bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Proceedings of the 4th European Symposium on Fire Safety Science (ESFSS 2024)
Authors: Planas Eulàlia , Pastor Elsa , Merci Bart 
Published: November 2024

EDITORIAL

This special issue is based on the papers selected for presentation during the 4th ESFSS (European Symposium on Fire Safety Science), held in Barcelona, Spain from October 9 to 11, 2024. Following the previous conference held in Nancy in 2018, the European Symposium on Fire Safety Science was the fourth edition in these series of symposia organized in Europe. The aim was to bring together researchers from Europe and beyond for exchanges and discussions on fire safety science.
Approximately 200 contributions were received during the conference preparation, including submissions for both oral and poster presentations. Following a rigorous selection process involving at least 2 peer reviews of the full papers, 45 contributions were accepted for oral presentation and 99 for poster presentation, with 23 of the latter dedicated to work-in-progress.
The conference was attended by 180 scientists from around the world, including countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Turkey, and the United States.
This volume includes all the papers from the contributions presented during the seminar. They are organized into six main topics, in line with the conference program:
• Material behaviour in fire (ignition, pyrolysis, flame spread, smouldering)
• Fire dynamics, structures in fire (fire plumes, compartment fires, tunnel fires)
• Wildland fires / Wildland-urban fires
• Fire detection and suppression
• Evacuation and human behaviour
• Miscellaneous (e.g.: explosions and industrial fires, battery fires, solar panels, fire codes and standards)
The conference organizers gratefully acknowledge the members of the scientific committee and the experts who reviewed the papers. They also extend their thanks to ACTIVA Congresos and the local organizing committee for their efforts in preparing the conference. The support from the IAFSS, the sponsors (SODECA; Kingspan. OFR Consultants, FM Global, Efectis and CSTB) the UPC research group CERTEC, and the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya is also acknowledged.
List of Syposium chairs, Organizing committee, Local organizing committee and Scientific committee are available in this pdf.
Prediction of the time to ignition of wood under transient heat exposure
Authors: Dias Lopes Pauline , Batiot Benjamin , Rogaume Thomas , Dréan Virginie , Guillaume Bruno , Guillaume Eric , Pizzo Yannick , Porterie Bernard 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
The present study improves the modelling of the time of ignition of solid fuels vertically exposed to transient heat flux to be representative of a fire that affects the façade of a building. A comparison between the models of Wang & al. [4], the Flux-Time-Product (FTP) approach [3][6] and new experimental data for the case of wood is presented.
The models consider the effect of the transient radiant exposure, of the moisture content and for the model of Wang & al, the convective effect. Experiments have been carried out for 4 heat flux exposure evolutions expressed as a power-law function of time. The FTP model overestimates the results by at maximum 19% whereas results are overestimated by 31% at least by the model of Wang & al. A correlation has been established in order to determine the parameters n and FTPcr
whatever the value of moisture content.
Experimental investigation on low-cement concrete at elevated temperature with preloaded conditions
Authors: Rokade M , Rush D , Stratford T , Bisby L , Hoult N 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials globally. Experimental and numerical observations have revealed that failure of concrete structures may occur not only during the heating phase but also during the decay phase of a fire. With the global imperative to reduce CO2 emissions from cement production, traditional concrete is increasingly being replaced with low-cement alternatives. However, there remains a lack of experimental testing regarding the effects of additional supplementary cementitious materials in concrete during and after fire. This paper presents preliminary findings from elevated temperature compressive tests conducted on concrete with three different mixes, two of which involved 40% and 50% cement replacement. The experimental programme indicates that, regardless of the mix type, internal temperatures recorded in the cylinders were minimally affected by differing mix proportions under identical heating scenarios. Additionally, the paper explores the influence of preloading on both the magnitude of peak thermal expansion and the time to reach peak thermal expansion. It is observed that a reduction in cement content results in comparatively more rapid thermal expansion. Furthermore, during the decay phase, the contraction rates are similar regardless of preloading conditions or the reduction of cement content, for identical heating and cooling scenarios.
A method to study ignition of inverted combustible surfaces
Authors: Madden Joshua , Kriel Machelle , Wiesner Felix , Wu Wenxuan , Hilditch Ryan , Ervine Adam , Lange David 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
As timber is combustible, the inherent fuel load of a mass or engineered timber structure can significantly impact compartment fire dynamics compared to a non-combustible structure. Recently, large-scale open-plan testing reaffirmed these phenomena in compartments with exposed timber, with a rapid transition to fully developed fire following the ignition of the exposed timber ceiling. However, no standardised approaches have been developed to investigate this phenomenon at a bench-scale inverted (i.e. downward-facing) orientation. A method to study the ignition of inverted combustible surfaces is proposed whereby the Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) is modified to permit testing at this inverted orientation. Results for this comparative piloted ignition study for a conventional horizontal orientation and an inverted orientation indicate proof of the applicability of the methodology whereby the times to ignition of Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) were higher for the inverted orientation, compared to a horizontal orientation, demonstrating the suitability of the methodology.
