bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Logic in the 19th century
Authors: Dipert Randall R. 
Published: September 2018

The nineteenth century was one of the most active periods for logic in Western philosophy. It is regarded foremost as being the first time logic became ‘symbolic’ and ‘mathematical’.
There was tremendous diversity and conflict in logic in this period – indeed there were substantial debates over whether there even is a subject called ‘formal logic’ and over what the most basic logical forms were. There was an explicit discussion in the early part of the century of whether logic should be extensional or intensional, opinion eventually settling on a purely extensional conception. By the end of the century, many of these debates had been resolved or had withered away, and the most widespread conception and practice of logic coalesced in the early twentieth century into a view we now identify with the works of Frege, Russell and Whitehead.
The nineteenth century brought, for the first time, from Boole and Frege, distinct proposals on how to symbolize logic that were both extensively developed and had widespread influence. Boole is correctly regarded as the father of modern symbolic logic. Frege shared two concerns of many nineteenth-century mathematicians – avoiding incorrect derivations and providing rigorous and clear foundations for the infinitesimal and derivative calculus – and therefore sought to develop a very clear notion of mathematical ‘proof’. His notation has not been taken up but his influence, especially on the move towards symbolization, has been considerable.
De Morgan was the first logician extensively and symbolically to discuss the logic of relations. However, a systematic algebraic notation for relations was provided only later by Peirce, and developed also by Schröder.
Relevance logic and entailment
Authors: Read Stephen 
Published: September 2018

‘Relevance logic’ came into being in the late 1950s, inspired by Wilhelm Ackermann, who rejected certain formulas of the form A→B on the grounds that ‘the truth of A has nothing to do with the question whether there is a logical connection between B and A’.
The central idea of relevance logic is to give an account of logical consequence, or entailment, for which a connection of relevance between premises and conclusion is a necessary condition. In both classical and intuitionistic logic, this condition is missing, as is highlighted by the validity in those logics of the ‘spread law’, A &∼A→B; a contradiction ‘spreads’ to every proposition, and simple inconsistency is equivalent to absolute inconsistency. In relevance logic the spread law fails, and the simple inconsistency of a theory (that a set of formulas entails a contradiction) is distinguished from absolute inconsistency (or triviality: that a set of formulas entails every proposition). The programme of relevance logic is to characterize a logic, or a range of logics, satisfying the relevance condition, and to study theories based on such logics, such as relevant arithmetic and relevant set theory.
Inductive definitions and proofs
Authors: McGee Vann 
Published: September 2018

An inductive definition of a predicate R characterizes the Rs as the smallest class which satisfies a basis clause of the form (β(x)→Rx), telling us that certain things satisfy R, together with one or more closure clauses of the form (Φ(x,R)→Rx), which tell us that, if certain other things satisfy R, x satisfies R as well. ’Smallest’ here means that the class of Rs is included in every other class which satisfies the basis and closure clauses.
Inductive definitions are useful because of inductive proofs. To show that every R has property P, show that the class of Rs that have P satisfies the basis and closure clauses.
The closure clauses tell us that if certain things satisfy R, x satisfies R as well. Thus satisfaction of the condition Φ(x,R) should be ensured by positive information to the effect that certain things satisfy R, and not also require negative information that certain things fail to satisfy R. In other words, the condition Φ(x,R) should be monotone, so that, if R ⊆S and Φ(x,R), then Φ(x,S); otherwise, we would have no assurance of the existence of a smallest class satisfying the basis and closure conditions.
While inductive definitions can take many forms, they have been studied most usefully in the special case in which the basis and closure clauses are formulated within the predicate calculus. Initiated by Yiannis Moschovakis, the study of such definitions has yielded an especially rich and elegant theory.
Logicism
Authors: Stein Howard 
Published: September 2018

