bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Crown’s Imposition of the Common Law and Colonial Resistance
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines England’s conquest of New Netherland from the Dutch in 1664 and the gradual replacement of Dutch civil law with English common law, plus the efforts of Charles II and James II to replace the word of God with the common law in Massachusetts and the rest of New England. The Crown’s purpose in imposing the common law was to replace Dutch laymen and Puritan ministers as community leaders with English lawyers, who would receive patronage and therefore be loyal to the Crown while they were paid by private clients whom they counseled to follow the common law. Needless to say, both the Dutch and the Puritans resisted.
The Emergence of the Legal Profession
Authors: Nelson William E. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines how the legal profession developed along with the reception of the common law. Distinguished bars developed in the key urban centers of Boston, Charleston, New York, and Philadelphia, as well as in the colonies of Maryland and Virginia. Competent, well-qualified lawyers appeared in other colonies as well, with the possible exception of Georgia, which was a young colony that had been settled for only four decades at the outbreak of the American Revolution.
Introduction
Authors: Lindsay Jon R. , Gartzke Erik 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This introductory chapter provides historical context on the development of cross-domain deterrence as a practical problem in national security affairs, in particular the emergence of space and cyber threats to United States military power. It then steps back to consider whether and how the concept of cross-domain deterrence might be of more general interest in international relations theory. Each of the chapters in this book, summarized herein, probe the analytical utility of cross-domain deterrence by examining how differences across, and combinations of, different military and nonmilitary instruments affect choices and outcomes in coercive policy. The authors find that the concept of cross-domain deterrence does indeed offer novel theoretical insight, even as political and technological complexity may limit its application in practice.
The Past and Future of Deterrence Theory
Authors: Morgan Patrick M. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Renewed interest in deterrence today has been stimulated by the way recent efforts to sustain security and stability in international politics have often been unevenly successful or not successful at all. Efforts to deter, contain, and end conflict—whether terrorism, intrastate ethnic, religious and political fighting, and interstate fighting—have frequently run into difficulty. There is serious disarray in the East-West deterrence relationship once again, after a brief Cold War hiatus, with disturbing possibilities of outright conflict now being openly discussed among analysts and observers. Part of the reason that deterrence is so challenged today is that the very concept of deterrence—including cross-domain deterrence—has become seriously overstretched to apply to far more than it reasonably can, or should.
Deterrence in and through Cyberspace
Authors: Schneider Jacquelyn G. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Most of the discussion of cyber deterrence has been plagued by ambiguity and a lack of precedent, and this imprecision has resulted in vague or partially implemented policies. This chapter reviews debates about the definition of cyber operations and cyber deterrence, distinguishing the use of cyberspace to support deterrence in other domains and the deterrence of actions in cyberspace itself. The author finds that uncertainty is a resounding theme in this literature, which poses both challenges and opportunities for cross-domain deterrence. Cyber-enabled military capabilities might both bolster U.S. deterrence policies and incentivize attack. In cyber as well as in space, the United States confronts a difficult paradox of capability and vulnerability.
Extended Deterrence and Assurance in Multiple Domains
Authors: Mehta Rupal N. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Cross-domain deterrence must contend not only with the technological complexity of modern military power but also with the political complexity of alliance relationships. The proliferation of domains might affect commitments to allies. This chapter draws on the precedent of the U.S. nuclear triad and the underappreciated relationship between platform diversity and the credibility of commitments. As it turns out, the advent of intercontinental and submarine-launched ballistic missiles inadvertently undermined U.S. deterrence commitments in East Asia and Western Europe. This chapter argues that the plethora of capabilities emerging in the twenty-first century will enable allies and adversaries alike to engage in risky behavior while undermining the United States’ willingness to intervene overseas. The chapter concludes with implications for U.S. polity and that of its alliance partners, as well as predictions about the general evolution of extended deterrence strategies in an increasingly cross-domain system.
A Taste of Success
Authors: Curtis Cathy 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
In 1956, Nell joined the new Poindexter Gallery. Reviewers praised her first show. The following year, she was awarded a residency at Yaddo (the artists’ colony in Saratoga Springs, New York), meeting poets Jane Mayhall and May Swenson. Afterward, she traveled to Mexico City and Oaxaca, where she worked at night by the light of an oil lamp. On her return, she spent several weeks at the MacDowell Colony in New Hampshire, followed by another stay at Yaddo in December, when her fellow residents were poets Barbara Guest and Jean Garrigue. Nell spent the summer of 1958 in a rented studio in Gloucester. It was there that ARTnews writer Lawrence Campbell visited her to write a major piece about her work on Harbor and Green Cloth, illustrated with photographs by her friend Rudy Burckhardt. A second version of this painting was purchased by the Whitney Museum of American Art.
