bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Foreign Merchants at Ugarit
Authors: Yaron Reuven 
Published: June 2019

Cuneiform sources, of different periods and places, contain a wealth of information concerning the activities of the merchant (tamkarum). Especially noteworthy is the Old-Babylonian material, which has recently been the subject of a detailed monograph. No less important is the Old-Assyrian material from the trading centre of Kaniš, discovered in ever-growing quantities in the course of excavations which continue up to the present. All these are private documents, both legal and non-legal, giving a varied and detailed picture.When one turns to the various collections of legal rules, the results are rather disappointing. The only significant block of provisions is that in the Code of Hammurabi, commencing in the damaged part of the stele (sections U and V), and continuing in sections 100–107. They all concern, one way or another, trading operations; they purport to regulate the relations between a person who supplies capital or goods (the tamkarum), and his agent, acting on his behalf, going abroad to buy and to sell. One characteristic feature stands out at once: as a rule, though not necessarily always, the law merchant concerns itself with activities abroad, beyond the borders of the city-state. This general impression is confirmed also by such provisions as that of CH 32 (merchant ransoming prisoner of war), and CH 281/282 (purchase abroad of slave).
The Sources and Nature of Jewish Law and its Application in the State of Israel, Part IV
Authors: Elon Menachem 
Published: June 2019

To answer the question whether the Israel legal system is based on Jewish Law foundations we must examine the two main operative factors which affect and control the nature of that system, that is, the legislative activity of the Knesset and the judicial activity of the courts. The fact that Israel law recognizes, though to a limited extent, the principle of binding precedent renders the courts active participants in the law-making process. This freedom of activity is restricted and operates only within the framework of the provisions of existing positive law, but this framework is quite flexible, as we shall later have occasion to note. Such restriction does not exist at all with regard to the Knesset's legislative activity. The Knesset is the sovereign legislature, unfettered even by a Constitution, and is free to make such law as it deems fit. The question, therefore, is on what assumptions do the various elements—the Ministry of Justice, the Government and the Knesset—engaged in the legislative process, function generally with regard to the subserving sources and more particularly with regard to the manner in which the law of the State is to rest upon Jewish Law.It is difficult from an examination even of a representative sample of enactments passed by the Knesset to affirm that a clear and consistent policy indeed exists in this important regard, but from time to time expression has been given by those concerned to some of these underlying assumptions and it is proper that we should glance at these.
Factors Determining the Amount of Damages
Authors: Livneh Ernst 
Published: June 2019

Two seemingly contradictory objections are raised against the traditional rules of liability for damage; on the one hand the requirement of fault appears to preclude just compensation of many persons who have suffered loss or injury, particularly such as is caused by modern dangers—motor traffic, the use, storage or transportation of high explosives, or the release of atomic energy. On the other hand damage caused by even the slightest degree of negligence may exceed by far what can justly be demanded from the person responsible.In Dunne v. North Western Gas Board no less that 46 coal gas explosions occurred simultaneously in the streets of Liverpool. The people injured were unable to recover because it turned out that the defect in the gas mains had developed without the fault of any person. In Fowler v. Lanning the plaintiff suffered injuries from pellets discharged from the defendant's gun. He pleaded this fact as a sufficient cause of action, leaving it to the defendant to explain the accident. That seems indeed to have once been the law. Today, however, the plaintiff has at least to allege negligence (if not intention) or to set out facts which “shout negligence”; only then does the rule res ipsa loquitur relieve him of the burden of proof, and then only of that burden alone. Ought not a hunter to be responsible for his gun, a gas board for its pipes?
Extinction of Cause of Action by Release or Covenant not to Sue
Authors: Ben-Porath Miriam 
Published: June 2019

A release has been defined as the “giving up or abandoning of the claim or right to the person against whom the claim exists. A release is itself a discharge of the claim or obligation.”Strictly speaking both releases and covenants not to sue are instruments under seal. A simple agreement, if supported by valuable consideration, has in equity the same effect as a release. Therefore the terms “release” and “covenant not to sue” are now often applied to such agreements, and in the present article they will be used in this extended sense.The purpose of this article is to discuss the rule as to release, to analyze the reasons underlying it and to make some suggestions for reform.
The Influence of Insurance on the Award of Damages
Authors: Livneh Ernst 
Published: June 2019

