bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Blockbusting
Authors: Edward Orser W. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Blockbusting played a significant role in the massive racial change which transformed many American central cities in the 1950s and 1960s. The 1968 Civil Rights (or Fair Housing) Act specifically listed blockbusting as an illegal practice. Blockbusting in the post‐War
II
period typically referred to transactions in which white fear of black settlement was used by operatives, termed “blockbusters,” to produce panic sales at prices well below market value, then to charge African American purchasers prices considerably above market value. While such practices did produce increased housing opportunity for African Americans, they often were on the basis of exploitative prices and shaky financial mechanisms.
Capital Cities, Ex‐Novo
Authors: Gordon David L. A. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractA capital city is an urban area containing the seat of government for a nation‐state or subnational province or state. Capital cities built ex novo, on new sites, are high‐profile and controversial urban development projects, requiring vast resources, careful planning, and special implementation powers. New capital cities are built for regional economic planning purposes or for better defense, climate, or resiliency against natural disasters. They may be located for political considerations, on sites not identified with a dominant ethnic, language, or religious group. Leading examples of ex‐novo capital cities are Brasília (Brazil), Canberra (Australia), New Delhi (India), and Washington (USA).
Caracas
Authors: Myers David J. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractCaracas became the political hub of Venezuela during the colonial era. It is currently Venezuela's “primate city.” During the second half of the twentieth century millions of peasants flooded into Caracas. They settled in shantytowns that surround the historic center of the city. Residents of these shantytowns (ranchos) challenged the traditional ruling and middle classes for political and economic power.Ranchoresidents gained unprecedented power and influence after Hugo Chávez came to power in 1999. The Chávez government reduced investment in Caracas. The city's built environment decayed and public services deteriorated. The dynamism of Caracas has been stoked by several petroleum‐fueled economic bonanzas. Sharp declines in the national government's income from petroleum in 2014 and 2015 led to economic crisis. Class conflict intensified. Public services deteriorated. Meaningful improvement in Caracas's conflictual political milieu or urban services in the near future (as of early 2016) appears unlikely.
Density
Authors: Lehmann Steffen 
Published: April 2019

AbstractUrban densityis a term used in urban planning and design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area.Densityandcompactnessare two closely related, but different, criteria relevant for the transformation of cities to become more resilient to climate change. While a high degree of compactness is desirable, too much density can be detrimental to liveability, health, and social well‐being. More compact cities are an advantage and will help in curbing urban sprawl, but a consolidated urban form requires urban infill at densities that support compact self‐reliant districts and mixed‐use neighborhoods. The social dimension of such density increase is likely to be a future challenge and face community resistance.
Segregation/Desegregation
Authors: Arapoglou Vassilis P. , Maloutas Thomas 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Desegregation is a process bringing different social groups and ethnicities into greater proximity. New waves of international migration have initiated a process of ethnic and racial desegregation in many cities, and social class desegregation has been halted by growing economic inequality, the financial crisis, and the housing crash. Civil rights and social justice movements have historically contributed to shaping policies for desegregation, especially in city planning, housing, and education. Redistributive welfare policies are more efficient for addressing the structural forms of segregation, and local development policies, urban renewal, targeted housing, and mixing are considered more efficient than residential mobility and population reallocation.
East Asian Urbanization
Authors: Iossifova Deljana 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
East Asia's urbanization has taken place five to ten times faster than urbanization in Europe, North America, and elsewhere. The region includes Japan, South and North Korea, China, Hong Kong, Macao, and Mongolia. Although cultural and social differences in the region have led to distinct sociocultural, political, and economic dynamics, spatial polarization, the emergence of mega‐urban regions, world cities, and regional, international, and transborder development strategies are characteristic of East Asia's urbanization. Major challenges facing the region include sustainable economic growth, environmental sustainability, balanced urban development, spatial and administrative fragmentation, and the provision of affordable housing and services.
Enclave Urbanism
Authors: He Shenjing , Wang Kun 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Enclave
denotes an internally homogeneous territorial unit dominated by distinct social, cultural, and economic features, demarcated by a clear boundary, either visible or invisible, to differentiate insiders from outsiders. Scholars have examined the global spread of enclave urbanism from political economy, technological, and sociopsychological perspectives. It has been widely perceived that enclave urbanism threatens social integration and causes widening social segregation. Yet, urban enclaves are highly heterogeneous and often lead to divergent sociospatial consequences in different contexts. We thus call for a context‐sensitive and relational approach to decipher the global diffusion of enclave urbanism and its sociospatial implications through looking beyond the conventional forms of urban enclaves.
Flâneur
Authors: Nuvolati Giampaolo 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

