bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Empowerment, Urban
Authors: Oakley Deirdre , Fraser Jim 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The phrase “urban empowerment” has many different interpretations. For some, it's about empowering poor communities by building both public participation and sustainability from the ground up. For others, it's about inclusive urban planning and broad grassroots efforts. In the US context, if there is a common thread that runs through the period since the end of World War II, urban empowerment has more to do with coopting such efforts to policies to “revitalize” or “fix” “distressed” urban areas. And this can lead to disempowerment and displacement. The purpose of this entry is to document the goals and outcomes of the federal policies targeting poor urban communities that have dominated this period.
Environmental Justice
Authors: Fragkou Maria Christina 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Environmental justice is an urban‐born activist movement that evolved to be an analytical frame and an interdisciplinary field of academic research. It is defined as the equal distribution of environmental goods (i.e., good environmental conditions and services) and bads (e.g., contamination), and the equal enforcement of environmental laws and policies on all people, regardless of race, gender, and economic status. The main levels of analysis refer to distributional and procedural environmental justice. Current discussions on environmental justice link it with concerns on urban sustainability, urban liveability, political ecology, and a broader understanding of the right to the city.
Ethnic Enclave
Authors: Pullés Stephanie A. , Lee Jennifer 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Ethnic enclaves are spatial concentrations of coethnic immigrants organized by socioeconomic activities. Historically, ethnic enclaves emerged as a result of exclusionary policies and discrimination, but they persist because they serve invaluable functions for immigrants and later generation ethnics. Social scientists have disagreed on the conceptualization, benefits, and potential costs of ethnic enclave formation and enterprise for coethnics. The debate is rooted in disagreements about mobility pathways and measures of immigrant incorporation. Previously, sociologists studied the incorporation trajectories of immigrant groups expecting them to eventually integrate spatially by moving out of ethnic neighborhoods. Recent scholarship extends beyond linear assimilation theories of spatial incorporation to account for shifting settlement patterns of post‐1965 immigrant groups.
Festival Malls
Authors: Liliana De Simone R. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Festival malls are commercial centers that combine special physical settings with social activities, leisure, and the consumption of goods and experiences, around a carnivalesque or festive scenery. Born in the 1970s and 1980s across the USA, festival marketplaces were described by their promoters as the “shopping centers for the urban community.” For many, festival malls embody the lack of authenticity and spontaneity in consumption spaces in the way they recreate scenes for consumers and ignore the temporal and geographical context ties that surround them.
Forbidden City, The
Authors: Bracken Gregory 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe Forbidden City was home to China's imperial family, as well as the seat of government, for almost 500 years from 1420. The complex's buildings and courtyards deliberately recall the solid‐and‐void relationship of yin and yang to achieve harmony and encourageqi. The Supreme Harmony complex accounts for 15 percent of the entire Forbidden City, which in turn is 15 percent of the old Imperial City. This proportional relationship reinforces the importance of concentric walled spaces in China and highlights the Forbidden City's status as the symbolic center of the civilized world. The entry also highlights what has happened to the complex, and its art collections, since it became a museum in 1925.
Gated Communities/Fortified Enclaves
Authors: Villamizar‐Santamaría Sebastián 
Published: April 2019

AbstractResearch on gated communities has highlighted the importance of fear of crime and crime itself as motivations to gate. These fortified enclaves have particular physical and social features that underscore the vigilance, security controls, and separation from others – such as gates, fences, cameras, guards, and dogs. Gated communities and fortified enclaves pose interesting tensions in urban research. There are questions of residential segregation and integration and conflicting ideas of public space that are modified by the construction of these residential, leisure, work, and consumption spaces. Research on this topic has focused on the United States, but there are interesting developments in South America and in other parts of the Global South that put into question the assumptions of elitism and insulation that are found in the analyses of North America. Thus, gated communities and fortified enclaves have become interesting sites for studying urban inequality in postindustrial cities.
Gay/Lesbian Territorialities
Authors: Cattan Nadine 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The city is perceived as a place that enhances the free expression of differences in terms of behavior and identity. Over the past three decades, homosexuality has gained a “right to the city” in numerous Western cities. However, the unequal access of gays and lesbians to a normative heterosexual public space is highlighted in many studies, as is the capacity of gay men to occupy certain parts of the city while lesbians remain relatively invisible. Gay and lesbian territorialities are shaped by the spatial practices of these populations and by privileged places that contribute to the construction of gay and lesbian identities. Gay districts play an important role in the construction of a gay culture. By considering gay and lesbian territorialities, the duality of cities, being both emancipating and oppressive, appears immediately. Gays and lesbians constantly have to adapt their behavior and develop strategies to live freely in urban public spaces.
