bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What Is a Cartel and What Does it Do?
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses cartels in detail. A cartel is a secret agreement or arrangement between firms or individuals who would otherwise compete to increase their profits by manipulating the market. There are three general types of illegal cartels: sellers’, buyers’, and bid-rigging cartels. A suppliers’ or sellers’ cartel is where a group of firms who would have otherwise competed agree to increase the selling price of the inputs, intermediate and/or final goods, and services they sell. Meanwhile, a buyers’ cartel is where a group of buyers who would otherwise have competed agree to reduce the prices they pay for the goods and services they purchase. A bid-rigging cartel is when sellers who would otherwise compete secretly agree to raise prices and other terms to those who acquire their products or services through a tendering or bidding process. However, there are also legal cartels such as export cartels. Ultimately, the main abuse in cartels is charging a price different from that which would have been charged in the absence of the collusive arrangements.
Interest
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses interest, which is awarded ‘to compensate a claimant from being kept out of his money’. Pre-judgment interest rates set by statute or the courts vary across the EU. In English law, where the claimant can prove loss of interest, it will be compensated as a damage claim. In some cases, the claimant has sought interest calculated using the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC). Otherwise, the court has discretion to apply a judicial simple interest rate for the whole or part of the damage award, usually at the Bank of England Base rate plus 1% to 4%. The award of interest can be significant in a competition claim were the cartel has operated for many years and during periods of high interest rates. At common law, however, interest was not payable on damages; there were exceptions in equity.
Simulation Models
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the simulation approaches. A simulation is a structural economic model which seeks to replicate the pricing and competitive relationships in the industry to calculate the non-infringement prices and quantities. The simplest simulation is the use of elasticities to the volume effect as has been proposed in the Pass-on Guidelines. More technical approaches use the economist’s oligopoly models based on a series of equations, parameters, and derivations to calculate the overcharges and related pass-on and volume effects. The major drawbacks of simulations are that they are often fairly technical, based on models and ‘unrealistic assumptions’, and inevitably do not draw on and are easily aligned with the documentary and factual evidence adduced at trial. As a result, they are most likely not to be given much weight by the court.
Expert Evidence
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores expert evidence in English courts. Economists are used as experts, together with accountants, in competition damage cases to give opinion evidence on competition issues and quantification of damages. Experts have a duty to the court which overrides that to their clients to give independent and objective evidence. In England and Wales, there are strict rules regarding expert evidence in court. They are governed by expert rules and the rules of evidence. The chapter then details the process and the role played by experts in competition litigation. Litigation is an uncertain affair with no guaranteed outcome. Experts have a responsibility and legal duty to prepare a professional report and give evidence under oath at trial. Where an expert has been negligent and not fulfilled their duty to the court, they may be responsible for the costs incurred by the other side in dealing with their defective evidence.
The Nature and Significance of International Investment
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains the nature and significance of international investments and investors. All international investment treaties focus on two subjects: (1) investments, particularly international or ‘foreign investments’; and (2) investors, especially international or ‘foreign investors’. An understanding of these two phenomena is fundamental to understanding the growing role and significance of investment treaties in international economic life. The meaning of the term ‘investment’ at its most basic level is the commitment of resources by a physical or legal person to a specific purpose in order to earn a profit or to gain a return. Meanwhile, there are four basic categories of investors: private investors; state investors; international organizations; and mixed enterprises. The chapter then looks at the different forms of international investment.
The Process of Termination
Authors: Stannard John E , Capper David 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses what termination is, how it should be described, and what it involves. The concept of termination is not easy to define, not least because of the inconsistent terminology used by the courts and by commentators, and also because of the overlap existing between termination itself and other concepts that are akin to it. Termination is one way in which a party to a contract is relieved of his undertaking to do that which he has agreed to do but has not yet done. There are three key factors distinguishing termination from other types of discharge, the first being that it requires proof of a serious breach by the party in default, the second being that it normally occurs only at the option of the innocent party, and the third that it leaves the party in default liable in damages. Though termination is traditionally described as involving the termination of the contract as a whole, it is perfectly possible for a contract to be terminated in part. The chapter then looks at the requirement of election in termination for breach. It also considers how the right to terminate may be limited.
Repudiation and Anticipatory Breach
Authors: Stannard John E , Capper David 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter studies repudiation and anticipatory breach. The essence of repudiation is the absence of readiness and willingness by the defaulting party to perform their obligations under the contract. Though the word ‘repudiation’ suggests an unwillingness or refusal to perform, it can also include the situation in which the defaulting party, though perfectly willing to perform when the time comes, is incapable of doing so. The chapter then looks at modes of repudiation. The two key questions in deciding whether repudiation has taken place are: (1) the ratio quantitatively which the breach bears to the contract as a whole, and (2) the degree of probability or improbability that such a breach will be repeated. The chapter also considers the law regarding the issue of notices making time of the essence.
Restitutionary Relief
Authors: Stannard John E , Capper David 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses several inter-connected instances where the non-breaching party in a contract terminated for the other's breach might seek restitutionary relief under the law of unjust enrichment as opposed to damages for breach of contract. For claims where the claimant seeks to recover benefits transferred under a contract now terminated, it is still conventional to distinguish between claims for restitution of money benefits and claims for non-money benefits. The chapter also differentiates restitution for breach of contract from restitution following breach of contract. It then turns to situations where the party that committed the breach is seeking restitution of money and non-money benefits transferred under the contract. The first question to be addressed is why that breach does not of itself bar any restitutionary claim.
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
Authors: Kittichaisaree Kriangsak 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) plays a central role as a dispute settlement mechanism for the international law of the sea. This book provides a unique insight into its inner workings exploring both its limitations and its unutilized potentials. New fields such as sea-level rise and the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction play important roles in the ever-expanding scope of the law of the sea. The book charts the evolution of ITLOS and the role it continues to play in international law. It introduces the reader to the historical and legal context for the discussion of ITLOS’s place within this dispute settlement regime, as well as its relationship and interaction with the other choices of dispute settlement mechanisms. It is an invaluable resource for law students, practising lawyers, judges, government and international officials, academics, and those interested in law of the sea.
Twitter as social media arena for polarised social representations about the (im)migration: The controversial discourse in the Italian and international political frame
Authors: de Rosa Annamaria Silvana , Bocci Elena , Bonito Mattia , Salvati Marco 
Published: February 2021