The term ‘logicism’ refers to the doctrine that mathematics is a part of (deductive) logic. It is often said that Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell were the first proponents of such a view; this is inaccurate, in that Frege did not make such a claim for all of mathematics. On the other hand, Richard Dedekind deserves to be mentioned among those who first expressed the conviction that arithmetic is a branch of logic.
The logicist claim has two parts: that our knowledge of mathematical theorems is grounded fully in logical demonstrations from basic truths of logic; and that the concepts involved in such theorems, and the objects whose existence they imply, are of a purely logical nature. Thus Frege maintained that arithmetic requires no assumptions besides those of logic; that the concept of number is a concept of pure logic; and that numbers themselves are, as he put it, logical objects.
This view of mathematics would not have been possible without a profound transformation of logic that occurred in the late nineteenth century – most especially through the work of Frege. Before that time, actual mathematical reasoning could not be carried out under the recognized logical forms of argument: this circumstance lent considerable plausibility to Immanuel Kant’s teaching that mathematical reasoning is not ‘purely discursive’, but relies upon ‘constructions’ grounded in intuition. The new logic, however, made it possible to represent standard mathematical reasoning in the form of purely logical derivations – as Frege, on the one hand, and Russell, in collaboration with Whitehead, on the other, undertook to show in detail.
It is now generally held that logicism has been undermined by two developments: first, the discovery that the principles assumed in Frege’s major work are inconsistent, and the more or less unsatisfying character (or so it is claimed) of the systems devised to remedy this defect; second, the epoch-making discovery by Kurt Gödel that the ‘logic’ that would be required for derivability of all mathematical truths can in principle not be ‘formalized’. Whether these considerations ‘refute’ logicism will be considered further below.
Constructivism in mathematics
Authors: McCarty David Charles 
Published: September 2018

Constructivism is not a matter of principles: there are no specifically constructive mathematical axioms which all constructivists accept. Even so, it is traditional to view constructivists as insisting, in one way or another, that proofs of crucial existential theorems in mathematics respect constructive existence: that a crucial existential claim which is constructively admissible must afford means for constructing an instance of it which is also admissible. Allegiance to this idea often demands changes in conventional views about mathematical objects, operations and logic, and, hence, demands reworkings of ordinary mathematics along nonclassical lines. Constructive existence may be so interpreted as to require the abrogation of the law of the excluded middle and the adoption of nonstandard laws of constructive logic and mathematics in its place.
There has been great variation in the forms of constructivism, each form distinguished in its interpretation of constructive existence, in its approaches to mathematical ontology and constructive logic, and in the methods chosen to prove theorems, particularly theorems of real analysis. In the twentieth century, Russian constructivism, new constructivism, Brouwerian intuitionism, finitism and predicativism have been the most influential forms of constructivism.
Post, Emil Leon (1897–1954)
Authors: Scanlan Michael 
Published: September 2018

Emil Post was a pioneer in the theory of computation, which investigates the solution of problems by algorithmic methods. An algorithmic method is a finite set of precisely defined elementary directions for solving a problem in a finite number of steps. More specifically, Post was interested in the existence of algorithmic decision procedures that eventually give a yes or no answer to a problem. For instance, in his dissertation, Post introduced the truth-table method for deciding whether or not a formula of propositional logic is a tautology.
Post developed a notion of ‘canonical systems’ which was intended to encompass any algorithmic procedure for symbol manipulation. Using this notion, Post partially anticipated, in unpublished work, the results of Gödel, Church and Turing in the 1930s. This showed that many problems in logic and mathematics are algorithmically unsolvable. Post’s ideas influenced later research in logic, computer theory, formal language theory and other areas.
Fanon, Frantz (1925–61)
Authors: Appiah K. Anthony 
Published: September 2018

