoirs are increasingly more heterogeneous and more anisotropic. Unfortunately, conventional reservoir modelling has a resolution of only about 50 m, which means it cannot be used to model heterogeneous and anisotropic reservoirs effectively when such reservoirs exhibit significant inter-well variability at scales less than 50 m. This paper describes a new fractal approach to the modelling and simulation of heterogeneous and anisotropic reservoirs. This approach includes data at all scales such that it can represent the heterogeneity of the reservoir correctly at each scale.
Three-dimensional Advanced Fractal Reservoir Models (AFRMs) can be generated easily with the appropriate code. This paper will show: (i) how 3D AFRMs can be generated and normalised to represent key petrophysical parameters, (ii) how these models can be used to calculate permeability, synthetic poro-perm cross-plots, water saturation maps and relative permeability curves, (iii) the effect of altering controlled heterogeneity and anisotropy of generic models on fluid production parameters, and (iv) how AFRMs which have been conditioned to represent real reservoirs provide a much better simulated production parameters than the current best technology.
Results of generic modelling and simulation with AFRMs show how total hydrocarbon production, hydrocarbon production rate, water cut and the time to water breakthrough all depend strongly both on heterogeneity and anisotropy. The results also show that in heterogeneous reservoirs, the best production data is obtained from placing both injectors and producers in the most permeable areas of the reservoir – a result which is at variance with common practice. Modelling with different degrees and directions of anisotropy shows how critical hydrocarbon production data depends on the direction of the anisotropy, and how that changes over the lifetime of the reservoir.
We have developed a method of fractal interpolation to condition AFRMs to real reservoirs across a wide scale range. Comparison of the hydrocarbon production characteristics of such an approach to a conventional krigging shows a remarkable improvement in the modelling of hydrocarbon production when AFRMs are used; with AFRMs in moderate and high heterogeneity reservoirs returning values always within 5% of the reference case, while the conventional approach often resulted in systematic underestimations of production rate by over 70%.
Pressure Safety Valve RBI - Using Half a Billion Hours of Data
Authors: Morgan John 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This paper explains how half a billion hours of service data for pressure safety valves (PSVs) can be analysed and presented to allow optimisation of maintenance intervals and manage the inspection of PSVs. The large amount of data creates challenges, but also opportunities for an enhanced methodology expandable to other equipment types.
A methodology has been developed that uniquely combines qualitative and quantitative analysis. The latter ensures that the risk from PSV failure is determined and below set criteria. The drawback with this criterion alone would be that it is based on average data from a large set of PSVs and the average may not be applicable everywhere especially if failures are not random, but have an underlying, potentially unknown, cause. Therefore, each PSV is also qualitatively assessed. To bridge the gap between individual PSVs and "large sets", groups of PSVs are also identified in the methodology and data for them is collated and used within the whole group; the careful analysis required to define the groups, which must have similar properties, or performance, is described. This multi-layered assessment gains the most information possible from the data. The key part of the process is also to present this data for review and analysis, and this is achieved through a digital, cloud-based interactive dashboard.
The analysis has shown that maintenance intervals can be reduced significantly, but simultaneously risk reduced by concentrating effort on the worst-performing PSVs. Not least, a dashboard presentation of the risk-based inspection (RBI) showing the calculated inspection interval, changes to the intervals and failures allows a clear picture to be developed of PSV performance. Maintenance planning also becomes easier and information required for deferral assessments is available in seconds rather than hours. The analysis shows where poorer performance can occur, this is often applicable across different assets. The way in which the approach can be expanded to other equipment types will be described.
The novel approach in the assessment is the multi-layered combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis and the presentation of a large amount of data through the cloud to be used by maintenance teams, technical authorities and operators. It also shows the benefits of collecting half a billion service hours of data and that this need not be an onerous task.
Remote Sensing for Leak Detection and Quantification
Authors: Amin Laith 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Offshore oil and gas installations are (by their nature) located in remote locations that are both difficult and costly to access. While such challenges exist, the operate & maintain requirements associated with such assets are consistent and must be addressed, requiring operators to identify the most efficient form of service to reduce staffing levels, risk and cost.
Offshore hydrocarbon production assets commonly incorporate equipment and processes that can lead to significant (fugitive) gas emissions. The consequences are both economic and social (environmental) in nature, requiring operators to perform emissions surveys with the objective of leak identification and remediation within the shortest possible timeframe. The frequency of this activity is naturally limited and must be balanced with the staffing and operating needs of the broader facility, which in-turn can lead to sub-optimal leak detection to fix timing and reliability.
Addressing the three key challenges of access productivity, detection reliability and results quantification, Worley has developed a remote sensing platform that incorporates the use of productive remote access equipment such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and in-situ monitoring, with machine based emissions detection and algorithmic quantification to provide a solution that allows the operator to increase survey frequency, obtain more reliable results at lower cost, and perform the work in a manner consistent with safe and low-risk operations.
In both testing and field deployments, the results have provided for significant reductions in both false positive and negatives and have produced datasets that allow for accurate indications of greenhouse gas reduction via comparison of volumetric emissions before and after leak repair activity has taken place.
The technology is largely mathematical, utilizing coded routines for machine learning to perform gas detection under (initially) supervised modeling conditions, and algorithmic gas dispersion models for further emission quantification. The performance of the survey is typically carried out through the integration of existing, proven manufactured sensing equipment across several types of UAV or in-situ monitors which collect field data for transmission to a cloud-based portal which further processes the results.
The approach has been shown effective in accessing hard or costly to reach areas, improving survey productivities, while the data processing and quantification allows the operator to benefit from improved measurability and prioritize leak repair accordingly.