bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Continuity and Change: Special Education Policy Development in Toronto Public Schools, 1945 to the Present
Authors: Ellis Jason , Axelrod Paul 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context It is frequently assumed that changes in special education policies since 1945 have come mostly from “landmark research” or actions of a few “pioneers.” We argue in this article that there have been many different sources of change, including legislation, court rulings, activism, and even shifts in socially and historically constructed categories of ability. In contrast to the contention that there has been “a gradual but steady progression towards the present inclusive education,” we argue that remarkable continuity has characterized certain elements of policy as well. The article identifies general trends in special education policy development historically that can help to inform the most current thinking about policy change in special and inclusive education. Purpose How has special education policy developed historically? What factors have been involved? How can historical research help education researchers, policy makers, school personnel, and others to deepen their understanding of the development of policy? The Toronto public school system is examined. The developmental trajectory of special education policy in Canada's largest urban school board generally resembles the development of policy in other large American and Canadian cities. The period from 1945 to the present was selected because the shifting character of special education policy across this broadsweep of time is not well understood. Research Design This qualitative study employs historical analysis. It draws on archival documents, school board and provincial government records, and pertinent secondary sources. Conclusions/Recommendations There are a few identifiable general trends in special education policy development historically. Prior to 1970, local school officials were empowered to make many changes in special education policy; since 1970, this ability has been eroded in favor of centralized policy making, with parents and others possessing some ability to influence policy change. Today, policy makers must balance different contextual factors and stakeholder interests that have developed over time, not least of all the interests of teachers who have been important partners to policy implementation. The degree of “policy talk” about inclusion, and about a social model of disability, has exceeded the degree to which either has actually been implemented. Rather, a continuum of services model that hybridizes segregated and inclusive settings continues today to characterize special education policies, as it has since the 1970s. Money matters in special education policy, especially when it is tied to specific policy options and can therefore influence local policy decisions, but also depending on whether the power to raise and disburse funds is held locally or centrally.
Undocumented Students’ Experiences with Microaggressions during Their College Choice Process
Authors: Nienhusser H. Kenny , Vega Blanca E. , Carquin Mariella Cristina Saavedra 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Although millions of undocumented students are enrolled in and guaranteed free public K—12 education, their postsecondary education opportunities are stifled. Some of the barriers encountered by undocumented students include discriminatory public policies, limited availability of information and insensitive college choice processes, and fear of immigration status disclosure. Research Question The research question that guided this study was: How, if at all, do undocumented students experience microaggressions during their college choice process ? Research Participants A total of 15 undocumented immigrants were interviewed and consisted of 10 females and 5 males. Twelve identified as Latina/o and 3 as Asian. Two participants never enrolled in postsecondary education. Of the 13 participants who enrolled in postsecondary education, 12 enrolled in a New York State public institution (one attended a public out-of-state university). Nine of the interviewees initially attended a four-year college, and 4 originally enrolled in a two-year institution. Research Design This qualitative phenomenological study included in-depth semistructured interviews with 15 undocumented students who attended New York City high schools. Findings The findings identify nine themes in the area of microaggressions that research participants faced during their college choice process: discriminatory financial aid policies, restricted college choice information, constrained life opportunities, denial of college opportunities, insensitive behaviors, insensitive college choice processes, narrowed college expectations, fear of coming out, and undocumented immigrant blindness. Every respondent who participated in our study encountered multiple episodes of these microaggressions in their college choice process. We found that the participants faced cumulative and negative messages, behaviors, and environmental cues that pervaded their college choice process. Also, seemingly well-intentioned institutional agents often delivered many of the microaggressions encountered by students. Conclusions The authors conclude the need to eliminate discriminatory postsecondary education policies that shape the educational journeys of undocumented students. Also, they challenge education institutional agents to create environments and processes that better address undocumented students’ college access needs.