Love and Work
Authors: Curtis Cathy 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
In her new elevator-equipped apartment, Nell dedicated herself to regaining her painting skills. She was still very much a part of the art world, included in gallery exhibitions and in a magazine article about successful women artists. However, decades before the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act, it was extremely difficult for her to travel around New York to see art and visit friends. An invitation to Yaddo for another stay involved the practical difficulties facing an artist in a wheelchair. On the bright side, Dilys Evans (considered to be an aide) was allowed to stay in her room, despite rules forbidding artists to bring intimates with them. But she had overstayed her visa extension and was obliged to leave the country. Although a well-placed friend had caused a bill to be circulated in Congress stipulating that she be granted permanent residence, the women decided to leave for Europe.
Alive Still
Authors: Curtis Cathy 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Nell’s fiftieth solo exhibition opened at the Fischbach Gallery in 1991. Her late-life projects ranged from illustrating a book of poetry by the late Marge Piercy to calling the governor of Virginia in an effort to stay the execution of a convicted rapist and murderer. During the 1990s, Nell’s health problems included eye disease and breast cancer as well as postpolio syndrome. The increasing curvature in her back tired her and made sitting at an easel painful. But she carried on anyway, often painting flower still lifes. This chapter briefly discusses her style with reference to flower paintings by other twentieth-century artists, including Mondrian, Hartley, Bonnard, Monet, Ellsworth Kelly, and Georgia O’Keeffe. Her last Gloucester painting, Rock Shadows (1995), hints at closure while embodying a sense of the continuous rhythms of life. Nell died on November 14, 1996. The following January, artist and writer friends gathered at her memorial.
Qanun Jinayat of Aceh, Indonesia
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The Qanun Jinayat in Aceh bears certain similarities to the developments in Malaysia. Yet a point of difference between them is that unlike Malaysia, which is a federal state, Indonesia is a centralised administration, and only Aceh has been granted a special autonomous status. The constitution of Indonesia 1945 also states that Indonesia is a secular state, but the national parliament in Jakarta in 2003 passed legislation that allowed shariah to be implemented in Aceh.
Shariah Punishments in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Ḥudūd punishments were traditionally applied in courts of justice of Afghanistan and that is still, at least theoretically, the case. The Penal Code 1976 does not legislate on ḥudūd but instead provides that the code serves to regulate crimes and punishments in the taʿzīr category only. The overall effect of this is that most of the ḥudūd penalties are converted into prison sentences. It is further provided that no punishment may violate basic human dignity.
Shariah Punishments in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The ḥudūd narrative in Pakistan took a new lease of life under the late General Zia ul Haq’s famed Hudood Ordinances in 1979. The subsequent controversies that beset the legal system have yet to find satisfactory solutions. Constitutional issues, the Federal Shariat Court interventions, and subsequent legislation under Zia’s successors constitute the main themes of this chapter.
Hong Kong and Taiwan
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The idea of science and religion in conflict does not pervade Taiwan and Hong Kong as it often does in the West. Instead, there is often free expression of religion within the workplace. Scientists in Taiwan and Hong Kong actually mirror the public in terms of religiosity, perhaps because there is little tension between science and religion in these societies. In Hong Kong the history of Christianity comes up in the scientific workplace through the practices of Christian scientists; and in Taiwan the presence of folk religion can be felt within the scientific workplace, though it is subtler than in Hong Kong.
An Integrated Global Science and Religion
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
In the countries and regions featured in this book, there are more religious scientists than we might think. There are varieties of atheism that exist among scientists in these Western and Eastern contexts. In contrast to the “warfare thesis” that science and religion are inherently in conflict with one another, the conflict perspective on science and religion is primarily promulgated by those in the West. The popular notion of science and religion as “nonoverlapping magisteria”—that science and religion are domains of human experience that do not overlap, with science the realm of natural facts and religion the realm of values—is only partially true. There are many ways forward for dialogue.
