bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transnationalization of Security
Authors: Altwicker Tilmann 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains how ‘security’ is in a process of ‘transnationalization’, namely it is becoming a cross-border issue. Thus, in the twenty-first century, the primary examples of sources of ‘insecurity’—such as transnational terrorism, transnational crime, mass migration, cross-border environmental hazards, and problems of energy security—are no longer perceived as ‘domestic affairs’. The ensuing processes of transnationalization are naturally also processes of transnationalization of and by international law. The chapter then analyses three major framings used for the transnationalization of security, namely, ‘war’, ‘crime’, and ‘risk’ and their conceptualization in international law. It discusses the two major challenges faced in the transnationalization of security by international law: the problem of jurisdictional dysfunctionalities under international law and the problem of applying international human rights law to transnational security cases. Finally, the chapter evaluates the contribution of international law to the process of the transnationalization of security.
Armed Conflicts, International Law, and Global Security
Authors: Kellenberger Jakob 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the relationship between armed conflicts, international law, and global security. While today protracted non-international armed conflicts are the prevalent type of armed conflict, international armed conflicts seem likely to again become a major threat to global security in the future. This hypothesis is based, amongst other factors, on recent military confrontations involving a number of States in Syria, the Russian involvement in Crimea, US tensions with Iran and North Korea, and broader regional tensions in the South China Sea. The chapter provides an overview of the interrelation between armed conflicts and other threats to global security before looking at armed conflicts currently raging in various geographical regions of the world. It then considers the adequacy and effectiveness of the existing international regulatory framework governing armed conflicts in light of the broader challenges facing the contemporary world order.
Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament under International Law
Authors: Asada Masahiko 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of attempts and achievements in regulating the use of nuclear energy and material, focusing on nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament. Ever since its invention, the nuclear weapon has occupied a special place in the global security order, both militarily and politically, due to its extraordinary destructive power. This picture is further complicated by the fact that nuclear material has both military and civilian uses. Civilian use of nuclear material includes generating electricity through nuclear reactors. Nuclear material also has medical, agricultural, and other peaceful applications, such as its use in the treatment of cancer. The chapter assesses in detail such treaties as the Partial Test Ban Treaty, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. It also looks at the current challenges involving the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and Iran.
National Security, Surveillance, and Human Rights
Authors: Christakis Théodore , Bouslimani Katia 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter reflects on the relationship between national security, surveillance, and human rights. The possibility to adopt restrictive measures in case of threats to national security is an essential component of the international legal system and one of those ‘adjustment variables’ that allow international human rights law to accommodate and ascertain its social functions. The abuse of these mechanisms, however, is also a major threat to the legal order, judicial security, and the rule of law. Domestic rulers and security agencies have often used ‘national security’ as a pretext to violate human rights and fundamental freedoms; to monitor political opponents; to conceal embarrassing or illegal behaviour; to bypass investigation by independent and democratic bodies; or to suppress political and social unrest. In a democracy, surveillance must be balanced with public liberties, and especially with privacy. The chapter looks at the case law of the European Court of Human Rights on national surveillance. It presents the three main criteria used by the Court to assess the compatibility of surveillance laws with the European Convention of Human Rights.
Peace Diplomacy and Conflict Prevention
Authors: Trapp Kimberley N. , Urs Priya 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
United Nations (UN) Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s ‘Agenda for Peace’ was the first comprehensive UN engagement with conflict prevention and peace following the end of the Cold War. The Secretary-General divided his agenda into preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, and peacekeeping. But given the interconnectedness of global challenges, and the changing face of threats to international peace and security and armed conflict, a comprehensive approach calls for a blurring of the lines between these temporally defined elements of the architecture of peace. In particular disputes, the toolkit deployed in respect of one aspect of maintaining or securing peace may well be relevant or even critical in respect of another. Flexibility and responsiveness to the particular context is essential. While it remains true that international efforts towards peace and security operate on the sequential conflict cycle paradigm suggested by the Secretary-General, stakeholders increasingly seek to ‘bridge the divides that beset this discussion, between security and development, between crisis response and capacity building’ in order to ‘encompass our new conception of violence in a variety of environments’.
The Law of Reinsurance
Authors: Edelman Colin , Burns Andrew 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This guide to reinsurance law is an easy-to-read specialist reference focusing solely on reinsurance. Every aspect of the core and subsidiary principles of reinsurance law are covered beginning with an investigation of the definition, purpose, and types of reinsurance. Guidance is given on contractual principles and terms in the reinsurance context, obligations, rights and liabilities of the reinsurer, and the choice of law. With usability and practicality in mind, a number of aspects have been further developed in this edition. There is an increased depth of analysis in addressing ‘Follow the Settlements’, incorporation, non-disclosure, misrepresentation, and the role of good faith in reinsurance contracts. The new edition also addresses the consequences of the Insurance Act 2015 and recent cases on reinsurance arbitration—particularly the appointment of arbitrators and their duties. This book is both practical and authoritative, and is successful in isolating the key issues in reinsurance law to provide an easy and reliable reference source. It is a must-have work for all reinsurance practitioners.
Denying Liability
Authors: Edelman Colin , Burns Andrew 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the duty of fair presentation and the duty of utmost good faith. Before any reinsurance contract is concluded, the reinsured has to make a fair presentation of the risk to the reinsurer. A reinsured must disclose every material circumstance which the reinsured knows or ought to know or, at least, circumstances which would put a prudent reinsurer on notice that it needs to make further enquiries. That disclosure must be in a manner which would be reasonably clear and accessible to a prudent underwriter. A failure to give a fair presentation, if established, may entitle the reinsurer to avoid the contract without returning the premium where the reinsured has been deliberate or reckless or with a return of premium if the insurer would not have entered into the contract on any terms had the information provided been accurate and complete or where the parties have contracted out of the regime imposed by the Insurance Act 2015. The genesis of the duty of utmost good faith was a protection for insurers and reinsurers because the proposer knew everything about the risk and the underwriter knew nothing.
The impact of slow stomatal kinetics on photosynthesis and water use efficiency under fluctuating light
Authors: Eyland David , van Wesemael Jelle , Lawson Tracy , Carpentier Sebastien 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Dynamic light conditions require continuous adjustments of stomatal aperture. The kinetics of stomatal conductance (gs) is hypothesized to be key to plant productivity and water use efficiency (WUE). Using step-changes in light intensity, we studied the diversity of light-induced gs kinetics in relation to stomatal anatomy in five banana genotypes (Musa spp.) and modeled the impact of both diffusional and biochemical limitations on photosynthesis (A). The dominant A limiting factor was the diffusional limitation associated with gs kinetics. All genotypes exhibited a strong limitation of A by gs, indicating a priority for water saving. Moreover, significant genotypic differences in gs kinetics and gs limitations of A were observed. For two contrasting genotypes, the impact of differential gs kinetics was further investigated under realistic diurnally fluctuating light conditions and at the whole-plant level. Genotype-specific stomatal kinetics observed at the leaf level was corroborated at whole-plant level by transpiration dynamics, validating that genotype-specific responses are still maintained despite differences in gs control at different locations in the leaf and across leaves. However, under diurnally fluctuating light conditions the impact of gs speediness on A and intrinsic (iWUE) depended on time of day. During the afternoon there was a setback in kinetics: absolute gs and gs responses to light were damped, strongly limiting A and impacting diurnal iWUE. We conclude the impact of differential gs kinetics depended on target light intensity, magnitude of change, gs prior to the change in light intensity, and particularly time of day.
Using Weather, Lunar Cycles, and Time of Year to Predict Trauma Incidents in an Urban, Level I Pediatric Trauma Center
Authors: Budziszewski Ross , Nanassy Autumn , Lindholm Erika , Grewal Harsh , Prasad Rajeev 
Published: March 2021

