bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gender Identity Among U.S. Adults
Authors: Kiecolt K. Jill , Hughes Michael , Momplaisir Hans 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter investigates how gender identity as a social identity fits into people’s lives and how social factors influence it, by drawing on identity theory and social identity theory. Empirical research on this question is surprisingly limited, despite widespread interest in gender identity in the social sciences and humanities. Using data from the 2014 Identity Module in the U.S. General Social Survey, we examine four dimensions of gender identity: importance, salience, pride, and verification. All four dimensions feature prominently in men’s and women’s lives. Gender identity is stronger for parents than for non-parents. In contrast, marriage/cohabitation and employment status are mostly unrelated to gender identity. Gender identity tends to be stronger among women, racial/ethnic minorities, and the less educated. We conclude that gender identity is an omnipresent reality in most people’s lives and that it contributes to maintaining gender as a set of categories that organize social relations.
Racial Identity and Racial Attitudes Among White Americans
Authors: Hunt Matthew O. , Reichelmann Ashley V. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter explores how five dimensions of white racial identity are associated with one another and with white Americans’ racial attitudes. Drawing on data from the 2014 General Social Survey Identity Module, we first examine the relationships among five aspects of whites’ racial identities: prominence, salience, private self-regard, public self-regard, and verification. We then examine the implications of these aspects of racial identity for whites’ reported and preferred distance from, stereotypes about, and support for policies designed to benefit black Americans. In so doing, we contribute to the long-standing identity theory project of demonstrating how identities shape other elements of social life, including the construction and maintenance of social inequalities. We also contribute to the growing research literature on “whiteness” and its implications for intergroup relations in the United States.
New England
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter focuses mainly on developments in the law of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which was founded as a Puritan utopia to display to rest of the world how a society should be governed. Although Massachusetts incorporated elements of the common law into its legal system, the dominant source of law was the word of God. But the divine word, which was enforced by the magistrates of the Court of Assistants, sometimes met resistance from local juries. A major issue throughout the 1630s and 1640s was whether the magistrates or local people would have final authority to determine the substance of the law; the issue was resolved in 1649 by providing for appeals in all cases of judge-jury disagreement to the General Court sitting as a unicameral body in which representatives of localities outnumbered the magistrates and thus had final authority. The chapter ends with a brief look at legal developments in Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth, and Rhode Island.
Ready Acceptance of the Common Law: Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the South
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
William Penn and the Quakers who had earlier settled West Jersey appear to have understood, as had Lord Baltimore a half century earlier in Maryland, that the common law provided the best possible protection of property rights and that protecting the property of Quaker settlers was the best means of protecting their religious freedom. Accordingly, both Pennsylvania and West Jersey adopted the common law at their first settlement. East Jersey Puritans interposed some resistance to the common law, but the colony gradually adopted it as it gained traction in neighboring New York. All colonies south of Virginia received the common law at their founding.
Property, Commercial Law, Labor Law, and Slavery
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses the substantive law of property, commercial law, labor law, and slavery. Its main claim is that the law supported a free-market economy in which wealth holders engaged in transactions they desired, always subject, however, to regulation for the benefit of the community at large and for the protection of its least fortunate members. Even slaves received significant protection from the law, although the fact that they could be sold to pay for their masters’ debts (but perhaps not in New England) led to the breakup of slave families and communities and to horrific suffering.
The Law of Religion
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
With the accession of William III to the throne, Parliament in 1689 adopted an Act of Toleration that required every jurisdiction in the empire to allow all Protestants to practice their religious beliefs. Colonies were permitted to retain their denominational establishments, but they could no longer persecute Protestants who practiced other Protestant faiths. The chapter shows that over the course of the eighteenth century established denominations tended to grow weaker, and all colonies evolved in the direction of maintaining a sort of generic Protestant establishment.
Weakening the Bonds of Empire
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Patterns of compromise and respect for colonial and imperial government concerns began to fray in the mid-1730s, thereby weakening the bonds of empire. A major event was the widely published Zenger case in New York, in which a local jury nullified a royal governor’s demands. Conflict between royal and local interests continued in connection with the matter of the pistole fee and the Parson’s Cause in Virginia, with regard to the chartering of a college in New York, and in a series of Pennsylvania cases ignoring acts of Parliament and other English law. A key moment of conflict was the 1761 Writs of Assistance Case in Massachusetts. In conjunction, these cases developed a body of American constitutional theory in sharp contrast to the prevailing norm of parliamentary supremacy.
