bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Eco-Labels and the Credibility Puzzle in Transnational Governance
Authors: van der Ven Hamish 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter introduces eco-labels, explains where and how they differ, and establishes their empirical and theoretical importance. The book’s central puzzle is set up through an example of how two well-known eco-labeling schemes vary in credibility. The chapter then argues that variation in the credibility of eco-labels can be partly explained by the types of firms and markets eco-labeling organizations choose to target for governance. After briefly previewing the book’s thesis, the chapter summarizes why eco-labels matter, offering empirical examples of their impact on global value chains and situating them in the broader context of transnational new governance. It then introduces the dependent variable for the study—the Index of Best Practice in eco-labeling—which serves as a proxy measure of credibility. It concludes by describing the book’s methodology and offering a roadmap for the remaining chapters.
The Correlates of Procedural Credibility in Transnational Eco-Labeling
Authors: van der Ven Hamish 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
`This chapter uses an original dataset comprising information on 123 transnational eco-labeling organizations to probe a series of hypotheses on the conditions for procedurally credible eco-labeling. The hypotheses are divided into three categories that focus on who is governing, where the governance takes place, and what sector or issue area the governance targets. The dataset includes information on best practice adherence across the full population of transnational eco-labeling organizations in 2013. The ensuing statistical analysis casts doubt on neo-Gramscian and rationalist arguments that ownership or sectoral competition are the primary determinants of procedural credibility in eco-labeling. Instead, the regression analyses show eco-labels that are industry sponsored or operating in highly competitive sectors are just as likely to craft credible eco-labels as their independently owned or less competitive counterparts. The statistical results also present a new puzzle, namely, that an eco-label’s presence in multiple markets is strongly and positively correlated with credibility.
A Targets-of-Governance Approach to Explaining Procedural Credibility
Authors: van der Ven Hamish 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter argues that the targets of governance condition the procedural credibility of eco-labeling organizations. Eco-labeling organizations that target large firms and seek global market presence—those that aim big—are more likely to follow best practices than those with narrower ambitions. The chapter details three causal mechanisms through which this relationship occurs. First, the heightened critical scrutiny that accompanies aiming big leads ELOs to demonstrate concern for procedural credibility out of a fear of reputational damages from negative media or NGO attention. Second, as ELOs expand their market presence, they seek legitimacy by including a growing community of stakeholders in decision-making. This heightened inclusiveness socializes key decision-makers in a way that reinforces a commitment to procedural credibility. Third, the increased revenues derived from targeting large firms helps ELOs competently perform the various dimensions of best practice. The chapter outlines a number of testable implications.
Credibility in Sustainable Aquaculture Eco-Labeling
Authors: van der Ven Hamish 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter tests the aiming big hypothesis by tracing the origin and evolution of four eco-labeling organizations in sustainable aquaculture: the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC), Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP), Friend of the Sea (FOS), and Naturland. The chapter argues that stronger adherence to best practices in the ASC and BAP programs is a direct result of their decision to target large multinational retailers for certification. Conversely, the comparatively poor performance of the other two eco-labeling organizations can be traced to their decisions to target smaller firms in domestic markets. The chapter uses comparative case studies and within-case process tracing to reveal how decisions about who to target for certification impacted best practice adherence through the causal mechanisms outlined in chapter 3. The four cases analyzed in this chapter cast further doubt on alternate theories of credibility, such as the relevance of ownership or geographic location to credibility.
Drawing Big Lessons from Small Labels
Authors: van der Ven Hamish 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
After reviewing the book’s thesis and the evidence in support of it, this chapter outlines a number of key implications for transnational governance scholarship and practice. It suggests a fundamental rethinking of the sources of rigor and credibility in transnational governance, moving away from a focus on the owners or sponsors of governance and toward an emphasis on the interaction between the governors and the governed community. It then offers practical solutions for making eco-labels more impactful by encouraging them to defy the small is beautiful ethos and expand aggressively outward. The chapter ends by considering the ability of eco-labels to address mounting environmental crises. It concludes that they are inadequate as a freestanding solution given that they do not address rising levels of consumption and are plagued by implementation problems. However, they can, and should, form part of the broader toolbox of governance instruments for addressing transnational environmental problems.
Introduction
Authors: Fonteyn Lauren 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The central topic of the present study is to offer a new perspective on perhaps the best-known types of transcategorial shift, commonly referred to as nominalization and verbalization. As explained in this introductory chapter, the ultimate aim of this study is to present the first elaborate attempt to determine what it “means” to nominalize or to verbalize. This chapter sets out the specificalities of the aims (both theoretical and methodological/descriptive) of this study and briefly introduces the construction that lies at the heart of the empirical chapters (i.e., the English gerund), followed by an overview of the chapter contents.
