bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Prussian Paradigm?
Authors: Roche Helen 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The very first Napolas which were founded at Potsdam, Plön, and Köslin, as well as those which were subsequently founded at Naumburg, Oranienstein, Bensberg, Berlin-Spandau, and Wahlstatt, were deliberately established on the premises of the former Prussian cadet schools, which had been refashioned as civilian ‘State Boarding Schools’ (Staatliche Bildungsanstalten/Stabilas) after World War I, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. To an extent, the NPEA authorities deliberately wanted to resurrect the tradition of the Royal Prussian Cadet Corps at the Napolas, but in a new, Nazified guise. This chapter explores the extent to which the former cadet-school Napolas retained or regained their militaristic Prussian spirit, and examines continuities between the Prussian cadet schools, the Stabilas, and the NPEA. It begins by chronicling the demise of the cadet schools and their resurrection as civilian state schools, more or less dedicated to upholding the Weimar Republic, during the aftermath of World War I. It then goes on to chart the rise of revanchist sentiment and the formation of illegal Hitler Youth cells at the Stabilas during the early 1930s, before analysing the process of Napolisation which took place in 1933–4 in greater detail. In conclusion, the chapter sites the Napolas’ Janus-faced attitude towards the cadet-school tradition within existing debates regarding the affinities (or otherwise) between Prussianism and National Socialism, and the degree of continuity which existed between the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich.
Centralism versus Particularism
Authors: Roche Helen 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Shortly after the establishment of the first NPEA in Prussia, ‘copy-cat’ Napolas were swiftly established by the educational authorities in Saxony, Anhalt, and Württemberg—an initiative which did not always meet with the Reich Education Ministry’s whole-hearted approval. This chapter charts the—ultimately successful—attempts by the NPEA authorities to centralize the Napola system and place the Napolas in the federal states outside Prussia under the sole power of the Reich. From this perspective, the NPEA can be seen as a bellwether for the type of fully centralized ‘reformation of the Reich’ (Reichsreform or Verreichlichung) which the National Socialist regime desired to effect not only in the realm of education, but in all spheres of government, devolving power and autonomy from the federal states to Berlin. The cases of the schools at Klotzsche in Saxony, Ballenstedt in Anhalt, and Backnang and Rottweil in Württemberg, are each considered in detail. In conclusion, the chapter sites the NPEA-Inspectorate’s efforts to create a Reich-wide educational system within the context of broader impulses towards centralization within the Nazi state.
The Reichsschulen and the Napolas’ Germanizing Mission in Eastern and Western Europe
Authors: Roche Helen 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Heinrich Himmler, August Heißmeyer, and the NPEA Inspectorate were eager to create a transnational empire of Napolas and ‘Reichsschulen’ in all of the territories occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. These schools both mirrored and contributed to broader National Socialist occupation and Germanization policies throughout Eastern and Western Europe. They were intended to create a cadre of ‘Germanic’ or ‘Germanizable’ leaders, loyal above all to the SS. The chapter begins by exploring the genesis of the Reichsschulen in the occupied Netherlands—Valkenburg and Heythuysen—which were adopted as a ‘Germanic’ prestige project by the Reich Commissioner of the Netherlands, Arthur Seyß-Inquart. The chapter then turns eastwards to consider the role of the Napolas which were established in the conquered Czech and Polish lands, focusing on NPEA Sudetenland in Ploschkowitz (Ploskowice), NPEA Wartheland in Reisen (Rydzyna), and NPEA Loben (Lubliniec). All in all, the Napola selection process in the occupied Eastern territories can be seen as the peak of all the ‘racial sieving’ processes which the Nazi state forced ‘ethnic Germans’ (Volksdeutsche), Czechs, and Poles to undergo, inextricably bound up with the Third Reich’s wider race, resettlement, and extermination policies. The ultimate aim of all of these schools was to mingle Reich German and ‘ethnic German’ or ‘Germanic’ pupils, educating the two groups alongside each other, in order to create a unified cohort of leaders for the future Nazi empire, and to reclaim valuable ‘Germanic blood’ for the Reich.
