bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Multilateral Principle-Based Approach to the Restructuring of German Debts in 1953
Authors: de la Villa Laura 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter revisits the 1953 London Debt Agreement on German Debts (LDA). The LDA stands out from the rest of dispute settlements of that time because the restructuring of Germany’s debt overhang in a unified and orderly operation orchestrated by creditors’ governments. To understand how negotiators managed to reconcile different interests, this chapter concentrates on the innovative procedures of debt dispute adjudication designed by Allied Powers. I show that creditor states enforced a multilateral ‘principle-based’ approach in their restructuration of German debt. The principles that guided and facilitated the outcome of the LDA were: 1) capacity to pay and 2) equality of treatment between creditors. I argue that those principles were not only the result of Allied governments’ political considerations prevailing after the Second World War but that private creditors were, in fact, an important contributing force in shaping the procedure and outcome of the LDA. To be sure, the negotiations between Germany and foreign creditors took place under Allied control and according to the principles settled by foreign powers. However, in the post–Second World War context, creditors’ expectations of repayment were rather low. Anxious not to lose everything, bondholders were ready to accept losses on their investments that other creditors in different historical contexts would have deemed unacceptable. As such, this chapter documents an important fact about the norm of repayment: far from being stable and inevitable, the debt continuity norm is inherently political and historically variable.
The Benefits of Reverse-Engineering
Authors: Queloz Matthieu 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter motivates attempts to reverse-engineer the points of ideas by bringing out the various benefits that conceptual reverse-engineering promises to deliver. After working through seven general benefits of reverse-engineering, it focuses on three benefits that genealogical reverse-engineering is particularly well suited to delivering. First, genealogy can offer us explanation without reduction, combining naturalism and pragmatism into a non-reductive framework that can help us understand what led our ideas to shed the traces of their practical origins. Second, it can affect the space of reasons, subverting or vindicating our ideas by weakening or strengthening our confidence in them. And third, it can facilitate responsible conceptual engineering by alerting us to the multiplicity of functions we need to take into account as we revise our conceptual practices. Finally, the chapter situates pragmatic genealogy in a broader methodological landscape and examines how it can inform and be informed by other methods.
The History of Modern Japanese Law
Authors: Oda Hiroshi 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Japan built its modern legal system on the basis of the codes imported from Europe, namely Germany and France. After the Second World War, there was some influence of US law, e.g. the Constitution and the Code of Criminal Procedure. The new Constitution, which remained unchanged until today, has introduced significant changes in the political and social system of Japan. It was proclaimed that sovereignty rested with the people and not the emperor. The Diet elected by universal election became the supreme body of the state. Another major reform was triggered by the US-Japan Structural Impediments Talks in 1989–1990.
The Protection of Fundamental Human Rights
Authors: Oda Hiroshi 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In contrast to the previous Constitution, which was modelled on the 1850 Prussian constitution, the current Constitution of 1946 was heavily influenced by the US Constitution. In general, the courts has been instrumental in developing human rights law via constitutional review, particularly since the 1970s there have been a sizeable number of cases where the court found a law to be unconstitutional. The latest case involved a provision of the Civil Code which found the differential treatment of legitimate and illegitimate children in inheritance to be against equal treatment.
Property Law
Authors: Oda Hiroshi 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The Constitution protects property rights, but they are not ‘sacrosanct’. Property rights can be restricted on the ground of public welfare. Real security rights are covered in this part. Although real property rights are to be created by statutes only, in reality, there have been cases where property rights were created by case law on the basis of commercial practice. The Civil Code lists ten kinds of real rights. In addition to ownership, there are four types of real rights which allow a person to use another’s property: superficies, emphyteusis, servitude, and commonage. There are four types of real security rights: rights of retention, preferential rights, pledge, and hypothec.
Creating Cross-Sector Partnerships
Authors: Murthy Sudhir Rama , Colin-Jones Alastair 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Chapter 9 examines the creation of cross-sector partnerships. These partnerships involve building unconventional relations between organizations that have traditionally not worked closely together, in particular between businesses and non-profit organizations. To achieve this, the different objectives and participating organizations need to be acknowledged and reflected in appropriate key performance indicators. Cross-sector partnerships go through several stages of development that move from philanthropy to transactions in the form of reciprocal exchanges between the partners, integration of the values and objectives of the partners, and transformation of these into values at the societal or community rather than the individual partner level. Completing the process of a full transformation of the partnership takes time and requires a sufficiently long-horizon on the part of the partner organizations.
Solvay Chemical
Authors: Ellis Justine Esta , Colin-Jones Alastair , Solvay Jean-Marie , Washer Michel 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Solvay, a global chemical company headquartered in Belgium with revenues in 2017 of €10 billion is an example of a company that is seeking to adopt integrated reporting. It has developed a sustainable portfolio management tool to assist the company with reducing the environmental and social risks of its products and producing an integrated financial report. The tool maps the environmental footprint and costs and risks to society of all products, investments, research and innovation projects, and potential mergers and acquisitions. Solvay has enjoyed greater annual revenue growth rates in areas in which customers and consumers look to Solvay’s products to match their unmet social or environmental needs.
Divine Chocolate
