bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Learning and Conditioning
Authors: Mastroianni George R. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Chapter 6 argues that when considering potential causative factors for the development of genocidal behavior, there is a middle ground between cultural and historical factors that operate over a very long time-scale and situational factors that impact behavior in a very short time. This middle ground is inhabited by basic mechanisms of learning and conditioning, such as nonassociative learning, classical and operant conditioning, and observational learning. These mechanisms are constant but subtle forces shaping our thinking and behavior. The Nazi regime used its coercive power and control over the media and education to manipulate and shape the attitudes and behavior of the population, effects that were mediated through basic mechanisms of learning and conditioning.
Age and Development
Authors: Mastroianni George R. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Chapter 8 examines the relevance of age and developmental differences during the Nazi years in Germany. Some psychologists (Lewin, Erikson) argued that German culture at the time was characterized by a pattern of child-rearing practices that tended to produce the personality pattern later identified as authoritarian. The German population was demographically tilted toward the young when the Nazis came to power, and the Nazi party itself disproportionately attracted and elevated young people. The Nazi regime directed special effort to the indoctrination of young people and initiated significant changes in the educational system to better integrate German youth into the Nazi program. The Nazis sought to use the malleability of youth to achieve their own ends; psychologists have also considered ways to shape early experiences in more constructive directions.
Social Psychology
Authors: Mastroianni George R. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Chapter 9 examines social-psychological approaches to understanding the Holocaust. Since Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments were published in the early 1960s, social-psychological formulations based on obedience and social influence have dominated the psychology of the Holocaust. There is also a significant critical literature that challenges some of the findings and interpretation of Milgram and Phillip Zimbardo as they apply to the Holocaust. Social cognition is the study of thinking as situated in a social milieu and offers a fruitful framework for considering the ways Germans thought about one another during the Third Reich. Modern approaches to prejudice and racism, especially the study of unconscious or implicit biases, may provide insight into anti-Semitic attitudes prevalent in Germany (and elsewhere) during the Nazi years.
In the Aftermath
Authors: Mastroianni George R. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Chapter 10 approaches the psychology of the Holocaust by looking at postwar attitudes and changes in German society. The situationist approach of Milgram and Zimbardo would seem to suggest that the attitudes of Germans might undergo rapid change after the situational influences of the Nazi regime were removed with the collapse of the regime. There is a significant body of data on attitudes of the German public before and during the war. Surveys conducted after the war found significant continuity in anti-Semitic attitudes among some segments of the German population, including many young people. Interestingly, Germans in East Germany exhibited less anti-Semitism than those in the Federal Republic, suggesting that education and socialization can have a significant impact on attitude change.
Muslima Theology as Comparative Feminist Theology
Authors: Lamptey Jerusha Tanner 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Muslima theology and outlines its unique combination of constructive, theological, and comparative lenses. It situates Muslima theology within the larger method of comparative theology, and argues for the suitability of this method due to its requirement of deep knowledge of other traditions, its capacity to foster identification of more precise and meaningful points of comparison, and its relegation of assumptions of parity. The chapter then outlines the unique specifics of this project as a form of comparative feminist theology, including its Islam-to-Christianity orientation and its focus on feminist theological methods and concerns. The chapter concludes by introducing the new starting analogy of the two “Divine Words” (the Qur’an and Jesus) and resultant reorientation of the comparative project and methodological form.
Words in the World
Authors: Lamptey Jerusha Tanner 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Using the analogy of the two Divine Words, this chapter begins by exploring pressing debates in contemporary Islamic feminist and Muslima theological engagement with the Qur’an, debates that arise out of the underlying problematic of the Word in the world. The chapter, then, explores Christian perspectives on Jesus Christ from Rosemary Radford Ruether, Jacquelyn Grant, Kwok Pui-lan, and Ada María Isasi-Díaz. These theologians discuss topics ranging from the language and symbols invoked to describe Jesus to the value assigned to particular human markings of Jesus (inclusive of but not limited to Jesus’s maleness) to the affiliations of Jesus with power and marginal groups. The chapter concludes by returning to Muslima theology and constructively proposing an approach to the Qur’an that embraces hybridity, human experience, and a preference for the marginalized.
