bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Contestation Overshoot
Authors: Stephen Matthew D. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter surveys the demands made towards the WTO during the Doha Round by rising powers and twenty of the most influential trade-related transnational NGOs. It also compares these to the demands of established powers. Using techniques from qualitative content analysis and discourse analysis, it analyses these actors’ substantive policy demands, and the argumentative justifications that they provide for their demands. It finds that while the rising powers are largely satisfied with the institutional status quo, they are strongly dissatisfied with existing policy content. Their demands reveal a social purpose that can be described as developmental liberalism. In this approach they have found allies mostly in market-critical civil society organizations.
The Contestation of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Regime
Authors: Müller Harald , Tokhi Alexandros 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The nuclear world order, and more specifically the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), represent since their very creation objects of contestation. This chapter argues that it is the institutionalized power inequality between state parties that creates conflict among them over the distribution of security, economic, and developmental benefits. In that respect, states with growing economic importance and heightened security interests are most likely to contest the status quo, but not necessarily the BRICS states as these are not bound by a common interest or agenda within the regime. To analyse the contestation of the NPT, the chapter adopts a mixed method approach. Through a qualitative content analysis of states’ statements at major institutional gatherings, the chapter identifies four central conflict lines and actors’ preferences regarding the nuclear non-proliferation regime. Linear regression analysis is used to assess the relative influence of different actors groups on the intensity and type of contestation. Results show that the majority of state parties actively and constructively engages with the institution by pushing for institutional reform, recognizing in principle the legitimacy of the institution. Voicing criticism and exposing weaknesses of the institution was the least frequent form of contestation.
Conclusion
Authors: Zürn Michael , Wolf Klaus Dieter , Stephen Matthew D. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The concluding chapter draws together the findings and compares them across chapters, issue areas, and actors. Three findings are most noteworthy. First, the demands of both rising powers and NGOs can be characterized as in some cases status quo oriented and in others reformist. There are only a few signs of revisionism. Second, the challengers do not constitute a coherent group in international politics. There are very few indications of a systemic challenge with similar positions and coalitions in all cases, as power transition theory suggests. Third, the demands for change are issue-area specific and are mostly directed against either unequal representation in the decision-making bodies or strong forms of neo-liberal or human rights-based intrusiveness.
The International Rule of Law—Rise or Decline?—Approaching Current Foundational Challenges
Authors: Krieger Heike , Nolte Georg 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The chapter undertakes a preliminary assessment of current developments of international law for the purpose of mapping the ground for a larger research project. The research project pursues the goal of determining whether public international law, as it has developed since the end of the Cold War, is continuing its progressive move towards a more human-rights- and multi-actor-oriented order, or whether we are seeing a renewed emphasis of more classical elements of international law. In this context the term ‘international rule of law’ is chosen to designate the more recent and ‘thicker’ understanding of international law. The chapter discusses how it can be determined whether this form of international law continues to unfold, and whether we are witnessing challenges to this order which could give rise to more fundamental reassessments.
Complexity Rules (or: Ruling Complexity)
Authors: Broude Tomer 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter is a comment on the capacity of international law to address complex problems such as climate change, as a complement and response to Jutta Brunnée’s preceding chapter. The comment first questions whether complexity is in fact a special case or rather an all-pervading characteristic of international relations, and by extension, of international law. Second, the comment questions—notwithstanding the current angst that internationalist lawyers feel and express due to what seems like a tidal-scale assault on international law—whether the international rule-of-law management of complexity is a particularly contemporary issue, or just another iteration of recurrent, resurgent, occasionally even refreshing, frictions that characterize international law. Third, the comment asks whether the challenges of complexity maintain a special relationship with international law, or whether these are substantially the same as the interactions of these issues with domestic legal systems.
International Law in Times of Anti-Globalism and Populism—Challenges Ahead
Authors: Zimmermann Andreas , Weiß Norman 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter comments on Jan Wouters’ analysis of anti-globalist and populist challenges for international law. It offers a threefold approach consisting of recommendations for an effective multilateralism, efforts to strengthen the United Nations, and to include multilateralism in the domestic political agenda of Western democracies. It concludes by submitting that the output legitimacy of international law understood as the very substance of international law, and the advantages it creates for states (and their respective populations) might eventually undo the current populist developments.
