bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
People Who Are Homeless
Authors: Moore Elizabeth M. , Cheng Theresa H. , Ijadi-Maghsoodi Roya , Gelberg Lillian 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
An estimated 100 million people globally suffer from absolute homelessness. The estimated number of people who are homeless in the United States at any given point in time is about 550,000. Mortality and disease severity of people who are homeless far exceed those of the general population because of extreme poverty, delays in seeking medical care, nonadherence to therapy, substance use disorders, and psychological impairment. Many of their health problems, such as infections due to crowded living conditions in shelters, hypothermia from exposure to extreme cold, and malnutrition due to limited access to food and cooking facilities are a direct result of homelessness. This chapter addresses in detail infectious diseases, substance abuse, obesity, mental health problems, and causes of death in this population. It also addresses access to and use of healthcare services. It addresses the roots of and underlying issues related to these problems. Finally, it addresses what needs to be done.
Medical Care
Authors: Fein Oliver , Geiger H. Jack 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The United States is the only industrialized democracy that does not define access to healthcare as a right and a government responsibility and therefore does not provide universal healthcare coverage. Instead, access to healthcare is treated as a commodity to be purchased by those who are able to pay or as a partially subsidized benefit of employment in a system that is increasingly dominated by for-profit insurance companies, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and corporate medical providers. The burdens of this unjust system fall most heavily on low-income people and members of racial and ethnic minority groups. This chapter addresses social injustice in medical care in the United States and what needs to be done to address this injustice. A text box describes single-payer healthcare. A second text box describes approaches to educating medical students about racism.
Mental Health
Authors: Muntaner Carles , Ng Edwin , Chung Haejoo , Hessel Philipp , Eaton William W. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter addresses the needs for preventive measures to improve the unfair—and avoidable—living and working conditions that produce increased rates of mental disorders among poor workers, women, immigrants, and racial and ethnic minorities. It also addressees treatment to narrow persistent mental health disparities by providing high-quality mental health services and psychiatric care. It discusses mental illness in a social justice context; the association between social stratification and mental health; specific dimensions of social injustice that implicate unequal power relations as a determinant of mental health disparities and mental health services and as a source of social injustice; and what needs to be done to achieve a more equal society that will reduce disparities in mental health outcomes. It recommends an action agenda that includes reframing issues of mental health among deprived and victimized populations to include civil rights and human rights as well as a public health approach. A text box describes the opioid crisis in the United States.
Oral Health
Authors: Allukian Myron , Horowitz Alice M. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Oral diseases are often called a neglected or silent epidemic. They are largely due to social injustice in which private wealth overrides the public’s health. Although oral diseases affect almost everyone, prevention of them and access to dental services have not been high priorities in the United States. This chapter, after defining oral health, describes the neglected epidemic of oral diseases and then discusses the roles that the food and tobacco industries play in contributing to oral disease and poor oral health. Although organized dentistry has done much to improve oral health, it also has limited access to dental care for millions of Americans. The chapter discusses health literacy and social inequality, national issues concerning oral health, state and local issues, school programs, the dental public health infrastructure, and the dental workforce. It discusses what needs to be done. A text box addresses oral health in low- and middle-income countries.
Learning from the Social Movements of the 1960s
Authors: Fein Oliver , Phillips Charlotte S. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter describes how we can learn from the social movements of the 1960s in the United States and apply insights from those social movements to address social injustice today. Social movements have had, and will continue to have, a powerful impact on medicine and public health, motivating and energizing health workers to address social injustice. The authors, in part drawing from their personal experiences, describe the civil rights movement, the student movement, the anti-war movement, the women’s movement, the gay rights movement, and new social movements. The authors conclude that the experiences of the 1960s teach us that, as new social movements emerge, it is important for single-issue movements to unite with each other and collaborate for progressive change.
Promoting Health with Equitable and Sustainable Human Development
Authors: Jolly Richard 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Progress toward social justice in public health requires actions to reduce the extremes of social injustice, well beyond health and health services, within each country and globally. Economic inequalities have never been greater than now, although structural inequalities of power, income, and living standards have long been present throughout the world. This chapter describes how social injustice can be reduced by promoting equitable and sustainable human development. It discusses economic and social requirements for a greater justice in public health, myths about the costs of equity and social justice, and multidimensional indicators of poverty and inequalities. It concludes with a discussion of what needs to be done, including making equity an economic priority, providing international support, utilizing the Sustainable Development Goals for poverty reduction, and taking other actions toward social justice. Two text boxes address the roles of international nongovernmental organizations and foundations in promoting equitable and sustainable human development.
