bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
SPAZIO POLITICO E MOBILITÀ ELETTORALE
Authors: Bartolini Stefano , Mair Peter 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneIl problema della stabilità/instabilità elettorale è da tempo un tema centrale nell'analisi delle tendenze elettorali dei paesi dell'Europa occidentale. Tra la fine degli anni sessanta e la prima metà degli anni settanta una forte ondata di mobilità elettorale è sembrata scuotere un gran numero di sistemi partitici, minando i tradizionali allineamenti ed imponendo una profonda riconsiderazione di quelle tesi di stabilizzazione che fino a poco prima dominavano l'interpretazione delle determinanti della politica elettorale di massa. Nessuna delle principali famiglie politiche è rimasta immune da questo processo di trasformazione, nuovi partiti sono emersi a sfidare il lungo e consolidato predominio delle tradizionali alternative partitiche e il catalogo dei cambiamenti si è allargato quasi giornalmente, fino a far affermare in un recente studio che «il vecchio ordine sta cambiando» (Dalton, Flanagan e Beck 1984b, 451).
LA SCIENZA POLITICA ITALIANA: TRADIZIONE E REALTÀ
Authors: Morlino Leonardo 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneAll'indomani del secondo conflitto mondiale Leoni fissa i connotati essenziali di una scienza politica da rifondare insieme alla democrazia in Italia (Leoni 1949-50 e 1980). Dopo quasi venti anni, Sartori ritiene che «la scienza politica italiana è semplicemente in fase di parto» (Sartori 1967, 699). Che cosa si può dire dopo piò di quaranta anni? Le domande a cui rispondere per disegnare un quadro della disciplina all'inizio degli anni novanta mi paiono le seguenti: come si forma la disciplina tra gli anni cinquanta e sessanta; come giunge ad autodefinirsi al momento in cui decolla, alla fine degli anni sessanta; quali siano le difficoltà del decollo e come queste incidano sul suo sviluppo successivo; quali le modalità di crescita e di istituzionalizzazione; quali i contenuti della disciplina in questi anni e quali i cambiamenti di quei contenuti; quale la rilevanza rispetto ai problemi politici esistenti; infine, quale bilancio complessivo sia possibile tracciare.
SCIENZA POLITICA E FILOSOFIA POLITICA: COMMENTO
Authors: Matteucci Nicola 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneL'invito di Leonardo Morlino a partecipare ad un dibattito sul suo articolo La scienza politica italiana: tradizione e realtà credo sia dovuto a una relazione che feci ad un Convegno sulle scienze umane, pubblicata vent'anni fa su «Il Mulino» (1971), che egli ricorda nella sua bibliografia.
LA GUERRA: PROBLEMI DI METODO E DEFINIZIONE
Authors: Armao Fabio 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzionePiò che di giustificazioni pratiche — relative cioè all'utilità a fini conoscitivi — o ideali — relative alla creazione di un'alternativa non violenta ad essa — lo studio scientifico della guerra necessita di giustificazioni teoriche. è tutt'altro che scontato, infatti, che la guerra non sia un mero fatto di cui ci si può e deve accontentare di offrire una descrizione, bensì un concetto rilevante e realmente discriminante all'interno di una teoria generale delle relazioni internazionali.
LE RIFORME ISTITUZIONALI TRA BUONE E CATTIVE
Authors: Sartori Giovanni 
Published: May 2019

