bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Learning Together by Deaf and Hearing Students in a Japanese Primary School
Authors: Torigoe Takashi 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter describes a project to introduce co-enrollment practices for deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) pupils in a Japanese regular primary school. This project consisted of three parts: (1) instruction of sign language to the DHH pupils, (2) instruction of sign language to the teachers and hearing pupils, and (3) sign language interpretation in regular classrooms. The focus was on the challenges of sign language interpretation. The results showed that the multiple flows of information and overhearing others’ speech in the classrooms provided challenging conditions for sign language interpretation. New ways of communication and interaction (actually introducing a new culture) and the presence of deaf adults were needed to establish full participation by DHH pupils in the co-enrollment classrooms. The possible future of practices concerning the inclusion of DHH children is discussed.
Include to Grow: Prospects for Bilingual and Bicultural Education for Both Deaf and Hearing Students
Authors: Gregorio Lucrezia Di , Campana Vincenzina , Lavecchia Maria , Rinaldi Pasquale 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Deaf children in Italy are provided with different types of schooling. Few public schools offer a bilingual curriculum for deaf and hearing students that involves consistent use of Italian and Italian Sign Language (LIS) within the classroom and in which LIS is taught as a subject. One of these schools, the Tommaso Silvestri Primary School, located in Rome, Italy, is discussed in this chapter. In particular, the way in which the program is organized and how it supports deaf and hearing students in cognition, learning, and social interaction will be described. Methodological aspects and the role of technology in enhancing learning processes will be also discussed. This kind of bimodal bilingual co-enrollment program is very useful for deaf students and constitutes a unique opportunity for hearing classmates, giving them the opportunity to experience innovative learning environments and to consider deafness as a status rather than as a limitation.
The Best of Both Worlds: A Co-Enrollment Program for DHH Children in the Netherlands
Authors: Klerk Annet de , Hermans Daan , Wauters Loes , de Laat Lilian , de Kroon Francien , Knoors Harry 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
In 2013, a co-enrollment program was initiated through a collaboration between Kentalis Talent, a special school for deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children, and OBS de Bolster, a mainstream school. This co-enrollment program is based on the experiences and research results of the former Twinschool program, a co-enrollment program that existed from 2003 to 2013 and was initiated by Kentalis Talent. Currently, 27 DHH children are enrolled in seven different classes. This chapter will focus on (1) the history and organization of the co-enrollment program in terms of the different professionals who are structurally involved; (2) DHH children’s school achievements, speech and language development, well-being, and social development; (3) the variety of didactic approaches (e.g., preteaching, co-teaching, interpreting) that are used in the co-enrollment program to try to ensure that DHH children have optimal access to the teachers’ instruction and, more broadly, to classroom communication; and (4) teachers’ experiences with these collaborative didactic approaches, focusing on the implications of the co-enrollment program on their daily practices.
Four Co-Enrollment Programs in Madrid: Differences and Similarities
Authors: Pérez Mar , de la Fuente Begoña , Alonso Pilar , Echeita Gerardo 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter describes and analyzes the developmental process followed by four schools with sign bilingual and co-enrollment education in Madrid, Spain. We compare and contrast the four schools’ socioeconomic contexts, the type of facility (private schools and those funded by the state), the school culture, and the methodologies used. Readers will be able to see how we respond with equity to the diversity of students in the classroom. This chapter reflects upon the challenges associated with an inclusive pedagogy for all, including deaf students, among others. Three focus groups were held during the school year 2016–2017. Groups were made up of the management teams of the four schools and focused on two areas: the co-teaching dynamic and the quantity and quality of languages used.
Aspect
Authors: Fonteyn Lauren 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Moving from referential semantics to aspectual semantics, this chapter investigates the differences between nominal and verbal gerunds in terms of their aspectual potential. After presenting an overview of the semantic classifications adopted in studies of verbal aspect, a corpus study indicates that compared to verbal gerunds, nominal gerunds prefer a temporally bounded, “completed” or “holistic” construal (e.g. It happened after [the falling of the Berlin Wall]) over ongoing or “sequential” construal (e.g. She is working on [writing her first book] vs. She is working on [the writing of her first book]). These findings are discussed in light of the proposed categorical status of nominal and verbal gerunds.
