bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Entrepreneurship and SMMEs in South Africa
Authors: Urban Boris 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Abstract: The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the multifaceted nature of entrepreneurship and SMMEs in South Africa by presenting a broad range of key economic questions, challenges, and policy issues. Acknowledging the complexity of describing entrepreneurship and SMMEs, due to definitional controversies and the variety of contexts in which these phenomena occur, different typologies are juxtaposed to highlight the heterogeneity in entrepreneurial activity. Despite a lack of consistent and accurate data, the findings show that while entrepreneurship is publicly campaigned as an imperative for national economic development and employment creation, in reality South Africa’s low established-business entrepreneurial activity rate does not result in any significant economic growth. By interrogating a broad range of individual and contextual factors in the South African entrepreneurial ecosystem, it is evident that a number of structural, institutional, market, and policy issues obstruct productive entrepreneurial growth and development.
Industrial Policy in South Africa
Authors: Black Anthony 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Abstract: Manufacturing in South Africa has been the subject of strong industrial policy support. Since 1994, the sector has undergone major structural shifts but the sector has performed poorly. Trade liberalization, which started to take effect before 1994, led to rapid import penetration across a wide range of sectors. For the most part the export response was disappointing. From 2007, there has been a shift to more intensive sectoral industrial policy. But this coincided with a number of very negative developments including the global financial crisis as well as serious infrastructure constraints. The specifics of industrial policy are examined in heavy industry, the automotive sector, and light manufacturing as well as in the outcomes of regional industrial development policies. The chapter concludes that South Africa needs to be on a more labour-absorbing growth path which requires appropriate industrial as well as other policies.
The South African Informal Economy
Authors: Rogan Michael , Skinner Caroline 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The literature and key policy debates on the South African informal economy are reviewed through the lens of Chen’s taxonomy of informal economy debates into legalist, dualist, voluntarist, and structuralist schools of thought. Previous insights are supplemented with an empirical analysis of the South African informal economy, using Statistics South Africa’s Quarterly Labour Force Surveys. Together these analyses suggest that the post-apartheid informal economy is characterized by a large degree of heterogeneity by status in employment and sectoral distribution and is highly gendered in its segmentation. Further, earnings are low for all but a few groups of informal workers. Much of the existing evidence also suggests that, somewhat in contrast to conventional economic theory, the South African informal economy does not absorb newcomers easily, and particularly not in times of crisis. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the primary thrust of post-apartheid policy and by examining South Africa’s response to the global call to promote the formalization of the informal economy.
The Economics of Households in South Africa
Authors: Posel Dorrit , Hall Katharine 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Abstract: This chapter first provides a brief historical review of household formation and its disruption during the apartheid decades. It then uses national micro-data (1995–2018) to describe broad changes in household formation since the democratic transition. Among these trends, the chapter highlights a sizeable increase in household formation and a decrease in average household size, associated partly with a rise in single-person households and a fall in fertility rates. Gendered living arrangements have also changed considerably as the share of households with a co-resident couple has fallen. Specifically, the growth of households where all resident adults are either female or male has far exceeded overall household formation, and the share of children living only with their mother has risen apace. However, households also continue to be stretched to include members who live elsewhere for much of the year. The chapter then sketches the variation in economic resources across different household types, highlighting changes in recent decades.
Public Finance and Fiscal Policy in South Africa
Authors: Ajam Tania 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the trajectory of post-apartheid fiscal policy, focusing on the growth, equity, and sustainability trends between 2009 and 2019. Buoyed by the commodity boom, the African National Congress governing party strengthened fiscal institutions, improving the credibility and solvency of fiscal policy in the first fourteen years after the democratic transition. The decade after the global financial crisis in 2008 saw declining potential growth rates, deteriorating terms of trade, the institutionalization of state capture during the Zuma administration until 2018, policy uncertainty, widespread electricity outages, and a burgeoning public-sector wage bill. Rising deficits, debt, and state-owned-enterprise contingent liabilities triggered austerity without genuine fiscal consolidation. The coronavirus pandemic amplified these unsustainable trends arising from deferred structural fiscal adjustment.
