bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Immigration and Islamophobia: Breitbart and the Trump Party
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines how Breitbart, interacting with Donald Trump the candidate, made immigration the Republican Party’s main election agenda, despite the desire of party leadership to stay away from that issue. It shows that Breitbart did so by keeping up a steady flow of misleading stories that associated immigration wigth terrorism, the spread of incurable disease, criminality, and abuse of the welfare system. It also considers how Islamophobia allowed Breitbart to serve as a link between the frank racism and anti-semitism of the white nationalists and the more muted racial anxiety of the more mainstream white- and Christian-identity pillars of the Republican coalition. Finally, it discusses the ways in which the network of right-wing sites interacted during the month before the 2016 presidential election to weave together the Islamophobia frame and the Clinton corruption frame to make for a coherent narrative designed to convince wavering Republicans to vote for Trump.
The Fox Diet
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role of the dominant player in conservative media, Fox News, during the first year of Donald Trump’s presidency. It looks at three case studies to illustrate how Fox News used its position at the core of the right-wing media ecosystem repeatedly to mount propaganda attacks in support of Trump: the Michael Flynn firing in March 2017, when Fox adopted the “deep state” framing of the entire controversy; the James Comey firing and Robert Mueller appointment in May 2017; when Fox propagated the Seth Rich murder conspiracy; and in October and November, when the arrests of Paul Manafort and guilty plea of Flynn seemed to mark a new level of threat to the president, Fox reframed the Uranium One story as an attack on the integrity of the FBI and Justice Department officials in charge of the investigation.
Mainstream Media Failure Modes and Self-Healing in a Propaganda-Rich Environment
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines how mainstream media operated in a propaganda-rich environment by focusing on its failure and recovery modes. In particular, this chapter analyzes two central attributes of mainstream media and professional journalism that shaped election coverage, and in some cases made them particularly susceptible to being manipulated into spreading right-wing propaganda: balance and the scoop culture. The chapter first considers how internal dynamics of news reporting led mainstream media to emphasize the email investigation over substantive discussion of politics. The chapter then shows how Breitbart exploited the hunger for scoops, along with the public performance of objectivity and critical remove of mainstream journalism, to utilize the credibility of the New York Times, and later other major publications, to propagate and accredit the “Clinton corruption” frame. Finally, the chapter describes the failures and corrective mechanisms surrounding the recipients of President Donald Trump’s Fake News Awards for 2017.
The Propaganda Pipeline: Hacking the Core from the Periphery
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines the claim that alt-right activists hacked the media ecosystem byinserting various destructive memes into the mainstream media that helped DonaldTrump win the 2016 presidential election. In particular, this chapter considers thepropaganda pipeline—the path from the periphery to the core through a series ofwell-known amplifi cation sites, most prominently Infowars and Drudge. Th e “spiritcooking” stories as seen on Infowars, Washington Times, and Sean Hannity perfectlyencapsulate the propaganda pipeline from the periphery to the core, drawingin the various suspects in producing information disorder. Th e chapter also showshow statements by marginal actors on Reddit and 4chan were collated and preparedfor propagation by more visible sites, and how this technique was exploited by bothalt-right and Russia-related actors successfully to get a story from the periphery toHannity.
Are the Russians Coming?
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines the evidence supporting the claim that Russia mounted sustained and significant information operations in the United States. It finds that the evidence of Russian inference is strong but that the evidence of its impact is scant. The documented efforts of Russian interference typically entail piling onto existing debates and seeking to exacerbate existing social divisions. This chapter emphasizes that it is critical not only to understand that Russian propaganda efforts occurred but also to evaluate the effectiveness of these operations. If the biggest win for Russian information operations was to disorient American political communications then overstating the impact of those efforts actually helps consolidate their success. But it is important not to confuse the high degree to which Russian operations are observable with the extent to which they actually made a difference to politically active beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors on America.
Mammon’s Algorithm
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines three main threats to American democracy related to Facebook: Facebook microtargeting and dark ads, behavioral manipulation by Cambridge Analytica, and political clickbait factories. The chapter considers the effectiveness of psychographically microtargeted advertising and the question of exposure to “fake news” on Facebook during the months leading up to the 2016 presidential election. The chapter explains why behaviorally informed, microtargeted dark ads are an important novel threat to democratic practice independent of the overall architecture of the media environment, even as it cautions that there is no evidence to support this theory. It also argues that both the Cambridge Analytica and political clickbait threats were overstated.