The Lands in Between
Authors: Orenstein Mitchell A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
Russia’s hybrid war on the West has begun to afflict Western politics in ways that are remarkably similar to its effects on the “lands in between,” small, vulnerable countries in Europe situated in between Russia and the European Union. While many in the West are only beginning to understand how hybrid war affects politics at home, Russia’s meddling in the 2016 US presidential elections and subsequent elections in Europe brought to the fore problems that front-line states had been dealing with for years. Their experiences hold important lessons. This book, written by a US expert on Europe with wide experience in the UK, France, Czechia, Poland, and Russia, shows how this conflict has deepened political polarization in the lands in between, forcing countries to face a “civilizational choice” between Russia and the European Union. Russia’s hybrid warfare techniques are designed to divide countries through funding extremist parties, spreading disinformation, and threatening military force. Meanwhile, the European Union has not backed down in its drive to create a “Europe whole and free,” composed of modern democracies integrated in the EU market. While countries are faced with a stark choice, paradoxically, the political leaders who rise to the top are not those who chart a clear direction for their countries, but cynical power brokers who find ways to profit from both sides. For Western readers, grasping this new politics of polarization and power brokers is necessary to understand our new politics of hybrid war.
The Lands In Between
Authors: Orenstein Mitchell A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The lands in between Russia and the European Union are caught between their historic vulnerability to Russian military, economic, and cultural influence and their aspirations of prosperity through European integration. As powerful external partners vie for influence in the lands in between, their intensifying conflict has had serious political implications. Every election in the lands in between seems to present voters with a “civilizational choice” between the European Union or the Soviet Union 2.0. Parties and voters tend to line up on one side or the other. Paradoxically, however, the main beneficiaries of this deep polarization have been politicians who refuse to choose sides. Instead, many of the top power brokers in the lands in between, including presidents, prime ministers, and leading oligarchs, have found ways to profit from the patronage of both sides, elevating their own personal fortunes in the process.
Religious Enlightenment and Awakening
Authors: Kloes Andrew 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines how a distinctive historical consciousness informed how awakened Protestants understood their religious beliefs and activities. An intrinsic problem that is common to the historical study of all strongly partisan movements in the history of Protestantism is understanding the mentality, or worldview, of those who desired to see religious changes. To understand the Awakening movement, there is a need to understand what the Protestant activists wanted to awaken. This chapter answers this question by considering two competing interpretations of the history of modern Protestantism that appeared within the Protestant churches of Germany before and during the Awakening. The former of these narratives perceived changes in faith and theology as signs that Christianity was progressively advancing through the providential enlightenment of the church. The latter regarded these same changes as a falling away from the forms of faith and theology that were taught by the Bible.
War and Chance
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
War and Chance analyzes the logic, psychology, and politics of assessing uncertainty in international affairs. It explains how the most important kinds of uncertainty in international politics are inherently subjective, and yet how scholars, practitioners, and pundits can still debate these issues in clear and structured ways. Altogether, the book shows how foreign policy analysts can assess uncertainty in a manner that is theoretically coherent, empirically meaningful, politically defensible, practically useful, and sometimes logically necessary for making sound choices. Each of these claims contradicts widespread skepticism about the value of probabilistic reasoning in international politics, and shows how placing greater emphasis on assessing uncertainty can improve nearly any kind of foreign policy analysis or decision. The book substantiates this argument by examining critical episodes in the history of U.S. national security policy, such as strategic planning in Vietnam, assessments of Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction programs, and the search for Osama bin Laden. The book also draws on a diverse range of quantitative evidence, including a database containing nearly one million geopolitical forecasts and experimental studies involving hundreds of national security professionals.
Introduction
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter describes widespread skepticism regarding the value of assessing uncertainty in international politics. “Agnostics” argue that assessments of uncertainty in international politics are too unreliable to be useful for shaping major foreign policy decisions. “Rejectionists” argue that attempting to assess uncertainty in international politics can be counterproductive, surrounding foreign policy analyses with illusions of rigor or exposing foreign policy analysts to excessive criticism. “Cynics” claim that foreign policy analysts and decision makers have self-interested motives to avoid assessing uncertainty. The chapter explains how these ideas lead many scholars, practitioners, and pundits to avoid holding careful debates about the risks surrounding major foreign policy choices. The chapter describes how this aversion to probabilistic reasoning appears in several high-profile cases, such as President Kennedy’s decision to authorize the Bay of Pigs invasion and President Obama’s decision to raid Osama bin Laden’s compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan.