Public Debt in South Africa
Authors: Bittencourt Manoel 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
After four decades of racial segregation, South Africa transitioned to a non-racial democracy in 1994. Inevitably for a country with segregationist labour market policies for so long, South Africa is also one of the most unequal countries in the world. In order to take an overview of government debt in South Africa, this chapter looks at macroeconomic performance but also at how the political regime characteristics and inequality have interplayed with government debt during the 1970–2016 period. The data suggest that economic growth correlates negatively with debt and that democracy correlates positively with debt. In addition, the data do not suggest that democratic maturity is already associated with lower debt nor that the outgoing apartheid-era National Party bequeathed the young democracy with high debt. Encouragingly, the data do suggest that inequality and public expenditure on education correlate positively with debt, which suggests that the democratic government has the median voter in mind when creating debt and also that part of the debt is being invested in human capital formation.
Banking and Finance in South Africa
Authors: Hawkins Penelope 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Abstract: The importance of the financial sector is widely recognized by the public––who use and benefit from the products and services of the different financial industries––bank loans, insurance products, investments, and the payments system (to name a few). This chapter describes the different financial intermediaries, financial auxiliaries, and financial market infrastructure that comprise the sophisticated South African financial sector. Emphasis is placed on the banks whose liabilities (deposits) are uniquely the means of payment (money) and whose assets are loans to businesses, households, and the government. The role of banks is straightforward, but their basic fragility and risks they face in an uncertain world are complex. Failure of a major financial intermediary within the context of a deeply integrated system will have significant costs for the rest of the economy. For this reason, regulation tends to err on the side of caution, where stability is prioritized. This leads to a system where conservativism rules and profitability for the systemically important institutions is virtually assured. The chapter argues for greater awareness of the regulatory compromises given that the success of the sector is not costless to society.
Quintilian in the Graeco-Roman Rhetorical Tradition
Authors: Enos Richard Leo 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria (c.95 ce) provides a comprehensive statement on education based on the author’s belief that the study of rhetoric was essential both for the growth of the individual and also for serving the welfare of the state through effective leadership that united wisdom with eloquence. Quintilian’s Institutio is often identified exclusively as a work of Roman rhetoric. Viewing the Institutio as uniquely Roman is understandable. In the Institutio, Quintilian often used Cicero—the pre-eminent orator and rhetorician of the Roman Republic—as a model whose career illustrated the best features of Roman rhetoric and citizenship. However, viewing Quintilian’s Institutio as exclusively Roman distorts the influence that Greek rhetoric had on Quintilian’s work. Quintilian, and even his Roman model Cicero, were both influenced by Greek rhetoric, especially the contributions of Isocrates. Quintilian’s Institutio is better understood, and appreciated, as a ratio or system that was built upon a foundation of Hellenic rhetoric and a shining example of the Graeco-Roman rhetorical tradition. This chapter reveals a spectrum of Greek contributions in Quintilian’s Institutio ranging from isolated technical concepts to an overarching philosophy of civic rhetoric predicated on the officia or ‘duties’ of good, virtuous citizens eloquently applying rhetoric for social betterment. Quintilian’s use and command of Greek rhetoric is well demonstrated and his indebtedness to Greek sources for crafting his own ‘Roman’ rhetoric is evident throughout his Institutio.
Quintilian on Memory and Delivery
Authors: Levene D.S. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses Quintilian’s account of delivery and memory, especially (though not solely) with regard to his extended treatment of them in Book 11. With delivery, it surveys such issues as his discussion of the appropriate gesture and voice to be adopted by the orator, and the pragmatics of delivering a speech before a Roman audience. It discusses Quintilian’s heavily gendered and class-based account of appropriate delivery, where the orator has to adopt manners appropriate for a high-status male and eschew the contrary; it also considers the uneasy relationship between high-status oratory and low-status acting. It focuses above all on the highly textualized account of performance in Quintilian, where delivery is closely linked to an assumed written text, and argues that this is the consequence of Quintilian’s classicism, where oratory is associated with an established literary canon on a par with other literary genres. With memory, it briefly discusses his mnemotechnics, but argues that Quintilian is pulled between two incompatible desires: the classicism which leads him to want to associate memorization with fidelity to a written text, but also the pragmatism which requires a large measure of spontaneity and improvisation, which may be hindered if the orator has prepared a memorized text in advance.
