bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Peruvian Stylistic Influences in Ecuador
Authors: Collier Donald 
Published: June 2018

Several attempts have been made in the past to recognize in prehistoric Ecuador the influence of various Peruvian horizon styles. These Peruvian influences, if real, are of considerable chronological and historical importance. It is my purpose to examine and assess them by considering three groups of Ecuadorean materials, namely, ceramics, gold, and gilded copper from Azuay, and carved stone from Manabí.In order to interpret fully the meaning of Peruvian resemblances in Ecuador, it is necessary to know the relative chronological position of the Ecuadorean materials showing these resemblances. Unfortunately, despite the advantage of a widely distributed Inca horizon style in Ecuador, which serves to identify the terminal phases of regional archaeological sequences, there is no satisfactory chronological system for the country as a whole, nor for any one of its regions.
Physical Stratigraphy
Authors: King Arden R. 
Published: June 2018

It is proposed to discuss the physical aspects of the stratigraphy before entering into a discussion of the cultural remains of the Cattle Point site. The reasons for this are manifold. First, the differentiation of the strata on a purely physical basis will give us some idea of the different occupations of the site. Second, the widely differing nature of the layers offers some opportunity of dating the cultural remains in terms of strata which show time and content differences. Third, the shell and animal remains of the strata provide still another basis for differentiating the archaeological remains of the site. These reasons, and many more which will come out in the following discussion, serve as adequate cause for considering the physical aspects of the strata before the cultural.In the three main areas of the site which were excavated we find distinct stratification. There exists a correlation between all three areas of the site as well.
Ornaments and Decorated Objects
Authors: King Arden R. 
Published: June 2018

Canine tooth: 1 (L 3.75). Large canine tooth with grooving at tip of the root for attachment to a string or thong. From the Late phase (Fig. 17,1).Constricted neck pendant: 1 (L 3.1; breadth of base 1.5; breadth of neck 0.9; breadth of head 1.3). A finely ground and polished pendant of generalized rectanguloid shape. The grinding has produced a constriction near one end, isolating that end as a head for attachment. Encircling the head end are two grooves. The bottom end has one encircling groove. A perforation runs laterally through the pendant at the constriction. Elliptical cross section. From the Developmental phase (Fig. 17,2).
Un-Dating the Canadian Arctic
Authors: McGhee Robert , Tuck James A. 
Published: June 2018

While the C-14 Method of dating has perhaps been the most important tool ever developed for prehistorians, the results of this technique have not been an unmixed blessing. This is especially true in the far north where wood charcoal, the standard medium for C-14 determinations in most other areas, is only infrequently recovered. Other substances—bone, ivory, blubber, and skin from sea mammals; sod, grass, and peat; bone and antler from terrestrial mammals; and occasionally driftwood or locally available twigs either burned or unaltered—have been submitted for radiocarbon analysis in the hope of unraveling the complex relationships between man and nature in the Arctic through the development of accurate absolute chronologies of events which characterized Eskimo prehistory during the last four or five thousand years.Most prehistorians engaged in Arctic research have long been aware of gross inconsistencies in the results obtained from C-14 laboratories, and several specialists from these laboratories have offered suggestions for correcting our anomalous results. To date, however, no one seems to have taken the trouble to collect radiocarbon determinations from the Arctic and evaluate them with respect to the known but only partially explained discrepancies between dates obtained on wood charcoal and those obtained on other substances. The following attempt to do so for Arctic Canada and northern Greenland is an indication of what might be accomplished by a less indiscriminate use of radiocarbon dates.
Radiocarbon Dates and Early Man
Authors: Roberts Frank H. H. 
Published: June 2018

The results of carbon 14 tests on materials falling within the early man category are in some respects as surprising as a few of those in other fields, but on the whole they are reasonably satisfactory. Because of the regional distribution of the samples and the number of people who sent them in, several nominally belonging in this group are discussed elsewhere. The latter include Gypsum cave, Leonard rockshelter, the early horizons in California and Oregon and the material from South America.The age of the well-known Folsom complex caused considerable comment when the figure pertaining to the type site was released. The average of 4283 ± 250 years obtained from sample 377 was entirely too low in the opinion of many archaeologists and geologists and was completely out of line with dates for other materials known to be later stratigraphically. Because of this, Harold J. Cook, who provided the charcoal used in the test, returned to and carefully reexamined the Folsom quarry in 1950.
Discussion of the Geologic Material Dated by Radiocarbon, a Brief
Authors: Flint Richard Foster 
Published: June 2018

