bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ponderosa Pine and Lodgepole Pine Growth Response to One-Time Application of Herbicide During Seedling Establishment in Western Montana
Authors: Keyser Chad E. , Milner Kelsey S. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This study examined long-term diameter and height response of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) to a one-time application of herbicide during seedling establishment in western Montana. Two herbicide trials initiated in 1981 and 1983 by Champion International Corporation were resurrected during the summer of 1997. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) F-tests along with Duncan's Multiple Range tests (DMR) were performed on mean tree dbh, tree height, and competing vegetation percent cover estimates. In addition, a graphical analysis of mean annual height growth over time was performed. Significant increases (alpha = 0.05) in ponderosa pine dbh (25 to 44%) and height (11 to 28%) were found after 16 yr of growth on Velpar L. (hexazinone) treated plots, while lodgepole pine had significant increases in dbh (70 to 118%) and height (41 to 82%) after 15 yr of growth on Velpar L. treated plots. Graphical analyses indicated a positive height growth effect for a period of 11 to 13 yr following treatment for ponderosa pine; however, total height gains had decreased in recent years. Positive increases in height growth for lodgepole pine were continuing after 15 yr of growth. These results indicate that a one-time application of herbicide applied during seedling establishment will promote faster tree growth in western Montana. We also note that proper density management will be necessary early in the life of the stand to maintain height gains. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):149–154.
An Analysis of Future Private Timber Supply Potential in Western Oregon
Authors: Schillinger Randall R. , Adams Darius M. , Latta Gregory S. , van Nalts Adrienne K. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Projections of potential supply with volume-flow and market-based models suggest that western Oregon forest industry owners could sustain cut at recent levels, stemming the 40 yr declining trend in their harvest. NIPF owners could raise harvests to near historical peak levels. These harvests would entail oscillating long-run inventories under the market projection and stable to declining inventories in the even-flow case. Average clearcut age would decline over the projection. Forest industry management would shift toward plantations with thinning and early density control. NIPF management would continue to depend on natural regeneration with increased use of commercial thinning. Simulated riparian protection policies lower harvest roughly in proportion to the land base reduction, raise log prices, and drive up the price of land not subject to restrictions. The present value of future net returns to private timberland owners would decline. A policy to extend the minimum age of clearcut harvest could have large near-term impacts on both industrial and NIPF owners. Prices rise sharply, and harvest declines in the near term. In the longer term, the policy acts like an enforced supply expansion, raising harvest and depressing prices. Timberland owners lose both in terms of income and in the reduction of bare land values due to lower product prices and harvest timing restrictions. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):166–174.
Is There a Correct Stand Density Index? An Alternate Interpretation
Authors: Ducey Mark J. , Larson Bruce C. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Recent authors have asserted that the original form of Reineke's stand density index is flawed, and that an additive version represents the correct form. An examination of the literature provides no historical or mathematical reason why additivity should be required in the original index. Reineke's stand density index, and the additive or area-based stand density index, should be considered as separate indices with different properties. The sensitivity of the area-based index to stand diameter distribution is illustrated with the Weibull distribution. Its sensitivity provides testable hypotheses that could be used in empirical studies to determine the better index. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):179–184.
Growth of Residual Branches on Pruned Coastal Douglas-Fir
Authors: Turnblom Eric C. , Collier Randol L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Anecdotal evidence gathered from pruning crew observations indicates that there may be enhanced branch growth at the new crown base in young pruned coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) trees compared to unpruned trees. This has the potential to reduce the quality and value of the stem above the pruned portion of the bole. An analysis of the size of branches in the remaining crown on pruned trees and matched unpruned trees of the same size at the time of pruning indicates that residual branches do not increase in diameter or length in response to light and moderate pruning. However, with a severe pruning there was a modest increase in branch length. Residual branch size in response to pruning 4 yr after treatment appears to offer no real risk in degrading quality of the unpruned portion of the stem as a cost for increasing the quality of the pruned stem. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):185–188.
The Dynamic Wyoming Timber Economy
Authors: Rideout Douglas B. , Hesseln Hayley 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
In the 1990s, the United States experienced unprecedented growth and prosperity while western timber economies experienced a series of national and international events that would challenge their future. This contrast of rapid national expansion amid regional challenge for the timber industry was related to a series of international monetary crises that depressed world commodity prices while domestic policy restricted timber supply. Higher prices, lower quantities, lower quality, longer haul distances, and industry consolidation all posed changes and challenges. These events affected Wyoming's timber processors as they attempted to adjust to the dynamic timber economy. Wyoming's dynamic economy suggests that changes, including the potential for consolidation, would be important considerations for industry officials and policy makers. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):233–237.
