bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Future of the Law of Occupation
Authors: Boon Kristen E. 
Published: June 2019

SummaryThe law of occupation has become the subject of great contemporary interest because of two prominent, although sui generis, situations: the long-term Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights and the “transformative” occupation of Iraq. In both situations, the occupying powers resisted the label of belligerent occupier and selectively applied the 1907 Hague Regulations and the 1949 Geneva Conventions to the territories in question. The unique circumstances of these occupations have sparked vigorous debate over the future of the law of occupation. To wit, is the widely accepted, but largely unenforced, law of occupation capable of regulating transitions between armed conflict and peace in the twenty-first century? This article examines recent developments in the notoriously open-textured law of occupation that have arisen as this law has been variously ignored, invoked, challenged, examined, and ultimately reformed through practice. In particular, it discusses the triggers for beginning and ending an occupation, including recent jurisprudence on the “effective control” test. The article examines who can be an occupier, the question of “multiple occupiers” under unified command, and the obligations of occupiers in the areas of legislation and institutional reform. The author also considers the challenges of UN involvement in transitional situations, including the applicability of the law of occupation to UN forces and the role of the Security Council in adapting the law of occupation. The author concludes with a discussion of the principle of “conservationism” and the relationship between the law of occupation and jus post bellum, in order to provide an assessment of possible “futures” of the law of occupation.
Poursuivre le génocide, les crimes contre l’humanité et les crimes de guerre au Canada: Une analyse des éléments des crimes à la lumière de l’affaire Munyaneza
Authors: Lafontaine Fannie 
Published: June 2019

SommaireLa décision Munyaneza constitue la première analyse judiciaire de la Loi sur les crimes contre l’humanité et les crimes de guerre et des définitions qu’elle propose des infractions de droit international maintenant criminalisées dans le système juridique canadien. Il s’agit d’un régime juridique nouveau, original et complexe, qui fait s’entrecroiser le droit international et le droit canadien, et qui constitue un pilier important de l’entreprise globale de lutte contre l’impunité pour les crimes internationaux les plus graves. L’auteure propose une analyse critique du jugement Munyaneza en ce qui concerne les éléments constitutifs du crime de génocide, des crimes contre l’humanité et des crimes de guerre. Elle offre me discussion de certains des aspects les plus difficiles des définitions de ces crimes et vise à contribuer à ce que la jurisprudence future soit cohérente avec l’esprit et la lettre de la loi et avec le droit international. Le régime des peines applicables en vertu de la Loi est aussi brièvement analysé.
Fine Structure of Photospheric Faculae
Authors: Muller R. 
Published: June 2019

Properties of the photospheric bright points associated with magnetic flux tubes are reviewed both in faculae (facular points) and in the photospheric network (network bright points - NBPs) out of active regions. A special attention is given to their size distribution, to their location relative to the granular, mesogranular and supergranular patterns, and to their relation with the small scale magnetic features, both in active and quiet regions. In particular a new granulation movie reveals that NBPs form in large intergranular spaces, compressed by the surrounding granules.At the center of the solar disk, bright points are much brighter than the mean photosphere; their contrast increases toward the limb up to μ = 0.3 − 0.2 and then decreases to the limb, as it is now widely accepted. But, all the published contrasts are of little significance because of center-to-limb selection effects. New center-to-limb contrast variations of individual network bright points are presented, which take into account the selection effects.
Absolute Magnitudes and Colours of Field Giant Branch Stars
Authors: Neckel H. , Klawitter P. 
Published: June 2019

