bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Mačák Kubo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter presents the conclusions of the book. It summarizes the argument of the book and makes some general observations about the process and effects of internationalization of armed conflicts in international law. Specifically, the chapter builds on the preceding analysis to argue that the study stands for a specific understanding of the notion of internationalized armed conflicts, one that is subject to an extensive application of the law of armed conflict. It further highlights some of the gaps in the legal regulation that result from the particular features of internationalized conflicts. The chapter closes by sketching potential directions in which the law and practice may develop in order to address those lacunae.
Cambridge and the Cavendish
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
J.J. Thomson was elected Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of Cambridge in 1884, and after new degree regulations were instituted in 1895, he led the Cavendish Laboratory to become the leading research school in experimental physics in the world. He relinquished the Cavendish Professorship in 1919 to become Master of Trinity College and was succeeded by his first research student, Ernest Rutherford, who led the Cavendish to become the leading research school in nuclear physics in the world. Rutherford attracted outstanding research students, among them Englishman John Cockcroft and Russian Peter Kapitza, both of whom were perceptive observers of Rutherford’s personality, style, and methods.
European and Nuclear Disintegration
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The horrific carnage on both sides of the conflict in the Great War of 1914–18 and the harsh postwar treaties transformed the face of Europe. Nuclear physics was also transformed, shortly before Rutherford left Manchester for Cambridge in early 1919, by his discovery of artificial nuclear disintegration, that alpha particles can disintegrate the nitrogen nucleus. He pursued his discovery at the Cavendish with his former Manchester student James Chadwick, who along with Charles Ellis and many others had been interned during the war in former racehorse stables in Ruhleben on the western outskirts of Berlin. Rutherford explained his discovery by assuming that an incident alpha particle expels a proton orbiting about a central core in the nitrogen nucleus, leaving a residual nucleus of lower atomic number.
The Cambridge–Vienna Controversy
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The intense Cambridge–Vienna controversy, which was carried out in the literature and in private correspondence, lasted six years. It was resolved in December 1928, when Chadwick visited Meyer’s institute in Vienna and found that under Pettersson and Kirsch’s influence their women scintillation counters had fallen prey to a misleading psychological effect. That was never published in the literature, however, so outsiders could only sense that something had gone seriously wrong in Meyer’s institute, which greatly affected its scientific reputation. The major positive consequence of the controversy was that it encouraged the further development of electrical techniques for counting charged particles to replace human scintillation counters.
The Quantum-Mechanical Nucleus
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Rutherford extended his satellite model to encompass an explanation of the alpha decay of radioactive nuclei, which was abruptly disproven in the summer of 1928 by Russian theoretical physicist George Gamow, while visiting Max Born’s institute in Göttingen, and simultaneously by English theoretical physicist Ronald Gurney and American theoretical physicist Edward Condon at Princeton University, who showed that alpha decay is a quantum-mechanical tunneling phenomenon. That December, Gamow, now in Bohr’s institute in Copenhagen, also conceived the liquid-drop model of the nucleus, which he presented in January 1929 at a meeting of the Royal Society in London, and which he discussed that April at the first of Bohr’s annual conferences in Copenhagen. He developed that model further in the 1929–30 academic year at the Cavendish and in the 1930–1 academic year in Copenhagen, where he also wrote the first monograph on theoretical nuclear physics in which he cleverly expressed his doubt that electrons are present in nuclei.
Nuclear Electrons and Nuclear Structure
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Serious contradictions to the existence of electrons in nuclei impinged in one way or another on the theory of beta decay and became acute when Charles Ellis and William Wooster proved, in an experimental tour de force in 1927, that beta particles are emitted from a radioactive nucleus with a continuous distribution of energies. Bohr concluded that energy is not conserved in the nucleus, an idea that Wolfgang Pauli vigorously opposed. Another puzzle arose in alpha-particle experiments. Walther Bothe and his co-workers used his coincidence method in 1928–30 and concluded that energetic gamma rays are produced when polonium alpha particles bombard beryllium and other light nuclei. That stimulated Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie to carry out related experiments. These experimental results were thoroughly discussed at a conference that Enrico Fermi organized in Rome in October 1931, whose proceedings included the first publication of Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis.
