bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Trans-Saharan Migration Through and From the Sahel
Authors: Mounkaila Harouna 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the dynamics of trans-Saharan migration in relation to the migratory policies implemented in the Sahel in the second decade of the twenty-first century. It argues that the circulation of migrants between the Sahara’s northern and southern edges is not a new phenomenon even though it has intensified and diversified in recent decades. It pays particular attention to the migration policies implemented in Sahelian countries under pressure from the European Union and other partners, with the goal of containing the migration of nationals as well as persons from other countries who are passing through the Sahel. The chapter discusses how the focus on securitization of borders is leading to the criminalization of migration in transit countries. It then analyzes the repercussions of these policies on the conditions for migration, the longstanding migratory patterns in this zone, and the region’s unsteady socioeconomic equilibrium.
Yesterday Meets Tomorrow in Sahelian Intellectual Currents
Authors: Idrissa Rahmane 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers a review of Sahelian thought across the centuries from the griots and clerics of the past to contemporary intelligentsias. The review is paired with a reflection on how the Sahel shaped the work and consciousness of its thinkers—through its history as well as through more intangible but no less potent factors such as the aesthetics deriving from its austere environment. Given this focus, thinkers are not reviewed here just because they were born in the Sahel, but as participants in the particular intellectual consciousness attached to the region. Thus, some prominent Sahel-born thinkers—Senghor, Cheikh Anta Diop—are not included, but the discussion extends to film, Islam, and religious preaching in addition to the more conventional categories of novelists and theorists.
Introduction
Authors: Béland Daniel , Morgan Kimberly J. , Obinger Herbert , Pierson Christopher 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This synoptic introduction guides the reader through the major themes in this comparative analysis of the developed welfare states. It first outlines the origins of the welfare state and its development down to 1940. It then considers the impact of the Second World War on social policy and traces the apparent successes of expanding welfare state regimes in the thirty years that followed the war. It then assesses the critique and challenges that arose for this welfare state settlement from the mid-1970s onwards and the idea of a ‘crisis of the welfare state’. These challenges were simultaneously ideological, political, economic, and demographic, and are sometimes seen to have created new circumstances of ‘permanent austerity’. The contemporary welfare state faces a set of challenges very different to those which arose after 1945 in which the near-future context is set by the continuing impact of the Great Recession after 2008 and the new world of social policy created by COVID-19.
Governance
Authors: Béland Daniel , Morgan Kimberly J. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The creation of every social programme entails decisions about governance—about how these programmes are to be funded and administered. Policymakers have made varying choices about the territorial organization of social programme governance, as well as the mix of public and private actors involved in their financing, administration, and delivery. These decisions are highly consequential, shaping the relative power of different constituencies and governing bodies. Governance systems also reflect views about central versus local power, the role of religious and other groups in social provision, and the balance between markets versus states in providing for human welfare needs. This chapter examines social programme governance from a historical and a cross-national perspective to elucidate key patterns and trends. The first half of the chapter focuses on the public–private mix in welfare governance, while the second explores territorial governance, with a specific focus on federalism. One important theme in this chapter concerns the need to challenge assumptions that welfare states are monolithic, highly centralized, and state dominated. Instead, contemporary welfare regimes are mixed systems in which policy development and implementation often take place through non-state actors and/or at subnational levels of government.
Political Institutions
Authors: Immergut Ellen M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter surveys theories and empirical evidence about the impact of state structures and political institutions on welfare state structures and outcomes. It shows that the political-institutional analysis of welfare states has shifted over time from an interest in static structures to a much more dynamic analysis of the interplay amongst preferences, structures, ideas, and institutions. It reviews different approaches to the study of political institutions, including majoritarian versus consensus democracy, veto points, and veto players. The impact of veto points on welfare state development and change, as well as the links between electoral systems and electoral dynamics on social policy outcomes, are explained and discussed. The chapter concludes with a review of the impact of past policies on welfare state politics and outcomes.
Gender
Authors: Orloff Ann Shola , Laperrière Marie 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces how scholars have conceptualized the relationship between gender and welfare states, examining significant differences among mainstream, gender-aware, and feminist perspectives. We discuss how feminist scholarship has broadened scholars’ understanding of social citizenship, how gender structures, and is structured by, the policies and institutions of the welfare state, and how women and men participate in social politics. We describe how insights from intersectionality theory and the adoption of more fluid conceptions of gender have shaped investigations of social policies and politics, bringing greater accuracy to analyses of the gendered effects of welfare states. Finally, we turn to analyses of how welfare states have reorganized in response to crises of care. We conclude by discussing normative debates over the role of welfare states in reducing gender inequalities and supporting people’s choices about care and employment.
