bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Epochal Transitions
Authors: Smil Vaclav 
Published: February 2021

AbstractThe modern world has been created by five relatively rapid and interconnected transitions. They led to temporarily high growth rates of the global population and, eventually, to much reduced fertility, longer life expectancies, and mass-scale urbanization. Increased agricultural productivity eliminated famines, reduced undernutrition, and resulted in a surfeit and waste of food in affluent countries. Transition from traditional biofuels to fossil fuels brought large increases of per capita energy supply and higher efficiencies of energy conversion, along with new powerful machines. Economic growth reached unprecedented rates, transformed sectoral contribution, created material abundance, and enabled high levels of mobility and instant communication. Environmental consequences of these transitions range from land-use changes to many forms of pollution and to global climate change. Future transitions have to address many problems created by our past successes and failures, but given the magnitude of the challenges, they will have to unfold gradually.
Agricultures and Diets
Authors: Smil Vaclav 
Published: February 2021

AbstractTraditional cropping had low and variable yields, required large inputs of animate labor (human and animal), and could not assure an adequate and affordable supply of food. Agricultural transition was driven primarily by rising inputs of fossil energies—directly as fuels for machinery and irrigation, and indirectly as energies embedded in synthetic fertilizer, other agrochemicals, and farm machinery. Mechanization eliminated draft animals and reduced agricultural labor to just a few percentage points of the total labor force. Better crop varieties could take advantage of fertilizing and crop protection, and resulting high yields eliminated famines and improved the nutritional status of populations (in large part by using bigger shares of harvest for animal feeding). Further gains were due to expanded food trade made possible by lowered transportation costs. These accomplishments had many undesirable environmental consequences (from nutrient runoff to greenhouse gas emissions), increased food waste to unacceptable levels, and contributed to higher frequency of obesity.
Industry
Authors: Robin William 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Amidst the heated fray of the Culture Wars emerged a scrappy festival in downtown New York City called Bang on a Can. Presenting eclectic, irreverent marathons of experimental music in crumbling venues on the Lower East Side, Bang on a Can sold out concerts for a genre that had been long considered box office poison. Through the 1980s and 1990s, three young, visionary composers—David Lang, Michael Gordon, and Julia Wolfe—nurtured Bang on a Can into a multifaceted organization with a major record deal, a virtuoso in-house ensemble, and a seat at the table at Lincoln Center, and in the process changed the landscape of avant-garde music in the United States. Bang on a Can captured a new public for new music. But they did not do so alone. As the twentieth century came to a close, the world of American composition pivoted away from the insular academy and toward the broader marketplace. In the wake of the unexpected popularity of Steve Reich and Philip Glass, classical presenters looked to contemporary music for relevance and record labels scrambled to reap its potential profits, all while government funding was imperilled by the evangelical right. Other institutions faltered amidst the vagaries of late capitalism, but the renegade Bang on a Can survived—and thrived—in a tumultuous and idealistic moment that made new music what it is today.
How to Create a Bot
Authors: Natale Simone 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In 1991, American inventor and philanthropist Hugh Loebner funded the launch of a competition aimed at recreating the conditions of the Turing test to assess the success of conversational programs in passing as human. The Loebner Prize competition has been conducted every year since then. This chapter looks at the history of this competition in order to argue that it has functioned as a proving ground for AI’s ability to deceive humans and as a form of spectacle highlighting the potential of computing technologies. The staged confrontations between computers and humans provide a context where humans’ liability for deception and its implications for natural language programs were systematically put to test in a competitive framework. This encouraged programmers to develop strategies and tricks that are reemerging today in communicative AI technologies. Thus, the case of the Loebner Prize helps one better understand Alexa, Siri, and other AI voice assistants that are becoming increasingly widespread in contemporary societies.
Robert Triffin
Authors: Maes Ivo , Pasotti Ilaria 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This book provides an intellectual biography of Robert Triffin. Triffin (1911–1993) played a key role in the international monetary debates in the postwar period. He became famous with trenchant analyses of the vulnerabilities of the international monetary system that was dependent on a national currency for its international liquidity (the Triffin dilemma), predicting the end of the Bretton Woods system. Triffin was a child of the interwar period, marked by the Great Depression and the rise of fascism. He became not only an eminent academic but also an influential policy adviser. In the mid-1940s he worked at the Federal Reserve, participating in several monetary reform missions in Latin America. Thereafter, Triffin played an important role in the creation of the European Payments Union. In his later academic life, Triffin put forward proposals for reforming the international monetary system. But because he doubted that they would come to fruition, he also developed plans for regional monetary integration, particularly in Europe, where he became the monetary adviser of Jean Monnet. With proposals for a European Reserve Fund and a European currency unit, he became one of the intellectual fathers of Europe’s monetary union. Throughout his life Triffin remained faithful to the ideals of his youth. The young Triffin was indignant about the Versailles Treaty, while the old Triffin fulminated against the Vietnam War. For him, economics was a way to contribute to a better world. He was strongly attached to his independence and the pursuit of a better and more peaceful world. He was a monk in economist’s clothing.