Uphill and Downhill Gradeability of Log Trucks with Short Log Trailers
Authors: Chung Woodam , Sessions John 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The use of cut-to-length systems has increased the use of short log truck and trailers in the western United States and elsewhere. The equations for uphill and downhill gradeability for loaded short log truck and trailer units are derived under conditions of nonturning motion. A sensitivity analysis shows both uphill and downhill gradeability of the short log truck and trailer is highly affected by the load distribution and is also affected by the angle of the tongue between the tractor and trailer. West. J. Appl. For. 19(2):88–94.
Early Warning System for Douglas-Fir Tussock Moth Outbreaks in the Western United States
Authors: Sheehan Katharine A. , Daterman Gary E. , Wenz John M. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The Early Warning System is a pheromone-based trapping system used to detect outbreaks of Douglas-fir tussock moth (DFTM, Orgyia pseudotsugata) in the western United States. Millions of acres are susceptible to DFTM defoliation, but Early Warning System monitoring focuses attention only on the relatively limited areas where outbreaks may be developing. During 20+ years of monitoring, the Early Warning System provided warnings of 1–3 years for seven of nine outbreaks. No warnings were provided for two outbreaks because of inadequate density and distribution of Early Warning System plots in those specific areas. Plots should be evenly distributed over host-type forests at a density of at least 1 Early Warning System plot per 3,000 ac. After potential outbreaks have been identified by the Early Warning System, ground sampling for egg masses and larvae is necessary to characterize local DFTM populations. West. J. Appl. For. 19(4):232–241.
Demand and Value of Firewood Permits as Determined by the Travel Cost Model
Authors: Markstrom Donald C. , Rosenthal Donald H. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The travel cost method is used to determine the value of trips to collect weekend firewood near the Denver-Boulder metropolitan area. The analysis indicated an average willingness to pay of $21.42 per cord for small live lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stumpage. This value, including a $10.00 per cord permit fee, is directly comparable to values commonly assigned to other goods and services, such as sawlogs or recreation, for resource allocation. In particular, values obtained through the residual value timber appraisal system are analogous to this figure. West. J. Appl. For. 2(2):48-50, April 1987.
Wildfire Occurrence in Aspen in the Interior Western United States
Authors: DeByle Norbert V. , Bevins Collin D. , Fischer William C. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The western United States contains more than 7 million acres of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). On the majority of this acreage, aspen sprouted as even-aged stands after fires in the last 150 years. For several reasons, however, fire evidently is no longer playing its historic role of killing and regenerating western aspen stands. A survey was made of wildfire occurrence from 1970 through 1982 in aspen stands on National Forest lands in three Forest Service Regions. The survey data, expanded to include all aspen acreage, revealed that an average of 600 acres are annually consumed by fire. At this rate, it would require about 12,000 years to burn the entire aspen type in the West. During this time span, without management intervention, seral aspen will probably be replaced by conifers, and stable aspen stands may become all-aged and perhaps less productive. Use of prescribed fire is recommended. West. J. Appl. For. 2(3):73-76, July 1987.
The Secure Rural Schools Act, Federal Land Payments, and Property Tax Equivalency
Authors: Gebert Krista M. , Calkin David E. , Schuster Ervin G. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Federal land payments are a very important source of revenue for many county governments in the west. The concern of many is the extent to which these payments are equivalent to property tax revenues those lands would likely have generated if taxed as similar lands. Sustained decreases in federal revenue-sharing payments, along with passage of the Secure Rural Schools Act of 2000, have rekindled interest in this area. Building on a 1997 analysis of property tax equivalency, we simulated the effect of this new legislation on property tax equivalency for sampled counties aggregated to three western and one eastern region. Analyses confirm substantial increases in federal land payments and a corresponding improvement in overall tax equivalency throughout the country. However, much of the improvement is due to increased federal payments to counties that were already tax equivalent. Regardless of region, tax equivalent counties are more frequently characterized by lower taxes than higher federal land payments. West. J. Appl. For. 20(1):50–57.
