bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Romantic Essayism
Authors: Milnes Tim 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter argues that the Romantic familiar essay privatizes and idealizes the essay’s inherent epistemological ambiguity. While for Addison, Hume, and Johnson, the essayist moderates communication at the borderline of systematic science and the public sphere, for Hazlitt and his contemporary Charles Lamb, the ‘public’ could no longer function as the ground for epistemic solidarity. Once the social intellect of the Scottish Enlightenment was moved into the private domain of consciousness and individual imagination, the essayist was increasingly seen as mediating between idealized phenomenological realms of ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ experience. Consequently, the ludic indeterminacy of the Romantic imagination is oriented by a purely aesthetic purposiveness: its playfulness expresses not the pragmatic presuppositions of communication, but the dark foundations of experience. In aestheticizing the communicative intellect of the eighteenth-century essayists, the identity doublings and performances of the Romantic familiar essay acquire significance as the hypostatized others of a lost wholeness.
One Size Does Not Fit All
Authors: Ginsburg Tom , Elkins Zachary 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Our chapter elaborates the distribution of term limit provisions across time and space. We draw on the Comparative Constitutions Project, which records data from written constitutions for independent states since 1789. We show that term limits have become more common in presidential systems, and that there are regional variations to the patterns. We also examine internal variations in the design of executive term limits. There is relatively little variation across written constitutions in length of executive term, even though the time required to develop, implement, and evaluate policies would probably depend on a number of variables that differ across time and space. We also note the role of both courts and constitutional amendments in modifying the provisions.
Presidential Term Limits as a Credible-Commitment Mechanism
Authors: Neto Octavio Amorim , Acácio Igor P. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Contra the conventional wisdom that term limits are meaningless in dictatorships, Brazil’s military regime developed term-limits for its chief executives and managed a durable political order. This chapter argue that term limits moderated intra-elite conflicts, thus contributing to regime stability. Term limits were key to reconcile two warring factions within the armed forces. The authors see term limits as a credible-commitment mechanism. Three elements are jointly sufficient to explain the adoption of term limits: (1) the armed forces’ decision in 1964 to part ways with the decades-old pattern of episodic, short political interventions and stay in office for the long haul; (2) a legalist tradition that led the new regime to keep a façade of constitutionalism through a myriad of political institutions; and (3) the ideological and political cleavages within the armed forces. We corroborate our arguments using a new dataset of tension events between the military and the government in 1946–85.
The Politics of Presidential Term Limits in Mexico
Authors: Klesner Joseph L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
In Mexico’s presidential system, the struggle over term limits was at the heart of efforts to institutionalize regimes from 1857 through 1933. Before the 1910 Revolution, Porfirio Díaz both called for his predecessors’ overthrow by appealing to the principle of no-re-election and then manipulated that principle in order to stay in power. The rallying cry of the 1910 Revolution became “Effective Suffrage, No-Reelection.” Despite a late-1920s effort to backpedal from no-re-election, the principle has been scrupulously adhered to. It was extended to all electoral offices in 1933. As a consequence, the revolutionary party was able to avoid one-man rule during its 71 years in power. Term limits promoted the circulation of party militants in electoral office and appointed positions even while it weakened the legislature in its relationship to executive power. Even after the revolutionary party lost power in 2000, it kept reformers from amending non-re-election for legislators until 2014.
Presidential Term Limits in Nicaragua
Authors: Close David 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Nicaragua is better known for its dictators and revolutions than for its experience with constitutional government. Yet Nicaragua has employed presidential term limits just over half of the time since becoming independent in 1821. Unfortunately, all these efforts were rolled back and the right to unlimited re-election restored. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the change was by coup or revolution, in the twenty-first by constitutional amendment. This chapter examines the four longest-lived examples of Nicaraguan presidential term limits to determine why they were adopted, how they worked, why they were abandoned, and what consequences the rollbacks brought. Although distinct factors were at work in each case, there is one underlying factor common to all: a preference for personal rule among large parts of both the political elite and the citizenry as a whole.
The Politics of Presidential Term Limits in Tunisia
Authors: Bonci Alessandra , Cavatorta Francesco 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses the evolution of the politics of term limits in Tunisia, from independence in 1956 until the approval of the 2014 democratic constitution. Through the observation of the manipulation of term limits, we can retrace the political history of the country. It is interesting to examine how Bourguiba and Ben Ali managed to achieve their goals by stretching term limits, how and in which conditions they were prevented to do so and finally, whether there are some recurring patterns. This study then places in historical perspective the analysis on how term limits in Tunisia today have been discussed and implemented. Tunisians today are still coping with the recent political turmoil, which may lead them not to pay attention to creeping but substantial constitutional changes that might occur in light of the return to presidential practices in what is a semi-presidential system.