Concerning the absolute magnitudes of the giant stars contained in the Mt. Wilson catalogue of Adams et al., the following facts are pointed out:
(1)There is a linear relation between the Mt. Wilson magnitudes and the absolute magnitudes derived on account of the Wilson-Bappu effect (Figure 1). The scale factor is 2.3.(2)The accuracy of the properly scaled Mt. Wilson magnitudes follows from the scatter in relation (1) and the accuracy of the Wilson-Bappu magnitudes (± 0.6). It is ± 0m.6 (mean error).(3)The assured reliability of the corrected Mt. Wilson magnitudes allows a subdivision into bright, intermediate and faint giants (Figure 2). The 3 subgroups exhibit different 2-colour relations (Figures 3, 4, 5).(4)The large number of giant stars present in the Mt. Wilson catalogue allows a trustworthy derivation of the mean absolute magnitudes of giant branch stars (Figure 6) and an estimate of its dispersion as well (Figure 7).
Monolithic Si Bolometer Arrays: Detectors for Far Infrared and Submillimeter Detection
Authors: Moseley Harvey 
Published: June 2019

The improvement of photoconductors and photovoltaic detectors for λ < 200 μm has displaced bolometers as detectors of choice for many applications requiring high sensitivity. Continued development of bolometers for operation at low temperatures (T < 0.1 K) has resulted in significant improvements in their sensitivity, making them excellent choices for many broad band applications at λ > 200 μm, cryogenic spectrometer applications in the submillimeter, and applications requiring extreme stability and ease of calibration.I will describe the development of bolometers over the past decade, with particular emphasis on the detectors we have developed at GSFC. Detectors have been constructed in 36 element arrays with NEP ∼ 5 × 10−18 W/√Hz and a response time of ten ms. Such detectors are very useful for many current problems in Cosmic Microwave Background studies and submillimeter spectroscopy. We will describe the current state of development of the detectors and the improvements we are pursuing.There has been significant progress in the development of superconducting tunnel junction detectors for operation in the far infrared and submillimeter spectral range. Though at an early stage, these detectors have great promise of excellent sensitivity and ease of array fabrication. I will discuss the current developments in this area.
PtSi IR Array in Mosaic Configuration
Authors: Ueno Munetaka , Tsumuraya Fumiaki , Chikada Yoshihiro 
Published: June 2019

The rapid progress in the focal plane technology enables us to use large format infrared sensors, such as 256 × 256 InSb/HgCdTe and 1040 × 1040 PtSi arrays. Infrared two-dimensional sensors make possible not only the imaging observations but a deep detection limit. The development of a large format infrared array is one of the most important breakthroughs in observational astronomy.We propose to build a mosaic infrared camera for the SUBARU 8-m telescope. The SUBARU telescope is designed to reach a diffraction limited image at infrared wavelengths with a wide field of view (six arcsec at the Cassegrain focus). The camera is designed to cover the entire field of view with PtSi infrared sensors and to employ a weighted shift-and-add operation and a real-time image processing. The efficiency of the mosaic infrared camera and power of the 8-m telescope have a strong potential to meet challenging problems. Most of the regions of the near infrared sky are not covered with enough sensitivity. It is essential to conduct infrared deep and wide surveys.
A Unified Treatment of the Filament and Flare Instabilities
Authors: van Hoven Gerard 
Published: June 2019

Filaments and flares occur in sheared magnetic structures as a result of radiative cooling and resistive reconnection, respectively. A new integrated theory of these two unstable processes is described, which includes the relevant effects of magnetohydrodynamics and energy transport. The normally dissociated thermal and tearing phenomena are coupled together by a temperature–dependent Coulomb resistivity. As a result, the filamentation and flaring instabilities of a sheared field may coexist, as is familiar from the solar example.The growth rates and spatial structures of these two modes are detailed here. The much faster radiative instability is shown to provide significant magnetic reconnection, particularly at shorter wavelengths. The long–wavelength reconnection mode is found to be abetted by the resistivity increase caused by the dominance of cooling at the X point, in contrast to its nonradiative behavior. Implications of these results for the development of coronal activity are described.
Application de la Methode par Deconvolution Integree Au Cas des Occultations D'etoiles Doubles
Authors: Froeschle M. , Meyer C. 
Published: June 2019