Subjective Probability and International Politics
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter explores the theoretical foundations of assessing uncertainty in international politics. It begins by explaining that virtually all important assessments of uncertainty in international politics are inherently subjective. The chapter’s second section explains how it is possible to believe that these subjective judgments are meaningless, but that this argument carries logical implications that no foreign policy analyst could accept. The chapter’s third section demonstrates that, conditional on believing that assessments of subjective probability contain any meaningful insight, it is always possible to express that insight in clear and structured ways, including through the use of numeric percentages. The chapter shows how its theoretical framework can help to resolve difficult analytic problems, focusing in particular on debates among U.S. intelligence analysts about the chances that Osama bin Laden was living in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in the spring of 2011.
The Value of Precision in Probability Assessment
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter analyzes a database containing nearly one million geopolitical forecasts. These data show that foreign policy analysts are surprisingly effective at estimating subjective probabilities. Fine-grained distinctions in probability estimates convey meaningful information about world politics, not arbitrary detail. By extension, the chapter shows that common qualitative expressions of uncertainty (including expressions currently recommended for use in intelligence analysis and military planning) systematically degrade the value of foreign policy discourse. The ability of foreign policy analysts to achieve “returns to precision” in probability assessment does not appear to depend on easy questions, short time horizons, or special cognitive attributes. Instead, the value of precision in probability assessment appears to be a generalizable skill that foreign policy analysts can cultivate through training, effort, and experience.
Analysis and Decision
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter explains how decision makers can incorporate assessments of uncertainty into high-stakes foreign policy choices. It begins by describing a simple analytic tool called break-even analysis, with which leaders can use explicit probability assessments as a point of leverage for determining whether or not a risky decision is worthwhile. The chapter then explains how transparent probabilistic reasoning is especially important for assessing strategic progress. In some cases, it can actually be impossible to make rigorous judgments about the extent to which foreign policies are making acceptable progress without assessing subjective probabilities in detail. This argument departs from a large body of existing scholarship on learning in international politics that assumes leaders can use a straightforward logic of trial and error to determine how they should update their strategic perceptions over time. The chapter provides examples of these dynamics drawn from the U.S. occupation of Iraq.
Placing Probability Front and Center in Foreign Policy Discourse
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
The book’s concluding chapter explores practical opportunities for improving assessments of uncertainty in foreign policy debates. It focuses on the value of creating norms that place probabilistic reasoning front and center in foreign policy debates. There are three main ways to pursue this goal: foreign policy organizations can improve formal analytic standards for assessing uncertainty; decision makers can actively encourage foreign policy analysts to assess uncertainty in clear and structured ways; and critics can press their opponents to describe the uncertainty that surrounds controversial policy proposals. This last dynamic is especially important, because it shows that the goal of improving assessments of uncertainty in international politics is not just an issue for government officials; it is also a matter of how scholars, journalists, and pundits can raise the standards of public discourse.
The Popular Vote and Misfires in the Electoral College
Authors: Alexander Robert M. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines the relationship among the electoral vote, the popular vote, and legitimacy in presidential elections. The Framers sought a process that preserved federalism and yielded candidates with broad appeal across the country. Forty percent of all presidential contests can be classified as hairbreadth elections (decided by less than 75,000 votes). Twenty percent of all elections have been decided by just 10,000 votes. On six occasions, the candidate winning the popular vote failed to win the Electoral College vote. These so-called misfire elections have occurred in two of the last five campaigns and have the potential to occur with greater frequency given changing demographics. The divergence between the Electoral College vote and the popular vote represents a potential challenge to legitimacy for incoming presidents. Specific attention is devoted to how misfire elections may have affected the agenda of incoming presidents.
Nature and Natures
Authors: Jorgensen Larry M. 
Published: April 2019

AbstractThis chapter formulates Leibniz’s naturalizing claims: what it is for a theory to be a natural theory. Three things will be emphasized: (a) Leibniz’s focus on individual natures, (b) Leibniz’s appeal to “rules of the good and beautiful,” and (c) the representational nature of individual substances, building the “rules of the good and beautiful” into the individual, active natures. This allows for a robust natural theory that is informed by the good, and, hence, final causes will form a part of the overall natural theory. This chapter also considers how to define the scope of Leibniz’s natural theory. It is initially unclear how Leibniz can avoid either (1) extending his natural theory to include God’s actions (hence, natural philosophy extends to theology) or, on the other hand, (2) identifying the boundaries of his natural philosophy in an ad hoc way. This chapter argues that Leibniz does avoid these two landmines.