New Particles
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
In December 1931, Harold Urey discovered deuterium (and its nucleus, the deuteron) by spectroscopically detecting the faint companion lines in the Balmer spectrum of atomic hydrogen that were produced by the heavy hydrogen isotope. In February 1932, James Chadwick, stimulated by the claim of the wife-and-husband team of Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot that polonium alpha particles cause the emission of energetic gamma rays from beryllium, proved experimentally that not gamma rays but neutrons are emitted, thereby discovering the particle whose existence had been predicted a dozen years earlier by Chadwick’s mentor, Ernest Rutherford. In August 1932, Carl Anderson took a cloud-chamber photograph of a positron traversing a lead plate, unaware that Paul Dirac had predicted the existence of the anti-electron in 1931. These three new particles, the deuteron, neutron, and positron, were immediately incorporated into the experimental and theoretical foundations of nuclear physics.
Artificial Radioactivity
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Frédéric Joliot discovered artificial radioactivity on January 11, 1934, when he bombarded aluminum with polonium alpha particles and produced a radioactive isotope of phosphorus that decayed by emitting a positron. He detected it with a Geiger–Müller counter that Wolfgang Gentner had constructed for him. Two months later, Enrico Fermi, motivated in part by an insight of his first assistant, Gian Carlo Wick, decided to see if neutrons also could produce artificial radioactivity. The transformation of a neutron into a proton in a nucleus should create an electron, so to increase their number and hence the probability of creating an electron, he bombarded various elements with intense sources of neutrons, and on March 20, 1934, with aluminum he observed the created electrons and thereby discovered neutron-induced artificial radioactivity. Less than four months later, Marie Curie died on July 4, 1934, at age sixty-six.
The Plague Spreads to Austria and Italy
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Hitler annexed Austria to Germany on March 15, 1938. Erwin Schrödinger, in Graz, soon regretted having applauded this and fled to Dublin. Stefan Meyer pre-emptively resigned his professorship in Vienna. Marietta Blau, discoverer of cosmic-ray disintegration “stars,” immigrated to Mexico. Polonium expert Elizabeth Rona immigrated to America. Renowned Lise Meitner escaped to Stockholm, where she received little scientific or personal support. Mussolini’s Fascist Italy adopted Nazi racial policies and enacted anti-Semitic laws in the fall of 1938. Bruno Rossi, dismissed from his professorship in Padua, immigrated with his wife to England and then to America. Emilio Segrè relinquished his professorship in Palermo and immigrated with his wife and young son to America. Enrico Fermi, his Jewish wife Laura, and their two children, went to Stockholm where he received the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics and then immigrated to America to begin what Laura Fermi called the process of Americanization.
Disruptive camouflage
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Allen William L. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P. 
Published: September 2018

AbstractDisruptive camouflage involves using coloration to hinder detection or recognition of an object’s outline, or other conspicuous features of its body. This involves using coloration to create ‘false’ edges that make the ‘true’ interior and exterior edges used by visual predators to find and recognize prey less apparent. Disruptive camouflage can therefore be thought of as a manipulation of the signal-to-noise ratio that depends on features of the perceptual processing of receivers. This chapter discusses the multiple mechanisms via which disruptive camouflage is thought to influence visual processing, from edge detection, through perceptual grouping, and then on to object recognition processing. This receiver-centred approach—rather than a prey-phenotype-centred approach—aims to integrate disruption within the sensory ecology of predator–prey interactions. We then discuss the taxonomic, ecological, and behavioural correlates of disruptive camouflage strategies, work on the relationship between disruption and other forms of protective coloration, and review the development of approaches to quantifying disruption in animals.
The evolution and maintenance of Müllerian mimicry
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Allen William L. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P. 
Published: September 2018

AbstractMüllerian mimicry arises when unpalatable or otherwise unprofitable species evolve a similar appearance. While Batesian mimicry is widely considered to have evolved in palatable prey as a consequence of selection to deceive predators into believing that they are unpalatable, Müllerian mimicry is believed to have arisen as a consequence of selection to spread the burden of predator education through the adoption of a shared warning signal. Müllerian mimics are therefore considered mutualists, collectively reinforcing the protective value of their shared warning signals. We begin by discussing some examples of Müllerian mimicry that cannot be explained simply on the basis of shared ancestry. We then discuss Müller’s explanation in more depth, before presenting evidence that the shared resemblance has arisen for the reason that Müller hypothesized. Finally, we consider some of the predicted and observed properties of Müllerian mimicry systems in detail, including ecological and co-evolutionary phenomena, and consider some common questions that have only been partly resolved. We end by considering the connection between Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, arguing that like many natural systems, the nature of relationships can readily fluctuate from being parasitic to mutualistic and vice versa.
Advertising elusiveness
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Allen William L. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P. 
