bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusions and Test Cases
Authors: Lewis Virginia M. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 5 explores the odes for Psaumis of Kamarina and Ergoteles of Himera. After a brief survey of the history of the two cities and the cultural context for the poems, the chapter then argues that Psaumis and Ergoteles offer contrasting examples of the way that Pindar mitigates the status of hybrid citizens in Sicily by writing the victors themselves into their local landscapes and civic ideology that is bound to the landscape. As examples of an immigrant (Ergoteles) and, at least possibly, a Greek of Sikel ethnicity (Psaumis), Ergoteles and Psaumis contrast with the tyrants Hieron and Theron. The poet, it suggests, emphasizes Psaumis’ control of both the landscape and cityscape of Kamarina in Olympian 4 and Olympian 5 and converts him into a quasi-mythical benefactor of the city. On the other hand, Ergoteles, an exiled Cretan, is integrated into the civic fabric of Himera through a bath in the hot springs of the Nymphs. This chapter proposes that Pindar’s emphasis on landscape in the Sicilian odes is a feature that transcends the divide between tyrant and non-tyrant victors. As in the odes for Syracusans and Akragantines, local landscapes in the odes for Kamarina and Himera participate in the formation of civic traditions. It argues, however, that in the cases of odes for victors who are themselves establishing their civic status the victor himself becomes affiliated with the local landscape through Pindar’s poetry.
Introduction
Authors: Larson Carlton F.W. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The Introduction opens with a vignette of James Wilson, prominent attorney and signer of the Declaration of Independence, fighting for his life against members of the Philadelphia militia in the “Fort Wilson” incident of 1779. It then turns to the primary themes of the book: treason and juries. Treason was a central issue of the American Revolution, shaping the early debates over the legality of British actions, the treatment of British adherents, and eventually the suppression of internal rebellions. Juries played a critical role in this process, and this book provides the most detailed analysis of eighteenth-century American jurors yet written. The book focuses on Pennsylvania, as this was the most critical jurisdiction for the law of treason.
The Philadelphia Treason Trials, 1778–1779
Authors: Larson Carlton F.W. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Philadelphia County witnessed the war’s most significant treason trials. The grand jurors who screened the proposed treason indictments were wealthy, prominent Philadelphians who had played significant roles in resistance activities, yet they indicted persons accused of treason at a lower rate than other grand juries did for other crimes. The chapter then introduces the trial jurors. Only 58 men filled 264 identifiable jury seats, and many of these served only once, leaving the other jurors to serve on multiple trials. By working backward from the jurors’ demographic characteristics, one can determine the strategies that defense counsel used in selecting jurors. Under eighteenth-century practice, defendants could peremptorily strike up to 35 jurors, whereas the prosecution could strike none. The chapter presents evidence suggesting that defense counsel used their challenges on the bases of religion, age, ethnicity, wealth, occupation, and political beliefs to shape juries that were more favorable to the defense.
Prologue
Authors: Érdi Péter 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The book begins with three personal stories about the author’s early encounters with comparison, rating, and ranking. The stories demonstrate that ranking might reflect the reality of objectivity in certain cases, while in other cases objectivity is only an illusion. In addition, objectivity might even be manipulated. The first story tells why the only boy with a soccer ball in a grade-school class in postwar Budapest led his class’s popularity list. Then the author describes how subjective ratings of soccer players were aggregated to arrive at an “objective score” for each player at the end of the season. Finally, the author uses a folktale to show how the strongest member of a group can become a self-nominated judge and manipulate what ought to be a collective decision.
Social ranking in animal and human societies
Authors: Érdi Péter 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter studies how social ranking in humans emerged as the result of an evolutionary process. It starts with the story of the discovery of pecking order among chickens by a Norwegian boy. Both animals and humans need a healthy balance between cooperation and competition to ensure evolutionarily efficient strategies. The biological machinery behind social ranking is discussed. There are two distinct mechanisms for navigating the social ladder: dominance and prestige. Dominance, an evolutionarily older strategy, is based on the ability to intimidate other members in the group by physical size and strength. The group members don’t accept dominance-based social rank freely, only by coercion. Members of a colony fight, and the winners of these fights will be accepted as “dominants” and the losers as “subordinates.” The naturally formed hierarchy serves as a way to prevent superfluous fighting and injuries within a colony. Prestige, as a strategy, is evolutionarily younger and is based on skills and knowledge as appraised by the community. Prestige hierarchies are maintained by the consent of the community, without pressure being applied by particular members. The mechanisms of forming and maintaining social hierarchies are described. Social structures, both hierarchies and network organizations, are reviewed. Discussion of these structures is carried over to social and political history and the tension between democracy and authoritarianism.
