bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Desert castles, Umayyad
Authors: Genequand Denis 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The desert castles were rural aristocratic settlements belonging to the Umayyad caliphs and other elites of early Islamic Greater Syria. They were often situated in semi‐arid steppe land areas and were characterized by a palace or a residence surrounded by other structures. The desert castles mainly had a political and economic role, as places for exercising a form of mobile power, as places representing the new Islamic rule, and as profitable agricultural enterprises.
Shenoute
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Shenoute of Atripe was an important and powerful monastic leader and popular preacher in Upper Egypt from the late fourth to the mid‐fifth century. The fragmentary remains of his writings are central to the study of Sahidic Coptic, as well as providing evidence for a range of subjects pertinent to the development of Christianity in Late Antiquity.
Law, Athenian
Authors: Lanni Adriaan 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The most distinctive feature of the classical Athenian legal system was its pervasive amateurism. With few exceptions, litigants represented themselves in court before a jury of laymen who operated without the assistance of a judge or legal expert to instruct them as to the laws. Litigants were responsible for finding and quoting any laws they thought helped their case, though there was no obligation to refer to the law under which the case was brought. Even discussions of the specific charge at issue left much to the discretion of the jury because Athenian laws were, by modern standards, shockingly vague. A simple majority vote of the jury, taken without deliberation, determined the outcome of the trial. No reasons for the verdict were given, and there was no provision for appeal.
Phokis
Authors: McInerney Jeremy 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Phokis is a region of central Greece in the shadow of Mt. Parnassos. The region is a good example of a regional federation, or
koinon
. Phokian ethnic identity was constructed from shared myths and religious practices, notably at the recently excavated site of Kalapodi. The region also had an uneven relationship with Delphi, which lies on the edge of Phokian territory but was independent of Phokis for most of its history.
Akhmim
Authors: Elias Jonathan 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Akhmim, ancient seat of the worship of the fertility god Min, is one of Egypt's oldest cities. Evidence of habitation there stretches back into prehistory. Akhmim's location on the Nile was strategic and it developed into a commercial and administrative center during the Old Kingdom under powerful nomarchs whose tombs are known east of the city. Following the collapse of centralized royal government at the end of the 6th Dynasty, Akhmim survived under its nomarchs, until incorporated into the unified Egyptian kingdom established under Theban rulers of the 11th Dynasty. The city again became important in New Kingdom times, particularly following the elevation (as wife of Amenhotep III) of Tiy, whose family originated there. The temple of Min, lord of Akhmim was architecturally enhanced after the Amarna era by Ramesses II, so that its status remained high through the remainder of Egyptian history, with additional augmentation occurring under the Ptolemies. By that time, Akhmim had emerged as a major metropolis in Upper Egypt.
Naga el‐Deir
Authors: Podzorski Patricia 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The series of cemeteries at Naga el‐Deir (also spelled Nag el‐Der, Naga‐ed‐Dêr) cover approximately 2 km on the east bank of the Nile opposite Abydos and date from early Predynastic (ca. 3800
bce
) through Coptic times (after 400
ce
).
Psamtik/Psammetichus I–
VI
Authors: Dodson Aidan 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Psamtik I, Psamtik II, Psamtik III, Psamtik IV, Psamtik V, and Psamtik VI, kings of Egypt, or parts of Egypt, during the 26th and 27th Dynasties, who reigned during the seventh and sixth centuries
bce
.
Sobekhotep
Authors: Gillam Robyn 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Sobekhotep I, Sobekhotep II, Sobekhotep III, Sobekhotep IV, Sobekhotep V, Sobekhotep VI, Sobekhotep VII and Sobekhotep VIII, kings of Egypt, or parts of Egypt, during the 13th and 16th Dynasties, who reigned during the eighteenth and seventeenth centuries
bce
.
Sobeknefru
Authors: Gillam Robyn 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Sobeknofru was the first female with a full Pharaonic titulary to rule over Egypt. The daughter of Amenemhet III, she was the last ruler of the 12th Dynasty of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, and the first female Pharaoh known from contemporary sources. Unlike some later queens, Sobeknofru always presented herself as female. Although she only reigned three years and her burial place is unknown, Sobeknofru was acknowledged as legitimate by the first ruler of the 13th Dynasty.
Florian (Marcus Annius Florianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Born perhaps ca. 220 in a Danubian province, Florian (
PLRE
I.367 Florianus 6;
PIR
2
A 649;
RE
Annius 46) was Roman emperor from about June 276 for between eighty and eighty‐eight days; his reign exemplifies the lack of political stability in the empire at this time.
Numerian (Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Numerian (born ca. 255/260
ce
;
PLRE
I: 634;
PIR
2
A 1564;
RE
174), younger son of the emperor Carus (Marcus Aurelius Carus Augustus), was Roman emperor from 283 to 284. Assessment is complicated by his presentation in the sources as an excellent character (unlike his debauched elder brother Carinus (Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus)), with great skill in oratory, and able to compete in poetry with Nemesianus (SHA Car. 11.1–2).
Tacitus (Marcus Claudius Tacitus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2018