Sec. 55(1)(b) of the Civil Wrongs Ordinance, 1944, which deals with compensation for the tortious death of a person, prescribes:
“Provided that, in assessing such compensation—(i) any sum paid or payable on the death of the deceased under any contract of assurance or insurance, …shall not be taken into account.”This provision is taken from sec. 52(1)(b) of the Cyprus Civil Wrongs Law, 1932(s. 53(1)(b) of the 1950 edition of the Laws of Cyprus) and goes back to sec. 1 of the English Fatal Accident (Damages) Act, 1908 (now sec. 2 of the Fatal Accident Act, 1959).There is a more general provision in sec. 65 of the local Ordinance (sec. 86 of the New Version):
“In assessing any compensation payable by reason of any civil wrong any sum paid or payable under any contract of assurance or insurance in connection with such civil wrong shall not be taken into account.”This section reproduces sec. 62 (sec. 63) of the Cyprus Law, and an explanation given of that provision states that “this incorporates the general principle of English Law”.
The Application of Presumptions to the Derivative forms of an Offence
Authors: Feller S. Z. 
Published: June 2019

Both the facts of The State of Israel v. Siman Tov, and the solution adopted in that case by the Supreme Court, raise, it is felt, a number of legal problems which warrant particular attention.The respondent, Siman Tov, owner of a grocer's shop, sold goods worth IL. 6,000 on credit to someone called Pressman. When Siman Tov requested payment from Pressman, the latter offered him U.S. $4,000 which Siman Tov was to deposit with a third party of his own choice in return for a loan of IL. 12,000, on the understanding that Siman Tov would deduct the money owing to him from this last sum and hand over the balance of IL. 6,000 to Pressman. Siman Tov accepted the offer and received from Pressman a package containing 4,000 ostensibly genuine dollar banknotes. He then approached a neighbour, Binat, who agreed to accept the dollars as security for a loan of the equivalent sum in Israeli pounds. On examining the package and finding that the dollars were counterfeit, Binat returned them to Siman Tov and refused to go on with the transaction. Siman Tov for his part had believed the notes to be genuine until Binat's disclosure.
Size change in development and evolution
Authors: Bonner John Tyler 
Published: June 2019

Phylogeny is a succession of ontogenies, and the two have been compared by considering them in terms of rates of size change. In development, the larger the organism, the slower its rate of size increase. In evolution, the rates of size change can be put into three distinct categories: fast, medium, and slow. The fast changes occur over short periods of time (1–10 thousand years) and are as likely to show size decrease as increase. The medium changes occur over longer time spans (5–20 million years) and are predominantly or entirely instances of size increase. The slow changes occur over the entire span of organic evolution and represent the maximum size attained in various phyla, which again show an over-all increase.For ontogeny, a decrease in rate of size change is correlated with an increase in complexity, an increase in the number of gene actions. For evolution, it is correlated with an increase in the number of genetic changes required of the genome by natural selection in fluctuating environments.
Theoretical morphology of echinoid growth
Authors: Raup David M. 
Published: June 2019

Deutler's classic work (1926) provides the basis for an analysis of plate growth in echinoids. Deutler showed that the concentric growth rings found within each plate may be used to reconstruct the ontogeny of the entire plate pattern.New observations of growth-line configurations, particularly inStrongylocentrotus pallidus(Sars), have been used to derive a general model for echinoid growth. The plate mosaic is assumed to be the result of close packing of the growing plates. The shape of a given plate thus depends on its size and position relative to surrounding plates.The rate of meridional growth of a plate can be shown to change regularly with increasing distance from the echinoid's apical system. Migration of plates away from the apical system thus causes change in the rate of plate growth. The rate of plate migration is strongly influenced, in turn, by the rate of supply of new plates at the apical system.A mathematical model has been developed from these considerations which, when treated by digital computer (with x-y plotter output), produces ideal plate patterns (including growth rings). The constants in the model may be varied to produce a broad spectrum of echinoid plate patterns.
Ontogeny and the explanation of form: an allometric analysis
Authors: Gould Stephen Jay 
Published: June 2019