Choices, games, laws, and the Web
Authors: Érdi Péter 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This chapter starts with the notions of “objective reality” and “subjective reality.” Objectivity attempts to represent the outside world without bias or presuppositions, while subjectivity results from personal cognition or preferences. The chapter discusses the mechanisms by which people make choices. Research conducted in the last 60 years has resulted in a shift in our understanding of human decision making from the concept of rationality to a new model that acknowledges the role of cognitive biases. Individual choices and preferences are aggregated to form social preferences, and this chapter reviews some techniques behind this aggregation. It also explains that preference ranking does not always imply a unique result because it is possible to get a cyclic pathway, as in the rock, paper, scissors game. Elements of this game appeared in both ancient religious systems and in the US governmental system. Then the chapter turns to the famous PageRank algorithm, which made Google what it is today. The algorithm is able to produce a relevant ranking of websites within a very reasonable time. The algorithm could produce different results, and rank reversal may happen in real-world situations. Ranking many elements based on some characteristic features, such as words based on the frequency of their occurrence, can use statistical methods. In many real cases, the distribution of these features strongly deviates from the bell curve, and models instead a skew distribution, technically called a power law distribution.
Inspired by your wish list
Authors: Érdi Péter 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
The majority of our purchasing decisions are being influenced by the opinion of the Web. Recommendation systems use algorithms to suggest items for us to buy, and we are often better off if we follow their advice. Nobody can force us to use Amazon, TripAdvisor, or Netflix, but we do if we trust them. While any such system can be gamed, and some illustrative examples of gaming are given, fake reviews and other tricks can be filtered, and recommendation systems can help us make better choices. Some examples are given to help readers understand the scope and limits of adopting recommendation systems.
Neoclassical Realist Theory, Alliance Politics, and Nonproliferation
Authors: Taliaferro Jeffrey W. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 2 develops neoclassical realist theory. It explicates how the two systemic variables—the current distribution of power in a region and the time horizons for threats to the hegemon’s interests in that region—can create incentives for US presidential administrations to favor coercive or accommodative strategies toward a vulnerable ally seeking nuclear weapons. When confronted with such high domestic mobilization hurdles to their preferred strategies, however, administrations will pursue hybrid strategies—ones that combine accommodative and coercive elements—toward an ally. This chapter unpacks the measurement of the variables and the types of empirical evidence that might confirm or disconfirm the hypotheses. It also outlines three alternative explanations (nuclear domino theory, security commitment theory, and credible sanctions theory) and the types of evidence that might confirm or disconfirm their hypotheses.
The United States and Israel’s Nuclear Weapons Program, 1961–1973
Authors: Taliaferro Jeffrey W. 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Chapter 3 posits that the overriding objective of the Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon administrations was to avoid containment failure in the Middle East. Thwarting the Israeli nuclear weapons program was a secondary objective. As Soviet arms sales to Egypt and Syria accelerated in the mid-1960s, the regional power distribution became unfavorable and the time horizons of threats to US interests grew shorter. The Johnson administration abandoned Kennedy’s demands for inspections of the Dimona reactor and instead sold M-48 tanks, A-4 Skyhawks, and later F-12 Phantoms to bolster Israel’s defenses. Congress, however, made it difficult for the Johnson and the Nixon administrations to link arms transfers to Israeli concessions on the nuclear issue. Chapter 3 examines the evolution of the US-Israeli strategic relationship against the backdrop of the Cold War from Kennedy’s demands for inspections in 1961 through the October 1973 Middle East War.
Introduction
Authors: Ferraguto Mark 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Critics have long sought to uncover underlying narratives in Beethoven’s instrumental music, whether through formal analysis or programmatic interpretation. These approaches, while often illuminating, are also limited. Meaning in Beethoven’s music needs to be understood in a broader sense, encompassing the many relationships that this music creates and reflects (with patrons, publics, performers, and technologies, among other things). The concept of mediation offers a useful tool for thinking about the aesthetic and the social in tandem. Coupled with a microhistorical focus, this perspective provides a new way of thinking about Beethoven’s instrumental music of 1806–7 and the historiographical problems it has posed.
After Leonore
Authors: Ferraguto Mark 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Beethoven turned with renewed focus to writing large-scale instrumental music in early 1806. By year’s end, he had completed his Fourth Piano Concerto, Fourth Symphony, Violin Concerto, and Three “Razumovsky” Quartets, among other works. These works seem to represent a departure from the “heroic” topics and traits that characterize Beethoven’s music of 1803–5, suggesting a stylistic turn. The nature of and motivations for this turn are explored, with a focus on Beethoven’s reactions to critics in the wake of Leonore, his expanding social network, and changes in the political climate following the French occupation of Vienna in late 1805.
