bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Magnetically Soft Materials
Authors: Dietrich Douglas W. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Magnetically soft materials are characterized by their low coercivity, an essential requirement for irons and steels selected for any application involving electromagnetic induction cycling. This article provides information on ferromagnetic material properties and how they are affected by impurities, alloying additions, heat treatment, residual stress, and grain size. It also describes classification and testing methods for magnetically soft materials such as high-purity iron, low-carbon steels, silicon steels, iron-aluminum alloys, nickel-iron alloys, iron-cobalt alloys, ferrites, and stainless steels. The article also addresses corrosion resistance and provides insights on the selection of alloys for power generation applications, including motors, generators, and transformers. A short note on the design and fabrication of magnetic cores is also included.
Shape Memory Alloys
Authors: Hodgson Darel E. , Wu Ming H. , Biermann Robert J. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article discusses the history of shape memory alloys (SMAs) along with their properties, capabilities, and crystallography, including phase transformations that occur during thermal treatment. It describes the thermomechanical behaviors of SMAs and explains how to characterize them using differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) techniques as well as other methods. The article examines the most common shape memory alloys, namely, nickel-titanium and copper-base SMAs, and provides information on their respective properties.
Ternary Molybdenum Chalcogenides (Chevrel Phases)
Authors: Le Lay Luc 
Published: December 2018

AbstractTernary molybdenum chalcogenides stands for a vast class of materials, whose general formula is MxMO6X8, where, M is a cation and X is a chalcogen (sulfur, selenium, or tellurium). Possible applications of some of these are as high field superconductors (that is, &gt;20 T, or 200 kG). This article discusses the fabrication methods of PbMo6S8 (PMS) and SnMo6S8 (SMS), including hot processing and cold processing. It provides a short note on the superconducting properties of PMS wire filaments and their applications in processes requiring high magnetic fields, such as high-energy physics, thermonuclear fusion, and nuclear magnetic resonance.
High-Temperature Superconductors for Wires and Tapes
Authors: Blaugher R.D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The discovery of the high-critical-temperature oxide superconductors has accelerated the interest for superconducting applications due to its higher-temperature operation at liquid nitrogen or above and thus reduces the refrigeration and liquid helium requirement. It also permits usage of the high-critical-temperature oxides in magnets or power applications in high-current-carrying wire or tape with acceptable mechanical capability. This article discusses the powder techniques mainly based on the production of an oxide powder precursor, which is then subjected to various processing, including powder-in-tube processing, vapor deposition processing, and melt processing. It further discusses the microstructural, anisotropy and weak link influences on these processes.
Gas Quenching
Authors: Heuer Volker 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The gas quenching process is usually performed at elevated pressures, and is therefore, mostly referred to as high-pressure gas quenching (HPGQ). This article describes the physical principles of HPGQ; the two main types of equipment used, namely, single-chamber furnaces and cold chambers; and the three gases used, namely, nitrogen, helium, and argon. It also discusses two different groups of fixture materials used, namely, high-nickel-content alloys and carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon materials. The article exemplifies the process of dynamic gas quenching and how core hardness values can be predicted in industrial practices. It also discusses the improvements in distortion control with the application of gas-flow reversing and dynamic gas quenching.
Boriding (Boronizing) of Metals
Authors: Zimmerman Craig 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Boriding is a thermochemical diffusion-based surface-hardening process that can be applied to a wide variety of ferrous, nonferrous, and cermet materials. It is performed on metal components as a solution for extending the life of metal parts that wear out too quickly in applications involving severe wear. This article presents a variety of methods and media used for boriding of ferrous materials, and explains their advantages, limitations, and applications. These methods include pack cementation boriding, gas boriding, plasma boriding, electroless salt bath boriding, electrolytic salt bath boriding, and fluidized-bed boriding. The article briefly describes the chemical vapor deposition process, which has emerged to be dominant among metal-boride deposition processes.
Cleaning of Steel for Heat Treatment
Authors: Maniruzzaman Mohammed , Wang Xiaolan , Sisson Richard D. 
Published: December 2018

AbstractThis article provides an overview of surface contaminants that may affect the heat treatment processes and end-product quality. It presents information on the chemicals used to clean different surface contaminants of steels. The article discusses three types of cleaning methods, namely, mechanical, chemical, and electrochemical and their effectiveness and applicability. The mechanical cleaning methods include grinding, brushing, steam or flame jet cleaning, abrasive blasting, and tumbling. Solvent cleaning, emulsion cleaning, alkaline cleaning, acid cleaning, pickling, and descaling are chemical cleaning methods. The electrochemical cleaning methods include electropolishing, electrolytic alkaline cleaning, and electrolytic pickling. The article provides information on cleanliness measurement methods such as qualitative tests and quantitative tests to ensure product quality. Health hazards that may be associated with each cleaning method and the general control measures to be used for each hazard are tabulated.
Austenitizing in Steels
Authors: Speer John G. , Gaster Robert J. 
Published: December 2018