Fanon’s views (and often various misinterpretations of them) on the nature of colonialism, racism and the role of violence in Third-World revolutions were enormously influential. The main themes of all his writing are the critique of ethnopsychiatry and the Eurocentrism of psychoanalysis, the critique of négritude and the development of a political philosophy for Third-World liberation.
Frantz Fanon was born in the French Antilles on the island of Martinique and was educated there and in France. He served in the Free French army during the Second World War, both in north Africa and in Europe. He went on to study medicine and psychiatry at the University of Lyons between 1947 and 1951. In 1953 he was appointed chief of service of the psychiatry department of a hospital in Algeria (which was then still a French territory). He joined the Algerian liberation movement in 1954 and began to work for its underground newspaper El Moudjahid a few years later. His political activities caused him to leave his job, after which he moved to Tunisia where he practised psychiatry from 1957 to 1959. In 1961 he was appointed ambassador to Ghana by the Algerian provisional government. He died of leukaemia in 1961.
Ethiopia, philosophy in
Authors: Sumner Claude 
Published: September 2018

Ethiopia is a unique phenomenon in Africa for three reasons. First, because of its historical continuity and political independence; second because of its written language and third because of its written philosophy. Ethiopian philosophy in the broadest sense is expressed in both oral and written language. In this entry only the written documents are dealt with. This methodological approach limits the investigation to linguistic and cultural phenomena as it deals with the ancient Semitic language known as Ethiopic and the Christian zones of influence on the high plateaus of Ethiopia.
There are five basic texts of Ethiopian philosophical literature: the Physiologue (the Fisalgwos) (c. fifth century ad), The Book of the Wise Philosophers (1510/22), The Life and Maxims of Skendes (c. eleventh century ad), The Treatise of Zar’a Ya‘ecob (1667) and The Treatise of Wäldä Heywåt (c. eighteenth century). The first three are adaptations of works transmitted from Greek sources through Arabic; the latter two (appearing in modern publications in a combined form) are original works of a rationalist flavour.
Anti-positivist thought in Latin America
Authors: Weinstein Michael A. 
Published: September 2018

Anti-positivist philosophy arose in Latin America at the turn of the twentieth century in response to the dominance of closed positivistic systems of historical development in the climate of intellectual opinion. Argentina, Mexico and Uruguay were all centres of anti-positivist theorizing. Philosophers such as Mexicans Antonio Caso and José Vasconcelos, the Argentinian Alejandro Korn and the Uruguayan Carlos Vaz Ferreira attacked Auguste Comte’s positivism, as well as deterministic forms of scientific Marxism and Herbert Spencer’s social Darwinism for their denials of creative freedom and spiritual values. Latin American anti-positivism is characterized as a form of modernism although it incorporates elements of traditionalism. It is self-consciously critical of the limitations of modern progressivism and willing to supplement the modern paradigm with premodern discourses. Anti-positivist philosophy is also firmly committed to the modern embrace of process over fixed form.
Latin American anti-positivism is founded in a comprehensive interpretation of experience that embraces phenomena such as creative freedom, tentative and experimental thinking, imaginative coordination and charitable love. These aspects are excluded from the purview of what positivists allow to be objects of scientific knowledge. Anti-positivists interpret experience as a bi-polar struggle in which the free side of life battles to prevail over the forces of necessity, system, abstraction and egoism.
South American anti-positivists concentrated on issues of knowledge and the structure of thought and experience, whereas Mexican anti-positivists, who were products of a formal education modelled on Comte’s prescriptions, undertook a more total revolt. This revolt had metaphysical, moral and political dimensions.
For the most part anti-positivists did not fully escape the doctrines they criticized. They took from these doctrines descriptions of unredeemed, degraded and mechanized life which they opposed to redemptive practices of struggle.
Feminist thought in Latin America
Authors: Oliver Amy A. 
Published: September 2018