Migration and New Ethnic Minorities
Authors: Scarpa Simone , Castles Stephen , Schierup Carl-Ulrik 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Until recently, comparative social policy research remained strongly influenced by methodological nationalism (i.e. an approach equating social boundaries with state boundaries) and has rarely considered immigration-driven changes in welfare states. Yet, over the past decades, immigrant populations have grown in size and become increasingly diversified, both in terms of origin countries and in terms of integration patterns, in all Western countries. Immigrants are a more visible, but also contested, presence in Western societies, which affects also the development of the national labour market and welfare systems. This chapter focuses on the link between immigration-driven ethnic diversity and welfare state development by considering four interrelated issues: (1) how the patterns of immigrants’ labour market incorporation in host societies affect the social rights they are entitled to; (2) how increasing international migration contributed to the reconfiguration of care arrangements; (3) the implications of immigration-driven multiculturalism for welfare state sustainability; and (4) the connection between immigration and public support for the welfare state. Then, we narrow down our analysis by providing a more detailed account of recent development of migration policies in some European countries. Based on the analysis of the country cases, we put forward the argument that recent institutional developments point to an ‘Americanization’ of European migration policy and, therefore, to an increasing ‘racialization’ of European welfare states.
Intergovernmental Organizations
Authors: Armingeon Klaus 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This survey reviews the role of intergovernmental organizations (IO) in domestic social policy. It first describes those IOs which are most relevant for national welfare states in developed nations: the World Bank (WB), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the International Labour Organization (ILO). Then it deals with the modes and means by which IOs attempt to have an impact on national welfare states. Five channels of influence are identified: resources, constraints, standards, evaluations, and ideas and information. The final section looks into the impact of IOs on national welfare states, the strategic interactions between IOs and domestic political actors (including blame shifting in the multi-level system), and uploading of national policies to the international level. The question of soft versus hard law, and the shift to soft law, as well as the democratic deficit on the level of IOs, are discussed.
Intellectual Roots of the Welfare State
Authors: Pierson Christopher , Leimgruber Matthieu 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers the intellectual roots of the welfare state in changing views about states and their competences from the middle of the nineteenth to the middle of the twentieth centuries. This happens in particular national contexts, with differing patterns of both democratization and bureaucratization. From the beginning, we can observe patterns of international learning and policy transfer. This process is traced through a number of national cases: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the English-speaking nations, Sweden and the United States. Although the welfare state has come to be identified with social citizenship and ‘social justice’, its ideational and normative roots are much more diverse and contested than this. And although the welfare state came to be identified with social democrats, especially after 1945, its origins more usually lie with liberal, or even conservative, forces and ideas.
Long-Term Care
Authors: Österle August , Rothgang Heinz 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes and analyses the current state of long-term care and long-term care policies around the world. In the first part, after briefly retracing historical developments, the chapter examines the ways in which welfare state policies address long-term care. It studies regulation, finance, and delivery of long-term care. In the second part, the interconnectedness of welfare state policies, the role of families, non-profit, and for-profit market sectors, as well as novel arrangements between state, market, and family, in particular migrant care work, move to the centre of analysis. The third part focuses on major challenges and perspectives for long-term care systems and for long-term care research. Starting from a discussion of future long-term care needs and costs, it addresses the role of families in long-term care, workforce issues, financial sustainability, the quality of care, and the role of technological advancement for long-term care. With increasing needs and the changing contexts in which care is organized, long-term care has become a key concern of welfare state development in the twenty-first century.
Employment Promotion
Authors: Kenworthy Lane 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Social scientists and policymakers traditionally have viewed the welfare state as a means of achieving economic security, equality of opportunity, and redistribution. In the past three decades, an additional goal has become prominent: employment. Policy has more and more aimed to increase paid work. The turn towards employment promotion has a number of causes: funding the welfare state, fairness, poverty reduction, social inclusion and subjective well-being, women’s independence and fulfilment, and external encouragement by the OECD and other institutions. Policy tools include benefit conditionality, assistance with job search and placement, assistance with transportation, employment-conditional earnings subsidies, employer subsidies, public employment, promotion of part-time work and flexible work schedules, tax incentives for second earners, adjustment of wage levels and wage inequality, reduction of non-wage labour costs, moderation of employment protection regulations, family-friendly policies, support for human capital, and career ladders. Has employment promotion succeeded? Since 1990, the overall employment rate, the rate for women of prime working age, and the rate for fifty-five-to-sixty-four-year-olds have increased in most of the rich democratic nations, and in some instances the rise has been quite large. These countries’ experience over the past several decades suggests there is little, if any, trade-off between low inequality and high employment.
