bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Stone Tools and Spatial Cognition
Authors: Hodgson Derek 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Spatial cognition is fundamental to producing stone tools, with specific, dedicated neuronal pathways. These arise from primary sensory areas and later interact with higher-level pathways for increasingly complex purposes. These higher processes involve visuospatial memory, visuomotor control, attention, and planning. Although clarifying the way these pathways interact helps explain cognitive evolution, there is the problem of ascertaining how these attributes interact and feed back with the materials undergoing modification. Determining when and in what way this feedback mechanism led to a reshaping of cerebral architecture within the context of evolution of the brain is problematic because the link with cerebral substructures is not straightforward. This partly results from a delay between a cognitive attribute and its expression. This chapter explores the intricacies of spatial cognition in relation to these issues, especially with reference to making and using stone tools.
The Handaxe Aesthetic
Authors: Wynn Thomas , Berlant Tony 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
From an evolutionary perspective, it is unlikely that the modern human aesthetic sensibility emerged fully formed 40,000 years ago. Rather than positing antecedents that left little or no archaeological trace, in this chapter, concepts derived from neuroaesthetics are applied this chapter applies concepts derived from neuroaesthetics to evidence that is available in abundance—stone tools—to illuminate the very early evolution of human aesthetic cognition. In particular, the visual processing components and appraisal components of aesthetic cognition are evident in even the earliest handaxes, 1.7 million years ago. Most stone tools were straightforward mechanical devices that hominins made and used to perform work. But some appear to have been overdetermined: Hominins invested more time and effort in their manufacture than was necessary for their mechanical function. It is this added value that has the potential to inform us about aesthetic sensibilities.
The Stories Stones Tell of Language and Its Evolution
Authors: Putt Shelby S. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Language origins remain shrouded in mystery. With little remaining from our earliest ancestors, language evolution researchers have turned to stone tools to learn about ancestral language capacities, as discussed in this chapter. Because inferior frontal areas of the brain, once thought specific to language, are now known to participate during manual motor tasks as well, technological-origin hypotheses propose that tool-making was a potential cause or contributor to the evolution of language. Cutting-edge neuroimaging techniques to monitor regional brain activation patterns associated with tool-making processes are helping to investigate the potential evolutionary relationship between language and tool-making. These experiments have identified one area in the left dorsal pars opercularis portion of Broca’s area where language and stone tool-making functions rely on similar cognitive operations. A more general motor origin for language seems likely in other inferior frontal areas of the brain. Clearly, stone tools have stories to tell if we know how to listen.
Epilogue
Authors: Wynn Thomas 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Contributions to evolutionary cognitive archaeology (ECA) now present a wide range of commitments to cognitive science itself. It is still common to find quasi-cognitive approaches that rely on terms with little to no grounding in formal cognitive science, but which also have practical utility, especially when discussing technical cognition. Many ECA practitioners now employ terms and concepts grounded in cognitive science, most often cognitive neuroscience, though most of these remain post hoc applications. A more powerful approach begins with a cognitive ability of interest, identifies representative activities that would leave an archaeological signature, and traces their development in archaeological record. Such an approach not only enhances the picture presented by the standard narrative of paleoanthropology but also puts ECA in a position to make positive contributions to cognitive science itself.
Sex and the State
Authors: Togman Richard 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Chapter 1 begins by laying out the fundamental question of the book: What accounts for the ongoing choices of world leaders at multiple levels of governance to spend vast sums of money and manpower to instill a sexual duty to the state and policies designed to manipulate fertility that have a relatively robust record of failure? It explains government motivation as rooted in a narrative crafted to give meaning to fertility and in the discursive linkages drawn between fertility and the major threats a country perceives itself to face that determine government action. Moreover, this chapter outlines an explanation of why natalist policy typically fails. This book argues that the dissonance between macro understandings of fertility at the state level and micro understandings of fertility as practiced by individuals lies at the heart of the failure of policy.
How I Learned to Love the Bomb
Authors: Togman Richard 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Chapter 5 explores Europe countries’ rapid abandonment of efforts to boost their birth rates and the dramatic shift of natalist attention to the global South. Uncovering the origins of a new discourse on population, this chapter demonstrates how the concept of development was melded with the newly created problem of high fertility in the postcolonial world. It looks at the role of scientists, doctors, academics, and military leaders in driving a massive expansion of Western development efforts in the area of reproduction and the creation of modern birth control techniques. In addition, this chapter highlights how an extremely broad range of Western-based, organizations from the World Bank to the CIA and Planned Parenthood, became involved in encouraging Third World governments to lower the fertility of their populations.