Gendered Ruralities
Authors: Forsberg Gunnel 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Space plays an important role in construction of space‐specific variations in the condition for women and men. This article presents a way to analyze the way these spatial conditions affect gender relations and practices in rural areas and how, and in what ways, they are reproduced and transformed by using the concept of local gender contract, understood as the unwritten rules that regulate relations between sexes and recreate and reform relations into everyday actions within the framework of the local structures in which they are performed. In rural areas these rules constitute a cornerstone in the construction of gendered rurality.
Geography of Opportunity
Authors: Reece Jason 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The geography of opportunity describes the landscape of neighborhood difference across our cities and regions. This entry introduces the “geography of opportunity” theory and the research illustrating the potent impact of “place” on a variety of life outcomes. The entry reviews the equity and civil rights implications of our contemporary geography of opportunity and provides a historical review of the deliberate construction of the geography of opportunity in the American city. It closes by examining the primary areas of intervention needed to bring greater equity to our geography of opportunity in the twenty‐first century.
Green Urbanism
Authors: Barton Jonathan R. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractGreen urbanism is the term that has given rise to new ways of reconnecting urban development with nature and environmental conditions. Although there is a long history of integrating parks and other green spaces into cities, the twentieth century was marked by rapid urban growth where artificial landscapes supplanted and displaced the green and blue landscapes beneath them. This concern for the synergy of artificial and natural landscapes led to the fields of urban ecology, ecological urbanism, and urban sustainability. Together, they have defined much of the sustainable urban development agenda that was put in place at the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, was cemented within the Agenda 21 program, and continues strongly today within the HabitatIII“New Urban Agenda.” However, perhaps the principal contribution of green urbanism as a concept within this wider development debate is its concern with the experience and practice of interventions at community and neighborhood scales.
Growth Machine Politics
Authors: Vojnovic Igor 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Growth machine politics is a thesis of urban politics and local economic development centered on the activities of land‐based elites and their strategies and alliances in promoting growth. Central to the thesis are land‐based interests, the exchange and development of urban land within market‐based economies, and actions involved in promoting growth and, ultimately, the social construction of place. The thesis proposes that place entrepreneurs, along with private and public sector coalition partners, actively ensure that cities operate as growth machines. Growth machine politics maintains that the exchange and development of land, as growth entrepreneurs pursue wealth accumulation, is the central driver of local politics.
H
all,
P
eter
Authors: Zhou Jiangping , Qin Xiaoyu 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Peter Hall (March 19, 1932–July 30, 2014, London,
UK
) is a highly prolific and influential figure in the fields of urban and regional studies and planning. He taught in universities in the
UK
and the
USA
. He authored or edited nearly 50 books in his life and wrote or cowrote more than 2,000 articles and shorter pieces. He advised multiple governments and organizations and served as a leader for numerous academic associations. He won many awards and honors across countries.
Health in Cities
Authors: Chiara Magdalena 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
More than half of the world's population live in cities and exponential growth is expected for the coming decades. Despite being a general trend, urbanization processes have created huge cities, complex in their problems, and extremely unequal. Health in cities is a field of knowledge that inquires into the way in which urban life and urbanization processes affect the health of those who live in cities. It comprises the analysis of the health of the population, how the health systems resources are distributed, and how public policies operate in the territory either compensating for or reinforcing inequality gaps.
High Tech Zones/High Tech Developments
Authors: Goicoechea María Eugenia 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
High tech zones or high tech developments represent a new form of territorially organizing production linked to the high tech industry. They concentrate diverse elements that jointly contribute to create an environment conducive to the development of research and development – an innovative milieu. These elements are highly qualified human capital, educational and research institutions, companies, and access to capital for investment in high risk operations. For urban morphology, these trends imply a new geographical pattern, complementary to the concentration and dispersion trends of population and investments.
Hinterlands
Authors: Mehzabeen Evy 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis entry explores the plural understandings and applications of the term hinterlands. Beginning with a conceptual framework of the concept of hinterlands, the article explains how the use of the term itself has evolved with advancements within the discipline. It shows how a hinterland can be denoted as a commercial space, a delimited territory, and also as a dynamic fluid space, examining its nuanced meanings in all its applications. It goes on to examine how hinterland systems function in space and how they differ in relation to a varied historical and locational context. To this end, it draws examples from three hinterland systems in India: Delhi, Mumbai, and Guwahati, each system displaying the subtle functions that a hinterland might denote. The entry closes with an examination of the changing nature of hinterland in an increasingly global order. In a rapidly urbanizing world of the future, with growing connectivity, the very term hinterlands might be rendered obsolete.
