bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Monitoring urinary testosterone and epitestosterone levels, and their ratio, in Korean chemical castration subjects using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry
Authors: Sim Juhyun , Cho Byungsuk , Park Meejung , Rhee Jongsook , In Sangwhan , Choe Sanggil 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
In Europe, chemical castration has been adopted as a treatment for paraphilia since the 1930s. Among the various chemical castration agents, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists are now used widely because of their effectiveness and safety. In South Korea, a legislation of chemical castration to control the sexual impulses of sexual offenders was enforced in July 2011. Most of these subjects are treated with leuprorelin acetate, an LHRH agonist, for chemical castration. Despite this, there are few studies that address the long-term influence of LHRH agonists on testosterone (T) and epitestosterone (E) levels in chemical castration subjects. In order to analyze the urinary levels of T in chemical castration subjects, whose T levels are extremely low, we developed and validated an analytical method for the detection of both T and E in human urine using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) system. The urine samples were hydrolyzed, extracted, and analyzed by LC–MS/MS with electrospray ionization in the positive-ion mode. The limits of detection were 0.02 ng/mL and the limits of quantitation were 0.05 ng/mL, which provided great sensitivity. The established method was applied to urine samples from chemical castration subjects and healthy male volunteers. The chemical castration subjects showed significantly lower urinary T levels than the control subjects. In addition, the urinary E levels were also lower in the chemical castration subjects; however, the T/E ratios were constant and did not show a notable decrease because of the simultaneous decrease in both urinary T and E. The urinary T levels and T/E ratio did not exceed the doping control criteria for exogenous T ingestion for any subject. This study shows the trend of urinary T and E levels in long-term treated chemical castration subjects by establishing a highly sensitive LC–MS/MS method, that provides useful information for monitoring chemical castration.
Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of United Nations Treaties
Authors: Chesterman Simon , Malone David M. , Villalpando Santiago 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The United Nations is a vital part of the international order. Yet this book argues that the greatest contribution of the UN is not what it has achieved (improvements in health and economic development) or avoided (global war or the use of weapons of mass destruction). It is, instead, the process through which the UN has transformed the structure of international law to expand the range and depth of subjects covered by treaties. The book offers the first sustained analysis of the UN as a forum in which and an institution through which treaties are negotiated and implemented. Chapters are written by authors from different fields, including academics and practitioners, lawyers and specialists from other social sciences (international relations, history, science), professionals with an established reputation in the field and younger researchers and diplomats involved in the negotiation of multilateral treaties, as well as scholars with a broader view on the issues involved. The volume provides unique insights into UN treaty-making. Through the thematic and technical parts, it also offers a lens through which to view challenges lying ahead and the possibilities and limitations confronting this understudied aspect of international law and relations. This Introduction elaborates on some of these themes and provides a roadmap for the rest of the volume.
The UN Charter and Its Evolution
Authors: Johnstone Ian 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter conceives of the United Nations Charter as a “relational contract,” placing it somewhere between an ordinary treaty and global constitution. It is a legal instrument that structures a long-term relationship among UN member states and as such provides the normative and procedural foundation for much multilateral treaty-making. In other words, it is both a relational contract in itself and the embodiment of the relationship in which other multilateral treaties are negotiated, adopted, and implemented. While there are limits to the analogy, viewing the Charter in this way helps to explain how interpretation of the Charter has evolved. It also sheds light on the UN as a venue for and actor in treaty-making, and the implications of that for the development of treaty law. The chapter concludes that insights from relational contract theory show why the UN Charter has survived as the foundation for the international order, and why it is resilient enough to continue to do so despite the fundamental challenges to that order that are currently being witnessed.