Food for All: Setting the Scene
Authors: Lele Uma , Goswami Sambuddha 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Setting the scene, this chapter identifies key recent international agreements germane to the book’s subject matter—namely, Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Climate Accord—against which the role of structural transformation and the five key international organizations concerned with food and agriculture are reviewed. Transformation of food and agriculture is occurring in the face of growing trade uncertainties, demographic transition, rapid urbanization, dietary transition, and growing horizontal (cross-sectoral) and vertical (from farm-to-fork) integration. Meanwhile, conflict has caused the largest displacement of humans since the Second World War. Forced migration arising from humanitarian disasters is making unprecedented demands on food and financial assistance. Economists traditionally have viewed structural transformation from agriculture to manufacturing as pivotal for developing countries, but it has become increasingly difficult for lagging countries. Other transformations are also reshaping the global economy, including financial transformation (a shift from traditional North–South global savings and investment pattern to South–North), and energy transformation (shift from fossil fuels to renewables). Concurrently, the food and agricultural sectors are confronting new paradigms—such as environmentally sustainable food production and shifting focus in agriculture from individual energy (calorie) supply to nutritious, healthful foods, leading to a life-cycle approach to diets—which are influencing how the international development community views structural transformation and the role of agriculture. This chapter sets the stage for inquiries into food, transformations, international organizations and their interactions, and implications for a better outcome: nutritious food for all that is environmentally sustainable.
Governance of the “Big Five”
Authors: Lele Uma , Baldwin Brian C. , Goswami Sambuddha 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, key issues facing governance of international organizations are discussed, as operating arms of global governance in the larger context of global governance of food and agriculture—specifically, in the context of the United Nations’ financing. Governance of each of the five international organizations is outlined: how the organizations were originally structured and financed; how financing relates to the organizational structure and governance; and how the formal and informal voices of members are exercised are discussed, with respect to the choice of leadership and the substantive content of what the organizations do and how. Issues of coordination among the Rome-based agencies, the World Bank, and CGIAR are discussed, given that the world is undergoverned in relation to the challenges of meeting the Sustainable Development Goals, confronting climate change, conflict, natural resource degradation, income inequality, persistent poverty, and growing hunger. With greater long-term, core-funding support, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) would be able to translate its guidelines into operations to combat climate change and promote conservation agriculture and its Codex Alimentarius into food safety. With collaboration with the World Food Programme, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the World Bank, FAO can help move fragile countries into rehabilitation, reconstruction, and development. CGIAR can use long-term funding, while the World Bank and IFAD can support the building of delivery systems.
The World Bank
Authors: Lele Uma , Goswami Sambuddha 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The World Bank, the oldest and strongest of the multilateral banks, is owned by governments but rooted in the political reality of their unequal voting power. This chapter, a story of the Bank’s assistance to food and agriculture, explains how it adopted an innovation of accessing capital markets using project lending as an instrument to assure accountability of performance to the lenders of capital. In 1960, the Bank established the International Development Association as the concessional window to enable it to lend to poorer countries’ softer sectors, such as agriculture, education, and health. The Bank also developed other tools for allocating capital to countries, establishing norms and standards for other international organizations. This review of the World Bank’s assistance to food and agriculture since the Bank’s inception is a window on how that role and the view of agriculture’s contributions to development have evolved in the context of rapid external changes, such as commodity prices and the debt crisis. The chapter examines how policy analysis and advice are complemented by project assistance. Still the largest lender, its role is smaller now, and questions remain about how the Bank will leverage its considerable heft to address new paradigms of sustainable agriculture and healthy food consumption in the world’s lagging regions, most notably in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
Thermodynamics and Transport Properties
Authors: Engh Thorvald Abel , Sigworth Geoffrey K. , Kvithyld Anne 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The fundamentals of thermodynamics are reviewed, focusing on the chemistry of high-temperature metals, oxides (slags), and salts. Thermochemical data are provided for important molten metals: the free energies of solution of alloy elements, and interaction coefficients. Standard free energies of reactions are also provided, so the reader may calculate important chemical equilibria. Example calculations are provided for the deoxidation of steel. The removal of sulfur and phosphorus are also described. The second half of the chapter considers fundamental aspects of important physical properties: viscosity, surface tension, diffusion, and thermal and electrical conductivity.
Remelting and Addition of Alloy Components
Authors: Engh Thorvald Abel , Sigworth Geoffrey K. , Kvithyld Anne 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses our scientific understanding of alloying. Class I alloy additions have a melting point lower than the bulk melt temperature, whereas class II additions have a melting point higher than the bulk melt temperature. This means that magnesium is a class I element when added to aluminium, and silicon and manganese are class II alloy additions. An energy conservation model for melting is presented and compared to measurements. A numerical model is presented for continuous feeding and melting of aluminium plates into aluminium melt. For class II alloy additions it is shown from the literature that the melting rate can be strongly affected by the formation of intermetallic phases during the melting process. Therefore, it is virtually impossible to put up a general model for the melting of these types of alloying elements. Safety regarding alloying operations is also addressed.
