bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Efficiencies of Traditional and Digital Measurement Technologies for Forest Operations
Authors: Kiser Jim , Solmie Derek , Kellogg Loren , Wing Michael G. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Higher-precision technologies may increase measurement accuracy and efficiency for operational layout while decreasing total planning costs. Although a number of trials have been completed on the potential implementation of some of these new technologies, few have quantified the benefits of such devices in an operational setting. Unit boundaries for 16 (∼1 ac) units were measured by three surveying techniques, comprising (1) a string box, manual compass, and clinometer; (2) a laser, digital compass, and digital data collector; and (3) a GPS. Collected data were compared to a fourth benchmark method established with a total station. Techniques were statistically analyzed and error distributions were developed at either a unit or an individual data-point scale. Time and cost studies were conducted to determine the overall efficiencies of each technique. Our results should assist forest resource managers in their decisions when selecting alternate measurement tools for collecting spatial data. West. J. Appl. For. 20(2):138–143.
Comparative Susceptibility of Conifers to Western Hemlock Dwarf Mistletoe in the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon
Authors: Mathiasen Robert L. , Daugherty Carolyn M. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
A total of 24 mixed conifer stands in Washington and Oregon infested with western hemlock dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense subsp. tsugense) were sampled to compare host susceptibility to this parasitic plant. Temporary circular plots were established around dominant, severely infected western hemlocks (Tsuga heterophylla). Within plots, species, diameter at breast height, and dwarf mistletoe rating (6-class system) were determined for each live tree. More than 5,700 trees were sampled in 275 plots. Based on the incidence of infection, tree species were assigned to host susceptibility classes. Western hemlock is classified as the only principal host of western hemlock dwarf mistletoe. Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera), and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) are classified as occasional hosts. Resource managers can use the host susceptibility classifications based on this study for decisions regarding which trees to retain when selectively harvesting mixed conifer stands infested with western hemlock dwarf mistletoe in the Pacific Northwest. West. J. Appl. For. 20(2):94–100.
Credit Availability: A Possible Barrier to Growth for the Alaska Forest Products Industry?
Authors: Donovan Geoffrey , Hesseln Hayley , Garth John 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Historically, the Alaska forest products industry has been driven by pulp production and the export of logs and cants primarily to Japan. Economic stagnation in Japan, the closure of Alaska's two pulp mills, harvest restrictions, and increased competition have severely impacted the industry. To survive, the industry must make significant investments in capital equipment, which requires adequate access to business credit. This article examines whether credit availability is a barrier to the future growth of the industry. Data were collected through a mail survey in spring 2002. Our results show that credit rationing is prevalent throughout the industry. Lack of experience and low collateral are identified as the two main causes. An educational program and loan guarantees are offered as policy prescriptions to help alleviate credit rationing. West. J. Appl. For. 20(3):177–183.
Ten-Year Growth and Epicormic Sprouting Response of Western Larch to Pruning in Western Montana
Authors: Waring Kristen M. , O'Hara Kevin L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) is a fast-growing, deciduous conifer that is often managed for timber production in the inland Northwest. No previous study has documented the response of this species to artificial pruning. Trees pruned as part of a pruning cost study in 1992 were followed for 10 years to assess growth and epicormic sprout response. Trees were pruned to two heights: 2.4 and 5.5 m in three stands in western Montana. Epicormic sprouting occurred in a majority of trees in the first 2 years after pruning, but subsequently many sprouts died so that by year 10, only approximately 30% of trees had sprouts. Volume increment was adversely affected by more severe pruning among smaller trees pruned to the shorter lift. The volume increment of the trees that received the 5.5 m lift was generally unaffected, but trees receiving the 2.4 m lift were more sensitive to pruning. Initial tree diameter and residual crown length were important variables in predicting the 10-year volume increment in pruned trees. West. J. Appl. For. 20(4):228–232.