Treaty-Making in International Organizations
Authors: Scott Shirley V. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
International relations research has in recent years become more relevant for international lawyers, even if it often requires some translation. This chapter engages with three bodies of international relations scholarship of relevance to understanding UN treaty-making. The first, on norm dynamics, has a unit of analysis smaller than a multilateral treaty; a norm typically equates to one or more of the substantive provisions of a treaty. The second and older body of literature, on regimes and more recently regime complexes, has generated insights pertaining to treaty design and effectiveness, often through the application of quantitative research methods. Given that there has been two-and-a half-decades of regime research the contribution of regime theory to knowledge of multilateral treaties nevertheless remains underwhelming. The third body of literature addressed in the chapter is that regarding the decline of the liberal international order. Liberal institutionalist scholars may be lamenting the apparent demise of the US-led order to which the complex web of UN treaties has been so integral but they may not be sufficiently conscious of the fact that such a sentiment is not universally shared. Understanding the politics of multilateral treaties can only be enriched by an even greater maturity and sophistication of international relations scholarship.
The Role of Treaties in Pursuing the Objectives of the UN Charter
Authors: Tams Christian J. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Treaties are a central building block of the United Nations legal order. They have particular significance for the objectives set out in the UN Charter: these need to be implemented and effectuated, and treaties concretizing the Charter’s broad objectives can help achieve that aim. The Charter text, perhaps surprisingly, does not reflect this adequately. Unlike constituent documents of other international organizations, the Charter formulates no master plan for the UN’s use of treaties, and only occasionally mentions treaties explicitly. Its guidance is primarily indirect: some Charter objectives are formulated in such vague terms that without follow-up action, including follow-up action that takes the form of treaties, they would be meaningless. The drafter’s surprising caution means that the role of treaties in pursuing UN objectives is primarily shaped by practice rather than the Charter text. In the seven decades since the UN’s establishment, treaties—prepared in highly diverse processes, including by the International Law Commission (ILC) and within specialized agencies—have sprawled. In the absence of a Charter master plan, they have grown to cover large parts of the continent of international law. A sole focus on the gigantic network of treaties, however, risks overlooking the fact that more often than not, member states and UN organs prefer other means of pursuing Charter objectives (resolutions, statements, and other non-binding mechanisms). The landscape of treaties is as uneven as it is diverse.
Women
Authors: Charlesworth Hilary 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter offers an overview of UN approaches to women’s lives in legal instruments. It begins by describing the engagement of women’s organizations with international institutions from the start of the twentieth century, particularly the League of Nations. It then moves to UN treaties dealing with women. Its focus is the major UN treaty in this area, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and the work of its monitoring body, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (. The chapter also describes the extensive reservations states parties have entered to the Convention. It discusses the different accounts of nondiscrimination and equality that emerge in UN treaties. The international sphere illustrates the paradox for feminists of, on the one hand, insisting that differences between women and men should be irrelevant in claiming political rights; while, on the other hand, acting in the name of the category of women, thus bolstering the idea of difference. One strand of provisions in UN treaties aims to eradicate differences in the treatment of women, compared to men. Another strand has sought to recognize the particularity of women’s lives, calling for special treatment and often endorsing a rather limited notion of womanhood in the process. These two strands coexist and are regularly included in the same treaty, even though they can be in normative tension.
The Practice of UN Treaty-Making concerning Science
Authors: Johnston Sam 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter describes the growing influence of science in UN treaties, which centers around four main roles; scientific influence in the treaty-making process, promoting access to existing science, supporting research, and managing the threats posed by science. It also highlights the challenges UN treaties face in using science such as; resolving the tensions that exist between pure and applied science; maintaining science’s role as a peaceful activity in the global commons; ensuring that scientific input is not lost among the increasing complex and crowded nature of treaty-making; ensuring that science is more inclusive, holistic, and balanced; and improving its relevance while retaining its credibility. The UN will also need to use science to respond to new and emerging areas such as managing new technologies including nanotechnologies, synthetic biology, or artificial intelligence, or new threats such as cyberwarfare and security. Failures of science in predicting and managing threats from climate change, epidemics, and nuclear disasters have revealed the uncertainties underlying many of its areas of practice and has demonstrated the critical role that social, economic, and institutional expectations play. Recognizing that science is not neutral or objective is an important step in addressing the key shortcomings facing the role of science in UN treaties. Determining what measures need to be taken to balance social and economic influences is another important side of this challenge. Reconciling these enduring challenges will be increasingly important in all areas where UN treaty-making processes and science intersect.