Pirate Lands
Authors: Daxecker Ursula , Prins Brandon 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Maritime piracy—like civil war, terrorism, and organized crime—is a problem of weak states. Surprisingly, though, pirates do not operate in the least-governed areas of weak states. Pirate Lands addresses this puzzle by explaining why some coastal communities experience more pirate attacks in their vicinity than others. Pirates do well in places where elites and law enforcement can be bribed, but they also need access to functioning roads, ports, and markets. Using statistical analyses of cross-national and subnational data on pirate attacks in Indonesia, Nigeria, and Somalia, the authors detail how governance at the state and local levels explains the location of maritime piracy. Pirate Lands employs geospatial tools to rigorously measure how local political capacity and infrastructure affect maritime piracy. The authors find that pirates operate in areas where local governance is weak enough to incentivize collusion among pirates and local authorities yet strong enough to ensure that infrastructure and markets are sufficiently developed to permit the organization of sustained piracy. Interviews with former pirates, community members, and maritime security experts based on field research in Indonesia and Nigeria complement the quantitative findings. Pirate Lands offers the first comprehensive, social scientific account of maritime piracy.
Retail Workers
Authors: Cummings Scott L. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter charts the Los Angeles community benefits movement, launched at the turn of the millennium to strengthen low-income communities by transforming local redevelopment. The movement was built on an emergent partnership between community-based organizations promoting “equitable development” in the face of gentrification and labor movement groups, led by the Los Angeles Alliance for a New Economy (LAANE), challenging the city-sponsored proliferation of low-wage jobs, especially in the multifaceted retail industry. The legal instrument used to codify campaign victories was the community benefits agreement, or CBA—a contract under which a developer agreed to provide specific levels of living wage jobs, affordable housing, and other benefits in exchange for community support for project approvals and public subsidies. Because CBAs offered a proactive response to redress negative development externalities through contractual compromise, they rested on a distinctive model of community organizing—leveraging the power of broad-based coalitions to extract benefits through negotiation—and thus enlisted a particular role for lawyers focused on strategic counseling and contract drafting. This chapter traces the evolution and outcomes of Los Angeles’s seminal community benefits campaigns: from the nation’s first CBA with the developer of a transformational downtown sports and entertainment complex anchored around the Staples Center, through a $500 million CBA centered on environmental mitigation in connection with the expansion of the L.A. International Airport, to the Grand Avenue CBA, which focused on affordable housing production in a proposed upscale development on downtown’s Bunker Hill. Following this arc, the chapter shows how the CBA movement conferred significant benefits on low-income communities and institutionalized pro-labor policy in the city—while also revealing tensions in the community-labor alliance at the movement’s heart and the limits of contract-based solutions to inequality.
Soothing Movements
Authors: Rogers Jillian C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter argues that after 1914 French modernist composers and performers embraced a neoclassical, repetitive, perpetual-motion-oriented musical style—often termed style dépouillé—to help themselves and others cope with trauma somatically. Examination of psychological, scientific, and medical discourse on the mental, emotional, and physical benefits of rhythmic bodily movement in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century French texts provides a broader context for understanding the interwar popularity of music pedagogue Émile Jaques-Dalcroze’s eurhythmics, a popular interwar musical practice based on the understanding of musical movement as emotionally transformative. Analysis of compositions in the style dépouillé, situated within the context of trauma studies, Dalcroze’s influence, and musicians’ commentaries on how these pieces made them feel, reveals that the challenging musique dépouillée repertoire engaged musicians’ bodies in rhythmically regular corporeal movements and provided them opportunities to process and perform the emotional difficulty of trauma.
Jazzing Around, or “How ’Ya Gonna Keep ’Em Down?”