Metal Processes and Applications—An Overview
Authors: Meskers Christina 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides a consise overview of each metal’s physical properties, production, and recycling processes and application. Starting with lithium and ending with bismuth, the metals in the periodic table are covered from Al to Zn. In this way the relationship between each metal’s properties, applications, and processing becomes evident. To obtain the desired properties, and thus composition, for a particular application the refining processes are essential. While the fundamental principles are discussed in other chapters, here the focus is on how the technologies are applied to different metals. The chapter also allows for a systemic perspective that elucidates the interconnectedness between the metals and their production infrastructure. It provides insights that can be applied in primary production, recycling, residue treatment, technology development, alloy and product design, and substitution among others. This is essential to understand and implement the circular economy.
Refining of Steel in Converters
Authors: Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
In this chapter steelmaking processes and reactions are covered. A brief historical summary of important process developments is given and different types of converters are described. Then important chemical factors are detailed for the removal of the undesirable elements sulfur and phosphorus, and for the decarburization reactions. The refining of stainless steels in the argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) process is explained in detail, and a model for the AOD process is presented. Example simulations with the model illustrate how process changes may be introduced to improve productivity and reduce production costs.
Empty Reference
Authors: Mumford Stephen 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
We seem able to talk about things that do not exist, such as centaurs, Oliver Twist, and the highest prime. But the axiom of existence tells us that we can refer to something only if it exists, since reference is a relation. What, then, is it to which we refer in the case of non-existents? Various proxy referents are dismissed since they will either trivialize statements about non-existents or give implausible theories of meaning. Instead, we should think of our statements as being about non-existents instead of referring to them where this involves only a pretended referring. We can distinguish pretended reference from unintentional reference failure by the factive component required for genuine reference. Aboutness can be a substitute for reference and, if based on a public theory of meaning, it allows us to talk about what does not exist.
Genetic data collection, pedigrees, and phylogenies
Authors: Simmonds Emily G. , Niskanen Alina K. , Jensen Henrik , Smith Steven 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents the role of genetic data in demographic studies. It focuses on two particular challenges faced in demographic analyses that can be solved using genetic data: estimating relatedness between individuals in a population and identifying drivers of cross-taxon variation in life history. The challenge of estimating relatedness is addressed with genetic pedigrees, and phylogenies allow comparisons of drivers of life history across taxa. These two different methods have several unifying features and histories. A past reliance on observational data in both cases limited taxonomic breadth of demographic analyses and reduced accuracy. With recent advances in genetic data collection and processing, in addition to improved computational methods, we are now in a position to use genetic data to expand demographic analyses across the Tree of Life. This chapter gives an overview of the whole process of constructing genetic pedigrees and reconstructing genetic phylogenies: beginning with the state-of-the-art, walking through the data collection steps required to obtain and process genetic material, and finishing with discussion and comparison of the diverse array of methods to construct genetic pedigrees and phylogenetic trees.
Introduction to matrix population models
Authors: Vindenes Yngvild , Le Coeur Christie , Caswell Hal 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Matrix population models (MPMs) are currently used in a range of fields, from basic research in ecology and evolutionary biology, to applied questions in conservation biology, management, and epidemiology. In MPMs individuals are classified into discrete stages, and the model projects the population over discrete time-steps. A rich analytical theory is available for these models, for both the linear deterministic case and for more complex dynamics including stochasticity and density dependence. This chapter provides a non comprehensive introduction to MPMs and some basic results on asymptotic dynamics, life history parameters, and sensitivities and elasticities of the long-term growth rate to projection matrix elements and to underlying parameters. We assume that readers are familiar with basic matrix calculations. Using examples with different kinds of demographic structure, we demonstrate how the general stage-structured model can be applied to each case.
Integral projection models
Authors: González Edgar J. , Childs Dylan Z. , Quintana-Ascencio Pedro F. , Salguero-Gómez Roberto 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Integral projection models (IPMs) allow projecting the behaviour of a population over time using information on the vital processes of individuals, their state, and that of the environment they inhabit. As with matrix population models (MPMs), time is treated as a discrete variable, but in IPMs, state and environmental variables are continuous and are related to the vital rates via generalised linear models. Vital rates in turn integrate into the population dynamics in a mechanistic way. This chapter provides a brief description of the logic behind IPMs and their construction, and, because they share many of the analyses developed for MPMs, it only emphasises how perturbation analyses can be performed with respect to different model elements. The chapter exemplifies the construction of a simple and a more complex IPM structure with an animal and a plant case study, respectively. Finally, inverse modelling in IPMs is presented, a method that allows population projection when some vital rates are not observed.
