bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What did Dickens know about Phaseonium?
Authors: Revel Jean-Paul 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
In the Pickwick Papers, Charles Dickens has his character Sam exclaim that he needed “a pair o’ patent double million magnifyin’ gas microscopes of hextra power” Now the general wisdom is that improvements to microscopy are bounded by the laws of optics which tell us that resolution is a function of the wavelength of the radiation used for imaging and inversely proportional to the refractive index of the medium and lens. We have discussed in this space various ways which can and have been used to “circumvent” mother nature, by such tricks as not using lenses and employing scanning techniques instead in order to obtain images.
It turns out that there may yet be other useful “loopholes” in natural laws. Lefs for example consider the fact that the refractive index of a material is a measure of the interaction of photons with the matter they traverse. In that sense refraction is related to absorption, which occurs when materials interact so strongly with photons that the latter never emerge.
Issues in Cathode Performance: Part 1 - Tip shape and Crystal Orientation
Authors: Christman Locke 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
LaB6 (and CeB6) cathodes are widely used as high-brightness cathodes in a variety of electron beam applications. These cathodes provide about 10 times the brightness and about 100 times the service life of a tungsten filament. However, to fully realize the improved brightness and lifetime of the LaB6 (CeB6) cathode, it must be designed and manufactured specifically for the application.
This article covers tip shape and crystal orientation. Future articles will deal with materials selection, preparation, purity, composition, and cathode operation.
The design of the LaB6 cathode tip is critical for maximum lifetime and optimum performance. The cathode must also provide the appropriate source size, beam current, and beam brightness for the application.
The lifetime of the LaB6 cathode is limited by three basic factors: cathode temperature, vacuum pressure, and tip shape. The first two factors are critical and depend on proper user operation. Poor vacuum and excessive temperatures accelerate LaB6 material loss, which decreases the cathode lifetime. The third factor, tip shape, is also critical, and careful production control ensures that the tip shape is optimized.
The “Glycogen Granule” Revisited
Authors: Rybicka Krystyna 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
There is a gap between biochemical findings and ultrastructural interpretation of “glycogen granules”. Biochemists have recognized that glycogen contains covalently bound proteins. These include enzymes involved in giycogen metabolism: glycogenin (protein primer responsible for initiation of glycogen synthesis), glycogen synthase and phosphorylase, and presumably other regulatory enzymes. The structures formed by the association of glycogen and protein have been called protein-glycogen complexes, considered as proteoglycans, or as dynamic cellular organelles, glycosomes.
The question arises as to why the biochemical recognition of a protein component in glycosomes has not been acknowledged in electron microscopy (EM)? This protein is visible in every section stained by uranium (U) and lead (Pb) salts where it appears as 20-30 nm granules (Fig. 1). However, these granules are commonly interpreted as glycogen, despite the fact that glycogen does not react with ionic compounds and therefore cannot be stained by U-Pb.
Histogram Stretching Or Histogram Equalization In Image Processing
Authors: Oliver William R 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
A few weeks ago, a person posted an interesting question on an internet microscopy mailing list: what is the difference between histogram stretching and histogram equalization when applied to microscopy images? The following is a short intuitive review which compares the two. Since this is a short and general description, I will gloss over some details and make some generalizations which may not be true in all cases and implementations.
The first thing to remember is the basic purpose of contrast enhancement. The idea is simple, In a grayscale (black and white) image you are simply trying to take two levels of gray that are close together, and thus visually similar, and move them apart so you can better see the difference between them. You can think of grayscale values in an image as beads on a string, Contrast enhancement simply moves all or some of those beads farther apart.
Microscopy Reveals Molecular Motion
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Microscopes are known for demonstrating structure, but there have been many examples of how this is changing. A novel use of the atomic force microscope (AFM) by Manfred Radmacher, Monika Fritz, Helen Hansma, and Paul Hansma at the University of California, Santa Barbara, has extended the versatility of this instrument even further. They demonstrated a conformational change in a molecule that happened in a fraction of a second.
Radmacher et al. pointed out that enzymes perform their biologic function by undergoing a conformational change and that this change is within the spatial and temporal resolving capabilities of the AFM. They set out to prove this by lowering the tip of the AFM onto lysozyme, a molecule that is roughly egg-shaped, measuring about 4.5 nm by 3 nm by 3 nm. Using the tapping mode in liquid, they found that single molecules exhibited a spike-like height fluctation when in the presence of a suitable substrate.