AbstractMarcus Claudius Tacitus Augustus, born ca. 220 (Zonaras claims he was seventy‐five at his accession but he may have been considerably younger), was Roman emperor from 275 to 276ce(PLREI 873 Tacitus 3;PIR2C 1036;REClaudius 361).
Valerian (Publius Licinius Valerianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The reign, from 253 to 260
ce
, of Publius Licinius Valerianus Augustus (

PIR
2

L 258;
RE
173), the last Roman emperor whose career combined civilian and military posts, ended in disaster at the worst point of the empire's military and economic crisis.
Volusian (Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Volusian (
PIR
1
V 376), Roman emperor from 251 to 253
ce
, was the son of the emperor Trebonianus Gallus (Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Augustus) and of Afinia Gemina Baebiana, perhaps born at Perusia (whence the family hailed) ca. 230.
Comitia
and
concilia
Authors: Sandberg Kaj 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

It is clear that popular sovereignty was the ideological foundation of the “constitution” of republican Rome (Cic.
Har
.
resp
. 11). Exactly to what extent the ordinary citizenry was a true actor in the political system, usually seen as dominated by the senatorial aristocracy, is a matter for debate. Yet, whatever stance one takes, it is an unarguable fact that formal popular participation was indispensable for the operation of the republican system. None but the people were entitled to bestow magistracies, make law, and pass judgment on capital crimes.
Contio
Authors: Tracy Catherine 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The
contio
(plural:
contiones
) could be civil or military. The civil
contio
was a non‐voting public meeting convened, during the republic, usually by a consul or tribune of the plebs, and, during the imperial period, usually by the emperor. Republican
contiones
were often held in connection with elections or criminal trials. They were a means of imparting news to the assembled crowd, and of testing the popularity of the speaker and his stance. The
contio
audience could verbally express assent or dissent but normally only those invited by the presiding magistrate could give a speech. Military
contiones
were convened by those with military authority for an audience of soldiers on topics relating to army life. The shouted support for a general by the soldiers at a military
contio
could count as an acclamation.
Fulvius Nobilior, Marcus
Authors: Nice Alex 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

