bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Liquidity Crisis and Government Reaction
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the buildup to the crisis and the background of the Dodd-Frank Act. On July 21, 2010, President Obama signed the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (WSRCPA), widely known as the “Dodd-Frank Act,” a massive piece of financial legislation encompassing a wide range of reforms intended to stabilize financial markets through enhanced oversight, reduction of risk, and improved consumer protection. Its 2,200 pages direct enactment of over 200 new or expanded regulations by federal agencies. The remainder of the chapter covers the Federal Reserve's provision of liquidity and stabilization of financial markets, and regulatory reaction at the height of the financial crisis (Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (EESA) and American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA)).
Asset Valuation
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the use of interest rates in asset valuation. During the Great Recession, the Federal Reserve has navigated U.S. interest rates lower by first reducing the target for the federal funds rate to zero, and then engaging in a process of quantitative easing by purchasing longer-term securities. The effect of the Federal Reserve's actions has been to lower interest rates that affect valuation models across all assets and investments. The chapter then discusses interest rate yield curve, covering the types of yield curves, why the yield curve may be flat or inverted, the increase in market demand for long-term securities, and long-term yield affected by Federal Reserve monetary policy.
United States Treasury Securities
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the purpose and goals of treasury securities. Treasury securities are a type of debt instrument providing limited credit risk. U.S. Treasury bills, notes, and bonds are issued by the Treasury Department and represent direct obligations of the U.S. government. Treasury securities are used to meet the needs of investors who wish to “loan” money to the federal government and in return receive a fixed or floating interest rate. The Treasury yield curve is a benchmark for fixed income securities across the spectrum of debt securities. The remainder of the chapter covers types of treasury securities, pricing, bond auctions and their effect on price, interest rates, and STRIPS (separate trading of registered interest and principal securities).
Regulation of Swaps
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben S. Bernanke classified derivatives as a “vulnerability” of the financial system that led to the financial crisis. He explained that derivatives concentrated risk within particular financial institutions and markets without sufficient regulatory oversight. The Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act—Dodd-Frank—constituted a seismic shift in the regulation of financial institutions and markets in a massive effort to address regulatory shortcomings in derivatives markets. This chapter discusses the Dodd-Frank regulatory regime. Topics covered include the Dodd-Frank and derivatives trading; jurisdiction and registration; clearing, exchange, capital and margin, and reporting requirements; analysis of the provisions of Dodd-Frank on derivatives trading; rationale behind the exemptions and exclusions; the Lincoln Rule; Futures Commission Merchants; and criticisms of Dodd-Frank's derivatives trading provisions.
The History of the CFTC
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) is an independent agency with exclusive jurisdiction over futures trading in all commodities. The Commodity Exchange Act of 1936 (CEA) set forth the first federal regulatory framework for futures trading in agricultural commodities. In 1974, Congress passed the Commodity Futures Trading Commission Act, overhauling the CEA and establishing the CFTC. When President Obama signed the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act into law, the CFTC was a natural regulatory authority for the implementation of Dodd-Frank because of its historical role in regulating a remote corner of the derivatives market place (i.e., futures). This chapter discusses the role of the CFTC, its structure, disciplinary action, and its regulatory background.
Taxing for the Realization of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
Authors: De Schutter Olivier 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses the application of human rights law to state tax policy, identifying normative principles by which UN human rights treaty supervisory bodies—like the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights—can assess whether a state’s tax laws and practices comply with its human rights obligations. In a human rights perspective, state tax policies can be improved in four directions: widening the tax base to finance public services, ensuring progressivity to reduce inequalities, plugging holes in the tax system, and strengthening participation and accountability around tax policy. The chapter then argues that the progressivity of a state’s fiscal policy depends on not only how tax revenues are raised but also how they are spent. It also provides an overview of recent literature on the impacts of tax policy on investment decisions, and traces recent international efforts to curb illicit financial flows.
Tax and Human Rights
Authors: Kane Mitchell A. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter assesses the rightful claims of developed and developing countries to portions of the “international tax base.” Existing revenue in developed country coffers and incremental revenue from possible reform of the international tax system are not substitutes. There is a massive difference between developed countries redirecting a portion of existing revenue toward the redress of human rights shortfalls in developing countries on the one hand, and a restructuring of the basic understanding of international tax entitlements such that developing countries have a superior claim to revenues as their own in the first instance on the other. The chapter then proposes three possible ways in which we might rethink tax policy: a recasting of the basic source-residence dichotomy that deeply pervades the existing approach to international taxation; a consideration of tax policy with an eye to duties that nations may hold with respect to one another; and a rethinking of the role of corporate incidence analysis in tax policy.