Harvesting Impacts on Understory Regeneration in Two-Storied Douglas-Fir Stands
Authors: Newton Michael , Cole Elizabeth C. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Conifers were underplanted beneath thinned 50-year-old Douglas-fir stands in western Oregon. Overstories had been thinned to four densities ranging from 18 to 31 m2/ha (78–134 ft2/ac) from stands originally stocked at about 23 to 51 m2/ha (100–220 ft2/ac). Seedlings beneath some densities showed declining vigor in the first 8 years after planting, resulting from overstory growth of about 5.7 m2/ha (25 ft2/ac) in that period. Some of the stands were rethinned to remove the basal area accrued since the first thinning. Timber was harvested by ground and cable equipment, with log length averaging over 10 m (32 ft) and averaging 52 m3/ha (4.7 mbf/ac, Scribner rule) on 29 ha (72 ac). Overall, 40% of planted seedlings were damaged by logging. Among the four species planted, between 18% and 30% of seedlings alive at the time of harvest were removed or lodged/buried under debris. An additional 13% to 16% had broken or dead tops or were bent at a lean greater than 45 degrees. Two years after thinning, damaged seedlings grew an average of 10 cm less than those not damaged. Unless densities are initially very low at the time of planting, e.g., <18 m2/ha (78 ft2/ac), rapidly growing overstories are likely to suppress understory plantings. Thinning will inflict losses unless logging is carefully laid out and executed, and long log lengths are minimized.
Evaluation of Two Pheromone Baits for Containment and Concentration of Attack by the Western Balsam Bark Beetle, Dryocoetes confusus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Authors: Jeans-Williams Nicole L. , Borden John H. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
In past studies, the greatest response by the western balsam bark beetle Dryocoetes confusus Swaine (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) to traps and baited trees was obtained with blend of (+)-exo- and (±)-endo-brevicomin, which mimic the natural male-produced aggregation pheromone. We conducted a tree-baiting experiment to determine whether low-release enantiospecific blends [9:1 (+) exo-brevicomin:(+)-endo-brevicomin, or 9:2 (+)-exo-brevicomin: (±)-endo-brevicomin released at 0.3, 0.1, or 0.03 mg/day] could compete with or improve the efficacy of the standard (±)-exo-brevicomin bait released at 1.2 mg/day. In this experiment, the standard and experimental baits were almost 90% effective in inducing attack by D. confusus. Two subsequent 9-ha block experiments compared the ability of the standard and 9:2 (+)-exo-brevicomin:(±)-endo-brevicomin baits to contain and concentrate infestations before harvesting. Again, both baits were equally effective as potential stand management tools based on almost 100% attack on baited trees, green-to-red tree ratios between 3:1 and 5:1, and redistribution of the majority of attack around baited rather than red trees from which beetles could emerge. We recommend that the standard bait continue to be offered commercially for treatment of stands infested by D. confusus.
Improvements in Value Recovery through Low Stump Heights: Mechanized versus Manual Felling
Authors: Hall Ryan , Han Han-Sup 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Stump heights were measured on two blocks harvested during the summer of 2000 in north-central British Columbia. Each block was of similar stand and terrain characteristics, consisting mainly of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) with minor components of white spruce (Picea glauca × P. engelmannii) on gentle slopes. The blocks were harvested by two different contractors using different felling methods: mechanized felling with a feller-buncher and manual felling with a chainsaw. The average measured stump height from mechanized felling was 8.8 cm lower than that of manual felling, measuring 21.9 and 13.1 cm, respectively. When the saw kerf of felling equipment and stump-pull were included, the average stump height of mechanized felling was shown to be 5.8 cm (17%) lower than manual felling. High-end and low-end potential value losses were determined based on average sawlog values (Canadian [CN] $60/m 3 ) and pulp log values (CN$40/m 3 ), respectively. The potential value loss from manual felling was estimated to be up to CN$0.33/tree more than from mechanized felling. This result indicated that mechanized felling recovered up to CN$160/ha over manual felling when an average sawlog value and the stand density information from the study site were used in the calculation. The study demonstrated that lower stump heights than the 30 cm maximum stump height set by the Forest Practices Code of British Columbia are attainable with both felling methods. Sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the potential value and volume gains for a range of stump heights from 0 to 30 cm. Operational constraints were identified in the study, and recommendations for minimizing stump heights are presented.
