bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Naturalized philosophy of mathematics
Authors: Paseau Alexander 
Published: September 2018

There are three types of naturalism in the philosophy of mathematics: metaphysical, epistemological and methodological. Metaphysical naturalists maintain that all entities are natural. One reading of this claim is that mathematical ontology is the ontology of natural science - which of course leads immediately to the question as to just what ontology is indispensably needed by the natural sciences. Another reading is that all mathematical entities are spatiotemporal. This view faces considerable difficulties, as it seems to go against the claims and methods of mathematics. Epistemological naturalists maintain that we can only know about entities spatiotemporally or causally connected to us. Though prima facie plausible, epistemological naturalism has encountered resistance on many fronts.
Methodological naturalism sees scientific standards, suitably understood, as authoritative. In its canonical version, science is construed as natural science, and thus the acceptability of mathematics is linked to its role in natural science. The most obvious argument for this form of methodological naturalism is the success argument: natural science is the most successful sphere of human inquiry and should consequently trump other disciplines. However, it turns out that the success argument is difficult to develop convincingly. Some philosophers also believe, controversially, that there is room for a naturalism that takes the authoritative standards in the philosophy of mathematics to be those of mathematics itself.
Aesthetics, African
Authors: Hallen Barry 
Published: September 2018

The study and analysis of African art and aesthetics have been dominated by Western culture. Initially the aesthetic sensitivities of African cultures were characterized as ‘primitive’ and of low intellectual calibre. Africans reacted to such negative stereotyping by articulating their own, deliberately non-Western aesthetic theories. The best known of these is négritude.
With its emphasis on learning about a culture by living in it for a period of time, anthropology encouraged scholars to relate African art directly to the aesthetic values of the cultures that produced it. This kind of contextual approach has also become the special concern of African art historians.
One can exemplify the exploration of the aesthetic conceptions of a particular culture in this way by considering the case of the Yoruba peoples of southwestern Nigeria. The Yoruba have a detailed and refined aesthetic vocabulary that has been subjected to extended description and analysis. Where human beings are concerned the highest form of beauty is attributed to a person’s good moral character. Where objects are concerned beauty is influenced by their utility or, in the case of figurative carvings, by the intelligence and ability of the artist.
Ethnophilosophy, African
Authors: Karp Ivan , Masolo D.A. 
Published: September 2018

Ethnophilosophy refers to bodies of belief and knowledge that have philosophical relevance and which can be redescribed in terms drawn from academic philosophy, but which have not been consciously formulated as philosophy by philosophers. These bodies of belief and knowledge are manifested in the thoughts and actions of people who share a common culture.
Most of the literature on ethnophilosophy is written about African cultures. Ethnophilosophy’s most immediate African antecedents include Leopold Senghor’s philosophy of négritude and the writings of the Belgian missionary to the Congo (later Zaire), Placide Tempels. Ethnophilosophy examines the systems of thought of existing and precolonial African communities in order to determine what can be the ideal forms of ‘authentic’ African philosophy and praxis in the emerging postcolonial situation. In addition to the pioneering work of Senghor and Tempels, this school is represented in the writings of philosopher Alexis Kagamé (1956) and theologian John Mbiti (1969) among others, many of whom were regarded as Tempels’s disciples.
The central themes of the work of these disciples include assertions that there is a unified ‘Bantu philosophy’ and that its fundamental categories are manifested in features of language such as grammar, or features of culture such as cosmology and ritual. According to many of these authors writing about Bantu philosophy, the boundaries between self and other are not as rigid as in Western philosophy. Also, interdependence rather than competition is a primary social value and the human and nonhuman world is animated by a ‘vital force’, which underlies the perception of reality.
Egyptian philosophy: influence on ancient Greek thought
Authors: Lefkowitz Mary R. 
Published: September 2018

Before the decipherment of hieroglyphics (a process only completed in the 1830s), it was widely believed that many famous Greek philosophers had studied in Egypt and that Greek philosophy was ultimately derived from a lost ’Egyptian mystery system’. This belief was derived in part from ancient sources, which described how certain Greek philosophers had studied with Egyptian priests. The notion that these individual sessions were part of an extensive formal programme of education derives from an historical novel, Séthos (1731), by the Abbé Jean Terrasson. This book, which pretended to be based on lost original sources, offered a detailed portrait of a complex Egyptian university system. It was translated into several European languages and widely popularized in the rituals and mythology of Freemasonry.
The existence of such a formal Egyptian mystery system of education was not confirmed by actual Egyptian sources once they could be read and translated. The myth has been given a new lease of life in revisionist histories of the ancient world composed by writers whose ancestors had been brought to the New World as slaves. These writers sought to show that Greek philosophy was derived from Egyptian philosophy and that what has been recognized as Western civilization stems from Africa. This entry reviews the evidence for these claims and concludes that although the Greeks had great respect for Egyptian wisdom and piety, what has always been known as Greek philosophy derives from the original work of Greeks. It finds moreover that if the Greek philosophers who lived in Ionia were influenced by any outside ideas, these came to them through the monotheistic religions of other peoples living in the Near East.
Black nationalism
Authors: Shelby Tommie 
Published: September 2018