The notion of
flâneur
– employed since the late nineteenth century to designate poets, artists, and intellectuals who critically observed people's behavior while strolling among the crowds, and codified in Benjamin's influential work on the “passages” of Paris – is once again of interest as a tool for identifying a specific mode of travel and exploration of places, a particular type of reflective relationship with people and spaces. Relocated from the Parisian arcades to contemporary suburbs and commercial malls, the concept of
flâneur
seems to reflect the modern sense of bewilderment, as well as the craving for new relationships with both places and their inhabitants. Moreover,
flânerie
, the activity of strolling and looking carried out by the
flâneur
, moves toward new methodological perspectives for studying urban context, complementing more traditional research approaches in urban studies.
Homelessness
Authors: Boesveldt N. F. (Nienke) 
Published: April 2019

AbstractHomelessness has grown and has become more visible since the 1970s, especially in urban areas. It remains difficult to measure because of different definitions and policy interests. Typologies of homelessness are helpful in the study of the issue. Subpopulations have also been identified such as homeless migrants, youth, and women, each with different characteristics and needs. Until recently, there was little acknowledgment that homelessness existed in rural areas, and the understanding of rural homelessness is minimal compared to that of urban homelessness. Structural causes of homelessness include changes in mental healthcare, trends in substance abuse, and lower housing availability. Mortality rates are extremely high across homeless populations. Responses to homelessness have seen important changes from the staircase model to the Housing First model. Urban governance responses to homelessness have been limited in their effectiveness, apart from in Finland. A greater role for a citizenship agenda should be encouraged to address this problem.
Housing Career
Authors: Coulter Rory , van Ham Maarten 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The housing career describes the succession of housing states, events, and transitions that individuals experience over time. The structure of housing careers is influenced by the trajectory of people's lives, their links to other individuals, and the contextual opportunities and constraints they encounter. The life‐course perspective provides a rich framework for conceptualizing and examining housing careers and the ways in which these may be changing over time.
Mixed‐Income Developments
Authors: Joseph Mark L. , Yoon Miyoung 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
A mixed‐income development can be defined as a complex with housing and other amenities such as parks, schools, and community centers that has the mixing of income groups as a fundamental part of its financial and operating plan. Mixed‐income development is a housing policy that has been implemented in the USA and around the world to deconcentrate poverty, particularly in public housing developments. Mixed‐income development engages private real estate developers to produce public housing and thus exemplifies the shift in the 1990s to a neoliberal approach to urban development and other social services. Mixed‐income development has proven to be an extremely complex endeavor that has successfully promoted physical transformation and neighborhood revitalization but has failed to achieve social cohesion and integration or economic mobility for low income residents.
Neighborhood Outcomes
Authors: Cordes Sarah A. , Laurito Agustina 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Neighborhood outcomes are the tendency for neighborhood‐level characteristics to affect individual‐level outcomes. Neighborhoods can affect individuals in a variety of ways including access to high quality schools, employment opportunities, and amenities such as grocery stores and open spaces. Identifying neighborhood effects is difficult both because it is hard to define what is meant by a neighborhood and because individuals tend to sort across neighborhoods so that they live with other people like themselves. Research tends to show mixed evidence about the effects of neighborhoods, although moving to higher quality neighborhoods appears to increase college attendance and earnings, improve mental health outcomes and result in lower levels of welfare dependency.
Neoliberalism
Authors: Alexandri Georgia , Janoschka Michael 
Published: April 2019

