bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transcendence
Authors: Westphal Merold 
Published: September 2018

The concept of transcendence has its primary home in philosophical theology. Drawing on symbols of height that are widespread in prereflective religious life, it suggests that God or the gods are above and beyond the worlds of nature and history and thus above and beyond ourselves as individuals and communities. In philosophical reflection the spatial metaphors are translated into the concept of difference or alterity. Thus, as Rudolf Otto puts it, the holy is that which is ‘wholly other’.
We can distinguish three modes of divine transcendence. Cosmological transcendence, by which theism is distinguished from pantheism, signifies that, while there cannot be the world without God, there can be God without the world. The world does not emanate from God out of necessity; creation is a free act of purposive choice. Epistemic transcendence signifies that God is mysterious and incomprehensible, in two ways. First, God’s being exceeds our ability to bring it without remainder into our conceptual and linguistic frames of reference. Second, God’s knowledge of the worlds of nature and history and thus of ourselves as individuals and communities is qualitatively superior to our own knowledge and self-knowledge. Ethical-religious transcendence signifies that God’s transcendence is that of a person who sees us and speaks to us in a voice not our own. The prereflective background here is the biblical experience of covenant in which the speech acts by which God defines our identity and agenda are promises and commands. The philosophical concept correlative to this experience is that of inverted intentionality. Human consciousness is not just its own directed attention to whatever ‘objects’ it can perceive, think, remember, imagine, desire and so forth. In addition, we are aware of being addressed by a voice not our own and called to a vocation we did not initiate. We can welcome this calling as a divine gift or defend against it as a threat to freedom and autonomy.
Bioethics
Authors: Frey R.G. 
Published: September 2018

While bioethics, a part of applied ethics, is usually identified with medical ethics, in its broadest sense it is the study of the moral, social and political problems that arise out of biology and the life sciences generally and involve, either directly or indirectly, human wellbeing. Thus, environmental and animal ethics are sometimes included within it. In this regard, bioethics can be of broader concern than is either medical/biomedical ethics or the study of the moral problems that arise out of new developments in medical technology.
The interrelated issues of who or what has moral status, of what justifies a certain kind of treatment of one creature as opposed to another, and whether, if a creature has moral status, it can lose it, have proved especially important issues in this broadest sense of bioethics. The philosophical task of probing arguments for soundness appears essential to deciding these issues.
As a part of applied ethics, bioethics is exposed to the difficulty that (1) we do not agree in our moral convictions and principles about many of the cases that feature in bioethics, (2) we do not agree in the moral theories in which our moral principles find their home and by which we try to justify them, and (3) we do not agree in the test(s) of adequacy by which to resolve the disagreements at the level of moral theory. We seem left with no way of deciding between contending principles and theories.
Doubt
Authors: Williams Michael 
Published: September 2018

Doubt is often defined as a state of indecision or hesitancy with respect to accepting or rejecting a given proposition. Thus, doubt is opposed to belief. But doubt is also contrasted with certainty. Since it seems intelligible to say that there are many things we believe without being completely certain about them, it appears that we may not have a unitary concept of doubt.
Although doubt is often associated in philosophy with scepticism, historically the relation between the two is complex. Moreover, some philosophers deny that sceptical arguments have any essential connection with inducing doubts.
Sceptical doubts, as philosophers understand them, differ from ordinary doubts in their depth and generality. We all have doubts about some things. But the philosophical sceptic wonders whether we ever have the slightest reason to believe one thing rather than another. However, the reasonableness of such doubts – and even their intelligibility – remains controversial. The various attitudes philosophers adopt with respect to the status of sceptical doubts characterize the main approaches to epistemological theory.
Knowledge, concept of
Authors: Klein Peter D. 
Published: September 2018

The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and extent of human knowledge is called epistemology (from the Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge, and logos meaning theory). Knowledge seems to come in many varieties: we know people, places and things; we know how to perform tasks; we know facts. Factual knowledge has been the central focus of epistemology.
We can know a fact only if we have a true belief about it. However, since only some true beliefs are knowledge (consider, for example, a lucky guess), the central question asked by epistemologists is ‘What converts mere true belief into knowledge?’. There are many, and often conflicting, answers to this question. The primary traditional answer has been that our true beliefs must be based upon sufficiently good reasons in order to be certifiable as knowledge. Foundationalists have held that the structure of reasons is such that our reasons ultimately rest upon basic reasons that have no further reasons supporting them. Coherentists have argued that there are no foundational reasons. Rather, they argue that our beliefs are mutually supporting.
In addition to the constraints upon the overall structure of reasons, epistemologists have proposed various general principles governing reasons. For example, it seems that if my reasons are adequate to affirm some fact, those reasons should be adequate to eliminate other incompatible hypotheses. This initially plausible principle appears to lead directly to some deep puzzles and, perhaps, even to scepticism. Indeed, many of the principles that seem initially plausible lead to various unexpected and unwelcome conclusions.
Alternatives to the primary traditional answer to the central epistemic question have been developed, in part because of the supposed failures of traditional epistemology. These alternative views claim that it is something other than good reasons which distinguishes (mere) true beliefs from knowledge. Reliabilists claim that a true belief produced by a sufficiently reliable process is knowledge. Good reasoning is but one of the many ways in which beliefs can be reliably produced. The issue of whether the objections to traditional epistemology are valid or whether the proposed substitutes are better remains unresolved.
Alchemy
Authors: Pereira Michela 
Published: September 2018

