bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Is There a Scientific Method?
Authors: Goldman Steven L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Modern science relies largely on method or, rather, on the claim that by employing a systematic, impersonal method, human reasoning can transcend the mind’s subjective experience of reality and discover the true, external causes of experience. In the early stages of modern science’s emergence out of medieval and Renaissance nature philosophy, Francis Bacon argued that this method was to be based on induction and experiment, without a priori mental input and with a minimum of mathematics. Rene Descartes argued that the required method was to be based on deduction, mathematics, and a priori and innate ideas, with a minimum of experiment. For Descartes, experiment served primarily as a check on deductive reasoning; for Bacon, experiment was a source of knowledge and constrained our inductive reasoning about empirical facts. Despite their differing styles, Descartes and Bacon together concretized the idea that a systematic method of reasoning could give us knowledge of the world.
Was Galileo Right and the Catholic Church Wrong?
Authors: Goldman Steven L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Galileo is an iconic founder of modern science, but his career and his contributions were far more complex than his reputation. He, too, championed a scientific method, but his thinking differed greatly from Bacon’s and Descartes’. Galileo’s method was based on Archimedes’ combination of experiment, mathematics, and deduction. This method allowed Galileo to claim certain knowledge of reality derived from mathematical accounts of natural phenomena. But he also claimed certain knowledge of reality derived directly from observation, as in his assertion that the Earth moved around the sun. While Galileo’s predictions were sometimes correct, he had no criterion for distinguishing between correct and incorrect inferences or for connecting his mathematical deductive reasoning about phenomena to the way they really were.
What Is Science About?
Authors: Goldman Steven L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The linkage between epistemological and ontological claims, between calling a theory true because it correctly accounts for experimental data and claiming that therefore it is true of reality, became an issue in nineteenth-century physical science. In particular, Fourier’s mathematical theory of heat explicitly set aside the ontological question of what heat was in reality in favor of a mathematical account that correctly described and predicted how heat behaved. The founders of thermodynamics set aside the question of what matter really was, in favor of a mathematical theory that described how matter behaved in its interactions with energy. Maxwell proposed a mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves propagated through a space-filling aether, without identifying a physical structure for the aether or a causal mechanism for its action. Finally, the millennial acceptance of Euclidean geometry as a true account of space because of its deductive logical character was undermined by the creation of non-Euclidean geometries.
The Knowledge Problem in Mature Science
Authors: Goldman Steven L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In the course of the nineteenth century, physical scientists became increasingly self-conscious of the need for a theory of how scientific knowledge was produced. Though many theories were proposed, none won a consensus. As explicitly stated by William Whewell, the core problem was the same for everyone: how to ground claims of knowledge of experience in a way that also justified claiming that the object of these claims was a reality independent of experience that caused experience. Everyone was acutely aware of the Fallacy of Affirming the Consequent and of the logical gulf between induction and deduction. John Herschel, Whewell, John Stuart Mill, August Comte, Hermann Helmholtz, Pierre Duhem, and Ernst Mach were some who proposed theories of science. Of these, Mach alone decisively rejected reality as the objective of science. Meanwhile, the nonscientist J. B. Stallo argued for the fundamental role played by metaphysical concepts in modern science.
Living for God
Authors: Horwitz Ilana M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces readers to the childrearing logic of “religious restraint” and distinguishes it from Annette Lareau’s classic class-based childrearing strategies of “concerted cultivation” and “natural growth.” Deeply religious families do not fall into either of Lareau’s categories. Parents who raise their children with religious restraint exist across different social class groups. Children raised with religiously restraint (“abiders”) come to believe in God so deeply that it alters their sense of self—their idea of who they are. Teens believe that they are constantly being evaluated by God, which prompts them to change how they perceive themselves, how they carry themselves, and how they imagine their future selves. Living to please God shapes how teens see themselves and how they behave, which the chapter describes as developing a “God-centered self-concept.” Teens raised with religious restraint who develop a God-centered self-concept come from different genders, social class backgrounds, racial backgrounds, and religious traditions.