Published: September 2018

AbstractElusiveness signals are given by prey during the close approach of a predator, acting to inform the predator that the prey would be difficult to catch and subdue, and, therefore, that an attempt to catch the prey is likely to be unsuccessful. These signals will be restricted to mobile prey that can mount an active response to impending attack and they will not normally be displayed continuously, but instead be triggered by the perception by the prey that they are under imminent risk of attack. There are two different types of such elusiveness signals: 1) pursuit deterrent signals, communicating fleetness or strength to coursing predators, and 2) perception advertisement, communicating detection of a stalking or ambushing predator. Elusiveness signals can only be effective if mounting attacks is expensive to predators in some way. There is also an element of generalization required for elusiveness signals to be effective but, by signalling fleetness, strength, or awareness of the predator, the prey also seek to differentiate themselves from other potential prey. We first document current empirical evidence for elusiveness signalling, before discussing evolutionary considerations—starting with theory on how such signalling might evolve and be maintained—ecological aspects, and co-evolutionary considerations.
Thanatosis
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Allen William L. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P. 
Published: September 2018

AbstractWhen physically restrained, many animals adopt a relatively immobile state that can last after the constraint has been released. The lack of movement is suggested to inhibit further attack by the predator and reduce the perceived need of the predator to continue to attack or constrain the prey. This phenomenon has been variously called death feigning, animal hypnosis, tonic immobility, and playing dead. However, we will use the term that the scientific literature seems to be coalescing around: thanatosis. Thanatosis is distinct from immobility used to reduce the risk of detection or tracking by a predator, since it acts later in the sequence of a predation event (generally after the prey has been detected and contacted by the predator). Although some instances of thanatosis are strongly suggestive of mimicry of death, some are less so, and there is potential for thanatosis to offer protection from predators through other mechanisms than feigning death. However, except for some very specialist situations considered briefly here, the function of thanatosis does appear to be employed as a means of protection from predators. Thanatosis is widespread taxonomically, and has been well known for a long time, but only recently has it received purpose-designed study.
Conversation Analysis, Language, and Sexuality
Authors: Stokoe Elizabeth , Speer Susan 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter describes and illustrates a conversation analytic approach to language and sexuality. It begins by exploring contrasts between conversation analytic and other approaches to connecting language as a practice and sexuality as an identity topic. This discussion is set in a broader ethnomethodological context, drawing out key themes and debates that have emerged since the inception of ethnomethodological approaches to the study of gender and sexuality in the 1960s, including notions such as “doing” gender and sexuality and “passing.” The chapter then briefly reviews the controversial debates about the analytic tractability of identity topics, like sexuality and gender, in the conversation analytic tradition. After summarizing conversation analytic work on sexuality specifically, an illustration of what this approach offers to language and sexuality scholars is given, showing the methodological steps involved as well as the possibilities for applying findings in the real world beyond scholarly debate.
All in the Family
Authors: Guillory Nichole , Vaught Seneca 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Constructions of black mothers and fathers are often complicated intersections of gender, race, class, sexuality, and place. This chapter seeks to examine the contested representations of black mothers, black fathers, and the black family in hip hop discourses and offers a typology of hip hop families. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the ways in which hip hop texts are in conversation with historical discourses on the black family and the ways in which hip hop has challenged traditional notions of family, kinship, and familial love. The chapter examines representations of hip hop fathers and hip hop mothers, complicates notions of the “modern” American family, and frames new trajectories for how black families are imagined in hip hop discourses.
Brazilian Hip Hop in Three Scenes
Authors: Cardoso Leonardo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter focuses on three hip hop scenes in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, Brazil’s two largest cities. It begins with a discussion of democracia racial (racial democracy), a sociohistorical hypothesis that was taken up as a national point of pride. It argues that the concept is crucial to understand the relations between race and hip hop in the country. The remainder of the chapter focuses on three scenes between the 1980s and the 2010s. It starts with funk carioca, a highly popular dance-oriented music that took off at the funk parties. The second scene is São Paulo rap, which gained national attention with its more dance-averse laid-back beats and scathing commentary on violence and racism. The third and final case study examines funk ostentação, a variant of funk carioca centered on conspicuous consumption. The chapter concludes with a discussion of more recent shifts in hip hop, popular culture, and identity politics in the country.