Can the Internet Survive Democracy?
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter examines whether the internet can—or cannot—contribute to democratization, and under what conditions. This chapter discusses five major failure modes that limit the benefits of decentralized digitally-mediated collective action. The first is the failure to convert from a moment’s surge of decentralized passion into a longer-term, sustained effort with competence to engage political institutions systematically over time. The second is the failure to sustain the decentralized openness in the transition to more structured political organization. The third failure mode of the internet and democracy refers to the power of well-organized, data-informed central powers to move millions of people from the center out, instead of the other way around. The fourth failure mode is that precisely what makes decentralized networks so effective at circumventing established forms of control can also make them the vehicles of repressive mobs. The final failure mode is the susceptibility to disinformation and propaganda.
What Can Men Do Against Such Reckless Hate?
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter explores possible responses to the epistemic crisis in current media ecosystems. It explains why the complex, long-term causes outlined in this book do not lend themselves to small technocratic solutions but also emphasizes adaptations that traditional media can undertake, in particular shifting the performance of objectivity from demonstrating neutrality to institutionalized accountability in truth-seeking, as well as reforms in rules surrounding political advertising and data collection and use in behavioral advertising. The chapter describes meaningful incremental steps that might contain the extension of the unhealthy propaganda dynamics to deeper and more invidious forms. It also explains that, given the decades-long effects of the propaganda feedback loop on the architecture of right-wing media in America, broader systematic solutions are only likely to come with sustained political change.
Vector geometry
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter defines the mathematical spaces to which the geometrical quantities discussed in the previous chapter—scalars, vectors, and the metric—belong. Its goal is to go from the concept of a vector as an object whose components transform as Tⁱ → 𝓡ⱼ ⁱTj under a change of frame to the ‘intrinsic’ concept of a vector, T. These concepts are also generalized to ‘tensors’. The chapter also briefly remarks on how to deal with non-Cartesian coordinates. The velocity vector v is defined as a ‘free’ vector belonging to the vector space ε3 which subtends ε3. As such, it is not bound to the point P at which it is evaluated. It is, however, possible to attach it to that point and to interpret it as the tangent to the trajectory at P.
Curvilinear coordinates
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter presents a discussion on curvilinear coordinates in line with the introduction on Cartesian coordinates in Chapter 1. First, the chapter introduces a new system C of curvilinear coordinates xⁱ = xⁱ(Xj) (also sometimes referred to as Gaussian coordinates), which are nonlinearly related to Cartesian coordinates. It then introduces the components of the covariant derivative, before considering parallel transport in a system of curvilinear coordinates. Next, the chapter shows how connection coefficients of the covariant derivative as well as the Euclidean metric can be related to each other. Finally, this chapter turns to the kinematics of a point particle as well as the divergence and Laplacian of a vector and the Levi-Civita symbol and the volume element.
Differential geometry
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter presents some elements of differential geometry, the ‘vector’ version of Euclidean geometry in curvilinear coordinates. In doing so, it provides an intrinsic definition of the covariant derivative and establishes a relation between the moving frames attached to a trajectory introduced in Chapter 2 and the moving frames of Cartan associated with curvilinear coordinates. It illustrates a differential framework based on formulas drawn from Chapter 2, before discussing cotangent spaces and differential forms. The chapter then turns to the metric tensor, triads, and frame fields as well as vector fields, form fields, and tensor fields. Finally, it performs some vector calculus.
Conservation laws
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter defines the conserved quantities associated with an isolated dynamical system, that is, the quantities which remain constant during the motion of the system. The law of momentum conservation follows directly from Newton’s third law. The superposition principle for forces allows Newton’s law of motion for a body Pa acted on by other bodies Pa′ in an inertial Cartesian frame S. The law of angular momentum conservation holds if the forces acting on the elements of the system depend only on the separation of the elements. Finally, the conservation of total energy requires in addition that the forces be derivable from a potential.