Welfare Retrenchment
Authors: Levy Jonah D. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the debate over the retrenchment of the welfare state. It discusses Paul Pierson’s groundbreaking ‘new politics of the welfare state’ thesis, which argues that the politics of welfare retrenchment operates according to fundamentally different rules from the politics of welfare expansion. In particular, the presence of groups with a shared interest in preserving existing social policies means that the defence of the welfare state is not left just to labour and parties of the left. In addition, both recipients and providers of welfare policies stand ready to mobilize against programme cuts, making retrenchment exceedingly difficult. To the extent that retrenchment takes place, Pierson contends that it occurs primarily via techniques of obfuscation that hide the government’s responsibility for its actions. The chapter also analyses claims that retrenchment is more extensive than Pierson acknowledges if a different metric is used, such as social spending relative to need, or if recent cutbacks are taken into account, such as those that occurred in Greece in response to the sovereign debt crisis. Finally, the chapter traces an alternative trajectory of welfare reform. As against the unsavoury and conspiratorial methods emphasized by Pierson, governments may enact spending cuts by taking their case to the public, hitching retrenchment to higher objectives, negotiating with the social partners or political opposition, and addressing concerns about fairness. The two channels of reform are not mutually exclusive; rather, they point to different ways to cut, adapt, and modernize the welfare state.
Post-War Welfare State Development
Authors: Nullmeier Frank , Kaufmann Franz-Xaver 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The key characteristic of the ‘Golden Age’ (1945–1970s) is the breakthrough of universal social rights as the normative background for social policy and the responsibility of nation-states to ensure social justice, social protection, and poverty reduction. The expansion phase of the welfare state can be described in five dimensions: (1) self-conception: social policy as a special field of policy was transformed into a new type of statehood: the welfare state; (2) finance: social policy expenditure increased massively and social benefits grew faster than GDP; (3) performance: new programmes, higher benefit levels, and the inclusion of more and more groups, as well as the transition to active employment policies, strengthened the welfare state; (4) governance: the nation-state, the labour movement, and the employers are dominant actors in this period, but new social movements were playing an increasingly important role. Moreover, welfare production in this period was not only based on state institutions; (5) outcomes: the history of social policy until the 1970s is a process of tremendous progress, but accompanied by several ambivalent developments that were also the sources of crises in social policy in the next period. Nevertheless, key features of social protection programmes during the Golden Age have survived the wave of privatization and deregulation.
Religion and Classical Europe, Twelfth Century bce–600 ce
Authors: Auffarth Christoph 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In a history of religion and Europe classical Antiquity is both an example of difference, that is, the polytheistic systems of Greek and Roman religions, and the beginnings of the monotheistic religions, which became the mainstream in medieval and modern Europe. Drawing on the rituals, symbols, and patterns of polytheism as the legacy of the palace cultures in the Ancient Near East and Greece (until 1200 bc), the city-states (poleis) adapted these to non-autocratic societies (polis-religion). In the empires of Hellenism and the Roman Empire itself, religions were not part of a power structure (e.g. a ruler-cult). Rather their urban character allowed a plural neighbourhood, in which the monotheistic religions were well integrated. In late Antiquity a long transformation formed the Middle Ages, when with the rise of Islam the Mediterranean became divided into three parts: the Islamic south, Greek Orthodoxy in the east, and Latin-speaking ‘Europe’ in the north-west.
Christian Democracy and Europe
Authors: van Kersbergen Kees 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Christian democracy is the heir to the Catholic confessional parties that emerged in the late nineteenth century. It is a Western European phenomenon promoting a particular social policy, aimed at the moderation of social conflicts especially between social classes. With a distinctive ideology and by appealing to religion and religious values, Christian democracy became broadly attractive to all sections of the electorate. Christian democracy was also a key driver of international cooperation and integration, and particularly influential in the formation of the European Union. Yet the overall picture of Christian democratic parties in recent decades has been one of decline. Secularization plays an obvious role here. That said, there is still some room for political movements to respond actively and strategically to changes in their environment. The chapter concludes by discussing some future options for these parties.