Uprooting and Trenching to Control Annosus Root Disease in a Developed Recreation Site: 12-Year Results
Authors: Kliejunas John T. , Otrosina William J. , Allison James R. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Six annosus (Heterobasidion annosum) root disease centers in a proposed campground on the north shore of Big Bear Lake in southern California were treated in 1989. Trees, stumps, and roots were removed in six disease centers, and in two cases, soil trenching was used to stop the progress of the disease. A total of 154 trees and 26 stumps were removed; 300 linear feet of trenching was done around two disease centers. Of 101 trees sampled, 47% were infected with H. annosum. Sixteen percent of infected trees exhibited no visible crown symptoms. The pathogen was isolated from 50% of roots that showed resinosis and 14% of roots not exhibiting resinosis. Only the P biological species was present on living, infected Jeffrey pine and juniper roots. Twelve years after treatment, all six sites appear to be disease free with no aboveground symptoms of root infection. Tree mortality is continuing on untreated disease centers in this recreation area. West. J. Appl. For. 20(3):154–159.
A Comparison of the Costs of Forest Service and Contract Fire Crews in the Pacific Northwest
Authors: Donovan Geoffrey H. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Rising wildfire suppression expenditures on public land in the United States have led to increased scrutiny of wildfire management practices. One area that has received particular attention is the Forest Service's increasing reliance on contract fire crews. Because a contract crew rate includes several costs that are not included in the wage costs of a Forest Service crew, it is difficult to determine if this increasing reliance on contract fire crews increases or decreases wildfire suppression costs. The full cost of 33 Forest Service type II fire crews dispatched during the 2003 fire season from five national forests in Oregon and Washington are estimated and compared with the cost of contract crews dispatched in the same region. Results suggest that if sufficient work is available to keep a Forest Service crew productively employed throughout a fire season, then the daily cost of a Forest Service type II crew is lower than the daily cost of a contract crew. West. J. Appl. For. 20(4):233–239.
Development of a New Deer Repellent for the Protection of Forest Resources
Authors: Kimball Bruce A. , Nolte Dale L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
We have identified hydrolyzed casein as a promising repellent for minimizing damage to forest resources inflicted by browsing ungulates. Eight and twelve percent hydrolyzed casein formulations prepared in water with a latex-based agricultural sticker significantly reduced browse damage by captive black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) to western redcedar (Thuja plicata) saplings. These repellent formulations can be prepared by the user at significant cost savings versus commercial products.
Vertical Stress in the Gravel Decking of Log Bridges
Authors: Lyons C. Kevin , Lansdowne Matthew 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
As the forest industry moves into second growth stands with smaller tree diameters the design of gravel-decked log stringer bridges becomes more critical. This article considers the stress field at the base of the gravel decking. The results of this article indicate that stress equations derived from elastic theory for a semi-infinite solid underestimate the magnitude of the maximum vertical stress at the base of the gravel decking. Therefore, a finite element model (FEM) was used to estimate the stress field at the base of the gravel decking. A single equation was fit to the FEM results for a range of gravel depths using a unit load. This equation provides a method for estimating the vertical stress at the base of the gravel decking that is a function of the horizontal distance from the center of the tire contact patch and the total depth of the gravel decking.
A Light-Adjusted Growth Intercept Model for Predicting White Spruce Site Index
Authors: Kalischuk Melanie , Blenis Peter V. , Kawchuk Lawrence M. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
One of the challenges of managing spruce-aspen mixedwoods in the boreal forest is the difficulty in determining site index for spruce in those stands in which it occurs primarily in the understory. A study was conducted to determine if growth increment of understory spruce, adjusted for available light, could predict spruce site index. In each of nine stands, spruce site index was determined for three dominant trees. Available light (measured as proportion transmitted) and growth increment (estimated by the growth intercept method) were recorded for three to eight understory spruce per stand. Growth increment adjusted for available light predicted spruce site index better (R2 = 0.56 or 0.63, depending on the model used) than unadjusted growth increment (R2 = 0.10), thus indicating the potential for using light-adjusted growth increment to predict site index.
Modeling Fuel Treatment Costs on Forest Service Lands in the Western United States
Authors: Calkin David , Gebert Krista 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Years of successful fire suppression have led to high fuel loads on the nation's forests, and steps are being taken by the nation's land management agencies to reduce these fuel loads. However, to achieve desired outcomes in a fiscally responsible manner, the cost and effectiveness in reducing losses due to wildland fire of different fuel treatments in different forest settings must be understood. Currently, prioritizing fuel treatment activities and planning budget expenditures is limited by a lack of accurate cost data. The primary objective of this research was to develop regression models that may be used to estimate the cost of hazardous fuel reduction treatments based on USDA Forest Service Region, biophysical setting, treatment type, and design. A survey instrument was used to obtain activity-specific information directly from fire management officers at Forest Service Ranger Districts for treatments occurring between 2001 and 2003. For both prescribed burns and mechanical activities, treatment size described the largest amount of variation in cost per acre, with increased size reducing cost per acre, on average. We confirmed that data on Forest Service fuel treatment activities maintained in the National Fire Plan Operations and Reporting System were not sufficiently accurate for reasonable cost analysis and modeling.