The English Gerund
Authors: Fonteyn Lauren 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of the history of the English gerund, describing the attested morphosyntactic developments and assessing the functional explanations that have been provided to explain the observed changes in its structural makeup. It gives an overview of the remaining lacunae in our understanding of how the English gerund developed, and suggests how these lacunae can be addressed. At the end of this chapter, a different functional approach to the history of the English gerund is presented, which is based on the functional-semantic model of categoriality presented in Chapter 2. Here, it is set out how the abstract nominal and verbal/clausal functional values can be defined as testable symptomatic usage patterns. These “symptomatic usage patterns” serve as the underlying basis for the hypothesis tested in the empirical chapters.
Reference Types
Authors: Fonteyn Lauren 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The first case study, presented in this chapter, investigates how nominal and clausal constructions differ in terms of their reference and grounding strategies. In earlier stages of English, both nominal and verbal gerunds could rely on so-called “indirect clausal grounding” to establish their referent, receiving a specified subject as well as a temporal location from the matrix clause in which they are embedded (e.g., both He closed the deal [by signing the contract] as well as [by signing of the contract] were possible). While present-day verbal gerunds still frequently rely on indirect clausal grounding, nominal gerunds lost this grounding strategy in Modern English and presently exclusively use nominal grounding mechanisms (i.e., (in)definite articles, possessives, demonstratives) to establish reference (e.g., [The/His] signing of the contract).
Conclusions
Authors: Fonteyn Lauren 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The concluding chapter synthesizes the results of the preceding analyses. It highlights that the most important functional-semantic categorial shift that has taken place within the English gerundive system did not affect the morphosyntactically verbalizing component; instead, it affected the “original” nominal gerund, which started to functionally assimilate to more prototypical members of the nominal class. It is explained that in earlier stages, the English gerund exhibited functional hybridity, using an exclusively nominal form to realize more nominal as well as more clausal functions; but with the rise of the verbalized gerund, this functional hybridity started to be gradually sorted out. What emerges from the discussions of the case studies is that adopting a model of functional-semantic categoriality allows one to tackle the remaining lacunae in understanding this history of the English gerund, and perhaps, in the not-so-distant future, of “categoriality in language change” more generally.
The Iraq War, 2003–2011
Authors: Lebovic James H. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The George W. Bush administration showed signs of biased decision-making before and after the 2003 Iraq invasion, which it claimed was necessary because Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction. With Donald Rumsfeld as secretary of defense, the administration focused narrowly on regime change and failed to plan for the aftermath of war. With the fall of Baghdad, the administration expanded US goals under the Coalition Provisional Authority without the capabilities to pursue them. Although the administration adjusted course in 2007, its new “surge” strategy, based on counterinsurgency principles, had the US military pursuing modest goals to suit available capabilities. Then the administration benefited unexpectedly from an alliance with Sunni insurgents (the Anbar Awakening) and the stand-down of the principal Shiite militia opposing US forces. US strategy finally amounted to staying the course through 2011, when the Obama administration chose to leave Iraq rather than seek a negotiated compromise.
The Afghanistan War, 2001–?
Authors: Lebovic James H. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
With the September 11, 2001 attack by al-Qaeda terrorists on the World Trade Center, the Bush administration conceded to decisional bias. It committed to Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan without duly assessing the implications of a Taliban defeat or how it might serve the administration’s “global war on terrorism.” Once engaged, the administration defined the US mission in Afghanistan broadly yet remained detached from harsh realities—including Afghan government corruption and ineptitude, finite alliance resources (in the International Security Assistance Force), and a Taliban resurgence—that hampered the achievement of these goals. The Obama administration capped US involvement in pursuing the limited goal of “reversing” the Taliban’s momentum. Although the administration increased US force levels in Afghanistan, it did so modestly and temporarily and then pursued a troop exit despite the country’s ongoing violence and instability. The administration stuck to its plan, slowing, not reversing, the withdrawal as the country’s security conditions worsened.
