bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Examples of Male Mate Choice
Authors: Schlupp Ingo 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, what interests me most is how often male mate choice has already been documented, independent of the underlying mechanism. I am not concerned with the origin of the description: some authors express some degree of surprise that they found male preferences; other studies are motivated by theory. I also want to highlight that there is a continuum from no male contribution to the offspring to male contributions that are larger than the female contribution. Furthermore, there are differences in female quality at different levels, which can contribute to the evolution of male choice. There are many studies that infer differences in female fecundity as underlying male choice, but females can differ in many more aspects—just like males.
Mechanism of Male Choice: Sex Ratios
Authors: Schlupp Ingo 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
In this short chapter I want to discuss the role of sex ratios in choosiness. So far, we have mostly reviewed intrinsic reasons for male choosiness to be expressed such as male investment and female quality; however, sex ratios may also be important drivers of choosiness. Sex ratios are important in population biology and influence the evolution and structure of mating systems. Most important for the purpose of this book is that they can change quickly in time and space. Male and female choice are sensitive to such changes and can lead to situations where females are choosy when they are rare in a population but change to courtship and competition when males are rare. There are not many examples of this process, but there are likely some that have been overlooked. Interestingly, the majority of data on preferences are collected using binary choice tests, which almost always represent a 2:1 sex ratio. Furthermore, sex ratios do not take into account differences in mate quality, as all adult individuals are classified as either male or female without making any further distinction.
Conclusion
Authors: Wilcox Vanda 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Italy fought the Great War in pursuit of a Greater Italy; to that end, all the resources of nation and empire were mobilised. The end of the First World War saw the demise of the liberal emigrant model in Italy, in which diaspora communities were still colonies, in favour of a more conventional vision based solely on direct territorial control. Tracing the growth of Italian colonial ambitions from 1911 through to 1923 as against the objective decline and weakening of its real empire highlights the extent to which it was an empire of fantasy as much as reality. Nonetheless, though in many ways insubstantial, empire and above all the idea of empire exerted enormous influence on Italian attitudes, policies, and priorities in the era of the First World War, with devastating long-term consequences.
Theorizing Interorganizational Influence from the European Union
Authors: Lenz Tobias 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter theorizes interorganizational influence from the European Union to other regional organizations by drawing on the diffusion literature. The framework rests on the premise that diffusion shapes institution building in regional organizations through its influence on the institutional preferences and bargaining strategies of national governments who negotiate institutional change. The chapter hypothesizes that regional institution building reflects variation in the EU’s active engagement with other regional organizations and its own institutional development, and is most likely to be relevant in those regional organizations that rest on open-ended contracts. The chapter closes with a discussion of alternative explanations of regional institution building.
Explaining the European Union’s Interorganizational Influence on Other Regional Organizations
Authors: Lenz Tobias 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the European Union’s influence on other regional organizations through a statistical analysis of a dataset that contains information on the institutionalization of 36 regional organizations from 1950, or the year of their establishment, until 2017. The analysis shows that both the intensity of a regional organization’s engagement with the EU (active influence) and the EU’s own institutional trajectory (passive influence) are correlated with the level of institutionalization in other regional organizations. Second, these effects are strongest in regional organizations that are based on contracts containing open-ended commitments. Together, these findings suggest that the creation and subsequent institutional evolution of the EU has made a difference to the evolution of institutions in other regional organizations. Counterfactually, member states would have built less institutionalized regional organizations in the absence of the EU.
Normalizing Extreme Imprisonment
Authors: Vannier Marion 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Normalizing Extreme Imprisonment offers a new explanation for how penal reforms and those driving them can end up normalizing, in the sense of making the public view as acceptable, incredibly severe punitive practices. Since its introduction in 1978 as an alternative to the death penalty, there has been a dramatic increase and expansion of life without parole (LWOP) in the United States, including beyond the scope of capital crimes for which it was originally conceived. Despite this growth, limited attention has been given to this punishment and very few attempts made to narrow its scope or curtail its proliferation. Emerging scholarship suggests the punishment has been ‘normalized’, in part because of how some death penalty abolitionists have framed and used LWOP. Drawing upon a range of evidence and using the development of LWOP in the Californian death penalty context over 40 years as an example, this book significantly deepens and extends this claim to offer a new explanation for how extreme forms of imprisonment become normalized. To discuss the extent to which some opponents to the death penalty may have facilitated, participated in, or perhaps even animated the three main normalizing mechanisms (visibility, denial, and routinization), this book focuses on three sites where death penalty abolitionists have lobbied, campaigned, pled and settled, for LWOP, namely Congress, the broader political sphere, and courtrooms. The book then contrasts these representations of LWOP’s severity with prisoners’ lived experiences detailed in an exceptional set of 299 letters.