M. Fulvius Nobilior (ca. 231 to post‐178
bce
), a member of the plebeian gens Fulvia, was a Roman general and statesman. He is most notable for his association with the epic poet Ennius and for the dedication of the temple of Hercules Musarum in Rome's Circus Flaminius.
Public health, Greece and Rome
Authors: Koloski‐Ostrow Ann Olga 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Public health today involves political officials working hard to make sure that diseases are contained or eliminated, fresh water is available, and sanitation is in place for the well‐being of citizens. Finding evidence for similar concerns in Greece and Rome is not so easy, and may not even be the correct approach. Nevertheless, as the control and management of water and waste have been vital to all societies since the very beginnings of agriculture and urbanization, perhaps water management and waste control are good starting places for investigating public‐health issues.
Retrospective diagnosis
Authors: Moog Ferdinand Peter 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Retrospective diagnosis aims at identifying the illnesses of people who died long ago, mostly of well‐known historical persons, on the basis of available information. Laymen wrongly regard this procedure – which among experts is a highly contentious issue – as the chief task of medical history. However, most publications of this kind are written not by medical historians, but by clinical physicians with ambitions to be historians or by historians interested in medicine.
Metallurgy, ancient Near East
Authors: de Lapérouse Jean‐François 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The development of metallurgy in Mesopotamia and the surrounding lands from the late fourth millennium
bce
until the end of the Neo‐Babylonian period represented an unprecedented technological achievement that strongly influenced the evolution of agriculture, transportation, tool and weapon production, as well as the visual arts across the ancient world. This achievement was made possible by an exchange of raw materials and expertise over a wide region.
South Arabic and Geʿez
Authors: Gorea Maria 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
It is generally admitted that South Arabic and Ethiopic languages are closely related and form a dialectal unity within the Semitic languages. The South Arabic presence in the North of Ethiopia is well attested and vice‐versa. The later Axumite dominance in Yemen is evidenced by reliable sources. Even though South Arabia and Ethiopia were connected from a political point of view, Ethiopic is not an offshoot of the South Arabic. Geʿez, the classical Ethiopic, shares some phonological and morphological characteristics with a part of the South Arabic languages, mostly with the Epigraphic South Arabic, but there are significant differences between them.
Landsberger, Benno (1890–1968)
Authors: Crisostomo Jay 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Benno Landsberger (1890–1968) was a prominent Assyriologist and lexicographer. He taught at the University of Leipzig, the University of Marburg, Ankara University, and the University of Chicago. He was the first editor of the series
Materialien zum Sumerischen Lexikon
. His work on the history, lexicography, and culture of ancient Mesopotamia established him as perhaps the most influential Assyriologist of the twentieth century.
Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne)
Authors: Eck Werner 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The Germanic tribe of the Ubii settled in Caesar's time on the right bank of the Rhine, around the river Lahn, with their center at the Dünsberg. Then, in 19/18
bc,
Agrippa, Augustus’ son‐in‐law, settled a major part of the Ubii on the left bank of the Rhine bend at Cologne. This settlement would be given the status of
colonia
in
ad
50. Its manifest prosperity was based on cereal production and the manufacture of glass and pottery. With the increasing instability of the region from the mid‐third century, its fortunes fluctuated until it finally fell to the Germans some time in the first half of the fifth century.
Derveni Papyrus
Authors: Betegh Gábor 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The Derveni papyrus, dated to 340–320
bce
, is the oldest Greek literary papyrus. It was found in 1962, in a burial ground 12 km from Thessaloniki. The fragmentary text contains rationalizing interpretations of ritual practices and eschatological figures, as well as a verse‐by‐verse allegorical commentary to a poem attributed to Orpheus. The commentary, which shows the influence of various Presocratic theories, focuses on the way in which a divine cosmic Mind created the present world order. The text is a major addition to our knowledge of the interaction between philosophy and religion, early Orphism, and the intellectual life of Macedonia at the end of the Classical period.
Philon of Larissa
Authors: Fleischer Kilian 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Philon of Larissa (prob. 159/8–84/83
bce
) was the last known head of the New Academy in Athens and Cicero's teacher for a while in Rome. Although he did not completely abandon skepticism, he weakened and altered the radical skepticism of his predecessors in certain respects. His philosophical changes might have even indirectly led to the dogmatic turn his pupil Antiochus had taken.
Timon of Phleious
Authors: Svavarsson Svavar Hrafn 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Timon of Phleious (ca. 325/20–235/30
bce
), philosopher and poet, is our primary source for the philosophy of Pyrrho, whose views he presented both by positive explication and by mocking criticism of other philosophers. While his presentation of Pyrrho's views may not reflect Pyrrho's own style, most agree that he is first and foremost an explicator of Pyrrho, even if the extent of his own philosophical contribution remains a matter of debate.
Kalokairinos, Minos (1843–1907)
Authors: Karadimas Nektarios 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Minos Kalokairinos (1843–1907) was a businessman, an interpreter, and a lawyer. In 1878, probably influenced by the recent discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann's excavations at Mycenae, he started excavations on the Kephala hill of Knossos, where he brought to light parts of a prehistoric palace, thus pioneering Cretan archaeology. The excavations were stopped in April 1879 and were continued by Sir Arthur Evans, mainly during 1900–5.
Tremblers (
tresantes
) at Sparta
Authors: Lupi Marcello 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

