bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lagrangian mechanics
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter shows how the Newtonian law of motion of a particle subject to a gradient force derived from a ‘potential energy’ can always be obtained from an extremal principle, or ‘principle of least action’. According to Newton’s first law, the trajectory representing the motion of a free particle between two points p1 and p2 is a straight line. In other words, out of all the possible paths between p1 and p2, the trajectory effectively followed by a free particle is the one that minimizes the length. However, even though the use of the principle of extremal length of the paths between two points gives the straight line joining the points, this does not mean that the straight-line path is traced with constant velocity in an inertial frame. Moreover, the trajectory describing the motion of a particle subject to a force is not uniform and rectilinear.
Hamiltonian mechanics
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter gives a brief overview of Hamiltonian mechanics. The complexity of the Newtonian equations of motion for N interacting bodies led to the development in the late 18th and early 19th centuries of a formalism that reduces these equations to first-order differential equations. This formalism is known as Hamiltonian mechanics. This chapter shows how, given a Lagrangian and having constructed the corresponding Hamiltonian, Hamilton’s equations amount to simply a rewriting of the Euler–Lagrange equations. The feature that makes the Hamiltonian formulation superior is that the dimension of the phase space is double that of the configuration space, so that in addition to point transformations, it is possible to perform more general transformations in order to simplify solving the equations of motion.
Kinetic theory
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter covers the equations governing the evolution of particle distribution and relates the macroscopic thermodynamical quantities to the distribution function. The motion of N particles is governed by 6N equations of motion of first order in time, written in either Hamiltonian form or in terms of Poisson brackets. Thus, as this chapter shows, as the number of particles grows it becomes necessary to resort to a statistical description. The chapter first introduces the Liouville equation, which states the conservation of the probability density, before turning to the Boltzmann–Vlasov equation. Finally, it discusses the Jeans equations, which are the equations obtained by taking various averages over velocities.
The law of gravitation
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter embarks on the study of Newton’s law of gravitation. It first discusses gravitational mass and inertial mass, a measure of the ‘resistance’ of the point particle to an applied force. The numerical value of the inertial mass of a body can in principle be obtained from collision experiments by assigning to a reference body a unit inertial mass of one kilogram or, more rigorously, one ‘inertial kilogram’. Next, the chapter considers the ratio of gravitational and inertial masses. It considers that, in the absence of friction, all objects, no matter what their inertial mass, or the nature of their constituents, or the internal energy or cohesive forces of their constituents, fall in the same way in an external gravitational field. Finally, this chapter studies Newton’s gravitational force and field, as well as the Poisson equation and the gravitational Lagrangian.
The N-body problem
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses the N-body problem. In 1886, Karl Weierstrass submitted the following question to the scientific community on the occasion of a mathematical competition to mark the 60th birthday of King Oscar II of Sweden. Weierstrass asked that, ‘given a system of arbitrarily many mass points that attract each other according to Newton’s laws, try to find, under the assumption that no two points ever collide, a representation of the coordinates of each point as a series in a variable which is some known function of time and for all of whose values the series converges uniformly’. Henri Poincaré showed that the equations of motion for more than two gravitational bodies are not in general integrable and won the competition. However, the jury awarded the prize to Poincaré not for solving the problem, but for coming up with the first ideas of what later became known as chaos theory.
Newtonian cosmology
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses the construction of models of the universe, which is ambiguous in Newtonian theory. It presents some results recovered within the framework of general relativity, which in addition makes it possible to lay the foundation of the theory of the formation of large-scale structures in the universe such as galaxies and galactic clusters. The chapter first constructs models of an expanding sphere. If galaxies are treated as the particles of a uniform cloud which is spherically symmetric about the origin of an inertial frame, then these models describe a universe which expands and eventually collapses on itself. The chapter then turns to the pitfalls of the infinite Newtonian universe, the ‘Friedmann’ equation, the evolution of perturbations, and Olbers’s paradox.
The kinematics of a point particle
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses the kinematics of point particles undergoing any type of motion. It introduces the concept of proper time—the geometric representation of the time measured by an accelerated clock. It also describes a world line, which represents the motion of a material point or point particle P, that is, an object whose spatial extent and internal structure can be ignored. The chapter then considers the interpretation of the curvilinear abscissa, which by definition measures the length of the world line L representing the motion of the point particle P. Next, the chapter discusses a mathematical result popularized by Paul Langevin in the 1920s, the so-called ‘Langevin twins’ which revealed a paradoxical result. Finally, the transformation of velocities and accelerations is discussed.
