bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Simulation and Simulacra
Authors: Langman Lauren 
Published: April 2019

AbstractFor a number of social theorists, the contemporary “postmodern” era is constantly bombarded by and defined by an endless barrage of mass‐mediated simulations, contrived, mass‐produced representations of a “reality” when an original may have never existed. Billboards, movies, and television, along with cell phones, tablets, and computers also provide never‐ending streams of simulations, dreams, and images. These simulations are largely a product of advertisers, marketers, political consultants, and even journalists, who create and disseminate the spectacles and simulations of “hyperreality.” Indeed, we have now reached a moment that many political commentators have called a “posttruth” era in which “truthiness” has displaced “objective reality” and “fake news” is unquestioned.
Social Enterprise
Authors: Pinch Steven , Sunley Peter 
Published: April 2019

AbstractSocial enterprises (SEs) are commercial ventures run for the benefit of various stakeholders (rather than shareholders) that attempt to leverage resources (ideally through trading, but also through grants, loans, and donations in kind) to achieve social, environmental, or community‐based ends. As SEs have grown in significance throughout the world, so they have attracted a growing body of academic research. Recent work has revealed much about the distinctive characteristics and tensions of SE. SEs are strongly shaped by their institutional and social contexts and face a complex set of obstacles and challenges.
Sociospatial Dialectic
Authors: Sheppard Eric 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe sociospatial dialectic conceptualizes the complex interrelationship between social and spatial structures, whereby the spatialities produced by societal processes themselves have causal influence over those processes. Developed initially as a foundational concept for geographical political economy, underwriting a distinctive approach to that of mainstream urban and regional economics, it has framed the emergence of sociospatial theory in both the interdisciplinary social sciences and the humanities.
Spatial Planning Systems
Authors: González Pérez Jesús M. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Spatial planning is an administrative technique and a broader policy developed at different scales, which goes beyond land‐use regulation by including economic, social, and environmental development policies. It comprises a complex system of different levels of plans that adhere to the principle of hierarchy of norms. In the main, planning is binding and is seen as a public service. It has reached its highest level of development in Europe.
Street Gangs
Authors: Jones Gareth A. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractGangs feature prominently in popular culture, in novels, songs, and more recently film and video games. The serious study of gangs, however, only took off in the 1920s following interest from the Chicago School of sociology. In their analysis, gangs were a sign of social disorganization as a result of rapid urbanization. These early studies located gangs in particular spaces, notably the street corner and “slum” neighborhood, but also linked them with social and political institutions. More recent studies have emphasized the gang as a complex social phenomenon and have noted the evolution of individual gangs, occasionally including a transnational dimension and links with terrorist and criminal organizations. Contemporary research is attentive to the economics of gangs, gender, and social identity, and to the uses and effects of violence. Finally, the paper considers some of the policy approaches to gangs, especially in the Global South.
Theme Parks
Authors: Krase Jerome 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
When most people hear the phrase “theme park” they envision a place where large numbers of people choose to gather to indulge themselves by following their own desires and interests. For them, a theme park is a happy place that maximizes individual freedom. English‐language dictionaries define “theme parks” rather simply as amusement parks that are organized around a single or central idea. The structures and settings as well as the rides and other attractions offered to the public represent those unifying concepts. At a more abstract level the spatial and social designs of theme parks define, and control, important relations between people and the spaces they occupy. Many social critics and urbanists negatively view the global influence of theme park principles on modern social life. These principles, such as intense surveillance and the “taming” of public spaces, seem to have had considerable impact on city planning, urban development, and related tourism strategies.
Urban Design
Authors: Larice Michael 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Urban design is the conscious process of shaping places for human settlement. It is a collaborative undertaking by the various built environment professions, including architecture, planning, landscape, engineering, real estate development, and urban governance. Increasingly it is impacted by citizen interests to improve the liveability of the city. As a field of practice, rather than a discrete profession, its historical development is debated between academics and followed different development paths in Europe and the USA. Urban design outcomes can be distinguished by several categories: design procedure, product type, and design paradigm. Principles that influence urban design include: formal, functional, sociocultural, and environmental.
Urban Mosaic