Severing the Ties of Empire
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines legal developments between the passage of the Declaratory Act and the outbreak of the American Revolution. It also examines various rebellions against colonial governments that took place during the 1760s. In the end it shows how policies of conciliation and compromise that had made the British empire function effectively in the mid-eighteenth century broke down by the mid-1770s.
Intimate Lies and the Law
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Suppose you discovered one day that the foundations of your life were shakier than you ever imagined. An intimate relationship that you thought was grounded in trust actually depended on deception. After the initial shock and sadness, you might wonder whether the law will help you secure redress for your injuries. But most deceived intimates get no help from the courts, even when they have endured significant financial, physical, or emotional harm. Why not? Deception within intimate relationships can cause severe—even life-altering—damage. But the law has shielded this persistent and pervasive source of injury, routinely denying deceived intimates access to the remedies that are available for deceit in other contexts. This is the first book that systematically examines deception in sexual, marital, and familial relationships and uncovers the hidden body of law that governs such deceit. It argues that the law has placed too much emphasis on protecting intimate deceivers and too little importance on helping the people they deceive. The law can and should do more to recognize, prevent, and redress the injuries that intimate deception can inflict, giving deceived intimates access to the same remedies they would have if equivalently deceived outside of intimacy, countering incentives to deceive, and thwarting duplicitous intimates from carrying out their plans. Entering an intimate relationship—or being duped into one—should not mean losing the law’s protection from deceit.
Why Do People Deceive Their Intimates?
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter focuses on what motivates intimate deceivers, presenting a taxonomy of common motivations. The book starts by examining deceivers because legal and popular scrutiny of intimate deception too often begins with the people who have been deceived, faulting them for having been fooled. Although there can be substantial variations between individual cases, the motivations behind intimate deception tend to reflect recurring themes. Psychological factors can make some people more likely to deceive their intimates. In addition, there can be tremendous concrete and practical incentives to deceive intimates or to deceive people into intimacy—and the law itself has created or exacerbated some of those incentives. Courts denying remedies sometimes minimize or discount the role that deception played in an intimate relationship. But exploring why people deceive their intimates reveals that deceit can be crucially significant to relationships and can produce enormous benefits for deceivers.
Why Does Intimate Deception Work?
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter considers why deceivers often succeed in duping their intimates. Judges frequently blame deceived intimates for having been fooled, but detecting intimate deception can be very difficult. First, almost all of us have much less ability to spot deception than we may like to imagine. Second, powerful social norms discourage the investigation of intimates. Third, it is often difficult or impossible to mount an investigation without the investigation itself jeopardizing or ending the relationship because the investigated person finds out about it. Practical realities often preclude reconnaissance without the subject’s knowledge. Moreover, the law prohibits—for legitimate and important reasons—many forms of research into someone else’s life without the subject’s consent. It is deeply ironic for courts to fault plaintiffs for not swiftly uncovering intimate deception when laws protecting privacy and security make investigating a potentially deceptive intimate without that intimate’s consent much more difficult.
Conclusion
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Deceit within intimate relationships is a persistent part of life and a consistent issue for the law. The legal rules, practices, and presumptions governing intimate deception have attracted little attention, remaining overlooked or assumed in the background rather than studied in the light. But this far-reaching body of law shapes both the everyday details and the overarching course of many lives, structuring people’s decisionmaking, struggles, and opportunities. Intimate deception and the law governing it require much more critical scrutiny. The law of intimate deception is too important and needs too much reform to be hidden in plain sight.