The most usual method for the determination of the angular separation ρ and the magnitude difference Δm of the two components is the direct comparison of the observed diffraction pattern with a theoretical model. However, it is possible to use a deconvolution process based, for a single star, on the equation I′(x) = F′(x) * O(x), involving both the derivative of the Fresnel diffraction function for a point-like source, and that of the observed intensity. O(x) is the brightness distribution function of the occulted source.We describe here a new method, using the integrated deconvolution process (Froeschlá, Meyer, 1983), in which we determine the variations of the apparent surface of the two sources of a double star while it is being occulted. The two sources are supposed to be of the same diameter. This method has been applied to several cases of theoretical diffraction curves with different values of ρ and Δm. Noise has been added and we have studied the effect of the signal to noise ratio on determination of the parameters ρ and Δm of the pair. A good accuracy for Δm is obtained for |Δm| ≦ 1 and noise ≦ 10%. The determination of ρ is well achieved for noise level reaching 15 %. The technique has been at last applied to the observation of the occultation of SAO 95166 made by Africano et al.(1977) leading to nearly similar results.
Timing and Data Acquisition System for a Field Astrolabe
Authors: Lukac Carl F. , Wheeler Paul J. , Keating Richard E. , Clarke Randolph T. 
Published: June 2019

The Danjon Astrolabe at the Naval Observatory has been traditionally used to determine Universal Time and improve the systematic accuracy of star positions. During the past year, it has been used to determine latitude and longitude at remotely scattered sites for geodetic purposes. Operating this instrument away from the Observatory necessitated a mobile support and timing system rugged enough to operate dependably in ever changing, and sometimes harsh, environmental conditions.This paper describes the performance of the astrolabe timing and data acquisition system, gives engineering design considerations, and describes the equipment and instrumentation.
The Use and Abuse of Standard Stars
Authors: Garrison R. F. 
Published: June 2019

Most systems of classification or quantitative measurement depend on standards. It is of the greatest importance for the user to be aware of the mandate of a particular system. If the mandate is not understood by casual users, a system can be either underutilized or abused.In the particular case of the MK system of spectral classification, types are defined by the standard stars. They can be calibrated, and the calibration may evolve with time, but the types are relatively stable because they are defined by the standards. The autonomy of this powerful system is crucial to its success, but some astronomers do not understand the importance of this distinction. Recent suggestions to change the spectral type of the Sun show an ignorance of the way the system works.Precautions in the use of standard stars and the frequency of their use depend on the particular system and on its mandate.
The Thermal and Magnetic Structure of Sunspots
Authors: Maltby P. 
Published: June 2019

The continuum intensity observations of sunspot umbrae and penumbrae in the visible and infrared are reviewed. The intensity in the darkest part of the umbra and the average penumbral intensity are known with relatively high accuracy inlargesunspots. The importance of including infrared observations in the construction of semi-empirical sunspot models is emphasized.Magnetic field measurements are discussed. Special attention is given to recent high-spatial-resolution observations that show large fluctuations in magnetic field inclination, suggesting that the sunspot magnetic field changes its inclination – but not its magnitude – between bright and dark penumbral features.
Giant Luminous Arcs in Clusters of Galaxies
Authors: Lynds Roger , Petrosian Vahè 
Published: June 2019