On Cyber-Enabled Information Warfare and Information Operations
Authors: Lin Herbert , Kerr Jaclyn 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The United States has no peer competitors in conventional military power. But its adversaries are increasingly turning to asymmetric methods for engaging in conflict. This paper advances the idea of cyber-enabled information warfare and influence operations (IWIO) as a form of conflict or confrontation to which the United States (and liberal democracies more generally) are particularly vulnerable. IWIO is the deliberate use of information against an adversary to confuse, mislead, and perhaps to influence the choices and decisions that the adversary makes. IWIO is a hostile activity, or at least an activity that is conducted between two parties whose interests are not well aligned, but it does not constitute warfare in the sense that international law or domestic institutions construe it. IWIO takes advantage of systematic biases in human cognition towards non-rational thought. Cyber-enabled IWIO exploits these biases even more through the use of modern communications technologies to facilitate high connectivity, low latency, high degrees of anonymity, insensitivity to distance and national borders, democratized access to publishing capabilities, and inexpensive production and consumption of information content. Some approaches to counter IWIO show some promise of having some modest but valuable defensive effect. But, on the whole, there are no good solutions for large-scale countering of IWIO in free and democratic societies. Development of new tactics and responses is therefore needed.
Data Privacy and Security Law
Authors: Cate Fred , Dockery Rachel 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses cybersecurity laws. Many measures employed to enhance cybersecurity pose a risk to privacy. In addition, data protection laws focus only on personally identifiable information, while cybersecurity is also concerned with securing economic data such as trade secrets and company databases, government information, and the systems that transmit and process information. As a practical matter, despite the prominence of security obligations in data protection legislation, these were often downplayed or ignored entirely until recent years. Only as cybersecurity threats became more pressing did regulators begin actively enforcing the security obligations found in most data protection laws. More recently, legislative bodies and regulators have begun adopting cybersecurity-specific obligations. However, even these have often mirrored or been combined with privacy protections, sometimes to the detriment of effective cybersecurity. The chapter describes major categories of cybersecurity law, including unfair or deceptive practices legislation, breach notification laws, and data destruction laws. It also considers the new focus on critical infrastructure and information sharing, the China Cybersecurity Law, and the new challenges to data privacy and security law.
Cybersecurity Capacity Building
Authors: Pace Lara , Cornish Paul 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Some claim that cybersecurity capacity building has developed into a discrete specialism. But, if it has become a niche activity, it is one that nevertheless comes into contact with a wide array of policy areas, ranging from national and international security to human rights and civil liberties, technological and industrial innovation, and socio-economic development. On this basis, if capacity building in cybersecurity ever was a distinct and autonomous activity, then its chances of remaining so are slim as it becomes part and parcel of the general political discourse. As awareness of cybersecurity sharpens, and as economic and social dependency on the Internet becomes ever more pronounced, so the security and prosperity of cyberspace will be at the heart of any evolving or new public policy debate around the world. This chapter argues that cybersecurity capacity building has become much less a specialized, niche activity and much more a norm.
A Political History of Cyberspace
Authors: Carr Madeline 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The political history of cyberspace can reveal much about contemporary and future cyber security challenges. This chapter includes some technological history but, more importantly, it also addresses the political forces and trends that fundamentally shaped the development of cyberspace. In doing so, it provides insight into why cyber security is much more than a technical challenge, and why politics can be simultaneously an obstruction to better global cyber security and also the best hope for it. Observing how political perceptions of cyber security threats have both changed and remained constant over time helps put current approaches into perspective, avoiding the two reductionist arguments that either ‘everything is different now’ or ‘it is the same as it ever was’. Addressing future challenges like the Internet of Things and future remedies like emergent cyber norms require a sound understanding of the past. Essentially, this chapter calls for much more careful and comprehensive engagement with the interrelationship between technological developments and political forces.
Cybersecurity, Global Commerce, and International Organizations
Authors: Fidler David 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
As private-sector enterprises became dependent on Internet-enabled technologies, cybersecurity threats developed into serious problems in international political economy. This chapter analyses how states use international organizations to address these threats. The chapter explains why international organizations were not prominent in the Internet’s emergence and impact on transnational trade and investment. It examines the main threats companies face, including cybercrime, economic cyber espionage, government surveillance and hacking, innovation in digital technologies, and poor corporate cyber defences. International organizations have been most involved in fighting cybercrime, but these efforts have not been successful. International organizations do not play significant roles in countering other cybersecurity threats in global commerce. The chapter argues that international organizations are unlikely to become more important in the future because geopolitics and shifts in domestic politics in democracies will make collective action on cybersecurity in global commerce more difficult.