The Shaping of Policy: Exploring the Context, Contradictions, and Contours of Privilege in Milliken v. Bradley, over 40 Years Later
Authors: Green Terrance L. , Gooden Mark A. 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Milliken v. Bradley (1974) (Milliken I) is a pivotal Supreme Court case that halted a metropolitan school desegregation remedy between Detroit and 53 surrounding suburban school districts. In a 5-4 Supreme Court decision, the Milliken ruling was a significant retraction from the landmark Brown v. Board (1954) (Brown I) ruling that 20 years earlier deemed state imposed racially segregated schools unequal and unconstitutional. The effects of the Milliken decision neutralized school desegregation efforts in the United States, especially in the North. We, therefore, revisit the significance of Milliken over 40 years later. Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the context and contradictions in Milliken. In doing so, we review select federal school desegregation cases that informed the judicial and plaintiff's thinking in Milliken, and provide an in-depth description of the city of Detroit and Detroit Public Schools, prior to and during Milliken. We also analyze how the Milliken decision reinforced what we refer to as the “contours of privilege” as well as materialized property rights for white, suburban students and school districts at the expense of African American students in Detroit Public Schools. Research Design and Methods A qualitative content analysis was employed for this study. Our analysis draws on a review of existing literature about Milliken beginning in 1970, policy documents, legal filings, and local newspaper articles on the case. We use critical race theory's whiteness as property to guide this analysis. Conclusion The findings suggest that the Supreme Court protected white, suburban students’ educational rights and interests in Milliken. This was accomplished through the contours of privilege as reproduced in Milliken, which include acknowledging inequity but not disturbing racially inequitable systems, restricting black educational rights and perpetuating white privilege, and exercising the right to maintain dual educational systems. The study concludes with policy implications in light of Milliken.
Analysis of the National Science Foundation's Discovery Research K–12 on Mathematics and Science Education for English Learners
Authors: Caswell Linda , Martinez Alina , Lee Okhee , Berns Barbara Brauner , Rhodes Hilary 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Educational and societal phenomena can converge to draw attention to a new focus, such as English Learners (ELs) and science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), and then trigger new research interests. A funding program can play a critical role in shaping these new research interests by prioritizing specific research topics and designs or by requiring particular specializations of researchers. Purpose of the Study The study examined whether funding provided through the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Discovery Research K-12 (DR K-12) program has made a unique contribution to the research in the fields of science and mathematics education for ELs. Research Design This study compared the portfolio of DR K–12 projects focusing on EL science and mathematics education to the literature of non DR K-12 projects in terms of research topics, design, methods, scale, samples, and outcomes. The study also examined the disciplinary expertise of the DR K-12 investigators. Data Collection and Analysis The primary method used in this study was content analyses of the portfolio of DR K-12 projects and the literature of non DR K-12 projects in the fields of EL science and mathematics education. To develop comprehensive lists of the literature in these fields, two separate literature searches were conducted. Finally, content analyses of the curricula vitae of the DR K–12 projects’ PIs and co-PIs were undertaken. Results The DR K–12 EL projects in both science and mathematics education have made contributions to their respective fields in three areas in particular: (1) their use of mixed methods and experimental designs; (2) their emphasis on instruction and teacher preparation; and (3) their focus on middle school students. In addition, DR K-12 investigators are making connections across the mathematics/science content and EL/English Language Arts (ELA) areas and are incorporating expertise from both areas, often through the addition of advisory group members. Conclusions The results from this comparative study suggest that funding programs can shape research agendas by providing deliberate and targeted funding for priority areas. Federal government agencies should continue providing this funding to support much-needed research that is a necessary step to improving the quality of science and mathematics education for ELs.
Educational Expectations and Progress of Community College Students: Does Socialization Matter?