Common Enemies
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Americans come together to fight diseases. For over 100 years, they have asked their neighbors to contribute to disease campaigns and supported health policies that target one disease at a time. Common Enemies asks why disease campaigns are the battles Americans can agree to fight, why some diseases attract more attention than others, and how fighting one disease at a time changes how Americans distribute charitable dollars, prioritize policies, and promote health. Drawing on the first comprehensive data on thousands of organizations targeting hundreds of diseases over decades, the author shows that disease campaigns proliferate due to the perception of health as a universal goal, the appeal of narrowly targeted campaigns, and the strategic avoidance of controversy. They funnel vast sums of money and attention to a few favored diseases, and they prioritize awareness campaigns and medical research over preventing disease and ensuring access to healthcare. It’s easy to imagine more efficient ways to promote collective well-being. Yet the same forces that limit the potential of individual disease campaigns to improve health also stimulate the vast outpouring of money and attention. Rather than displacing attention to other problems, disease campaigns build up the capacity to address them.
Introduction
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
For more than a century, disease campaigns have been the causes Americans ask their neighbors to donate to and the issues that inspire them to march and volunteer. Studies of social movements, interest groups, agenda setting, and social problems tend to focus on contentious politics and study one movement or organization at a time. But these approaches cannot reveal why disease campaigns are the battles Americans can agree to fight, why some diseases attract more attention than others, and how fighting one disease at a time changes charity and public policy. Understanding the causes and effects of disease campaigns, requires studying consensus politics and collecting data on fields of organizations over long time periods.
Ranking Diseases
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
From the 1960s to the present, advocates have introduced various criteria to highlight their diseases’ impacts, from mortality to health spending. These competing claims encouraged policymakers to seek formal ways to rank and compare diseases, creating pressure to standardize the National Institutes of Health (NIH) budget across disease categories. NIH officials worried that the pursuit of narrow, disease-specific goals would funnel resources away from basic science and untargeted research. But while the proportion of the NIH budget targeting these goals declined slightly, the overall amounts increased dramatically, suggesting that specialized campaigns do not draw resources away from broader goals. The push for disease data did change how the government distributes money, bringing the funding distribution more in line with mortality rates. The effects of advocacy go beyond securing funding or passing favorable laws; advocacy also changes how policymakers define issues and judge policies, with concrete effects on funding distributions.
Conclusion
Authors: Best Rachel Kahn 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Disease campaigns reveal why private charity cannot replace political solutions to social problems. Private charity and voluntary campaigns favor narrow, corporate-friendly, and uncontroversial causes. Funneling vast sums of money to awareness campaigns and research into a few favored conditions is an inefficient way to promote collective health and well-being. But it would be incorrect to assume that disease campaigns use up time, resources, and empathy that would otherwise be devoted to solving other problems. Disease campaigns, while not an optimal target for charitable and political efforts, inspire outpourings of beneficence and can help train people to come together to solve social problems.
How to Be Childless
Authors: Chrastil Rachel 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Childless uncovers the voices and experiences of childless women from the past 500 years and puts them in conversation with research from a broad range of disciplines, from psychology to philosophy to sociology. It addresses two main questions: What are the pathways to childlessness, and how do childless individuals flourish? Eschewing two dominant narratives—that the childless are either barren and alone or that they are carefree and selfish—it views childless individuals as complicated human beings with nuanced life stories. The pathways to childlessness, so often labeled simply “choice” and “circumstance,” are far more complex and interweaving. Childless examines issues including regret, old age, attitudes toward childlessness, the household, and legacy. Every year, over 80,000 American women with an advanced degree reach age 45 without having given birth. Thousands more debate whether or not to have children. The childless might think that they’re living in a unique situation with little to guide them. But, in reality, they can turn to the vast human experience with childlessness for inspiration, warnings, and guidance.
Old and Alone
Authors: Chrastil Rachel 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Only recently do Western women expect that a third of their lives will unfold after menopause. Old age is a social and biological condition whose quality is shaped by physical and mental health, money, meaningful activities, independent living, someone to care for them, companionship, family, and a full and rich narrative about their lives. While childlessness more firmly places the vulnerability of aging in the forefront, old age comes to us all. Childless lives help illuminate the problems of old age and provide different ways to think about it. This chapter looks at the later years of childless living, highlighting how childless women encounter and engage with this period of their lives.