Basic Income as a Human Right?
Authors: Hemel Daniel J. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This chapter suggests a human rights–based justification for national basic income schemes, contrasting it with justifications based on welfarist principles or notions of entitlement to a share of the global commons. Starting from the premise that a state is a collective enterprise that generates a surplus, it contends that any human being who is an “obedient” member of that state has a right to some share of the surplus. That right—which arises from the relationship between the individual and the state, and is independent of need—could justify the entitlement to a basic income. Such income should be provided in cash, not in kind, because the latter risks depriving the individual of the enjoyment of his share of the surplus—in effect, forcing him to forfeit or transfer it to others if he does not use the public goods or services provided by the state.
Taxation, Human Rights, and a Universal Basic Income
Authors: Alston Philip 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
This concluding chapter explores the arguments for and against a universal basic income (UBI) in light of the provisions of international human rights law. To appreciate the significance of a UBI, at least in its comprehensive and ideal form, it is important to note that it is explicitly designed to challenge most of the key assumptions underpinning traditional social security systems. The most committed proponents of UBI proclaim their approach to be utopian, not in the sense of being unrealistic or unachievable, but as providing a highly ambitious, sweeping, and progressive vision. Meanwhile, critics or skeptics who raise objections based on unaffordability, the unacceptability of unconditionality, or the unrealistic change in mentality required will often be dismissed as unimaginative defenders of an obviously unsatisfactory status quo.
Education
Authors: Karas Montez Jennifer , Ellen Schwartz Amy 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
There is little question that education is a core determinant of the health of populations. In the context of urban environments, where more people are now concentrated than ever before, the provision of effective education represents both an opportunity to create an informed and healthy population and a challenge to provide education for all urban residents without leaving large segments of the population behind. In many high-income countries, the provision of quality education for all in cities has been challenging, with cycles of poor education perpetuating growing class divides. Provision of effective education in rapidly growing low-income country urban areas is very much a challenge of our current moment. This chapter discusses the challenges and opportunities inherent in providing education in urban areas and the implications these have for urban health.
Sociology
Authors: Jin Lei , Ye Chenyu , Fong Eric 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Sociology is perhaps best seen classically as the study of the development, structure, and function of human societies, and sociologists have long been interested in urbanization and the ways in which urban living influences people’s health and well-being. These interests intersect with other core sociological concerns, such as socioeconomic inequality, racial and ethnic relations, migration, social cohesion, and social control to inform unique sociological perspectives on urban health. Urban environments, bringing together heterogeneous populations in dynamic, rapidly evolving settings, are natural laboratories for understanding human societies, thus suggesting a critical role for sociological perspectives in the study of urban health. This chapter introduces a sociological lens to the study of urban health, offering how sociology can advance our understanding of the health of urban populations.
Health Services Research
Authors: Gusmano Michael K. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
The physical and social environment clearly characterize cities and influence the health of their residents. Cities, however, also represent places where a wealth of services can be available their residents, thus contributing to their well-being. While the foundations of health are social, cultural, and economic, health services are a critical part of curative care and can contribute to overall health indicators—and health gaps—in urban areas. This chapter grounds the reader in how health services perspectives can inform our understanding of health in cities, offering examples of how health services research can both answer questions and point the way to the next generation of questions that inform urban health scholarship.
Environmental Health Impact Assessment
Authors: Dora Carlos 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Urban development interventions in a variety of sectors, including in transport, housing, land-use planning, waste management, and energy can generate substantial health benefits to affected communities. These opportunities for health can be overlooked and unnecessary health risks and costs caused and potential benefits foregone if health issues are not explicitly considered as part of urban projects, plans, and strategies. Environmental health assessments bring together inputs from science and experience using a range of approaches, including community consultations and assessment of local environmental conditions to determine how local projects, plans and policies can improve population health. Formal environmental health assessments then stand to help guide thinking about how environmental factors can create health in cities, and provide a voice for children and other groups whose perspective is often not included in decision making. This chapter provides an introduction to environmental health assessments with an eye to equipping local actors to proactively contribute to creating health and health equity among urban populations, as a key tool for including Health in All Policies.