Significant allometry occurs during the ontogeny of every variable in Poecilozonites bermudensis, a Pleistocene-Recent land snail from Bermuda. The adaptive significance of shell allometry may lie in the necessity for preserving a high value of the foot surface/body volume ratio. In the absence of allometry, this ratio must decline as size increases. Three strategies could be used to keep this ratio sufficiently high: positive allometry of foot growth, structural strengthening of the foot, and the development of a foot initially large enough to withstand decline in the ratio during growth. As indicated by ontogenetic changes in apertural shape, a small amount of positive allometry occurs during ontogeny of the foot in P. bermudensis. This is not sufficient to prevent decline of the foot surface/body weight ratio, and I conclude that the strategy of possessing an initially large foot is also used. A simple model of doming, reflecting this latter strategy, is constructed (doming is a major allometric feature of P. bermudensis). In this model, the foot volume/body volume ratio is constant throughout ontogeny in each of two shells, but this value is higher in the more strongly domed shell.Knowledge of ontogenetic allometry is a prerequisite for understanding the phylogeny of P. bermudensis, for paedomorphosis has been the primary evolutionary event in this taxon. Paedomorphic samples are scaled-up replicas of juvenile shells of the central stock, P. bermudensis zonatus. The degree of ontogenetic retardation in development is the same for all variables (color, thickness, and external shape). Paedomorphosis has occurred several times during the Pleistocene, providing an example of iterative evolution at the infraspecific level. Four paedomorphic taxa are known: P. b. fasolti, P. b. siegmundi, P. b. sieglindae, all new; and P. b. bermudensis (Pfeiffer). They have the geographic distribution (small, peripheral isolates) expected of diverging populations and seem to be genetically distinct entities, not mere phenotypic variants. The most paedomorphic subspecies originated in red soils; paedomorphs did not evolve in times of carbonate-dune deposition. The thin shells of paedomorphs might have been adaptive in the low-calcium environment of red soils. The general significance of iterative evolution at the infraspecific level does not provide an adequate model for corresponding events at higher levels.
Ontogeny of the crinoid Eucalyptocrinites
Authors: Macurda Donald B. 
Published: June 2019

The calyx of a Paleozoic camerate crinoid is composed of a mosaic of large, polygonal plates. Ontogenetic size increase results from accretionary additions of calcite to thecal plates. When new calcite is added to the lateral edge of a plate, a new layer is also added over the external surface, obscuring the earlier growth stages of the plate. However, ontogenetic development can be studied by measurement of a growth series. This is illustrated by regression analysis of growth series of two Silurian species of the genus Eucalyptocrinites: E. crassus (Hall) and E. tuberculatus (Miller & Dyer). Growth of the principal plates is isometric; most growth parameters have a very similar mode of development in both species; only a few parameters show any specific difference. A table of correlation coefficients for 51 growth parameters demonstrates that the entire development of the calyx was highly coordinated throughout life, with coefficients almost always equal to or larger than 0.90. Integrated expansion of the cup plates provided a larger cavity for the viscera. The stem increased in diameter to support the increasingly larger theca, as did the diameter of the root system. Growth of the vaulted plates in the upper part of the theca provided a protective recess for the arms, which probably contributed to the evolutionary success of this animal on a widespread basis during the Silurian and Devonian.Based upon growth studies, the following synonymies are suggested: E. constrictus Hall, E. ellipticus Miller, E. ovalis Hall, and E. subglobosus Miller are synonyms of E. crassus; E. clrodi Miller is a synonym of E. tuberculatus Miller & Dyer.
Aegyptianella pullorumCarpano 1928—fine structure and taxonomy
Authors: Bird R. G. , Garnham P. C. C. 
Published: June 2019