AbstractAustenitization refers to heating into the austenite phase field, during which the austenite structure is formed. This article highlights the purpose of austenitization, and reviews the mechanism and importance of thermodynamics and kinetics of austenite structure using an iron-carbon binary phase diagram. It also describes the effects of austenite grain size, and provides useful information on controlling the austenite grain size using the thermomechanical process.
Annealing of Steel
Authors: Sahay Satyam S. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Steels may be annealed to facilitate cold working or machining, to improve mechanical or electrical properties, or to promote dimensional stability. This article, using iron-carbon phase diagram, describes the types of annealing processes, namely, subcritical annealing, intercritical annealing, supercritical or full annealing, and process annealing. Spheroidizing is performed for improving the cold formability of steels. The article provides guidelines for annealing and tabulates the critical temperature values for selected carbon and low-alloy steels and recommended temperatures and time cycles for annealing of alloy steels and carbon steel forgings. Different combinations of annealed microstructure and hardness are significant in terms of machinability. Furnaces for annealing are of two basic types, batch furnaces and continuous furnaces. The article concludes with a description of the annealing processes for steel sheets and strips, forgings, bars, rods, wires, and plates.
Gas Carburizing
Authors: Rowan Olga K. , Keil Gary D. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the thermodynamics and kinetics of gas carburizing reactions, and details the mass transfer mechanism during gas carburizing. It discusses the various considerations involved in carburizing process planning, and reviews successful operation of the gas carburizing process based on the control of three principal variables: temperature, atmosphere composition or carbon potential, and time. The article also describes the selection criteria for alloy, carbon sources, atmosphere types, and carbon monoxide level for endothermic carburizing atmospheres. It provides information on carburizing modeling, case depth prediction, case depth measurement, and case depth evaluation as well as on carburizing equipment, and also covers the factors affecting distortion after carburizing.
Quenching and Partitioning Steel Heat Treatment
Authors: Wang Li , Speer John G. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Quenching and partitioning (Q&P) steel is a term used to describe a series of C-Si-Mn, C-Si-Mn-Al, or other steels subjected to the quenching and partitioning heat treatment process. This article discusses the Q&P steel's chemical compositions and mechanical properties, and provides an overview of the important background and product characteristics with a focus on the automotive sheet steel application. It schematically represents the continuous annealing process, consequent phase-transformation behaviors, and forming-limit curves of Q&P steels. The article describes the parameters associated with resistance spot welding, laser welding, and metal active gas welding. It also provides useful information of retained austenite volume fraction measured by x-ray diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction. The article also examines microstructure evolution during tensile testing at different strain levels using electron backscatter diffraction.
Martempering of Steels
Authors: Canale Lauralice de C.F. , Vatavuk Jan , Totten George E. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the advantages of martempering and the use of oil and salt as quenchants in the martempering process. It also discusses safety precautions to be followed by an operator and reviews the steels that are suitable for martempering. The article provides information on the importance of controlling process variables in martempering, including austenitizing temperature, temperature of the martempering bath, time in the bath, salt contamination, water additions to salt, agitation, and the rate of cooling from the martempering bath. It also describes specific situations in which distortion problems have been encountered during martempering. The article contains tables that indicate typical applications of martempering in salt and oil by listing commonly treated steel parts and giving details of martempering procedures and hardness requirements. The article also lists equipment requirements for oil and salt martempering of steel.
Laser Surface Hardening
Authors: Santhanakrishnan Soundarapandian , Dahotre Narendra B. 
Published: December 2018

AbstractLaser surface hardening is a noncontact process that provides a chemically inert and clean environment as well as flexible integration with operating systems. This article provides a brief discussion on the various conventional surface-modification techniques to enhance the surface and mechanical properties of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. The techniques are physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, ion plating, electroplating, electroless plating, and displacement plating. The article describes five categories of laser surface modification, namely, laser surface heat treatment, laser surface melting such as skin melting or glazing, laser direct metal deposition such as cladding, alloying, and hardfacing, laser physical vapor deposition, and laser shock peening. The article provides detailed information on absorptivity, laser scanning technology, and thermokinetic phase transformations. It also describes the influence of cooling rate on laser heat treatment and the effect of processing parameters on temperature, microstructure, and case depth hardness.
Fundamentals of Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing
Authors: Mittemeijer E.J. 
Published: December 2018