Results from the geologic material are necessarily spotty, owing to the difficulties involved in obtaining samples that were both suitable for assay and derived from horizons whose stratigraphic position is known unequivocally. Many samples assayed were taken from horizons whose stratigraphic position is subject to doubt.Two general results have emerged from the assay of samples of primarily geologic significance: (1) The dates obtained fall roughly into the same order as the stratigraphic sequence of deposits from which the corresponding samples were collected. From this it is inferred that most of the dates are acceptable as to relative position. (2) The dates obtained are generally more recent than had been believed by many geologists. A result of this nature has been welcomed by some, who believe it is more consistent with the observed slight weathering and erosion of the latest drift sheets than are the older dates current hitherto.
Problems related to delimiting the culture areas of Asia
Authors: Bacon Elizabeth E. 
Published: June 2018

Since 1944, the writer has given some thought to the problems of marking out the culture areas of Asia, although there has not been opportunity for anything like a comprehensive trait distribution study of the continent (Bacon & Hudson, 1945; Bacon, 1946). This paper, then, must be regarded only as a tentative second step in formulating some of the problems involved, and in mapping the culture areas of the continent (cf. Naroll, 1950, for mapping of Bacon, 1946).Sapir defined culture areas as “groups of geographically contiguous tribes that exhibit so many cultural traits in common as to contrast with other such groups” (1949, p. 425). Although in Asia we are frequently dealing with nations rather than with tribes, Sapir's definition appears for the most part to be as acceptable for Asia as Wissler and Kroeber found it for North America and Herskovits for Africa.
Some Problems in the Relationship between Tlingit Archaeology and Ethnology
Authors: de Lacuna Frederica 
Published: June 2018

In 1949, I undertook an archaeological and ethnological survey of northern Tlingit territory in Alaska. Whereas a good deal was known about Tlingit ethnology, the archaeology of these people was virtually unexplored. Although the northern Tlingit have a culture which is in many respects less rich than that of their southern neighbors, they were presumably middlemen in passing on to the latter those cultural influences which eminated from the Asiatic North Pacific. Also in northern Tlingit territory we ought to find an archaeological horizon or horizons characterized by those traits which link the ancient cultures of the Aleut and Pacific Eskimo area and the Coast Salish area.The tribal territories of the Yakutat on the Gulf of Alaska and of the Angoon or Hootznuwu on Admiralty Island near the center of the southeastern Alaskan archipelago were found to be the most promising for a study of Tlingit culture history, and accordingly in 1950 a whole season was spent at Angoon.
2. History
Authors: Heyerdahl Thor , Skjölsvold Arne 
Published: June 2018

A brief synopsis of post-Spanish activities in the Galapagos will here be included since the prehistory of the islands may be better appreciated against the background of known historic events.The group was visited for the first time by Europeans in 1535, when a ship carrying the Bishop of Panama, Tomás de Berlanga, was helplessly caught by the offshore current while sailing southwards along the mainland coast bound for Peru. In the area where El Niño and the Humboldt Current join forces Berlanga's sailing vessel was caught in a 6-day lull and immediately started a rapid drift away from the coast. After drifting helplessly in the doldrums for 10 days the vessel came in sight of an island on the 10th day of March. In a subsequent report from Tomás de Berlanga to the Emperor of Spain, dated the 26th of April, 1535, the Bishop speaks of the futile search for water on this newly discovered island where the ship's crew encountered strange iguanas resembling serpents and tortoises so large that each one could carry a man on its back.
Chapter 4: The Graduation of Survivorship Data
Authors: Weiss Kenneth M. 
Published: June 2018

The mortality between adjacent age classes can be estimated from the survivorship schedules derived in Chapter 3. The data, however, differ in each case in the number, size, and age limits of the age classes; therefore, it is not possible to derive strictly comparable information from the data sets. Further, it is not yet possible to define the internal mortality structure of each age class which must be known for the computation of many elements of the life table.If we assume, as is commonly done in demography, that human mortality patterns follow some function of age, then we can fit our 50 source populations to that function and assume that deviations from that fit are merely stochastic. This process of curve fitting is called graduation, and it is a powerful and useful smoothing operation for mortality or survivorship data.
I. The Theoretical Framework
Authors: Mueller James W. 
Published: June 2018

A general outline of, and justification for, this study, as well as a discussion of the major related concepts, are presented in this chapter.Carl Lloyd supervised an archaeological survey of the area adjacent to the Ackmen pueblo in southwestern Colorado in 1937 in order to supplement the data recovered from the excavation of this famous site. Sixty-six quarter-sections (each equivalent to a ¼ sq mi area) measuring ½ mi on each side, were intensively surveyed by a large crew. Members of the crew were stationed 100 ft apart along the ½-mi width of the quarter-section, and the entire crew walked across the ½-mi length of the quarter-section.From each section consisting of 4 quarter-sections, 2 diagonal quarter-sections were selected for investigation. Lloyd assumed that 66 surveyed quarter-sections would reflect adequately, at least, on a 33-sq mi area near the rim. This assumption was based on the rather large (50%) sampling fraction that he employed. He was not certain that his survey methods would produce a contribution to the archaeology of the area and stated the uncertainty as follows: “Given a discontinous intensive archaeological survey of a region, what contributions can be made to the archaeology of that region by means of an analysis of the data thus obtained?” (Lloyd 1938:282). He did not explicitly answer that question during the course of his report. However, I believe that his answer was implicitly positive, that is, the kind of survey he performed did produce a meaningful contribution to the archaeology of the Ackmen-Lowry region.
Chapter 2: Source Data
Authors: Weiss Kenneth M. 
Published: June 2018