H
obrecht,
J
ames
Authors: Kalandides Ares 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
James Hobrecht (1825–1902) was a Prussian planner responsible for the 1862 development plan for the expanding city of Berlin and later for its new sewerage system. The “Hobrecht Plan” was based on a concept of large city blocks, which, combined with unleashed land speculation and the building regulations of the time, gave birth to an extremely dense, socially and functionally mixed city of often appalling living conditions. The sewerage system, on the other hand, was an innovative answer to the needs of the growing metropolis
Housing
Authors: Giglia Angela 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Housing is not only a shelter but also a place for living, a reference for individual and social life, a starting point in urban daily life, and an indicator of the social position of the dweller, in the context of a specific society in a moment of its history. Housing is linked with the concept of inhabiting, understood as the social relationship of human beings with their environment, the production and reproduction of daily life, belonging and social order. Housing is also a very important component in the dynamics of real estate capital and its impacts on the transformation of living space all over the world, through the phenomenon of global urbanization.
Housing Policy
Authors: Priemus Hugo 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

Housing policy is a strategic component of urban and regional planning. An overview is presented of housing policies in Europe, in (former) socialist countries, in the
USA
, and in developing countries. There is a huge variation in housing policies; developments of those policies are largely path‐dependent. Very often housing policies are mixed and segmented. Crucial also are some nonhousing policies with housing impacts.
Ideal Cities (Renaissance)
Authors: Nevola Fabrizio 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Renaissance ideal cities are an enduring construct that tended to express, through ideals of order and symmetry, the centralized authority of princely rulers, and by the later sixteenth century combined with this military functions as fortified new towns. The symmetry that defined ideal city designs of the early Renaissance, like the fortified cities of the following centuries, articulated in visual terms a totalizing vision of centralized authority, although their formal qualities had a lasting appeal that informed urban design solutions into the twentieth century.
Informal Land Markets
Authors: Goytia Cynthia 
Published: April 2019

AbstractIn most developing countries, rapid urbanization has forced a significant share of the urban population to turn to informal land markets for housing. Informal developments are typically built without regard to construction or regulatory standards, lack basic infrastructure services, and provide owners no property rights. This phenomenon is widespread in areas where there is an insufficient supply of serviced land at affordable prices. While poverty is often blamed for the development of informal markets, overly stringent land‐use norms and regulations also play a central role by increasing land prices in the formal sector. High land prices generate substitution effects, encouraging lower income households to move to the informal sector. The rapidly increasing availability of data, together with geographic information system tools and technologies providing a detailed view of the built environment, is helping to improve our limited understanding about the creation and persistence of these markets in developing countries.
Informal Settlers
Authors: Martínez Miguel A. , Roitman Sonia 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The nature and scope of “informal settlers” are defined according to specific historical conditions, social conflicts, and spatial configurations. In contrast with the prevailing negative features of slums, other types of informal dwelling are here distinguished and a more nuanced account of informal living given. This approach has consequences for the study of land tenure in terms of its diversity, security, and possible formalization. It is argued that investigations on informality need to focus on the power struggles over resources and the meanings and perceptions of informality, in addition to the systemic constraints for informal settlers, instead of only identifying social practices not in accordance with dominant conventional and legal norms.
Intermediate Cities
Authors: Bolay Jean‐Claude , Kern Abigaïl‐Laure 
Published: April 2019

AbstractCities are defined mainly based on spatial and demographic criteria. The criteria of intermediation helps in identifying current urban dynamics, in relation to surrounding suburban/rural areas or in national and international environments. Medium‐sized cities are emblematic of so‐called “intermediate cities.” According to international thresholds, nearly 50 percent of the world's urban population now live in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants. In developing countries, these cities face particular difficulties: less efficient public administration, insufficient funds to meet social needs, and lack of skilled individuals to manage large projects. In more industrially and technologically advanced countries, intermediate cities long suffered from the primacy of larger‐sized cities. An intermediate city is defined based on a certain number of characteristics, with three spheres of influence: the micro regional scale, the national scale, and the international scale. Three positions for these cities can be identified: “affected” intermediate cities, with a strong position in their territory; “satellite” intermediate cities, near larger cities; and “remote” intermediate cities, distinguished by a more closed system vis‐à‐vis the outside, given their remoteness. Because of their characteristics, intermediate cities should be the target of regional planning to link urban growth and territorial balance between city and country.