Intraerythrocytic granules in the blood of Sudanese fowls first seen by Balfour (1908) were namedAegyptianella pullorumby Carpano (1928).Electron microscopy of a Rhodesian strain ofA. pullorumindicated the similarity between these organisms and theRickettsia-PLT group of organisms, also their dissimilarity to Sporozoa which we have studied. The organism was coccoid or coccobacillary, measuring up to 0·6 μm in diameter, and in longitudinal sections 1·5–3 μm. Pleomorphic and dividing forms were observed. Each organism was surrounded by two unit membranes with short internal invaginations from the inner membrane only. A layer of ribosome-like particles varying in density and depth gave the impression of an outer cortex. Irregular extensions of this layer towards the centre of the organism followed the lines of fine DNA-like filaments forming a web lattice throughout the substance of the organism. There was no well-defined nucleus as seen in Protozoa. Single as well as groups of organisms were situated in vacuoles lined by a membrane similar to the erythrocytes' own outer membrane. No intranuclear organisms were seen.The similarity of these organisms to symbionts studied by Roshdy and Bird in both adult and immature stages ofA. persicusis illustrated. From this evidence, and its apparent likeness to the tick-borne fever agent, there is good reason for includingA. pullorumamong the Rickettsiaceae. The position suggested for it is between theRickettsiaand PLT group of organisms, closely allied toWolbachia, the agent of tick-borne fever (Cytoecetessp.) and the agent of bovine heart water disease (Cowdria ruminantium).We thank Mr R. Jacobson, F.I.M.L.T. for his willing assistance in conducting the sensitivity test, also Miss L. Lanigan and Mr D. Day for their technical and photographic assistance.
Life-cycles of helminth parasites usingGammarus lacustrisas an intermediate host in a Canadian lake
Authors: Denny M. 
Published: June 2019

The systematics and life-cycles of the helminths of a local population ofGammarus lacustrisin a eutrophic lake near Edmonton, Alberta, is reported as part of a larger study of the composition and seasonal dynamics of the helminth fauna of gammarids.A total of 12 species of helminths, including eight cestodes, one nematode and three acanthocephalans, were recovered. Of these, eleven were new host records, ten were assigned to an intermediate host species for the first time, and one,Hymenolepis albertensissp.nov., was described for the first time.Adults of all twelve helminths were raised in experimentally infested birds and the life-cycles of five species (Lateriporus clerci, L. skrjabini, Hymenolepis albertensissp.nov.,Fimbriaria fasciolarisandPolymorphus marilis) were completed in the laboratory. The larvae are described, and the developmental period in the gammarids, prepatent period and life span of the adults are given for many of the helminths.The rate of development of the cysticercoids ofLateriporus skrjabiniwas shown to be directly related to the size of the gammarid and inversely related to the intensity of infestation.The proboscis-hook formula was not a good diagnostic character for the separation of the three acanthocephalans,Polymorphus contortus, P. marilisandP. paradoxus;however, the size of the largest hook and the structure of the cystacanth body-wall were good diagnostic characters.I am indebted to Dr J. C. Holmes for advice and encouragement at all stages of the study. I also wish to thank Drs S. Prudhoe and D. R. R. Burt for their editorial assistance, Mr L. Graham for many helpful suggestions and information on the natural definitive hosts of the species encountered, Mr R. Podesta for his laboratory assistance, and Miss E. D. Senio for caring for the ducklings during their first few days of life. The study was supported by the Francis F. Reeve Foundation Graduate Bursary, the Queen Elizabeth Education Scholarship Fund, by the Department of Zoology through a Teaching Assistantship, by a grant from the R. B. Miller Biological Station Fund and by an N.R.C. operating grant (A–1464) to Dr J. C. Holmes.
The morphology and biology of Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) evotomys of the bank-vole, Clethrionomys glareolus
Authors: Molyneux David H. 
Published: June 2019