Standard and Real-Time Accuracy and Reliability of a Mapping-Grade GPS in a Coniferous Western Oregon Forest
Authors: Wing Michael G. , Karsky Richard 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Accuracy requirements for forested resource measurements can vary greatly depending on analysis and management objectives. Technologies that present efficiencies for reliable measurement collection may help organizations better meet data requirements. We tested the accuracy and reliability of a mapping-grade GPS in a variety of forested conditions in western Oregon. Our objectives were to measure the performance of a GPS operating in a standard configuration and also with real-time US Coast Guard Beacon signals. We also examined the influence of postfield differential corrections and the number of GPS points collected on measurement accuracy and reliability. We found measurement accuracies between 1 and 4 m from true position depending on the amount of canopy closure and the type of GPS configuration. Our results indicated that both standard-mode GPS and US Coast Guard Beacon signals can produce very accurate measurements in open-canopy conditions but are less reliable in young-forest conditions. Postprocessing of field measurements generally yielded improved measurements in young-forest settings but led to slightly reduced accuracies for US Coast Guard Beacon data collected in open-canopy settings. Our results also indicated that collecting a greater number of points does not necessarily lead to improved measurement accuracies. West. J. Appl. For. 21(4):222–227.
Understanding and Defining Mortality in Western Conifer Forests
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Schmitt Craig L. , Scott Donald W. , Fitzgerald Stephen A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Tree mortality in western conifer forests is a complex process involving several related factors. Conifer mortality tends to be more common in high-elevation forests where stress from weather, insects, and disease result in higher rates of mortality and in the drier interior forests where mortality from fire, insects, and disease are common. Immediate mortality from fire damage may be obvious, but currently there is considerable controversy about labeling fire-injured green trees as dead that have a high probability of experiencing delayed mortality. Trees die when carbohydrates used in respiration exceed those produced in photosynthesis or water movement is impaired, the tree desiccates, and photosynthesis ceases. Immediate or delayed tree mortality may be directly due to biotic or abiotic causes and may be affected by previous damage, current condition (vigor), and attack by secondary agents such as bark beetles. A particular pathogen or insect usually attacks, damages, or kills only one portion of a tree. Trees that are damaged or attacked by pests and expected to have a dead or nonfunctional root system or a nonfunctional stem within 5 years may be considered either dead or death is imminent. Numerous studies have produced logistic regression equations or other statistical models to help determine probability of tree survival. We define and propose that a “dead tree” designation is justified for most species when at least three of the four quadrants from around the base of the root collar has cambium, inner bark, or phloem that are discolored and dead. For large ponderosa pines, a dead tree has all four quadrants with dead cambium.
Phosphorus Additions Increase the Early Growth of Red Alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) on Vancouver Island
Authors: Brown Kevin R. , Courtin P.J. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The effects of nutrient additions on growth of the red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) are not well known. We examined the growth and nutritional responses of 10 young (0–4 years old at time of fertilization) red alder plantations on eastern Vancouver Island to additions of phosphorus (P), added as triple super phosphate, and a blended fertilizer (F) containing elements other than nitrogen (N), P, and calcium (Ca). Site fertility classes ranged from poor to very rich and soil moisture regime classes ranged from moderately dry to very moist. Nutrients were added in single-tree plots and responses were measured for up to 3 years after fertilization. In plantations fertilized within 1 year of planting, P additions increased heights (average of 17%), basal diameters (28%), and stem volumes (68%) over a 3-year period and increased 1st-year foliar concentrations of P, N, and S. The fertilizer supplying other elements also increased concentrations of N and S, along with potassium (K), boron (B), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn), but increased volume by only 16%. These data suggest that deficiencies of P are more likely to limit the growth of young red alder than are deficiencies of other elements. Older plantations (more than 2 years postplanting) were less responsive to fertilization than were younger plantations (less than 2 years postplanting). Growth of young red alder appears limited by P availability when soil Bray-P and foliar P concentrations are less than approximately 12 mg kg−1 and 2 g kg−1, respectively.