Accelerated frames
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter shows how, within the framework of special relativity, Newtonian inertial accelerations turn into mere geometrical quantities. In addition, the chapter states that labeling the points of Minkowski spacetime using curvilinear coordinates rather than Minkowski coordinates is mathematically just as simple as in Euclidean space. However, the interpretation of such a change of coordinates as passage from an inertial frame to an accelerated frame is more subtle. Hence, the chapter studies some examples of this phenomenon. Finally, it addresses the problem of understanding what the curvilinear coordinates actually represent. Or, similarly, it considers the question of how to realize them by a reference frame in actual, ‘relative, apparent, and common’ physical space.
The field of a moving charge
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter begins the study of electromagnetic radiation by calculating the field created by a single moving charge, first when in uniform motion, and then when it is accelerated. It reveals the potential created by a charge in uniform motion starting from the Coulomb expression for the potential in the frame where it is at rest, and then by making a Lorentz transformation. The chapter then follows the exact reasoning for any type of motion by introducing inertial frames tangent to the charge world line. In this way, it obtains the retarded Liénard–Wiechert potential created by a charge in any type of motion. After studying some special cases of the field of a moving charge, the chapter defines the asymptotic, radiation, part of the field.
Interacting charges I
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter addresses the problem of radiation by a system of point charges. Owing to the fact that the electromagnetic interaction propagates at finite speed, this problem can only be solved iteratively, by assuming that all speeds are small compared to the speed of light. The chapter then derives the dipole and quadrupole formulas giving the radiation field and the energy radiated by the system in the lowest orders. Finding the field and the radiation of a system of charges beyond the dipole approximation is rather more difficult, but necessary in the absence of dipole radiation. This is also a useful exercise for studying the radiation of a mass system in theories of gravitation where the gravitational mass is equal to the inertial mass. In addition, the chapter finds the equations of motion of the charges of the system to third order in the velocities.
Cosmological spacetimes
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter provides a few examples of representations of the universe on a large scale—a first step in constructing a cosmological model. It first discusses the Copernican principle, which is an approximation/hypothesis about the matter distribution in the observable universe. The chapter then turns to the cosmological principle—a hypothesis about the geometry of the Riemannian spacetime representing the universe, which is assumed to be foliated by 3-spaces labeled by a cosmic time t which are homogeneous and isotropic, that is, ‘maximally symmetric’. After a discussion on maximally symmetric space, this chapter considers spacetimes with homogenous and isotropic sections. Finally, this chapter discusses Milne and de Sitter spacetimes.
Cosmological perturbations
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter describes the first steps toward an understanding of large structures, which are observed in the universe at all scales—galaxies, groups of galaxies, and galactic clusters. It does so by studying the evolution of perturbations at linear order in Friedmann–Lemaître spacetimes. To simplify the discussion, the chapter limits the scope to the textbook case where the spatial sections of the background space are Euclidean (K = 0), and anisotropic perturbations and entropy perturbations are absent. This basically means that the matter reduces to a single fluid. The relativistic and Newtonian theories of cosmological perturbations differ. Finally, the chapter discusses the limit in which they converge.
A conversation about the themes
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Halvorson Hans , Steane Andrew 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
The chapter presents a conversation between the authors, looking into the themes of the book. The conversation is reported almost verbatim. It is an informal exchange, but one informed by the authors’ experience and reflection over an extended period (some decades). In this extract the first and third themes of the book are discussed: what it means to speak of God, and the observation that uncertainty is an inevitable part of this area of human life, as it is of many other areas. Questions about God’s existence are often best addressed by investigating whether the questioner is labouring under basic misconceptions about the very nature of God. Handling uncertainty is a necessary skill in commerce and business, as well as science and other walks of life.
Data transfer
Authors: Metcalf Michael , Reid John , Cohen Malcolm 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
The means whereby data are transferred to or from an internal or external file are fully described. The definitions of a file and/or unit are introduced, and the various forms of data transfer (sequential, direct, asynchronous, and stream) are described. Formatted and unformatted data are differentiated. Non-advancing and namelist input/output are introduced.