Introduzioneè difficile che un sistema politico si autoriformi. Ma oramai quasi tutti si sono impegnati nel “fare qualcosa”. Tutti o quasi tutti ammettono che il sistema Italia non funziona, o che dovrebbe funzionare meglio. Infine, tutti sottoscrivono un obiettivo comune: uscire dalla democrazia paralizzata aumentando la governabilità, il rendimento e l'efficacia del governare. Se non c'è obiettivo comune non c'è speranza. Ma se c'è, si può sperare. Do per scontato, allora, che esista un fine primario, o prioritario, condiviso un po’ da tutti. Le difficoltà restano, e sono di due tipi. Il primo ostacolo è posto dal calcolo dei vantaggi: le parti in causa vogliono riforme che le avvantaggiano (o comunque rifiutano quelle che le penalizzano). Il secondo ostacolo risiede nel calcolo dei mezzi: le parti in causa non sanno calcolare o calcolano male la strumentazione: quali sono i mezzi idonei e sufficienti al fine proposto. Nel primo caso il conflitto è di interessi. Nel secondo caso il problema è di sapere. Discettare di riforme ignorando gli interessi è inutile. Ma è utile mostrare che il calcolo degli interessi, dei vantaggi o svantaggi, può essere sbagliato.
IL GOVERNO DEL LEADER-CON-PARTITO
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneLo scopo di questo saggio è il seguente: individuare lestrategie di azione governativaadottate e adottabili nelle democrazie occidentali. Per quanto riguarda quelle adottate, molto è stato scritto, anche se con poca sistematicità analitica. Si tratta allora di porre ordine nel materiale disponibile, e ciò sulla base dei due approcci che hanno fin qui orientato l'interpretazione dell'azione governativa (quello delgoverno del partitoe quello delgoverno del leader), per quindi sottoporli ad una verifica logica ed empirica. Per quanto riguarda quelle adottabili, o meglio per quanto riguarda quella adottabile (ilgoverno del leader con partito), si tratta di argomentarne le ragioni (logiche ed empiriche) giustificative e, quindi, di definire le condizioni che potrebbero renderla realizzabile. Il mio sforzo è motivato dal fatto che ritengo i due approcci dominanti deboli sul piano descrittivo e carenti su quello analitico: per questo motivo tento di delineare le caratteristiche di un terzo (per me: piò adeguato su entrambi i piani) approccio all'azione governativa.
ATTORI E VALORI NELLA TRASFORMAZIONE DEL PCI
Authors: Ignazi Piero 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneIl recente passaggio da partito comunista a partito democratico della sinistra costituisce un interessante case study del mutamento di partito. In questo lavoro cercheremo di rispondere a due interrogativi di fondo: come si è sviluppata e chi ha favorito la trasformazione e quali sono i tratti valoriali caratterizzanti dei quadri intermedi al momento dell'accettazione del mutamento del Pci in Pds.
LOCALISMO E PROTESTA POLITICA
Authors: Cartocci Roberto 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneIn due saggi recenti Sartori ha ricostruito le dinamiche all'origine del ruolo cruciale, e tendenzialmente crescente, svolto dal localismo nella politica americana (Sartori 1986; 1989). Fattori politici come la debolezza dei partiti, istituzionali (sistema elettorale uninominale eroll callal Congresso), socioculturali (pervasività dei media e ossessione dei sondaggi) favoriscono la già potente tendenza alla protezione e salvaguardia degli interessi locali, cioè alla “villaggizzazione della politica” (1986, 12), che confligge con le piò generali tendenze verso la globalizzazione dell'economia e della politica.
IL CONTROLLO POLITICO DELL'ECONOMIA: GLI STUDI SUL CICLO POLITICO-ECONOMICO
Authors: Radaelli Claudio Maria 
Published: May 2019

IntroduzioneLo studio degli aspetti politici dei fenomeni economici ha acquisito, nel corso degli ultimi due decenni, un ruolo di crescente importanza nei lavori di politologi ed economisti appartenenti alla «scuola» della political economy, generando grandi aspettative, ma anche qualche cocente delusione. Le aspettative sono sicuramente elevate, se Stephen Weatherford (1988, 99) ha potuto sostenere che «i modelli del ciclo economico-politico sono diventati la nuova ortodossia negli studi accademici sul processo di formazione della politica economica». Le delusioni discendono invece dalla mancata rilevazione di regolarità empiriche dotate di una sufficiente stabilità, dall'esiguità di controlli comparati delle ipotesi, da un apparato concettuale che contempla tratti estremamente ed eccessivamente stilizzati del sistema politico.
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms in plant breeding and genetics
Authors: Prince James P. , Tanksley Steven D. 
Published: May 2019