Self-Reliance as Moral Autonomy and Original Self-Expression
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Chapter 3 deals with the positions taken by Nietzsche vis-à-vis Socratico-Christian morality or the morality of customs and his working-out of an alternative moral model using contributions provided to him by reading Emerson. This moral model is oriented around the process of individualization; that is, it concerns the development of the individual up to the point where he or she becomes capable of “transvaluating” the values of the tradition and living on the basis of values of his or her own. Nietzsche identifies the criterion of this “transvaluation” in the virtue that Emerson calls self-reliance. This includes various attitudes which Nietzsche personifies in three figures: “Schopenhauer as Educator,” who personifies self-reliance qua faith in one’s own intuitions and nonconformism; the “free spirit” qua “wanderer,” who personifies self-reliance as an intellectual method, that is, as openness to confronting views different from one’s own and placing one’s own self in question; and Zarathustra, who personifies self-reliance as original self-expression.
Society or Solitude?
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Chapter 4 considers the influence exerted by Nietzsche’s reading of Emerson on the former’s critique of the morality of compassion and on his working out of a moral proposal alternative to this modelled on the relation of friendship. Emphasizing the value of individualism for the well-being of the collective, Emerson brings Nietzsche to understand that pursuing one’s personal advantage, if it is correctly understood, not only does not conflict with the welfare of society but nourishes and supports it. On this basis, Nietzsche on the one hand develops a critique of compassion and altruism as forms of the loss of the self and humiliation of the other, while on the other hand reassessing the value of egoism or, better put, distinguishing egoism as the pursuit of pleasure from a “higher egoism” that consists in pursuing one’s own vocation. Friendship is the relation that best sustains the development both of one’s own and others’ individualities.
Making History and Writing History
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the role played by Emerson in the development of Nietzsche’s position regarding history and historiography from the second Untimely Meditation up to the middle period works. Drawing inspiration from Emerson, Nietzsche takes a stance contrary to the theory of active forgetting that he had previously maintained and finds an alternative to the historicism of his age in an active and empathic reading of history in which events are relived “in the first person.” The precondition for developing this type of reading is the virtue that Emerson calls self-reliance, understood as a reverence for oneself and for one’s own task. This chapter also considers Emerson’s contribution to the critique of the metaphysical notion of genius and of the “cult of the hero.” Clarifying the genesis of this critique allows us to clarify in turn Nietzsche’s position regarding the theory of moral and political perfectionism.
Conclusion
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
In this concluding section, based on the analysis conducted in previous chapters, it is argued that the reading of Emerson influences the development of the most important themes of Nietzsche’s philosophy, although the position of the latter thinker comes eventually to diverge in an important way from that of the former. It is further argued that Nietzsche’s attraction to Emerson is also due to an affinity of character, which explains the fact that Nietzsche uses Emerson’s philosophy as a vademecum for the conduct of his life. Understanding friendship in Emerson's manner as a kind of “attraction at a distance” or encounter-cum-confrontation between different individualities, Nietzsche defines Emerson as a true friend who, throughout his life, continuously spurred and encouraged him to become what he was.
Using Technologies for Data Collection and Management
Authors: Hamilton Janet J. , Hopkins Richard S. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Quality data collected and summarized at the right time lead to informed decisions, which lead to improved interventions and better health outcomes. Acute disease, condition, or injury field investigators must consider not only what data need to be collected (see also Chapter 4), but how data should be collected, managed, and shared, which is the focus of this chapter. Today’s technologies—computers, software applications, ubiquitous mobile devices, social media, personal health monitoring devices, environmental monitors and sensors, electronic health records, and public health surveillance systems—play an integral role in effective field responses. Initial identification of optimal technologic tools results in more efficient and effective field responses. Like the overall response, technology’s role must be tailored to the affected population, setting, health jurisdiction, and the duration, size, and type of the response event. The role technology plays in support of how data are collected, managed, and shared is a dynamic and evolving aspect of the field response. Outbreak responses are shifting from a traditional concept of stand-alone deployment teams, with data collected and managed on-site, to a new normal in which field response data collection is integrated and incorporates existing infrastructure, jurisdictional surveillance, and informatics staff; it uses or builds on existing surveillance systems, tools, and other technologies. Selected technologies should facilitate more time for epidemiologists to focus on epidemiologic functions and for laboratorians to perform testing. This chapter presents principal considerations for selecting and using technologies to support field investigations and examples of how they have been applied.