“Tremblers” (
tresantes
) were those Spartans who had fled from the enemy. Since the Spartan code of values required them to remain in their ranks until victory or death, those who survived a defeat were socially humiliated and marginalized. While the term is already attested in Tyrtaios, the formalization of their status is elusive: the episodes that refer to some kind of social degradation and/or legal punishment of one or more Spartan tremblers are rare, limited to the years between 480 and 331
bce
, and not reducible to a common pattern.
Bellum iustum
Authors: Santangelo Federico 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The notion of
bellum iustum
pertains to the Roman debate on the causes of, and justification for, war. “Just wars” can only be waged if some legal conditions are met, including a number of preliminary steps and a formal declaration. The ancient discussions of
bellum iustum
had considerable impact on medieval and early modern reflections on war and imperialism.
Dilectus
Authors: Wintjes Jorit 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The
dilectus
(“selection”) was the Roman levying of soldiers for military service among the Roman citizenry. It took place on the Capitolium, where the initial mustering took place, and on the Campus Martius, where the new recruits’ weapons were inspected. It was one of the most important duties of the consuls, to whom it fell to preside over it.
Lucretia
Authors: Chaplin Jane D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The story of Lucretia is intimately connected with the fall of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the republic. The canonical version is found in the Roman historian Livy (1.57–60). The story is more legend than fact, and Lucretia's sexual purity, and its violation by Sextus Tarquinius, are more important for their cultural resonances than for the supposed historical consequences.
Pompeius Strabo, Cn. (cos. 89
bce
)
Authors: Kendall Seth L. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo was a Roman general and consul of the Roman Republic (89
bce
). He is principally known for his military successes during the Roman‐Allied war, for his activity (or, rather, the lack of it) during Sulla's March on Rome, and for his role in the fight against L. Cornelius Cinna and C. Marius, in which conflict he was killed. He was the father of Cn. Pompeius Magnus, better known as Pompey the Great.
Proscriptions
Authors: Thein Alexander 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Proscription was a system of state‐sponsored political violence attested twice in the civil wars of the Late Roman Republic: it was invented by Sulla after the civil war of 83–82
bce
and revived by Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus after the formation of the Second Triumvirate in 43
bce
. The distinctive feature of proscription was the mass condemnation of political enemies, without trial or judicial process, and the publication of their names on death lists posted in the forum at Rome. The property of the proscribed was confiscated and sold at public auction, and the death sentence was enforced by the proclamation of penalties and rewards for assisting or killing the proscribed. The original meaning of the Latin word
proscriptio
was “publication,” often the advertisement of items for sale at auction. After Sulla it also acquired the meaning of “death list.”
Hyakinthia at Sparta
Authors: Nafissi Massimo 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The Spartan Hyakinthia were held at Amyklai, in the local sanctuary of Apollo, in honor of Apollo and Hyakinthos. A well‐known myth told that Hyakinthos underwent metamorphosis into a flower, but according to Spartan tradition he acquired immortality through apotheosis. Hyakinthia, supposedly a vegetation cult and a youth initiation ceremony, were one of the major religious festivals in Sparta and Lakonia, and they are relatively well known, thanks to the allusions of the classical sources and the more systematic – although fragmentary – descriptions from authors of Hellenistic and Roman age.
Skirmishing, Greek and Roman
Authors: Anders Adam O. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Skirmishing in Greek and Roman armies may be defined as free‐flowing, uncontrolled troop movements. They took place on battlefields where two armies met, but also in other conditions. They were a regular and important feature of military campaigns. Both Greek and Roman armies had specially designated troops for this purpose, but various other types of troops could also engage in skirmishing. These “light infantrymen” tended to carry out a variety of roles, all of which could have had a significant effect on overall strategy.
Army, Roman Republic
Authors: Kent Patrick Alan 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The Roman army was a central institution of the Roman Republic and key to the expansion of Roman power. It was made up of legions of mostly heavy infantry armed with short swords arranged in a flexible formation. Roman armies were capable of impressive battlefield victories as well as absorbing devastating losses. Military service was an important part of the social lives of upper‐ and lower‐class Romans. Over time, the armies of the Republic were transformed into personal armies of Roman generals and contributed to the collapse of the state.
Albinus
Authors: Tarrant Harold 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Albinus was an influential Platonist teacher eminent enough to have been sought out by Galen ca. 150
ce
. One short work and a title suggesting he was a pupil of the Platonist Gaius are preserved. Albinus seems to have approached Plato through the dialogues, read in a fairly literal fashion. Fragments in Proclus supplement our knowledge of his approach to Platonic exegesis.
Blossius of Cumae (Kyme)
Authors: Vesperini Pierre 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Blossius of Cumae (Kyme), a disciple of the Stoic Antipater of Tarsos, was a Stoic philosopher who lived in Rome in the middle of the second century
bce
. He is mostly known for his relationship with Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, the famous tribune of the plebs, who proposed an agrarian reform in 133
bce
. After Tiberius’ murder, Blossius fled to Asia, where he joined Aristonikos’ forces against Rome before committing suicide in 129
bce
.
Lucius Annaeus Cornutus
Authors: Ramelli Ilaria L. E. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