The morphology and biology of the various stages of the life-cycle of Trypanosoma evotomys has been studied in laboratory bred vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. The morphology of T. evotomys in the blood of the bank-vole, Clethrionomys glareolus, is typical of that of a trypanosome of the subgenus Herpetosoma, but the shape and size of the trypanosome in C. glareolus is more variable during the reproductive phase of the infection than in the adult phase. The duration of the infection of T. evotomys in C. glareolus varies from 22 to 31 days in experimental infections and the incubation period of the infection initiated by metatrypanosomes is 5–6 days. The peak of the parasitaemia varied from 15000 to 55000 parasites per mm3 of blood. The reproductive stages of T. evotomys are found in the spleen and lymphoid tissue (appendix) of the bank-vole, and reproduction is by equal, binary or multiple fission in the amastigote stage. T. evotomys was not transmissible to M. agrestis, mice or rats. Cyclical development of T. evotomys took place in the flea, Nosopsyllus fasciatus, and metatrypanosomes developed in the intestine of the flea. No intracellular forms of T. evotomys were found in the mid-gut of the flea.The encouragement, help and advice of Dr P. Tate is gratefully acknowledged. Financial support was received from the Agricultural Research Council to whom thanks are also due.
The effect of physical factors on the rate of respiration of the infective larvae of Strongyloides ratti Sandground, 1925
Authors: Barrett J. 
Published: June 2019

Dense larval suspensions have a higher Qo2 than dilute ones, probably due to an oxygen debt acquired during preliminary washings. Ammonia (0·1M) did not affect the respiratory rate of the infective larvae of S. ratti. Mechanical agitation of larvae reduced their rate of respiration.The partial pressure: respiration curve of the infective larvae was sigmoidal, that of larval homogenates was a rectangular hyperbola. At low partial pressures of oxygen the respiratory rate depends to a certain extent on the rate of change of the partial pressure.In 100% oxygen the respiratory rate of the larvae is at first stimulated and then falls to its initial level. On returning to air after 100% oxygen, the respiratory rate is at first depressed and then recovers.The infective larvae of S. ratti develop an oxygen debt when kept under anaerobic conditions. During the recovery period, which lasts for about 1 h, the Qo2 may increase by up to 100%.The respiration of the infective larvae increases as the temperature is increased. When larvae are maintained at 37 °C there is a gradual decrease in their rate of respiration and this change is apparently irreversible.The rate of respiration of the larvae is slightly inhibited at low pH values and slightly stimulated at high pH values.Moderate levels of carbon dioxide (5%) have no effect on the respiratory rate of the infective larvae of S. ratti, high levels of carbon dioxide (10–20%), have a definite narcotic effect on the larvae.The respiration of the infective larvae is unaffected by osmotic pressures up to an equivalent of 1% sodium chloride. Above this level the respiratory rate is at first stimulated then decreases.This work was carried out during the tenure of a Medical Research Council Scholarship.
The structure and development of Histomonas meleagridis (Mastigamoebidae: Protozoa) in the female reproductive tract of its intermediate host, Heterakis gallinarum (Nematoda)
Authors: Lee D. L. 
Published: June 2019

The ultrastrcuture and development of the protozoan Histomonas meleagridis in the reproductive system of the female nematode, Heterakis gallinarum, have been described. It has been shown that there is a distinct cycle of events in the reproductive system. The stage of Histomonas in the germinal zone of the ovary is extracellular; the protozoan feeds and multiplies here. The histomonads move down the ovary with the oogonia and become intracellular when they penetrate the developing oocytes in the growth zone of the ovary. This is apparently an active penetration of the oocyte by the parasite. Feeding and division of the histomonad occurs in the oocyte and also in the newly formed egg; apparently a gradual reduction in size occurs along the reproductive system. These stages in the parasite are similar to the tissue-inhabiting stages in the bird but are much smaller. There are no mitochondria present.There is strong circumstantial evidence that the nematode is able to repair damage to the wall of the reproductive system and to the oolemma caused by the protozoan.I wish to thank Dr E. E. Lund of Beltsville Parasitological Laboratory, Maryland, U.S.A., who very kindly sent me some of his Histomonas-free strain of Heterakis and Dr L. P. Joyner and Mr C. C. Norton of the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge, for the strain of Heterakis which was found to transmit Histomonas wenrichii. I also wish to thank Mrs B. Fisher, Mr B. Millard and Mr M. Shirley for technical assistance and Mr P. Rogers for assistance with the photography.