During a program of study of surface brightness of elliptical galaxies in large redshift clusters in 1976 by a video camera at the KPNO 4-meter telescope, we in colaboration with Alan Sandage discovered filamentary and arc-like features in three clusters of galaxies. More recently, the same clusters (Abell 370, Abell 2218, and Cl2244-02) were observed by three different CCD's at the same telescope. These new observations confirm ouir old observations, and being of higher quality, show that the features in two of the clusters (Abell 370 and Cl 2244) form well defined continuous arcs with the following properties:
1)Large nearly circular features (length and radius of curvature ∼100 Kpc) with the center of curvature located near the center of gravity of the cluster.2)Large optical luminosity (≃1011L⊙).3)Bluer than the elliptical galaxies with unexpectedly high ultraviolet emission for Abell 370 giving rise to an unusual spectrum (see figure 1).4)Nearly uniform width along the arc with almost abrupt termination points, indicating a one dimensional structure rather than projection of a portion of a spherical shell.5)the arcs are nearly resolved perpendicular to their length with widths of ≤ 1″ (≤ 6 Kpc).
i)In case of Abell 370 the surface brightness is very uniform but the width varies with wavelength, becoming wider toward blue and ultraviolet.ii)In case of CI 2244 there is considerable variation of surface brightness along the arc. We have no information on the variation of the width with wavelength.6)Our data does not show any other unusual features associated with the clusters as a whole or with the giant cD galaxies. These clusters may, however, be unusual in that they seem to have two distinct centers of gravity, this is especially true for Abell 370 which has two almost identical giant cD galaxies instead of the usual clusters dominated by one centrally located cD galaxy.7)Polarization observations show that the arcs are not highly polarized (polarization < 20%).8)From a short exposure spectral observation of C12244 we can only deduce absence of very strong emission lines.
Millimeter wave observations of circumstellar envelopes with the IRAM telescope
Authors: Omont A. , Forveille T. , Guilloteau S. , Lucas R. , Rieu Nguyen-Q , Likkel L. , Morris M. 
Published: June 2019

We report various recent observations of molecules in circumstellar envelopes of late type stars, mainly possible proto-planetary nebulae at various stages of evolution, and supergiants, including.First observation of SO2 (Lucas et al. 1986) in five stars and SO in one. S O 2 is particularly strong in OH 231.8+4.2 (OH 0739-14) and OH 26.5+0.6, where one of its lines is the strongest non-maser line observed in these envelopes (Guilloteau et al. 1986).
Luminosity Functions of Planetary Nebulae
Authors: Jacoby George , Ciardullo Robin 
Published: June 2019

Luminosity functions of planetary nebulae contain information about the central star mass distributions, nebular, central star, and progenitor evolution, stellar death rates, and a galaxy's star formation and chemical evolution histories. Appropriate observing strategies can be used in combination with various models to extract some of the parameters of these functions. The principal results from these studies are that the central star mass distribution is narrow (σ ∼ 0.02–0.04M⊙), the number of PN in a galaxy depends on galaxy color, and the number of PN in the Galaxy is ∼ 104.The most extensive application of luminosity function studies has been exploiting the bright end cutoff as a distance indicator. Distances for 25 galaxies have been measured using the methodology outlined by Jacoby, Ciardullo, and collaborators. The PNLF method compares extremely well with other techniques, and is accurate to ∼ 5%. In fact, there is no evidence for systematic effects of any kind, although a small (5–10%) metallicity correction needs to be applied for metal-poor systems.
Colliding stellar winds: X-ray emission and instabilities
Authors: Stevens Ian R. 
Published: June 2019

Colliding stellar winds are an important part of early-type binaries. In this paper I discuss the phenomenon, concentrating mainly on the basic hydrodynamics of colliding winds, and the physics of X-ray emission. The following topics are covered:1) Basic physics: The basic characteristics of the shock-produced thermal X-ray emission, and discuss general trends of X-ray emission from colliding wind binaries (CWBs).2) Hydrodynamic simulations: Recent calculations have found that the interface in colliding winds is usually dynamically unstable, with three distinct instabilities.3) Gamma Velorum: recent ROSAT observations give much insight into colliding winds. I discuss recent hydrodynamic calculations pertaining to these observations.4) Radiation Hydrodynamics in CWBs: Recent calculations have included the effects of both radiation fields on the wind hydrodynamics in colliding wind systems.
Globular Clusters in NGC 1399 and Background Galaxies
Authors: Madejsky Rainer , Bender Ralf 
Published: June 2019