AbstractGrounded in social representation theory and its empirical investigation into the ‘social arena’, inspired by the ‘modelling paradigmatic approach’, the research presented in this article is part of a larger project aimed at reconstructing the ‘multi-voice’, and ‘multi-agent’ discourse about (im)migration. Specifically, this contribution’s focus is on the exploration of shaping and sharing social representations about (im)migrants through communication via the social medium ‘Twitter’. A total of 1,958 tweets (967 Italian and 991 English tweets) were analysed through Systeme Portable Pour L’Analyse Des Donnees Textuelles [Portable System for Textual Data Analysis]SPAD in two lexical correspondence analyses. The results show a dichotomous discourse organising a semantic space structured around five different factors for the two distinct Twitter corpora: both clearly show polarised social representations of ‘immigrants–migrants’, leading to exclusion–inclusion policies depending on the discursive agent’s ideological affiliation in the Italian and the international political frame. Used as a propaganda tool, Twitter echoes the related pro- and anti-immigration polemical representations of opposite political leaders in posts that are positioned differently in relation to the progressive/conservative ideology.
A stripped-companion origin for Be stars: clues from the putative black holes HR 6819 and LB-1
Authors: El-Badry Kareem , Quataert Eliot 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
HR 6819 is a bright (V = 5.36), blue star recently proposed to be a triple containing a detached black hole (BH). We show that the system is a binary and does not contain a BH. Using spectral decomposition, we disentangle the observed composite spectra into two components: a rapidly rotating Be star and a slowly rotating B star with low surface gravity (log g ≈ 2.75). Both stars show periodic radial velocity (RV) variability, but the RV semi-amplitude of the B star’s orbit is $K_{\rm B}= (62.7 \pm 1)\, \rm km\, s^{-1}$, while that of the Be star is only $K_{\rm Be} = (4.5\pm 2)\, \rm km\, s^{-1}$. This implies that the B star is less massive by at least a factor of 10. The surface abundances of the B star bear imprints of CNO burning. We argue that the B star is a bloated, recently stripped helium star with mass ${\approx}0.5\, \mathrm{ M}_{\odot }$ that is currently contracting to become a hot subdwarf. The orbital motion of the Be star obviates the need for a BH to explain the B star’s motion. A stripped-star model reproduces the observed luminosity of the system, while a normal star with the B star’s temperature and gravity would be more than 10 times too luminous. HR 6819 and the binary LB-1 probably formed through similar channels. We use MESA (Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics) models to investigate their evolutionary history, finding that they likely formed from intermediate-mass ($3\!-\!7\, \mathrm{ M}_{\odot }$) primaries stripped by slightly lower-mass secondaries and are progenitors to Be + sdOB binaries such as ϕ Persei. The lifetime of their current evolutionary phase is on average 2 × 105 yr, of the order of half a per cent of the total lifetime of the Be phase. This implies that many Be stars have hot subdwarf and white dwarf companions, and that a substantial fraction ($20\!-\!100{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$) of field Be stars form through accretion of material from a binary companion.
Characterizing the target selection pipeline for the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument Bright Galaxy Survey
Authors: Ruiz-Macias Omar , Zarrouk Pauline , Cole Shaun , Baugh Carlton M , Norberg Peder , Lucey John , Dey Arjun , Eisenstein Daniel J , Doel Peter , Gaztañaga Enrique , Hahn ChangHoon , Kehoe Robert , Kitanidis Ellie , Landriau Martin , Lang Dustin , Moustakas John , Myers Adam D , Prada Francisco , Schubnell Michael , Weinberg David H , Wilson M J 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
We present the steps taken to produce a reliable and complete input galaxy catalogue for the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) Bright Galaxy Survey (BGS) using the photometric Legacy Survey DR8 DECam. We analyse some of the main issues faced in the selection of targets for the DESI BGS, such as star–galaxy separation, contamination by fragmented stars and bright galaxies. Our pipeline utilizes a new way to select BGS galaxies using Gaia photometry and we implement geometrical and photometric masks that reduce the number of spurious objects. The resulting catalogue is cross-matched with the Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey to assess the completeness of the galaxy catalogue and the performance of the target selection. We also validate the clustering of the sources in our BGS catalogue by comparing with mock catalogues and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) data. Finally, the robustness of the BGS selection criteria is assessed by quantifying the dependence of the target galaxy density on imaging and other properties. The largest systematic correlation we find is a 7 per cent suppression of the target density in regions of high stellar density.