AbstractNeoliberalism refers to the contemporary transformation of capitalism. While claiming to extend laissez‐faire economic principles such as free markets and unhampered trade, neoliberalism essentially seeks state support and intervention for enhancing capital circulation. Prospering from the dismantling of the welfare state and the privatization of public assets, it asks for deregulation and reregulation policies that allow higher revenues for the private sector. Neoliberalism tends to favor financial and corporate elites, whose share of income and political power has substantially increased while the vast majority of society tackles the negative outcomes of neoliberalism such as increasingly privatized education, healthcare, and housing systems, as well as environmental degradation stemming from extensive exploitation of resources. Moreover, neoliberalism depreciates deprived and vulnerable populations that increasingly face displacement in economic, political, and symbolic terms.
Overurbanization
Authors: Timberlake Michael 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Overurbanization is a concept used by urbanization and development scholars to describe a situation in which a country's urban population is considerably larger than expected on the basis of that country's level of economic development. In some formulations, it refers to the national‐level ratio of percentage of the population living in urban areas to the percentage of the population employed in either nonagricultural occupations in general or manufacturing occupations specifically. Its immediate cause is rural to urban migration, and its underlying causes are the subject of theory and research, and they include dependency and urban‐biased national policies. Among its theorized consequences are that it is presumed to be a barrier to successful economic growth, and it is also sometimes linked to increased risk of political conflict in urban areas. From the 1960s into the 1980s, overurbanization was the focus of considerable attention from scholars of development and policy‐makers.
Postindustrial Economy
Authors: Lois González Rubén C. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The term “postindustrial economy” refers to the stage of recent history in which manufacturing and industrial activities have ceased to be hegemonic in the economic structure of a nation, region, or metropolitan area. The postindustrial economy is consolidated when the secondary sector of activity – that formed by works dedicated to the production of goods and objects – is replaced by the tertiary or service sector. Although it has a diversified and heterogeneous composition, the postindustrial economy focuses on the importance of innovative and creative activities, research, and the transfer of new services to companies. In this way, the economic efficiency of the territories originally depending on the total resources allocated to the public and private research and development (R&D) sector now depends on the number of patents registered, and the set of activities (or clusters) that generate new procedures and economic knowledge. It is assumed that an efficient economy, at any scale, must be postindustrial. This is understood as a way of overcoming a classic productive base to mobilize a large number of factory workers. The postindustrial qualification also refers to those territories of a developed economy that have benefited from an intense presence of manufacturing companies throughout its history.
Postmetropolis
Authors: Borch Christian 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The notion of the postmetropolis was introduced by the American urbanist Edward W. Soja to analyze a shift from metropolitan urbanization to regional urbanization. The postmetropolis is characterized by post‐Fordist industrial production, new divisions of labor, expansion beyond traditional urban geographical confines, intensified socioeconomic inequalities, and novel types of social control, as well as a rearrangement of the urban imaginary.
Postpolitical City
Authors: Davidson Mark 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe contentious concept of the “postpolitical” identifies the absence of the possibility of structural social reform. In democratic societies, this means that reforms which might reaffirm the founding premise that citizens are equal is silenced. The postpolitical city is therefore a space lacking in certain political claims. Conflicts might abound, but these are not framed in ways that challenge the very structures of the society in which the conflicts emerge. Postpolitical cities therefore domesticate the potentially unruly side of democratic politics. Once cities were viewed as the crucible of democracy, but many scholars now find the converse relationship to be true.
Racial/Ethnic Residential Segregation
Authors: Ruiz‐Tagle Javier 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Racial/ethnic residential segregation refers to the relegation of racially or ethnically discriminated groups to separate areas within cities. Although the causes of such discrimination and the intensity of spatial divisions are different in each historical, socioeconomic, and political context, segregation is one of the most common problems in all cities of the world, and thus it may be the most discussed subject in urban studies' history. Residential segregation, based on externally imposed physical categorizations (race) or on collectively ratified and expressed identities (ethnicity), has existed since cities were established, as an urban division to reinforce political and economic inequalities and dissections in a given society. Depending on the degree of voluntariness and the function that a given zone fulfills for its residents, racial/ethnic segregation has taken several forms in world history, ranging from the “classic” ghetto, through ethnic enclaves, to gated communities, to name some of the most famous.
Real Estate Development
Authors: Artioli Francesca 
Published: April 2019

AbstractAfter presenting both the social and the scientific relevance of real estate development, this entry offers an overview of the main scholarly approaches to its study. It then focuses on the varieties of real estate development, intended as the diverse configurations of state–market relations that organize the production of the built environment. It finally identifies some major debates about current changes in both the politics and capital of real estate development.
R
omero,
J
osé
L
uis
Authors: Romero Luis Alberto 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
José Luis Romero studied the Western city in Europe and Latin America and developed an original historical‐cultural perspective on the urban world. A city is the creation of its society, which builds the habitat, where it organizes its social and political relationships, and unfolds its ways of life, mentalities, and ideologies. He initially studied the rise of cities and bourgeoisies in the European feudal world of the eleventh century, and followed their development until the twentieth century. On the sixteenth century, the city was transplanted to Latin America. On the periphery of the Western world, the metropolitan impulses and their reception and local adaptations constituted successive models: the noble cities of the Indies, the creole cities, the patrician cities, the bourgeois cities, and the cities of the masses.
Singapore
Authors: Savage Victor R. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractAs a small city‐state in a complex and rapidly changing globalizing world, Singapore has to contend with staying politically relevant, economically reliable, and environmentally sustainable. It has been a remarkable development from Third to First World in 50 years (1965–2015) which has become a benchmark for other developing countries to emulate its success. This entry outlines some salient features of Singapore's remarkable journey of development in the tropical world.
Slumdog Cities
Authors: Gandhi Kanchan 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

