bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Heat Treating of Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels and Iron-Base Superalloys
Authors: Li Lin 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Precipitation hardening is a hardening mechanism found in various steels and alloy systems, such as nickel-, cobalt-, titanium-, copper-, and iron-base alloys. This article provides a brief description of precipitation hardening process, furnace equipment, surface-related problems, and protective atmospheres used in heat treatment of iron-base precipitation-hardenable (PH) superalloys. It focuses on various factors to be considered in heat treating of PH stainless steels: cleaning prior to heat treatment, furnace atmospheres, time-temperature cycles, variations in cycles, and scale removal after heat treatment. The article describes the mechanical properties, solution treatment, and aging treatment for many martensitic PH alloys, including: Alloy 17-4 PH, Alloy 13-8 Mo, Alloy 15-5 PH, Custom 450, and Custom 455; as well as semiaustenitic PH stainless steels such as Alloy 17-7 PH, Alloy PH 15-7 Mo, AM-350, Pyromet 350, AM-355, and Pyromet 355; austenitic PH stainless steel, A-286; cast PH stainless steels; and iron-nickel PH superalloys.
Heat Treating of Mold Steels and Corrosion-Resistant Tool Steels
Authors: Mesquita Rafael Agnelli , Schneider Reinhold , Gonçalves Cristiane Sales 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article provides a discussion on heat treating practices, namely, carburizing, normalizing, annealing, stress relieving, preheating, austenitizing, quenching, tempering, and nitriding for various grades of mold and corrosion-resistant tool steels. It details the characteristics of various grades of mold and corrosion-resistant tool steels, including type P20, type P20Mod, AISI type 420, and AISI type 440B.
Distortion in Tool Steels
Authors: Schneider Reinhold , Mesquita Rafael , Schützenhöfer Wolfgang 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Distortion, encompassing all irreversible dimensional changes, is of two main types: size distortion and shape distortion. This article provides an overview of the nature and causes of distortion and discusses the process and material aspects of distortion specific to steels and tool steels. It also discusses the prediction of distortion and residual stresses by heat treatment simulation for optimizing production processes. The advantages and limitations of heat treatment simulation are also described.
Heat Treating of Austenitic and Duplex Stainless Steels
Authors: Fritz James D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article provides information on the metallurgy of austenitic stainless steels, and the formation of their intermediate phases (Sigma, Chi, and Laves). It discusses sensitization, a major problem associated with the austenitics, and solutions to avoid the problem. The article describes heat treatments applied to austenitic stainless steels, namely, soaking for homogenization and preparation for hot working; annealing to remove the effects of cold work and to put alloying elements into solid solution; and stress relieving. It provides information on the stabilizing anneal process, which is conducted on stabilized alloys, and discusses the metallurgical characteristics of austenitic stainless steels that may affect the selection of a stress-relieving treatment and prevention of stress corrosion by stress relieving. The article also discusses the heat treatments applied to duplex stainless steels, which involve soaking and annealing, achieving the austenite-ferrite balance, precipitation of intermetallics, and alpha prime precipitation.
Heat Flow in Fusion Welding
Authors: Tsai Chon L. , Tso Chin M. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
During fusion welding, the thermal cycles produced by the moving heat source cause physical state changes, metallurgical phase transformation, and transient thermal stress and metal movement. This article presents an analysis of heat flow in the fusion welding process. The primary objective of welding heat flow modeling is to provide a mathematical tool for thermal data analysis, design iterations, or the systematic investigation of the thermal characteristics of any welding parameters. The article addresses analytical heat-flow solutions and their practical applications. It describes the effects of material property and welding condition on the temperature distribution of weldments. The thermal properties of selected engineering materials are provided in a table.
Power Sources for Welding
Authors: Grist F. James , Farrell William , Lawrence Glen S. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Power sources are apparatuses that are used to supply current and voltages that are suitable for particular welding processes. This article describes power sources for arc welding, resistance welding, and electron-beam welding. The more-common welding processes that use constant-current and constant-voltage power sources are listed in a table. The article describes the open-circuit voltage characteristics and power source control methods. The control methods employ either pulse width modulation (PWM) or frequency modulation (FM).
Fundamentals of Weld Solidification
Authors: Solomon Harvey D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The process of solidification is the same in all cases, whether it is the freezing of water on a windshield or in a freezer or the solidification of metal in a casting or in the weld that joins two solids. This article discusses the solidification of alloy welds and provides a comparison of casting and welding solidification. The constitutional supercooling model for describing weld solidification is presented because it qualitatively describes the evolution of different weld microstructures. The article describes the welding rate effect on weld pool shape and microstructure, as well as the nonequilibrium effects.