Naturalizing Constraints
Authors: Jorgensen Larry M. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter introduces a methodological approach to naturalism––a way of structuring one’s theory to ensure that the overall naturalizing goal is met. The primary theoretical constraint is the principle of continuity. This chapter explores the genesis of the principle of continuity in Leibniz’s early work in physics. Leibniz’s work in 1676 on a theory of motion allowed for certain kinds of leaps. But even before his full endorsement of the principle of continuity, Leibniz rejects the kinds of leaps that violate the principle of sufficient reason. As Leibniz’s thinking develops between 1676 and 1686, Leibniz becomes much more confident that “nature never makes leaps,” and he develops what he will later call the principle of continuity. Tracing his thinking in these years will illuminate the grounds and implications of the principle of continuity.
Looking Forward
Authors: Jorgensen Larry M. 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter considers the dynamics of perception––their tendencies to move and change into different perceptions. The most general term for the mental “principle of change,” for Leibniz, is appetite. The details of Leibniz’s theory of appetite lead to four problems: (1) the problem of unsuccessful striving, (2) the problem of the apparent good, (3) the problem of the change for the worse, and (4) the problem of discontinuous kinds. This chapter argues that Leibniz has resources to resolve these four problems within a naturalized dynamics of perception. This chapter outlines Leibniz’s naturalized theory of appetite and then considers the nature of causation and teleology in appetite. The four challenges are then taken up to show that a fully naturalized theory of appetite can avoid the problems.
To Whom the Rules Apply
Authors: Himma Kenneth Einar 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with two arguments for the claim that the norms of an institutional normative system with moral criteria of validity are incapable of guiding behavior (the Guidance Arguments). The problem, on this line of reasoning, is that neither a rule of recognition that validates norms on the basis of moral merit nor a norm that is valid in virtue of moral merit can properly guide the people they must be able to guide to perform law’s conceptual function. This chapter thus challenges the Guidance Arguments. It argues that the guidance function of law does not imply that every legal norm must be capable of guiding or informing the behavior of every person. It implies only that every legal norm must be capable of guiding or informing the behavior of every person whose behavior it governs.
The Conceptual Possibility of Moral Criteria of Legal Validity
Authors: Himma Kenneth Einar 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter gives a positive argument for the claim that the criteria of validity can incorporate moral constraints on the content of law. It thus concludes the defense of the Incorporation Thesis undertaken in the last two chapters. The argument in question constructs a model of an institutional normative system that validates all and only mandatory moral norms in a possible world. The chapter argues that we must do two things to show the conceptual possibility of a legal system with moral criteria of validity. First, we must produce a model of an institutional normative system in a world resembling this one that can plausibly be interpreted as having moral criteria of validity that clearly satisfies every condition plausibly thought to be necessary for the existence of law. Second, to ensure that the model establishes the Incorporation Thesis, it should be incompatible with an exclusivist interpretation.
Opening Strategy
Authors: Whittington Richard 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter introduces the central arguments of Opening Strategy. In particular, it traces the development of three key strategic practices since the middle of the last century to today: strategic planning, strategic management, and open strategy. These practices have gradually made strategy an increasingly inclusive and transparent activity. These practices operate within Strategy as a professional field. The direction of practice change is influenced by exogenous forces upon this field, in particular organizational, cultural, and technological trends. The manner of practice change is influenced by the precarious and permeable nature of the Strategy field, granting important roles to the bottom-up initiatives of strategy consultants and corporate strategists. This chapter provides a basic theoretical orientation for the remainder of the book, extending the Strategy-as-Practice tradition in a macro direction and drawing on the work of Anthony Giddens and Alasdair MacIntyre. The chapter introduces the statistical, interview, archival, and published sources used throughout the book.
Strategy Consultants
Authors: Whittington Richard 
Published: April 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines strategy consultants as a major part of the Strategy profession. It examines their growth since the middle of the last century, and particularly the development of leading firms such as Bain & Co., the Boston Consulting Group, and McKinsey & Co. It demonstrates the structurally precarious and permeable predicament of strategy consulting firms, with many entries and exits. The challenging economics of strategy consulting are examined, with the problems of cyclical demand, low entry barriers, weak financial structures, and short pipeline highlighted. The chapter identifies three ways strategy consulting firms have managed their predicaments: cultivating professionalism, building relationships, and investing in knowledge. The chapter also examines the nature of strategy consulting work, particularly its combination of high demands and intellectual stimulus.