Characterization of the combustion products of fluorinated compounds
Authors: Murillo Rueda Carlos , Attif Salma , Bertrand Jean-Pierre , Leroy Guillaume , Tribouilloy Benoit , Marlair Guy , Gentilhomme Olivier 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
An experimental study is performed to characterize the halogenated gases produced by the combustion of five fluorinated liquid compounds. For this purpose, a FPA calorimeter is coupled with a FTIR spectrometer for the gas analysis. The characterization compares different ignition sources (horizontal and vertical injection to an acetone pool fire and pilot flame) by assessing the emission factors of HF, COF2 and the unreacted compound. The experimental data allowed establishing that the pilot flame mainly generates an insufficient decomposition of the compound due to an excessive evaporation rate. On the contrary, the ignition through the pool fire promotes the conversion of the fluorinated compound due to greater interactions with combustion radicals. These interactions are affected by the position of the injection and might induce significant variations on the selectivity of the decomposition reactions.
The effect of water content on the fire resistance of silica fume-based geopolymers for the protection of steel structures
Authors: Yang Qi , Davy Catherine A. , Sarazin Johan , Bourbigot Serge , Fontaine Gaëlle 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Intumescent coatings have the ability to expand during fire and thus provide a significant thermal barrier. They are an asset for the fire protection of steel building structures. In this context, different formulations of intumescent geopolymers (GP) have been proposed in former research. However, the influence of the water content on the fire resistance of GP coated on steel is not well known. This justifies the present study. In the following, GP samples with different water contents are tested and compared using a burn through test set-up, under both undried and dried conditions. Post-mortem analysis via 29Si solid-state NMR indicates that a higher initial water content leads to a greater degree of geopolymerization. However, this factor does not significantly impact the fire protection of the GP. Conversely, the drying process results in a deterioration of the GP fire performance during the early stages of the fire test, compared to undried samples. Nevertheless, after 30 minutes, by the end of the fire test, the GP temperature becomes stable and no significant difference is observed between dried/undried GP. GP is able to provide the same level of fire protection, even if exposed to a drying environment.
Electrical insulation performance of flame-retardant electrical cables with thermoplastic and thermosetting materials for nuclear power plants
Authors: Takizawa M , Kabashima H , Matsuda A 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Fire accidents are a significant evaluation target for the safety management of nuclear power plants (NPPs). During fire accidents, the combustion of electrical cables and electrical failure due to thermal damage have the potential to occur. In NPPs, thermoplastic (TP) cables, thermosetting (TS) cables and TP/TS hybrid cables are used. However, the electrical insulation performance of TP/TS hybrid cables at increased temperatures are not fully understood especially for flame-retardant cables. To improve the knowledge of the electrical insulation performance of hybrid cables and TS cables in fires, the authors analyzed the thermal degradation tests of flame-retardant cables (TP/TS hybrid cable and TS cable) recently conducted at University of Tsukuba. The tests were conducted using modified cone calorimeter to evaluate the electrical insulation performance of cables for the temperature range to about 560°C. As a result, information about decrease in the insulation resistance with the temperature of the cables were obtained. The insulation resistance reached lower measurement limit of the super insulation meter at cable surface temperatures above 400°C. Such insulation performance changes were common in both the hybrid and TS cables and similar to those obtained by a comparable previous study with different insulation materials.
Improving cable tray fire modelling with AI techniques
Authors: Plumecocq W , Prétrel H , Joret J P , Chojnacki E 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Modelling cable tray fires remains a complex issue, and existing models such as the FLASH-CAT model still have limitations due to the lack of information on certain input data. This paper discusses improvements in cable tray fire modelling by finding appropriate input data using an artificial intelligence (AI) technique. An AI-driven expert system was developed to assess missing data from a fire test database of 29 large scale cable tray fire experiments in open atmosphere. The expert system quantifies the dependencies between input and output data, helps identify influential parameters and refine model inputs. It also guides modelling efforts by identifying areas for model improvement. In this way, the applicability of an expert system in obtaining reliable input data for simulation tools to simulate a real fire scenario that has already been tested is demonstrated. Cable tray fire simulation results show improved accuracy compared with the use of default values for uncertain parameters.