Nature and Behavior of Fluxes Used for Welding
Authors: Olson D.L. , Liu S. , Frost R.H. , Edwards G.R. , Fleming D.A. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Fluxes are added to the welding environment to improve arc stability, to provide a slag, to add alloying elements, and to refine the weld pool. This article describes the effect of oxygen that directly reacts with alloying elements to alter their effective role by reducing hardenability, promoting porosity, and producing inclusions. It proposes basicity index for welding as a measure of expected weld metal cleanliness and mechanical properties. The article discusses alloy modification in terms of slipping and binding agents, slag formation, and slag detachability. It reviews the types of fluxes for different arc welding processes, such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW).
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Authors: Meyer David W. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
In the flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process, the heat for welding is produced by an electric arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and a workpiece. This article discusses the advantages and disadvantages and applications of the FCAW process. It schematically illustrates the semiautomatic FCAW equipment used in the gas-shielded FCAW process. The article discusses the manufacture of flux-cored electrodes and the classification of electrodes, such as carbon and low-alloy steel electrodes, stainless steel electrodes, and nickel-base electrodes. The functions of common core ingredients in FCAW electrodes are listed in a table.
Upset Welding
Authors: Kanne W.R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Upset welding (UW) is a resistance welding process utilizing both heat and deformation to form a weld. A wide variety of shapes and materials can be joined using upset welding in either a single-pulse or continuous mode. This article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of upset welding, as well as the types of welds. The advantages include speed, ease of control, fewer defects, enhanced weld properties, simplicity of equipment, less-strict composition requirements, and ability to join difficult-to-weld materials. The article reviews the role of a homopolar generator as an alternative method for supplying the electrical current for upset welding.
Oxyfuel Gas Welding
Authors: Ballis William 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is a manual process in which the metal surfaces to be joined are melted progressively by heat from a gas flame, with or without a filler metal. This article discusses the capabilities, advantages, and limitations of OFW. It describes the role of gases, such as oxygen, acetylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane, and proprietary gases, in OFW. The article discusses the important elements of an OFW system, such as gas storage facilities, pressure regulators, hoses, torches, related safety devices, and accessories. It describes the sequence for setting up a positive-pressure welding outfit. The article provides information on forehand welding and backhand welding, as well as various joints used. It concludes with a discussion on repairs and alterations, as well as the safety aspects.
Friction Welding
Authors: Tsang Schillings 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Friction welding (FRW) can be divided into two major process variations: direct-drive or continuous-drive FRW and inertia-drive FRW. This article describes direct-drive FRW variables such as rotational speed, duration of rotation, and axial force and inertia-drive FRW variables such as flywheel mass, rotational speed, and axial force. It lists the advantages and limitations of FRW and provides a brief description on categories of applications of FRW such as batch and jobbing work and mass production. A table of process parameters of direct-drive FRW systems relative to inertia-drive FRW systems is also provided.
Radial Friction Welding
Authors: Nicholas E.D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article provides information on radial friction welding, which adopts the principle of rotating and compressing a solid ring around two stationary pipe. The process evolution of this welding is illustrated. The article also examines the equipment used and operating steps. It also illustrates a prototype of radial friction-welding machine and concludes with a discussion on applications that would be suitable for radial friction welding.
Ultrasonic Welding
Authors: Devine Janet 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article begins with a discussion on the advantages and limitation of ultrasonic welding (USW). It describes variations of the USW process which can produce different weld geometries. These variations are helpful in producing spot welds, line welds, continuous seam welds, ring welds, and microelectronic welds. The article provides information on the functions of USW personnel and describes the special conditions in USW which include the condition of the surface, the use of an interlayer, and the control of resonance. It concludes with a description on the weld quality, the influencing factors, surface appearance and deformation, and metallographic examination.
Dip Brazing
Authors: Peter Daryl D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the dip brazing process and the principal types of furnaces used for molten-salt-bath dip-brazing applications. It provides information on equipment maintenance, which is divided into temperature control, control of the liquid, and maintenance of the vessel. The article presents the typical salts used for molten-salt dip brazing of carbon and low-alloy steels with selected filler metals in tabular form. It concludes with information on dip brazing of stainless steels, cast irons, and aluminum alloys and safety precautions of the process.
Influence of Welding on Steel Weldment Soundness
Authors: Lesnewich A. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the common defects associated with arc welds in the weld metal and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the plate. These defects include porosity, incomplete fusion, hot cracks, lamellar tearing, undercut, rollover, and inclusions. The article details hydrogen-induced cracking and its mechanism as well as the control measures. It provides information on measurement of hydrogen in weld metal and presents a table that contain information on effect of welding processes and electrodes on hydrogen levels in welds.