Core Europe and the United States
Authors: Orenstein Mitchell A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Core Europe and North America have often imagined themselves to be invulnerable to the Russian influence campaigns that have affected smaller, weaker countries in the lands in between. However, in recent years, that perception has broken down as Russia regularly hacks democratic elections in the West, sponsors extremists, spreads disinformation, and may have tipped the US 2016 presidential election to Donald Trump. The West now exhibits a similar politics to what we observe in the lands in between—with growing political extremism and polarization on the one hand and the rise of cynical power brokers on the other who seek to profit from both sides of an intensifying divide. Increasingly, democratic elections seem to pose a “civilizational choice” between the forces of liberal democracy and authoritarian nationalism on the Russian model.
The New Politics of Hybrid War
Authors: Orenstein Mitchell A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
At base, what Russia hopes to achieve with its hybrid war on the West is the destruction or degradation of today’s EU Europe and the creation of a great-power Europe in which Russia would be a key player and US influence would be diminished. For Russia, it means first and foremost that Russia should be allowed a sphere of influence in Europe, undermining the sovereignty of its neighbors. For most Europeans, however, a great-power Europe is a 19th century model that failed. The West has a number of options to counter Russia’s hybrid war on the West in addition to sanctions. Perhaps the most effective would be to disrupt Russia’s ability to launder money through Western countries, thus limiting its ability to finance its foreign interventions. The problem is that the West has yet to take many of these measures because Russian influence campaigns have disabled Western institutions from within.
Introduction
Authors: Kloes Andrew 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter introduces the topic of the book, the “Awakening movement” (Erweckungsbewegung) in German Protestantism, by discussing the claims that were made by many German and other European church leaders and university professors in the mid-nineteenth century that a major religious awakening had occurred at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It then discusses the existing historiography of the Awakening movement, almost all of which has been written in German. Whereas the previous scholarship on the Awakening has been characterized by its focus on various specific regions of German-speaking Europe, this chapter concludes by outlining how this book adopts a thematic approach to the Awakening. This chapter describes how subsequent chapters will analyze the Awakening movement through how it appeared within four distinct areas of Protestant religious life: preaching, academic theology, organized evangelism, and caritative initiatives.
The Awakening and Theology
Authors: Kloes Andrew 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter analyzes how new developments within early nineteenth-century, university-based, academic theology were expressions of religious awakenings that had occurred in Protestant communities in Germany. The respective schools of thought reflected many university theologians’ own personal religious experiences of awakening. These considerably shaped the aims and methods of their scholarship. Recognizing how university professors were influential leaders in the Awakening movement through their lecturing, writing, and roles in new religious voluntary societies underscores an important point about the social composition of the movement. It was not simply a phenomenon of popular religious culture. Rather, different theological varieties of awakened Protestantism were fostered by some of the most learned members of the Protestant churches of Germany. They used their status and authority to promote such beliefs and assumed doing so was a responsibility of the academic and ecclesiastical offices that they held.
The Awakening and New Religious Societies for Social Reform
Authors: Kloes Andrew 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines how the Awakening became a modern, popular religious movement through the foundation of hundreds of new religious voluntary societies to ameliorate the living conditions of those in poverty. Such efforts were related to awakened Protestants’ holistic understanding of evangelism, in which the physical needs of those in difficult circumstances had to be addressed in order to remove them as obstacles to their hearing of the gospel message. This chapter examines new societies and institutions that awakened Protestants created to provide care for the unemployed, orphans, and those in need of medical care. In particular, it analyzes the principal roles that Protestant women played in such new organizations. In establishing these new religious institutions to alleviate social problems, awakened Protestants rationalized the church’s historic task of charity by creating administrative bureaucracies to operate these new institutions.
Pathologies of Probability Assessment
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter describes how foreign policy analysts often avoid assessing uncertainty in a manner that supports sound decision making. This aversion to probabilistic reasoning can take three forms: imprecise judgments that do not establish clear meaning; judgments of relative probability, which frame assessments of uncertainty against unspecified baselines; and conditioning, a practice that identifies the assumptions that must hold for a statement to be true but says nothing about the probability that a conclusion is actually correct. The chapter shows how official doctrine for intelligence analysis and military planning encourages foreign policy analysts to assess uncertainty in these problematic ways. It then shows how these problematic methods of assessing uncertainty shaped the highest levels of U.S. decision making during the Vietnam War, focusing on how senior leaders crafted military strategies without carefully assessing the chances that they would succeed.