The International Rule of Law in Light of Legitimacy Claims
Authors: Marauhn Thilo 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The chapter looks at legitimacy claims, contrasting them with theories of legitimacy and discussing how such claims may contribute to the ‘rise or decline’ of the international rule of law. The author studies examples from the areas of the ius ad bellum and the ius in bello. He concludes that legitimacy considerations will not allow a proper assessment of ‘rise or decline’ in themselves. Rather it is important to first establish a realistic perspective on what international law can achieve at all. In contrast to expectations that have been raised in particular after the end of the Cold War by many scholars, international law has not become a value-based constitutional arrangement of its constitutive entities, whether these are states or individuals.
Rights and Persons— Hohfeldian Analysis
Authors: Kurki Visa A.J. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The chapter criticizes the Orthodox View of legal personhood for being internally inconsistent and simplistic as well as lacking in explanatory power. It focuses on four different formulations of the Orthodox View, and points out various deficiencies in all of them. The main criticism is that all of the formulations—when assessed in light of contemporary theories of rights—fail to explain jurists’ widely held convictions regarding who or what is a legal person. The critique is based on the Hohfeldian analysis of legal relations, which is also presented in this chapter.
The Incidents of Legal Personhood
Authors: Kurki Visa A.J. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The chapter presents a new theory of legal personhood. It argues that legal personhood is a cluster property, and best understood in terms of disseverable but interconnected incidents. It sets out by distinguishing passive and active incidents, and then enumerates and presents both types of incidents. While doing so, the chapter highlights the benefits of an incident-based approach to legal personhood. After presenting the incidents, the notion of a ‘subject of law’ is offered as an alternative way of analysing legal personhood. The chapter concludes by addressing some of the connections between personhood and legal personhood.
Magical Printing
Authors: Asseraf Arthur 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter gives a brief history of newspapers in colonial Algeria, showing how beliefs about newspapers contrasted with their actual usage. The men who conquered Algeria believed that the printing press could bring modernity. This belief can be described as a form of magical thinking. In practice, newspapers behaved in unexpected ways as they interacted with the rest of the news ecosystem. In the summer of 1881, the French Parliament passed two laws that instituted a division between those who could publish and those who could not. But while Europeans dominated printing, they did not control reading. Algerians had read newspapers well before the French arrived, and continued to import publications not intended for them. Yet by the turn of the twentieth century, the belief in magical printing had spread to elite Muslim Algerians, who saw their production of newspapers as an attempt to ‘catch up’ with Europeans.
Wartime
Authors: Asseraf Arthur 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Did people in a colonial society live at the same time? This chapter tests this by looking at different forms of news that circulated around a single event: the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Prophetic manuscripts, rumours, and songs emplotted the same events within different temporalities. A historical manuscript connected to an insurrection in western Algeria used the beginning of war to promise the end of French rule. By contrast, the French administration dismissed this as ‘false news’, using a different historicity that saw rumours as the remains of an archaic past. French historians like the medievalist Marc Bloch who was in Algeria during the war were key to this diagnosis of ‘false news’ that ignored most Algerians’ understanding of the world. Yet certain forms of news could move across communities, in particular the song of Hajj Guillaume, a popular tune that acted like a sung newspaper.
Old Waves
Authors: Asseraf Arthur 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter considers how the news ecosystem could change with the introduction of new technologies, particularly the cinema and the radio. What was unfolding was not a replacement of old forms of media but a superposition of waves upon waves of information in a variety that proved bewildering. The first section explains the development of newsreels in cinemas and radio as new forms of visual and aural news. The technical constraints of the radio made the existing problem of divergent audiences more evident, by placing the spotlight on the issue of spoken language. The second section looks at how these new forms of news contributed to a growing political polarization of Algeria in the 1930s, focusing on news of the Spanish Civil War. The novelty of radio-listening was that it facilitated the formation of new political communities across borders, placing Algeria within a wider transnational conflict between fascism and communism.