The Doxastic Problem
Authors: Manis R. Zachary 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Unlike the problem of justice and the problem of love, which aim to reveal some inner tension or implicit contradiction between the doctrine of hell and other parts of orthodox theism, there is a different kind of problem that stems from individual and collective belief in the doctrine: this the author terms the doxastic problem of hell. The general problem here is that thoroughgoing belief in hell seems prima facie incompatible with other beliefs, actions, and attitudes that are fundamental to the Christian faith. This chapter develops the problem in numerous forms, addressing various difficulties that arise concerning moral and religious motivation, love for God and neighbor, freedom, coercion, and despair. What these problems seem to demonstrate, individually and collectively, is that belief in hell is unedifying and perhaps even epistemically self-defeating. An adequate solution to the problem of hell, therefore, must somehow address these issues.
Objections, Replies, and Further Refinements
Authors: Manis R. Zachary 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
With the initial philosophical and theological case for the divine presence model in place, the author considers some objections, most of which the model can handle in the form introduced in the previous chapter, but one of which reveals the need for an additional component. First, the author considers the way that the divine presence model handles the biggest problems faced by its closest competitors, traditionalism and the choice model. He then turns to some challenges that are specific to the divine presence model’s way of understanding hell. In closing, he develops a variety of different hybrid views, which combine key elements of the divine presence model with other elements that are constitutive of one or more of the standard views. A number of such hybrid views are found in an inchoate form in the existing literature; the chapter briefly evaluates these, giving special attention to Talbott’s hybrid universalist model.
“Guns Plus Interest”
Authors: Biberman Yelena 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter shows that the principal factors driving the state-nonstate alliances in Kashmir (1989–2003) were the local balance of power and actors’ interests. It was only when the Indian army demonstrated force employment prowess through a string of military victories that it was able to attract opportunists. These were former rebels seeking local power, profit, and security. The proxies—most notably the Ikhwan-ul-Muslimoon in the north, as well as the Jammu and Kashmir Ikhwan and Muslim Mujahideen in the south of the Kashmir Valley—helped to shift the balance of power in India’s favor. This prompted the insurgency to move to the mountainous Jammu region. There, the security forces turned to local activists. These, mostly Hindu, villagers formed the so-called Village Defense Committees.
Tribal “Awakenings” in Pakistan and India
Authors: Biberman Yelena 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter presents two little-known but highly consequential rebellions in Pakistan and India, and the state-nonstate alliances forged to combat them. In Pakistan, what led to the alliance was the local tribes’ desire to take back their land from the Taliban, and the state’s willingness to collaborate with the tribes in order to prevent the further spread of the anti-Pakistan Taliban outside the tribal areas. Islamabad was not prepared to enforce full sovereignty over the region, and so its alliance with the tribes was weak. The Naxalite insurgency enjoyed free reign over a region that remained for many decades a backwater to the Indian government. But, when the insurgency gained serious steam and private companies developed plans to exploit the area’s mineral deposits, the government stepped in. After achieving a rough balance of local power, it allied with opportunists, who formed a civilian-manned counterinsurgency outfit known as the Salwa Judum.
Young Adulthood and Religion
Authors: Clydesdale Tim , Garces-Foley Kathleen 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The story of Ted, a World War II sailor for the U.S. Navy, and his teenage bride, Dottie, opens the chapter, setting up the contrast with emerging adulthood today. Their early marriage, five children, and Ted’s living wage from work for the electric company represent an era long gone. Financial independence today requires dual incomes and years of preparation, pushing back marriage and parenthood nearly a decade. Despite these changes, the religious lives of American twentysomethings demonstrate stability more than change. Survey analysis of the project’s National Study of American Twentysomethings (2013) and the National Science Foundation’s General Social Survey (1972–2016) demonstrate a stable proportion of religious committed young adults—about 1 in 4, and a rise in religiously unaffiliated young adults —from the ranks of the semi-religious. Widespread prayer, participation in worship, favorable attitudes toward congregations, and frustration with angry “religious people” are among the chapter’s notable findings.
Catholics
Authors: Clydesdale Tim , Garces-Foley Kathleen 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Two out of 5 Catholic twentysomethings, or 3.2 million American young adults, attend worship a couple of times monthly or more. If all 3.2 million were to gather in the same place, they would become America’s third-largest city. This chapter focuses on these religiously Active Catholics, drawing from ethnographies of a multigenerational mega-parish, a Catholic student center at a non-Catholic university, and two diocesan young adult ministries. This chapter describes how religiously active twentysomethings find these congregations and ministries, and what participation means to these young adult Catholics. This chapter also describes what characteristics these congregations and ministries have that most engages young adults, and how these engagements differ between college and post-college twentysomethings. The chapter closes with results from its National Study of American Twentysomethings, applying an active, nominal, and estranged typology to understand Catholic young adults, and offering a prediction about Catholic affiliation in the United States.