The Uses and Abuses of Presidential Term Limits in Russian Politics
Authors: Chaisty Paul 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter explores how the operation of term limits in Russia is shaped by the interaction between both the formal and informal structures of political authority. First, it describes the evolution of formal rules on term limits from the late Soviet period, through the constitutional debates of the 1990s to the constitutional amendments of 2008, which extended the length of presidential terms from four to six years. Second, it considers how the informal structures of power have influenced the ways in which successive presidents and their supporters have sought to overcome the formal constraints that term limits have placed on their power. Finally, it discusses how the application of term limits has affected the institutional development of the presidency since the early 1990s and support for Russia’s political system more generally.
The Politics of Presidential Term Limits in the United States
Authors: Korzi Michael J. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Whether by informal rule or constitutional decree, there has been a two-term limit for virtually all American presidents. While the 1788 Constitution allowed presidents “unlimited reeligibility,” this decision was controversial, as Americans traditionally had distrusted executive power and feared long-serving executives. Not surprisingly, within two decades of the constitution’s ratification, President Thomas Jefferson established the “two-term tradition,” an informal rule that sought to limit presidents to only two four-year terms. This informal tradition generally prevented presidents from seeking—let alone winning—third terms, until Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) won a third term in 1940, and a fourth term in 1944. FDR’s violation of the two-term tradition, however, brought a backlash in the form of the 22nd Amendment (ratified in 1951), formally limiting presidents to two terms, effectively codifying the two-term tradition. This reassertion of the traditional American wariness of long tenure in the executive office has been largely unchallenged.
Presidential Term Limits in Europe
Authors: Elgie Robert 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the politics of presidential term limits including that of term lengths, in Europe from the nineteenth century onwards. It surveys twenty-three European countries, namely the EU members that currently have a president as their head of state plus Iceland and Switzerland. The main argument is that Europe has not been exempt from the political manipulation of presidential term limits, notably during the interwar period. However, in the modern era, meaning Western Europe after 1945 and Central and Eastern Europe after 1989, the abuse of presidential term limits has not been a live issue. The issue of term lengths, though, has been consequential in the small number of European countries with an executive presidency. The chapter provides information about presidential term limits and term lengths in Europe, examines some of the debates surrounding term limits, and discusses the effect of term lengths on presidential/cabinet conflict.
Presidential Term Limits and the International Community
Authors: Murray Christina , Alston Eric , Wiebusch Micha 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Proposed changes to presidential term limits are almost always highly contested and have attracted international and regional attention. A central question that faces the external actors is the extent to which it is legitimate to take a position in presidential term limit debates. This chapter considers the policy concerning presidential term limits of three major IGOs, the UN, the AU, and the OAS. It further discusses the way in which IDEA, an IGO with a softer mandate, has responded to the debate on term limits, as well as the role of the Venice Commission, ECOWAS, DRI, the Carter Center, and the West African Civil Society Forum (WACSOF). This review suggests an increasing international consensus that, in countries with a history of authoritarianism and weak democratic institutions, presidential term limits can play an important role in strengthening democratic processes and reducing the likelihood of conflict.
Superior Women
Authors: Edwards Jennifer C. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Superior Women examines female monastic authority at the abbey of Sainte-Croix in Poitiers from its foundation by Saint-Radegund in the sixth century through its sixteenth-century reform. Along with the abbey, Radegund established two strategies for her nuns to defend authority they claimed over their community, dependents, properties, tenants, and vassals. First, she secured a network of supporters, allies with extensive authority, to document the abbey’s privileges and defend Sainte-Croix. Their documents became a rich archive useful for recruiting new allies. Over time this network included the king of France, neighboring bishops, and the pope. Second, she used cultural artifacts, symbols, and ideas spotlighting her life story. Poetry commissioned from Venantius Fortunatus helped her win allies in Byzantium who then helped her secure a relic of the True Cross for the abbey. Later abbesses drew upon these cultural artifacts at times of crisis or at the loss of a traditional supporter in order to rebuild the abbey’s reputation and win new allies. These two strategies proved enormously successful for later abbesses at Sainte-Croix. Radegund’s example provided a powerful model of female authority on which the women of Sainte-Croix were able to draw, with the support of male allies. So long as Sainte-Croix was competently governed by abbesses talented in the deployment of Radegund’s strategies, the abbey remained strong, well supported, mostly autonomous, and in firm control of its dependents, and this situation persisted through the sixteenth century.