Antisatellite Weapons and the Growing Instability of Deterrence
Authors: Bahney Benjamin W. , Pearl Jonathan , Markey Michael 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
During the Cold War, satellite capabilities reinforced nuclear deterrence because the superpowers relied on them to reinforce second-strike stability for nuclear weapons. Antisatellite technology was deployed, but it was also immature. Today, the broader use of space for conventional power projection, together with more mature target discrimination and antisatellite technology, create strong incentives for both the United States and its adversaries to conduct counter-space operations. The United States’ military power projection is utterly dependent on space assets for command, control, communications, intelligence, and targeting, but satellites are increasingly vulnerable to antisatellite capabilities, including not only direct attacks on satellites but also indirect cyber and electronic warfare interference on satellites, links, and ground-based control infrastructure. Several cross-domain options are available for deterrence both by denial (the threat of effective defense) and by punishment (the threat of retaliation). Unfortunately, the lack of shared norms regarding space warfare has uncertain consequences for escalation dynamics.
Alive Still
Authors: Curtis Cathy 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
In 1942, at age twenty, after a vision-impaired and rebellious childhood in Richmond, Virginia, Nell Blaine decamped for New York. Operations had corrected her eyesight, and she was newly aware of modern art, so different from the literal style of her youthful drawings. In Manhattan, she met rising young artists and poets. Her life was hectic, with raucous parties in her loft, lovers of both sexes, and freelance design jobs, including a stint at the Village Voice. Initially drawn to the rigorous formalism of Piet Mondrian, she received critical praise for her jazzy abstractions. During the 1950s, she began to paint interiors and landscapes. By 1959, when the Whitney Museum purchased one of her paintings, her career was firmly established. That year, she contracted a severe form of polio on a trip to Greece; suddenly, she was a paraplegic. Undaunted, she taught herself to paint in oil with her left hand, reserving her right hand for watercolors. In her postpolio work, she achieved a freer style, expressive of the joy she found in flowers and landscapes. Living half the year in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and the other half in New York, she took special delight in painting the views from her windows and from her country garden. Critics found her new style irresistible, and she had a loyal circle of collectors; still, she struggled to earn enough money to pay the aides who made her life possible. At her side for her final twenty-nine years was her lover, painter Carolyn Harris.
Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This volume offers a fresh interpretation of Islamic punishments, namely ḥudūd, qiṣāṣ, and taʿzīr, based on a holistic reading of Qur’anic verses on the subject. To do this, the book provides a detailed review of the existing interpretations that have dominated the field. Also provided is a roundup of opinion of the leading contemporary scholars of Islamic law on many of the outstanding issues. The debate in Malaysia is covered in a separate section in some detail. This is because Malaysia provides a good case study of the problematics of Islamic criminal law in a contemporary Muslim society with effects on a sizeable non-Muslim minority. The discussion also provides a series of shorter reviews on similar issues in fourteen other Muslim countries
The Police’s Fault?
Authors: Nassauer Anne 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Chapter 3 argues that police strategies and tactics do not cause protest violence directly. The chapter discusses different policing styles in the United States and Germany and shows that police strategies, agents provocateurs, and specific police cultures alone cannot lead to the eruption of violence. It explains how police strategies are often not implemented, and—contrary to common assumptions—if implemented, rigid police strategies alone cannot cause violence. Instead, soft strategies may favor escalation if they coincide with specific situational patterns. Yet situational dynamics, not the strategy, are key for violence to break out. Specific police actions, namely police mismanagement during a protest, can favor violence. Police mismanagement refers to situations in which operational command lacks overview or a course of action or communication among units is severely disrupted or breaks down. Mismanagement can lead to the emergence of violence in combination with other interactions between protesters and police.
Uncertainty
Authors: Nassauer Anne 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Chapter 6 sheds light on the missing information path, the third path to violence in the protest marches analyzed. As in the other two paths, interpersonal violence between protesters and police breaks out due to interactions, interpretations, and emotional dynamics during the protest. In this third path spatial incursions, escalation signs, and communication problems between protesters and police lead to violence. Chapter 6 shows that their interplay is vital. Using detailed case vignettes, the chapter illustrates how missing information regarding the other side’s goals and intentions in light of escalation signs and spatial incursions during the protest increases us–them boundaries and heightens tensions and fear. A first section of the chapter looks at the role of uncertainty and rumors in escalating situations. A second section discusses missing information as a key dynamic in leading to violence across protest marches.
