bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lima
Authors: Schmidt Steven 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis entry broadly sketches some of the major ideological, economic, and political forces that have shaped Lima from its foundation through the contemporary period. For scholars with interests in urban studies, understanding colonial Lima's complex historical relationship with whiteness, indigeneity, and racial subjugation can better contextualize contemporary Limeño movements against urban redevelopment, state‐led megaprojects, and mobilization for infrastructural services. Attending to Lima's colonial history can help contemporary researchers understand and interpret current trajectories in its urban development.
Medellin
Authors: Ortiz Catalina 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Medellin, the second largest Colombian city, became a paradigmatic model of urban renaissance after a deep crisis caused by deindustrialization, narco trafficking, and extreme urban violence. The city's transformation in the 2010s responds to broader shifts in its governance involving actively local government, decentralized quasi‐public entities, military powers, economic elites, and grassroots organizations. Moreover, a decisive convergence of extended practices of strategic planning, urban design, and architecture has focused local state interest and public investment on traditionally excluded peripheral neighborhoods. Thus, the main physical changes manifest in the urban landscape in the expanding interconnected transit system (metro, tramway, cable cars, bus rapid transit system, etc.), the generation of public spaces, and the construction of multiple iconic public facilities. Notwithstanding being the epicenter of international recognition, Medellin remains one of the most unequal Latin American cities, and the territorial control of nonstate‐armed actors still poses challenges to local governability schemes.
MetroManila
Authors: Porio Emma , Yulo‐Loyzaga Antonia , Uy Cecile 
Published: April 2019

AbstractMetro Manila is the largest urban agglomeration and the Philippines' primary engine of growth, accounting for 37 percent of the country's gross domestic product. The physical and social geography of this coastal megacity make it highly exposed and vulnerable to climate‐ and environment‐related hazards like tropical cyclones, floods, and sea‐level rise as well as earthquakes and landslides. Since the late 1990s, the metropolis has undergone rapid sociodemographic growth and economic expansion, which has radically changed its land‐cover and land‐use patterns and altered land markets. Thus, the environmental and human security needs of the rapidly growing population, especially those in large informal settlements, pose huge risk governance challenges for policy‐makers and urban managers.
Metropolitan Area
Authors: Orellana Arturo , Fuentes Luis 
Published: April 2019

AbstractMetropolitan areas are sociospatial formations characterized by the advance of urbanization and the increasing concentration of population in urban areas or regions. The purpose of this entry is to characterize this concept and discuss the challenges of setting conceptual delimitations and classifications in different geographical contexts over time. Additionally, the entry analyzes the growing challenges metropolitan areas face due to the contemporary tendencies of urbanization, in particular the difficulty of governing these complex and dynamic spatial units.
Migration and Urban Flows
Authors: Kashkovskaya Natalya 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
In the course of globalization of the world economy, cities are increasingly seen as nodes in networks that are shaped and constituted by manifold flows intersecting there, including migration flows. Early conceptualizations of cities from the network perspective, such as “global city,” assumed that only a small set of powerful cities are embedded in the network of interrelations, and saw the role of migrants primarily as part of the urban labor force as well as the factor responsible for the increasing diversity in the city. With the assertion of a transnational perspective on migration, migrants began to be seen as actors and all cities as being affected by global interconnections. Relationships between migrants and cities are theorized in the concepts “transnational urbanism,” “transnational urban spaces,” and in “comparative theory of locality,” which has been developed based on the concept of city scale.
Migration, Gender, Cities
Authors: Silvey Rachel , James‐Wilson Symon , Arviv Tamir 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
In recent decades, scholarship in the social sciences has increasingly examined the role of gender in migration, the dynamics connecting migrants with cities, and the ways that intersections of race, class, and gender inform migrants' struggles over citizenship. Global cities have relied on low income gendered and racialized labor migrants to fulfill precarious service sector jobs, and urban growth has coincided with a series of sociospatial dislocations associated with neoliberalization, securitization, gentrification, segregation, and income polarization. Feminist and critical race scholars of urban studies emphasize the coconstructed nature of urban sociospatial inclusion and exclusion, and understand migration as central to the (re)production of difference and inequality in cities and globally. Research has attended to the politics of identity and scale, and in so doing has increasingly considered new geographies of belonging, occupancy, and citizenship within and beyond the nation‐state.
M
umford,
L
ewis
Authors: Abbott Carl 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Lewis Mumford (1895–1990) was a prolific and influential writer on American art and architecture, urban planning, technology, and the history of urban development. His career spanned the 1920s through the 1970s as he published a score of major books and reached a national audience with hundreds of articles and reviews in which he argued for decentralized urbanization that maintained a human scale while respecting the landscape. Many of his other publications explored the societal impacts and control of changing technologies. His influence rose from the 1930s to the 1960s and has slowly ebbed since then.
Municipal Reform (USA)
Authors: Cantor Douglas 
Published: April 2019