The philosophical underpinnings of black nationalism date back to the mid-nineteenth century, prior to the abolition of chattel slavery in the United States. Its key ideas are that black people should possess their own nation-state; that the flourishing of African peoples (including those of African descent in the Western hemisphere) requires racial solidarity and group self-help; that geographical racial separation is necessary for racial harmony; that blacks should cultivate pride in the historic achievements of those of African descent; that the survival of the race depends on militant collective resistance to anti-black racism and white supremacy; that psychic health requires the development and preservation of a distinctive black ethno-cultural identity; and that Africa is the authentic and rightful homeland of those who are racially black, regardless of where they were born or currently reside.
In its broadest sense, black nationalism is the view that blacks constitute a distinct people or nation with their own collective aims, and that their wellbeing depends upon their ability to sustain political, economic and cultural solidarity. Central to all versions of black nationalism are the beliefs that the primary source of black oppression is racism, and that overcoming racial domination will require some form of group autonomy and self-reliance, perhaps even a separate black republic.
South Africa, philosophy in
Authors: Duvenage Pieter 
Published: September 2018

Although it is incorrect to refer to an independent South African philosophical tradition, South Africa is nevertheless the location of an interesting history of philosophical institutionalization. This institutionalization is closely intertwined with the colonial and postcolonial history of Western expansion (Dutch and English) and the reactions it unleashed within the South African context. It is especially interesting to trace the influence and the application of Anglo-American and continental origins in South Africa. Even in contemporary South Africa, philosophers who are working in fields such as postmodernism, postcolonialism, feminism and analytical philosophy do so mostly under the influence of contexts beyond South Africa’s borders.
After the early Dutch influence in South Africa (1652–1806) a British colonial educational system emerged during the nineteenth century. From the first institutions of higher education (the South African College in Cape Town, and the University of the Cape of Good Hope) the first tertiary institutions emerged in the early part of the twentieth century at Cape Town, Stellenbosch, Witwatersrand (Johannesburg) and Pretoria. Although other universities were subsequently instituted, these four can be considered the four founding residential universities in South Africa. It is also at these universities (and at Colleges in Grahamstown, Bloemfontein, Durban and Pietermaritzburg) that British idealism had a major influence on the early stages of South African philosophy (1873–1940). Against this background figures such as Fremantle (Cape Town), Walker (Stellenbosch), Hoernlé (Johannesburg), Lord (Grahamstown) and Macfadyen (Pretoria) were instrumental.
From the 1930s the hegemony of British idealism was challenged by analytical philosophy (mainly at English-speaking South African universities) and continental traditions (mainly at Afrikaans-speaking universities). Since the political transformation of South Africa (1994) African philosophy has also emerged as a major philosophical tradition.
The challenge for philosophy in contemporary South Africa is to explore those intellectual traditions that have shaped philosophy in South Africa, to know where they are coming from and to understand how they were transformed under (post)colonial conditions. Such a (genealogical) perspective provides a historical and material corrective to arguments that might otherwise strive to reconcile cultural values and ideas in an apolitical and ahistorical manner.
Argentina, philosophy in
Authors: Estrada Juan Carlos Torchia 
Published: September 2018

Philosophy has been present throughout Argentine cultural life since the beginning of Spanish colonization. Despite institutional ups and downs, the teaching of philosophy was a practically constant component of higher and even secondary education. The principal currents that shaped that teaching for more than three centuries were Scholasticism, French ideology, eclectic spiritualism, positivism and in the twentieth century, all of the contemporary manifestations, such as, Husserlian phenomenology, existentialism, analytical philosophy and structuralism. A permanent characteristic, nevertheless, has been that the political vicissitudes of the country affected educational institutions.
In the nineteenth century, during the period of national independence and organization, public figures used philosophical ideas to analyse the problems of society and to make the political and institutional contributions that a country in formation required. Juan Bautista Alberdi and Domingo Sarmiento are, in this respect, two representative examples.
In the twentieth century, the figure of the professional philosopher, one who is interested in philosophical research for itself, emerged and expanded. However, thought that reflected direct interest in the problems of the community and in the ethical demands of praxis did not disappear during this era. This can be seen in such thinkers as José Ingenieros and Alejandro Korn and more recently in what has been called liberation philosophy.
Academic philosophy has made considerable progress. In the second half of the twentieth century, it has attained a high level of professional quality. In some cases, even original contributions have been made which go beyond assimilation or commentary about external philosophical influences.
In Argentina, as in the rest of Latin America, philosophy began as a pure transplant brought by those who conquered the continent. Upon creating centres of higher education (either as part of the religious orders or with the character of universities), the philosophical teaching being practised in the Spanish universities of Salamanca and Alcalá was reproduced in the Spanish colonies.
Argentine philosophy shares the same general characteristics and historical periods with the philosophies developed in other Latin American countries. In general terms, philosophy can be divided into three periods: the colonial period, the nineteenth century, or national period and the twentieth century.
Marxist thought in Latin America
Authors: Schutte Ofelia 
Published: September 2018