This entry is about communities living in informal settlements in the “Global South.” The Hollywood movie
Slumdog Millionaire
, which associated the plight of slum‐dwellers with that of dogs was met by protests from the communities it represented. Although the struggles of people represented in the movie were stark, the word “slumdog” did not resonate well with a large number of people in the Majority World. The subaltern school particularly challenges this dystopic view of the slum. Scholars across the world have written about how slums not only are sites of great deprivation, injustice, and violence but also represent collective spirit, resilience, innovation, and resistance. More specifically, Ananya Roy argues that there is a need to challenge this dualistic thinking regarding slums by interrogating the peripheries, informality, zones of exception, and the gray spaces which they represent.
Smart City
Authors: Das Diganta 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis entry explores “smart cities,” a concept that has appeared in the urbanization discourse in recent decades. Being a relatively new concept, there are different understandings of what being “smart” constitutes. Therefore, this entry seeks to explore the ways in which “smart cities” have been characterized in the realm of geography and urban studies. Different ways of measuring “smartness” are analyzed, and different examples of “smart city” initiatives in the world are examined. While these cities face vastly different challenges, they share a common pursuit of “high tech solutions.”
S
now,
J
ohn
Authors: Banerjee Jacqueline 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
John Snow (1813–1858) is famous for his early use of anesthetics, and for his discovery that cholera is a waterborne disease. His successful administration of chloroform to Queen Victoria during her last two childbirths helped to overcome prejudice against it, and his investigations of the cholera outbreak in London's Soho district led to a new understanding of what caused the disease, and how it could be prevented and handled. This was a major milestone both in epidemiology and the wider field of public health, helping to safeguard the populations of cities and smaller communities alike.
S
outheast
A
sia
Authors: Goh Daniel P. S. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The expansion of the capitalist world system into Southeast Asia, and its transformation through the two centuries from the 1800s, explains the form and thrust of urbanization in the region. This history could be heuristically divided into three overlapping periods marked by the dominance of mercantile, industrial, and postindustrial capitalism. In each period, the urbanization driven by political and economic forces turned on a specific axis. During the colonial period, the rise of port cities challenged the hegemony of old primate cities, and gave rise to urban primacy. The nationalism period saw the relationship between urban centers and rural hinterlands and the political balancing of the relationship emerge as key problems for the newly independent states. The globalization period is marked by political decentralization and transnational economic liberalization, which, together with the dominance of centralizing developmental states in the nationalism period, form the central tension in the postcolonial era. Together with the increasing importance of urban agency, the growth of mega‐urban regions and the rise of secondary cities characterize the period.
Special‐Purpose Authorities
Authors: Smith James M. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Special‐purpose authorities have become a key feature of large‐scale urban development over the past century. Such authorities are designed to administer, finance, and manage local policy focused on one policy area such as transportation, waste management, or urban development. Special‐purpose authorities differ from general‐purpose government in their structure (leadership is generally made up of an appointed board of directors), fiscal powers, and specific focus. The structure of special‐purpose authorities has led some to critique their accountability or transparency, while public officials have come to rely on special‐purpose authorities as a source of public financing when other budget resources are limited.
Speculative Urbanism
Authors: Sood Ashima 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The concept of “speculative urbanism” has over the space of only a few years informed a large and growing literature on the intersections of real estate capital flows and processes of urban planning and governance in cities of the Global South. Speculative urbanism can be said to embody urban governance as “investment strategy”; it represents the turbulent trajectory of world‐class city‐making projects in an era where the returns to capital are their primary driving force and metric. Based on a case study of Bangalore, India, speculative urbanism brings to light a number of undercurrents hitherto missed by global city theorists, such as the rise of transnational policy networks, processes of interreferencing, and the rise of entrepreneurial parastatals as key actors in land acquisition and development.
Favelas/Squatter Settlements
Authors: Lara Fernando Luiz 
Published: April 2019

AbstractFavelas, being so different from the systematized processes of planning in the developed world, are often demonized by those who look only at the numbers and romanticized by those who look only at the photographs. In reality, favelas have a wide range of qualities and vulnerabilities but do share some very specific characteristics that require further research and systematization.