AbstractThe nitriding process typically involves the introduction of nitrogen into the surface-adjacent zone of a component, usually at a temperature between 500 and 580 deg C. This article provides an overview of the essential aspects of the thermodynamics and kinetics of nitriding and nitrocarburizing of iron-base materials with gaseous processes. It describes nitriding potentials and the Lehrer diagram, carburizing potentials, controlled nitriding and nitrocarburizing, and the microstructural evolution of the compound layer and the diffusion zone.
Salt Quenching
Authors: Keough J.R. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Molten salt, including nitrite/nitrate salts, is the quenching medium most commonly used in austempering and marquenching of ferrous materials. This article describes the use of molten salts in the quenching of ferrous materials. It provides information on the processing and operation of salt quenching including considerations of time, temperature, environment, and safety, as well as critical characteristics such as the composition of the quenchant, agitation, and water additions.
Magnetic Flux Controllers in Induction Heating and Melting
Authors: Goldstein Robert 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Magnetic flux controllers are materials other than the copper coil that are used in induction systems to alter the flow of the magnetic field. This article describes the effects of magnetic flux controllers on common coil styles, namely, outer diameter coils, inner diameter coils, and linear coils. It provides information on the role of magnetic flux controllers for whole-body and local area mass-heating applications, continuous induction tube welding, seam-annealing inductors, and various induction melting systems, namely, channel-type, crucible-type, and cold crucible systems. The article also describes the benefits of the flux controllers for induction heat treating processes such as single-shot and scanning.
Control of Professional Magnetic Field Exposure—International Standards and Regulations
Authors: Koenig Loris 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article provides an overview of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and discusses their direct and indirect effects on human health. It provides a detailed description of the exposure levels of EMFs in residential and work environments. The article examines the international and European standards and regulations regarding occupational exposure to EMFs encountered in industrial activities. It discusses the categories of work equipment or activities that may expose the worker above and under the orientation value. The article also describes the main principles underlying the protection system adopted for the frequency range of 50 Hz to 10 MHz.
Induction Case Hardening of Axle Shafts
Authors: Fett Gregory A. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the common types of automotive and truck axle shafts. It provides information on steels used for induction-hardened shafts, and on the manufacturing and induction hardening methods of axle shafts. The article discusses the effects of case depth, shaft length, and carbon content on torsional properties of axle shafts, and the effect of changes in shaft diameter and those of splines on torsional shaft performance. It also provides useful information on straightening and tempering of induction-hardened axle shafts, and describes an effective technique to ensure quality of induction-hardened axle shafts.
Residual Stresses in Induction Hardened Steels
Authors: Grum Janez 
Published: December 2018