Authors: Ellis Justine Esta , Colin-Jones Alastair , Hartzell Jamie 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Divine Chocolate, a UK-based Fairtrade confectionary company has an innovative ownership model in which a Ghanaian farmer-owned co-operative supplies its cocoa and owns 44 per cent of the Divine Chocolate business. The co-operative shares in the profits of the business and has a say in the running of the company, including being represented on the board of Divine Chocolate. It thereby seeks to address the numerous challenges facing the chocolate industry of farmers’ income, low productivity, price instability, child labour, and deforestation, driving many people to leave cocoa farming. Divine Chocolate has had a significant impact on practices in the chocolate industry and expects this to increase as its business expands.
Mahindra First Choice
Authors: Jackson Ben , Joy Genevieve 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Mahindra Firstchoice illustrates the process of ecosystem orchestration in the context of the second-hand car market in India. It describes how Mahindra Firstchoice mapped the ecosystem in relation to six key parties—consumers who were buyers, consumers who were sellers, car manufacturers, independent used-car dealers, independent car service workshops, and banks. It then identified the bottlenecks and ‘pain points’ that afflicted the six parties. The used-car market did not function properly because of lack of trust, information, and transparency and Mahindra Firstchoice worked with the parties to identify solutions to the market failures. These involved, amongst other things, the creation of third-party car inspection services, the establishment of a multi-brand car-dealer franchise, a warranty system, a bluebook of second-hand prices and transactions, and a car diagnosis and repair system.
Patentability and PHOSITA in the AI Era—A Japanese Perspective
Authors: Nakayama Ichiro 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Although it may not be clear whether AI may generate the invention autonomously without human intervention, recent development of AI produces inventions of AI technologies such as machine learning (deep learning). Inventors also have begun to use AI as a tool to help them create inventions. These AI-assisted inventions raise the urgent and practical issues of patentability such as patentable subject matter (patent eligibility), disclosure requirements, and inventive step (non-obviousness). The Japanese Patent Office (JPO) updated the Examination Handbook to address some of the issues. For instance, they discussed to what extent inventors should disclose in patent applications because AI as a black box does not explain how the problems are solved. However, the JPO did not pay much attention to the possibilities that not only inventors but also a person having ordinary skills in the art (PHOSITA) might use AI and PHOSITA with the aid of AI could create the inventions more easily, thereby raising the level of inventive step. This chapter critically reviews the JPO’s updated Handbook and discusses whether and how we can take into account the use of AI by PHOSITA in examining inventive step.
Copyright Protection for Software 2.0?
Authors: Chen Hao-Yun 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Traditionally, software programmers write a series of hard-coded rules to instruct a machine, step by step. However, with the ubiquity of neural networks, instead of giving specific instructions, programmers can write a skeleton of code to build a neural network structure, and then feed the machine with data sets, in order to have the machine write code by itself. Software containing the code written in this manner changes and evolves over time as new data sets are input and processed. This characteristic distinguishes it markedly from traditional software, and is partly the reason why it is referred to as ‘software 2.0’. Yet the vagueness of the scope of such software might make it ineligible for protection by copyright law. To properly understand and address this issue, this chapter will first review the current scope of computer program protection under copyright laws, and point out the potential inherent issues arising from the application of copyright law to software 2.0. After identifying related copyright law issues, this chapter will then examine the possible justification for protecting computer programs in the context of software 2.0, aiming to explore whether new exclusivity should be granted or not under copyright law, and if not, what alternatives are available to provide protection for the investment in the creation and maintenance of software 2.0.
Rethinking Software Protection
Authors: Slowinski Peter R 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The core of artificial intelligence (AI) applications is software of one sort or another. But while available data and computing power are important for the recent quantum leap in AI, there would not be any AI without computer programs or software. Therefore, the rise in importance of AI forces us to take—once again—a closer look at software protection through intellectual property (IP) rights, but it also offers us a chance to rethink this protection, and while perhaps not undoing the mistakes of the past, at least to adapt the protection so as not to increase the dysfunctionality that we have come to see in this area of law in recent decades. To be able to establish the best possible way to protect—or not to protect—the software in AI applications, this chapter starts with a short technical description of what AI is, with readers referred to other chapters in this book for a deeper analysis. It continues by identifying those parts of AI applications that constitute software to which legal software protection regimes may be applicable, before outlining those protection regimes, namely copyright and patents. The core part of the chapter analyses potential issues regarding software protection with respect to AI using specific examples from the fields of evolutionary algorithms and of machine learning. Finally, the chapter draws some conclusions regarding the future development of IP regimes with respect to AI.
Sine finibus
Authors: Lindheim Sara H. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter juxtaposes Ovid’s erotic and his exilic elegy. In Rome people could visit and examine Agrippa’s map; expansion and conquest sit hand in glove with powerful fantasies of imposing order, control, and hierarchy. In his early elegiac works Ovid contemplates feminine self-adornment. Luxury goods from foreign places flow to the capital, and the city’s female inhabitants seek out, then display on their bodies, the commodities of empire. Once the Ovidian women cloak themselves in the trappings of empire, however, they become one with their accoutrements. In the second part of the diptych, exilic Ovid, just like his adorned women before him, suffers in the face of absent fines. At the very margins of empire, in Tomis on the Black Sea, when he finds himself contemplating first-hand the permeable fines at the furthest edge of imperium, stable, fixed boundaries evaporate, and hybridization and melange take over. It becomes increasingly difficult to ascertain where imperium ends and the non-Roman world (not-yet-Roman world) begins. The Greeks, the Getans, the barbarians have already mixed together, and ultimately even the one Roman cannot sustain his Romanness.
Diagnosis of venous thromboembolism using clinical pretest probability rules, D-dimer assays, and imaging techniques
Authors: Thanavaro Joanne 
Published: April 2021