Marxism is a theory offering a critique of capitalist political economy. Marxism also views itself as an instrument or means of changing the world from a capitalist to a socialist (and/or communist), economic and political order. Given its interest in economic and political change, Marxism involves a philosophy of history which depicts the possibility of and conditions for change from a capitalist to a socialist order. Marxist intellectuals perform the dual task of analysing the failures or limitations of capitalist economic and political structures. The theory also proposes and evaluates socialist alternatives.
Latin American Marxism developed out of its own historical, economic, political and cultural conditions. Influenced by Lenin’s analysis of imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism, it directed the critique of capitalist political economy towards the capitalist world market and its disadvantageous effects for the countries, particularly the impoverished classes and social sectors, of the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Latin American Marxism-Leninism argues, on political and economic grounds, that national liberation cannot be achieved without liberation from imperialism.
Marxists believe that although the protagonists of history’s political projects are the workers (or if Leninist, the workers together with the peasants), in the end the interests of these groups represent the universal interests of humankind. Marxist political discourse often uses broader categories than those of ’workers’ or ’peasants’ to designate the agents of political emancipation, employing terms such as ’the people’, ’the popular sectors’ or ’the revolutionary masses’. In this way Marxism attempts to broaden its political base so as to make its goals more effective. The political discourse of the Cuban Revolution of 1959 and the Nicaraguan Sandinista Revolution of 1979 exemplify this practice.
There are and have been many differences among Marxists because of the different approaches to criticizing capitalism as well as the different conceptions held by those who profess a commitment to the ultimate Marxist goal of creating a nonexploitative socialist society. Representative issues in Latin American Marxism may be illustrated by focusing on three questions: the problem of orthodoxy, the socialist construction of a national identity and socialism’s relation to ethics, religion and culture. In addressing these issues, this entry draws significantly from the work of Peruvian Marxist José Carlos Mariátegui, a prominent founder of Latin American Marxism.
Mexico, philosophy in
Authors: Cerutti-Guldberg Horacio 
Published: September 2018