Our model life tables are based on data from censused primitive populations and from aged skeletal populations ranging from early lithic to medieval European cultures.Censuses among relatively unacculturated primitive populations are rare. Most of the censused groups have long been contacted and affected by Europeans. They have been exposed to European diseases and medicine, affected by trade and technology, or influenced by missions and schooling among Europeans. Many live in reservation areas, or are otherwise confined by industrial populations which have invaded their former territories. It is difficult to isolate from published accounts the precise effect of contact on the population censuses utilized for this work, this source of “error”—that is, demography not representative of aboriginal conditions—is difficult to control. Yet, this work is not intended for use solely with primitive populations; were this the case, it should have been published 50 yr ago when there were more “aboriginals” remaining. Rather, it is intended to apply to any populations of interest to anthropologists, regardless of their degree of acculturation or development, so long as they can be said to approximate stable population assumptions.
6 Culture History of the Site
Authors: Binford Lewis R. , Binford Sally R. , Whallon Robert , Hardin Margaret Ann 
Published: June 2018

In this section we move from the analysis of various formal classes of data defined by non-historical criteria to an anlysis of categories of artifacts treated historically, i.e., their spatial and formal characteristics within the remains of single communities.The discussion of these occupations, although suspected of being rather numerous, must by virtue of the nature of the data be very skimpy. The relevant data are amost exclusively obtained from the surface collections. Their manner of clustering suggests that there was some range of variation in the activities carried out.Even a cursory examination of the projectile points recovered in the surface collection indicates the presence of multiple preceramic occupations. Types represented include Dalton points, Modoc Expanding Stem points, Faulkner Side-Notched points, and points of the Saratoga and Boaz type clusters. The detailed typological analysis of these points, as well as of other chipped stone materials, should make possible a more rigorous definition of the number of components. At present our understanding is limited by the nature of the data thus far analyzed.
2 The Development of Archaeological Knowledge in the Lower Mississippi Valley
Authors: Greengo Robert E. 
Published: June 2018

Observations having some bearing on the archaeology of the Lower Mississippi Valley are to be found in the writings of the early travelers. As the country became settled, accounts of local and regional historical interest often included remarks or occasional papers devoted to the local antiquities. My purpose here is to sketch the conceptualization of prehistory as it was developed through the most significant writings.A plausible argument may be submitted in support of the contention that Thomas Jefferson was the first scientific archaeologist in the United States. Curiously enough, his archaeological influence extended to the Lower Mississippi Valley. This was through H. M. Brackenridge, who went into the Louisiana Territory soon after it was purchased and wrote a number of descriptive accounts of the country.
Chapter 3: The Derivation of Survivorship Schedules
Authors: Weiss Kenneth M. 
Published: June 2018

To utilize skeletal populations, one must assume stable population conditions at the time of deposition of the skeletons; one must also assume that the sample is representative of the population, and that it is free from systematic aging error. In this chapter, we assume that the studies used satisfy these conditions.The procedure for calculating mortality rates based on assigned ages of skeletons is simple and straightforward. Table 1 provides an example, the Illinois Hopewell Indians (Blakely 1971). There are 294 specimens distributed over 8 age classes including children. Assuming that this represents the stable mortality experience of any cohort in a non-growing population, a survivorship schedule can be derived.
10 Horizontal and Vertical Relationships of Bone Units
Authors: Wheat Joe Ben 
Published: June 2018

Complete-Animal Units extended along the bottom of the arroyo from Section 5 on the east to Section 22 on the west (Figs. 30A, 3L4). They were not continuous throughout, and occurred with greatest frequency in the deeper eastern part of the arroyo.Generally speaking, complete-animal units were confined to the inner channel of the arroyo and were thereby constrained to an east or west orientation. However, Units 369,433, 519, 141, and 190 rested at least partly on the upper channel wall.One group of 8 complete-animal units (290, 324, 327, 366, 367, 369, 398, 433) began in the central part of Section 5 and continued almost to Section 10. In Sections 5 and 6, and again in Section 8, they formed a layer at least 2 deep. No complete-animal units were found in Section 10, but following this gap, another (519) was found in the east end of Section 11. A single complete-animal unit (190) occurred along the Section 16-17 line, and another (93) occupied the bottom of the arroyo from the central part of Section 18 well into Section 19.
Chapter 2. Postulates Two Through Six
Authors: Williams B. J. 
Published: June 2018