Predicting Spruce Weevil Damage in Sitka Spruce in the Northern Oregon Coast Range
Authors: Lysak Teresa , Ross Darrell W. , Maguire Douglas A. , Overhulser David L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
The spruce weevil, Pissodes strobi (Peck), is a serious pest of Sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr, in Oregon. Weevils cause damage by killing the leader of a tree, resulting in defects such as crooks and forks that can reduce tree merchantability. In this study,Sitka spruce stands 16–25 years old were surveyed to explore relationships among stand and site characteristics and weevil damage. Trees had an average of 2.8 defects, ranging from 0 to 10, with minor crooks being the most common type of defect. All stands had damage in at least 58% of the trees. The amount of damage was found positively correlated with distance from the ocean and growth rate and negatively correlated with elevation, latitude, and spruce density. These variables together accounted for 61% of variation in the amount of damage.
Incidence of Heterobasidion annosum in Mixed-Conifer Natural Regeneration Surrounding Large True Fir Stumps 20–25 Years after Harvesting in Northeastern Oregon
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Schmitt Craig L. , Chadwick Kristen L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
High-elevation true fir stands on federal lands have a long history of selective harvesting. In 1989 a high frequency (89%) of Heterobasidion annosum, the cause of annosus root disease, was found in residual true fir stumps (mean, 20-in. diameter) cut 5–9 years earlier in northeast Oregon. In 2004, H. annosum was found at the stump surface of 29% of the natural conifer regeneration (mean, 18 years) within 20 ft of infected residual stumps. A total of 16 of 122 (13%) live saplings had H. annosum–caused stain or decay. Only 3% of 126 sample trees, however, were dead and infected by H. annosum. Infection was confirmed in 62% of decayed trees, 33% of stained trees, and 22% of trees with no visible stain or decay at the stump surface. Only 3 of 122 living saplings showed typical root disease crown symptoms (chlorosis), but only one of these had H. annosum. Only 1 of 16 live saplings with H. annosum–caused stain or decay was chlorotic. Incidence of infection was 44% in Engelmann spruce (7 of 16 trees), 31% in Douglas-fir (5 of 16 trees), 31% in subalpine fir (4 of 13 trees), and 27% in grand fir (21 of 77 trees). The S-type of H. annosum was confirmed in a sampled grand fir. There were no significant differences between H. annosum–infected and apparently healthy trees regarding live crown ratio and distance from infected residual stumps. Infected trees, however, were significantly (P = 0.025) larger in diameter than apparently healthy trees. The dynamics of H. annosum infection in spruce and Douglas-fir in northeast Oregon are discussed as well as treating true fir stumps with boron-containing products to prevent stump infection by H. annosum. West. J. Appl. For. 21(4):178–184.
Production, Cost, and Soil Compaction Estimates for Two Western Juniper Extraction Systems
Authors: Dodson Elizabeth M. , Deboodt Tim , Hudspeth Glen 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Harvesting trials were performed during the winter and spring of 2003–2004 in central Oregon to compare the costs, production rates, and soil compaction impacts of two systems for harvesting western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis). The two systems compared were a conventional system consisting of manual felling, delimbing, and bucking using a chainsaw and skidding logs with a rubber-tired grapple skidder and a mechanical system that used a feller-buncher, a rubber-tired grapple skidder to skid whole trees, and a stroke-boom delimber. Stump to deck harvesting costs ranged from $32.15 to $49.48/ton for the conventional system and from $60.07 to $63.11/ton for the mechanical system. A limited trial was conducted with the mechanical system that merchandized fence posts as well as sawlogs. When fence posts were produced also, stump to deck costs were reduced to $31.56/ton. Soil compaction was measured pre- and postharvest using a soil penetrometer. Paired t-tests showed a statistically significant difference between harvested sites and nonharvested sites at depths of 2 and 4 in. (P = 0.032 and 0.001, respectively) but no difference between harvest systems. West. J. Appl. For. 21(4):185–194.