Any analysis of feminist thought in Latin America is burdened by the task of combatting the frequent assumption that feminism is an ideology imported from the USA or Europe. One could begin by arguing that in certain senses autocthonous feminist thought has existed in Latin America for centuries. The thought of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, a seventeenth-century Mexican writer and nun, had certain qualities, themes and perspectives that can be called feminist. Her autobiographical essay, ‘Reply to Sor Filotea de la Cruz’, is a brilliant defence of a woman’s right to engage in intellectual pursuits and includes many feminist strategies and dimensions.
Among the Latin American feminists through the centuries, exemplary passages are easily found, such as the following from the Peruvian Flora Tristán, who said ‘Without liberation of woman, there will be no liberation of man’ (1843). Revisionist reappraisals of underappreciated women thinkers have grown more common. Venezuelan Teresa de la Parra’s important writings which have been re-examined as texts by women continue to be rescued from relative obscurity. Rosario Castellanos, Rigoberta Menchú and Domitila Barrios de Chungara count among those whose work has enjoyed increased critical attention. Concurrently, the voices of traditionally voiceless women are being heard through expanding oral history projects, such as those of domestic workers in Bogotá: ‘It is not enough to have rights. We must raise consciousness and organize ourselves to defend those rights’.
In recent years, particularly after the international year of the woman in 1975 and the decade of the woman sponsored by the United Nations from 1976 to 1985, women and men have continued to develop feminist philosophies appropriate for Latin American contexts.
Professional feminist philosophy has been practised in Latin America since the early part of the twentieth century. Perhaps surprisingly, a theoretically sophisticated feminist philosophy was practised in Uruguay at this time by male social philosopher, Carlos Vaz Ferreira (1871–1958). His work had significant impact on women’s rights in Latin America. Vaz Ferreira was a pioneer in feminist theory.
Cultural identity
Authors: Loughney John A. 
Published: September 2018

If cultural identity means that a person achieves the fullest humanity within an accepted context of traditional symbols, judgments, values, behaviour and relationships with specific others who self-consciously think of themselves as a community, then it must be seen as a great contemporary challenge to many Western philosophical assertions about the person, society, meaning and truth.
This sense of cultural identity, as well as more extreme forms, can amount to classic determinism: individuals are subsumed under the relations with meaning and people surrounding them. Advocates of the centrality of cultural identity often make an argument rooted in an ‘authenticity’ which purports that, to fully encounter oneself, each of us must grasp and fully accept one’s psychological and social location within a specific group of people who interpret life in terms of the particular civilization that contains them.
Literature, philosophy in Latin American
Authors: Gomez-Martinez Jose Luis 
Published: September 2018

Within the Latin American intellectual community, the relationship between philosophy and literature constitutes one of the most interesting chapters in its development. Much Latin American literature is characterized by profound philosophical concerns, focusing on the question of identity. From the time of the conquest and colonization of the American continent in the 1500s, a debate regarding the humanity of the recently discovered inhabitants began in Spain. This debate would prove to be one of the most revealing controversies of sixteenth-century Europe. At the point of colonial expansion, Europe projected a logocentric vision which would incite a unique Latin Americanist philosophical discourse relating to the question of identity.
During the nineteenth century, philosophical discourse was formulated principally through literary expression. At first the quest for a cultural identity was the philosophical focus, although two conflicting positions were evident: the desire to achieve cultural independence from Europe and a yearning for Latin America to become European. This latter position inspired the urge to identify with European culture and from the mid-1900s, with the political and economic success of the USA.
In the twentieth century, from the time of the University Reform of 1918, an academic philosophy emerged close to that of Europe and began to diversify the Latin American philosophical panorama. From the various philosophical stances which arose at that time, one that dominated the cultural arena, despite its occasional relegation to a secondary position in academia, was the urge to articulate a Latin Americanist philosophical discourse which would succeed in transcending its own frontiers through liberation philosophy, beginning in the 1960s.
Marginality
Authors: Oliver Amy A. 
Published: September 2018