Law of Treaties
Authors: Fitzmaurice Malgosia 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter deals with the codification efforts of the International Law Commission (ILC). It analyzes three law of treaties Conventions that were drafted by the ILC. First, it analyzes the most successful of all the Conventions, the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. It mostly has codified existing norms of customary international law but also introduced, inter alia, a revolutionary regime of reservations to treaties and dealt with a controversial (at the time) notion of the norms of jus cogens. This Convention has acquired an iconic status in international law and has become the most significant tool regulating the relations between states. The 1986 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations has never entered into force. It has not proven as successful as its predecessor due to certain unresolved questions relating generally to the functions of international organizations. The 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties has entered into force; however, due to complexities of state succession in general, it has not played a prominent role, regulating mostly succession in respect of treaties of newly independent, post-colonial states. Finally, the chapter also analyzes Draft Articles adopted by the ILC in 2011 on Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties. The form to be given to the Articles is under consideration and governments are invited to comment on any future action regarding them. The list of categories of treaties in the annex suggests that due to its subject matter they will continue to operate, in whole or in part, in the event of armed conflict.
Law of Treaties
Authors: Yee Lionel 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention, which set out the main rules of treaty interpretation, are commonly perceived as coming into play after the treaty enters into force. This chapter looks at the less well known but equally significant ex ante role of these provisions during the treaty formation process in providing tools for the negotiator to use to safeguard interests or to bridge differences to arrive at an agreement. These can take the form of annexes and footnotes inserted in the treaty text, side agreements, or statements that record a shared understanding on the interpretation of certain provisions. The legal efficacy of annexes, footnotes, and side agreements is fairly clear. It is, however, less certain for statements that record a shared understanding on interpretation because of the diverse forms they may take and the circumstances in which they are made.
Law of the Sea
Authors: Tanaka Yoshifumi 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to examine the role of the United Nations (UN) in treaty-making in the field of the law of the sea. In particular, this chapter addresses the First and Third United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea, and the treaty-making process of two implementation agreements, that is, the 1994 Implementation Agreement and the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement. In this regard, it is important to note that the tasks of the conferences in the field of the law of the sea have changed over time. At the First UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, its primary task was to establish a legal framework for coordinating interests of individual states according to multiple jurisdictional zones. In contrast, the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea that adopted the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) dealt not only with the reconciliation of competing state interests but also with the safeguarding of community interests, such as the establishment of the deep seabed regime on the basis of the principle of common heritage of mankind and marine environmental protection. As demonstrated by this Conference, the task of treaty-making conferences under the auspices of the UN is no longer limited to the reconciliation of state interests but includes the safeguard and promotion of community interests at sea. Thus, the reconciliation between state interests and community interests should be a crucial issue in treaty-making in the law of the sea.
Diplomatic and Consular Relations
Authors: Duquet Sanderijn , Wouters Jan 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The United Nations (UN) is a strong defender of the cooperative global order. The promotion of diplomatic and consular exchanges between its member states suits this purpose. Throughout the years, lawmaking by treaty has been the preferred way for the UN to advance legal rules that facilitate such diplomatic and consular interactions. Tremendous achievements (the 1961 and 1963 Conventions on permanent diplomatic and consular missions and the 1973 Convention on the prevention and punishment of crimes against internationally protected persons) have been followed by a worthwhile lawmaking exercise (the 1969 Convention on special missions), but also by an attempt at harmonization that failed to attain its goals (the 1975 Convention on permanent representations to international organizations). This chapter zooms in on legal discussions that took place in the course of two decades of diplomatic and consular treaty-making under the auspices of the UN, as well as at the treaties’ implementation track and their present-day impact. The chapter takes a close look at the structure and content of the five UN Conventions in the diplomatic and consular field, and identifies particular contributions of the International Law Commission, the UN General Assembly, the UN Security Council, and specially convened diplomatic conferences in Vienna and New York. In a final section, the chapter highlights remaining challenges for the UN in dealing with this subject area.