Authors: Gillett Rachel Anne 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In the 1920s, Paris became a central site in a Europe-wide process of touring and musical mixing that fostered Black cosmopolitanism. Performers experienced travel and touring as a social and political triumph over racial discrimination. This chapter also shows how economic depression at the end of this period heightened racial antagonism in Paris. The government responded with racial quotas on employment, and unions and laborers expressed hostility to immigrant workers (particularly those of color, whether French citizens or not). The quotas were particularly contentious regarding bands that played in popular venues, because many were marketed precisely on the basis of being foreign and thus best suited for tango, jazz, or biguine. Facing increased hardship, Black communities expressed solidarity against racial prejudice and economic discrimination. This, along with musical mixing during gigs and images and gossip in the Blackpress, contributed to the emergence of an everyday Black cosmopolitanism in interwar Paris.
Early Debates in the Reception of Buddhism
Authors: Rudbøg Tim 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the origin and meaning of the notion “esoteric Buddhism” as it was used in the early Theosophical Society, especially in the work of Helena P. Blavatsky and Alfred P. Sinnett. Both Sinnett and Blavatsky primarily conceptualized Buddhism in relation to the notion of an esoteric doctrine, while scholars of Buddhism disregarded the existence of any esotericism in Buddhism. Based on an analysis of the debates about “esoteric Buddhism,” this chapter shows how differences between Orientalists and Theosophists can be contextualized in their specific imaginings of Buddhism and also in their receptions of Buddhism.
The Mahatma Letters
Authors: Godwin Joscelyn 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter deals with the so-called Mahatma Letters allegedly originating from Koot Hoomi and Morya. It systematically analyzes the two original recipients of the letters, Allan Octavian Hume and Alfred Percy Sinnett, showing how they became interested in the Eastern Masters and their teachings. Next the chapter explores the arrival of the letters, problems regarding their publication, and the physical letters themselves. The content of the letters is analyzed to see what they might tell us about the characteristics of the Masters. Helena Blavatsky’s role in the production of these letters is considered from various aspects, as is the purpose and effect of the myth of the Masters.
Kinds of Science
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews distinctions between kinds of science, which is especially relevant to the book’s topic because it is an area that Karl Popper did not consider in detail. This creates a problem since critics of the hypothesis often do not distinguish between true hypothesis-based science and other kinds that don’t depend on hypotheses, and the traditional divisions of science miss the main points. The chapter distinguishes among several modern kinds of science including Big Science/Small Science and how they relate to Big Data and Little Data, and why Discovery Science is different from hypothesis-testing science. It separates “exploratory” from “confirmatory” studies and explains why this terminology can create confusion in trying to understand science. The differences between applied and basic science are genuine and meaningful because these two kinds of science have different goals and apply different, though overlapping, standards to achieve their goals.
Statistics and Statistical Hypotheses
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers statistics from a conceptual rather than a quantitative perspective. The objective is to distinguish statistical from scientific hypotheses and provide background for later discussions. The fact that scientific and statistical hypotheses are dissimilar is often overlooked, and the chapter shows how they differ and why the differences matter. The chapter uses simple, nontechnical examples to present the main ideas in frequentist statistics; the next chapter covers the basics of Bayesian statistics and explores how the divergent philosophical viewpoints of frequentists and Bayesians affect scientific reasoning. The present chapter covers statistical error and its role in null hypothesis significance testing, which is still the dominant mode of scientific significance testing, as well as the origins, weaknesses of, and alternatives to, null-hypothesis testing. A philosophical objective of the chapter is to show how the concept of probability fits with Karl Popper’s program of falsification. The background material in this chapter will be especially important for evaluating the Reproducibility Crisis in Chapter 7.
Opponents of the Hypothesis
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 10 reviews the writings of three prominent scientists who reject the hypothesis as the basis for scientific thinking and research. Stuart Firestein is virulently anti-hypothesis and champions Curiosity-Driven science, a free-form mode which is deliberately unstructured. David Glass’s program of Questioning and Model-Building is rigidly structured and inductivist in spirit; he rejects the hypothesis in favor of “models” that he distinguishes from hypotheses. Both Firestein and Glass accept the empiricist standard for assessing scientific truth and believe that a scientific investigation proceeds on the basis of asking testable questions. David Deutsch is a theoretical physicist whose advanced ideas are, in principle, empirically untestable and, since empirical testability is the key to scientific hypothesis testing, he also rejects the hypothesis. His program is called Conjectures and Criticism. Unlike the other two critics, Deutsch is sympathetic to the scientific thinking process that Karl Popper advanced, but feels that Popper’s program must be superseded for science to get beyond the constraints of empiricism. The chapter shows that the supposed incompatibilities of each of the alternative approaches with the hypothesis are largely based on misrepresentations or misapplications of the nature of hypothesis-based science. The counterproposals are not grounds for rejecting the hypothesis, which can in fact coexist comfortably with them.