Authors: Wang Xueli 
Published: November 2021

Background While literature is abundant on factors associated with community college student outcomes, limited attention has been paid to what shapes educational expectations after students enroll, and how these expectations are linked to educational progress. To address this gap, Weidman's (1989) undergraduate socialization theory is particularly relevant, as this theory not only applies to traditional-age college students, but also to adults of varying ages who constantly adapt themselves to changing circumstances, which is characteristic of community college students. Purpose Informed by Weidman's theory, this study examines the following questions: First, what sources of socialization play a role in shaping students’ educational expectations after they enroll at a community college? Second, in what ways are educational expectations and sources of socialization related to students’ educational progress? Research Design The research involves an analytical sample of 979 students enrolled at a public two-year college in a Midwestern state in spring 2012. The study relies on survey data, collected using the Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE), along with students’ enrollment records. Factor analyses were first applied to extract a theoretically sound factor structure aligned with the study's conceptual underpinning, followed by a structural equation modeling analysis to answer the two research questions. Findings The undergraduate socialization model shows validity based on the study's sample. Results indicate that socialization processes underlying transfer expectations versus completion expectations are distinct from each other. While socialization that concentrates on the interpersonal, social domain tends to foster student expectations to complete a community college credential, these socialization sources do not matter much for promoting transfer expectations, which are largely subject to influences of socialization processes with a distinct academic focus. In addition, both completion and transfer expectations positively influenced educational progress. When educational expectations were accounted for, only a limited number of socialization sources exerted a direct influence on educational progress, as part of the socialization effect was conveyed indirectly through educational and, particularly, completion expectations. Conclusions This study reveals the value of understanding community college students’ educational expectations and progress through the lens of socialization. Findings from this research illuminate the critical need to differentiate among varieties of educational expectations and understand the different socialization processes shaping these expectations. In addition, community college leaders should focus on cultivating positive educational expectations and beliefs, as well as assisting students in finding the paths aligned with their expectations.
Competing Priorities and Challenges: Principal Leadership for Social Justice along the U.S.–Mexico Border
Authors: Dematthews David Edward 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Previous research has focused on the importance of a social justice leadership approach to improve schools that serve marginalized students, but less attention has been focused on potential dilemmas associated with social justice leadership and the ways in which principals prioritize when dilemmas or challenges arise. Principals may be frequently confronting challenges and dilemmas when they lead for social justice, especially considering the pressures and unintended consequences of high-stakes accountability, dwindling school budgets, and increased teacher turnover rates. By examining the nature of social justice leadership in a high-poverty elementary school located along the U.S./Texas–Mexico border, this study explores how certain facets of social justice generate contradictions, tradeoffs, and dilemmas that have implications for marginalized student groups and communities. Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore one principal's enactment of social justice leadership, particularly in relation to how emergent circumstances influence the way social justice challenges are identified, prioritized, and addressed. Setting Data were collected at one predominantly Hispanic serving elementary school located along the border: Saenz Elementary Schools (pseudonym). Research Design In this study, I employed a qualitative case study methodology and conducted ongoing interviews and observations with the school's principal (Ms. Uribe) to see how she enacted social justice leadership over the course of one school year. Additionally, I interviewed and observed teachers, the school's assistant principal, and other staff to explore alternative perspectives of Ms. Uribe's leadership. Findings Findings reveal the specific leadership actions Ms. Uribe applied to create a more socially just school, but also highlights the complicated nature of social justice leadership. Contextual circumstances associated with the school and community, as well as Ms. Uribe's own personal and professional experiences and worldviews influenced the way she identified, prioritized, and addressed the many social justice challenges present in her school. Conclusions/Recommendations Major conclusions and recommendations from this study include the importance to further explore the way school context and principal experience influence the enactment of social justice leadership, the importance of ongoing critical refection for school leaders addressing issues of marginalization, and the necessity to further consider how principal preparation programs can prepare principals with the knowledge, expertise, experience, and habits of mind to recognize and grapple with competing facets of social justice as well as the challenges and barriers to educational equity.
Determinants of Intent to Transfer among Black Male Community College Students: A Multinomial, Multilevel Investigation of Student Engagement
Authors: Wood J. Luke , Palmer Robert T. 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Transfer is a core function of community colleges; this is a critical point given that these institutions serve as the primary pathway into postsecondary education for Black men. However, too few Black men identify transfer as a primary goal and/or eventually transfer to a 4-year college or university. Purpose Using Nora and Rendón's (1990) research on transfer predisposition as a theoretical guide, this study investigated determinants of Black male community college students’ predisposition to transfer from a community college to a 4-year university. This research sought to determine whether student-level and institutional-level measures of engagement were predictive of transfer intent. This research also examined whether engagement predictors at the student level had randomly varying slopes across colleges. Population This study employed a quantitative analysis of secondary data from the Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE). A total of 11,384 Black men nested within 259 community colleges were included in the analytic sample. Research Design Data were analyzed using multilevel, multinomial logistic regression. Students’ predisposition to transfer was modeled in three categories, transfer as a primary goal, secondary goal, or not a goal. The first analysis examined predictors of students’ intent to transfer using student-level variables while the second analysis added institutional-level variables. In the third analysis, the researchers’ constructed random slopes and intercepts models to investigate whether the student-level engagement slopes on the outcome differed across the nested structure. Findings/Results Students with transfer as a primary goal (as opposed to not being a goal) were more likely to be younger, have earned more credits, non-first-generation, full-time enroll-ees, and to have taken developmental education courses. They were also more likely to spend more hours per week studying and involved in extracurricular activities. These students were also more engaged in active and collaborative learning and used student services on campus. Conclusions/Recommendations This research has shown that that the factors influencing Black men's predisposition toward transfer largely mirror that of their White and Hispanic peers. Findings from this study demonstrated that social integration was a positive predictor of students’ intent to transfer; the finding diverges from prior research on Black men in the community college, which have shown social integration to serve as a negative predictor of success outcomes.