Unexpected Destinations
Authors: Horwitz Ilana M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter argues that an upbringing of religious restraint constrains college choices, especially for professional-class kids. It does so by recalibrating their academic ambitions after graduation, leading them to rarely consider a selective college despite their excellent grades in high school. As a result, religiously restrained teens—and especially those from the professional class who have the resources to make it to college—tend to undermatch in the college selection process. This is evident among men and is especially prevalent among women. Girls who grow up with religious restraint have a self-concept centered around family, service, and God. They do not aspire toward prestigious careers, which makes a degree from a selective college less valuable. Unlike less affluent teens who want to improve their class position by gaining a college degree, religiously restrained teens are content maintaining their class position by attending college close to home and reproducing traditional gender norms.
Introduction
Authors: Lustig Jason 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The introduction presents the book’s core argument that twentieth-century Jewish archives were not just about the past but also about the future: We can look to a process whereby Jews turned increasingly toward archives as anchors of memory in a rapidly changing world. Jews in Germany, the United States, and Israel/Palestine all sought to gather the files of the past in order to represent their place in Jewish life and articulate a vision of the future. It situates these projects in the history of community-based archiving and archival theory and methodology, as well as Jewish history at large. It also dives into the ways we can see archive making as a metaphor for the broader patterns in modern Jewish history, as Jews sought to gather the sources and resources of their culture both before the Holocaust and especially in its aftermath.
Training Spiritual Caregivers
Authors: Cadge Wendy , Stroud Beth , Palmer Patricia K. , Fitchett George , Haythorn Trace , Clevenger Casey 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores graduate theological education as a field that produces both discourses of spirituality and the professionals who provide what is increasingly called “spiritual care.” As taught in chaplaincy programs, the case of spiritual care illustrates how “spirituality” is produced by religious institutions in a pragmatic effort to train chaplains for work in the secular institutions that employ them. The chapter shows how, based on the history of chaplaincy graduate education programs and their students’ religious backgrounds, programs adapt the content of their curricula and their approaches to religious diversity to prepare their students for work with a wide range of religious and nonreligious people across secular institutions. It concludes by outlining what this case contributes to broader scholarly conversations about the institutional production of “spirituality” in the current American context and the role of theological education in that production.
Introduction
Authors: Kertz-Welzel Alexandra 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The chapter introduces the topic of music education and social change and shows the need for an interdisciplinary study. It discusses research related to social change and music education critically and shows possible directions for new investigations. It develops the theoretical framework of utopia and utopian thinking as an innovative approach to music education and social change. It offers a much-needed scholarly foundation for music education and social change. Furthermore, this chapter presents the purpose of the present study, and the specific contribution this book will make to music education theory and practice. Finally, it offers a brief overview of the book chapters.
Twenty-First-Century Torture
Authors: d'Ambruoso William L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Immediately following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, members of the George W. Bush administration signaled that current rules regarding intelligence, detention, and interrogation were too confining. With approval from the Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel (OLC), the president declared that the Geneva Conventions’ detention and interrogation guidelines would not apply to Al Qaeda and Taliban detainees. The problem with Geneva, administration lawyers argued, was that it would tie interrogators’ hands. The CIA and the military wanted an explicit legal blessing for their interrogation programs. They got it in the form of a series of memos by the OLC and military lawyers, who defined torture in exceedingly narrow terms. The result was “enhanced interrogation,” which the administration claimed did not amount to torture but was still a sufficiently “tough” program to break hardened terrorists.
Starting the Conversation
Authors: Braxton Gordon 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Helping boys stand against sexual violence is not a one-time event and requires a sustained conversation. Chapter 4 identifies some key complications that boys may face once they decide to share their voices so that caretakers can be prepared to help them through the process of adopting anti-violent perspectives. Particular emphasis is given to questioning the popular notion of defending alleged Black perpetrators as a default position for Black boys. Standing against violence is definitively pro-Black, as this chapter explains. The chapter also identifies the social justice ideologies held by many Black boys as a potential resiliency factor that can help them to adopt anti-violence perspectives.
Facing the Complications of Being an Anti-violent Man
Authors: Braxton Gordon 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The massive levels of sexual violence that are present today must have a source. Chapter 2 posits that male socialization is a primary contributor to male-perpetrated violence. Few would deny that a male socialization exists but it is rare to examine it. Readers are encouraged to help boys identify those aspects of manhood that negatively influence their lives, and the author shares some concerns about male cultures that boys have expressed to him. The toolbox for recruiters of boys is expanded as freedom from male stereotypes is suggested as a major selling point for boys that challenge traditional male training.