The Hypothesis in Science Education
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents a wide though unsystematic review of formal educational resources of information about the hypothesis, at levels from grade school through to professional science. The focus in the early school years is on the Next Generation Science Standards, intended to be a national norm for science teachers, as well as two commercial programs meant to guide science teaching. At the college level, several books on critical thinking are briefly analyzed, although the emphasis is on a popular textbook that is designed to teach how to think scientifically. The chapter points up several possible adverse influences on public perceptions of science, including views on topics ranging from astrology to global climate change, that could arise from misapprehensions about the nature of science that are fostered by many of these sources. Finally, attention turns to the websites of the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation to sample resources available to professional scientists. In general, the information concerning the scientific hypothesis across all of these sources was inconsistent in depth, detail, and accuracy. The chapter offers a number of suggestions for improving science education in this area.
How to Improve Your Own Scientific Thinking
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 14 suggests concrete ways to improve your scientific thinking about your own hypotheses and how to identify them in the scientific publications of others. The chapter continues exploration of the effects of unconscious mental processes on scientific thinking by emphasizing methods for minimizing such effects. Practical exercises include finding and diagramming hypotheses, illustrated by a detailed example from the literature. Building on the notions that scientists’ own intellectual productions entail significant ego investment and are subject to the concerns from behavioral economics that were raised in Chapter 11, this chapter suggests ways for scientists to step back and view their own scientific thinking skills objectively. The goal is to help promote sound thinking by calling readers’ attention to subtle intrinsic forces that can undermine it. Strategies for improvement include avoiding the “curse of knowledge,” taking the “outside” view, and ignoring the “sunk cost fallacy” when it comes to their own ideas.
Engaging Returnee Entrepreneurs Through Institutional Change
Authors: Williams Nick 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 8 returns the analysis to policy making and institution building. Through in-depth interviews with policy makers and other stakeholders in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Montenegro, the chapter investigates perceptions of, and progress towards, engaging returnee entrepreneurs. It demonstrates that while policy makers are aware of the importance of emotional ties to home, they have little influence over this, and instead need to focus on the practicalities of improving the institutional environment. The chapter shows that policy emphasis has been placed on formal institutional reform, in particular the regulative framework, rather than ideational politics which emphasises heritage and cultural promotion. Yet in all three countries reforms have been slow. This serves to discourage growing investment from the diaspora as risks are often considered to be too great. Positive reforms are required so that the second generation of migrants do not become more isolated from their parents’ homeland. If that connection is lost, investments will only decrease over time.
Introduction
Authors: Woldoff Rachael A. , Litchfield Robert C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter outlines the book’s objectives, conceptual framework, and organization, and it introduces the voices of several digital nomads from our sample. It begins with some illustrative quotations from informants and then describes our main arguments about work and community, providing a rationale for studying this subject. Specifically, it asserts that digital nomads are united by an intense, shared commitment to personal reinvention, are creating new paths to meaningful work, and surprisingly, they are also pioneering a new type of place-based community. Next, the chapter defines and introduces readers to the concept of a digital nomad and provides an overview of digital nomad hubs (i.e., places that attract large numbers of digital nomads, who then form communities that cater to their own needs). It also introduces Bali, the site of the study. Finally, it describes the research methods, sample, and plan of the book.
Cooperation and Economic Self-Reliance in Commercial Arrangements
Authors: Stapleton Jane 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 2 identifies a significant principle, immanent in tort law, vindicating the value in cooperative human arrangements. ‘Tort’s cooperation principle’ illuminates the necessity, at the duty of care stage in negligence claims, of analysing the prior dealings of the relevant parties. In claims between participants to a commercial arrangement, tort’s support for cooperation manifests in a preference for protecting the security of the coming together of the parties by refusing to recognise entitlements that would circumvent the arrangement. The common judicial assessment that society and the market expect commercial parties to be economically self-reliant exposes the importance of interrogating the reasonableness of commercial claimants’ reliance, for their own economic protection, on fellow participants in a commercial arrangement. This perspective reveals a long-standing doctrinal discontinuity and calls into question the reasoning used to support the Hedley Byrne & Co. Ltd. v. Heller & Partners Ltd. line of authority in commercial disputes.