Palestine the Martyr
Authors: Asseraf Arthur 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter looks at how debating news of distant events shaped the development of Algerian nationalism. Distance gave Algerians a means to reconsider their own problems on a different scale, to zoom out and reconsider their relationships with each other. It considers two case studies. First, Algerians observed keenly the Italian takeover of neighbouring Libya from 1911 to 1919, and used it to experiment with new forms of political mobilization. However, the interpretation of events in Libya remained volatile. This uncertain interpretation remained a problem during a second moment of mobilization around events in the British mandate of Palestine from 1929 to 1939. Palestine seemed to offer a mirror back to communal relations between Muslims, Jews, and Europeans in Algeria, leading to a number of conflicting interpretations.
Exemptions and Exclusions
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 9 draws up a taxonomy of standard and non-standard exclusions, exemptions, and zero rates, highlights the distortions caused by them and the administrative complexities to which they give rise. Broadly, it compares the treatment of various exemptions in the EU, which have also been adopted by most African countries, with their treatment under New Zealand’s GST and South Africa’s VAT. For political or administrative reasons, all VATs exempt or exclude specified goods, services, activities, entities, or sectors, but most African VATs go much further down this road than accords with VAT’s functionality and logic. Exemptions and exclusions are truly the Achilles heel of the VAT.
Financial Services
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
As shown in Chapter 13, the appropriate treatment of financial services is the single most important design issue that remains to be solved under the VAT. Conventional wisdom holds that margin-based financial services, as opposed to fee-based services, cannot be included in the VAT base calculated on the tax credit method. For this reason, most countries with a VAT exempt financial services entirely, whether margin-based or fee-based. To limit the effects of the rather broad EU type of exemption, two kinds of modifications have been adopted. First, the reach of the full exemption has been narrowed down by taxing fee-based financial services. Second, the cascading effects of the exemption have been mitigated by zero-rating the provision of financial services to registered businesses, providing for partial input VAT recovery. The chapter concludes by drawing some lessons from the analysis which may be useful for African countries.
Small Businesses and Farmers
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 16 discusses VAT registration thresholds and the treatment of farmers. A high threshold of, say, US$50,000 or higher, is recommended to keep the number of taxable persons manageable. The VAT on exempt small businesses should be confined to the tax on their inputs. Although voluntary registration is an important safety valve to limit economic distortions, a minimum threshold, as in South Africa, below which registration is not possible, is recommended. A generous threshold without further ado would also be appropriate for the agricultural sector, except that small exempt farmers would have to cope with the cascading effects of the input VAT. Voluntary registration would not work in view of low literacy levels, the absence of basic accounts, and the lack of communication. The solution appears to lie in a combination of a reasonably high threshold (the same as for other small businesses) and the zero-rating of major agricultural inputs, which have no alternative use outside the agricultural sector.
Smell on the Streets
Authors: Tullett William 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter sets out to offer a more complex picture of smell on the streets of eighteenth-century England than has been offered previously. Far from only being disgusted, urbanites engaged with the smells of putridity and mouldy food in subtle and complex ways that were freighted with questions of social status. This is apparent from domestic advice, jokes, and satirical prints. Yet sanitary records, parliamentary improvement acts, and occupational medicine all offer declining evidence for concerns about the health threats of smell. Despite this, the smells of trades, food, and the streetscapes continued have important social meanings for city-dwellers. A study of the dichotomized olfactory representation of London’s City and the West End demonstrates the continued cultural currency of unsanitary scents.
Material Cultures of Scent
Authors: Tullett William 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
If tobacco was, normatively speaking, the preserve of masculinity then the smelling bottle was the visual symbol of olfactory femininity. Around 1700 the smelling bottle replaced an earlier object, the pomander, as the most popular form of material culture associated with smell. This shift illustrates several wider changes. The shift from the pomander to smelling bottle was a physiological shift from womb to nose; an embodied shift from leaky to stoppered-up visions of corporeality; and a practical shift from creating atmosphere to mitigating against atmospheres created by others. The design, use, and cultural representation of the smelling bottle all testified to these important shifts.