Cosmic-ray current-driven instabilities – revisiting environmental conditions
Authors: Reville Brian , Giacinti Gwenael , Scott Robyn 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
The growth of magnetohydrodynamic fluctuations relevant to cosmic-ray (CR) confinement in and near their sources, and the effects of local plasma conditions is revisited. We consider cases where CRs penetrate a medium which may contain a fraction of neutral particles, and explore the possible effects of high-order CR anisotropies. An algorithm for calculating the dispersion relation for arbitrary distributions, and anisotropies is presented, and a general solution for power-law cosmic-ray distributions is provided. Implications for the resulting instabilities near to strong Galactic CR sources are discussed. We argue that CR streaming in weakly ionized plasmas eliminates the need for the existence of an evanescent band in the dispersion relation, a conclusion which may be confirmed by gamma-ray observations. The necessity for additional multiscale numerical simulations is highlighted, as understanding the non-linear behaviour is crucial.
Gravitational waves from mountains in newly born millisecond magnetars
Authors: Sur Ankan , Haskell Brynmor 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we study the spin-evolution and gravitational-wave luminosity of a newly born millisecond magnetar, formed either after the collapse of a massive star or after the merger of two neutron stars. In both cases, we consider the effect of fallback accretion; and consider the evolution of the system due to the different torques acting on the star, namely the spin-up torque due to accretion and spin-down torques due to magnetic dipole radiation, neutrino emission, and gravitational-wave emission linked to the formation of a ‘mountain’ on the accretion poles. Initially, the spin period is mostly affected by the dipole radiation, but at later times, accretion spin the star up rapidly. We find that a magnetar formed after the collapse of a massive star can accrete up to 1 M⊙, and survive on the order of 50 s before collapsing to a black hole. The gravitational-wave strain, for an object located at 1 Mpc, is hc ∼ 10−23 at kHz frequencies, making this a potential target for next-generation ground-based detectors. A magnetar formed after a binary neutron star merger, on the other hand, accretes at the most 0.2 M⊙ and emits gravitational waves with a lower maximum strain of the order of hc ∼ 10−24, but also survives for much longer times, and may possibly be associated with the X-ray plateau observed in the light curve of a number of short gamma-ray burst.
Magnetically modified spherical accretion in GRMHD: reconnection-driven convection and jet propagation
Authors: Ressler S M , Quataert E , White C J , Blaes O 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
We present 3D general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations of zero angular momentum accretion around a rapidly rotating black hole, modified by the presence of initially uniform magnetic fields. We consider several angles between the magnetic field direction and the black hole spin. In the resulting flows, the mid-plane dynamics are governed by magnetic reconnection-driven turbulence in a magnetically arrested (or a nearly arrested) state. Electromagnetic jets with outflow efficiencies ∼10–200 per cent occupy the polar regions, reaching several hundred gravitational radii before they dissipate due to the kink instability. The jet directions fluctuate in time and can be tilted by as much as ∼30○ with respect to black hole spin, but this tilt does not depend strongly on the tilt of the initial magnetic field. A jet forms even when there is no initial net vertical magnetic flux since turbulent, horizon-scale fluctuations can generate a net vertical field locally. Peak jet power is obtained for an initial magnetic field tilted by 40○–80○ with respect to the black hole spin because this maximizes the amount of magnetic flux that can reach the black hole. These simulations may be a reasonable model for low luminosity black hole accretion flows such as Sgr A* or M87.
A Comprehensive Evolutionary Scenario of Cell Division and Associated Processes in the Firmicutes
Authors: Garcia Pierre S , Duchemin Wandrille , Flandrois Jean-Pierre , Gribaldo Simonetta , Grangeasse Christophe , Brochier-Armanet Céline 
Published: February 2021