Lumber Manufacturing, Log Exports, and Timber Availability in Western Washington
Authors: Perez-Garcia John , Barr J. Kent 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
We analyzed historical data on timber use and projected timber availability to 2045 to examine whether timber volumes would be available to meet the harvest requirements of existing or expanding lumber manufacturing and log export sectors in western Washington. Biennial mill surveys from the Washington Department of Natural Resources were used to describe past timber demand by the sawmilling and log exporting sectors. A simple linear programming model was used to project timber availability into the future. Our analysis revealed that current harvest levels could continue into the future, under some restricting assumptions, and can provide adequate timber volume to maintain the current lumber manufacturing sector. The projection also suggested that sawmilling capacity could expand if log exports should continue to decline. The projections are further analyzed with respect to historical distributions by species.
The Opportunity Cost of Forest Certification on Private Land in Western Oregon
Authors: Busby Gwenlyn M. , Montgomery Claire A. , Latta Greg S. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
In this report, we use a timber supply model for western Oregon to estimate the economic and ecological effects of forest certification. We estimate opportunity cost, the foregone value of wood production as a result of complying with certification standards, in the case of a $28/1000 board feet (mbf) and a $56/mbf certification bonus payment. Results indicate that, within the 100-year time horizon, 20 and 60% of total acres choose to certify, respectively. However, we find that the ecological benefit of certification, measured in terms of acres of old forest structure, is minimal. We also estimate certification levels when “group certification” is considered. When aggregated areas are permitted to certify as a group, we find that significantly more acres choose to certify and that they do so earlier.
Timber Trends on Private Lands in Western Oregon and Washington: A New Look
Authors: Adams Darius M. , Latta Gregory S. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Market model projections of private harvest in the Douglas-fir region over the period to 2054 suggest that harvests in western Oregon could be sustained at or above recent levels for the full period with ending inventories at least as high as in 2004. Western Washington, in contrast, may face some harvest reductions, particularly on other private ownerships, as a result of high harvests in the 1980s and continued rapid land loss. Projected silvicultural regimes in both half-states shift toward more use of commercial thinning on all private ownerships. No trend in future log prices is foreseen. In policy simulations, applying Washington's riparian protection policy to western Oregon led to a 4.4% annual private harvest reduction. Extension to intermittent streams in western Washington reduced annual harvest by 1.9%. Quintupling national forest harvest across the region increased annual regional harvest by 3.2% with more than a quarter of the public increment offset by private harvest reductions.
In Situ Gene Conservation of Six Conifers in Western Washington and Oregon
Authors: Lipow Sara R. , Vance-Borland Kenneth , St. Clair J. Bradley , Henderson Jan A. , McCain Cindy 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Agap analysis was conducted to evaluate the extent to which genetic resources are conserved in situ in protected areas for six conifer species in the Pacific Northwest (Sitka spruce, sugar pine, western white pine, ponderosa pine, western redcedar, and western hemlock). The gap analysis involved producing a GIS database detailing the location of protected areas and the distribution and abundance of tree species as inferred from data on potential plant association groups, actual plant associations, and actual land cover type. We used two schemes for stratifying the distribution of each species into genetic populations for gap analysis: seed zones and ecoregions. The results show that most seed zones and ecoregions contain at least 5,000 mature individuals in protected areas, indicating strong in situ gene conservation. Protection is less complete, however, for western white pine in the Puget lowlands, where urbanization and disease have reduced populations below safe levels. These populations represent the highest priority for additional gene conservation. Other species and areas warranting further evaluation include Sitka spruce in some parts of the Puget lowlands, remnant western white pine stands in the Oregon Coast Range, and sugar pine within the white pine blister rust zone.
