Experimental research on the TCV tokamak
Authors: Duval B.P. , Abdolmaleki A. , Agostini M. , Ajay C.J. , Alberti S. , Alessi E. , Anastasiou G. , Andrèbe Y. , Apruzzese G.M. , Auriemma F. , Ayllon-Guerola J. , Bagnato F. , Baillod A. , Bairaktaris F. , Balbinot L. , Balestri A. , Baquero-Ruiz M. , Barcellona C. , Bernert M. , Bin W. , Blanchard P. , Boedo J. , Bolzonella T. , Bombarda F. , Boncagni L. , Bonotto M. , Bosman T.O.S.J. , Brida D. , Brunetti D. , Buchli J. , Buerman J. , Buratti P. , Burckhart A. , Busil D. , Caloud J. , Camenen Y. , Cardinali A. , Carli S. , Carnevale D. , Carpanese F. , Carpita M. , Castaldo C. , Causa F. , Cavalier J. , Cavedon M. , Cazabonne J.A. , Cerovsky J. , Chapman B. , Chernyshova M. , Chmielewski P. , Chomiczewska A. , Ciraolo G. , Coda S. , Colandrea C. , Contré C. , Coosemans R. , Cordaro L. , Costea S. , Craciunescu T. , Crombe K. , Dal Molin A. , D’Arcangelo O. , de Las Casas D. , Decker J. , Degrave J. , de Oliveira H. , Derks G.L. , di Grazia L.E. , Donner C. , Dreval M. , Dunne M.G. , Durr-Legoupil-Nicoud G. , Esposito B. , Ewalds T. , Faitsch M. , Farník M. , Fasoli A. , Felici F. , Ferreira J. , Février O. , Ficker O. , Frank A. , Fransson E. , Frassinetti L. , Fritz L. , Furno I. , Galassi D. , Gałązka K. , Galdon-Quiroga J. , Galeani S. , Galperti C. , Garavaglia S. , Garcia-Munoz M. , Gaudio P. , Gelfusa M. , Genoud J. , Gerrú Miguelanez R. , Ghillardi G. , Giacomin M. , Gil L. , Gillgren A. , Giroud C. , Golfinopoulos T. , Goodman T. , Gorini G. , Gorno S. , Grenfell G. , Griener M. , Gruca M. , Gyergyek T. , Hafner R. , Hamed M. , Hamm D. , Han W. , Harrer G. , Harrison J.R. , Hassabis D. , Henderson S. , Hennequin P. , Hidalgo-Salaverri J. , Hogge J-P. , Hoppe M. , Horacek J. , Huber A. , Huett E. , Iantchenko A. , Innocente P. , Ionita-Schrittwieser C. , Ivanova Stanik I. , Jablczynska M. , Jansen van Vuuren A. , Jardin A. , Järleblad H. , Järvinen A.E. , Kalis J. , Karimov R. , Karpushov A.N. , Kavukcuoglu K. , Kay J. , Kazakov Y. , Keeling J. , Kirjasuo A. , Koenders J.T.W. , Kohli P. , Komm M. , Kong M. , Kovacic J. , Kowalska-Strzeciwilk E. , Krutkin O. , Kudlacek O. , Kumar U. , Kwiatkowski R. , Labit B. , Laguardia L. , Laszynska E. , Lazaros A. , Lee K. , Lerche E. , Linehan B. , Liuzza D. , Lunt T. , Macusova E. , Mancini D. , Mantica P. , Maraschek M. , Marceca G. , Marchioni S. , Mariani A. , Marin M. , Marinoni A. , Martellucci L. , Martin Y. , Martin P. , Martinelli L. , Martinelli F. , Martin-Solis J.R. , Masillo S. , Masocco R. , Masson V. , Mathews A. , Mattei M. , Mazon D. , Mazzi S. , Mazzi S. , Medvedev S.Y. , Meineri C. , Mele A. , Menkovski V. , Merle A. , Meyer H. , Mikszuta-Michalik K. , Miron I.G. , Molina Cabrera P.A. , Moro A. , Murari A. , Muscente P. , Mykytchuk D. , Nabais F. , Napoli F. , Nem R.D. , Neunert M. , Nielsen S.K. , Nielsen A. , Nocente M. , Noury S. , Nowak S. , Nyström H. , Offeddu N. , Olasz S. , Oliva F. , Oliveira D.S. , Orsitto F.P. , Osborne N. , Oyola Dominguez P. , Pan O. , Panontin E. , Papadopoulos A.D. , Papagiannis P. , Papp G. , Passoni M. , Pastore F. , Pau A. , Pavlichenko R.O. , Pedersen A.C. , Pedrini M. , Pelka G. , Peluso E. , Perek A. , Perez Von Thun C. , Pesamosca F. , Pfau D. , Piergotti V. , Pigatto L. , Piron C. , Piron L. , Pironti A. , Plank U. , Plyusnin V. , Poels Y.R.J. , Pokol G.I. , Poley-Sanjuan J. , Poradzinski M. , Porte L. , Possieri C. , Poulsen A. , Pueschel M.J. , Pütterich T. , Quadri V. , Rabinski M. , Ragona R. , Raj H. , Redl A. , Reimerdes H. , Reux C. , Ricci D. , Riedmiller M. , Rienäcker S. , Rigamonti D. , Rispoli N. , Rivero-Rodriguez J.F. , Romero Madrid C.F. , Rueda Rueda J. , Ryan P.J. , Salewski M. , Salmi A. , Sassano M. , Sauter O. , Schoonheere N. , Schrittwieser R.W. , Sciortino F. , Selce A. , Senni L. , Sharapov S. , Sheikh U.A. , Sieglin B. , Silva M. , Silvagni D. , Simmendefeldt Schmidt B. , Simons L. , Solano E.R. , Sozzi C. , Spolaore M. , Spolladore L. , Stagni A. , Strand P. , Sun G. , Suttrop W. , Svoboda J. , Tal B. , Tala T. , Tamain P. , Tardocchi M. , Tema Biwole A. , Tenaglia A. , Terranova