AbstractMunicipal reform is a historically driven movement to bring political institutions and practices into accord with liberal‐democratic standards and philosophies. This entry historically analyzes the history of municipal reform through four separate, but sometimes overlapping, eras: thestrong mayorera of the late 1800s, theprogressiveera of the early to mid‐twentieth century, themetropolitanera of the 1920s to the 1980s, and the current, more loosely definedmodernera. In each era, institutional “cures” are presented as a solution for political “ills” of governing. While the specifics of institutional ideas have evolved over time, what has not changed is the core tenet of municipal reform: that to provide democratic, efficient, and professional government and governance, the evils of politics must be exorcised from policy‐making. By changing the institutions that create policy, contestation can be minimized and governing can be more professional, more cost effective, less corrupt, and serve for the good of the city.
Nairobi
Authors: Otiso Kefa M. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractNairobi is the capital city of Kenya and one of Africa's premier financial, business, technology, transport, communications, diplomatic, NGO, and international institution capitals. For instance, its United Nations Office in Nairobi (UNON) is the only UN headquarters in Africa and in the Global South. Because of Nairobi's rapid population growth and poor planning by colonial and postcolonial governments, the city's growth is somewhat haphazard and inimical to its ability to effectively and efficiently meet its residents' basic shelter, income, and infrastructure needs. In the last decade, the government has substantially improved the city's infrastructure and formulated plans to help guide its future growth. Thus, it is in a much better position to build a good future and to deal with its formidable challenges.
Neighborhood
Authors: Curto María Cecilia Ferraudi 
Published: April 2019

AbstractIn the original understanding of neighborhood, two key debates stood out: one that considered urban segregation, and another that focused on bringing community ties up to date in the modern city. Initially, studies targeted living conditions in the slums of growing cities. Soon, analyses began to theorize about neighborhoods as differentiated parts of the city. Later, researchers showed the limitations of using the neighborhood as a focus and suggested two alternatives: considering it relationally as part of a larger figuration, and accompanying people on the paths they take. Finally, recent analyses have considered actual historical processes so as to provide an account of the impacts of capitalist globalization on local settings, comparing different geographies in order to relativize current theories.
Neighborhood Development
Authors: Drilling Matthias , Schnur Olaf 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Neighborhood development is a normative societal vision and a political intervention scheme. This vision and the form of the political intervention depend on dominant political ideas for the development of cities and society at large. Neighborhood development can thus be considered a specific territorial and social transformation toward a desired situation. In this process a number of conflicts can occur, for example when the people in a neighborhood do not react to the changes as expected, when aims have been developed in a one‐sided or top‐down manner, or when divergent power relations between the different actors have not been sufficiently considered. Neighborhood development is arguably one of the central concepts of regulation and governance in the complex cities of today, which means that the clarification of its theoretical foundations and the discussion of its measures and implementations are key roles of urban policy.
Ordinary Cities
Authors: Gemmiti Roberta 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Ordinary cities is a term coined, in human geography, by Ash Amin and Stephen Graham in an original article published in 1997. The article discussed the contemporary approaches in urban studies, which focused almost exclusively on cities that were represented as key command‐and‐control centers for globalized social, economic, cultural, and creative processes. The authors criticized this idea of the city, based on only a few extraordinary cases, adopting the metaphor of “ordinary city,” in order to take into account all cities, their diversities and heterogeneities, as vital elements in the development of urban theory. In its plural form, the concept was later adopted in postcolonial urban studies. Mainly due to the geographer Jennifer Robinson, the term “ordinary cities” has been used to deconstruct mainstream urban theory and to formulate a different methodological approach for a more cosmopolitan urban research.
Participatory Budgeting
Authors: de Oliveira Osmany Porto 
Published: April 2019