Women in the World
Authors: Lamptey Jerusha Tanner 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter focuses on theological anthropology and probes the extent and reality of human freedom, especially considering structural and systemic constraint. It begins by exploring existing formulations of egalitarian anthropology that foreground tawhid, fitra, khilafah, and taqwa. It then engages Christian womanist and feminist perspectives on theological anthropology, embodiment, constraint, and survival articulated by M. Shawn Copeland, Jeannine Hill Fletcher, and Delores S. Williams. These perspectives prompt important considerations of individual autonomy and systemic injustice, and of possible responses to such injustice. The chapter concludes by articulating a Muslima theological expansion of taqwa—transformative taqwa—that centers Hajar and stresses systemic transformation through visibilization, conscientization, and prioritization of the marginalized.
Do Video Recordings Help Jurors Recognize Coercive Influences in Interrogations?
Authors: Blandón-Gitlin Iris , Mindthoff Amelia 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
In recognition of the role that false confessions play in wrongful convictions, it is recommended that criminal interrogations be video recorded from beginning to end to document the process by which suspects decide to confess. With a full video recording, it is assumed that jurors can see for themselves whether the defendant was coerced to confess to a crime he or she did not commit. Yet research suggests that video recording may in fact induce bias in interpretations of coercion and confession reliability, as factors like camera angles and close-ups can make confession evidence too vivid and persuasive. Without proper interpretation, even seemingly neutral recordings may unduly influence jurors’ decisions about confessions. This chapter reviews the literature on the usefulness of video-recorded interrogations in assisting jury decision-making, as well as the potential for procedural safeguards (e.g., expert testimony) to improve jurors’ understanding of the issues at hand.
Coping with Modern Challenges and Anticipating the Future of Criminal Jury Trials
Authors: Diamond Shari Seidman 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter analyzes how researchers and courts can cope with modern challenges for 21st-century criminal jury trials and discusses what should be expected from criminal juries and future jury research. The chapter asks how a receptive legal system interested in making changes to maximize the fairness of criminal jury trials might respond. It reviews the important themes and massive empirical literature that this remarkable collection presents in vivid and thoughtful detail, highlighting the persistent issues of race and ethnicity, as well as new challenges and opportunities that have accompanied the dramatic advances in technology. The chapter raises questions about the application of empirical findings on jury behavior in the context of the legal system and considers the omissions and incomplete understandings that future research needs to address in order to provide a full picture of this important human institution.
State and Local Public Health Authority
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn, and Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter explores the authority of state and local governments to regulate public health at their respective levels. First, the chapter explains the states’ broad “police powers” and the related Jacobson v. Massachusetts Supreme Court decision. It then details local public health powers and how those interact with state powers. The chapter contrasts two rules that set the scope of local public health authority in different states: Dillon’s Rule and home rule. The chapter then discusses state preemption, and it concludes by explaining how state executive branches can create administrative agencies and delegate authority to them.
Scientific Evaluation in Transdisciplinary Public Health Research and Practice
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn, and Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter explores how public health law has evolved over time and introduces important legal processes. The chapter first describes evaluation of laws and policies through legal epidemiological principles. Then the chapter explores how to best evaluate laws and policies in order to test their effects, how they impact behavior, and whether or not they serve their purpose; the ultimate goal is to determine if the law is effectuating its purpose. Next, the chapter discusses legal mapping and policy surveillance: the process of mapping public health laws in an ongoing, systematic, scientific manner so that policymakers can catalogue laws between jurisdictions. The chapter closes with a summary of the five essential public health law services.
Assessment and Development of Deaf Children with Multiple Challenges
Authors: Clark Terrell A. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The proportion of children who are deaf or hard of hearing and also have other medical, neurodevelopmental, behavioral, or psychosocial conditions is increasing. Prevalence estimates run as high as 50% to 70%. The shifting complexity challenges not only the learners but also the teachers, administrators, and policymakers responsible for the education of deaf students. Documentation of diagnostic profiles contributes to understanding the learning profile of deaf students with concomitant conditions. This may also inform policy decisions, programmatic design, calibration of parental expectations, and implementation of effective teaching strategies. Through illustrative case examples, this chapter explores the principles of differential diagnosis and the implications of various conditions. Topics covered include genetic syndromes, vestibular dysfunction, intrauterine viral infection with associated congenital hearing loss, autism spectrum disorder, reactive attachment disorder, complex medical histories resulting in severe neurologic compromise, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and nonsyndromic genetic conditions.