Communicating During an Outbreak or Public Health Investigation
Authors: Tumpey Abbigail J. , Daigle David , Nowak Glen 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Effective communication during an outbreak or public health investigation is crucial for fostering adoption of public health recommendations and minimizing or preventing harm. During outbreaks, a comprehensive communication strategy integrating news media, social media, and partner engagement is essential for reaching affected persons and for keeping everyone informed about public health actions and recommendations. The strategies outlined in this chapter are the foundation for rapidly and effectively conveying information and public health recommendations to the persons at risk, the media, and the different entities involved in the response. Regardless of the public health event’s cause, core communication actions and steps will be similar; however, in every outbreak or public health investigation, perceptions and needs will vary among target audiences, partners (i.e., persons or organizations that can play a role in the crisis response), and persons or organizations with a connection or interest in the outbreak (stakeholders).
Legal Considerations
Authors: Holt James D. , Ghosh Sudevi Navalkar , Black Jennifer R. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Epidemiologists are not expected to know every facet of public law. However, field epidemiology requires an appreciation of applicable legal authorities and general legal responsibilities of public health officials. Applicable legal authorities vary by jurisdiction. The general legal responsibilities will pertain to the range of public health activities, including public health surveillance; privacy of medical records; and privacy concerns related to collection, analysis, and dissemination of data. Epidemiologists need to understand the scope of the federal and state legal authorities that support their work in the field. The exercise of these often broad authorities is restrained by the liberty and due process protections provided by the US Constitution and state constitutions. The primary objective of this chapter is to provide basic information about laws and regulations that will or may affect the work of epidemiologists as they conduct investigations.
Community Congregate Settings
Authors: Uzicanin Amra , Gaines Joanna 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Settings and patterns of human congregation are risk factors and determinants for infectious and other diseases in communities because they can modulate the scope and extent of spread through modes of exposure and transmission (e.g., person-to-person, airborne, foodborne, waterborne, and vectorborne). This chapter reviews practical and legal implications for field investigations in four types of community congregate settings: (1) educational institutions, (2) workplaces, (3) mass gatherings, and (4) detention facilities. For each of these, it summarizes one or more illustrative field investigations. Challenges often associated with field investigations in community congregate settings include the potential for interference with normal business processes, data availability and access, and additional legal and confidentiality requirements. Field investigations of congregate settings can therefore be aided by thorough preparation, detailed documentation and close coordination and collaboration.
Occupational Disease and Injury
Authors: Kreiss Kathleen , Cummings Kristin J. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Occupational diseases and injuries continue to exact a societal burden on productivity, acute and chronic disease, and preventable medical costs. Occupational problems require collaboration from employers, labor, and government both for investigation and for preventive intervention. A key characteristic is the need for exposure assessment with a multidisciplinary investigative team that includes environmental scientists or industrial hygienists who can evaluate workplace characteristics needed for design, questionnaire development, quantitative assessment of exposure, interpretation of findings, and guidance for prevention. A field epidemiologic investigation often is triggered by worker or physician recognition of clusters of disease or injury. The relatively few field investigators working on occupational disease and injury provide room for many contributions. Occupational health field investigations are exciting because of the opportunity they provide to learn from other disciplines and collaborators in other agencies and because of impact.
Acute Enteric Disease Outbreaks
Authors: Williams Ian T. , Whitlock Laura , Wise Matthew E. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Public health officials investigate outbreaks to control them, to prevent additional illnesses, and to learn how to prevent similar outbreaks in the future. The process the public health community uses to detect, investigate, and control enteric (intestinal) disease outbreaks from food, water, and other sources involves certain procedural steps. These include detecting a possible outbreak, defining and finding cases, generating hypotheses about likely sources, testing the hypotheses and evaluating evidence, finding contamination sources, controlling the outbreak, and determining when the outbreak is over. Investigating outbreaks of acute enteric diseases can be a dynamic and complex undertaking involving multiple public health and regulatory partners in different jurisdictions. This chapter provides an overview of the investigation process with an emphasis on multijurisdictional foodborne illness investigations in the United States.