AbstractParticipatory budgeting (PB) is one of the most celebrated models for social participation in urban governance. It was adopted by important metropolises, such as New York (USA), Paris (France), Lima (Peru), Chengdu (China), Maputo (Mozambique), and numerous small towns, numbering about 2,800 cases to date. PB was born in Porto Alegre in the south of Brazil in 1989 as a local experiment. The government of the Workers' Party, which ran the city council, developed PB as an attempt to meet popular demands and implement a new kind of urban governance, committed to social justice and radicalizing democracy. There are different combinations of the main policy instruments from the original model in contemporary experiences, which differ in the institutional design as well as ideologically. An important part of the literature used PB to explore democratic theory, focusing on themes of participation, deliberation, accountability, social capital, and civic engagement. Emerging researches have been analyzing PB's diffusion processes. It is worth noting that most studies considered cases from the Americas and Europe, while there is a lack of research into the experiences of other regions. Studies have also focused on successful experiences; there is a lot to learn about why different practices have failed.
Planned City
Authors: Davoudi Simin 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Planned city is a recurring theme in the history of urban planning but its objectives, underlying visions, and contextual frames have varied in different places and times. This entry provides an overview of the planned city and discusses some of the most influential types including the garden city, the functional city, the monumental city, and the eco city. It argues that, while visionary idealism often presents the best urban planning, stripped of its social context and devoid of democratic processes, a blank canvas approach can have dire sociospatial consequences.
Postsocialist City
Authors: Tosics Iván 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This entry deals with the cities of Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries since the collapse of socialism around 1990. With reference to the three decades since then, the entry describes, first, the conditions (institutions, public policies, and market players) of postsocialist development. This is followed by a discussion of the main development processes, analyzing the performance of the CEE cities. Special emphasis is given to the consequences and dynamics of urban transformation. Finally, there is an overview of the debates regarding the models and futures of postsocialist cities.
Primacy
Authors: Parnreiter Christof 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThe term urban primacy means, in its most general understanding, that a country's largest city has more than twice the population of the second largest city. In its original sense, a close and universal relationship between size and grandeur of a city was postulated. With developmentalism, modernization theory, overpopulation alarmism, and the quantitative revolution in social sciences, the connotation shifted: primacy became increasingly identified with “overurbanization” and thought of as a barrier to national development. Empirical evidence is, however, inconclusive. The main contribution of Marxist and world‐systems analysts, who linked primacy to issues of dependency and exploitation, is the notion that it is erroneous to assume that the nation‐state is the natural scale of analysis. Moreover, it is critical to consider carefully proper indicators of primacy beyond population size. Finally, while city size and size ratio per se have no relationship to development, they might impact on growth and redistributive politics of urban elites.
Primate City
Authors: Dick Howard , Rimmer Peter 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Some cities, usually capitals, are disproportionate in size relative to the population of other cities and the national population. Jefferson's law of the primate city and Zipf's rank‐size rule, became standard measures of spatial inequality. Both are statistical associations, not analyses of causes. Despite conceptual weaknesses and data flaws, primacy gave rise to much academic debate and a presumption of capital city bias without offering good theoretical and practical guidance on which to base policy intervention. In a rapidly urbanizing world, the new economic geography takes a more analytical approach to spatial agglomerations, and estimates of urban population have become more sophisticated. “Primate city” has given ground to “megacity,” “world city,” and “global city” but the basic issues remain much the same, including the unreliability of statistics, the wide variation in urban and national contexts, and the lack of effective policy measures to improve spatial equality.
Private Policing
Authors: Ungar Mark 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Amid the incapacity of state security forces, the persistence and spread of our era's security challenge – from urban homicide to global terrorism – have also led to an expansion of private policing to combat them. Private security has become one of the fastest growing sectors. Like these challenges, private policing has also diversified, ranging from local community policing groups to wealthy multinational firms. The entry delves into the underlying catalysts of private security, using examples from each world region.
Property Rights
Authors: Webster Chris 
Published: April 2019

AbstractA fourfold classification of property rights approaches to urban studies is used to distinguish betweenreal property(land) andpersonal property, and betweende jure(legal) rights andde facto(general, informal, customary, assumed, usurped) rights. Overlaps and distinctions between the four approaches are illustrated by contrasting four classical urban problems, named after authors of influential theoretical expositions of these problems: the Hardin problem, the Heller problem, the Calhoun Problem, and the de Soto problem.
Public Housing, International Comparative Perspective
Authors: Aravecchia‐Botas Nilce 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The concept of public housing was formulated when the transformations caused by the Industrial Revolution generated an imbalance in urban areas, and the “housing issue” emerged as social concern. After that, between the 1930s and 1970s, governments at various levels throughout the world devised public housing policies as part of their efforts to build a welfare state. Public housing corresponds to the idea of the common good and civic virtue, as opposed to the idea of a house as a product for individual consumption. Since the last decades of the twentieth century, with the retreat of the welfare state and the fall of the socialist bloc, public policies have focused on encouraging the private sector, gradually abandoning direct public action over the territory.
Regional Planning
Authors: Schmidt Stephan 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis entry presents an overview of regional planning understood as interlocal metropolitan‐level planning and coordination. It reviews the history of regional planning and presents a regional typology. It examines common justifications for regional planning: to promote environmental sustainability, increase efficiencies in public service delivery, enhance intrametropolitan equity, provide for economic growth, and to build capacity for regional resiliency. It also reviews hindrances to the formation of regional planning, including the role of the private sector, fiscal federalism, the degree of municipal fragmentation, and the role of public policy. For contrast, international comparisons are made where appropriate.
Regional Governance
Authors: Tomaney John 
Published: April 2019