Selection of Wrought Martensitic Stainless Steels
Authors: Davis J.R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes general welding characteristics such as weld microstructure and weldability. The correlations of preheating and postweld heat treatment practices with carbon contents and welding characteristics of martensitic stainless steels are reviewed. The article contains a table that lists the electrodes and welding rods suitable for use as filler metals in the welding of martensitic stainless steels. It provides specific arc welding procedural recommendations for the commonly welded martensitic stainless steels. Martensitic stainless steel joining methods such as laser-and electron-beam welding, resistance welding, flash welding, and friction welding, are discussed.
Selection of Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steels
Authors: Brooks John A. , Lippold John C. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Austenitic stainless steels exhibit a single-phase, face-centered cubic structure that is maintained over a wide range of temperatures. This article reviews the compositions of standard and nonstandard austenitic stainless steels. It summarizes the important aspects of solidification behavior and microstructural evolution that dictate weld-metal ferrite content and morphology. The article describes weld defect formation, namely, solidification cracking, heat-affected zone liquation cracking, weld-metal liquation cracking, copper contamination cracking, ductility dip cracking, and weld porosity. It discusses four general types of corrosive attack: intergranular attack, stress-corrosion cracking, pitting and crevice corrosion, and microbiologically influenced corrosion. The article concludes with information on weld thermal treatments such as preheat and interpass heat treatments and postweld heat treatment.
Selection and Weldability of Advanced Titanium-Base Alloys
Authors: Phillips David H. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article focuses on the physical metallurgy and weldability of four families of titanium-base alloys, namely, near-alpha alloy, alpha-beta alloy, near-beta, or metastable-beta alloy, and titanium based intermetallics that include alpha-2, gamma, and orthorhombic systems.
Selection and Weldability of Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Martukanitz Richard P. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Aluminum alloys, particularly the heat-treatable alloys, are sensitive to weld cracking. Anticipation of these characteristics and general knowledge of these materials assist in selection of suitable method for welding heat-treatable aluminum alloys. This article provides a general description of the metallurgy, characteristics, and applications of heat-treatable aluminum alloys and a detailed discussion on the characteristics of heat-treatable aluminum alloys, their resulting impact on the weld quality and property, along with the methods of avoiding or reducing the impacts. The impact created in the weld quality includes crack sensitivity, liquation cracking, porosity, and heat-affected zone degradation. The article provides an overview of filler alloy selection for reducing weld crack sensitivity and increasing weld strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance in the welds of heat-treatable aluminum alloys.
Selection of Nickel, Nickel-Copper, Nickel-Chromium, and Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys
Authors: Tillack Donald J. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article discusses the general welding characteristics and metallurgical welding considerations that play an important function during the welding of nickel, nickel-copper, nickel-chromium, and nickel-chromium-iron alloys.
Hardfacing, Weld Cladding, and Dissimilar Metal Joining
Authors: Davis J.R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Hardfacing is a form of surfacing that is applied for the purpose of reducing wear, abrasion, impact, erosion, galling, or cavitation. This article describes the deposition of hardfacing alloys by oxyfuel welding, various arc welding methods, laser welding, and thermal spray processes. It discusses the categories of hardfacing alloy, such as build-up alloys, metal-to-metal wear alloys, metal-to-earth abrasion alloys, tungsten carbides, and nonferrous alloys. A summary of the selection guide for hardfacing alloys is presented in a table. The article describes the procedures for stainless steel weld cladding and the factors influencing joint integrity in dissimilar metal joining. It concludes with a discussion on joining carbon and low-alloy steels to various dissimilar materials (both ferrous and nonferrous) by arc welding.
Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Laser-Beam Welding
Authors: Mazumder J. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Laser-beam welding (LBW) is a joining process that produces coalescence of material with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent light beam impinging upon the surface to be welded. This article describes the steps that must be considered when selecting the LBW process. It reviews the individual process variables that influence procedure development of the LBW process. Joint design and special practices related to LBW are discussed. The article concludes with a discussion on the use of consumables and special welding practices.
Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Ultrasonic Welding
Authors: Devine Janet 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Ultrasonic welding (USW) is effectively used to join both similar and dissimilar metals with lap-joint welds. This article describes procedure considerations for the ultrasonic welding of specific material types. It reviews difficult-to-weld alloys, such as carbon and low-alloy steels, high-strength steels, and stainless steel, and provides information on the applications of weldable alloys such as aluminum alloys and copper alloys. The article concludes with a discussion on welding of dissimilar metal (nonferrous-to-nonferrous) combinations and its applications.