South Africa
Authors: Glazewski Jan 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the environmental law of South Africa. It first considers how powers are allocated with regards to environmental law, taking into account the constitutional and other bases of South African environmental law, the elevated status of international law in South African domestic law, relevant provisions of the Bill of Rights with respect to environmental rights and sustainable development, and distribution of competences among national, provincial, and local governments regarding environmental governance. The chapter goes on to discuss the structure and substance of South Africa’s environmental law, focusing on the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) and the environmental principles and sectorial laws it contains. It also analyses the implementation framework for environmental law, describing cooperative governance in practice and the role of relevant governmental departments from integration to sectorialization. Finally, it provides an overview of the legal conundrums created by the so-called One Environmental System (OES).
Land Degradation
Authors: Boer Ben , Hannam Ian 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the international legal regime on land degradation. It first provides a brief overview of land degradation as a complex environmental issue around the world before discussing the causes and effects of land degradation. It then analyses a variety of legal responses to land degradation, from global initiatives such as the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the IUCN Covenant on Environment and Development; regional initiatives such as the World Soil Charter 2014 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2015; and national laws and policies. The chapter also explores some of the main elements that need to be taken into consideration when designing legislation to address land degradation, including land tenure, access to land, farming systems and land use, the role of protected areas, and physical planning.
Regulation of Chemicals
Authors: Bergkamp Lucas , Abelkop Adam 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the regulation of chemicals, with emphasis on commonalities and differences in regulatory approaches. It begins with a brief overview of key concepts that underlie chemicals regulation, explaining what chemicals regulation is, the hazards and risks associated with chemicals, policy principles, informational inputs, and how chemicals are identified. The chapter then considers the general components of chemicals regulation, namely: screening and prioritization, risk assessment and decision analysis, and risk management. It also discusses regulatory fragmentation, risk management through the supply chain, and the complementary roles of regulation and liability systems. Finally, it shows how common aspects of chemical risk laws fit into the EU’s Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation and the US Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) as amended by the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act (LCSA).
Environmental Principles Across Jurisdictions
Authors: Scotford Eloise 
Published: July 2019

AbstractThis chapter examines environmental principles as a general phenomenon in environmental law, with particular emphasis on how they can connect, catalyse, and inspire legal thinking in relation to environmental problems across jurisdictions. It first considers three ways in which environmental principles are developing as legal connectors across legal orders without constituting formal and universal norms of public international law: connection through soft law instruments, connection through judicial dialogue, and connection through legal scholarship. It then explores how environmental principles act as catalysts for legal innovation, offering a basis for new legal reasoning concerning environmental protection, using examples from four jurisdictions: the European Union, India, Brazil, and New South Wales (Australia). It suggests that legal innovations concerning environmental principles are not identical; therefore, the legal functions performed by environmental principles across jurisdictions cannot be understood in simple terms.
Determining Star Formation Thresholds from Observations
Authors: Khullar Shivan , Krumholz Mark R , Federrath Christoph , Cunningham Andrew J 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Most gas in giant molecular clouds is relatively low-density and forms star inefficiently, converting only a small fraction of its mass to stars per dynamical time. However, star formation models generally predict the existence of a threshold density above which the process is efficient and most mass collapses to stars on a dynamical timescale. A number of authors have proposed observational techniques to search for a threshold density above which star formation is efficient, but it is unclear which of these techniques, if any, are reliable. In this paper we use detailed simulations of turbulent, magnetised star-forming clouds, including stellar radiation and outflow feedback, to investigate whether it is possible to recover star formation thresholds using current observational techniques. Using mock observations of the simulations at realistic resolutions, we show that plots of projected star formation efficiency per free-fall time εff can detect the presence of a threshold, but that the resolutions typical of current dust emission or absorption surveys are insufficient to determine its value. In contrast, proposed alternative diagnostics based on a change in the slope of the gas surface density versus star formation rate surface density (Kennicutt-Schmidt relation) or on the correlation between young stellar object counts and gas mass as a function of density are ineffective at detecting thresholds even when they are present. The signatures in these diagnostics sometimes taken as indicative of a threshold in observations, which we generally reproduce in our mock observations, do not prove to correspond to real physical features in the 3D gas distribution.