bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Preliminary Note of Experiments showing Heat of Combination in the formation of Alloys of Zinc and Copper to be Negative when the Proportion of Copper is less than about 30 per cent
Authors: Galt Alexander 
Published: June 2019

In March of last year I communicated to the Society a paper giving a detailed account of the procedure adopted in an experimental investigation, which I had undertaken at the request of Lord Kelvin, on the heat of combination of pairs of solid metals in the formation of alloys, along with a statement of some results which had then been obtained.The pairs of metals chosen were copper-zinc and copper-silver, and, briefly restated, the experiments were conducted as follows:—About half a gramme of alloy, reduced to powder by means of a file, was dissolved in dilute nitric acid, and an equal weight of a mixture of the same two metals in the same proportions was also dissolved under exactly similar conditions The difference between the initial and final temperature in each case is an indication of the heat of solution. If the two results are the same then there is no heat of combination in the formation of the particular alloy tested. But if the heat of solution of the mixture exceeds that of the alloy, then there must be heat of combination in the formation of the alloy equal to that difference. The experimental results, then, afford a means of approximately determining in absolute measure the heat of combination of the metals in the formation of an alloy.The investigation has been continued since my last communication, and I expect to have it finished and to communicate the results to the Society either towards the close of the present session or at the beginning of the next.
Magnetism and Molecular Rotation
Authors: Kelvin Lord 
Published: June 2019

§ 1. Consider the induction of an electric current in an endless wire when a magnetic field is generated around it, For simplicity, let the wire be circular and the diameter of its section very small in comparison with that of the ring. The time-integral of the electromotive force in the circuit is 2AM, if A denote the area of the ring and M the component perpendicular to its plane, of the magnetic force coming into existence. This is true whatever be the shape of the ring, provided it is all in one plane. Now, adopting the idea of two electricities, vitreous and resinous, we must imagine an electric current of strength C to consist of currents of vitreous and resinous electricities in opposite directions, each of strength ½C. Hence the time-integrals of the opposite electromotive forces on units of the equal vitreous and resinous electricities are each equal to AM.§ 2. Substitute now for our metal wire an endless tube of non-conducting matter, vitreously electrified, and filled with an incompressible non-conducting fluid, electrified with an equal quantity, e, of resinous electricity. The fluid and the containing tube will experience equal and opposite tangential forces, of each of which the time-integral of the line-integral round the whole circumference is eAM, if the ring be a circle of radius r; and the effect of the generation of the magnetic field will be to cause the fluid and the ring to rotate in opposite directions with moments of momentum each equal to eAMr, if neither fluid nor ring is acted on by any other force than that of the electromagnetic induction.
On the Vascular System of the Hypocotyl and Embryo of Ricinus Communis, L.
Authors: Chick Edith 
Published: June 2019

Sections of the hypocotyl of Ricinus communis are frequently examined as typical of the young stem, in which widely separated vascular bundles are ultimately united by a band of interfascicular cambium, and this by giving rise to secondary tissues connects the xylems and phloems of the primary bundles to form concentric continuous rings.In the young unthickened hypocotyl of Ricinus there are eight such bundles connected by a continuous starch sheath and one layer of smaller cells immediately inside it. In some sections, however, confusion arises owing to the increase of the number of vascular bundles, and in the case of older hypocotyls these extra bundles are embedded in the cambium ring and have rather the appearance of secondarily formed tissues.It was in the first instance to clear up the origin of these bundles that, at the suggestion of Professor F. W. Oliver, the following work was begun. Afterwards, as there seemed some advantage in working out in full the arrangement of the vascular system in this plant, which is so frequently used as a dicotyledonous type, it has been followed from the root, through the hypocotyl, to the 1st and 2nd internodes of the epicotyl.The well-developed primary root of the seedling of Ricinis communis averages about 2 mm. in diameter. About 5 mm. below the junction with the stem it enlarges rapidly to attain the diameter of the hypocotyl, which varies between 4 and 5 mm. It is from this swollen portion of the root that most of the first developed lateral rootlets take their origin.
Changes that occur in some Cells of the Newt's Stomach during Digestion
Authors: Carlier E. Wace 
Published: June 2019