Deformations of celestial bodies
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter studies various gravitational effects arising from the non-sphericity of celestial bodies. It first considers the quadrupole expansion of the potential, as well as the causes of the non-sphericity of the bodies. Finally, it turns to the figure of the Earth. To calculate the proper potential of the Earth, it attempts to determine its deformation due to a perturbing potential. Doing this accurately requires knowledge of the internal structure of the Earth and use of the techniques of the mechanics of continuous media. In this approach, the internal stress–strain relationships of a body are described by various phenomenological parameters and it becomes possible to study the response of the body (deformation, oscillations, etc.) to the field of an external force.
Light in Newtonian theory
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses light in Newtonian theory. Astronomy (and physics in general) is certainly not a complete science without a theory of light. However, the nature of light and its kinematical properties were not completely understood until the advent of Maxwell’s theory, special and general relativity, and quantum field theory. The answers to these questions provided by Newtonian theory were only partial and sometimes even contradictory. Thus this chapter seeks to present a few aspects of this topic, such as the influences of gravity on light, stellar aberrations, and wave propagation. It also studies the Fizeau and Michelson–Morley experiments.
Minkowski spacetime
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter presents the main features of the Minkowski spacetime, which is the geometrical framework in which the laws of relativistic dynamics are formulated. It is a very simple mathematical extension of three-dimensional Euclidean space. In special relativity, ‘relative, apparent, and common’ (in the words of Newton) space and time are represented by a mathematical set of points called events, which constitute the Minkowski spacetime. This chapter also stresses the interpretation of the fourth dimension, which in special relativity is time. Here, time now loses the ‘universal’ and ‘absolute’ nature that it had in the Newtonian theory.
The wave vector of light
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter shows how simple world lines of zero length can describe an undulatory aspect of light—namely, its frequency. It first encodes the information about the frequency of a monochromatic light wave in the zeroth component of its wave vector. An alternative method of taking into account the wave nature of light is based on the fact that the emission of successive light corpuscles by the source also defines the period of a light signal. To illustrate, the chapter provides the example of a light source and a receiver moving along the X axis of a frame S. Finally, this chapter illustrates the idea of a particle horizon as well as the limits of validity of the spectral shift formulas introduced in the chapter by the example of two objects which exchange light signals.
Rotating systems
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter continues the discussion of the laws of relativistic dynamics for systems of point particles, beginning with the law of angular momentum conservation in collisions. It considers an ensemble of free particles each characterized by its (constant) momentum pa. The total momentum p = Σapa does not depend on the inertial frame used, but the angular momentum will depend on the frame, because its definition involves radius vectors between an event reference point and points qa on the particle world lines. Furthermore, these are chosen to be simultaneous in a given frame. The chapter also formulates the equations of motion for particles possessing an internal rotation or ‘spin’.
Fields and matter
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter discusses the laws of relativistic dynamics for continuous media, namely, the ‘fields’ that mediate interactions in relativistic theories, and also fluids. The concept of field introduced by Faraday and formalized by Maxwell lies at the heart of contemporary physics. The intuitive idea behind this concept is, on the one hand, that massive bodies, owing to their internal constitution, impregnate space with what are called ‘fields’, potential entities which are only revealed by the presence of other bodies possessing the same type of charge. On the other hand, there is the idea that the interactions between these bodies, which determine their motion, are effected through the intermediary of these fields. This physical concept of a field is represented mathematically by one or several functions of points p in Minkowski spacetime.
The classical scalar field
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter explains some of the properties of scalar fields, which are paradigmatic in relativistic field theory. It also shows how a complex scalar field can confer an effective mass to a ‘gauge’ field. The chapter first provides the Klein–Gordon equation derived from the Euler–Lagrange equations outlined in the previous chapter. It then illustrates the Fourier transform of a free field, before embarking on further discussions on complex fields, charge, and symmetry breaking. Finally, this chapter considers that the fact that global symmetry breaking leads to the appearance of a massless, and therefore long-range, scalar field is problematic because such a field is not observed experimentally. It thus takes a look at the BEH mechanism (named after its inventors, Robert Brout, François Englert, and Peter Higgs), which can make it ‘disappear’.
The Nordström theory
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter turns to the description of the interaction of a scalar field with particles which ‘feel’—that is, ‘charged’ particles. If the field is massless, and therefore long-range, and if the particle charge corresponds to its inertial mass, we have what is known as Nordström theory, a coherent theory of gravity which, however, disagrees with experiment. Nordström theory describes gravity by means of a massless scalar field φ. According to the ‘weak equivalence principle’, gravitational masses are equal to inertial masses, m = mg. When velocities are small, the gravitational field created is also weak.