Socioeconomic Disparities in the Use of College Admission-Enhancing Strategies among High School Seniors from the 1990s to 2000s
Authors: Wells Ryan , Wolniak Gregory , Engberg Marc , Manly Catherine A. 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Researchers have examined a number of admission-enhancing strategies utilized by students to strengthen their college applications. These academic and nonacademic strategies represent a range of opportunities differentially accessed by students, which can bolster their college profiles and increase their overall likelihood of college enrollment. Purpose/Objective The purpose of this study is to determine if the relationship between students’ socioeconomic status (SES) and use of admission-enhancing strategies changed over time. We address the following specific research questions: • To what extent were there differences in the use of admission-enhancing strategies between low- and high-SES students in the 1990s and 2000s? • To what extent did these relationships between SES and the use of admission-enhancing strategies differ by academic achievement? • To what extent did SES gaps increase, decrease, or remain stable between the 1990s and the 2000s? Research Design This study utilized a correlational design, via secondary data analysis. Specifically, the analytic plan for this study consisted of three main parts: 1) descriptive statistics, including analyses of mean differences and change over time, 2) logistic regression to determine how SES predicts the use of college admission-enhancing strategies separately by cohort, and 3) comparison of predicted probabilities of strategy use by SES within cohorts, as well as over time between cohorts. Findings/Results SES is related to greater use of these strategies among high school students, and this relationship has been maintained over time. Additionally, specifically comparing changes in the gap of strategy use between high- and low-SES students reveals that inequality has not only been maintained, but has increased over time. Conclusions/Recommendations Findings contribute to a growing body of literature examining educational inequalities. Results also imply that admissions processes and decisions should be conducted with awareness of the stratifying nature of these admission-enhancing strategies. The findings also lead to the suggestion that more programs are needed that foster greater involvement among low-SES students in activities that will be seen as desirable by selective institutions and aid them in going to a college of their choice.
The Dewey School as Triumph, Tragedy, and Misunderstood: Exploring the Myths and Historiography of the University of Chicago Laboratory School
Authors: Fallace Thomas , Fantozzi Victoria 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context Over the last century, perhaps no school in American history has been studied more than John Dewey's Laboratory School at the University of Chicago (1896–1904). Scholars have published dozens of articles, books, essays, and assessments of a school that existed for only seven and a half years. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study This article reviews the extensive firsthand accounts and historiography of the famed school. In the first section, the authors trace the published accounts of those who experienced the Dewey School firsthand between 1895 and 1904. In the second section, the authors review accounts of the school by contemporaries, reformers, and historians between 1904 and 2014, focusing on three historiographical areas: the events surrounding the closing of the school, the rationale underlying its curriculum, and the impact of the experiment on U.S. schools. In the third section, the authors argue that most accounts of the Dewey School convey one of three historiographical myths: the Dewey School as misunderstood; the Dewey School as triumph, and/or the Dewey School as tragedy. Research Design A historiographical essay is a narrative and analytical account of what has been written on a particular historical topic. Following this methodology, the authors are less concerned with establishing what happened at the Dewey School, than they were with how the school was analyzed and interpreted by contemporaries and historians over the past 120 years. Conclusions/Recommendations The authors analyze each myth to conclude that Dewey only subscribed to the myth of the Dewey School as misunderstood, while the other two were historiographical constructions created by Dewey's contemporaries and historians.