Does Variable-Density Thinning Increase Wind Damage in Conifer Stands on the Olympic Peninsula?
Authors: Roberts Scott D. , Harrington Constance A. , Buermeyer Karl R. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Silvicultural treatments designed to enhance stand structural diversity may result in increased wind damage. The ability to avoid conditions that might lead to excessive wind damage would benefit forest managers. We analyzed wind damage following implementation of a variable-density thinning at four sites on the Olympic National Forest in northwest Washington. The prescription created small canopy gaps and retained unthinned patches within a uniformly thinned matrix, thus creating substantial amounts of internal edge. Our objective was to determine whether variable-density thinning resulted in elevated wind damage and whether the damage was spatially related to elements of the treatment, i.e., canopy gaps and uncut patches. Wind damage on the thinned plots averaged slightly more than 8.0 trees/ha. Although precise determinations of residual stem densities were not available, we estimate that total wind damage amounted to 1.3% of total stems remaining following treatment. Approximately 80% of the wind damage was blowdown, the remaining damage being stem breakage, leaning, or bowing. Nearly 54% of the damaged stems were less than 20 cm dbh. The maximum amount of damage observed was 51 trees/ha, but only 3 of 13 thinned plots had wind damage exceeding 7 trees/ha. The overall level of wind damage across all thinned plots after two growing seasons was not statistically greater than on unthinned control plots. Internal edges created by gaps, skid trails, and unthinned patches did not inherently increase wind damage risk; however, where gaps were located in topographically vulnerable positions, greater wind damage did occur. Overall wind damage was not excessive on any of the plots, and after 2 years, all residual stands remained intact and in a manageable condition. Our preliminary results suggest that variable-density thinning that includes creation of small canopy gaps does not necessarily predispose stands to greater risk of wind damage than uniform thinning. However, care must be taken in locating gaps and skid trails away from topographically vulnerable positions.
Effects of a Western Spruce Budworm Outbreak on Private Lands in Eastern Oregon, 1980–1994
Authors: Azuma David L. , Overhulser David L. 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Forest Inventory and Analysis data from three inventory periods were used to examine the effects of a western spruce budworm outbreak on private lands in eastern Oregon. Growth was negatively related to defoliation with differences between crown ratio and species. The mortality and salvage harvesting caused changes in stand structure on private lands. Although many stands showed a decrease in basal area, there was no detectable decrease in host species as a percentage of basal area. The combined effect of mortality, harvest, and loss in predicted growth may be as much as 30% of the initial standing volume.
Changes in Stream Channel Morphology Caused by Replacing Road-Stream Crossings on Timber Harvesting Plans in Northwestern California
Authors: Harris Richard , Gerstein Jared , Cafferata Peter 
Published: August 2019

Abstract
Past studies have shown that roads used for timber management and recreation are major sources of sedimentation in many streams throughout the Pacific Northwestern United States. Stream crossings are portals for the entry of sediment derived from road surface erosion. They are also prone to catastrophic failure during stressing weather events if they are undersized or otherwise deficient in design or construction. In recent years, public and private landowners have replaced or removed numerous deficient crossings in forested watersheds throughout California and elsewhere in the West. The benefits of replacing these crossings include eliminating both chronic and episodic inputs of sediment to streams. When old crossings are replaced with new, properly designed and installed crossings, there is a potential for construction-related erosion. This research examined the postconstruction erosion associated with the replacement of 30 stream crossings in coastal California. Channel surveys were conducted immediately after construction and after the passage of one winter rainy season. The results indicated very little erosion on most sites; 11 experienced no erosion at all. On those sites where erosion did occur, the amounts did not exceed 10 cubic yards. A few sites experienced aggradation or erosion unrelated to upgrading but due to upstream landslides. This research shows upgraded stream crossings on commercial timberland may contribute little sediment to streams after construction under moderate weather conditions if adequate erosion control measures are implemented.