Given that food is shared within the family and a sexual division of labor with respect to hunting-gathering activities exists, then territorial groups will tend to be patrilocally basedIt has been shown that at least two types of territoriality may be distinguished—sexual and economic. These are associated with societies of animals which, intraspecifically, represent the smallest kind of grouping having maximal autonomy. In species which are largely food-limited, it is the food supply with which autonomy is largely concerned.In species in which the family pair defends an economic territory, both the male and female may engage in this, though the male more frequently than the female. In the social ants, males exist only as breeders, and specialized females defend the territory. In all cases, the territory must be defended by the individuals who range the widest and, in accordance with Postulate One, have contacts with individuals of similar groups.In Homo sapiens, the males defend the territory. There are two major reasons for this, both related to a division of labor along sex lines. The first is that the male, in this division of labor, is the widest ranging of the two sexes. The second is the primate heritage of sexual dimorphism which adapts the male as a combatant more than the female.
Chapter 5. Social Organization
Authors: Williams B. J. 
Published: June 2018

The Birhor constitute a society which is easily distinguished and studied apart from the dominant Indian social groups surrounding them. But they by no means constitute a politically autonomous society. The ultimate characteristics of political autonomy such as capital punishment, the waging of war, and so forth, do not arise as a possibility for the Birhor. Actual contact with the larger society in the form of government power is infrequent, inconsistent, and understood very little by the Birhor. A more important relation with the larger, agricultural Hindu and Muslim society is the traditional caste structure in which the Birhor, regardless of their own opinions, are defined as a very low caste group and are so treated by villagers.The major effect of this caste-like treatment, from the point of view of this study, has been to retard change in the Birhor way of life by denying them land and preserving their traditional relationship to the agricultural villages. This relationship might best be described as a parabiotic or commensal relationship. The most important aspects of this commensal relationship are lack of political autonomy of the Birhor and the importance, to them, of trade with villagers. On the other hand, the life of the villager would be little affected by the presence or absence of the Birhor. The economic aspects of trade between Birhor and villager are described in Chapter 7.
Chapter 9. Some Implications of the Theory
Authors: Williams B. J. 
Published: June 2018

A theory has been developed, in Chapters 1 through 3, of the social organization of hunting-gathering societies. This theory necessarily dealt also with the territorial or residential organization of such groups. Evidence was presented in Chapters 4 through 8 that the large majority of ethnograhpically known hunting-gathering groups corresponds in some detail to what would be expected from the theory. It also appears that occasional cases of matrilocal and bilocal residence, but not composite bands in the sense of neolocal residence, are predictable on ecological grounds from the more widespread patrilineal, patrilocal lineage-band.This theory, then, has implications for the distribution of cultural items and the distribution of genes in past and present hunting societies. Some of these implications are potentially testable, others are not. In the following paragraphs, some of these implications will be presented. They will be presented in two sections—general implications and genetic implications. The first section—the general implications—is a brief section intended to display the possibilities which may be explored based on deduction from the theory. As it is a brief survey it is somewhat superficial and “speculative,” but the implications are real.
A Preliminary Report on New Research on Man-Land Relations in Aboriginal Australia
Authors: Birdsell Joseph B. 
Published: June 2018

More Than 20 Years Ago (1953) research was published on the relationship between mean annual rainfall and the size of the domain occupied by Australian Aboriginal tribal groups. When the original series of 409 tribes was refined to a more homogeneous basic series of 123 tribes, in which all water resources were locally earned as rainfall, the coefficient of correlation between the two variables approached 0.81. This coefficient expressed a systematic inverse logarithmic relationship between the amount of rainfall and the land required to support a tribal population. Further, it carried the implication that tribal populations tended to approximate a constant of 500 persons, based on estimates of tribal size from a variety of observers. The unexplained variance in this statistical relationship amounted to 35% of the total and included a variety of errors in ascertainment, as well as deviations in tribal numbers from the postulated constant. The exercise served to validate the assumption previously made (1950) that tribal numbers in Australia approached a constant value.During the year 1973, as a Visiting Fellow in the Department of Anthropology and in the Department of Prehistory at the Australian National University, Canberra, it was possible to reexamine the relationships between Aboriginal men and their land in Australia at a much more complex level than previously undertaken. The high-speed computer has become available since the first attempt, and extensive resources in a first-class research institution provided the time and data necessary. During the 20 years that have intervened since 1953, the environmental data on continental Australia have increased enormously; it may now be one of the best studied continents in the world in these terms.