Fortran 2018 enhancements to interoperability with C
Authors: Metcalf Michael , Reid John , Cohen Malcolm 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
Some Fortran features were not available when interoperating with C; in particular, • optional dummy arguments, • assumed-length character dummy arguments, • assumed-shape arrays, • allocatable dummy arguments, and •pointer dummy arguments. Also, the frequent need to pass C pointers for low-level operations can lead to ugly code that is difficult to understand. Fortran 2018 addresses all of these issues. For optional arguments there are already widespread C programming idioms that can be followed, and so this is the simplest deficiency to correct. For all the other advanced Fortran features, the necessary information that needs to be passed to/from the C functions is passed with a C descriptor, and there are mechanisms provided for the C functions to use such descriptors. For more convenient low-level C interoperability, assumed-type dummy arguments are available. Additionally, the new assumed-rank feature can also be used in interoperable procedures.
The electron as a particle
Authors: Solymar L. , Walsh D. , Syms R. R. A. 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
Describes the classical properties of electrons, starting with a discussion of fundamental phenomena such as drift, the hydrodynamic model, and the Hall effect. After that there is an excursion into electromagnetic theory, deriving the dispersion equation and showing that materials containing electrons may become transparent above a certain frequency. The effect of the magnetic field is studied by introducing cyclotron waves. There are further sections on plasmas, heat, and the fundamentals of Johnson noise.
The electron
Authors: Solymar L. , Walsh D. , Syms R. R. A. 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
Discusses with some rigour the properties of electrons, based on the Schrodinger equation. Introduces the concepts of wave function, quantum-mechanical operators, and wave packets. Examples cover the electron meeting an infinitely long potential barrier and the passage of electrons through a finite barrier (which leads to the phenomenon of tunnelling).The electron in a potential well is also discussed, solving the problem both for a finite and for an infinite well, and finding the permissible energy levels. The chapter is concluded with the philosophical implications that arise from the quantum-mechanical approach. Two limericks relevant to the subject are quoted.
Principles of semiconductor devices
Authors: Solymar L. , Walsh D. , Syms R. R. A. 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
p–n junctions are examined initially and the potential distribution in the junction region is derived based on Poisson’s equation. Next the operation of the transistor is discussed, both in terms of the physics and of equivalent circuits. Potential distributions in metal–semiconductor junctions are derived and the concept of surface states is introduced. The physics of tunnel junctions is discussed in terms of their band structure. The properties of varactor diodes are described and the possibility of parametric amplification is touched upon. Further devices discussed are field effect transistors, charge-coupled devices, controlled rectifiers, and the Gunn effect. The fabrication of microelectronic circuits is discussed, followed by the more recent but related field of micro-electro-mechanical systems. The discipline of nanoelectronics is introduced including the role of carbon nanotubes. Finally, the effect of the development of semiconductor technology upon society is discussed.
Below 100 Hz
Authors: Fink Robert 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter explores cultural theories of sub-bass production and reception in electronic dance music (EDM), reggae, and other bass-heavy popular musics. After a brief review of the musicology surrounding sub-bass (particularly the work of Steve Goodman and Julian Henriques), the discussion moves on to a cultural history of the sub-bass signal chain, including the subject of subwoofer design and other aspects of audio engineering for the reproduction of musical sounds below 100 Hz. The chapter details the perceptual responses to low frequencies and the physics of sub-bass sound propagation in order to critique the mystification of recent theorists of “bass culture.”
Auto-Tune, Labor, and the Pop-Music Voice
Authors: Provenzano Catherine 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
Long used in popular music to smooth vocal imperfections, Auto-Tune has become a much-discussed production tool since the early 2000s through artists including Cher, Daft Punk, and Kanye West. This chapter examines the relationship among artist skill, Auto-Tune, and reception. Artist T-Pain overtly used Auto-Tune to give his voice a synthetic, often robotic quality. Through T-Pain, overt use of Auto-Tune became associated with black music and was often reviled by the general public. T-Pain’s acoustic performance on NPR’s Tiny Desk Concert series redeemed him in the eyes of many listeners whose disdain for Auto-Tune arises from a belief that the technology erodes authenticity by making skillful singing irrelevant. In contrast, Taylor Swift’s producers also use Auto-Tune as well, but rather than treating it as a special effect, they use it to correct intonation and amplify desirable vocal timbre. This use is also controversial, as Swift’s recordings are often considered disingenuous.