Opting for the Best
Authors: Portmore Douglas W. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The book concerns what is, perhaps, the least controversial normative principle concerning action: you ought to perform your best option—best, that is, in terms of whatever ultimately matters. The book sets aside the question of what ultimately matters so as to focus on the following questions. What are our options? Which options do we assess directly in terms of their own goodness and which do we assess in terms of the goodness of the more encompassing options of which they’re a proper part? What do we hold fixed when assessing how good an option is? Do we, for instance, hold fixed the agent’s present beliefs, desires, and intentions? And do we hold fixed the agent’s predictable future misbehavior? The book argues that addressing these sorts of questions is the key to solving certain puzzles concerning what we ought to do, including those involving supererogation, indeterminate outcomes, overdetermined outcomes, and predictable future misbehavior. One of the book’s more controversial theses is that we have obligations not only to voluntarily perform certain actions, but also to nonvoluntarily form certain reasons-responsive attitudes (e.g., desires, beliefs, and intentions). This is important because what effect an act will have on the world depends not only on which acts the agent will simultaneously and subsequently be performing but also on which attitudes she will simultaneously and subsequently be forming.
What Are Our Options?
Authors: Portmore Douglas W. 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
This chapter argues that whereas any event can be good or bad, only certain events can be obligatory. This, it’s argued, is because obligations have two additional roles to play beyond mere evaluation. One of these additional roles is a directive one. Obligations, unlike mere evaluations, must direct us to respond in certain ways, and for these directives to have any point at all, they must direct us to respond only in those ways that we have the option of responding. The other role that obligations play is an inculpatory one. For there is a conceptual connection between failing to abide by an obligation and being accountable for so failing—at least, absent some suitable excuse. And since it’s inappropriate to hold subjects to account for events over which they lacked control, we must restrict a subject’s options to those events over which she exerted the relevant sort of control.
Utilitarianism
Authors: Tännsjö Torbjörn 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
Utilitarianism (with or without a prioritarian amendment) is applied in real medical life. The general result, in relation to any welfare state assuming its global obligations, is that more resources should be directed to the care and cure of people suffering from mental illness; less should be spent on marginal life extension (especially among elderly patients). The argument is that mental illness robs people of happiness in a very direct manner. Mental illness often has an onset at young age and it tends to destroy entire lives. The problem with old age is not, from the point of view of happiness, that it is a bad thing as such; quite to the contrary. However, old age is typically associated with those problems that are most conspicuously conducive to loss of happiness. Old age brings loss of close ones, loneliness, bad health, and, in particular, bad mental health. The fact that subjective time is what matters to the utilitarian calculus, together with the observation that subjective time speeds up when you grow older, contributes to the conclusion that marginal life extension among old people is in many cases a waste of scarce recourses. Investment in mental health, on the other hand, makes good utilitarian sense.
International Religious Freedom
Authors: Bettiza Gregorio 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The chapter identifies the constellation of desecularizing actors embedded in postsecular processes responsible for the institutionalization and evolution of the International Religious Freedom regime since the late 1990s. It then investigates the main institutions and practices of the regime and their evolution over time. The chapter suggests that processes of desecularization that underpin this regime are opening up greater spaces for the organized and sustained inclusion, reification, positive essentialization, and normative accommodation of religion in US foreign policy. In terms of global effects, the IRF regime advances a radically pluralist cum Protestant particularist understanding of what constitutes religion and religious freedom; contributes to the religionization of world politics through mechanisms of elevation and categorization; and promotes the adoption of similar policies around the world. The conclusion summarizes the main findings and reflects on developments taking place under President Trump.
Muslim and Islamic Interventions
Authors: Bettiza Gregorio 
Published: July 2019

Abstract
The chapter identifies the constellation of desecularizing actors embedded in postsecular modes of thinking responsible for the emergence and evolution of the Muslim and Islamic Interventions regime in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11). It highlights the multiple desecularizing processes taking place in American foreign policy as this has sought to increasingly target, pacify, and reform Muslim politics and Islamic traditions in the context of the war on terror. In terms of global effects, the chapter argues that the regime is potentially shaping the lives and religiosity of Muslims around the world along American interests and values; that it is contributing to religionizing world politics through processes of categorization and elevation; and that it is central to wider global policy networks seeking to promote moderate Muslims and Islam. The conclusion compares the Muslim and Islamic Interventions regime with the regimes examined in previous chapters, and considers developments taking place under President Trump.