Understanding Our Power to Harm
Authors: Braxton Gordon 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
We don’t talk to boys about sexual violence with the same intensity and regularity that we talk to girls. It’s no wonder, then, that many grow into men with limited understandings of how to ensure the safety of themselves and their partners. Chapter 7 provides a deeper dive into sexual misconduct policies. It identifies common misunderstandings that boys have of policies and provides some practical tips on how to correct those deficiencies. Particular emphasis is placed on the common understanding that alcohol usage absolves one from fault. The chapter also provides tips on how boys can better navigate a sexual arena where they perceive themselves to have a lot of risk. Chief among these tips is the suggestion that boys are free to hold themselves to standards that exceed what laws and policies expect of them.
Finding a Home in a Global Movement
Authors: Braxton Gordon 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Sexual violence has persisted across time and cultures and responsibility for its prevention has been firmly placed on women. Chapter 9 reminds readers that there is now a global movement aimed at ending sexual violence that is waiting on contributions from boys. The chapter urges incoming boys to seek out training so that they can best be integrated into existing strategies. A brief overview of existing resources is provided as well as some historical examples of Black men standing against sexual violence. Chapter 9 closes with a challenge that Black boys can be the missing ingredient in tipping cultural values against sexual violence.
Reproducing Populism
Authors: Carrión Julio F. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the third mechanism populist presidents use to reproduce their power: the tilting of the electoral playing field. The chapter shows the centrality of free and fair elections in defining democracy. It then identifies and discusses the main characteristics of democratic elections. The remainder of the chapter shows how unconstrained populist presidents violate four central conditions of free and fair elections: the free formation of alternatives, the free formation of preferences, the freedom to express these preferences, and the neutral management of elections. The chapter argues that the illegal enabling of reelection and the elimination of term limits violate the free formation of alternatives; the restriction of political and civil liberties and unfair access to media undermine the free formation of preferences; voter intimidations and vote buying violate the freedom to express those preferences; and electoral fraud and institutional biases negate the neutral management of elections.
Conclusion
Authors: Carrión Julio F. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The chapter shows that the impact of populism on democracy depends on the variety of populism in power: the worst outcomes in democratic performance are found under unconstrained populism. By contrast, when populism in power is constrained, democracy will largely survive. To support this claim, the chapter traces two democracy indices under populism in power in the Andes, which as expected, show a marked deterioration of democracy under unconstrained populist governments, while remaining largely unchanged under contained populism. The central proposition of the theory—unconstrained populism in power leads to regime change whereas constrained populism does not—is then explored in cases beyond the Andes. The chapter finds examples of unconstrained populism in Nicaragua under Daniel Ortega and Hungary under Viktor Orbán, their governments having transitioned away from democracy. In other cases where populism was constrained, that was not the case.
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality
Authors: Wisman Jon D. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Whereas President Barack Obama identified inequality as “the defining challenge of our time,” this book claims more: it is the defining issue of all human history. The struggle over inequality has been the underlying force driving human history’s unfolding. Drawing on the dynamics of inequality, this book reinterprets history and society. Beyond according inequality the central role in human history, this book is novel in two other respects. First, transcending the general failure of social scientists and historians to anchor their work in explicit theories of human behavior, this book grounds the origins and dynamics of inequality in evolutionary psychology, or, more specifically, Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Second, this book is novel in according central importance to the critical historical role of ideology in legitimating inequality, a role typically ignored or given little attention by social scientists and historians. Because of the central role of inequality in history, inequality’s explosion over the past 45 years has not been an anomaly. It is a return to the political dynamics by which elites have, since the rise of the state, taken practically everything for themselves, leaving all others with little more than the means with which to survive. Due to elites’ persuasive ideology, even after workers in advanced capitalist countries gained the franchise to become the overwhelming majority of voters, inequality continued to increase. The anomaly is that the only intentional politically driven decline in inequality occurred between the 1930s and 1970s following the Great Depression’s partial delegitimation (this should remain delegitimation globally) of elites’ ideology.
Theosophical Gnosis and Astral Hermeneutics
Authors: Cox Simon 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the subtle body concept through the writings of Blavatsky’s heirs, the major figures in the second generation of theosophy, zeroing in specifically on their reformulations of a mystical form of Christianity informed by the yoga of the subtle body. First, it examines the life and works of Annie Besant and her mythological subtle body interpretations of the Bible. Next, it moves on to Charles Leadbeater, his Kundalini experiences, and how these informed his own subtle body ideas drawn from Kabbalah, Hindu philosophy, and his own personal experience. Lastly, the chapter examines Blavatsky’s former secretary, G. R. S. Mead, and how the subtle body concept is formulated in his numerous books. It ends by looking at Mead’s prognostications about a future wherein the sciences, parapsychology, and humanities are brought together to answer questions about the nature and function of the subtle body.