Alchemy is the quest for an agent of material perfection, produced through a creative activity (opus), in which humans and nature collaborate. It exists in many cultures (China, India, Islam; in the Western world since Hellenistic times) under different specifications: aiming at the production of gold and/or other perfect substances from baser ones, or of the elixir that prolongs life, or even of life itself. Because of its purpose, the alchemists’ quest is always strictly linked to the religious doctrine of redemption current in each civilization where alchemy is practised.
In the Western world alchemy presented itself at its advent as a sacred art. But when, after a long detour via Byzantium and Islamic culture, it came back again to Europe in the twelfth century, adepts designated themselves philosophers. Since then alchemy has confronted natural philosophy for several centuries.
In contemporary thought the memory of alchemy was scarcely regarded, save as protochemistry or as a branch of esotericism, until interest in it was revived by C.G. Jung. Recent research is increasingly showing the complexity of alchemy and its multiple relation to Western thought.
Causation
Authors: Cartwright Nancy 
Published: September 2018

Two opposed viewpoints raise complementary problems about causation. The first is from Hume: watch the child kick the ball. You see the foot touch the ball and the ball move off. But do you see the foot cause the ball to move? And if you do not see it, how do you know that that is what happened? Indeed if all our experience is like this, and all of our ideas come from experience, where could we get the idea of causation in the first place?
The second is from Kant. We can have no ideas at all with which to experience nature – we cannot experience the child as a child nor the motion as a motion – unless we have organized the experience into a causal order in which one thing necessarily gives rise to another. The problem for the Kantian viewpoint is to explain how, in advance of experiencing nature in various specific ways, we are able to provide such a complex organization for our experience.
For the Kantian the objectivity of causality is a presupposition of our experience of events external to ourselves. The Humean viewpoint must find something in our experience that provides sufficient ground for causal claims. Regular associations between putative causes and effects are the proposed solution. This attention to regular associations connects the Humean tradition with modern statistical techniques used in the social sciences to establish causal laws.
Modern discussions focus on three levels of causal discourse. The first is about singular causation: about individual ‘causings’ that occur at specific times and places, for example, ‘the cat lapped up the milk’. The second is about causal laws: laws about what features reliably cause or prevent other features, as in, ‘rising inflation prevents unemployment’. The third is about causal powers. These are supposed to determine what kinds of singular causings a feature can produce or what kinds of causal laws can be true of it – ‘aspirins have the power to relieve headaches’ for example.
Contemporary anglophone work on causality has centred on two questions. First, ‘what are the relations among these levels?’ The second is from reductive empiricisms of various kinds that try to bar causality from the world, or at least from any aspects of the world that we can find intelligible: ‘what is the relation between causality (on any one of the levels) and those features of the world that are supposed to be less problematic?’ These latter are taken by different authors to include different things. Sensible or measurable properties like ‘redness’ or ‘electric voltage’ have been attributed a legitimacy not available to causal relations like ‘lapping-up’ or ‘pushing over’: sometimes it is ‘the basic properties studied by physics’. So-called ‘occurrent’ properties have also been privileged over dispositional properties (like water-solubility) and powers. At the middle level where laws of nature are concerned, laws about regular associations between admissible features – whether these associations are deterministic or probabilistic – have been taken as superior to laws about what kinds of effects given features produce.
Confirmation theory
Authors: Kuipers Theo A.F. 
Published: September 2018

The result of a test of a general hypothesis can be positive, negative or neutral. The first, qualitative, task of confirmation theory is to explicate these types of test result. However, as soon as one also takes individual hypotheses into consideration, the interest shifts to the second, quantitative, task of confirmation theory: probabilistically evaluating individual and general hypotheses in the light of an increasing number of test results. This immediately suggests conceiving of the confirmation of an hypothesis as increasing its probability due to new evidence.
Rudolf Carnap initiated a research programme in quantitative confirmation theory by designing a continuum of probability systems with plausible probabilistic properties for the hypothesis that the next test result will be of a certain kind. This continuum of inductive systems has guided the search for optimum systems and for systems that take analogy into account.
Carnapian systems, however, assign zero probability to universal hypotheses. Jaakko Hintikka was the first to reconsider the confirmation of such hypotheses and using Carnap’s continuum for this purpose has set the stage for a whole spectrum of inductive systems of this type.
Biological function
Authors: Neander Karen 
Published: September 2018