Enemy at the Gates
Authors: Togman Richard 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Chapter 7 takes an in-depth look at the evolution of population politics within the developing world from 1800 to 1980, with a special focus on India and China. An exploration of the role of British influence on early Indian demographic thinking in tandem with the role of indigenous Indian thinkers, this chapter broadens the lessons developed in chapters 2 through 6 and applies them to the newly formed states of the postcolonial world. Similarly, the chapter discusses the origins and evolution of Chinese attitudes toward population control. Exploring the distinct similarities of China’s One-Child policy to other population control efforts of its time, this chapter demystifies China’s efforts, as they stand in ready comparison in style if not in intensity with other efforts occurring throughout the developing world.
Counterfeiting Confidence
Authors: Blumenthal Susanna L. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Taking Herman Melville’s The Confidence-Man (1857) as a point of departure, this essay explores the perils of trusting too much or too little in the representations of strangers in a burgeoning capitalist society. It attends in particular to the “natural struggle between charity and prudence” that was exhibited not only by fictional passengers on the steamboat Fidèle but also by their real-life counterparts in nineteenth-century American courtrooms, where alleged con men and women were more than occasionally called to account for their questionable moneymaking ventures. While many of the era’s imaginative writers figured the law and its enforcers as marginal and ill equipped to meet the challenges posed by fraudsters, contemporary court records tell a different story, revealing the ways members of the bench and bar endeavored to police the ambiguous borderlands between capitalism and crime.
Regulating Greed
Authors: Levmore Saul 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
John Dos Passos’ The Big Money (1936) is hardly the only important American work to see greed as a cause of the stock market crash and then the Great Depression. It is packed with the problem of distinguishing greed from ambition, and it raises the question of the right social response to unattractive impulses. Prior to losing his idealistic fervor, or exchanging it for conservative passion, Dos Passos freely associated ambition with corruption, and acquisitiveness with antisocial self-interest. His deployment and biographical sketches of industrialists and other notable Americans suggest the difficulty of distinguishing avarice from ambition. Dos Passos’ treatment of ambition presupposes an economy where one person’s gain is at the expense of another; artistic accomplishment is, however, freed from this assumption. The novel speaks more to individual excesses than to their regulation, but it offers an opportunity to think about both.
The Morning and the Evening Star
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Freud said that Americans are immature because they channel their libido into moneymaking. In Babbitt (1922), Sinclair Lewis seems to agree. It is generally thought that his 1927 novel, Elmer Gantry, continues the critique, exposing American religiosity as itself fundamentally commercial. I argue that Lewis’s project is deeper and more complicated than the standard reading admits and that it derives ultimately from Dante’s idea of the aspirations and errors of love. (Dante is a favorite author of Lewis’s and figures in Babbitt as the one notable from the past who is conjured up in the Babbitts’ séance.) Novels that shock are often read crudely at first, and Lewis’s novels are no exception. I argue that Lewis ultimately agrees with Elmer’s sermon: love is indeed “the morning and the evening star.” As in Dante, so in Lewis: love can aspire, but it can also be deflected and stunted in many ways. Moneymaking is one form of stunting; excessive interest in sex is another (and a better one in Dante’s view, because it is closer to what really matters). And perhaps worst of all, it can be blinded by intellectual pride, a vice from which the agnostic novelist and former ministerial student was in no way free. The novel does criticize George Babbitt the avaricious, it does criticize Elmer Gantry the libidinous, but it reserves its deepest and saddest condemnation for the Lewis surrogate, Frank Shallard, who cannot find anything worthy of his love.
Bartleby’s Consensual Dysphoria
Authors: West Robin 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
In this essay I seek to understand why many of the 2011 Occupy Wall Street protestors embraced Bartleby, the dysfunctional scrivener of Melville’s Story of Wall Street, as a fellow traveler in their movement. I first situate Bartleby the Scrivener in the context of classical legal thought, expanding on some claims put forward in a seminal article on Bartleby by Brook Thomas in the 1980s. I then argue that Melville’s scrivener suffered from a psychic and political condition I call “consensual dysphoria.” Bartleby suffered from consensual dysphoria in extremis. The OWSers recognized this—thus their otherwise inexplicable empathic bond with him. Consensual dysphoria, as depicted by Melville and as suffered by Bartleby, I will urge, is a part of the debilitating legacy of classical legal thought that persists today, and in an even more developed and exaggerated form.