An Introduction to Landscape Ecology
Authors: With Kimberly A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Landscape ecology provides the scientific basis for the study and management of landscapes, as well as the ecological systems they contain. More generally, landscape ecology investigates the reciprocal interactions between spatial patterns (environmental heterogeneity) and ecological processes across a wide range of scales. This introductory chapter discusses the rise of landscape ecology as a discipline, its regional perspectives, core concepts, and research themes, and provides an overview of the textbook itself. Among its core concepts, landscape ecology asserts that heterogeneity is a defining characteristic of landscapes; that landscapes can be defined and studied at any scale; and that landscapes occur within aquatic and marine systems, as well as terrestrial ones. As such, landscape ecology can benefit the study and management of any ecological system, from populations to ecosystems, through its explicit consideration of how heterogeneity, scale, spatial context, and disturbance dynamics influence critical ecological processes.
Scaling Issues in Landscape Ecology
Authors: With Kimberly A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Spatial patterns are ubiquitous in nature, and ecological systems exhibit patchiness (heterogeneity) across a range of spatial and temporal scales. Landscape ecology is explicitly concerned with understanding how scale affects the measurement of heterogeneity and the scale(s) at which spatial pattern is important for ecological phenomena. Patterns and processes measured at fine spatial scales and over short time periods are unlikely to behave similarly at broader scales and extended time periods. An understanding of pattern-process linkages, a major research focus in landscape ecology, thus requires an understanding of how patterns change with scale, spatially and temporally. The development of methods for extrapolating information across scales is necessary for predicting how landscapes will change over time as well as for ecological forecasting. This chapter explores how scaling issues affect ecological investigations, discusses problems in identifying the correct scale for research, and outlines when and how ecological data can be extrapolated.
Landscape Heterogeneity and Dynamics
Authors: With Kimberly A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Heterogeneity is a defining characteristic of landscapes and therefore central to the study of landscape ecology. Landscape ecology investigates what factors give rise to heterogeneity, how that heterogeneity is maintained or altered by natural and anthropogenic disturbances, and how heterogeneity ultimately influences ecological processes and flows across the landscape. Because heterogeneity is expressed across a wide range of spatial scales, the landscape perspective can be applied to address these sorts of questions at any level of ecological organization, and in aquatic and marine systems as well as terrestrial ones. Disturbances—both natural and anthropogenic—are a ubiquitous feature of any landscape, contributing to its structure and dynamics. Although the focus in landscape ecology is typically on spatial heterogeneity, disturbance dynamics produce changes in landscape structure over time as well as in space. Heterogeneity and disturbance dynamics are thus inextricably linked and are therefore covered together in this chapter.
Landscape Pattern Analysis
Authors: With Kimberly A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The analysis of landscapes and other spatial patterns is a major focus of landscape ecology, being essential to the study of how landscape patterns affect ecological processes. Landscape pattern analysis has become a sine qua non for environmental monitoring, natural resource management, landscape planning, sustainable development, and species conservation. The intensification of human land use is a major global-change issue, requiring an in-depth analysis of how landscapes are being transformed over time, as well as how anthropogenic disturbances compare to the natural disturbance regime. This chapter covers the types and availability of landscape data, such as from historical land surveys and remote sensing; how spatial data are processed and manipulated within a Geographical Information System (GIS); and finally, how to analyze landscape structure using landscape metrics and spatial statistics, including a discussion of best practices.
Landscape Effects on Population Spatial Spread
Authors: With Kimberly A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Range expansions, biological invasions, and disease spread are all inherently spatial processes that involve the successful introduction or colonization, establishment, and dispersal of organisms (or their propagules) into new areas. Population spatial spread thus involves the interaction of both dispersal and demography with landscape structure. This chapter begins by exploring landscape effects on species’ range shifts and the extent to which species can shift their distributions in response to future land-use and climate-change scenarios. Next, the chapter evaluates the effect that landscape structure might have on invasive spread, including an overview of spatial models that are used to predict whether, when, and how fast an invasive species is likely to spread. The chapter concludes with a discussion of disease spread in a landscape context (landscape epidemiology), which involves the study of how pathogens, vectors, and hosts interact with environmental heterogeneity to influence the incidence and persistence of disease in an area.