SynopsisThe usefulness of restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in plant breeding and genetics is discussed, with particular emphasis on tagging genes, map-based cloning, the assessment of genetic variability and distances, and comparative genome mapping.The Department of Plant Breeding and Biometry has currently established tight linkages between RFLPs and more than 20 genes of economic importance. Approximately half of these genes confer resistance to major pathogens including nematodes, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Other genes tagged are involved in various aspects of crop quality.Locating genes with respect to DNA markers on an RFLP map provides a starting point for cloning the genes by chromosome walking. This strategy is currently being pursued for three disease-resistance genes that have been placed on the tomato RFLP map;Pto(resistance toPseudomonas syringae),Mi(resistance to root-knot nemotodes) andTm2a(resistance to tobacco mosaic virus). Further discussion will include the construction of a yeast artificial chromosome library and the collection of additional DNA markers in the regions of interest through RAPD analysis of nearly isogenic lines.The assessment of genetic variability and fingerprinting varieties based on RFLP data will be briefly discussed.Comparative genome mapping in the family Solanaceae has allowed the relationships among tomato, potato, and pepper to be unravelled. Tomato and potato share a near perfect conservation of gene order throughout their genomes. In contrast, while pepper shares most of its single copy DNA with tomato and potato, the order of these markers is highly rearranged compared with the other two species.
Splicing of plant pre-mRNAs
Authors: Simpson Craig G. , Simpson Gordon G. , Clark Gillian , Leader David J. , Vaux Petra , Guerineau F. , Waugh Robbie , Brown John W. S. 
Published: May 2019

SynopsisPre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing or the removal of introns from pre-mRNA transcripts is a key process in the maturation of mRNA. This process requires the assembly of a large complex of RNA and protein molecules, called the splicosome, on the pre-mRNA transcripts. Molecular and biochemical analyses of plant intron sequence and structure and of the components of the plant spliceosome are providing information on the mechanism of intron recognition and splice site selection in both monocoty-ledonous and dicotyledonous plants. This knowledge will help in gaining an understanding of phenomena such as the difference in splicing between monocotyledonous and dictoyledonous plants, the enhancement of gene expression brought about by the presence of some introns and alternative splicing. The importance of introns and pre-mRNA splicing to accurate and regulated gene expression, therefore, is of direct relevance to transgene expression and genetic manipulation.
Control of insect pests by plant genetic engineering
Authors: Gatehouse Angharad M. R. , Hilder Vaughan A. , Gatehouse John A. 
Published: May 2019

Crop protection against pests and diseases is of prime importance and plays a major role in agricultural production both in the Developed and Developing parts of the world.Although chemical pesticides have been in use for a long time it is only since the Second World War that a very heavy and almost exclusive reliance has been placed upon their use. This, in many cases, has resulted in the rapid build-up of resistance by insect pests to such compounds, as is illustrated by the rapidly developed resistance to the organochloride insecticides by the cotton bollworm, Heliothis virescens. Indeed, there are many examples of resistance in a major pest being observed within the first year of field use (Metcalf 1986). In some cases the indiscriminate application of pesticides has exacerbated the problem of insect herbivory where elimination of a wide range of predatory species along with the primary pests has resulted in secondary pests becoming primary pests themselves with even more devastating effects (Heinrichs & Mochida 1983).
Genetic engineering of virus resistance: a successful genetical alchemy
Authors: Harrison B. D. 
Published: May 2019

SynopsisSome of the most successful early applications of genetic engineering in crop improvement have been in the production of virus-resistant plants. This has been achieved not by the transfer of naturally occurring resistance genes from one plant species or variety to another but by transformation with novel resistance genes based on nucleotide sequences derived from the viruses themselves or from virus-associated nucleic acids. Transformation of plants with a DNA copy of the particle protein gene of viruses that have positive-sense single-stranded RNA genomes typically confers resistance to infection with the homologous and closely related viruses. Transformation with a gene that is transcribed to produce a benign viral satellite RNA can confer virus-specific tolerance of infection. In addition, recent work with viral poly-merase gene-related sequences offers much promise, and research is active on other strategies such as the use of virus-specific ribozymes.Already the field trialling of plants incorporating transgenic virus resistance has begun, with encouraging results, and effects on virus spread are being studied. Deployment strategies for the resistant plants must now be devised and the conjectural hazards of growing them assessed. Genetically engineered virus resistance promises to make a major contribution to the control of plant virus diseases by non-chemical methods.
Genetic engineering for stress tolerance in the Triticeae
Authors: Forster B. P. 
Published: May 2019