Char depth of several wood species under single or double heat exposures
Authors: Terrei Lucas , Erez Giacomo , Aguilar Boris , Acem Zoubir , Suzanne Mathieu , Reszka Pedro , Boulet Pascal , Parent Gilles 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
For many engineering and fire investigation applications, understanding the behaviour of materials exposed to fire often relies on fairly simple measurements (e.g. char thickness) to deduce the quantities of interest (e.g. fire size or duration) by trying to account for a number of complex phenomena (e.g. influence of wood species, dimensions or moisture content). The aim of the work presented here is to analyse the charring process as a function of different experimental parameters, mainly a varying heat flux. The robustness lies in the large number of cone calorimeter experiments, as the char characteristics of 783 samples were measured. The results show promising correlations between the char depth (combination of missing and remaining char thicknesses) and the cumulative exposure, which represents the energy received by the sample, for a single or a double exposure and independently of the other experimental conditions.
Combustion and free burning behaviour of recycled plastic pellets
Authors: Devine C , Flores-Quiroz N , Walls R 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
This paper details the behaviour of plastic pellets under various fire conditions. Plastic pellets made of recycled plastic materials namely, low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP) are the subject of this paper. Recycled plastic has contaminants not present in virgin plastic, and the geometry has been adjusted, whereby the latter has a significant impact on fire phenomena. Cone calorimeter tests were conducted at 25, 35 and 50 kW/m2. At 35 kW/m2the average heat of combustion (HOC), average time to ignition (TTI) and average heat release rate (HRR) over all three materials tested are 44 MJ/kg, 39 s, and 560 kW/m2 respectively. Behaviour observed during experiments is described based on the cone calorimeter tests as well as non-standardised free burn tests – for illustrative purposes. These observations include ease of ignition and initial flames spread, mass involved in burning, burning in layers, formation of solidified layers and whether the material will remain burning after the removal of the external heat source. During combustion the material flows, potentially leading to flaming pools, but would also solidify during the application of water making suppression of deep-seated fires difficult. Although recycled plastic pellets are difficult to ignite, once ignited they burn intensely making them a much larger fire risk than an ignition risk. Early detection of such fire is imperative for fire extinguishment.
Ignition and burning characterization of edible oils
Authors: Alonso Alain , Lázaro Mariano , Rueda Cristina , Placer Emilio , Alvear Daniel 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Regardless of the country or geographical area, kitchens are the rooms where fires are most likely to begin in homes, and cooking is the leading cause. Statistics consistently demonstrate that cooking fires primarily occur due to the ignition of cooking materials. Consequently, understanding the thermal properties and combustion behaviour of edible oils is crucial for developing effective fire prevention, detection and suppression strategies. In this work, three oils (soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower) are analysed, namely, their behaviour at high temperatures by identifying parameters such as the time to ignition, critical heat flux, thermal response parameter, and effective heat of combustion. The results obtained showed that edible oils required a high temperature to reach ignition, however, once reached the energy released was similar to other liquid fuels employed for combustion purposes.
Impact of fuel bed permeability on feasibility of fire detection in waste and recycling materials
Authors: Grainger Amy , Sangster Angus , Ndlovu Shephard , Liyanage Champika , Williams Karl , Asimakopoulou Eleni , Graham Tony 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Waste fire testing of deep-seated fires in a variety of materials identified that waste material fuel beds may be categorised by the permeability of the fuel bed with regards to the products of combustion including heat and flames. Current works experimental measurements showed that permeable fuel beds allow for the passage of heat through the fuel bed while impermeable fuel beds hinder the movement of a fire and of fire products. It is proposed, based on the observed differences in heat spread through and to the exterior of an impermeable versus a permeable fuel bed, that typical fire detection methods are less effective on impermeable fuel beds.
Radiative heat transfer methodologies from compartment fires to adjacent walls: A Numerical Investigation
Authors: Cameron Angus , Asimakopoulou Eleni 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
In a fire scenario, the externally ventilating flames (EVF) often project beyond the compartment of fire origin and in some cases boundary distances, increasing the likelihood of fire spread between buildings. This work investigates various numerical methodologies to predict radiative heat transfer from compartment fires to adjacent walls at different orientations (20, 40, 60 and 80 degrees). Predictions were compared to empirically derived equations. Results show that code compliant scenarios may still exceed critical heat flux recommendations. Furthermore, the effects of prolonged heat exposure and materials should be considered by designers.
Tray configuration factors on cable flame spread
Authors: Lázaro David , Lázaro Pedro G. , Lázaro Mariano , Ángel Jiménez Miguel , Alvear Daniel 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Fire propagation in cable trays is a critical concern in the design and safety of nuclear power plants (NPP), as it can facilitate the spread of fire between different enclosures or affect cables necessary to a safety shutdown procedure. While international programs such as CHRISTIFIRE and PRISME have contributed to our understanding through various experimental campaigns, the complexity of the phenomena and the multitude of boundary conditions affecting cable tray scenarios necessitate further experimental analysis. The objective of the study was to provide insights into the configuration factors influencing fire spread in cable trays. Through a series of controlled laboratory experiments, a set of cable tray configurations were analysed. Our results revealed critical issues influencing fire propagation and indicated like the number of cables per trays and the number of trays.