Intersectionality
Authors: Rodó‐de‐Zárate Maria 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
“Intersectionality” was the term coined in the late 1980s by Kimberlé Crenshaw to address the particular experiences of black women in the legal context in the USA, showing that these experiences could not be understood with analytical frameworks that treated race and gender separately. The term has been seen as one of the most important contributions of feminism, as it allows the conceptualization of the multidimensionality of the experiences of oppression and the complexity of the interconnections between different axes of power such as gender, race, sexuality, class, age, or ability. While potentially providing a new framework for research that offers tools for different social sciences and for policy and political activism, intersectionality has also raised theoretical, methodological, and empirical questions that need to be addressed and developed. The importance of spatiality for intersectional dynamics has been highlighted as a crucial aspect, even if it has not been widely developed.
Islamic Cities
Authors: Moser Sarah 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe category of “Islamic cities” is a dated and problematic term concocted by European Orientalists that essentializes Islam and generalizes a wide variety of urban typologies. This entry traces the history of the term dating back to the late colonial era, investigates the variety of ways in which the term has been challenged and deconstructed over the decades, and provides an overview of how research on cities in Muslim‐dominated regions has shifted beyond the “Islamic city” in recent decades.
Just City
Authors: Steil Justin , Connolly James 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
In multiple writings on the concept of the “Just City,” Susan Fainstein draws on political philosophy to develop an urban theory of justice that can be used to evaluate city planning and development policies. Recognizing that justice takes on different meanings depending on the social, geographical, and historical context, Fainstein explores the relationship between just outcomes and equity, democracy, and diversity, as well as the tensions among these values. Fainstein argues that this articulation of justice based on widely shared values has the potential to shift public consciousness of urban decision‐making and mobilize collective action that can shape the adoption of policies that improve the lives of urban residents.
L
a
P
az/
E
l
A
lto
Authors: Derpic Jorge C. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract

La Paz, Bolivia's government seat, and its former neighborhood, El Alto, are arguably the most important political and urban strongholds in the country today. Based on the long‐term memory of indigenous rebellions during colonial times, during the first half of the 2000s, social mobilizations in El Alto paved the way for the coming to power of the first indigenous president in Bolivian history, Evo Morales, and for the Constituent Assembly that transformed the country into a plurinational state in 2009. Rooted in colonial divides that separated Spaniards and Indians, El Alto has come to be recognized as the contentious and indigenous Aymara side of the bureaucratic and creole‐
mestizo
La Paz.
Land Markets
Authors: Smolka Martim O. , Goytia Cynthia 
Published: April 2019

AbstractSince Ricardo and Von Thünen's seminal work in the nineteenth century, there have been significant contributions to our theoretical understanding of how urban land markets function – and, with them, greater insight into important current‐day phenomena such as housing affordability, residential segregation, intraurban mobility, urban sprawl, informality, distribution of urban infrastructure and services, and many other issues. A better grasp of land‐value changes and their equity and efficiency implications has been critical to the analysis of land‐use regulation and taxation, especially the redistribution of the costs and benefits of urban development. Notable advances in spatial statistical methods and techniques, together with geographical information systems, have also provided new tools that overcome some key analytical challenges and, in turn, help policy‐makers better plan for cities of the future.
Land Regularization Policies (
L
atin
A
merica)
Authors: Brikman Denise 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Regularization policies in Latin America are designed interventions to attack informality problems, by regularization of land tenure and/or of urban environmental conditions (urban regularization). These policies were developed in different Latin American countries, where informality is a growing tendency, becoming a structural problem of their cities. In the last few decades, multiple instruments have been under study, with the purpose of building a theory that allows for full understanding of the causes of informality and instructs on how to resolve the problem.
Leisure
Authors: Paul Tanusree 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Leisure is defined as the time over which an individual exercises choice and in which she or he undertakes activities that she or he values. Leisure is objectively construed as the opposite of work while subjectively it is viewed in terms of activities that assume meaning only in the context of the individual's perception. Social identity is one of the central factors influencing the experience of leisure. It affects personal agency, access to resources and opportunities, motivation, and freedom of choice. Nonetheless, leisure entails self‐fulfillment, intellectual contemplation, and psychological development. It is thus an important component of human well‐being and has extensive implications for policy and planning.