Getting Beyond Norms
Authors: Hathaway Melissa 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In recent years, countries have become increasingly concerned about the immediate and future threats to their critical services and infrastructures that could result from the misuse of information and communications technologies (ICTs). As such, countries have placed the development of normative standards guiding state behaviour in cyberspace at the top of their foreign policy agendas. Yet, despite broad international consensus regarding the basic principles to limit the misuse of ICTs in the digital age and to constrain state behaviour, the key tenets have been consistently violated. All evidence suggests that states are not following their own doctrines of restraint, and that each disruptive and destructive attack further destabilizes our future. States have turned a blind eye and have shirked their responsibility for curbing or halting cyberattacks originating from their own territories. Disruption or damage (or both) of critical infrastructures that provide services to the public has become customary practice—the ‘new normal’. And this intentional misuse of ICTs against critical infrastructures and services has great potential to lead to misperception, escalation, and even conflict. This chapter offers five standards of care that can be used to ‘test’ individual states’ true commitment to the international norms of behaviour. Only with a concerted and coordinated effort across the global community will it be possible to change the new normal of ‘anything goes’ and move forward to ensure the future safety and security of the Internet and Internet-based infrastructures.
Community of Common Future in Cyberspace
Authors: Lan Tang 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter begins with an account of the current state of China’s digitization and cybersecurity. Benefitting from the rapid development of information and communication technology (ICT), China achieved a rapid evolution from a semi-industrial country to a digitized nation. Besides these immense advantages, ICT has acted as a powerful catalyst, bringing huge benefits to every aspect of Chinese society. Yet cyberspace has also created a new dimension of insecurity and disarray due to the increasing dependence on a brand-new interconnected ecosystem. The chapter then examines the meaning of, and the necessity for, a ‘community of common destiny’ in cyberspace, before continuing to illuminate what China can do at the domestic and international levels to pursue this aim. It also analyses the implications of China’s approach for the stability and security of international cyberspace.
Look West or Look East? India at the Crossroads of Cyberspace
Authors: Sukumar Arun Mohan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores how India has managed its external environment with a view to securing its own digital ecosystems. It highlights India’s engagement with the United States and China, the biggest players in its digital ecosystem. Both relationships reflect certain geopolitical realities, but also offer contrasting narratives. India and the United States have sought in recent years to align their views on the governance of common digital spaces, whereas New Delhi's outreach to China has been more instrumental, and largely confined to interactions with specific Chinese companies that invest in the country. Mindful, however, of Beijing's potential to expand its influence in Asian economies by supplying their digital infrastructure and applications, India has acknowledged the need to engage China at a strategic level on ‘cyber’ issues. Its high-level interactions with the United States and China could lead India to a crossroads from where it has to choose one model of standards, rules, and norms for cybersecurity and Internet governance over the other.
The Russian Federation’s Approach to Cybersecurity
Authors: Shingarev Anton , Kazakova Anastasiya 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the approach of the Russian Federation in the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the context of international security and peace. After analysing the conceptual framework and definitions, as well as key distinguishing features in Russia’s approach, it gives an overview of Russia’s regulatory landscape and main legislative acts concerning cybersecurity and international security broadly. It also provides an analysis of Russian foreign policy on cybersecurity.
Cybersecurity in Israel
Authors: Tabansky Lior 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The long-standing pillars in the grand strategy of Israel—namely, the qualitative edge principle and self-reliance in defence—enabled considerable cybersecurity achievements. Israel, the sole developed nation facing existential threats, has carried out audacious cyberspace operations yet never suffered material damage from cyberattacks. ‘Made in Israel’ inventions have long been embedded in building blocks of the global digital technologies, and drive much of the economic boom. As high-technology innovation flourishes, strategic choices taken over many decades created the foundations of Israel’s vibrant innovation ecosystem. Power, the currency of international relations, undergoes technology-driven change. Innovation capacity grows in importance in periods of profound change. Cyber power must be smart, integrating hard and soft power. The official Israel now shares sensitive cybersecurity expertise with foreign stakeholders, aiming to advance a range of foreign policy goals from counterterrorism to sustainable development. The milestones in Israel’s national cybersecurity evolution include the 2002 state-guided Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP); the 2011 official national cybersecurity strategy with ambitious goals and comprehensive scope; and the most recent developments in the Israel National Cyber Directorate (INCD) and the Israel Defence Forces (IDF). However, Israel’s cybersecurity journey is far from complete. Harnessing digital transformation, in particular narrow artificial intelligence and intelligent systems, requires further profound innovation in national security. This chapter outlines four guiding principles and forces shaping Israel’s cybersecurity, and sketches three long-term policy challenges for Israel. As long as a coherent strategy guides innovation, Israel as well as other small nations can gain and utilize ample cyber power.