Social Networks
Authors: Rudolph Abby E. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
One of the distinguishing features of urban environments is the close proximity of their residents. There is ample evidence that our social networks influence how we think, feel, and behave and, through doing so, shape our health. Therefore, the challenge and opportunity for urban areas is how to foster social relationships and interactions that promote healthier behaviors, reduce the risk of disease transmission, and remove or serve as buffers against existing barriers to health service utilization. This chapter provides a theoretical framework for thinking about the role of social networks in public health and provides two examples how social network analysis has been used to better understand two major public health concerns in urban settings.
Boston
Authors: Lopez Russ 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Understanding the history of a place is essential for incorporating local concerns and values into decision-making. Most important, history is present whether we acknowledge it or not. Creating change and improving the lives and health of the public demands effective public policies. These policies must rest on the foundation of a city’s or neighborhood’s history. Channeling new development, preserving and protecting health, and meeting challenges posed by changing environmental conditions need the participation and support of thousands of people. These issues are never discussed in a vacuum, and no problems are solved without regard to history and memory. The Boston experience highlights the need for careful consideration of present conditions in order to prepare for the unknown future. This chapter discusses Boston as a case study, aiming to understand how history shapes cities and creates health in urban populations.
Nomadic Peoples and Alternate Conceptions of Place
Authors: Kingston Lindsey N. 
Published: May 2019

AbstractUnder pressure from sedentary majority populations, nomadic peoples face serious threats to their cultural survival and livelihood. Nomadic groups have long faced suspicion and discrimination—as illustrated by the ongoing marginalization of European Roma and Travellers, the Maasai of Tanzania and Kenya, and the Bedouin of the MENA region—and modern societies tend to see human rights, including the basic rights of freedom of movement and property rights, through a lens that privileges settlement. Indeed, nomadic peoples are often viewed with suspicion and excluded from the citizenry because they move “too much” and do not conform to majority views related to settlement, land use, and community membership. This bias leaves nomadic peoples without functioning citizenship in regard to state governments, who fail to understand their basic needs and perspectives. Resulting rights abuses center not only on rights to land and natural resources but also on cultural and political expression.
Earned Citizenship
Authors: Sullivan Michael J. 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Earned Citizenship is an intervention in the U.S. immigration reform debate that advances the proposition that long-term, unauthorized immigrant U.S. residents should be able to earn legalization and a pathway to citizenship through service to citizens in their adopted U.S. communities as restitution for immigration law violations. Earned Citizenship first applies the principle of civic membership as reciprocity to support the argument that military service by unauthorized immigrants in particular merits naturalization in the United States, given its strong citizen-soldier tradition. The book contends that noncitizens who serve in the military during a period of declared hostilities should be immune from deportation for the rest of their lives. After drawing from the military aspect of the civic republican tradition, the second part of the book considers the civic value of caregiving as a service to citizens and the nation, which merits a pathway to citizenship for unauthorized immigrants. Family immigration policies should be expanded to recognize the importance of caregiving duties performed by family members and fictive kin for dependents. This argument is part of a broader project aimed at reconciling the civic republicanism of the first part of the book with a feminist ethic of care and its emphasis on dependency work. As a whole, this book provides a nonhumanitarian justification for legalizing unauthorized immigrants based on their contributions to citizens and institutions in their adopted nation.
Introduction
Authors: Lawee Eric 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
The Commentary on the Torah by Solomon ben Isaac (1040–1105)—also known as Shlomo Yitzhaki, or Rashi—stands out as the most widely studied and influential Hebrew Bible commentary of all time. This chapter explores ways in which the Commentary can be seen not only as the most formative and authoritative of Jewish biblical commentaries but also as a work bearing canonical status, though it was never formally canonized and even met with pockets of stiff opposition. The chapter argues that criticism may actually have contributed to the Commentary’s attainment of preeminent status.
Conundrums of the Commentary
Authors: Lawee Eric 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Rashi’s Commentary evokes a number of challenges and perplexities, beginning with the fact that it has experienced more textual vicissitudes than any other medieval Jewish work. In addition, the character and aims of the Commentary remain elusive. The most striking feature of Rashi’s exegesis is its mixture of “contextual” meaning (peshuṭo shel miqra) and classical midrashic expositions, which have a much more exegetically fanciful and theologically free character. The problem lies in the relationship between the elements. Rashi’s use of midrash may be what has most endeared the Commentary to its diverse audiences for over close to a millennium. The element of midrash also meant that the ever more classic Commentary imparted a Jewish vision whose overall thrust was often clear—but using an elusive and allusive medium whose constituents remained pliably open to interpretation, and sometimes begged for it.