Philosophy has been practised in Mexico for centuries, beginning with Nahuatl thought. Such thinking was rediscovered through laborious translation of surviving fragments of a document of exceptional value known as ‘Coloquio de los Doce’ (Debate of the Twelve) (1524). Since then, philosophy has come to enjoy a high degree of professionalization and a high quality of academic production. Generally, Mexican philosophical activity has evolved in accordance with world standards of rigour, information and quality of argumentation. In the twentieth century various philosophical groups have been created, namely the Ateneo de la Juventud, the contemporáneos and the Hyperion group.
Leopoldo Zea understood the essence of the Mexican and the Latin American as a historical being with a historically situated consciousness. Zea’s history of ideas involved a philosophy of Latin American history which placed the being, destiny and meaning of the history of Mexico and Latin America in the context of the history of the world. The 1940s and 1950s were unusually productive to this end. In the 1970s small groupings of philosophers gathered to focus on problems, traditions, teaching figures, leaders and spheres of influence.
There has been considerable interest in political philosophy, philosophy of history, philosophy of science and ethics. Since the 1980s, works about the history of ideas in Mexico and the history of science and technology have proliferated.
The importance of comprehensive parameter sampling and multiple observations for robust constraint of aerosol radiative forcing
Authors: Johnson Jill S. , Regayre Leighton A. , Yoshioka Masaru , Pringle Kirsty J. , Lee Lindsay A. , Sexton David M. H. , Rostron John W. , Booth Ben B. B. , Carslaw Kenneth S. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. Observational constraint of simulated aerosol and cloud
properties is an essential part of building trustworthy climate models for
calculating aerosol radiative forcing. Models are usually tuned to achieve
good agreement with observations, but tuning produces just one of many
potential variants of a model, so the model uncertainty cannot be determined.
Here we estimate the uncertainty in aerosol effective radiative forcing (ERF)
in a tuned climate model by constraining 4 million variants of the
HadGEM3-UKCA aerosol–climate model to match nine common observations
(top-of-atmosphere shortwave flux, aerosol optical depth, PM2.5, cloud
condensation nuclei at 0.2 % supersaturation (CCN0.2), and
concentrations of sulfate, black carbon and organic carbon, as well as
decadal trends in aerosol optical depth and surface shortwave radiation.) The
model uncertainty is calculated by using a perturbed parameter ensemble that
samples 27 uncertainties in both the aerosol model and the physical climate
model, and we use synthetic observations generated from the model itself to
determine the potential of each observational type to constrain this
uncertainty. Focusing over Europe in July,
we show that the aerosol ERF uncertainty can be reduced by about 30 % by
constraining it to the nine observations, demonstrating that producing
climate models with an observationally plausible “base state” can
contribute to narrowing the uncertainty in aerosol ERF. However, the
uncertainty in the aerosol ERF after observational constraint is large
compared to the typical spread of a multi-model ensemble. Our results
therefore raise questions about whether the underlying multi-model
uncertainty would be larger if similar approaches as adopted here were
applied more widely. The approach presented in this study could be used to
identify the most effective observations for model constraint. It is hoped
that aerosol ERF uncertainty can be further reduced by introducing
process-related constraints; however, any such results will be robust only if
the enormous number of potential model variants is explored.
Climate model configurations of the ECMWF Integrated Forecasting System (ECMWF-IFS cycle 43r1) for HighResMIP
Authors: Roberts Christopher D. , Senan Retish , Molteni Franco , Boussetta Souhail , Mayer Michael , Keeley Sarah P. E. 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. This paper presents atmosphere-only and coupled climate model configurations of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Integrated Forecasting System (ECMWF-IFS) for different combinations of ocean and atmosphere resolution. These configurations are used to perform multi-decadal ensemble experiments following the protocols of the High Resolution Model Intercomparison Project (HighResMIP) and phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6). These experiments are used to evaluate the sensitivity of major biases in the atmosphere, ocean, and cryosphere to changes in atmosphere and ocean resolution. All configurations successfully reproduce the observed long-term trends in global mean surface temperature. Furthermore, following an adjustment to account for drift in the subsurface ocean, coupled configurations of ECMWF-IFS realistically reproduce observation-based estimates of ocean heat content change since 1950. Climatological surface biases in ECMWF-IFS are relatively insensitive to an increase in atmospheric resolution from  ∼ 50 to  ∼ 25 km. However, increasing the horizontal resolution of the atmosphere while maintaining the same vertical resolution enhances the magnitude of a cold bias in the lower stratosphere. In coupled configurations, there is a strong sensitivity to an increase in ocean model resolution from 1 to 0.25°. However, this sensitivity to ocean resolution takes many years to fully manifest and is less apparent in the first year of integration. This result has implications for the ECMWF coupled model development strategy that typically relies on the analysis of biases in short ( < 1 year) ensemble (re)forecast data sets. The impacts of increased ocean resolution are particularly evident in the North Atlantic and Arctic, where they are associated with an improved Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, increased meridional ocean heat transport, and more realistic sea-ice cover. In the tropical Pacific, increased ocean resolution is associated with improvements to the magnitude and asymmetry of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability and better representation of non-linear sea surface temperature (SST)–radiation feedbacks during warm events. However, increased ocean model resolution also increases the magnitude of a warm bias in the Southern Ocean. Finally, there is tentative evidence that both ocean coupling and increased atmospheric resolution can improve teleconnections between tropical Pacific rainfall and geopotential height anomalies in the North Atlantic.
Circulation of the Turkish Straits System under interannual atmospheric forcing
Authors: Aydoğdu Ali , Pinardi Nadia , Özsoy Emin , Danabasoglu Gokhan , Gürses Özgür , Karspeck Alicia 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. A simulation of the Turkish Straits
System (TSS) using a high-resolution, three-dimensional, unstructured mesh
ocean circulation model with realistic atmospheric forcing for the 2008–2013
period is presented. The depth of the pycnocline between the upper and lower
layers remains stationary after 6 years of integration, indicating that
despite the limitations of the modelling system, the simulation maintains its
realism. The solutions capture important responses to high-frequency
atmospheric events such as the reversal of the upper layer flow in the
Bosphorus due to southerly severe storms, i.e. blocking events, to the extent
that such storms are present in the forcing dataset. The annual average
circulations show two distinct patterns in the Sea of Marmara. When the wind
stress maximum is localised in the central basin, the Bosphorus jet flows to
the south and turns west after reaching the Bozburun Peninsula. In contrast,
when the wind stress maximum increases and expands in the north–south
direction, the jet deviates to the west before reaching the southern coast
and forms a cyclonic gyre in the central basin. In certain years, the mean
kinetic energy in the northern Sea of Marmara is found to be comparable to
that of the Bosphorus inflow.