The Alchemical Body of Carl Jung
Authors: Cox Simon 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the subtle body concept through the work of Carl Jung, who is introduced to the idea by G. R. S. Mead’s theosophical books. After tracing Jung’s early engagement with the Orient, the chapter moves to an analysis of the subtle body concept in his work, specifically in his engagements with Eastern traditions: Daoism, Kundalini Yoga, and Tibetan Bardo Yoga. After examining Jung’s use of the subtle body concept in his translation-commentaries on Eastern texts, the chapter turns to how Jung incorporates the concept into his own psychology of individuation based on the techniques of active imagination and dream analysis. The chapter turns to Jung’s seminars on Nietzsche, where he presents the subtle body concept with a unique dose of critical reflexivity and Kantian rigor. It ends with Jung’s late-life speculation about a future where, following the quantum revolution and spitting of the atom, humans evolve into subtle body–dwelling creatures who occupy a world of psychical substance.
Locke’s Ciceronian Liberalism
Authors: Hawley Michael C. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers how John Locke reunites the two strands of Ciceronian thought from the seventeenth century. Locke returns to Cicero’s original formulation of natural law republicanism and innovates on it. He derives from Cicero’s natural law a set of natural rights, corresponding to the duties Cicero claimed were imposed by natural law. Locke’s law of nature is a barely modified version of Ciceronian natural law, but his conception of natural rights allows him to solve a number of theoretical problems posed by Cicero’s construal of the issue. Locke also offers a solution to the puzzle of how a doctrine of natural law could meet the standard of skeptical epistemology.
Religion, Virtues, and Health
Authors: Krause Neal M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The literature on the relationship between religion and health is vast, but it is in a state of disarray. One empirical study has been piled upon another, while little effort has been made to integrate them into a more tightly knit theoretical whole. This book was designed to address this problem. It is the product of 40 years of empirical research, hundreds of peer-reviewed publications, and countless hours of deep reflection. This volume contributes to the literature in three ways: (1) a unique approach to theory construction and model development is presented that is designed to produce a conceptual scheme that is evidence based and empirically verifiable; (2) a new construct—communities of faith—that has largely been overlooked in empirical studies on religion is introduced; and (3) the need is highlighted for a no-holds-barred discussion of how to practice one’s research craft.
Setting the Stage
Authors: Krause Neal M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents a detailed rationale for why this volume is needed. The discussion is divided into five sections: (1) a critical overview of the religion-and-health literature is provided; (2) some preliminary observations are made on the state of current theoretical frameworks and conceptual models in the field; (3) a new conceptual model is introduced—this model is based on the premise that religion is, in essence, a social phenomenon that serves as a key conduit for the transmission of core religious virtues; (4) a new model-building strategy is illustrated by showing how submodels (i.e., brief supplementary models) can be used to expand the conceptual scope of the core model; and (5) an overview is provided of the chapters that follow.
Issues in Theory Construction
Authors: Krause Neal M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss key steps in the theory construction process that have not received sufficient attention in the literature. Four issues are explored: (1) a brief history of the prevailing approaches to theory construction is presented; (2) an in-depth discussion is provided on how the core study model was developed—a special emphasis is placed on specifying a generic strategy for how to practice one’s own research craft; (3) a concise discussion on how to weave preliminary theoretical specifications into a viable midrange theory is described; and (4) a discussion involving how to write for an academic audience is provided.
Religious and Spiritual Identities
Authors: Krause Neal M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an in-depth examination of the first construct in the core theoretical model—religious and/or spiritual identities. People typically identify themselves as religious only, spiritual only, religious and spiritual, or neither religious nor spiritual. The identity they choose has profound implications for the way they relate to religious institutions and the health-related benefits they may enjoy from doing so. Four issues are examined in detail: (1) an overview of social identity theory is provided; (2) previous research on religious identities and health is reviewed; (3) a detailed overview of recent research by the author on religious and spiritual identities is discussed; and (4) next steps that are needed to take research on religious and/or spiritual identities to the next level are identified.