The Lorentz force
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter studies Maxwell theory by defining the electromagnetic potential and field as well as the force exerted by an external field on a particle carrying an electric charge. In Maxwell theory, the fundamental mathematical quantity representing electromagnetic phenomena is a field of covariant vectors (or a field of 1-forms), the electromagnetic potential, with components Aμ(Xν) in a given inertial frame with Minkowski coordinates Xν. A quantity derived from the potential plays a central role because it is this quantity rather than the potential itself which directly represents observable phenomena. In addition, this chapter integrates the equation of motion for the cases of uniform rectilinear and circular motion. It follows the four-dimensional approach, which, being more efficient and transparent, can also give the main results in 3-vector notation.
The Maxwell equations
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter presents Maxwell equations determining the electromagnetic field created by an ensemble of charges. It also derives these equations from the variational principle. The chapter studies the equation’s invariances: gauge invariance and invariance under Poincaré transformations. These allow us to derive the conservation laws for the total charge of the system and also for the system energy, momentum, and angular momentum. To begin, the chapter introduces the first group of Maxwell equations: Gauss’s law of magnetism, and Faraday’s law of induction. It then discusses current and charge conservation, a second set of Maxwell equations, and finally the field–energy momentum tensor.
Constant fields
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter reviews the basic ideas of electrostatics (Coulomb’s law) and magnetostatics (the Biot–Savart law). It studies the motion of a charge in a Coulomb field in detail. The chapter shows how the motion of a charge q in the Coulomb field of a charge Q held fixed at the origin of an inertial frame is governed by the Lorentz equation. Moreover, it can be solved like the Kepler problem discussed in the previous Book. Next, the chapter discusses the Rutherford scattering formula which established the ‘planetary’ model of the atom, the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization which displayed the limits of the theory, and finally the spin coupling explaining the atomic fine structure.
Interacting charges II
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter continues the discussion from the previous chapter. The motion of a charge (m,q) in the field of another charge (m′,q′) and in its own field can now be studied in the lowest orders of the velocities directly using the equation of motion obtained in the preceding chapter. However, the features of this motion are revealed more easily by deriving them from the Darwin Lagrangian. This allows for a rigorous establishment of a balance between the energy radiated by the system and the mechanical energy lost by the system. The chapter concludes this general study of the electromagnetic radiation of a system of charges by outlining the ‘post-Minkowski’ approach based on iteration in the ‘coupling constant’ qq′ rather than in the velocities.
Electromagnetism and differential geometry
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter begins by examining p-forms and the exterior product, as well as the dual of a p-form. Meanwhile, the exterior derivative is an operator, denoted d, which acts on a p-form to give a (p + 1)-form. It possesses the following defining properties: if f is a 0-form, df(t) = t f (where t is a vector of Eₙ), which coincides with the definition of differential 1-forms. Moreover, d(α + β) = dα + dβ, where α and β are forms of the same degree. Moreover, the exterior calculus can be used to obtain a compact and elegant formulation of Maxwell’s equations.
Conservation laws
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter studies how the ‘spacetime symmetries’ can generate first integrals of the equations of motion which simplify their solution and also make it possible to define conserved quantities, or ‘charges’, characterizing the system. As already mentioned in the introduction to matter energy–momentum tensors in Chapter 3, the concepts of energy, momentum, and angular momentum are related to the invariance properties of the solutions of the equations of motion under spacetime translations or rotations. The chapter explores these in greater detail. It first turns to isometries and Killing vectors. The chapter then examines the first integrals of the geodesic equation, and Noether charges.
The Kerr solution
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2018

Abstract
This chapter covers the Kerr metric, which is an exact solution of the Einstein vacuum equations. The Kerr metric provides a good approximation of the spacetime near each of the many rotating black holes in the observable universe. This chapter shows that the Einstein equations are nonlinear. However, there exists a class of metrics which linearize them. It demonstrates the Kerr–Schild metrics, before arriving at the Kerr solution in the Kerr–Schild metrics. Since the Kerr solution is stationary and axially symmetric, this chapter shows that the geodesic equation possesses two first integrals. Finally, the chapter turns to the Kerr black hole, as well as its curvature singularity, horizons, static limit, and maximal extension.