Authors: Collins Francis L. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The urban mosaic is a term and analytical category that addresses the differentiation of urban populations and environments through social status, ethnicity, and lifestyle. As an account of urban life it can be traced to the patterning of preindustrial and colonial cities but has been used most extensively in human ecology approaches to understanding migration and urbanization in the twentieth century. While an emphasis on the urban mosaic still highlights differentiation, its relatively static conception of urban life means it is limited as a terminology for understanding contemporary cities characterized by contingent and dynamic interactions between people and places.
Urban Renewal
Authors: Zumelzu Antonio 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This entry examines urban renewal as a relevant and complex process in urbanism, encompassing different aspects of intervention in deprived neighborhoods. Urban renewal is defined by various perspectives, followed by an overview of urban renewal regarding its emergence, changes, and evolution, within the three historical generations proposed by Naomi Carmon. The entry also considers the relation between urban renewal and sustainability through four essential perspectives: physical, social, economic, and environmental. It finishes with a brief discussion of future research challenges in sustainable urban renewal studies.
Urban Sustainability
Authors: Dooling Sarah 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Urban sustainability emerged as a political and social movement following the 1987 publication of the Brundtland Report. This entry presents a brief history about the origins of urban sustainability in Western thought. Urban sustainability is broadly defined as an approach that reconciles development practices that exploited people and polluted environments with the need for protecting the environment and alleviating poverty. The entry discusses urban sustainability indicators and plans within the North American context. The last section presents three major contradictions that emerge when developing and implementing urban sustainability initiatives within current economic systems and governance structures.
Urban Wildlife
Authors: Reyes‐Paecke Sonia 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Urban wildlife
refers to all native animals seeking food and shelter in urban and suburban areas, including birds, mammals, reptiles, arthropods, amphibians, fish, and aquatic invertebrates, but excluding domestic and exotic animals. Urban wildlife presents behavioral changes in feeding, nesting, and shelter with respect to wild populations, and its abundance and diversity are favored by tree cover, vegetation diversity, and native vegetation cover. Urban wildlife is classified as urban exploiters, urban adaptors, and urban avoiders: urban exploiters use anthropogenic resources for food and shelter, reaching large densities in city centers, urban adaptors can use some anthropogenic resources and have been more abundant in suburbs and residential areas, while urban avoiders are restricted to urban fringes. Urban wildlife also provides ecosystem services (e.g., pollination, pest control), but can be a source of conflicts with humans because some species can be seen as a nuisance for property or people.
Amsterdam
Authors: Musterd Sako 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Amsterdam is a pragmatic, entrepreneurial city, characterized by its reputation of openness and social justice, by the unique built environment – marked by the canals and their prestigious buildings – and by its global interconnectedness. However, Amsterdam also has its darker side. Currently, there are a couple of important challenges the city has to deal with if it intends to maintain its positive image. Globalization and liberalization may bring new opportunities to the city, but they also threaten its special and unique character, and the inequality that comes with them may undermine the city's reputation for being a home for all social classes.
Resilient Cities
Authors: Godschalk David R. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractResilient cities survive traumatic blows, successfully recovering from major disasters. Resilience is a planning goal and a metaphor for the community that effectively responds to catastrophic stress. Its importance has increased with the increased frequency and severity of natural, technological, and other hazards. Building urban resilience requires advance planning, community organization, resourceful leadership, and robust physical and social infrastructure.
Structurally Weak Rural Regions
Authors: Mayer Heike , Habersetzer Antoine 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Structurally weak rural regions are defined as regions that face a multitude of socioeconomic disadvantages resulting from dynamics such as out‐migration, aging of the population, labor shortages, economic transformations of traditional sectors, and a weak endowment with organizations that may help alleviate these problems. Due to societal shifts and large‐scale migration to urban areas, structurally weak rural regions, in both the Global North and Global South, face important development challenges. New rural paradigm policy approaches aim at responding to these challenges by strengthening endogenous and sustainable development potentials of local businesses, improving public services, especially ICT infrastructure, and by preserving and valuing ecological and cultural amenities. As a response to modernization approaches, the new rural paradigm argues for a holistic perspective on rural development, which encompasses a broader set of values and highlights qualitative aspects of development.
Urban Studies
Authors: Paddison Ronan 
Published: April 2019