Psychosocial Development of Hard-of-Hearing Preschool Children
Authors: Laugen Nina Jakhelln 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
In some respects, hard-of-hearing children experience the same difficulties as deaf children, whereas other challenges might be easier or more difficult to handle for the hard-of-hearing child than it would be for the deaf child. Research has revealed great variability in the language, academic, and psychosocial outcomes of hard-of-hearing children. Universal newborn hearing screening enables early identification and intervention for this group, which traditionally has been diagnosed rather late; however, best practices regarding the scope and content of early intervention have not yet been sufficiently described for hard-of-hearing children. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge concerning psychosocial development in hard-of-hearing children. Risk and protective factors, and their implications for early intervention, are discussed with a special emphasis on preschoolers.
Introduction
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
Humans are aesthetic animals. We adorn ourselves. We decorate our things. We embellish our homes. This is a curious aesthetic behavioral pattern on which we spend vast amounts of time, energy, and resources and which manifests itself in virtually everything we do from mindless and meaningless ways of passing time to silliness, festivity, and vanity and to what is central to being human. The aesthetic impulse appears to be an innate disposition of human nature. An impulse is a natural, internal behavioral incentive, which does not need external rewards to exist, and a number of observations indicate that the aesthetic impulse is an inherent part of human nature and hence a primary impulse in its own right. The introduction addresses the ultimate whys of aesthetic behavior while outlining the structure and scope of the book.
An Animal in Search of Stimulation for Pleasure and Need
Authors: Hogh-Olesen Henrik 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The chapter begins with the most basic driving forces behind the aesthetic impulse: the human animal’s ecological living conditions and our ultimate species characteristics as neophile and stimulation-seeking carnivore and food opportunist. Humans turn calorie intake into aesthetic activity, exploration, and play, instead of sleeping up to 16 hours a day as the big cats do after a successful hunt. Our stimulation-seeking nature and the concept of the optimal stimulation level (OSN) are mandatory for understanding the aesthetic impulse, that is, how and why the aesthetic forms change and develop, and why we are motivated toward art and aesthetics both as a species and as individuals.
Creating Consent
Authors: Daunton Martin 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The British state in the long eighteenth century created an effective fiscal–military state based on an efficient tax system that allowed borrowing without the default that afflicted France. The result was success in wars with France and the expansion of the empire. After the victory at Waterloo in 1815, consent was lost as a result of the high level of debt service which fell on producers within an unreformed political system. This chapter explains how consent was re-established by the use of a political language of neutrality and equity between classes, and by the design of parliamentary and administrative controls over spending. The fiscal state secured a high level of legitimacy and consent that prepared the ground for an expansion of public spending on welfare and warfare in the early twentieth century.
Taxation and Consent
Authors: Bergman Marcelo , Steinmo Sven H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This policy-oriented chapter draws specific lessons from the historical narratives of previous chapters that should be of interest to tax policymakers and policy activists in developing nations today. The chapter attempts to answer the “So What?” question by drawing on the historical analyses of previous chapters. The chapter highlights what has worked well in different countries and the tax policies that have been less successful at generating taxpayer consent. It also examines why some policies have been less successful over time in different countries. It argues that states which have been most successful in generating high levels of compliance (1) develop strong administrative capacities, (2) treat taxpayers equitably, (3) generate a common sense of purpose or identity, and (4) do not discriminate in favor or against specific segments of society.
Entropy Numbers, s-Numbers, and Eigenvalues
Authors: Edmunds D. E. , Evans W. D. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The geometric quantities entropy numbers, approximation numbers and n-widths are defined for compact linear maps, and connections with the analytic entities eigenvalues and essential spectra discussed. The celebrated inequality of Weyl between the approximation numbers and eigenvalues is established in the general context of Lorentz sequence spaces. Also included are an axiomatic approach to s-numbers, a discussion of non-compact maps, and the Schmidt decomposition theory for compact linear operators in Hilbert spaces.
Sesquilinear Forms in Hilbert Spaces
Authors: Edmunds D. E. , Evans W. D. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
The centre-pieces of this chapter are the Lax–Milgram Theorem and the existence of weak or variational solutions to problems involving sesquilinear forms. An important application is to Kato’s First Representation Theorem, which associates a unique m-sectorial operator with a closed, densely defined sesquilinear form, thus extending the Friedrichs extension for a lower bounded symmetric operator. Stampacchia’s generalization of the Lax–Milgram Theorem to variational inequalities is also discussed.
Sobolev Spaces
Authors: Edmunds D. E. , Evans W. D. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter presents a selection of some of the most important results in the theory of Sobolev spacesn. Special emphasis is placed on embedding theorems and the question as to whether an embedding map is compact or not. Some results concerning the k-set contraction nature of certain embedding maps are given, for both bounded and unbounded space domains: also the approximation numbers of embedding maps are estimated and these estimates used to classify the embeddings.