NGC 1399, the central galaxy of the Fornax cluster, is known to have an overabundance of globular clusters (Hanes and Harris, 1986). In order to determine the luminosity function of these globular clusters, two fields near NGC 1399 were observed in the B, V, and R band. One field was chosen near the center of NGC 1399 and the second field 20′ east of the galaxy center. The second field is supposed to contain no globular clusters and is used for comparison. Both fields were reduced with DAOPHOT (Stetson, 1987) to determine the number-magnitude relation for all detected objects (see Figure 1). The differential number counts give log N (m) = 0.84 mB for the comparison field while the differential number counts for the central field (background galaxies and globular clusters) cannot be described by this simple law. Figure 2 shows the number-magnitude relation of the excess objects in the central field (difference between all counts in the central and in the comparison field). The differential number counts N (m) of the excess objects can be represented by the superposition of three populations, each following approximately a Gaussian distribution. The population with the brightest peak luminosity (mB = 22.1 mag) is due to a galaxy cluster with an estimated redshift z = 0.3–0.4.
Figure 1.The differential number counts of the central field (upper line) and the comparison field (lower line) are displayed for the band until 0.5 mag short of the limiting magnitude. The differential number counts of the comparison field can be described by a simple exponential law; this function is displayed as a dotted line. The differential number counts of the central field cannot be approximated by a simple exponential function.Figure 2.The difference among all detected objects between both fields (Ncent(m) - Ncomp(m)) is shown for the B band. The excess objects in the central field can be represented by the superposition of three populations. This three-component Gaussian model is indicated by the dotted line. The most abundant population (N > 250) with peak luminosity mB = 24.8 mag is identified with globular clusters belonging to NGC 1399.
Duhem, Quine and a New Empiricism
Authors: Hesse Mary 
Published: June 2019

As in the case of great books in all branches of philosophy, Pierre Duhem's Le Théorie Physique, first published in 1906, can be looked to as the progenitor of many different and even conflicting currents in subsequent philosophy of science. On a superficial reading, it seems to be an expression of what later came to be called deductivist and instrumentalist analyses of scientific theory. Duhem's very definition of physical theory, put forward early in the book, is the quintessence of instrumentalism:A physical theory is not an explanation. It is a system of mathematical propositions, deduced from a small number of principles, which aim to represent as simply, as completely, and as exactly as possible a set of experimental laws [p. 19].
Comparisons
Authors: Jennings Jesse D. 
Published: June 2019

In order to discover the typological similarities of the Wendover collections to artifacts from other sites, and the cultural and chronological inferences such similarities give rise to, a series of collections will be reviewed for comparable data. It is again pointed out that the archeologist's universal assumption — that typological identity between specimens implies either direct or indirect cultural contact or chronological equivalence — is only an assumption. Although much archeological reconstruction of history is rooted in this concept, there are no fixed points of certainty which guide the reconstruction. How much of the values of a culture cling to an artifact? Will a new artifact style or a new class of artifacts have marked influence on the total configuration of a lifeway when the object or complex of objects is introduced into a new culture? If so, how long does the process take? Or do new artifacts reflect some culture change already achieved?Further, the form and stylistic detail of stone and textile objects, for example, appear to be very stable and to change slowly. Hence, artifacts other than pottery must be regarded as not particularly sensitive to change (in contrast to pottery); inferences based on similarities between textiles or stone work, for example, are likely less apt to carry sharp cultural and chronological implications than are those based on pottery styles.
Statistical Properties of an Unbiased Sample of F7-K Binaries: Towards The Long-Period Systems
Authors: Eggenberger A. , Halbwachs J.-L. , Udry S. , Mayor M. 
Published: June 2019

AbstractWe have undertaken a new investigation of the statistical properties of main-sequence binaries, which is a revision and extension of the Duquennoy & Mayor survey of solar-type stars. The analysis has been divided into two parts: the spectroscopic binaries with periods shorter than 10 years, and the long-period systems including visual binaries and common proper motion pairs. In this contribution we present preliminary results regarding the intrinsic mass ratio and period distributions of visual binaries. Our results are strongly limited by small-number statistics, but when combined with the ones found for the spectroscopic binaries, the following results are obtained: (i) the excess of equal-mass binaries, if still present, is less important for long-period systems than for the binaries with P < 50 days; (ii) the period distribution is inconsistent with a flat distribution.