Landscape Effects on Ecosystem Structure and Function
Authors: With Kimberly A. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Landscape ecosystem ecology is concerned with the study of how landscape structure affects ecosystem structure and function, and how landscape heterogeneity in turn is generated or sustained by the redistribution of nutrients or organisms within and among ecosystems. This chapter begins with an overview of how landscape context influences ecosystem processes, including the effects of land management and land-cover change on nutrient dynamics and productivity. Next, the chapter considers the linkages among systems (metaecosystems) and how spatial subsidies are important for understanding ecosystem function in a landscape context. The chapter then explores under what conditions landscape function becomes disrupted, possibly precipitating irreversible system state changes, before concluding with a clarion call for landscape sustainability; that is, landscape management that preserves the productivity, multifunctionality, and ecological resilience of landscapes in the face of future societal demands, intensifying land use, and rapid climate change.
Collectives and Their Duties
Authors: Collins Stephanie 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter fleshes out the Tripartite Model’s conception of collectives and defends the attribution of duties to them. It begins by giving a detailed characterization of collectives and explaining how they have the specifically moral type of agency that’s at issue in duties. It explains that this conception of collectives is permissive (i.e. its conditions are easy to satisfy). The conception is compared with other prominent accounts of corporate agency or personhood. The final section argues in favour of including collectives’ duties within our ontology. This argument has two planks. First, collectives are able to make decisions based on duties. Second, those decisions are to produce an outcome that would not be produced if each of the collective’s members severally made decisions: the outcome of robust multilateralism (coordinated role-performance) amongst members. At a general level of description, a collective’s duty will be a duty to produce multilateralism amongst members—a decision that no member can sensibly take on their own.
Monetary Policy in the Digital Age
Authors: Zimmermann Claus D. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The potential of digital money to replace state-issued fiat money as the predominant means of payment for retail goods combined with its ability to flow freely across international borders is increasingly attracting attention among central bankers, the media, and scholars. The concern is that central banks could lose control over the monetary aggregates regulating the money supply for conducting monetary policy. This chapter examines important regulatory challenges that arise from the increasing use of virtual currency systems. Stable monetary regimes are expected to provide a level of resilience against three types of monetary stability risks: (i) structural ‘deflation’; (ii) lacking flexibility to respond to temporary shocks to money demand; and (iii) failing to fulfil the traditional key function of lender of last resort. It is against these three types of risks that the sustainability of virtual currency systems can be assessed. The chapter concludes that, as they attract increasing attention and account for increasing volumes of financial flows, virtual currency schemes may ultimately have to become subject to increasingly tight regulation on a global level.
Banking in a Digital Fiat Currency Regime
Authors: Grey Rohan 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
This chapter explores the future of banking in a digital fiat currency (‘DFC’) regime, defined as a monetary regime in which retail and wholesale consumers have direct access to public digital checking and payments services, independent of the existing bank-centric depository system. I argue that in such a regime, existing banks will continue to perform the valuable social function of underwriting loans and evaluating collateral, even as their checking and payments processing functions will be rendered obsolete. Such a system would improve payments system resiliency, while addressing the safe asset shortage issues associated with insurance caps on bank deposit accounts. At the same time, a DFC regime would necessarily clarify the public nature of the existing credit system, wherein commercial banks are (inherently) entrusted to underwrite loans and subjectively evaluate collateral. Thus, digital fiat currency technology represents more than a mere improvement in payment system efficiency—it has the potential to transform the banking industry, simplify financial regulation, and recast our collective understanding of how money and banking work in the modern economy.
‘Many Contests of the Trojans and Achaeans’: The Iliad’s Battle Books
Authors: Myers Tobias 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Chapter 4 charts the continued use of the divine perspective to shape and reflect upon the dynamics of performance between Books 8 and 22. In these books, Homer continues to draw on the duel, daïs, and funerary paradigms to construct the battlefield contests as a live event commanding audience participation. The chapter’s first section examines patterns of divine and poetic ‘staging’, to demonstrate that the next three days of battle (in Books 8, 11–18, and 19–22 respectively), like the first day’s battle, are not only viewed from Zeus’ house on Olympus, but also closely patterned on the formal duel. The second section considers the significance of this strategy for the listening audience whom the poet is attempting to engage: they are invited to participate vicariously in the fighting, and also to reflect on their responses to the figure pulling the strings. The chapter’s third section focuses on the poet’s use of Zeus, primarily, to develop a perspective from which the contests trigger associations with funerary ritual. The chapter concludes with a metaperformative reading of the theomachia (‘battle of the gods’): the theomachia draws in new ways on both the duel and daïs paradigms, to present a provocative dramatization of poet-audience dynamics.