X-Ray Diffraction
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
X-rays diffraction is fundamental to understanding the structure and crystallography of biological, geological, or technological materials. X-rays scatter predominantly by the electrons in solids, and have an elastic (coherent, Thompson) and an inelastic (incoherent, Compton) component. The atomic scattering factor is largest (= Z) for forward scattering, and decreases with increasing scattering angle and decreasing wavelength. The amplitude of the diffracted wave is the structure factor, Fhkl, and its square gives the intensity. In practice, intensities are modified by temperature (Debye-Waller), absorption, Lorentz-polarization, and the multiplicity of the lattice planes involved in diffraction. Diffraction patterns reflect the symmetry (point group) of the crystal; however, they are centrosymmetric (Friedel law) even if the crystal is not. Systematic absences of reflections in diffraction result from glide planes and screw axes. In polycrystalline materials, the diffracted beam is affected by the lattice strain or grain size (Scherrer equation). Diffraction conditions (Bragg Law) for a given lattice spacing can be satisfied by varying θ or λ — for study of single crystals θ is fixed and λ is varied (Laue), or λ is fixed and θ varied to study powders (Debye-Scherrer), polycrystalline materials (diffractometry), and thin films (reflectivity). X-ray diffraction is widely applied.
Transmission and Analytical Electron Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M. 
Published: July 2021

AbstractTransmission electron microscopy provides information on all aspects of the microstructure — structural, atomic, chemical, electronic, magnetic, etc. — at the highest spatial resolution in physical and biological materials, with applications ranging from fundamental studies to process metrology in the semiconductor industry. Developments in correcting electron-optical aberrations have improved TEM resolution to sub-Å levels. Coherent Bragg scattering (diffraction), incoherent Rutherford scattering (atomic mass), and interference (phase) are some contrast mechanisms in TEM. For phase contrast, optimum imaging is observed at the Scherzer defocus. Magnetic domains are imaged in Fresnel, Foucault, or differential phase contrast (DPC) modes. Off-axis electron holography measures phase shifts of the electron wave, and is affected by magnetic and electrostatic fields of the specimen. In scanning-transmission (STEM) mode, a focused electron beam is scanned across the specimen to sequentially form an image; a high-angle annular dark field detector gives Z-contrast images with elemental specificity and atomic resolution. Series of (S)TEM images, recorded every one or two degrees about a tilt axis, over as large a tilt-range as possible, are back-projected to reconstruct a 3D tomographic image. Inelastically scattered electrons, collected in the forward direction, form the energy-loss spectrum (EELS), and reveal the unoccupied local density of states, partitioned by site symmetry, nature of the chemical species, and the angular momentum of the final state. Energy-lost electrons are imaged by recording them, pixel-by-pixel, as a sequence of spectra (spectrum imaging), or by choosing electrons that have lost a specific energy (energy-filtered TEM). De-excitation processes (characteristic X-ray emission) are detected by energy dispersive methods, providing compositional microanalysis, including chemical maps. Overall, specimen preparation methods, even with many recent developments, including focused ion beam milling, truly limit applications of TEM.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) focuses an electron beam to a sharp probe, with its diameter, which depends on the acceleration voltage and the aberration coefficients of the probe-forming lens, determining SEM resolution. This electron beam is scanned over the specimen and signals arising from a variety of beam-specimen interactions are recorded to form images using different detectors positioned in the specimen chamber. Secondary electrons, detected with the Everton-Thornley detector, reveal the topography and electrical properties; back-scattered electrons provide information about the average atomic number and local crystallography of the specimen. Ferromagnetic materials alter the trajectory of secondary (Type I) and back-scattered (Type II) electrons to provide magnetic contrast. The magnetic polarization of the secondary electrons can also be analyzed directly (SEMPA) to image domains. The electron beam also excites characteristic X-rays for chemical microanalysis. Luminescent specimens produce light (Cathodoluminescence); these photons provide information on the electronic structure, particularly the defect states, of the specimen. Environmental SEMs, with differential pumping, image the specimen in a gaseous environment and/or under hydration for biological materials. A SEM combined with a focused ion beam (FIB) column is used for nano-fabrication, including preparation of electron-transparent TEM specimens.