The Stoic and polymath Cornutus flourished in Rome in the 60s
ce
, although we do not know for sure the date of his birth and death. He was banished by Nero and was the teacher of the poet Persius. He stood in the tradition of ancient Stoic allegorical exegesis which he applied to all aspects of religion: literary myths, cultic epithets and attributes, and iconographical representations.
Crone, Patricia (1945–2015)
Authors: Tor D. G. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Patricia Crone (1945–2015) was one of the most important scholars of early Islamic history. Her work changed the field in several major areas: first, by introducing the use of source‐critical methodology into the study of Islamic historical narratives, especially those regarding the earliest Islamic beliefs and practices of the seventh century; second, in demonstrating that the central political institution of Islam, the caliphate, in contrast to the historical narrative put forward by later generations of Sunni religious scholars, began with full command of all religious authority, which was by the ninth century usurped by that same class of religious clerics; and, finally, toward the end of her career, and based entirely on the internal evidence of the Qur’ān itself, a revision of our understanding of the context in which Muḥammad preached, and how this differed from the traditional account of Islamic salvation history.
Djeme/Western Thebes
Authors: Cromwell Jennifer 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The village of Djeme was the principal settlement site in western Thebes, after which the local region was referred to as the Holy Mount of Djeme. The large body of Coptic textual evidence from the site, together with what survived of its archaeology, makes it one of the best‐known sites in Late Antique and early Islamic Egypt and its evidence is invaluable for reconstructing the daily life of Egypt's village population at this time.
Alchemy, Late Antiquity
Authors: Richter Tonio Sebastian 
Published: December 2018

Abstract

Late Antiquity saw the first blossom of an endeavor which, drawing upon techniques such as dyework, metallurgy, gold work, glass, painting, or pharmacopoeia, and integrating such knowledge with Greek traditions of natural philosophy and contemporary religious thought, led to the emergence of a new science. Its early adherents enquired into the nature of matter, its qualities, and their changeability, sought to replicate natural processes, and attempted to create imitations of precious materials such as purple, gems, silver, and gold. Their approach was twofold: theoretical modeling and experimental work. The newborn science, called θεῖα or ἱερὰ τέχνη
theia / hiera tekhnê
(“divine / sacred art”) or χυμεῖα
chymeia
(“art of melting”) by contemporaries, would enjoy a rich history of appropriation and advancement first in the Byzantine and Islamic world and eventually in the Latin west.