AbstractIn recent decades there has been a growing academic and policy focus on the economic and political role of urban and regional institutions as a factor in the development process. A concern with regional governance is in part a product of the increasing demand on the part of cities and regions for greater political autonomy. These claims may reflect the affirmation of regional or national identities or a more pragmatic assertion by local elites that decentralized decision‐making allows for the application of policies better fitted to diverse geographical contexts. The decentralization (or devolution) of governmental authority to the urban and regional scale can be observed on a global scale. Many cities and regions have built up the political, fiscal, and administrative capacity to act with at least some autonomy from their national governments. Many states therefore are now characterized by systems of multilevel governance, urban or regional “growth coalitions” and have helped to underpin processes of “territorial competition,” in which cities and regions vie with each other in the struggle for investment and resources. Questions of power, politics, and democracy loom large in the matter of regional governance.
Relational Economy
Authors: Simone AbdouMaliq 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Conventional economic calculations view individuals as largely autonomous entities maximizing self‐interest through the acquisition of resources and positions through which to provide to others goods and services that fulfill specific needs and desires. In contrast, relational economy points to the ways the conjunction of people and things affected in these transactions generate unanticipated results and opportunities, where things and people may be used according to the identities through which they are conventionally understood but where different mutations can also occur. The objects transacted index a particular relationship between actors that is always in transition, as the implications of the transaction may ramify across different aspects of the actors' lives, enabling or constraining them in doing and thinking certain things as a function of the transaction itself.
Reterritorialization
Authors: Yang Chun 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Contemporary globalization has reconfigured the scalar organization of capital's dynamic of de‐ and reterritorialization. The process of reterritorialization is defined as the reconfiguration and rescaling of forms of territorial organization such as cities and states, which constitutes an intrinsic moment of the current round of globalization. Reterritorialization describes the processes by which economic or other activities are rearranged in new spatial configurations not necessarily corresponding with established state‐centered geographies. During the process the state's role as a form of (re)territorialization tends to be distinct from the structural significance of the national spatial scale in circumscribing capital flows, economic transactions, urban hierarchies, and social relations. The role of the national scale as a level of governance is being radically redefined in response to the current round of capitalist globalization and reterritorialization.
Right to the City
Authors: Busquet Grégory 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This paper aims to explore the concept of “right to the city” as theorized by the French sociologist Henri Lefebvre in 1968, as a right to emancipation of everyday life and to collective appropriation of space. It also aims to analyze its evolution in social movements, be they local or global, and in intellectual and academic circles, since this theory is reused and updated by “radical geography” in a neoliberal context. As a right to collective use of space and everyday life, it struggles against the general shift toward homogenization and standardization, segregation, privatization and commodification of space, while promoting a more democratic city based on self‐management. It teaches us urban space is both a political product and a political instrument.
São Paulo
Authors: Rolnik Raquel 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
With over 20 million inhabitants, São Paulo is a world city. This entry explores the logic behind the apparent chaos, that is, the urban policy choices that led to contemporary challenges: mobility, housing, and sanitation. An unequal city where both the richest and the poorest live, with gated communities side by side with slums, but also a cultural melting pot that is far from being harmonious. It is a city of walls where cars are predominant but also a city where public spaces have been recently taken back.
Seoul
Authors: Park Se Hoon 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Seoul is the capital and the largest metropolis of South Korea. In the past six decades, Seoul has experienced a dramatic transformation from the administrative center of an agriculture‐based society to a national and regional powerhouse with cutting edge technology and culture. Seoul has foremost been developed as the capital of a developmental state, but now the city is increasingly pressed by regional and global competition and the neoliberal economic environment. This entry deals with Seoul's past transformation and tasks that lie ahead from demographic, economic, and urban policy perspectives.