X-Ray Analysis of Materials: Avoiding the Pits and Other Practical Hints
Authors: Sandborg Alan 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
EDS analysis of samples in a SEM or TEM are usually portrayed as a very simple process; just image your specimen, turn on the x-ray analyzer and all will be revealed about the chemistry of your sample. Unfortunately, that approach can be very misleading at best, and disastrous at worst. The analyst should get used to preparing himself for EDS x-ray analysis just like he or she does for any other process. A set of preparation steps should be followed until they become an unconscious method to be used before accepting the information coming from the EOS x-ray spectrum. After proper basic preparation, interpretation of the results and the selection of operating parameters is still very important due to the detailed nature of the specimen.
Preparation: The most basic need is for the EDS system to be calibrated. This can be a difficult or simple task depending on the age of the system.
Soil Technology, A Coming Field and a New Microscopy to Support it
Authors: Newberry Sterling P 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
A quiet report from an international work shop, this fall in London on World Ecology, points out how primitive our knowledge of basic soil science really is. It also records the determination of the participants to bring out the need to study soil in relation to maintaining biodiversity because of man's rapid destruction of global habitat and the inability for soil to recover without it's natural canopy of plant and animal life. It is further pointed out that we have to quickly learn how to reclaim soil, perhaps by artificial means, after insult. The programs they envision will create exciting professional opportunities both for career change and for students over a broad spectrum from basic research to applied engineering. The land fill crises has further underscored the need to find ways to return sewage sludge and other organic waste to useful crop production.
Trapping Subfemtoliter-Sized Vesicles, and Analyzing Them
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
The chemical analysis of secretory vesicles has long been limited by the fact that many vesicles are analyzed together, resulting in an averaging of a population. Differences between vesicles within that population could not be detected. Wouldn't it be great if vesicles could be analyzed one at a time? You guessed it, this breakthrough has been recently achieved.
The technique of capillary electrophoresis (CE) was modified by Daniel Chiu, Sheri Lillard, Richard Scheller, Richard Zare, Sandra Rodriguez-Cruz, Evan Williams, Owe Orwar, Mats Sandberg, and Anders Lundqvist so that vesicles could be probed singly.
Modern Microscopy on the Light Side: TEM in the Trenches
Authors: Rice Stephen E 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Great strides have been made in the last decade in high resolution transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) which can also provide elemental information via energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) or energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), and proponents of various TEM techniques make bold claims. Convergent beam elecjron diffraction and microdifff action shine as techniques for defect structure analysis and means for solving crystal structures. The spectroscopies can now be used to map chemical state information at a level which until recently might be encountered in science fiction. As a pure imaging device, electron holography holds great promise for providing Ehe ultimate (would you believe 0.1Å?) imaging resolution. Although conventional TEMs will never approach this, it appears that we are learning more and more about less and less, until we will soon know everything there is to know about nothing.
A “Pushy” Microscope
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
The process of ultra-miniaturization has been termed nanofabrication. It looks like the scanning tunneling microscope (STU) and related microscopes will be players in this technology of the future. One of the most recent contributions has been the demonstration that single molecules can be “pushed” across a surface with the STM. This remarkable achievement was demonstrated by Thomas Jung, Reto Schlittler, and James Gimzewski of the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory and Hao Tang and Christian Joachim of the National Center for Scientific Research in Toulouse, They were able to position intact individual molecules on a two-dimensional surface at room temperature by a controlled “pushing” action of the tip of a STM. Similar positioning feats have been done at low temperatures while thermal motion is limited.
Top Light With The Polarizing Microscope
Authors: McCrone Walter C 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
To adequately microscopically characterize opaque particles, and some finely divided, high refractive index, and transparent particles, one must use top light. This can be done with a built-in or accessory vertical illuminator. It can also be done without a vertical illuminator using any PLM with any separate microscope illuminator focusable to a small bright spot. Aimed downward onto the slide preparation at a steep angle, but missing the objective, and with the transillumination subdued or turned off, the color and surface texture of opaque particles can be readily discerned. The objective must have a long working distance, usually, therefore, a 10X or lower magnification.
Pseudo opaque particles (submicrometer particles of high index) are reaify transparent but hey may be colorless or any color. Top light brings out their true color - black, if opaque, but they may be red (Fe2O3), green (CR2O3), yellow (lead-tin yellow) or white (TiO2).
Digital Imaging For TEM
Authors: Buonaquisti Anthony D 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Part 1 of this series, in the August '94 issue of this newsletter, contained an overview of digital imaging for TEM. The key point was that digital imaging systems are getting better and costing less. This article contains a brief summary of the pro's and con's of digital imaging for TEM.
Although different laboratories have different situations, there are common issues that all can consider when evaluating the value of a digital imaging system for TEM.
Information Density: As things stand today, atypical 1024 pixel by 1024 pixel digital imaging system cannot compare with film! Typical film used for EM can display feature sizes as small as 10 μm. This is like having a film negative made up of 10,400 pixels by 7,800 pixels. Put this way it's tough to see how a factor of between 7 and 10 can be ignored.