With a view to ascertain as far as possible the minute changes that occur in the cells of the mucous membrane of the stomach during, and after, activity, I procured from England towards the end of winter a number of newts (Triton cristatus).When they arrived they were very emaciated, and, indeed, in a starved condition, having no doubt but recently awakened from their winter sleep; they appeared, however, quite healthy, and swam well when placed in water, and took and retained food when given to them in the form of lively worms.These English newts were fed at the same time with the same weight of worm, and killed at intervals after the meal, one being sacrificed every twenty-four hours, to the end of the tenth day.Such long intervals were allowed to elapse between each sample taken, because Langley (13) states that during winter in thin and emaciated animals that have been fasting for a considerable time the changes take place very slowly.These constituted the first set of experiments.In June of the same year I procured a large number of fineTriton cristatusfrom the Eft Pond in the Braid Hills near Edinburgh. They were in good condition and very lively.When worms were given them, they ate them readily, and were hungry again in less than twenty hours. However, to make sure that the stomach was quite empty and in a resting condition, I allowed an interval of one hundred and fourteen hours to elapse after the first feeding, and then, selecting newts of about the same size and weight, fed them a second time, each receiving the same amount of healthy worm.
On Some Remains of Scottish Early Post-Pliocene Mammals
Authors: Duns  
Published: June 2019

At the meeting of the Society on the 20th February 1893 I had the honour of reading a paper “On the Early History of some Scottish Mammals and Birds.” Perhaps the title both of that paper and of the present should be “Remarks on the Literature associated with some Early Post-Pliocene Mammals.”The science of a Species means much more than the naming of its several parts by Latin and Greek derivatives. Even as regards these parts, one would like to know something of extinct forms at the time when they had a place among the living, just as, when dealing with recent forms, we find much to shed light on the structure, probable habits, and surroundings, especially of mammals which became extinct in quaternary time. Questions arise that are worth noting, were it for nothing more than to make it clear that the mere obiter dicta even of able and wide-minded experts may often be misleading. The tendency which prevails to determine species by characteristic bone-marks can never be perfectly satisfactory, because there are many instances in which close structural resemblance is associated with great dissimilarity of habit. It is not so easy as some seem to think to distinguish between several of the long bones of the wolf with the corresponding bones of the collie, or between those of the sheep and of the goat. Then, as to footprints on stiff, tenacious quaternary clays, is there any risk of a label?—“marks of the feet of a small ruminant”—the marks being those of the feet of Sus scrofa (ferus) and not of gentle Ovis aries, L.
Philosophical Confidence
Authors: Gorman J. L. 
Published: June 2019

Analytical philosophers, if they are true to their training, never forget the first lesson of analytical philosophy: philosophers have no moral authority.In so far as analytical philosophers believe this, they find it easy to live with. For them even to assert, let alone successfully lay claim to, moral authority would require, first, hard work of some non-analytical and probably mistaken kind and, secondly, personality traits of leadership or confidence or even charisma, which philosophers may accidentally have but which they are certainly not trained to have and had better not rely upon, while they live by analytical standards. Yet a further reason why analytical philosophers find the denial of their moral authority easy to accept is that they never forget the second lesson of analytical philosophy, either: nobody else has any moral authority.
Recognizing species of Late Cenozoic Scleractinia and their evolutionary patterns
Authors: Budd Ann F. , Johnson Kenneth G. 
Published: June 2019

New morphometric methods for distinguishing morphologically similar species of Recent colonial scleractinian corals involve the analysis of three dimensional landmarks digitized on calical surfaces. Variables suitable for multivariate statistical analysis are derived from the landmark data by applying various geometrical techniques, including Bookstein size and shape coordinates and generalized resistant fitting. Cluster analyses of these variables and study of the relative positions of replicates from the same colony on the resulting dendrograms are used to recognize clusters of colonies representing morphospecies. Comparisons with the results of genetic analyses on the same specimens suggest that these morphospecies correspond closely with biological species.Although slightly less effective, similar analyses of two dimensional landmark data collected on thin sections of the same specimens also distinguish species, and suggest that biological species can be approximated in the fossil record. Multivariate statistical analyses show that variables derived from two dimensional landmarks can be used to trace the stratigraphic ranges of these fossil species. The appropriate method for tracing ranges depends of the evenness of sampling in different geologic horizons. Preliminary comparisons of observed stratigraphic ranges determined by this approach with those determined by cladistic analysis suggest that overall patterns in evolutionary rates through geologic time are the same for both approaches. Thus, nontraditional morphologic characters determined by subsequent examination of morphometrically-defined species have potential for providing sufficient resolution for phylogenetic analysis.
Origins and relationships of Paleozoic coral groups and the origin of the Scleractinia
Authors: Oliver William A. 
Published: June 2019

Two major groups of corals have essentially continuous records from the Early Ordovician (Tabulata) and Middle Ordovician (Rugosa) to the end of the Permian. A third major group, the living Scleractinia, range from Middle Triassic to Holocene. Additional groups have shorter ranges within the Paleozoic. The origins and relationships of these groups have been discussed for over 100 years. Relations between the Rugosa and Scleractinia have attracted the greatest interest because of their morphologic similarities and the time sequence. Arguments involve the significance of serial versus cyclic septal insertion, calcitic versus aragonitic skeletal mineralogy, and the time gap between the last rugosans and first scleractinians (there are no known Lower Triassic corals). Discussions of relationships among the various Paleozoic groups are commonly based on detailed morphological comparisons because of their overlapping stratigraphic ranges.Recent work on the living corals and anemones supports a closer relationship between groups than is suggested by placing them in different orders or suborders. The paleontological record of “anemones” is slight, but it is reasonable to assume that one or more groups of skeletonless zoantharians persisted through long parts of the Phanerozoic. It is suggested that the major groups of zoantharian corals originated through the development of skeletons in various anemone groups at several different times.
Morphological variation and homoplasy: the challenge of Paleozoic coral systematics
Authors: Webb Gregory E. 
Published: June 2019