AbstractThe cell cycle is a fundamental process that has been extensively studied in bacteria. However, many of its components and their interactions with machineries involved in other cellular processes are poorly understood. Furthermore, most knowledge relies on the study of a few models, but the real diversity of the cell division apparatus and its evolution are largely unknown. Here, we present a massive in-silico analysis of cell division and associated processes in around 1,000 genomes of the Firmicutes, a major bacterial phylum encompassing models (i.e. Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus), as well as many important pathogens. We analyzed over 160 proteins by using an original approach combining phylogenetic reconciliation, phylogenetic profiles, and gene cluster survey. Our results reveal the presence of substantial differences among clades and pinpoints a number of evolutionary hotspots. In particular, the emergence of Bacilli coincides with an expansion of the gene repertoires involved in cell wall synthesis and remodeling. We also highlight major genomic rearrangements at the emergence of Streptococcaceae. We establish a functional network in Firmicutes that allows identifying new functional links inside one same process such as between FtsW (peptidoglycan polymerase) and a previously undescribed Penicilin-Binding Protein or between different processes, such as replication and cell wall synthesis. Finally, we identify new candidates involved in sporulation and cell wall synthesis. Our results provide a previously undescribed view on the diversity of the bacterial cell cycle, testable hypotheses for further experimental studies, and a methodological framework for the analysis of any other biological system.
Task-specific human capital and returns to specialization: evidence from association football
Authors: Kempa Karol 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This paper analyses returns to task specialization using a unique panel data set of professional football players in the German Bundesliga. Based on accumulated task-specific human capital, I measure whether a player is rather a specialist in one task or a generalist able to perform several tasks. Using OLS, fixed effects, and quantile regression methods (with individual fixed effects), I analyse the impact of specialization on remuneration. Differentiating by player role in team production, I find that core team members, i.e. starting players, exhibit positive returns to specialization, which increase at higher salary quantiles. In contrast, substitutes, in particular those in the lower half of the conditional salary distribution, seem to benefit from being generalists, which renders them more attractive as substitute players for their teams. The paper discusses implications of the findings for other labour market contexts.
Variation in financial protection and its association with health expenditure indicators: an analysis of low- and middle-income countries
Authors: Anjorin Seun S , Ayorinde Abimbola A , Abba Mustapha S , Oyebode Oyinlola O , Uthman Olalekan A 
Published: February 2021

Abstract

Background
An insight into variation in financial protection among countries and the underpinning factors associated with the variations observed will help to inform public health policy and practice.

Method
Secondary datasets from Global Health Expenditure Database and World Bank Development Indicators collected between 2000 and 2016 were used. Financial protection was measured in 75 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) using the sustainable development goals framework. Funnel plot charts were used to explore the variation, and regression models were used to measure associations.

Result
Fifty-three (67%) countries were within the 99% control limits indicating common-cause variation; 11 countries were above the upper control limit and 15 countries were below the lower control limit. In the fully adjusted model, country, spending on health relative to their economy had the strongest association with the variation in catastrophic spending. Every 1% increase in health spending relative to gross domestic product (GDP) was found to be associated with a reduction of 0.13% in the number of people that incurred catastrophic health spending.

Conclusion
There is substantial variation in financial protection, as measured by the number of people that incurred catastrophic health spending, in LMICs; a proportion of this could be explained by the difference in GDP and external health expenditure.