Capacity and Compactness Criteria
Authors: Edmunds D. E. , Evans W. D. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
In this chapter, necessary and sufficient conditions are derived for the Poincaré inequality to hold, for the embedding of W01,p(Ω) in Lp(Ω) to be compact, and for a self-adjoint realization of − aijDiDj + q to have a wholly discrete spectrum when q is real and bounded below. The results are proved using a method of Maz’ya.
Essential Spectra of General Second-Order Differential Operators
Authors: Edmunds D. E. , Evans W. D. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
In this chapter, the operators considered are those m-sectorial operators discussed in Chapter VII, and the essential spectra are the sets defined in Chapter IX that remain invariant under compact perturbation. A generalization of a result of Persson is used to determine the least point of the essential spectrum. Davies’ mean distance function is introduced and consequences investigated.
Internationalization
Authors: Mačák Kubo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter analyses and examines the existing modalities of conflict internationalization, arguing that there are two principal mechanisms through which a prima facie non-international armed conflict may transform into an international armed conflict. Firstly, ‘standard internationalization’ occurs when two independent subjects of international law become engaged against one another as the conflict develops, either as the result of an intervention by an external actor such as a third state or an international organization, or via an internal development if the territorial state dissolves into two or more successor states during the conflict. Secondly, ‘complementary internationalization’ covers those modalities, in which the state/non-state asymmetry of the parties is maintained, and yet the situation transforms into an international armed conflict in law. This process may either be absolute, as with so-called wars of national liberation, or it may be relative, as in internationalization through recognition of belligerency, special agreements, or unilateral declarations.
Complex Conflict Situations
Authors: Mačák Kubo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter analyses the legal qualification of complex conflict situations that feature more than two conflict parties. It examines whether such situations qualify as a single internationalized armed conflict or a number of independent international and non-international armed conflicts. With this in mind, this chapter puts forward a model based on the retention of autonomy of the allied conflict parties. It argues that once the autonomy is foregone and replaced with a single use of force by the parties, the law of international armed conflict applies ‘globally’ to the situation at hand. However, until that moment, the situation should be seen as ‘mixed’; in other words, as a set of mutually independent conflict pairs.
De-internationalization
Authors: Mačák Kubo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
wThis chapter contrasts the mechanism of internationalization of armed conflicts with the reverse process of de-internationalization. It argues that de-internationalization is not simply a matter of the conflict ‘losing’ its international character. Instead, for a conflict to be de-internationalized, it must fulfil the independent criteria for the existence of a non-international armed conflict, while maintaining the identity of the conflict parties and the continuity of the hostilities in question. The chapter highlights that not all modalities of internationalization have a corresponding modality of de-internationalization available in law. However, it interprets this as a strength rather than as a flaw of the existing legal framework.
Historical Development
Authors: Mačák Kubo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines the access to combatant status by members of non-state armed groups from a historical perspective. It demonstrates that practically since the time the distinction between combatants and non-combatants had solidified into law, the applicable rules have permitted members of at least some non-state armed groups to benefit from combatant status. At various times in the history of regulation of armed conflicts, these groups have included militias and volunteer corps, armed forces professing allegiance to a non-recognized governmental authority, and national liberation movements. Overall, the historical analysis presented in this chapter suggests that it would be erroneous to interpret the rules on eligibility for combatancy in the context of internationalized armed conflicts in an unduly restrictive manner.
New Machines
Authors: Stuewer Roger H. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract
John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton designed and built their eponymous linear accelerator at the Cavendish with crucial help from scientists and engineers at the Metropolitan-Vickers company in Manchester. In April 1932, they produced 400-kilo-electron-volt protons with which they split the lithium nucleus into two alpha particles. Ernest Lawrence, stimulated by an article in German on the linear acceleration of positive ions, realized they would execute circular trajectories in a superposed perpendicular magnetic field, thereby conceiving the cyclotron principle. By January 1932, he and M. Stanley Livingston had built a 10-inch-diameter cyclotron with which they produced 1.2 million-electron-volt protons. These new accelerators transformed experimental nuclear physics. These two inventions and discovery of the deuteron, neutron, and positron garnered five Nobel Prizes. That Americans received three was a harbinger of the momentous shift occurring in the geographical center of experimental and theoretical nuclear physics.