The extinct Paleozoic coral groups Rugosa and Tabulata suffer from confused systematics because of extreme morphological variation, pervasive homoplasy, and relatively simple skeletal morphology. Morphological variation occurs within individuals or colonies, between individuals within a population, and between populations. Variation at each level may have both genetic and ecologic components. Homoplasy is very abundant and extended sequences of parallel or convergent character transformations have led to the recognition of “recurrent evolutionary trends” in many lineages.Morphological variation causes much difficulty in the recognition and characterization of coral species and homoplasy is problematic for phylogeny reconstruction. Improved coral systematics require a more holistic approach to both taxonomy and phylogeny analysis, including: 1) population-based species concepts, as opposed to typological approaches; 2) use of more quantitative techniques in species discrimination and description; 3) more attention to subtle morphological elements, such as microstructure; 4) description of ecological settings (depositional environments) to aid in analysis of behavior and to help unravel ecophenotypic plasticity; and 5) use of stratigraphic and geographic distribution data in phylogeny analysis, because skeletal morphology is inadequate by itself.
Biocrystallization models and skeletal structure of Phanerozoic corals
Authors: Sorauf James E. 
Published: June 2019

Modern understanding of skeletal microstructure in fossil corals builds on knowledge of structure and biomineralization in modern corals and diagenesis of carbonate skeletons. It is agreed that the skeleton of living stony corals, the Scleractinia, is made of fibrous aragonite, with growth of biocrystals generally according to rules of crystal growth as observed in inorganic aragonite, but here controlled by organic matrix. Fossil scleractinians all apparently fit the same model of biomineralization seen in living corals, although some early taxa (Triassic) lack septal trabeculae, rod-like framework structures typical of all living and most fossil septate corals.Paleozoic corals, both septate Rugosa and non-septate Tabulata, had a skeleton of calcite, most likely low-magnesium calcite, thus had diagenetic histories differing considerably from the aragonitic Scleractinia. Agreement is lacking as to whether a single structural motif can be defined for the calcitic corals, that is, whether the Rugosa and Tabulata originally had a calcitic skeleton built of fibrous biocrystals, analogous to the scleractinians, or whether some others originally had a non-fibrous, lamellar skeletal microstructure. The disagreement hinges on whether both of these basic configurations are biogenic, or whether the latter is sometimes or always diagenetic in origin. The presence of matrix control over biomineralization in Rugosa and Tabulata is yet to be proven, but will play an important role in models for biocrystallization in these older cnidarians. Details of diagenetic history and modification of structures in these calcitic corals likewise warrant investigation to improve our ability to interpret the Paleozoic corals.
Paleobiogeography and Evolutionary History of Paleozoic Lacustrine Faunas
Authors: Park Lisa E. , Gierlowski-Kordesch Elizabeth H. 
Published: June 2019

Lakes are important archives for continental records of paleoenvironmental as well as paleoclimatic change. They also record a unique macroevolutionary pattern that occurred when faunas invaded the continental realm. In order to document that pattern, we compiled a database of over ninety lake basins from the Neoproterozoic to the Permian. Each basin was evaluated based upon its sedimentology and paleontology and, where appropriate, was classified into one of three types: underfilled, balanced-filled, and overfilled, sensu Carroll and Bohacs (1999). The faunal elements from each were recorded at the species, generic, class, and phylum levels.Looking at this critical time in lacustrine evolution, several patterns emerged. For the Neoproterozoic through Silurian time, there is a paucity of documented lake deposits and lake faunal records. Lakes during this time were oligotrophic and their nutrient cycling regimes were primitive. It is not until the establishment of land plants in the Silurian that lakes begin to respond with higher diversities and more complex physical and chemical conditions. During the Devonian-Carboniferous periods, diversity was on the rise as trophic levels became more complex. Globally, CO2 increased while marine Sr decreased, coinciding with the peaking of diversity within lakes. Most lakes of the Devonian and Carboniferous formed along continental margins or in tectonic basins with occasional connection to the marine realm. The faunas from these types of lakes were commonly comprised of mixed marine and freshwater elements and were far more diverse than other, more inland lakes. This “estuary effect” created a gateway or filter through which faunas invaded the continental realm.The early history of lake faunas is one of opportunity and amelioration. The feedback loops created by the establishment of vascular plants altered the nutrient cycle on land and in lakes. All trophic levels were established early but became increasingly complex throughout the Paleozoic, as roles changed and faunal elements became established. Groups invading the continents via the “estuary effect” did so numerous times before establishing themselves permanently. This was linked with the episodic reestablishment in marine-freshwater connections along these continental margins. In general, the macroevolutionary history of lake faunas demonstrates a dramatically different diversification pattern than that of the marine, and further study is necessary to understand the intricacies of these patterns and whether or not they continue through the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.
Dealing with Antievolutionism
Authors: Scott Eugenie C. 
Published: June 2019