Music for a Virtuoso
Authors: Ferraguto Mark 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
In both his Fourth Piano Concerto and Violin Concerto, Beethoven inverts the standard formula of the concerto by foregrounding lyricism and introspection rather than bravura and brilliance. In so doing, he responds to contemporary conceptions of virtuosity that privileged expressiveness over technical proficiency, proffering a new kind of relationship between virtuoso and public that centered on Innigkeit—the spectacle of the self—as the hallmark of the true virtuoso. But concertos are mutable texts; Beethoven’s revisions to the solo part of the Fourth Piano Concerto reveal a desire to further exploit the disjunction between the brilliant and lyrical styles in performance.
Music for a Diplomat
Authors: Ferraguto Mark 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Beethoven’s treatments of the Russian folksongs in the “Razumovsky” String Quartets, Op. 59, nos. 1 and 2, have long elicited sharp criticism. A closer look at these treatments allows for a reappraisal of the quartets and the circumstances of their commission. The settings seem especially designed to appeal to the quartets’ dedicatee, Count Andrey Razumovsky, a European Russian whose intense interest in serious music has been understated. These conclusions are brought to bear on Opus 59, no. 3, the only quartet in the opus lacking a labeled thème russe. Rather than returning to the Lvov-Pratsch Collection (1790/1806) for material, Beethoven appears to have incorporated a Russian folksong from a German source in the Andante’s main theme. The movement fulfills in an unexpected way his pledge to weave Russian melodies into all three quartets.
Music for a Culture Hero
Authors: Ferraguto Mark 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
Beethoven’s Fourth Symphony has often been described as “Haydnesque.” But neither the extent of Haydn’s influence nor Beethoven’s motivations for emulating him has been carefully explored. In early 1806, publisher Breitkopf & Härtel began issuing the “London” Symphonies in full score, allowing many connoisseurs to study the works for the first time. Beethoven’s Fourth Symphony, composed that summer, bears numerous compositional affinities to these works (especially Nos. 99, 102, and 103). By turning to the “London” Symphonies for inspiration, Beethoven memorialized his former mentor while capitalizing on the Haydn mania that was sweeping theaters, concert halls, and the pages of journals like the Leipzig Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung.
Rumblings in the West
Authors: DiGirolamo Vincent 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
No newsboys were more militant than those on the urban frontier. Though primarily self-employed, most identified with the interests of labor over capital, as reflected by the many unions and protests they organized between the 1880s and early 1900s. Newsboys mounted strikes and boycotts in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. They distributed union circulars and marched in Labor Day parades. Boys also distributed newspapers in the Hawaiian Islands and Yukon gold fields. Western newsboys represented all races and ethnicities, including Native Americans. They encountered work hazards unknown to their eastern counterparts, such as mountain lions, prairie fires, and gunfighters. Like the newspaper they sold, these children were catalysts of social change. As rugged individualists who relied on cooperation more than competition, they exemplified the contradictory values of their communities.
Anglo-Papal Relations in the Early Fourteenth Century
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractThis book is concerned with the modes and procedures of Anglo-papal diplomacy in the period 1305–60, when diplomatic affairs between England and the papacy intensified following the transfer of the papal curia to southern France in 1305 and on account of the on-going Anglo-French hostilities, which resulted in the outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War in 1337. On the one hand, the book investigates how diplomatic and administrative practices developed in England and at the papal curia from a comparative perspective, whilst, on the other, it questions the legacy and impact of international and domestic conflicts on diplomatic and administrative practices. In Part I, the book explores how foreign and diplomatic relations, conducted through both official and unofficial diplomatic communications among polities, prompted the need to adapt and ‘translate’ different traditions in order to forge a ‘shared language of diplomacy’. This was achieved thanks to the adaptation of house styles, formularies, and ceremonial practices, as well as through the contribution of intermediaries and diplomatic agents acquainted with different diplomatic and legal traditions. Part II of the book further assesses the impact of political change and conflict on administrative and diplomatic practices by means of four relevant case studies.
Bureaucratization of Polities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractBuilding on Max Weber’s definition of bureaucracy, this chapter questions the extent to which bureaucratization was a shared feature of European polities during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries and, if so, whether bureaucratization took place in different regions at the same time because of parallel developments or rather owing to mutual influences. The chapter primarily reviews relevant secondary literature in order to outline the historiographical debate, which lies behind my original contribution, and specifically engages with the creation of chanceries and financial offices in England and also at the papal curia between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries.