Religion-State Relations in Europe
Authors: Madeley John T. S. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Europe is often taken to represent a global exception in matters of religion and secularity and some argue that much of the reason for this lies in the way religion-state relations are arranged. This chapter assesses these and related claims while summarily tracing the character, development, and impact of different relationship patterns in Europe as both ‘religion’ and ‘state’ have undergone massive change over the last 500 years. None of the fifty-odd current states of Europe meet any strict standard of religion–state separation; it can be argued nonetheless that the emergent and identifiable common European model is largely consistent with liberal egalitarian values. Key concepts are introduced: secular state, confessional state, religious state, religious establishment, and separationism.
The Conference of European Churches
Authors: Pavlovic Peter 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter outlines the history and work of the Conference of European Churches (CEC). CEC was founded in the middle of the Cold War in a divided Europe as an instrument promoting dialogue, bridge-building, cooperation, and ecumenical fellowship between churches of Anglican, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions. From its inception, CEC has promoted values of peace, reconciliation, justice, solidarity, and human dignity, and has been engaged in the building of trust and a sense of community in Europe. Through fostering the active engagement of churches in society, CEC has contributed to the discussion on European values and the future of the European project. The final section of the chapter elaborates on the theological foundations framing the churches’ action for justice and the common good. Such pursuits are central to the theological principles underpinning a healthy society.
Islam and Europe
Authors: Cesari Jocelyne 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter starts by critically analysing the most significant literature on the religiosity of Muslims in Europe. It then discusses two overlapping contexts which are key to explaining these forms of religiosity. On one hand, the global competition for Islamic orthodoxy, and on the other, the transformation of Islamic repertoires and institutions by European governments through the cumulative influence of securitization and secularism. The chapter argues that Islam is a topos activated at different moments in European history, from colonization to post-Second World War immigration. Post-9/11, growing pluralization and an emphasis on security have exacerbated an ‘us versus them’ mentality in which Muslims are definitely ‘them’.
Eastern Religions and Europe
Authors: Baumann Martin 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter begins with the Orientalist constructions of Eastern religions from the mid-sixteenth to the late nineteenth century. Subsequently, in Colonial Times, Asian reformers campaigned for Hinduism and Buddhism in the West leading to the establishing of the first institutions in Europe around 1900. From the 1960s onward, Europe saw the arrival of Hindu gurus and Buddhist teachers, later followed by the immigration of Asian workers and refugees. The conclusion highlights key constructions and images of Eastern religions and points to the ongoing processes of secularizationand commercialization which have repackaged practices and artefacts of Eastern religions for European preferences. The chapter argues that since the earliest encounters, Eastern religions represent both hope and promise for European philosophers, scholars, and practitioners. An awareness of the varied European imaginings enables a better understanding of the continuing fascination of Eastern religions on the part of sympathizers, practitioners, and the population in general.
Ireland and the United Kingdom
Authors: Ganiel Gladys , Steven Martin 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the role of religion in Ireland and the United Kingdom in four stages, focusing on how divisions between Protestantism and Catholicism have contributed to political tensions and, at times, violence: (a) from the colonization of Ireland by Britain until the end of the Irish Civil War in 1923, when religion was used both to justify colonialism and to oppose it; (b) state-building in the early twentieth century, when religion impacted politics and society in ways that diverged from the wider European Christian democratic movement; (c) a period of secularization in the late twentieth century; and (d) a period of religious change, but at the same time persistence, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. It concludes by examining the impact of religion on the 2016 Brexit referendum vote, arguing that Brexit has destabilized political and religious relationships between the islands, with particular reference to Northern Ireland and Scotland.
Southeast Europe
Authors: Makrides Vasilios N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter charts the religious landscape of Southeast Europe and considers its religious specificities in their historical and geographical context. To this purpose, it discusses the significance of the Orthodox Christian heritage of Byzantium; the cleavage between Eastern and Western Christianity (both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism) and inter-confessional dynamics; the presence of Islam and the long period of Ottoman rule; the existence of other religions in the region; the role of Russia in Southeast European affairs; ethno-religious identities and the rise of nationalism; the communist and the post-communist periods; and finally, the negative discourse about the Balkans in the context of Southeast European distinctiveness, the modernization process, and the potential for religion in this.