In November of 1995, the Alabama Department of Education required all biology textbooks used in the state to display a disclaimer informing the young reader thatThis textbook discusses evolution, a controversial theory some scientists present as a scientific explanation for the origin of living things, such as plants, animals and humans. No one was present when life first appeared on earth, therefore, any statement about life's origins should be considered as theory, not fact.
Invincible Knowledge
Authors: Bambrough Renford 
Published: June 2019

As there is a condition of mind which is characterized by invincible ignorance, so there is another which may be said to be possessed of invincible knowledge; and it would be paradoxical in me to deny to such a mental state the highest quality of religious faith,—I mean certitude. (J. H. Newman, Grammar of Assent, 138–139)‘She's an artist. She keeps saying the same thing without repeating herself. (Iris Murdoch, The Good Apprentice, 66)In being initiated into our life as human beings we are subject to causal influences; guiding, teaching, restraint, compulsion, incentives, rewards, warnings, penalties. Until such influences have achieved their most important work we do not share the human understanding within which there can be ratiocination, evidence, argument. So there is and must be a causal story of how we come to acquire a human understanding; a causal story for the species as a whole and a causal story for each of us; and there is not and could not be any acceptable account, either for the species or for the individual, of how we reasoned or argued our way into our initial and fundamental understanding. I say the same thing without repeating myself if I call such knowledge and understanding invincible. It is not possible to Overthrow it by reasoning any more than it is possible to establish it by reasoning.
Emmanuel Levinas: Responsibility and Election
Authors: Chalier Catherine 
Published: June 2019

Although some people argue Emmanuel Levinas is a Jewish thinker because he introduces in his philosophical work ideas which come from the Jewish tradition, I want to present him as a philosopher. A philosopher who tries to widen the philosophical horizon which is traditionally a Greek one but, at the same time, a philosopher who does not want to abandon it. In one of his main books Totality and Infinity (1969), he describes western civilization as an hypocritical one because it is attached both to the True and to the Good, but he adds:It is perhaps time to see in hypocrisy not only a base contingent defect of man, but the underlying rending of a world attached to both the philosophers and the prophets, (p. 24)When reading Levinas we may realize that such an ‘hypocrisy’ might well be a blessing from a philosophical point of view. One of Levinas's philosophical aims is to refer to the Greek language of philosophy—a language he asserts to be of universal significance—in order to elucidate ideas that come from the Hebrew world view, from the prophets and from the sages. He wants to give a new insight into Greek categories and concepts but he refuses to abnegate the philosophical requirements for accuracy. That is why when he refers to biblical verses or to Talmudic apologues, he does not want to prove anything. His philosophical writings are indeed philosophical because he does not yield to the temptation of substituting the authority of a certain verse or of a certain name to the philosophical requirement of argumentation.
Justice without Constitutive Luck
Authors: Hurley S. L. 
Published: June 2019

What fundamental aim should be seen as animating egalitarian views of distributive justice? I want to challenge a certain answer to this question: namely, that the basic aim of egalitarianism is to neutralize the effects of luck on the distribution of goods in society. I shall also sketch part of a different answer, which I think does a better job of supporting egalitarianism.My arguments here are not presented in a way that is intended to win over those who have no sympathy with egalitarianism to begin with; they move within the compass of egalitarian concern. Moreover, it is difficult, for familiar reasons, to separate the question of what the basic aim of egalitarianism is from the question of what it should be. If one aim does a better job of supporting egalitarian results than another, then, even if few egalitarians recognize this, it may be regarded as a stronger candidate for what the basic aim of egalitarianism is. As with other essentially contested concepts, a new conception does not change the subject.
Welcome to Wales: Searle on the Computational Theory of Mind
Authors: Fellows Roger 
Published: June 2019

In a recent book devoted to giving an overview of cognitive science, Justin Lieber writes:…dazzingly complex computational processes achieve our visual and linguistic understanding, but apart from a few levels of representation these are as little open to our conscious view as the multitudinous rhythm of blood flow through the countless vessels of our brain.It is the aim of hundreds of workers in the allied fields of Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence to unmask these computation processes and install them in digital computers.