Synthesizers As Social Protest in Early-1970s Funk
Authors: Woodworth Griffin 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
The advent of the synthesizer brought a new timbral palette for artists to explore. Early synthesizers sought to imitate acoustic instruments, but over time they developed their own unique timbral qualities used in 1970s funk and progressive rock. Occupying the Freudian uncanny, synthesized sounds are just distinguishable enough from those of acoustic instruments to inspire discomfort or create an otherworldly, science-fiction sound. This chapter argues that African-American funk musicians of the 1970s used synthesizers in the spirit of black social empowerment movements, which advocated for the reclamation of technology to be used in the defense of black communities. Artists such as Stevie Wonder and Parliament-Funkadelic’s Bernie Worrell utilized the synthesizer to articulate social protest against the plight of inner-city black Americans. To explore these issues, the chapter analyzes “Chocolate City” and “Living for the City” from lyrical, structural, and timbral perspectives.
The Spectromorphology of Recorded Popular Music
Authors: Zagorski-Thomas Simon 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter explores the cognitive processes involved in listening to electronically mediated music. Drawing on theories of embodied cognition, the chapter argues that the record-production process can result in “sonic cartoons,” with certain aspects of a performance accentuated and others attenuated. This can lead to paradoxical listening experiences, such as an acoustic sound rendered antinaturalistically or an electronic sound imitating the behavior of a real sound-producing event. The chapter illustrates these perceptual ambiguities with examples of spectrographic analyses of acoustic works by Shania Twain and Terence Blanchard, in addition to electronic works by Aphex Twin and William Orbit.
Afterword
Authors: Frith Simon 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
The afterword comments on the central concepts of the book. It begins with a critique of traditional musicology and of sociological studies of music, the former examining musical content with insufficient focus on social content and the latter doing the reverse. In reviewing the book’s chapters, the afterword points to the complex networks of commerce and art that are present in all pieces of music. The study of musical instruments is also crucial in this volume, as the authors examine the interaction between instrument and instrumentalist and how the concept of “musical instrument” has expanded to include electronic media. The afterword also points to the book’s focus on the social context of both instrument and genre. It concludes by pointing out the synthesis of musical pleasure and serious academic study achieved by the volume.
A brief review of recent discoveries in human anatomy
Authors: Kumar A , Ghosh S K , Faiq M A , Deshmukh V R , Kumari C , Pareek V 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
In the last few years, a cluster of anatomical discoveries has been reported which overturned the long existing dogmas about the structure and function of human body. First to come was the discovery that established the existence of a lymphatic system pertaining to the central nervous system (CNS). CNS was believed to be anatomically immune privileged owing to the absence of any lymphatics and presence of the blood-brain barrier around it, but latest research has established beyond any reasonable doubt that true lymphatic channels carry immune cells in meninges thus challenging the existing theory. Studies also supported the presence of a ‘Glymphatic system’ (created by the perivascular spaces lined with the leptomeninges and a sheath of glial cells) in the CNS draining interstitial metabolic waste from CNS. The second discovery unraveled the previously unknown parts of the human mesentery in adult and established that it is a continuous entity all along the intra-abdominal gut tube against the previous notion that it is fragmented in the adult humans. A very recently reported third discovery demonstrated a previously unknown tissue component—‘interstitium’—a networked collagen bound fluid-filled space existent in a number of human organs. All these structures bear considerable applied importance towards the pathogenesis, prognostic and diagnostic investigations and management of human diseases. This article attempts to present a brief review of all three remarkable discoveries and emphasizes their applied importance within the realm of medical sciences.
The Power of Subjectivity in the Assessment of Medical Trainees
Authors: ten Cate Olle , Regehr Glenn 
Published: October 2018

Objectivity in the assessment of students and trainees has been a hallmark of quality since the introduction of multiple-choice items in the 1960s. In medical education, this has extended to the structured examination of clinical skills and workplace-based assessment. Competency-based medical education, a pervasive movement that started roughly around the turn of the century, similarly calls for rigorous, objective assessment to ensure that all medical trainees meet standards to assure quality of health care. At the same time, measures of objectivity, such as reliability, have consistently shown disappointing results. This raises questions about the extent to which objectivity in such assessments can be ensured.
In fact, the legitimacy of “objective” assessment of individual trainees, particularly in the clinical workplace, may be questioned. Workplaces are highly dynamic and ratings by observers are inherently subjective, as they are based on expert judgment, and experts do not always agree—for good, idiosyncratic, reasons. Thus, efforts to “objectify” these assessments may be problematically distorting the assessment process itself. In addition, “competence” must meet standards, but it is also context dependent.
Educators are now arriving at the insight that subjective expert judgments by medical professionals are not only unavoidable but actually should be embraced as the core of assessment of medical trainees. This paper elaborates on the case for subjectivity in assessment.