Can flame-retardant sheath protect flammable insulation?
Authors: Gholami Haghighi Fard Morteza , Hostikka Simo 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Electrical cable fires are significant hazards, prompting recent efforts to reduce cable flammability by blending halogen-free flame-retardant materials with the base polymer; however, combining flame-retardant sheaths with non-flame-retardant insulations is a common practice in the cable industry. Sheath breakage, and in turn, exposure of the non-flame-retardant insulation to the external heat source is a severe fire risk that can be observed both in vertical flame spread standard tests, like EN 60332 and UL 1581, and laboratory scale measurements, such as cone calorimetry measurements.
To further understand details of the physics involved in causing such fire hazard, the current study compares the fire characteristics of two cables: One cable (MKEM-HF) comprising a flame-retardant sheath (ATH+base polymer) and conductor, and another cable (XMK-HF) consisting of a flame-retardant sheath (MDH+base polymer), non-flame-retardant insulation (XLPE), and conductor, analyzed via TGA, DSC, and cone calorimetry. TGA and DSC analyses of the sheaths identified that the ATH degrades at lower temperatures in MKEM-HF, while MDH pyrolysis was near the main polymer’s pyrolysis temperature in XMK-HF. Cone calorimetry tests at 50 kW • m−2 assessed cable flammability, revealing MKEM-HF’s descending fire risk pattern and XMK-HF’s continuous ascending HRR trend leading to a notable final HRR peak. The latter was mainly caused by the sheath’s mechanical breakage over time, exposing XLPE insulation, and thus accelerating material decomposition.
Fire Performance of a Wooden Façade System Based on the Draft European Test Method: Assessing the Contribution from the Side Wing
Authors: Zhao G , Dragsted A , Frederiksen M F , Haastrup A , Schou C F , Livkiss K 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
This study presents the results of large-scale fire tests conducted on a ventilated wooden façade system, based on the draft European testing method to assess the fire performance of the façade systems in cases with and without combustible material on the side wing. Spruce has been used as cladding material. Two distinct tests were conducted to evaluate the effect of adding combustible material to the side wing on the fire performance of the façade system. Test results indicated a significant difference in fire behaviour with the addition of combustible materials on the side wing. In the test without combustible material on the side wing, flame spread was confined to the first floor. In contrast, test with wood panels on the side wing, exhibited more severe burning and damage, with flames spreading to the base of the second floor. Heat flux and temperature measurements highlighted the increased fire intensity and spread due to the combustible side wing. The findings emphasize the critical role of façade configurations in building’s fire safety design.
Influence of VOCs on the auto-ignition of Mediterranean plants
Authors: Brudo Agathe , Coudour Bruno , Bruneau Lucas , Lemée Laurent , Dédaldéchamp Fabienne 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
In view of the increasing frequency of extreme fires, this work proposes to identify the compounds that promote the auto-ignition of plants and thus the spread of wildfires. The objective is to better understand the biochemical and thermochemical aspects of wildfire propagation in order to better anticipate extreme fires such as megafires and eruptive fires and then to size up the means of firefighting. This study supports another project which aims at developing a dispersion model to determine the relationship between the accumulation of VOCs and eruptive fires in confined topographies. The originality of this study lies in its interdisciplinary approach using chemical and biological analyses. In this work, emissions from dead Rosmarinus officinalis were studied. Preliminary results show an increase in oxygenated molecules and a decrease in non-oxygenated molecules in the emissions of dead plants compared to control living plants. In perspective, it is planned to study different living plants submitted to different levels of hydric stress: R. officinalis and C. albidus, representative of Mediterranean Basin and L. vulgare as a non-Mediterranean species to compare the compositions of the gases emitted at high temperature close to auto-ignition.
Characterisation of fire smoke emissions from fire retardant wood
Authors: Arinaitwe Evalyne , Rex Johannes , Wilkens Konrad , Malmborg Vilhelm , Pagels Joakim , McNamee Margaret 
Published: November 2024

Abstract
Fire retardants are extensively used to reduce the flammability (combustibility) of wood–based construction materials in an effort to improve fire safety of buildings. However, little is known of the composition and potential risks to human health of smoke emissions produced from combustion of fire retardant treated wood. To help understand the risk to human health, fire smoke emissions produced from three different wood materials; wood without fire retardant, fire retardant wood, and aged fire retardant wood were analysed. The materials were exposed to a heat flux of 50 kW/m2 in a cone calorimeter according to ISO standard 5660-1. The fire gases and soot, measured as equivalent black carbon (eBC), produced were quantified using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and an aethalometer, respectively. Our findings show that fire retardant wood produces substantially less soot mass than non-fire-retardant wood. However, the fire retardant wood produces more toxic gases, e.g. HCl, than both the wood without fire retardant and aged fire retardant wood.