How to Keep Protests Peaceful
Authors: Nassauer Anne 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Chapter 8 discusses the practical implications of the findings discussed in Chapters 2 to 7. It highlights that violence can be avoided on the micro-level and presents specific measures to do so. First, it discusses the relevance of a flow of communication between protesters and police, clear territorial boundaries, and preventing rumors from spreading. It outlines boredom as a vital factor against violence. Second, the chapter highlights practical measures, such as focusing on communication, focusing on effective police management, respecting territorial boundaries, increasing awareness of the effect of escalation signs and property damage, as well as focusing on the danger zone of 1½ to 2½ hours after the start of a protest, during which time violence usually occurs. Discussing detailed examples of protests in Germany and the United States from 1960 until 2010, the chapter indicates that much can be done on the micro-level to prevent violent clashes if we know what to look for.
Situational Breakdowns Beyond Protest Violence
Authors: Nassauer Anne 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Chapter 9 explores whether the books’ findings hold in other contexts by examining other instances of surprising outcomes. First, the chapter discusses the outbreak of violence in uprisings after police shootings of African American citizens in the United States, such as Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014 and Baltimore, Maryland, in 2015. The first section takes a detailed look at the role of background and context factors (such as symbolic and systemic racism) and situational patterns in uprisings turning violent. Then the chapter discusses successful and failed armed store robberies. Here the surprising outcome is not violence but armed criminals failing to get the money from an unarmed store clerk. Findings suggest similar patterns of situational breakdowns in these occurrences as in protests and uprisings. Overall, the chapter discusses the crucial importance of the micro-level of social phenomena: if routines of both collective and individual social events are disrupted, surprising outcomes occur.
Introduction
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
There has been much scholarly work on the interface between science and religion in the United States and the United Kingdom, but little has been done to compare these to other countries and regions around the world. By studying what scientists think about religion in eight national and regional contexts—the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Turkey, India, Hong Kong, and Taiwan—the researchers provide a more global and nuanced view of science and religion around the world. The chapter previews the methodological scope of the research, findings from each national context, and the main claims of the book.
United States
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
US scientists believe that the US religious public is generally antiscience. However the views of religious Americans are much more nuanced and religious Americans are often more open to science and scientific issues than scientists would believe. Nevertheless, scientists’ perceptions of the religious public in the United States shape their views of religion and science. Scientists who are religious generally keep their science and their faith separate. Religious scientists feel they are at risk of discrimination within the scientific community, because of existing stereotypes about religious people. Religious scientists are often influenced by their faith when choosing scientific work that they think will have a beneficial impact on society.
United Kingdom
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Religiosity overall is decreasing in the United Kingdom. Yet recent waves of new immigrants entering the country are bringing religious diversity to the country and to science. While Christianity has long been the majority religion in the United Kingdom, the increased presence of Islam, Hinduism, and other religions is changing the nature of the UK scientific workplace. In particular, scientists have been affected, as detailed in their interviews, by the presence of Muslim students and colleagues, fearing for example that more Muslims in science will lead to increased antievolution sentiment. In addition to the impact of immigration, the influence of the so-called New Atheists is strong within the United Kingdom. However despite their seemingly large presence, scientists in the United Kingdom, whether religious or nonreligious, are often more moderate, more willing to collaborate, and more open to religion than the New Atheists seem to indicate.
France
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
France is characterized by its assertive secularism and its strong separation of church and state. Its official policy of laїcité means that there is not as much potential for conflict between religion and science because they are kept so separate and public expressions of religion are suppressed. Because religion is overall absent from the public sphere, it is all the more obvious when it does come up; and thus Muslim women who wear headscarves feel increased discrimination within science because of this visible symbol of their faith. Because religion is kept out of the public sphere, and thus out of science, there seems to be little room for collaboration or dialogue.
Turkey
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Turkey is a predominantly Muslim nation. However in recent years the nature of religion in Turkey is changing drastically. While there has been a long history of secularism in the country, recent political changes are seemingly moving the country in a direction of religious freedom and expression. Yet, as scientists expressed in their interviews, it is a specific religious ideology that is being pushed. These changes in government and politics have had an impact on Turkey’s scientific community. Scientists are leaving the uncertainty of scientific work in Turkey for more stability in other nations.