Abstract:
Venous thromboembolism is a significant clinical entity that includes two associated medical disorders: deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The goal of this article is to describe the optimal approach to evaluating venous thromboembolism including pretest probability clinical decision rules and appropriate testing to ensure an accurate diagnosis.
Cancer Risk in Individuals With Major Birth Defects: Large Nordic Population Based Case-Control Study Among Children, Adolescents, and Adults
Authors: Daltveit Dagrun Slettebø , Klungsøyr Kari , Engeland Anders , Ekbom Anders , Gissler Mika , Glimelius Ingrid , Grotmol Tom , Madanat-Harjuoja Laura , Ording Anne Gulbech , Sæther Solbjørg Makalani Myrtveit , Sørensen Henrik Toft , Troisi Rebecca , Bjørge Tone 
Published: April 2021

(Abstracted from BMJ 2020;371:m4060)
Birth defects are strong risk factors for childhood cancers. While past studies have identified associations between birth defects and cancer in children, few have looked at these associations into adulthood.
Lack of Displacement of the Fibula Is Not a Confirmation of Ankle Stability in Supination External Pattern Ankle Fractures
Authors: Shahien Amir A. , Tornetta Paul 
Published: April 2021

Objectives:
To evaluate and compare radiographic findings in supination external (SE)2 injuries versus stress (+) SE4 injuries.

Design:
Retrospective.

Setting:
Academic Level 1 trauma center.