Hip Hop Life Writing
Authors: Balestrini Nassim Winnie 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Life writing by hip hop artists occupies a remarkable segment of the memoir boom. Mostly ignored by scholars, hip hop autobiographies and memoirs cover a broad range of styles and subjects. They creatively subvert mainstream life-writing traditions associated with “prominent white males,” and link up with African American artistic forms. By analyzing hip hop autobiographies from an intermedial perspective that highlights the semiotic systems involved in meaning-making, this chapter argues that the polyvocal and relational memoirs of Common and of Questlove, as well as the comic-book graphic narratives of 50 Cent and of M.F. Grimm, are multilayered works of art that challenge staid reading practices. As African American artists’ autobiographies have been misconstrued as politicized ethnographies, sensitivity to the media-specific features of these texts provides access to their methods of demonstrating the philosophical significance of their artistic conceptualization.
Digital, Underground
Authors: Neff Ali Colleen 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Hip hop’s big takeover, four decades deep, has gone hand-in-hand with the age of digital globalization. Charts and numbers, playlists and soundscan tallies cannot fully measure the influence and mobility of hip hop’s emerging digitalities, which move swiftly across the global media landscape and bring global fans and practitioners into their collaborative folds. After decades of concern with the elusive question of what hip hop is across its historical trajectory, critical media studies is turning to the question of what hip hop does for its practitioners in the context of digital globalization. As this study shows, the long-standing field of Black aesthetic studies can nourish new approaches to understanding a transnational digital landscape in which popular music has become a premium site for emergent digital creativity, even as many of these communities fall across the digital divide that makes professional production software, hardware, and training difficult to access. Today, hip hop is as much a global field of digital design as it is a body of musical production.
Rhythmic Pattern Generation in Invertebrates
Authors: Prinz Astrid A. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter begins by defining central pattern generators (CPGs) and proceeds to focus on one of their core components, the timing circuit. After arguing why invertebrate CPGs are particularly useful for the study of neuronal circuit operation in general, the bulk of the chapter then describes basic mechanisms of CPG operation at the cellular, synaptic, and network levels, and how different CPGs combine these mechanisms in various ways. Finally, the chapter takes a semihistorical perspective to discuss whether or not the study of invertebrate CPGs has seen its prime and what it has contributed—and may continue to offer—to a wider understanding of neuronal circuits in general.
Psychological Trauma Risk Management in the UK Police Service
Authors: Hesketh Ian , Tehrani Noreen 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This paper discusses the current approaches to psychological trauma risk management in the UK policing. It stresses the need for a concerted effort by senior management, supervisors, and occupational health in order to identify those at risk. Furthermore, to reduce the incidence of harm, provide protective training and education, and where necessary provide post trauma interventions and treatments (HSE, 2013). The evidence presented in this article supports the division of the policing workforce into three cohorts. Those being, responders, specialists, and those involved in major disasters. This is seen as the most effective approach to providing an appropriate level of trauma support for all those at risk of traumatic stress. Thus, making it easier to identify and manage the effects of psychological trauma on police officers and staff.
The Developmental Neurotoxicity of Tobacco Smoke Can Be Mimicked by a Combination of Nicotine and Benzo[a]Pyrene: Effects on Cholinergic and Serotonergic Systems
Authors: Slotkin Theodore A , Skavicus Samantha , Ko Ashley , Levin Edward D , Seidler Frederic J 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Tobacco smoke contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in addition to nicotine. We compared the developmental neurotoxicity of nicotine to that of the PAH archetype, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), and also evaluated the effects of combined exposure to assess whether PAHs might exacerbate the adverse effects of nicotine. Pregnant rats were treated preconception through the first postnatal week, modeling nicotine concentrations in smokers and a low BaP dose devoid of systemic effects. We conducted evaluations of acetylcholine (ACh) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5HT) systems in brain regions from adolescence through full adulthood. Nicotine or BaP alone impaired indices of ACh presynaptic activity, accompanied by upregulation of nicotinic ACh receptors and 5HT receptors. Combined treatment elicited a greater deficit in ACh presynaptic activity than that seen with either agent alone, and upregulation of nAChRs and 5HT receptors was impaired or absent. The individual effects of nicotine and BaP accounted for only 60% of the combination effects, which thus displayed unique properties. Importantly, the combined nicotine + BaP exposure recapitulated the effects of tobacco smoke, distinct from nicotine. Our results show that the effects of nicotine on development of ACh and 5HT systems are worsened by BaP coexposure, and that combination of the two agents contributes to the greater impact of tobacco smoke on the developing brain. These results have important implications for the relative safety in pregnancy of nicotine-containing products compared with combusted tobacco, both for active maternal smoking and secondhand exposure, and for the effects of such agents in “dirty” environments with high PAH coexposure.