Background:
Trauma patterns in adults are influenced by weather conditions, lunar phases, and time of year. The extent to which these factors contribute to pediatric trauma is unclear.

Objective:
The present study aimed to review patients from a single Level I pediatric trauma center to determine the influence of weather, the lunar cycle, and time of year on trauma activity.

Methods:
A retrospective review of trauma activations (n = 1,932) was conducted from 2015 to 2017. Injury type and general demographics were collected. Weather data and lunar cycles were derived from historical databases.

Results:
Days with no precipitation increased the total number of injuries of all types compared with those with precipitation (p < .001). Blunt and penetrating injuries were more likely to occur during full moons, whereas burn injuries were significantly higher during new moons (p < .001). Blunt trauma was significantly higher in September than all other months, F(11, 1,921) = 4.25, p < .001, whereas January had a significantly higher number of burns than all other months (p < .001).

Conclusions:
Pediatric trauma trends associated with external factors such as weather, lunar cycles, and time of year can inform hospital staffing decisions in anticipation of likely injuries and help direct injury prevention efforts.
GnRH analogue followed by surgery in treatment of vaginal leiomyoma-a case report
Authors: Liu Yinxia , Wang Xiaoli , He Yuedong 
Published: March 2021

Abstract

Rationale:
Vaginal leiomyoma is a rare type of leiomyoma that occurs on the wall of vagina. Treatment for vaginal leiomyoma is varied and is based on the location and size of the leiomyoma.

Patient concerns:
In this case, a 24-year-old newly married Chinese woman complained of dyspareunia. The physical examination revealed a solid mass on the anterior wall of vagina. It almost filled up the whole vagina cavity.