Biologists ascribe functions to biological traits. For example, they tell us that it is the function of the heart to pump blood and that it is a function of the pancreas to control blood glucose levels. Philosophers attempt to understand the nature of these function ascriptions and their role in biology. Such function ascriptions are prima facie puzzling since they seem to be teleological and normative: teleological because they seem to tell us what something is for; normative because they underwrite claims about systems functioning properly or about dysfunction.
There are a number of theories of function available. Those with most currency in philosophy of biology attempt to naturalize the notion of function and so they reject the idea that it is irreducibly value-laden or that it must involve the idea of divine design. Four influential theories are as follows. The etiological theory says that the function of a phenotypic trait is what it was selected for (e.g. by natural selection). The systemic theory says that functions are capacities to contribute to complexly achieved capacities of containing systems. The propensity theory says that functions are contributions to fitness that make traits apt for future selection. And a statistical theory says that normal functions are statistically typical contributions to fitness.
Two different types of functional explanation are operational and remote (or evolutionary) explanations. Operational explanations ascribe functions to a system’s parts to explain how the system operates. They answer questions of the form, ‘how does this work?’ Evolutionary explanations explain the ‘rationale’ of a trait, why it was preserved in the population. They answer questions of the form, ‘why is this here?’ or ‘why did this evolve?’ Some philosophers claim that distinct notions of function are used in these two types of explanation.
Critical theory
Authors: Geuss Raymond , Bernstein J. M. 
Published: September 2018

The term ‘critical theory’ designates the approach to the study of society developed between 1930 and 1970 by the so-called ‘Frankfurt School’. A group of theorists associated with the Institute for Social Research, the School was founded in Frankfurt, Germany in 1923. The three most important philosophers belonging to it were Max Horkheimer, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno and Herbert Marcuse. The project was renewed by the second- and third-generation critical theorists, most notably, Jürgen Habermas and Axel Honneth.
Horkheimer, Adorno and Marcuse feared that modern Western societies were turning into closed, totalitarian systems in which all individual autonomy was eliminated. In their earliest writings from the 1930s they presented this tendency towards totalitarianism as one result of the capitalist mode of production. In later accounts they give more prominence to the role of science and technology in modern society, and to the concomitant, purely ‘instrumental’, conception of reason. This conception of reason denies that there can be any such thing as inherently rational ends or goals for human action and asserts that reason is concerned exclusively with the choice of effective instruments or means for attaining arbitrary ends.
‘Critical theory’ was to be a form of resistance to contemporary society; its basic method was to be that of ‘internal’ or ‘immanent’ criticism. Every society, it was claimed, must be seen as making a tacit claim to substantive (and not merely instrumental) rationality; that is, making the claim that it allows its members to lead a good life. This claim gives critical theory a standard for criticism which is internal to the society being criticized. Critical theory demonstrates in what ways contemporary society fails to live up to its own claims. The conception of the good life to which each society makes tacit appeal in legitimizing itself will usually not be fully propositionally explicit, so any critical theory will have to begin by extracting a tacit conception of the good life from the beliefs, cultural artefacts and forms of experience present in the society in question. One of the particular difficulties confronting a critical theory of contemporary society is the disappearance of traditional substantive conceptions of the good life that could serve as a basis for internal criticism, and their replacement with the view that modern society needs no legitimation beyond simple reference to its actual efficient functioning, to its ‘instrumental’ rationality. The ideology of ‘instrumental rationality’ thus itself becomes a major target for critical theory.
Modulación Indirecta para el Convertidor Matricial Directo
Authors: Vazquez NIMROD , Diosdado Raúl , Huerta Héctor , Osorio René , Vázquez Eslí , Hernández Claudia 
Published: September 2018