D. , Testa D. , Theiler C. , Thornton A. , Thrysoe A.S. , Tomes M. , Tonello E. , Torreblanca H. , Tracey B. , Tsimpoukelli M. , Tsironis C. , Tsui C.K. , Ugoletti M. , Vallar M. , van Berkel M. , van Mulders S. , van Rossem M. , Venturini C. , Veranda M. , Verdier T. , Verhaegh K. , Vermare L. , Vianello N. , Viezzer E. , Villone F. , Vincent B. , Vincenzi P. , Voitsekhovitch I. , Votta L. , Vu N.M.T. , Wang Y. , Wang E. , Wauters T. , Weiland M. , Weisen H. , Wendler N. , Wiesen S. , Wiesenberger M. , Wijkamp T. , Wüthrich C. , Yadykin D. , Yang H. , Yanovskiy V. , Zebrowski J. , Zestanakis P. , Zuin M. , Zurita M. 
Published: October 2024

Abstract
Tokamak à configuration variable (TCV), recently celebrating 30 years of near-continual operation, continues in its missions to advance outstanding key physics and operational scenario issues for ITER and the design of future power plants such as DEMO. The main machine heating systems and operational changes are first described. Then follow five sections: plasma scenarios. ITER Base-Line (IBL) discharges, triangularity studies together with X3 heating and N2 seeding. Edge localised mode suppression, with a high radiation region near the X-point is reported with N2 injection with and without divertor baffles in a snowflake configuration. Negative triangularity (NT) discharges attained record, albeit transient, β
N ∼ 3 with lower turbulence, higher low-Z impurity transport, vertical stability and density limits and core transport better than the IBL. Positive triangularity L-Mode linear and saturated ohmic confinement confinement saturation, often-correlated with intrinsic toroidal rotation reversals, was probed for D, H and He working gases. H-mode confinement and pedestal studies were extended to low collisionality with electron cyclotron heating obtaining steady state electron iternal transport barrier with neutral beam heating (NBH), and NBH driven H-mode configurations with off-axis co-electron cyclotron current drive. Fast particle physics. The physics of disruptions, runaway electrons and fast ions (FIs) was developed using near-full current conversion at disruption with recombination thresholds characterised for impurity species (Ne, Ar, Kr). Different flushing gases (D2, H2) and pathways to trigger a benign disruption were explored. The 55 kV NBH II generated a rich Alfvénic spectrum modulating the FI fas ion loss detector signal. NT configurations showed less toroidal Alfvén excitation activity preferentially affecting higher FI pitch angles. Scrape-off layer and edge physics. gas puff imaging systems characterised turbulent plasma ejection for several advanced divertor configurations, including NT. Combined diagnostic array divertor state analysis in detachment conditions was compared to modelling revealing an importance for molecular processes. Divertor physics. Internal gas baffles diversified to include shorter/longer structures on the high and/or low field side to probe compressive efficiency. Divertor studies concentrated upon mitigating target power, facilitating detachment and increasing the radiated power fraction employing alternative divertor geometries, optimised X-point radiator regimes and long-legged configurations. Smaller-than-expected improvements with total flux expansion were better modelled when including parallel flows. Peak outer target heat flux reduction was achieved (>50%) for high flux-expansion geometries, maintaining core performance (H
98 > 1). A reduction in target heat loads and facilitated detachment access at lower core densities is reported. Real-time control. TCV’s real-time control upgrades employed MIMO gas injector control of stable, robust, partial detachment and plasma β feedback control avoiding neoclassical tearing modes with plasma confinement changes. Machine-learning enhancements include trajectory tracking disruption proximity and avoidance as well as a first-of-its-kind reinforcement learning-based controller for the plasma equilibrium trained entirely on a free-boundary simulator. Finally, a short description of TCV’s immediate future plans will be given.