Aaron Aboulrabi and “The Straight One”
Authors: Lawee Eric 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
The fifteenth-century Sicilian-born commentator, Aaron Aboulrabi, marks something new in the Commentary’s reception: the emergence of a tradition of rhetorically vehement resisting reading. His awareness of Eleazar Ashkenazi is up for some debate, but more than one passage strongly suggests he consulted him. He certainly knew the Book of Strictures. While sharing the incapacity for prevarication characteristic of Ashkenazi and Pseudo-Rabad, Aboulrabi was more eclectic in his convictions and appreciated elements of Rashi’s midrashic hermeneutic. He evaluates the Commentary in the first instance on the basis of consonance with the plain sense and frequently finds it wanting. He also promotes an approach nourished by rationalist convictions. Nor does he scruple to hurl invective at “the Straight One,” as he calls Rashi, and his rabbinic forerunners. In all of this, Aboulrabi carried on exegetical, theological, and rhetorical trends known to him from the writings of Abraham ibn Ezra while still occasionally putting himself in step with Rashi’s midrashic legacy.
Necessarily Dissimilar
Authors: Kars Aydogan 
Published: May 2019

AbstractIn the centuries following al-Kindī, Muslim philosophers developed a coherent family of apophatic theological positions on the divine essence and its accessibility. The recurring aspects of this philosophical apophaticism were (1) a negative theology of divine attributes that reads them as negations, (2) the unknowability of the divine essence, closely connected with an Aristotelian version of the Neoplatonic distinction between discursive thought [dianoia] and non-discursive intellection [noēsis], (3) the necessary dissimilarity of God as the first cause of everything else, and (4) a philosophical hermeneutics that protects divine oneness and dissimilarity. Most of these aspects were established in conversation with the Muʿtazilites. As early as al-Kindī, Muslim philosophers adopted such a philosophical apophaticism of the divine nature, which later would take diverse forms, while preserving strategic resemblances.
Introduction
Authors: Bussell Jennifer 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
The introduction to the book presents an overview of the puzzle constituency service presents to our understanding of distributive politics in patronage democracies. It then offers an overview of the book’s argument for why citizens demand assistance from their high-level representatives—individuals with substantially large constituencies such that they cannot know most of their voters personally—and why these politicians respond to such requests in a largely nonpartisan and noncontingent manner. The chapter places this constituency service conceptually within nonprogrammatic politics, alongside more well-studied forms of allocation: clientelism and partisan bias. It then offers an outline of the book’s contents and contributions, including a summary of the data sources used throughout the text.
The Provision of Constituency Service
Authors: Bussell Jennifer 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Chapter 3 draws on a field experimental audit of politicians with a near census of Indian state and national legislators to show that, on the whole, politicians do not take indicators of partisanship into account when responding to individual-level requests. Specifically, this national field experiment shows that for India’s high-level politicians, information on electoral preferences does not affect the willingness of representatives to respond to an individual’s request for assistance. In addition, indications of shared ethnicity, e.g., caste, which may be closely tied to political preferences, do not result in preferential treatment. Overall, these findings offer strong evidence that the aid high-level politicians offer to individuals requiring assistance navigating the state is often noncontingent in nature, taking the form of constituency service.
Clients or Constituents?
Authors: Bussell Jennifer 
Published: May 2019

Abstract
Chapter 4 offers a theoretical explanation for why we should expect to see constituency service in patronage democracies, despite existing expectations to the contrary. It discusses in greater detail the book’s argument for why constituency service constitutes a key element of distributive politics, alongside forms of locally brokered clientelism and contingent allocation of group-oriented goods. The chapter elaborates the sources of demand for, and supply of, constituency service in a patronage democracy. It then considers the limitations of more widely studied forms of distributive politics and outlines the ways in which constituency service offers a compelling alternative to politicians for pursuing their desired electoral ends. This discussion suggests a number of empirical implications, laid out in detail at the end of the chapter, which guide the analyses in subsequent chapters.