SynopsisGenetic variation within a crop species is often limited and restricts improvement by conventional breeding methods. This is particularly true for environmental stresses, both biotic and abiotic. Wild relatives of crop plants, however, provide a rich source of novel variation which can be introduced into the crop. Many alien genes for biotic stress resistance have already been introduced into crops; in contrast, the genetic control of abiotic stress tolerance is poorly understood. Genetic engineering of abiotic stress tolerance in the Triticeae is the main subject discussed here with particular reference to salt tolerance in wheat and barley. Methods of alien gene transfer, including locating tolerance genes and restructuring chromosomes, are described. One of the major limitations in transferring genes for stress tolerance is the lack of good tests for resistance or tolerance which is largely due to the fact the physiological mechanisms involved are not fully understood. Genetic markers provide a new opportunity of detecting chromosome segments carrying desired genes easily and efficiently, and these will become increasingly important as the genetic maps of crop species are expanded. Although many stress genes have been located to specific chromosomes, and some have been mapped intra-chromosomally and their dominance relations determined, there is a great lack of knowledge of the control of these genes at the molecular level. Molecular studies of this type are difficult, but it is anticipated that the limitations will be overcome in the near future.
Patents for plants and genes under the European Patent Convention
Authors: Byrne Noel 
Published: May 2019

SynopsisThe cost of patenting an invention should be incurred only where the patent is likely to give the inventor an economic or a tactical advantage. Where it is practicable, secrecy may be preferable to patenting. If an advantage from patenting can be envisaged, then in Western Europe the inventor can apply either for a European patent under the European Patent Convention or for a national patent. The inventor in plant biotechnology faces a ban on patenting certain inventions, including plant varieties and essentially biological processes for the production of plants. But since this ban is interpreted strictly, there are opportunities for patenting what at first glance might seem not patentable. A patent application must give a written description of the invention that is complete enough for a skilled person to reproduce it. The inventor may be required to supplement the description in a patent specification for a biotechnological invention, by depositing a sample of relevant biological materials. A European patent is treated as a national patent in the country for which it was granted. Since a patent may be invalidated in enforcement proceedings, patenting may turn out to have been a costly mistake.
From venom to toxin to drug?
Authors: Harvey Alan L. 
Published: May 2019

Synopsis:Venoms are complex mixtures of many different components, whereas a toxin is a single pure compound whose activity can be specified. Toxins often have novel, highly specific activities. Studies on toxins open the way to design therapeutically useful molecules based on the structural information obtained from the toxins.An example of successful drug development from a component of a snake venom is that of the inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). The first ACE inhibitors were developed from work on peptides isolated from the Brazilian arrowhead viperBothrops jaracusathat prolonged the action of bradykinin. The venom components blocked the enzyme that inactivated bradykinin; the same enzymeactivatedthe precursor of the vasoconstrictor hormone angiotensin. Hence, a valuable new type of therapy was established by developing the leads provided by the natural toxin.Dendrotoxins are small proteins from mamba venoms that block rapidly activating K+channels in neurones. There are possibilities that dendrotoxin could be the basis for drug design. A small analogue that mimicked the activity of dendrotoxin in the central nervous system might boost the activity of certain neuronal pathways. Potentially, such a compound might be able to restore some of the function of systems damaged by progressive neurodegenerative diseases. Although dendrotoxin-like compounds would not be a cure for these diseases, they may provide temporary relief from symptoms.Conversely, compounds with the specificity of dendrotoxin but with ability to activate K+channels, rather than block them, may be a novel way of reducing abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Hence, they may form the basis of a new type of anticonvulsant drug for epilepsies.Recent work at Strathclyde has concentrated on defining the structure-activity relationships of the naturally occurring dendrotoxins and on synthesising small analogues of the postulated ‘active site’. Preliminary results are encouraging, and it is hoped to go from green mamba venom to dendrotoxin to therapeutically useful drugs.
Protein evolution and its analytical potential
Authors: Dufton Mark J. 
Published: May 2019