Philosophical Arguments for Individuals, Memberships, and Collectives in States of Guilt or Shame
Authors: Fredericks Sarah E. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
While there is ample evidence that people experience collective guilt and shame, many philosophers and laypeople reject such experiences as unjustified either because they reject emotions as significant realms of experience or because they dismiss the possibility of collective agency and therefore find guilt or shame feelings about collective acts, like those leading to climate change, absurd. Chapter 4 addresses these concerns, building an account of collective agency, responsibility, and identity that demonstrates the importance of moral emotions including those of collectives. This argument draws on but extends the work of multiple philosophers and theologians including Karl Jaspers, Larry May, and Tracy Lynn Isaacs to argue that individuals, memberships, and collectives can be guilty and shameful and that collective and individual guilt and/or shame do not reduce to each other. Collectives have identity, agency, and a form of intent that is more than the sum of their constituent agents. Collectives include both well-defined collectives, such as corporations or nations, and diffuse collectives such as people living resource-intensive capitalist lives and/or supercollectives––those which are larger than but not reducible to collectives. They may contribute to climate change alongside individuals, membership groups, and well-defined collectives. The chapter also argues why in some cases it is not only possible but also appropriate to experience environmental guilt and shame about climate change as an individual or collective.
Logic
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The main question here is how logic is to be conceived. Borrowing terms from Warren Goldfarb, two conceptions are considered: universalism, schematicism. There is also a perhaps third conception. Borrowing a term from Frege, it is called the Verschmelzung conception. A question, then, is what conception fits the ‘logic’ expressed in Begriffsschrift in Grundgesetze v. I. The answer is, ‘strictly speaking neither’. Grundgesetze is an unfolding of the idea that the law-likeness of being true is, in first instance, at the level of Bedeutung. This creates a predicament for Frege, which he deals with only partly successfully. Frege sees himself as unfolding an insight that the laws of truth operate in first instance at the level of Bedeutung. His elaboration, however, makes for serious problems.
Introduction
Authors: Kopley Emily 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Perceptions surrounding literary genres and forms can influence writing practice. If poetry is perceived as exalted, one might read and write it for the challenge or the cachet, or avoid it out of intimidation. If novels are perceived as unpretentious, one might read and write them to join the mainstream, or prefer other genres precisely to avoid the mainstream. The career of Virginia Woolf offers an excellent case study of how cultural associations with literary genres and forms influence reading and writing practice. The Introduction to Virginia Woolf and Poetry traces the long rivalry between prose and verse, and more particularly the novel and poetry. It then describes the genre rivalry among British and American modernist writers, and surveys Woolf’s knowledge of the poetry of her time. It concludes by acknowledging the relevant scholarship.
“why is poetry wholly an elderly taste?”
Authors: Kopley Emily 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Woolf’s sense that the novel must respond to poetry is manifest in her first three novels—The Voyage Out (1915), Night and Day (1919), and Jacob’s Room (1922). In the first, she shows a keen ear for the sound of language, but poetry figures as patriarchal and arguably deadly. In the second, she explores conflicting attitudes toward the English poetic tradition, and poetry occupies a dual role, at once burden and aphrodisiac. And in the third, poetry serves as a tool Woolf adapts for her own use in prose. For four reasons, by 1922 Woolf was able to appreciate poetry of the past: a familiarity with contemporary poetry gained by printing at The Hogarth Press, the deaths of family members who had nurtured poetry’s discouraging associations, an interest in elegy after the personal loss of her brother and the collective loss during World War I, and a comfort with poetry’s techniques in the wake of the form’s diminished power. Strong evidence of Woolf’s turn toward poetry lies in the poetry books in her extant library.
The Male Siskin and his Dear Aunt
Authors: Kopley Emily 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Julian Bell, a poet and Woolf’s nephew, was a friendly aggravation generative to some of Woolf’s most significant work. Both the content and the form of The Waves (1931) owe much to Woolf’s relationship with him. With regard to content, the book’s depiction of college life and of young male poets derives in part from Bell’s social world and personality. With regard to form, Woolf’s association of poetry with metaphoric thought was reinforced by Bell’s literal verse. The drafts of The Waves and of a lampoon Woolf wrote on Bell inform the latter argument. This chapter then shows that in writing “A Letter to a Young Poet” (1932), Woolf had in mind her nephew’s “The Progress of Poetry: A Letter to a Contemporary” (1930). This chapter concludes with a study of the manuscript draft of “A Letter to a Young Poet.” Here Woolf writes as though the poet and the novelist have the same task—which, I argue, they do not.
