Analysis of the 24-h biting patterns and human exposures to malaria vectors in south-eastern Tanzania
Authors: Mukisa Muwonge C. , Kassano Jibsam J. , Mwalugelo Yohana A. , Ntege Charles , Kahamba Najat F. , Finda Marceline F. , Msugupakulya Betwel J. , Ngowo Halfan S. , Okumu Fredros O. 
Published: October 2024

Abstract
Background
Afrotropical malaria vectors are generally believed to bite nocturnally, leading to the predominant use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), which target indoor, nighttime-biting mosquitoes. This focus is reinforced by biases in entomological surveys, which largely overlook daytime mosquito activity. However, recent evidence challenges this paradigm, showing that Anopheles biting can extend way into the daytime, coinciding with human activities at dawn, daytime and evenings, suggesting a broader risk spectrum and potential protection gaps. We have therefore investigated the diurnal and nocturnal biting patterns of the malaria vectors Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus in south-eastern Tanzania, to better understand the scope of residual transmission and inform strategies for improved control.

Methods
Host-seeking mosquitoes were collected hourly using miniaturized double net traps, both indoors and outdoors over 24-h periods between June 2023 and February 2024. Concurrently, human activities indoors and outdoors were monitored half-hourly to correlate with mosquito collections. A structured questionnaire was used to assess household members’ knowledge, perceptions and experiences regarding exposure to mosquito bites during both nighttime and daytime.

Results
Nocturnal biting by An. arabiensis peaked between 7 p.m. and 11 p.m. while that of An. funestus peaked later, between 1 a.m. and 3 a.m. Daytime biting accounted for 15.03% of An. arabiensis catches, with peaks around 7–11 a.m. and after 4 p.m., and for 14.15% of An. funestus catches, peaking around mid-mornings, from 10 a.m. to 12 p.m. Nighttime exposure to An. arabiensis was greater outdoors (54.5%), while daytime exposure was greater indoors (80.4%). For An. funestus, higher exposure was observed indoors, both at nighttime (57.1%) and daytime (69%). Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites were detected in both day-biting and night-biting An. arabiensis. Common daytime activities potentially exposing residents during peak biting hours included household chores, eating, sleeping (including due to sickness), resting in the shade or under verandas and playing (children). From evenings onwards, exposures coincided with resting, socializing before bedtime and playtime (children). Nearly all survey respondents (95.6%) reported experiencing daytime mosquito bites, but only 28% believed malaria was transmissible diurnally.

Conclusions
This study updates our understanding of malaria vector biting patterns in south-eastern Tanzania, revealing considerable additional risk in the mornings, daytime and evenings. Consequently, there may be more gaps in the protection provided by ITNs, which primarily target nocturnal mosquitoes, than previously thought. Complementary strategies are needed to holistically suppress vectors regardless of biting patterns (e.g. using larval source management) and to extend personal protection limits (e.g. using repellents). Additionally, community engagement and education on mosquito activity and protective measures could significantly reduce malaria transmission risk.

Graphical Abstract