Diagnosis:
Transvaginal ultrasound showed a tumor on the anterior wall of vagina. Pelvic computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also confirmed the tumor on vaginal wall. Fine needle aspiration biopsy confirmed fibrous and smooth muscle tissue in the tumor, and immunohistochemical examination found the estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) were positive.

Interventions:
6 courses of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue were given before the patient underwent complete surgical resection through vagina.

Outcome:
No postoperative complications occurred, and the patient was discharged from the hospital 3 days after surgery. Follow-up after 3 months revealed negative symptoms of genitourinary system. No sign of recurrence was found.

Conclusion:
In this case, vaginal leiomyoma was diagnosed with help of imagological examinations like ultrasound, CT, and MRI, as well as pathological examination like fine needle aspiration biopsy. Preoperative GnRH analogue treatment can ensure smooth surgical procedure, and reduce blood loss during surgery.
HiSpike: A high-throughput cost effective sequencing method for the SARS-CoV-2 spike gene
Authors: Fass Ephraim , Valenci Gal Zizelski , Rubinstein Mor , Freidlin Paul J , Rosencwaig Shira , Kutikov Inna , Werner Robert , Ben-Tovim Nofar , Bucris Efrat , Zuckerman Neta S , Mor Orna , Mendelson Ella , Dveyrin Zeev , Rorman Efrat , Nissan Israel 
Published: March 2021

ABSTRACTThe changing nature of the corona virus of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic poses unprecedented challenges to the world’s health systems. New and virulent emerging spike gene variants, such as the UK 20I/501Y.V1 and South African 20H/501Y.V2, could jeopardize global efforts to produce immunity and reduce mortality. These challenges require effective real-time genomic surveillance solutions that the medical community can quickly adopt. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein mediates host receptor recognition and entry into the cell and therefore, it is most susceptible to generation of variants with increased transmissibility and pathogenicity. The spike protein is also the primary target of neutralizing antibodies in COVID-19 patients and the most common antigen for induction of effective vaccine immunity. Therefore, tight monitoring of the spike protein gene variants is key to mitigating COVID-19 spread and vaccine escape mutants. Currently, the ARTIC method for SARS-CoV-2 whole genome sequencing is applied worldwide. However, this method commonly requires more than 96 hours (4-5 days) from start to finish and at present high sample sequence demands, sequencing resources are quickly exhausted. In this work, we present HiSpike, a method for high-throughput targeted next generation sequencing (NGS) of the spike gene. This simple three-step method can be completed in less than 30 hours and can sequence 10-fold more samples compared to the conventional ARTIC method and at a fraction of the cost. HiSpike was proven valid, and has identified, at high quality, multiple spike variants from real-time field samples, such as the UK and the South African variants. This method will certainly be effective in discovering future spike mutations. Therefore, running HiSpike for full sequencing of the spike gene of all positive SARS-CoV-2 samples could be considered for near real-time detection of known and emerging spike mutations as they evolve. HiSpike provides affordable sequencing options to help laboratories conserve resources, hence it provides a tool for widespread monitoring, that can support critical knowledge-based decisions.
Subjective sleep quality and objective sleep physiology in migraineurs: a meta-analysis
Authors: Stanyer E.C. , Creeney H. , Nesbitt A.D. , Holland P. R. , Hoffmann J. 
Published: March 2021

AbstractObjectivesSleep disturbance is often associated with migraine. However, there is a paucity of research investigating objective and subjective measures of sleep in migraineurs. This meta-analysis aims to determine whether there are differences in subjective sleep quality measured using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and objective sleep physiology measured using polysomnography between adult and pediatric migraineurs, and healthy controls.MethodsA systematic search of five databases was conducted to find case-controlled studies which measured polysomnography and/or PSQI in migraineurs. Effect sizes (Hedges’ g) were entered into a random effects model meta-analysis.Results32 separate studies were eligible. Overall, adult migraineurs had higher PSQI scores than healthy controls (g = 0.75, p < .001). This effect was larger in chronic than episodic migraineurs (g = 1.03, p < .001, g = 0.63, p < .001 respectively). For polysomnographic studies, adult and pediatric migraineurs displayed a lower percentage of REM sleep (g = −0.22, p = 0.017, g = −0.71, p = 0.025 respectively) than healthy controls. Pediatric migraineurs also displayed less total sleep time (g = −1.37, p = 0.039), more wake (g = 0.52, p < .001) and shorter sleep onset latency (g = −0.37, p < .001) than healthy controls.ConclusionMigraineurs have significantly poorer subjective sleep quality, and altered sleep compared to healthy individuals – a finding which is particularly evident in children. This has implications for developing appropriate treatments. Further longitudinal empirical studies are required to enhance our understanding of this relationship.
Molecular pathology and synaptic loss in primary tauopathies: [18F]AV-1451 and [11C]UCB-J PET study
Authors: Holland Negin , Malpetti Maura , Rittman Timothy , Mak Elijah E , Passamonti Luca , Kaalund Sanne S , Hezemans Frank H. , Jones P. Simon , Savulich George , Hong Young T. , Fryer Tim D. , Aigbirhio Franklin I. , O’Brien John T , Rowe James B 
Published: March 2021