Traditional definitions of marginal persons include those who live in two worlds, but do not feel well integrated into either and those who live in societies which are in the process of being assimilated and incorporated into an emerging global society. The influence of Anglo-American and European cultures has brought this situation into existence. A broader, more contemporary understanding of marginality is the condition of feeling marginal in relation to various concepts of the centre. This state produces a stigmatized identity, which either aspires to inclusion or assimilation into the centre, or demands recognition of and respect for a separate but equal existence. This condition of marginality can be experienced in varying degrees by many kinds of people.
Often gender, sexual preference, age, ethnicity, geography and religion are factors which can influence perceptions of marginality. Those who perceive themselves, or who are perceived by others to be marginal are often female, dark-skinned, very young or elderly, poor, disabled, nonheterosexual, displaced, exiled, immigrant, rural, indigenous, ‘foreign’, outcast, persecuted, or otherwise ‘different’ from those who occupy positions of privilege in the centre, or the metropolis. Critics of the term ‘marginality’ believe it has become overused to the point of losing descriptive precision because, they argue, almost everyone has experienced some form of marginality. In philosophy, however, the phenomenon of feeling, or being, perceived as peripheral, or on the margin, has generated critical perspectives which have enlightened discourse on social integration and stratification; personal suffering and economic, political, and cultural inequality. In addition, analyses of marginality have called into question notions of the ‘universal’ and the ‘objective’ set forth by many Western philosophers.
Una propuesta del área de Matemáticas para el Taller de Arquitectura: Percepción del espacio mediante parámetros asociados a la visibilidad
Authors: Abajo Casado Encarnación , Delgado Sánchez Juan Manuel 
Published: September 2018

<div class="page" title="Page 1"><div class="layoutArea"><div class="column"><p><span>El objetivo de este artículo es introducir al lector en el análisis de la percepción espacial y visual de una obra arquitectónica utilizando para ello una metodología desarrollada en las útimas décadas. Partiendo del concepto de isovista, región plana visible para un individuo situado en una determinada localización de una planta arquitectónica, esta metodología se basa, por una parte, en la interpretación del algunas medidas asociadas a la geometría de las isovistas; por otra parte, en el uso de herramientas o parámetros asociados al denominado grafo de visibilidad o grafo de localizaciones intervisibles. El uso de esta metodología permite la integración de las Matemáticas en asignaturas de carácter transversal presentes en los planes de estudios en Arquitectura. </span></p></div></div></div>
The effect of purslane hydroextract and zinc on performance, antioxidant capacity and immunity of broiler chickens during summer conditions
Authors: Kazemi Rojin , Sheikhahmadi Ardashir , Sadeghi Ghorbanali 
Published: September 2018

Abstract. Due to negative effects of high ambient temperature, the present study was conducted to investigate the effects of Portulaca oleracea hydroextract (PHE) and zinc (Zn) on the growth performance and immunity of broiler chickens reared under high summer ambient temperature conditions. A total of 420 day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly allocated to seven dietary treatments each replicated four times with 15 birds per replicate. The basal diet as the control diet was supplemented with 100 mg kg−1 butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), or 300 and 600 mg kg−1 of PHE, 100 mg kg−1 of zinc and 100 mg kg−1 of zinc plus 300 or 600 mg kg−1 of PHE (ZP300 and ZP600). The result of the present study showed that Zn, PHE and their combination did not alter daily feed intake and feed conversion ratio. Although there was a tendency toward an increase in broiler body weight at 24 and 44 days of age (P=0.059 and P=0.061), the body weight of birds fed the basal diet supplemented with Zn reduced at day 10. The birds fed diets supplemented with BHT or ZP600 showed lower aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) and lactate dehydrogenase activity at 24 days of age (P<0.05), but it remains lower in the ZP600 group only for ASAT activity level at day 44. The results of the present study suggest that dietary PHE and Zn supplementation partially improved body weight and serum antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase activity and antibody titer against sheep red blood cells and Newcastle diseases in the broiler chickens during summer conditions.