Politics and the Urban Sector in Fifteenth-Century England, 1413-1471
Authors: Hartrich Eliza 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Since the work of K.B. McFarlane in the mid-twentieth century, political histories of late medieval England have focused almost exclusively on the relationship between the Crown and aristocratic landholders. Such studies, however, neglect to consider that England after the Black Death was an urbanizing society. Towns not only were the residence of a rising proportion of the population, but were also the stages on which power was asserted and the places where financial and military resources were concentrated. Outside London, however, most English towns were small compared to those found in medieval Italy or Flanders, and it has been easy for historians to under-estimate their ability to influence English politics. Politics and the Urban Sector in Fifteenth-Century England, 1413–1471 offers a new approach for evaluating the role of urban society inthe political culture of late medieval England. Rather than focusing on English towns individually, it creates a model for assessing the political might that could be exerted by towns collectively as an ‘urban sector’. Based on primary sources from twenty-two towns (ranging from metropolis of London to the tiny Kentish town of Lydd), Politics and the Urban Sector demonstrates how fluctuations in inter-urban relationships affected the content, pace, and language of English politics during the tumultuous fifteenth century. Chapter 1 identifies the different types of links that towns formed with one another and with other members of political society. Chapters 2–5 are arranged chronologically, demonstrating the ways in which the frequent twists and turns of fifteenth-century ‘high politics’—from the reign of Henry V to the Wars of the Roses—were a reflection of the ever-shifting relationships between towns.
Introduction
Authors: Hartrich Eliza 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This introduction suggests that political practices, discourses, and events in fifteenth-century England were shaped by the experiences of those who governed, lived in, and travelled through towns. The tradition, however, of studying individual English towns, rather than assessing the collective influence of multiple towns, has made it difficult for the role of townspeople and urban spaces in English political life to be appreciated. Here, a new methodology is proposed for studying relationships between towns and for tracing the relative strength of this inter-connected ‘urban sector’ at particular points in time. Fluctuations in the membership and strength of this ‘urban sector’ had significant implications for how pivotal events in English history—including the Wars of the Roses—played out.
Introduction
Authors: Rouse William B. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 1 provides the introduction to this book. Predictions can seldom specify what will happen, so, inevitably, one addresses what might happen. There are often many possible futures, with leading indicators and potential tipping points for each scenario. Computational models can be used to explore designs of systems and policies to determine whether these designs will likely be effective and to aid in decision-making. Models are means to ends rather then ends in themselves. Decision-makers seldom crave models. They want their questions answered in an evidence-based manner. Decision-makers want insights that provide them with a competitive advantage. They want to understand possible futures to formulate robust and resilient strategies for addressing these futures.
Elements of Modeling
Authors: Rouse William B. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 2 addresses elements of modeling. Modeling efforts should be driven by the questions that prompted the efforts and the phenomena associated with addressing the questions of interest. Visualizations of the phenomena of interest can help to both engage stakeholders and simplify the trade-offs that need to be addressed. There are a variety of representational paradigms that can be employed to model the evolution of the states of the system of interest. Choices among representations depend on the specific nature of the phenomena of interest, the data available to support use of this representation, and the expertise and preferences of the personnel involved. Computational models—and visualizations—are means to explore phenomena of interest, identify central trade-offs, and foster collaborative solutions. Decision-making teams use models to gain insights into the complexity of their broadly defined enterprise, with an overarching goal of understanding what might happen.
Markets and Competitors
Authors: Rouse William B. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter focuses on humans as consumers of products and services as well as participants in designing these products and services. Human-centered design is a process of considering and balancing the concerns, values, and perceptions of all the stakeholders in a design. Attributes of importance to stakeholders, and the functions that provide these attributes, can be modeled and explored to plan new products and services. Modeling tools that are independent but share representations and data can enable the formulation and exploration of these models. Model-based analyses should compare planned offerings to those of the competition, including the likely reactions of competitors to these offerings. The status quo is compelling because the customer already has it and knows how to use it, and it requires little if any additional expenditures.
Technology Adoption
Authors: Rouse William B. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses how to attach value to technology options. One needs to address the balance between investing in getting better at what you are already doing versus investing in doing new things. There are numerous high-profile examples of companies unsuccessfully addressing this balance, leading to their eventual demise. Technology and process investments create contingent opportunities for later solutions; they are contingent in the sense that they may not emerge. Many markets are inherently laced with uncertainties. If a company is better at managing uncertainty than its competitors are, high profits can result. Strategic value is the sum of the net present value of current lines of business, and the net option value of aspirational lines of business. Options-based thinking can provide a framework for value-centered organizations by characterizing value, assessing value, and managing value.