AbstractThe relationship betweenin vivosynaptic density and tau burden in primary tauopathies is key to understanding the impact of tauopathy on functional decline and in informing new early therapeutic strategies. In this cross-sectional observational study, we determine thein vivorelationship between synaptic density and molecular pathology, in the primary tauopathies of Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) and Corticobasal Degeneration (CBD), as a function of disease severity.Twenty three patients with PSP, and twelve patients with Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS) were recruited from a tertiary referral centre. Nineteen education, sex and gender-matched control participants were recruited from the National Institute for Health Research ‘Join Dementia Research’ platform. Cerebral synaptic density and molecular pathology, in all participants, were estimated using PET imaging with the radioligands [11C]UCB-J and [18F]AV-1451, respectively. Patients with CBS also underwent amyloid PET imaging with [11C]PiB to exclude those with likely Alzheimer’s pathology – we refer to the amyloid negative cohort as having CBD although acknowledge other pathologies exist. Disease severity was assessed with the PSP rating scale; regional non-displaceable binding potentials (BPND) of [11C]UCB-J and [18F]AV-1451 were estimated in regions of interest from the Hammersmith Atlas, excluding those with known off-target binding for [18F]AV-1451. As an exploratory analysis, we also investigated the relationship between molecular pathology in cortical brain regions, and synaptic density in connected subcortical areas.Across brain regions, there was apositivecorrelation between [11C]UCB-J and [18F]AV-1451 BPND(β=0.4, t=4.7, p<0.0001). However, the direction of this correlation became less positive as a function of disease severity in patients(β = -0.03, T = -4.0, p = 0.002). Between brain regions, cortical [18F]AV-1451 binding wasnegativelycorrelated with synaptic density in subcortical areas (caudate nucleus, putamen, and substantia nigra).Brain regions with higher synaptic density are associated with a higher [18F]AV-1451 binding in PSP/CBD, but this association diminishes with disease severity. Moreover, higher cortical [18F]AV-1451 binding correlates with lower subcortical synaptic density. Longitudinal imaging is required to confirm the mediation of synaptic loss by molecular pathology. However, the effect of disease severity suggests a biphasic relationship between synaptic density and tauopathy, with synapse rich regions vulnerable to accrual of pathology, followed by a loss of synapses in response to pathology. Given the importance of synaptic function for cognition, our study elucidates the pathophysiology of primary tauopathies and may inform the design of future clinical trials.
Short-stay admissions and lower staffing associated with larger COVID-19 outbreaks in Maryland nursing homes
Authors: Mattingly T. Joseph , Trinkoff Alison , Lydecker Alison D , Kim Justin J. , Yoon Jung Min , Roghmann Mary-Claire 
Published: March 2021

AbstractObjectivesIdentify facility factors associated with a larger COVID-19 outbreak among residents in Maryland nursing homes (NHs).DesignObservationalSetting and ParticipantsAll Maryland NHs.MethodsResident COVID-19 cases were collected for each Maryland NH from January 1, 2020 through July 1, 2020. Cumulative COVID-19 incidence through July 1, 2020 was collected for each county and Baltimore City. Facility characteristics for each Maryland NH were collected from time periods prior to January 1, 2020. NH outbreaks were defined as larger when total resident COVID-19 cases exceeded 10% of licensed beds. Descriptive and multivariable analyses were conducted to assess the strongest predictors for the primary outcome of larger COVID-19 outbreak.ResultsNHs located in counties with high cumulative incidence of COVID-19 were more likely to have larger outbreaks (OR 4.5, 95% CI 2.3-8.7, p<0.01). NHs with at least 100 beds were more likely to have larger outbreaks, especially among facilities with >140 licensed beds (100-140 beds vs <100 beds: OR 1.9, 95% CI 0.9-4.1, p=0.09; >140 beds vs <100 beds: OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.3-6.1, p<0.01). NHs with more short-stay residents (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.1-4.8, p=0.04) or fewer Certified Nursing Assistant hours daily (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.3-5.3, p<0.01) also were more likely to have larger outbreaks. Resident race and gender were not significant predictors of larger outbreaks after adjustment for other factors.ConclusionsLarge NHs with lower staffing levels and many short-stay residents in counties with high COVID-19 incidence were at increased risk for COVID-19 outbreaks. Understanding the characteristics of nursing homes associated with larger outbreaks can help us prepare for the next pandemic.Brief summaryMaryland nursing homes in counties with a high COVID-19 incidence, more licensed beds, a higher proportion of short-stay residents, or lower CNA staffing hours were more likely to have a larger outbreak early in the pandemic.