AbstractDefined by its multidisciplinarity, “urban studies” is an umbrella term encompassing the study of cities from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, mainly those in the social sciences but also stretching into the humanities. Its multidisciplinary nature is both a source of strength – in contributing to the richness and vibrancy of urban analysis – and also a challenge to developing more interdisciplinary forms of analysis able to confront the complexities of cities. The recent resurgence in urban research reflects wider trends, deepening globalization, and a reappreciation of the centrality of cities in contemporary life. A defining feature of the field is the eclecticism of the different theoretical and methodological perspectives which are used to explore the urban condition.
Apartheid
Authors: Mphambukeli Thulisile N. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The term “apartheid” has been used to advance arguments about South African particularism. These arguments perpetuate a normalizing behavior and thinking about apartheid as the sole process that fashioned South Africa's unconventional practices of urbanism. Apartheid's legacies on the spatial landscape of South Africa have persisted through more than two decades postapartheid. They have not only proved to be one of the country's more pressing and irreparable challenges, but also confirmed that the form of the cities developed under apartheid owe their shape and development to processes more global than racial segregation.
Black Metropolis
Authors: Rosa Andrew J. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Published in 1945, St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton's
Black Metropolis
was the first comprehensive study of the black community of Bronzeville in Chicago's Southside. Emerging from the Cayton–Warner research project, which was carried out between 1935 and 1937, and written primarily by Drake, with contributions by Cayton, Richard Wright, and William Lloyd Warner,
Black Metropolis
advanced a social theory of a black community as a “metropolis within a metropolis.” This view of black Chicago made
Black Metropolis
a pioneering work in the sociology of race relations, urban sociology, and the study of spatial segregation in the city.
Citizen Participation
Authors: Åström Joachim 
Published: April 2019

AbstractCitizen participation is at the heart of democracy. Unless citizens can participate freely in the government process, democracy is not possible. While voting has been the primary way for individual citizens to make their voices heard in the political system, social changes and technical advancements have brought about an expansion of political activities. In keeping up with these changes, conceptualizations of citizen participation have been continuously debated and updated. In general terms, however, it refers to citizens' activities aimed at influencing political decisions. The study of citizen participation includes descriptions of new participatory landscapes, explanations for participatory inequalities, and explorations of complex power relations when citizens are invited to take part in decision‐making processes.
Collective Efficacy
Authors: Feinberg Seth L. , Sturm McKenzee 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Collective efficacy theory suggests that neighbors can create prosocial outcomes in their urban environments through informal networks rooted in cohesion, trust, and reciprocity. Efficacious neighborhoods are able to protect residents by acting in collaboration to prevent deleterious community outcomes such as crime and violence. Like all theories of urban space and place, the context through which informal social control is exerted and the larger macrostructural characteristics of the community will affect the ability of collective efficacy to improve neighborhood outcomes.
Eviction
Authors: Rodríguez María Florencia 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Day by day, in different parts of the world, diverse populations are exposed to eviction and expulsion processes. Although there is bibliography about these dynamics at an international level, it is relevant to approach evictions in a conceptual manner. Urban studies and human rights international organizations have worked on eviction processes. Rethinking the polysemic character of the term and the characteristics that these processes assume – taking into account urban transformations, intervening actors, procedures, claims – is relevant if one wants to approach an increasingly recurrent problem in the cities of the world today. Besides, this kind of rethinking will create protection mechanisms for the population affected by expulsion.
The Preindustrial City
: An Update
Authors: Sjoberg Gideon 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

In this entry, I am revisiting my book
The Preindustrial City
(1960). I elaborate upon, and, in the process, clarify, the modes of reasoning employed when documenting the existence of the preindustrial city. In light of recent research by other scholars, the differences that exist between preindustrial cities and more contemporary industrial cities can be brought into sharper relief.
Spatial Mismatch
Authors: Tuttle Steven 
Published: April 2019