A Microscope that looks Sideways
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
When most of us use a microscope, we are looking through a specimen, or more and more frequently, at the “top” surface. It usually doesn't occur to us to look sideways. But that is what was done recently in the laboratory of Charles Lieber at Harvard University. As reported by Daniel Frisbie, Lawrence Rozsnyai, Aleksandr Nay, Mark Wrighton, and Prof, Lieber, an atomic force microscope (AFM) was modified to perform as a “chemical force microscope” (CFM). With the CFM they were able to precisely measure adhesive and frictional forces. These forces can be thought of as acting parallel to the surface of the specimen, whereas most observations are made perpendicular to the surface.
A Hitchhiker's Guide to Microscopy & Microanalysis Using Telecommunications, Email and the Internet
Authors: Zaluzec Nestor J 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
The Information Superhighway, Email, The Internet, FTP, BBS, Modems,: all buzz words which are becoming more and more routine in our daily life. Confusing terminology? Hopefully it won't be in a few minutes. All you need is to have a handle on a few basic concepts and terms and you will be on-line with the rest of the “telecommunication experts”. These terms all refer to some type or aspect of tools associated with a range of computer-based communication software and hardware. They are, in fact, far less complex than the instruments we use on a day to day basis as microscopists and microanalysts. The key is for each of us to know what each is and how to make use of the wealth of information which they can make available to us for the asking.
Processing Cochlea For Paraffin Sectioning And SEM
Authors: Montague Donna C 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
We have successfully sectioned decalcified paraffin embedded “inner ears” from mice, rats and humans. We have also prepared guinea pig cochlea for SEM, So, briefly:
Paraffin:
1) Immediately after dissection, place the cochlea in 10% neutral buffered formalin (NSF) and let fix with gentle agitation 24 hours per 2 mm thickness at room temperature. 2) Decalcify by immersing in 5% formic acid at least 4X specimen volume. 3) Gently agitate at room temperature and change at least once per 24 hours. Check for completeness of decalcification by decanting 4 mLs of “spent” formic acid into a clean, clear test tube, Add 1 mL of 5% ammonium oxaiate in distilled water. Let stand undisturbed for 15 to 20 minutes, White precipitate of calcium oxaiate indicates that the sample is not completely decalcified, Change formic acid at least once per 24 hours until the spent formic tests clear.
Initial Instrument Evaluation And Performance Monitoring For SEMs
Authors: Chapman Steve 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Microscopes in an electron microscope laboratory are built to be within specific tolerances in relation to resolution and magnification. The final specification from the manufacturer should include detail of magnification accuracy, drift rate, contamination rate and resolution, On delivery, the onus is on the installation engineer to confirm that the microscope meets specification. However, the final responsibility for microscope acceptance to specifications is the responsibility of the lab management.. Energy dispersive instrumentation is also specified as to specific resolution; and should also be confirmed on installation.
In some cases, those with final responsibility for equipment performance might not resolve with the manufacturer's representee, at installation, that the instrumentation meets all specifications.
Introduction to Automated Particle Analysis
Authors: Vander Wood TB 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
A microscopist is presented with a special problem when asked to characterize a population of particles. In order to adequately describe the sample, it may be necessary to examine hundreds or even thousands of individual particles, recording the size, shape, identity or other parameters of interest. To manually characterize a statistically significant fraction of the sample could require many hours of tedious work at the scope, followed by still more tedious hours of data reduction. What is needed is a technique to automate the repetitive parts of this process: the recognition and characterization of particles in the sample and the reduction of data and presentation of results. This technique is automated particle analysis.
FLASH in Cells
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
The ability to attach fluorescent molecules onto proteins has allowed specific localization of these proteins within living cells. The traditional approach has been to purify the protein of interest then attach a fluorescent (or another useful tag) molecule in vitro, then somehow introduce the labeled protein into the cell. Whereas this and related techniques have been very useful, there are limitations because each of these three steps is often difficult. Wouldn't it be great if we had a “lock and key” system whereby a protein of interest could be modified to be a specific “lock” and a small tsggable molecule (the “key“) could diffuse into the cell and plug specifically into the lock? Albert Griffin, Stephen Adams, and Roger Tsien have developed such a system
Semiconductor X-Ray Detectors
Authors: Sareen Rob 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Detection of characteristic x-rays is a fascinating and challenging subject. From its early beginnings with gas proportional counters it has evolved, like many branches of technology, into the use of a variety of semiconductors.