The Li of Chinese American Familism
Authors: Jeung Russell M. , Fong Seanan S. , Kim Helen Jin 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Chapter 6 identifies how Chinese Americans maintain the value of family through rituals, including rites of passage, ethnic routines, and table traditions. Rites of passage such as the wedding tea ceremony provide individuals with distinct responsibilities within the family. Ethnic routines, including family meals, transnational visits, and reunions, inculcate the norms of hospitality, reciprocity, and face/shame. They also teach the cultural scripts of familism through table traditions, such as pouring tea. Traditions and rituals change over time, however, and second-generation Chinese Americans pass on their liyi values and ethics differently than their immigrant parents did. The second generation lack a migration story of family sacrifice and have an attenuated knowledge of Chinese liyi traditions, and racialized multiculturalism further reduces ethnic traditions to what is marketable and consumable. Chinese Americans therefore hybridize and Americanize their ethnicity, which results in a new liyi Chinese American identity that consists of food and fun.
Dodd-Frank and the Regulation of Depository Institutions Capital Requirements
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter continues the discussion of the previous chapter on the Dodd-Frank Act. In the years since its passage, the legislation has had dramatic effects on the operation and stability of the financial markets, and will continue to play a vital role in the capital markets. In addition to establishing new capital and leverage requirements for banks, bank holding companies, and systemically significant nonbanks, Dodd-Frank also mandates that these requirements be “countercyclical, so that the amount of capital required to be maintained by a company increases in times of economic expansion and decreases in times of economic contraction.” The remainder of the chapter covers the Volcker Rule; living wills, credit exposure reports, and concentration limits; and other prudential standards.
Using Financial Instruments
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Capital markets provide enterprises with the opportunity to access capital to maintain their level of business activity. Therefore, ensuring the stability of the capital markets and preventing systemic failure are paramount concerns of the Federal Reserve and other financial market regulators. Access to capital markets is facilitated through the use of financial instruments that allow risk to be negotiated among market participants. When using financial instruments to achieve goals, a corporation must be aware of several considerations: the value of the asset underlying the financial instrument, duties or obligations the corporation owes to the other party to the contract, the implications and “worst case scenario” of the performance of the financial instrument, the risk of the transaction, and how the specific transaction can achieve the corporation's goals. This chapter discusses goal-oriented investing, achieving investment goals, and managing risk.
Options
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
An option is a derivative that derives its value from another underlying asset, instrument, or index. Options “transfer the right but not the obligation to buy or sell the underlying asset, instrument or index on or before the option's exercise date at a specified price (the strike price).” A contract that gives a purchaser such a right is inherently an option even if it called something else. Options can trade over the counter or on an exchange. Regulatory jurisdiction will be defined by the underlying asset negotiated under the terms of the option, by the location where the options are traded, and by the counterparties to an option transaction. This chapter discusses the characteristics of options, how options work, the Black-Scholes model and option pricing, delta hedging, and option strategies.
Suitability
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the suitability doctrine. The duty owed by broker-dealers is one of suitability when doing business with the general public; this was added to the Exchange Act with the adoption of the Securities Act of 1993. The duty owed by broker-dealers is not a fiduciary duty: it is the duty to make recommendations that are suitable to their client based on their personal situation. The suitability doctrine requires that the broker must have a reasonable basis for believing the recommendation to have been suitable for the customer, in light of the customer's financial condition and understanding of the investment and its risks. The Government Securities Act of 1993, which amended the Exchange Act, is the impetus for the suitability rule. The remainder of the chapter deals with suitability as it relates to futures and options.
Taxation and Human Rights
Authors: Reisch Nikki 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the evolving landscape of the tax and human rights debate, and documents some recent markers of progress in integrating tax matters into the work of human rights institutions. While the potential linkages between taxation and human rights are manifold, they can be grouped under three broad headings: resource mobilization, redistribution, and accountability. These linkages are only beginning to receive attention in the academic literature and global policy debates. Their relative absence from past discussions reflects the chronic neglect of economic and financial policies by human rights scholars and practitioners, and the reluctance of economists to look beyond their data sets and the marketplace at the social implications of economic choices. The emerging discourse on taxation and human rights is not, however, without antecedents. It builds upon robust academic and policy discussions addressing the relationship of taxation to development and trade, as well as the literature on public budgeting and human rights and critical tax theory.