Evolutionary Demography
Authors: Tuljapurkar Shripad , Zuo Wenyun 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Evolutionary demography has grown rapidly in recent years, as the biological topics of life history evolution and evolution in population with complex life cycles have benefitted from and contributed to a broader focus on evolutionary biodemography. This chapter provides a critical summary of the central ideas and methods. The authors emphasise theoretical methods, starting with the main ideas that have attracted attention in the field, the assumptions behind these, and efforts to relax those assumptions, and provide a short account of some new directions. The chapter begins with the classic work of Peter Medawar and William Hamilton and discusses the connections, applications, assumptions, and limitations related to their ideas and results, e.g. sensitivity and corresponding elasticity of growth rate on fertility and survival. It highlights extensions to variable environments and the large body of theory around that topic. Next the chapter discusses how these theoretical methods are related to analyses and theories of post-reproductive life, via the general concept of ‘borrowing fitness’. Finally, the chapter discusses nonlinear models of mutation and selection and density-dependent models.
Heritability, polymorphism, and population dynamics: individual-based eco-evolutionary simulations
Authors: Kuparinen Anna 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Contemporary evolution that occurs across ecologically relevant time scales, such as a few generations or decades, can not only change phenotypes but also feed back to demographic parameters and the dynamics of populations. This chapter presents a method to make phenotypic traits evolve in mechanistic individual-based simulations. The method is broadly applicable, as demonstrated through its applications to boreal forest adaptation to global warming, eco-evolutionary dynamics driven by fishing-induced selection in Atlantic cod, and the evolution of age at maturity in Atlantic salmon. The main message of this chapter is that there may be little reason to exclude phenotypic evolution in analyses of population dynamics, as these can be modified by evolutionary changes in life histories. Future challenges will be to integrate rapidly accumulating genomic knowledge and an ecosystem perspective to improve population projections and to better understand the drivers of population dynamics.
Mobile data collection apps
Authors: McLester Edward , Piel Alex K. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The expansion of the mobile consumer market in the last decade has resulted in the widespread availability of affordable, multifunctional tablets, and smartphones with a range of uses. Whether for scientific research or conservation practice, these devices provide a means of digital data collection that is an increasingly time- and cost-effective alternative to traditional methods. This chapter discusses recent advances in mobile data collection, especially with cloud storage, including the advantages and limitations of this emerging approach. It will also review current hardware and software options for conservation data collection, focusing on devices and apps with high customisability, and provide an overview of how these systems may be applied in conservation science. As a case study, it will examine the transition from paper to digital data collection at a primate conservation project at the Issa Valley, Tanzania. And finally, it will identify gaps and precautions in current applications of mobile data collection and suggest what lies ahead for digital data collection in conservation.
“No Pain and No Consciousness”
Authors: Davis Cynthia J. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines pain’s importance to the sensitized, embodied consciousness valued by William, Henry, and Alice James. All three siblings disdained what Henry once called “the odd numbness of the general sensibility.” Yet William insisted that an individual’s higher capacities along with a more profound reality could best be accessed while physicality was numbed and waking consciousness was suppressed. For him anesthesia provided a gateway to the higher reaches of consciousness that his two siblings typically anchored in the feeling, suffering body. Henry and Alice repeatedly represent pain as comparable to an intense aesthetic experience in that it arouses the senses, increases responsiveness to stimuli, and heightens consciousness while still tethering the sufferer to the material world. They both count themselves among the rare few who possess this capacity for an aesthetic aliveness to suffering, which distinguishes them from purportedly less animate humans who in their assessment suffer less and hence invariably live less. Both siblings simultaneously stage the reconciliation of physical discomfort with material comfort at a time when their peers tended to view the two conditions as fundamentally antagonistic.
“The Blind Dread of Physical Pain”
Authors: Davis Cynthia J. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter puts Edith Wharton’s insistence on pain’s refining power and her disdain for her pain-averse contemporaries in dialogue with the eclectic New Thought movement, which persuaded many Americans that a positive mental outlook could minimize or even vanquish pain. Wharton openly disdained the national faith in self-improvement, attainable happiness, and avoidable pain espoused in the optimistic bestseller, Pollyanna, and by New Thinkers like Ella Wheeler Wilcox. Although she carefully distinguishes between “sterile” and potentially fruitful pain, Wharton depicts an instinctive aversion to pain of all kinds as an all-too-common American flaw, whose only upside was allowing the select few capable of an unusually sensitive appreciation of pain to stand out from the crowd. Rather than positioning these rare sensitive souls as potential models, her writings increasingly rely on them to bring the extent of US cultural and political debasement into sharper relief.