Normal ways to die
Authors: Dye Christopher 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Familiar endemic diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) are rarely seen as health emergencies, even though they kill millions of people each year. This chapter describes a variety of ways to remedy the neglect, illustrated by TB, including: highlight new dangers from old hazards, such as the emergence of multi-drug resistant strains; eliminate the prevention–cure dichotomy by exploiting the benefits of ‘treatment as prevention’, when drugs that cure illness also prevent the transmission of infection to others; neutralize major risks for TB, such as co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), in settings where these risks cause a high proportion of cases and deaths; and mitigate the large number of weaker TB risks that have benefits for other health conditions (diabetes, undernutrition) and for society more widely (homelessness, crowding). This wider context aligns the specific aims of neglected disease control with the larger goals of Universal Health Coverage and the Agenda for Sustainable Development.
The burden of choice
Authors: Dye Christopher 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Consumers are ultimately responsible for ‘behavioural’ risks to their health, but the behaviours in question are also those of manufacturers and governments, and the burden of choice on consumers is lighter when shared. Governments, in particular, have the motives, means, and powers to intervene between commercial supply and consumer demand. Among the most effective instruments of government are taxation and regulation, especially for the control of single, major causes of illness such as tobacco and sugar. Taxes put a value on the future, today: consumers and manufacturers can choose to pay immediately for the costs incurred to society in future, or switch to healthier lifestyles and business practices. In practice, governments under pressure from lobbyists tend to under-tax harmful commodities, so other enticements are needed too. In this context, empirical studies show health promotion is complementary to disease prevention—making health gains while avoiding health losses—especially when the joint benefits for health are large.
The Policing Board
Authors: Martin Richard 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The Policing Board sits at the heart of the intersection between human rights law and politics. As a corporate body, the Policing Board has a statutory duty to monitor police compliance with the HRA. This chapter argues that regardless of the Policing Board’s statutory duty to monitor policing based on the standards of the HRA, for the political members on the Policing Board, human rights are a vessel harbouring deep sentiments and concerns at the heart of which are competing histories of the conflict, legacies of policing and understandings of Northern Ireland’s imperfect peace. These narratives swirl around, and at times directly contradict, the official police voice, further demonstrating the elasticity of human rights to stretch to fit the visions of different actors. The examination of alternative official narratives by political parties in Northern Ireland is developed across three sections, inspired by the dimensions of the ‘political life’ of human rights set out in Chapter 1. These three dimensions are: the role historical context plays in structuring the ambit and style of human rights contestation involving social actors; human rights as an articulation of a much wider array of interests, fears and aspirations that find expression through rights narratives; and how human rights can be used by groups to actively construct claims with the hope of achieving legal gains in specific fields
‘Arrest, Arrest, Arrest’
Authors: Martin Richard 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The focus of the empirical account of human rights in Part IV is on the suspect’s right to liberty in the context of police custody. In keeping with the style adopted in Part III, the discussion that follows seeks to closely analyse how particular aspects of police practices and decision-making interact with human rights law standards. The aim in this chapter is to explore how the three statutory safeguards established in PACE to protect the suspect’s right to liberty have fared in the face of organizational pressure to detect and ‘clear up’ crime. Using the three due process safeguards established in PACE to form a framework for this chapter’s analysis, the chapter explores how officers apply, dismiss, interpret and reconstruct each of these safeguards in their everyday work. Once again, the richness of this analysis, specifically its appreciation for how law and practice do (or do not) interact, is enhanced by paying close attention to the development of lines of authority in the case law that have, it is argued, watered down the legal standards officers must apply. This analysis of the case law is based on recent judgments from the High Court and Divisional Court of Northern Ireland, as well as from the Court of Appeal in England and Wales.
Introduction
Authors: Gingrich Brian 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
We talk about pace. But how do we define it? This introduction suggests that one define it loosely, as something like large, forward, rhythmic, shifting, dynamic, temporal narrative movement, and then analyze it by tracking units of pacing as they move forward in literary history. As for finding the right narrative units, one may look to E. M. Forster, Viktor Shklovsky, Günther Müller, and others, but one does best to look to Gérard Genette and then trace his units backwards to the writers and critics who first developed them. Between Genette and his literary precursors, one discovers a significant literary tradition of pace. And, as for the pace of “fiction”: if pace is narrative’s most elaborate feature, fiction is narrative’s most elaborate form.
Superbia, Arrogance, Servility, and Self-Abasement
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides account of four character traits in the intellectual domain: superbia and arrogance; servility and self-abasement. It argues that superbia and arrogance are vices of superiority while servility and self-abasement are vices of inferiority. They are characterized as opposed to modesty and authentic pride. The chapter also defends the view that superbia and arrogance are based on attitudes whose function is ego-defence, while servility and self-abasement have attitudes serving a social-adjustive function as their causal bases. A case is made that the defensive attitudes characteristic of these vices of superiority constitute what is known as defensive high self-esteem while those on which servility is based are typical of damaged low self-esteem.