The Founding and Evolution of the Electoral College
Authors: Alexander Robert M. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the formulation and evolution of the Electoral College. Determining how the chief executive would be selected was among the most difficult tasks facing the Framers. They sought to balance geographic interests with concerns over popular sovereignty and legitimacy. Delegates debated whether the president should be selected by the legislature, by popular vote, or by state legislatures. Consensus rather than political principle drove much of the deliberation regarding the presidential selection process. Once established, the Electoral College changed considerably in a short while. The emergence of political parties (and party tickets) necessitated the passage of the 12th Amendment. This also changed the role of electors from one of independence to one of obedience. The widespread use of the unit rule further altered how the Electoral College functioned. Recognizing whether one is discussing the original body or the evolved body is essential in order to properly debate the institution.
Undue Influence and Exploitation
Authors: Saprai Prince 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter distinguishes two contexts in which promises might be made: in situations of ‘thick’ trust where the parties are in a pre-existing close or intimate relationship with one another, and cases of ‘thin’ trust where the relationship between the parties is more like that between what Lon Fuller called ‘friendly strangers’. Typically, contracts take place in the context of thin trust. However, ‘promise theorists’ have tended to lose sight of this distinction—assuming that contract must reflect the morality of promises that take place in close relationships. This chapter relies on this distinction to explain the undue influence doctrine, which applies in those much less common cases where contracts take place in the context of close relationships. Such cases create a risk of relational exploitation by the promisee, and this chapter argues that this normative concern plays an essential normative role in explaining the undue influence doctrine. The promise theory has tended to downplay the role of exploitation at the cost of explaining the doctrine. Undue influence is an example of what is described here as a ‘composite’ doctrine’, that is, it is the product of the interaction of a multiplicity of moral principles or values and cannot adequately be explained by a single value like promise alone.
Mitigation and Fairness
Authors: Saprai Prince 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The doctrine of mitigation in contract law limits the recovery of damages available to the innocent victim of a breach of contract to cover only those losses that would have been incurred had the promisee acted reasonably in avoiding or not exacerbating the losses caused by breach. The doctrine has troubled ‘promise theorists’ who fail to see why the guilty party should not in such circumstances be responsible for all the losses that, after all, her own wrongdoing has caused. Charles Fried attempted to accommodate the doctrine by linking promise to the principle of altruism but that attempt has faced important criticisms; which reflect a deeper failure on Fried’s part to perceive that contractual relations involve an invocation of a ‘thinner’ type of trust than is usually found when promises take place in the context of close or intimate relationships. This chapter claims that the doctrine only makes sense if we recognize that it reflects the interaction between the promise principle and a principle of fairness that we find as a matter of first-order moral reasoning. On this view, contract law mirrors what we find in promissory morality (broadly conceived). It is another example of a ‘composite doctrine’ reflecting the interaction between multiple moral concerns.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Brian 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The introduction outlines the case that Joyce was far more attentive to the history, culture, and politics of the United States than the critical consensus has previously allowed for. It does so by delineating the specific historical factors that made America significant for Irish writers, including Joyce; by summarizing the textual and manuscript evidence for the significance of America in Joyce’s works; by arguing that those works display an increasing level of engagement with the US roughly in line with key points of transition in Irish and American histories; and by signalling that the focus on the interrelation of those histories provides an explanatory category for a synoptic reading of Joyce’s work as a whole. Finally, in presenting an overview of the chapters to follow, it builds on this historically focused rationale to discuss briefly in broader terms the necessary frames and limits of a study on Joyce and America.
Reading Rhetoric and Poetics
Authors: Gilby Emma 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Chapter 1 looks in detail at how Aristotle’s Poetics, overlapping in various ways with his Rhetoric and his moral philosophy, uses tragedy to interrogate conditions for the acquisition of knowledge and wisdom. It moves on to the rediscovery and translation of these and other ancient texts on rhetoric, poetics, and ethics. Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and other ancient writers obtained a footing in France chiefly through the treatises of Italian and Dutch thinkers. As one starting point for how Descartes interacts with this body of work, this chapter considers the syllabi of Jesuit schools such as the one he attended.
The Paris Context
Authors: Gilby Emma 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter considers Descartes’s connections with Guez de Balzac and his circle, and looks more closely at the language of contemporary poetic practice and theory. In his 1623 preface to Marino’s Adone, Jean Chapelain develops a critical vocabulary of novelty, generic hybridity, and verisimilitude. Meanwhile, Alexandre Hardy accuses modern dramatists of neglecting dispositio, or the coherent ordering of dramatic subject matter. The state of tragicomedy in France is exemplified in the 1628 tragicomic reworking of Schélandre’s 1608 tragedy Tyr et Sidon, prefaced by Balzac’s apologist François Ogier. At the crux of these debates, we find the question of how to balance the need for variety to dispel boredom with the need for structure to dispel distraction.