<p class="icsmabstract">Los convertidores matriciales han sido estudiados y propuestos para diferentes aplicaciones. Hay dos tipos de convertidores matriciales: los llamados indirectos y los directos, cada uno con sus ventajas y desventajas. Para el convertidor matricial indirecto se utilizan dos moduladores ya que está compuesto de dos etapas claramente definidas: un rectificador y un convertidor cd/ca; esto permite el uso de técnicas de modulación y control tradicionales. Por el contrario, el convertidor matricial directo se compone de una sola etapa, por lo que se considera un solo modulador o controlador; es decir que se usa un modulador directo.</p>En este artículo se propone un modulador indirecto, pero para el convertidor matricial directo; esto es, se utilizan dos moduladores virtuales: un modulador para una etapa de entrada o rectificadora y otro para la etapa de salida o inversora; ciertamente ambos moduladores son unidos de forma que se generan las señales de control para el convertidor matricial de una sola etapa. Se presenta el análisis, operación y discusión de la propuesta, pero también resultados de simulación y experimentales que confirman la operación del sistema.
Outcrop analogue study to determine reservoir properties of the Los Humeros and Acoculco geothermal fields, Mexico
Authors: Weydt Leandra M. , Bär Kristian , Colombero Chiara , Comina Cesare , Deb Paromita , Lepillier Baptiste , Mandrone Giuseppe , Milsch Harald , Rochelle Christopher A. , Vagnon Federico , Sass Ingo 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. The Los Humeros geothermal system is steam dominated and
currently under exploration with 65 wells (23 producing). Having
temperatures above 380 ∘C, the system is characterized as a super
hot geothermal system (SHGS). The development of such systems is still
challenging due to the high temperatures and aggressive reservoir fluids
which lead to corrosion and scaling problems. The geothermal system in
Acoculco (Puebla, Mexico; so far only explored via two exploration wells) is
characterized by temperatures of approximately 300 ∘C at a depth
of about 2 km. In both wells no geothermal fluids were found, even though a
well-developed fracture network exists. Therefore, it is planned to develop
an enhanced geothermal system (EGS). For better reservoir understanding and prospective modeling, extensive
geological, geochemical, geophysical and technical investigations are
performed within the scope of the GEMex project. Outcrop analogue studies
have been carried out in order to identify the main fracture pattern,
geometry and distribution of geological units in the area and to
characterize all key units from the basement to the cap rock regarding
petro- and thermo-physical rock properties and mineralogy. Ongoing
investigations aim to identify geological and structural heterogeneities on
different scales to enable a more reliable prediction of reservoir
properties. Beside geological investigations, physical properties of the
reservoir fluids are determined to improve the understanding of the
hydrochemical processes in the reservoir and the fluid-rock interactions,
which affect the reservoir rock properties.
Twitter and weather services
Authors: Gaztelumendi Santiago , Martija Maialen , Principe Olatz 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. This work focuses on the analysis of the use of Twitter by different weather services around the world. During the last few years the availability of mobile phones connected to the Internet has become a global reality. Likewise, the use of different social networks has been popularized and extended with different purposes including social communication. In this context most meteorological weather services have been using some of these social tools in order to improve their services for the general public and specific users. Twitter is a social tool that enables users to post messages (tweets) of up to 280 characters (up to 140 before November 2017), supporting a wide variety of communicative practices. Twitter is an opportunity not only to spread messages without intermediaries, but also interact in real time with users. Here we present a study of different aspects related to the use of Twitter in diverse weather services worldwide and their evolution during the year 2016.
Population growth, land use and land cover transformations, and water quality nexus in the Upper Ganga River basin
Authors: Shukla Anoop Kumar , Ojha Chandra Shekhar Prasad , Mijic Ana , Buytaert Wouter , Pathak Shray , Garg Rahul Dev , Shukla Satyavati 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. The Upper Ganga River basin is socioeconomically the most important river basin in India and is highly stressed in terms of water resources due to uncontrolled land use and land cover (LULC) activities. This study presents a comprehensive set of analyses to evaluate the population growth, LULC transformations, and water quality nexus for sustainable development in this river basin. The study was conducted at two spatial scales: basin scale and district scale. First, population data were analyzed statistically to study demographic changes, followed by LULC change detection over the period of February–March 2001 to 2012 (Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) data) using remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) techniques. Trends and spatiotemporal variations in monthly water quality parameters, viz. biological oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved oxygen (DO, measured in percentage), fluoride (F), hardness (CaCO3), pH, total coliform bacteria and turbidity, were studied using the Mann–Kendall rank test and an overall index of pollution (OIP) developed specifically for this region, respectively. A relationship was deciphered between LULC classes and OIP using multivariate techniques, viz. Pearson's correlation and multiple linear regression. From the results, it was observed that population has increased in the river basin. Therefore, significant and characteristic LULC changes were observed. The river became polluted in both rural and urban areas. In rural areas, pollution is due to agricultural practices, mainly fertilizers, whereas in urban areas it is mainly contributed from domestic and industrial wastes. Water quality degradation has occurred in the river basin, and consequently the health status of the river has also changed from acceptable to slightly polluted in urban areas. Multiple linear regression models developed for the Upper Ganga River basin could successfully predict status of the water quality, i.e., OIP, using LULC classes.