Brazing of Cast Irons and Carbon Steels
Authors: Severin Ann 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Cast irons and carbon steels are brazeable materials, although the brazeability of cast iron is lower than that of carbon steel. The article provides a detailed discussion on the brazeability of different types of cast iron (malleable iron, ductile iron, and gray iron), carbon steels, and dissimilar metals. It describes the factors considered in the selection of filler-metal for cast iron and carbon steel brazing, such as temperature and environment, brazed joint design, heat source, and heat-treatment requirements. The article also discusses the basic considerations in cleaning and fixturing procedures, filler metal and flux/atmosphere feeding procedures, and the heating methods of cast iron and carbon steel brazing.
Mechanical Cutting for Weld Preparation
Authors:   ASM Committee on Mechanical Cutting for Welding Preparation, Soisson Lance R. , Cable Chris , Cremisio Richard S. , Dvorak Chuck , Dvorak Jim , Laepple Gerhard , Whalen John R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Mechanical cutting methods are widely used by the metal fabrication industry. This article introduces the welding fabricator to some of the mechanical equipment used to shape or prepare metals for welding. The most prevalent equipment used for mechanical cutting includes shears, iron workers, nibblers, and band saws. The article provides details on each of these.
Brazeability and Solderability of Engineering Materials
Authors: Brandi S.D. , Liu S. , Indacochea J.E. , Xu R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the factors considered in the analysis of brazeability and solderability of engineering materials. These are the wetting and spreading behavior, joint mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, metallurgical considerations, and residual stress levels. It discusses the application of brazed and soldered joints in sophisticated mechanical assemblies, such as aerospace equipment, chemical reactors, electronic packaging, nuclear applications, and heat exchangers. The article also provides a detailed discussion on the joining process characteristics of different types of engineering materials considered in the selection of a brazing process. The engineering materials include low-carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and tool steels; cast irons; aluminum alloys; copper and copper alloys; nickel-base alloys; heat-resistant alloys; titanium and titanium alloys; refractory metals; cobalt-base alloys; and ceramic materials.
Voltammetry
Authors: Crow D.R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Voltammetry is the study of the current voltage relationships observed when electroactive species in solution are subject to oxidation or reduction at electrodes under carefully controlled conditions. This article describes the basic principle of voltammetry performed using the dropping mercury electrode (polarography). It discusses the various methods of voltammetry, namely, linear sweep voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, and stripping voltammetry that are carried out with different electrode material. The article also explores the modern instrumentation and developments achieved in voltammetry, and provides an outline of additional data, such as values of the formation, or stability, and constants of complexes formed by shifting the half-wave potential, which can be obtained by voltammetry. Additionally, the article provides a brief account of the applications of voltammetry.
Electron Spin Resonance
Authors: Poole Charles P. , Farach Horatio A. 
Published: December 2018

AbstractElectron spin resonance (ESR), or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), is an analytical technique that can extract a great deal of information from any material containing unpaired electrons. This article explains how ESR works and where it applies in materials characterization. It describes a typical ESR spectrometer and explains how to tune it to optimize critical electromagnetic interactions in the test sample. It also identifies compounds and elements most suited for ESR analysis and explains how to extract supplementary information from test samples based on the time it takes electrons to return to equilibrium from their resonant state. Two of the most common methods for measuring this relaxation time are presented as are several application examples.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Authors: Bennett L.H. , Swartzendruber L.J. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a form of radio frequency spectroscopy based on interactions between nuclear magnetic dipole or electric quadrupole moments and an applied magnetic field or electric-field gradient. This article provides an overview of the fundamental principles of nuclear magnetic resonance with emphasis on nuclei properties, the basic equation of nuclear magnetic resonance, the classical theory of nuclear magnetization, line broadening, and measurement sensitivity. It describes the pulse-echo method for observing NMR. The article provides useful information on ferromagnetic nuclear resonance and nuclear quadrupole resonance, and illustrates the experimental arrangement of NMR with a block diagram. It also presents several application examples.
X-Ray Diffraction Residual Stress Techniques
Authors: Prevey Paul S. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
In x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement, the strain in the crystal lattice is measured, and the residual stress producing the strain is calculated, assuming a linear elastic distortion of the crystal lattice. This article provides a detailed account of the plane stress elastic model, and describes the most common methods of x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement, namely, single-angle and two angle techniques. It elaborates the major steps involved in x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement, explaining the possible sources of error in stress measurement. The article also outlines the applications of x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement with examples.