Synopsis:With the recent advances in gene technology, a substantial premium has been placed on the ability to predict protein structure and mechanism from sequence data alone. This is because the direct experimental approaches are more time and labour intensive, and progress is slower. One area of theoretical investigation which has a clear potential to assist in predictive exercises is the natural evolution of protein structure and sequence.Some aspects of protein evolution, such as the fact that homology of sequence often denotes common ancestry, are routinely considered in predicting three-dimensional structure and mechanism. However, there are other aspects to this natural process which are either not realised or are not appreciated as potential analytical tools.This article introduces the different ways protein evolution can be investigated and indicates developing techniques as well as those already well established.
Iron chelating agents with clinical potential
Authors: Hider R. C. , Singh S. , Porter J. B. 
Published: May 2019

Synopsis:Iron is a critically important metal for a wide variety of cellular events. The element holds this central position by virtue of its facile redox chemistry and the high affinity of both redox states (iron II and iron III) for oxygen. These same properties also render iron toxic when levels exceed the normal binding capacity of the cell. As a result of this potential toxicity, selective iron chelators are finding an important role in the treatment of iron overload associated with many forms of thalassaemia. In addition, they appear to have potential in treating situations where a local increase in iron concentration causes an unfavourable pathology, for instance, in reperfused tissue (heart disease and stroke) and in Parkinsonian brain. There is also evidence that iron chelators may minimise the toxicity of paraquat and the side effects of bleomycin and doxorubicin.Non-haem iron enzymes can also be inhibited by iron chelators and consequently such enzymes as ribonucleotide reductase and lipoxygenase can be selectively inhibited. Such inhibitory action is being investigated for the treatment of malaria, neoplastic disease, psoriasis and asthma.Recent developments in these areas are discussed in the present overview.
Cell proliferation and oxidative stress: basis for anticancer drugs
Authors: Burdon Roy H. 
Published: May 2019

Synopsis:A wide variety of normal and malignant mammalian cells, as well as inflammatory cells, release extracellular active oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. Both these species at low levels can stimulate growth and growth responses in a range of normal and malignant cell types. In order to assess the significance of such findings, superoxide dismutase and catalase were added exogenously to the culture medium of hamster (BHK-21) and rat (208F) fibroblasts (non-transformed or oncogene transformed). This resulted in a reduction of cell proliferation and increased cellular uptake of trypan blue stain, suggesting that superoxide and/or hydrogen peroxide may have important roles as extracellular ‘messengers’ promoting cell proliferation and maintaining cell viability. Superoxide dismutase mimics, like superoxide dismutase itself, are also cytostatic towards these cells and provide a basis for the development of tumour-specific antiproliferative drugs.
Diabetic Neuropathy: Models, Mechanisms and Mayhem
Authors: Thomas P.K. 
Published: May 2019

ABSTRACT:Rational treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy depends upon establishing its cause, which is at present unknown. A number of animal models of diabetes have been examined and although abnormalities are detectable in the peripheral nervous system they do not duplicate the degenerative neuropathy encountered in the human. The relevance of these abnormalities is therefore uncertain, although they may reflect the earlier changes in man. For human neuropathy, it is likely that vascular lesions or an abnormal susceptibility to mechanical injury are responsible for focal neuropathies. The evidence that ischaemia and hypoxia are responsible for the diffuse sensory neuropathy and autonomic polyneuropathy is still equivocal and it is often difficult to establish whether the vascular changes are primary or secondary. Metabolic explanations, such as sorbitol accumulation in nerve, have not so far been adequately validated by responses to treatment. The manifestations of diabetic neuropathy are complex and a single explanation should not be sought.