A Strange Alchemy
Authors: Lusiani Nicholas , Cosgrove Mary 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the challenges of attributing responsibility for the cross-border impacts of tax and financial secrecy policies through “spillover assessments.” Integrating human rights guiding principles into the practice of tax spillover assessments can provide value. Yet a number of tough methodological and political obstacles remain, many of which are inherent to the act of policy impact evaluation more generally. Together, these remaining challenges provide for a fertile future research agenda. Methodologically, the empirical accuracy of tax spillover assessments continues to be thwarted by the failure of governments to ensure access to relevant data, made more complex by the right to privacy concerns of many companies in accessing the microdata which would be so useful in determining the impact of changes in tax policy. Alongside these tough methodological challenges, various political question marks continue to frustrate effective tax spillover assessments.
Tax Abuse and Implications for Human Rights in Africa
Authors: Oguttu Annet Wanyana , Iyer Monica 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter analyzes whether the international tax reform measures instituted under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Project are effective in ensuring African countries get a fair share of taxes from multinational enterprises (MNEs) transacting within their borders, so that they can finance their development goals and promote the human rights of their citizens. The OECD chose to focus on curtailing sophisticated tax-avoidance schemes by strengthening existing anti-avoidance provisions. MNEs have abused these existing laws, however, making them largely ineffective. Given that MNEs are always a step ahead in devising new tax-avoidance strategies, one wonders whether emphasis on strengthening anti-avoidance laws will achieve much. The OECD seems to have missed an opportunity to evaluate the whole tax system and deal with the very root of the problems inherent in international taxation.
Some Aspects of the Architecture of International Tax Reform (and Their Human Rights–Related Consequences)
Authors: Lennard Michael 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter looks at how the international tax norm-setting mechanism may positively or negatively affect attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals and the achievement of human rights. It is important to recognize that there is a great deal of concern expressed by many developing countries about their lack of real participation in the development of what are being promoted as global tax norms or standards. The OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Project has brought some of these issues to the forefront. Nevertheless, there is much that is useful to developing countries in the BEPS outcomes, especially in combatting what is commonly regarded by both developing and developed countries as tax avoidance or evasion, such as through international profit-shifting.
United States’ Responsibility to Promote Financial Transparency
Authors: Kaye Tracy A. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses the legislative and regulatory changes that are necessary for the United States to fully participate in the global financial transparency movement. This includes the collection of beneficial ownership information for any legal entities formed in the United States. Indeed, the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and other international human rights obligations require the United States to increase disclosure of information regarding companies’ beneficial ownership, as a means of combating tax avoidance and evasion. The chapter then highlights the human rights imperatives for the United States to use exchange of information laws to regulate taxpayer conduct. It encourages advocates in the human rights community who are pushing for increased tax transparency to train their sights on the United States as one of the largest and most persistent tax haven jurisdictions hiding in plain view.
Who’s to Blame for the Money Drain? Corporate Power and Corruption as Competing Narratives for Lost Resources
Authors: Ylönen Matti 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter focuses on corporate power and corruption, providing context for current debates around responsibility for and the consequences of tax abuse. In addition to the already discussed problems of tax avoidance and tax evasion, the bargaining power of large corporations over smaller states is also an outcome of structural problems that discourage developing countries from collecting taxes needed for human development. Here, a key problem is international tax competition, or more accurately tax wars between nations. This international pressure pushes decision makers in developing countries to turn a blind eye to corporate wrongdoings and to offer tax breaks and other sweeteners to large enterprises in exchange for investments. Ultimately, what is needed are more comprehensive frameworks for analyzing the reasons behind the obstacles to domestic resource mobilization, which pay close attention to both public and private factors that prevent the fulfillment of social rights and development goals.
Human Rights and the Taxation of Menstrual Hygiene Products in an Unequal World
Authors: Crawford Bridget J. , Spivack Carla 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter explores the gender biases embedded in facially neutral tax laws, focusing specifically on so-called “tampon taxes,” levies exacted on menstrual hygiene products. In most of the states in the United States, menstrual hygiene products are subject to sales tax. Meanwhile, in much of the European Union, these products are treated as luxuries and are subject to the highest rate of VAT. The various human rights affected by tampon taxes include the rights to be free from discrimination, to health, to education, to work, and to dignity. The chapter then considers potential venues and strategies for legal challenges in the European Union, the United States, and elsewhere. Strikingly, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) precedents cited concerning gender discrimination all involve suits brought by men complaining of disparate treatment—much as some of the earliest cases recognizing gender discrimination in the United States were brought by men.