The lithium compensated silicon detector [Si(Li)] has been the predominant measuring tool over the last two decades, in the last five years, increasing numbers of high purity germanium detectors (HPG) have appeared and more recently a plethora of new materials and concepts are seeing a successful introduction. Among these newer materials are compound semiconductors like mercuric iodide, cadmium telluride, cadmium zinc telluride, gallium arsenide, lead iodide, indium phosphide and diamond. Among the new concepts are Bolometers, Transition Edge Detectors, Drift Detectors, PIN Diodes, CCD arrays and PN CCD arrays.
Down With Magnification: The Micron Marker Rules!
Authors: Geller Joe 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
With today's current wave of quality consciousness, our quality control people tell us we MUST calibrate our instruments using standards that are traceable to the national laboratories (NIST - National Institute of Standards and Technology in the U.S.,. NPL - National Physical Laboratory in the UK, and others). But, is it really magnification that should be calibrated?
While recently walking around the exhibit floor at the Microscopy & Micrcanalysis ‘98 Conference, I noticed the large SEM image display screens that now present our highly magnified specimens. Almost all vividly show a micron (using SI units this should be a “micrometer”) marker as well as the magnification. No doubt the accuracy is within the ± 3% that is commonly quoted by the manufacturers.
What is Project Micro?
Authors: Schooley Caroline 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Project MICRO (Microscopy in Curriculum - Research Outreach) is the Microscopy Society of America's educational outreach program for middle schools. The idea began in 1993, but has taken a lot of time and effort to implement. MSA's early decision to collaborate with experienced science educators at the Lawrence Hall of Science (LHS) of the University of California at Berkeley was a wise one as their educational materials have a well-earned national reputation for excellence. The first phase of MICRO has just been completed, with the publication of a LHS teacher's manual that will support the MSA/MICRO effort to get microscopist-volunteers into classrooms nationwide.
A Simplified Method For Modifying TEM Copper Grids For Use With The Small Angle Cleavage Technique
Authors: Walck Scott D 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
The Small Angle Cleavage Technique (SACT) developed by John McCaffrey is an extremely easy and cost-effective technique for producing superior cross sectional TEM samples from semiconductor and other single crystal materials. In the original technique, a special jig is required to be made in order to make too cuts in a 2 x 0.5 mm slotted capper TEM grid to create vertical tabs to mount the cleaved samples. This jig is not commercially available and the actual cutting and bending of the grids require a significant amount of manual dexterity. (Fat fingered fellows, like myself, need not apply.) Early on, John proposed a design for a commercial grid that could easily be bent into the required shape with no cutting, but the electron microscopy supply houses passed on the idea. Until now, microscopists wanting to experiment with the technique had to invest in the cost of having one of these jigs made.
Imaging Based on Elasticity
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
There are scores of microscopes that detect different properties of a specimen. Typically we image ‘visible” properties, but, for example, even the commonly-used atomic force microscope detects physical interactions rather than “visible” characteristics, Mostafa Fatemi and James Greenleaf have introduced the principle of imaging the elastic features of a specimen. This is done with sound waves, but we are not talking about just another acoustic microscope.
The method demonstrated by Fatemi and Greenleaf uses radiation force to image the acoustic response of a specimen to mechanical excitation. The mechanical excitation results from focusing two coaxial and confocal ultrasound beams of slightly different frequencies onto a selected region of the specimen.
Liquid Nitrogen Safety
Authors: Butterick Charles J 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Recent Internet postings on the Microscopy listserver indicate paradoxical views on the personal protective equipment (PPE) necessary to handle liquid nitrogen (LN2) safely. Those views range from full protective gear to, somewhat facetiously, complete nudity. The crux of the paradox is that both extremes have points of validity.
The gist of preventing frostbite or cold injury to the skin is to prevent continuous contact with LN2. The physics of the Leidenfrost effect (LE) protects the skin from momentary contact or splashes of LN2. A layer of gas between the LN2 and the skin prevents significant heat transfer from the skin, stopping damage. The LE does not apply to inadvertent splashes of LN2 to the cornea. Alternatively, using protective equipment insulates the skin and prevents trapping of the cryogen by allowing the LN2 to run off.
An Inexpensive Frame Grabber for the Microscopist
Authors: Brown Richard S 
Published: March 2018

Abstract
Having shopped for an inexpensive but powerful digital imaging system for the last four years, I have finally found a device that will satisfy even the most frugal budget. The Snappy Video Snapshot by Play, Incl, is a 24-bit true color frame grabber that plugs into your PC printer port. After plugging the Snappy device into your printer port (Figure 1) and spending approximately six minutes loading the Snappy software provided, you can connect a color or black and white camera, VCR, or television set and capture your first digital image. Because the device plugs into a printer port, it is completely portable. A switch box is needed if you will be changing between digital image acquisition and printing tasks frequently.