AbstractSpatial mismatch, often called the spatial mismatch hypothesis, is a theory that aims to explain high rates of unemployment among black men living in racially segregated inner city neighborhoods. The theory postulates that racial residential segregation negatively affects black unemployment by reducing the number of jobs available, as many low‐skill jobs moved from inner cities to suburbs after World War II. Spatial mismatch is thought to result in lower inner city employment rates because increased cost and difficulty to travel to work might discourage workers from traveling to the suburbs, people living in inner city neighborhoods might lack information about job opportunities far from where they live, and suburban employers might discriminate against black job seekers. Evidence exists showing that distance from residential to employment areas contributes to inner city unemployment, but many researchers argue that the decline of manufacturing jobs and racial discrimination are the more significant issues.
B
ogota
Authors: Alfonso Óscar A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Bogota is the largest city as well as the largest metropolitan area in Colombia. The large aggregation of inhabitants has grown continuously in proportion to the rest of the country during the past 30 years. In the last decade, the limited amount of space within the city limits has of necessity resulted in an ever‐increasing density of buildings and a greater population density. Within this concentrated density is a strictly defined segregation of living area by economic status with a widely divergent difference in commensurate quality of housing. The obvious prosperity of certain well‐planned neighborhoods contrasts sharply with areas on the periphery of the city in which 44.4 percent of the population live, and which are seriously lacking in community facilities, transportation services, and public spaces, greatly impairing social mixing.
Concentric Zone Theory
Authors: Banai Reza 
Published: April 2019

AbstractIn the first decades of the twentieth century, the Chicago School of urban sociology theorized the growth of the city by a set of concentric zones that depicted the city's land‐use dynamics in a natural manner, by analogy with plant ecology. Subsequent modifications and refinements of urban theory in the twenty‐first century have concentric zone theory and the Chicago School as a fundamental origin. The concentric zone theory, however, remains akin to contemporary theories that explain the physical pattern of urban growth as a response to “natural” forms of sociospatial change in an essentially unfettered market economy.
Urban Riots and Public Disorder
Authors: Young Sean L. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
As an environment that intensifies social processes, urban society produces tensions along social fault lines such as race or class, which may erupt in collective violence in times of inequality. Urban riots and public disturbances are unconventional and violent collective responses by typically socially marginalized groups provoked by the interaction of city and state characteristics that exacerbate social exclusion. Local factors such as patterns of governance, inequality, intergroup competition, and police practices may make a particular city riot‐prone, whereas national regimes of citizenship and belonging may make some groups more likely to respond to social exclusion through violence. Thus future research should examine the continued interaction of city and national characteristics as well as the impacts of social processes that exacerbate political, economic, and social exclusion.
C
hicago
S
chool
Authors: Bennett Larry 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
In the early decades of the twentieth century, the Chicago School of urban sociology constituted the pioneering cohort of researchers exploring the internal dynamics of industrial cities. Chicago School urban sociologists were human ecologists, interpreters of urban phenomena who adapted biological concepts to the examination of urban growth, neighborhood formation and transition, and urban subcultures. Although the use of biological metaphors to structure urban analysis has fallen out of favor, various of the Chicago School's substantive emphases, such as the exploration of local urban cultures, as well as characteristic research techniques, including ethnographic studies, remain mainstays of urban investigation.
Water
Authors: Obeng‐Odoom Franklin 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This entry describes the nature of the water challenge in cities. The entry also identifies causes and posited mainstream solutions, and analyzes the criticisms of mainstream views on the water challenge. Overall, the evidence suggests that the mainstream analyses of the water challenge and its accompanying policy prescriptions of marketization are seriously defective, often leading to a worsening of the water challenge. Neither top‐down state intervention nor exclusive bottom‐up practices of governing water as a commons constitutes a defensible panacea – contrary to popular views. The evidence shows that, while the governance of water as commons provides much better prospects to guarantee the right to water in cities around the world, state support patterned after the political economy of the commons is crucial to addressing the water challenge.
Alcohol intoxication impairs eyewitness memory and increases suggestibility: Two field studies
Authors: van Oorsouw Kim , Broers Nick J. , Sauerland Melanie 
Published: April 2019

SummaryTwo field studies tested the effect of alcohol intoxication on memory for a live interaction at immediate, delayed, and repeated testing. In Study 1 (N = 86), one researcher presented bar tenants with (misleading) questions regarding a preceding interaction with another researcher. One week later, participants' memory was tested again. Study 2 (N = 189) added a delayed‐testing only condition. We hypothesized intoxication to impair memory and enhance suggestibility and explored whether time of testing affected the outcome on these variables. In Study 1, intoxication reduced completeness and increased suggestibility. In Study 2, intoxication reduced completeness and increased suggestibility in delayed‐only and repeated testing, compared with immediate testing. Sober participants benefited from repeated testing in Study 2, but not Study 1. Findings lend support for consolidation and decay theory and suggest that immediate (intoxicated) testing is preferable over delayed‐only testing. Findings provide little support for alcohol myopia theory.