Chancery Practices in England and at the Papal Curia During the Fourteenth Century
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractThis chapter argues that throughout the fourteenth century bureaucratic developments across Europe went hand in glove with the practice of diplomacy. The ultimate outcomes of such growth of administrative and diplomatic practices were the implementation of shared administrative procedures, which could effectively support diplomatic activities, and the creation of a ‘shared language of diplomacy’. In order to assess how shared administrative practices and a ‘language of diplomacy’ came into existence, this chapter first addresses the formation of chancery practices at the papal curia and in England between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with a special focus on the management of diplomatic activities and correspondence. It further questions the extent to which administrative practices of writing and record-keeping of diplomatic correspondence in those two polities were comparable and focuses on the modalities of communication amongst them.
The Importance of Unofficial Contacts
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractThis chapter investigates how in the later Middle Ages the English crown also actively cultivated unofficial contacts at the papal curia thanks to networks of ‘friends’ and ‘protégés’. During the fourteenth century informal contacts between England and the Apostolic See supplemented administrative deficiencies, whereas the process of bureaucratization in both polities facilitated Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse. Three specific questions are answered in this chapter. First, who were the English crown’s contacts at the papal curia during the first half of the fourteenth century? Second, how did informal networks at the papal curia facilitate Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse, particularly during the first phase of the Hundred Years’ War? And finally, how did the English crown reward its ‘friends’ at the papal curia for their services?
Representatives and Proctors
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractDiplomatic representatives and proctors were responsible for managing and shaping the written and oral communication among polities and were to different degrees involved in actual diplomatic missions. The changing domestic and international political circumstances and conflicts that characterized the first decade of Edward III’s reign between 1327 and 1339 led to the increasing specialization of administrative and diplomatic personnel in England and in other leading European polities. We therefore ought to focus on ‘teams of representatives and agents’ with complementary specializations rather than on individuals. In this chapter I exemplify through the means of relevant case studies how between 1306 and 1360 the Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse was managed owing to teams of agents and representatives, firstly focusing on the English representatives at the papal curia and then moving on to papal envoys in England.
Benedict XII and the Outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractWhen questioning how far political change and conflict affected the growth of diplomatic and administrative practices in late Medieval Europe, and how human agency contributed to bureaucratic reforms, especially with regard to record-keeping, the outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War in 1337 ought to be considered as a major turning-point. This chapter specifically focuses on Pope Benedict XII (1334–42) to see how the outbreak of the conflict between England and France impacted on Anglo-papal diplomatic discourse and practice during his pontificate. First, it addresses the Anglo-papal diplomatic relations in the period 1335–42. Second, it focuses on the chancery records of the English crown, especially the Roman rolls and the so-called Treaty rolls, which enroll most of the diplomatic correspondence exchanged between England, the papal curia, the Empire, and France in the 1330s, as well as other diplomatic documents. These records will be investigated to question how diplomatic and administrative practices provided a satisfactory means to inform the diplomatic discourse between England and the papacy, especially within the political milieu that characterized the first few years of the Anglo-French conflict, itself notoriously subject to sudden changes of alliances.
From the Battle of Poitiers to the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais
Authors: Bombi Barbara 
Published: September 2019

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the period between the battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356), when the English defeated the French army and managed to capture the French king, John II, and the ratification of the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais (24 October 1360), which concluded the first phase of the Hundred Years’ War and marked Edward III’s renunciation of the French crown in return for ample territorial concessions in northern France. The Anglo-French negotiations of 1356–60 overlapped with noticeable bureaucratic developments in England and the papal curia, where the management and record-keeping of diplomatic correspondence was increasingly administered not in the chancery, but by the privy seal office and the pope’s secretariat in the apostolic chamber. The chapter investigates how far smaller and less institutionalized departments took over the management of diplomatic correspondence not only because of administrative necessity but also owing to changing political circumstances that characterized the complex Anglo-French peace negotiations in 1356–60, first looking at the activity of the chancery and privy seal in England and then moving to the work of the papal chamber.
Signaling and Measurement Dependence
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: September 2019

Abstract
This last chapter studies the relaxation of the conditions of no-signaling and measurement independence. For signaling models, after stressing the need for fine-tuning, it is shown that the speed of the hypothetical influence cannot be finite. For measurement dependence, the tolerable amount is discussed, and the related notion of randomness amplification is introduced.