AbstractResidual stresses are stresses within a part that result from non-uniform plastic deformation or heating and cooling and play a vital role in ensuring long life of the induction-hardened steel parts. This article provides a description of the formation of residual stresses, and factors affecting their magnitude and distribution as well as their effects on longevity of heat-treated components. The residual stresses of the induction-hardened part are often produced by microstructural transformation, thermal shrinking, distortion, and quenching. Fatigue strength is the main property that gets affected not only by induction hardening but also by residual stresses, quenching conditions, and grain size in the hardened condition. The article concludes with a review of induction heating or hardening in conjunction with other processing methods with examples in terms of properties and, in some cases, effects on residual stress.
Basic Principles of Optimal Design of Electromagnetic Devices and Multiobjective Optimization
Authors: Barba Paolo Di 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Optimization plays a key role in the design of any structure or system, and electromagnetic devices are no exception. This article provides a description of the formulation of a design problem, and provides a review of the Paretian optimality. It focuses on nondominating sorting algorithms and multiobjective evolutionary strategy algorithms associated with evolutionary computing. The article provides information on field-based optimization problems. It also discusses the design of the pancake inductor that implies the solution of coupled electromagnetic and thermal fields, along with the use of optimal design procedures, to identify the best possible device or process.
Electromagnetic and Thermal Properties of Materials
Authors: Lupi Sergio , Rudnev Valery 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
In an induction heating system, thermal and electromagnetic properties of heated materials make the greatest impact on the heat transfer and performance of induction heating process. This article focuses on major thermal properties, namely, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and specific heat. It describes the two important electromagnetic properties, electrical resistivity (electrical conductivity) and magnetic permeability, which posses the most pronounced effect on the performance of the induction heating system, its efficiency, and selection of main design parameters. The article also discusses the magnetic properties of diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and metamagnetic materials.
Operation of Induction Furnaces for Steel and Non-iron Materials
Authors: Dötsch Erwin 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Crucible furnaces, as compared to electric arc furnaces, are increasingly deployed in various melting practices due to their environmental and workplace friendliness and their process benefits. This article focuses on the application of induction crucible furnaces for melting and pouring operations in small-and medium-sized steel foundries, including aluminum, copper, and zinc industries. It also provides information on the process engineering benefits of melting and pouring operations.
Operating Safety of Induction Melting Furnaces
Authors: Hopf Manfred 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Melting with induction crucible furnaces (ICFs) is a well-established and reliable technology, and their maintenance must be performed at regularly scheduled intervals to ensure safe operation. This article discusses monitoring of the refractory lining, and presents an overview of the various wear-indication methods, namely, manual checks, ground leakage indication, evaluation of electrical values of the furnace, and temperature measurement. It also presents the working principle, physical restrictions, limitations, and remarks on these methods.
Historical Review of Induction Glass Melting
Authors: McEnroe David J. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
The historical use of induction heating relating to glass melting gives some insight into its use in today's glass manufacturing industry. A patent search on induction heating provides historical information about how induction heating was used in the glass melting industry, from both a direct fired or a susceptor/container approach. This article provides review of historical patents, following an introduction to conductivity in glass and electrical heating. The purpose is to show that induction heating has been and is being used in the glass melting industry.
Induction Glass Melting and Forming
Authors: McEnroe David J. 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Induction heating for glass melting is an alternative to resistance heating element furnaces. This article provides information on the basics of glass fabrication process. It focuses on crucible melt furnace for small-scale glass melting and the induction melting process. It also describes induction glass forming (forming from the melt) and glass forming by induction heating (post-melt). The article compares the benefits of using induction heating and refractory-lined resistance heating.
Heat Treating of Uranium and Uranium Alloys
Authors: Hackenberg Robert 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Heat treatment of depleted uranium (DU) alloys with 4.0 wt% or more molybdenum or equivalent is similar to that of dilute alloys. This article discusses the metallurgical characteristics and processing considerations of DU and its alloys, and describes the control of grain size and orientation using beta treatment. It lists the typical mechanical properties of DU as functions of the amount of cold work and hardness data of uranium rod, and describes the annealing of cold-worked DU. The article also describes the heat treatment of dilute alloys of DU, focusing on the three basic furnace designs used for heating or heat treating of unalloyed uranium: molten salt baths, inert-atmosphere furnaces, and vacuum furnaces. Finally, it presents procedures that are examples of heat treatment used to meet certain specifications of ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation.
Heat Treating of Magnesium Alloy Metal-Matrix Composites
Authors: Xiang Chongchen , Gupta Nikhil 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
Magnesium-matrix composites (MgMCs) are very promising as structural materials because of their low density, high specific strength, and excellent castability. This article provides information on the characteristics, mechanical properties, and applications of magnesium alloys and composites. It discusses the microstructures used for the most common magnesium alloys used in metal-matrix composites, namely, magnesium-aluminum, magnesium-rare earth and magnesium-lithium alloys. The article focuses on the most common methods of heat treatment, including solution heat treatment, precipitation strengthening or aging, and annealing, applied to these alloys. Finally, it describes the microstructural aspects and precipitate-matrix relationships of MgMCs as well as the heat treatment methods for MgMCs.
Metallurgy of Titanium Alloy Heat Treatment
Authors: Boyer Rodney R. , Foltz John 
Published: December 2018

AbstractThis article provides a detailed discussion on the heat treatment processes for titanium and titanium alloys. These processes are age hardening, solution treatment, aging, and annealing. The article illustrates the characteristics of equilibrium phase diagrams that are important for understanding the heat treatment of titanium alloys. It explains the types of metastable phases encountered in titanium alloys. The article also provides information on the equilibrium phase relationships and properties of titanium alloys.
Age Hardening of Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Banhart John 
Published: December 2018

Abstract
This article describes the effects of alloying and heat treatment on the metastable transition precipitates that occur in age hardenable aluminum alloys. Early precipitation stages are less well understood than later ones. This article details the aging sequence and characteristics of precipitates that occur in the natural aging and artificial aging of Al-Mg-Si-(Cu) alloys, Al-Mg-Cu alloys, microalloyed Al-Mg-Cu-(Ag, Si) alloys, aluminum-lithium-base alloys, and Al-Zn-Mg-(Cu) alloys. Crystal structure, composition, dimensions, and aging conditions of precipitates are detailed. Effects of reversion, duplex annealing, and retrogression and re-aging are included.