Patients:
The study included 350 skeletally mature patients at a single Level 1 trauma center who presented with an isolated, Lauge-Hansen type supination-external rotation pattern, Weber B lateral malleolar fracture, OTA/AO 44-B.

Results:
We reviewed 350 patients (185 men and 165 women), 18–95 years of age (avg 45), with isolated SE pattern lateral malleolar fractures. One hundred nine had SE4 injuries [medial clear space (MCS) = 8.3 mm]. Two hundred forty-one ankles were stressed; 164 were unstable and 77 were stable (SE2). Avg MCS at presentation and on stress radiographs was 3.59 mm for the SE2 (no widening) and 3.86 mm and 5.94 mm for the stress (+) SE4 group, respectively. The fibular displacement for the SE2, stress (+) SE4, and SE4 groups was 1.5 (0–4.5), 3.5 (0–6.6), and 4.1 (0–30.5), respectively. Sixteen of the 77 (20%) SE2 and 24 of the 164 (15%) stress (+) SE4 fractures had no displacement of the fibula on the lateral view. Similarly, 53 of the 77 (68%) SE2 and 91 of the 164 (55%) stress (+) SE4 had ≤2 mm of fibular displacement Fibular displacement of ≤2 mm on the lateral radiograph corresponded with 0.69 sensitivity and only 0.37 positive predictive value for stable ankle mortise on stress examination.

Conclusions:
Previous work indicated that patients with an isolated SE pattern fibula fracture, a normal MCS, and ≤2 mm of fibular displacement on the lateral radiograph have a high rate of ankle stability, with a positive predictive value of approximately 97%. We were unable to confirm this finding because 15% of unstable ankles had 0 mm and 55% had ≤2 mm of fibular displacement. We conclude that stability may not be inferred from a lack of fibular displacement on the lateral view in this population of patients. If stability is to be determined, it must be tested irrespective of fibular displacement on the lateral radiograph.

Level of Evidence:
Diagnostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.
A Prospective, Randomized, Controlled, Two-Center, International Trial Comparing the Fibular Nail With Open Reduction and Internal Fixation for Unstable Ankle Fractures in Younger Patients
Authors: White Tim O. , Bugler Kate E. , Olsen Lucy , Lundholm Linea Holck , Holck Kim , Madsen Bjoern Lindegaard , Duckworth Andrew D. 
Published: April 2021

Objective:
To compare the outcome of fibular nailing with plate fixation for unstable fractures of the ankle in a cohort of patients under the age of 65 years.

Setting:
2 international university trauma centers.

Patients/Participants:
One hundred twenty-five patients who were 18–64 years of age with an acute unstable fracture of the ankle were included in the study.

Intervention:
Patients were randomized to fixation with a fibular nail (n = 63) or plate (n = 62) and were reviewed at 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years after surgery.

Main Outcome Measurements:
The primary outcome measure was the Olerud and Molander score at 1 year. Secondary outcomes were the rates of complications and reinterventions.

Results:
There was no difference between the 2 groups with respect to the primary outcome measure [mean Olerud and Molander score 78.4 in the nail group vs. 80.2 in the plate group (P = 0.621)]. Wound infections occurred in 2 patients who were treated with a nail and 9 patients who were treated with a plate, but this did not reach statistical significance. No difference was seen in the overall rate of complications and reinterventions between groups [28.6% in the nail group vs. 29% in the plate group (P = 0.955)].

Conclusions:
In younger patients with ankle fractures, no difference was found in the patient-reported outcome between fibular nail and plate fixation at 1 year after surgery. The fibular nail is an effective and safe option for the stabilization of ankle fractures in younger patients, although the benefits associated with reduced wound complications are not as apparent as for elderly patients.

Level of Evidence:
Therapeutic Level I. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.
Single-cell analysis of angiotensin-converting enzyme II expression in human kidneys and bladders reveals a potential route of 2019 novel coronavirus infection
Authors: Lin Wei , Fan Jue , Hu Long-Fei , Zhang Yan , Ooi Joshua D. , Meng Ting , Jin Peng , Ding Xiang , Peng Long-Kai , Song Lei , Tang Rong , Xiao Zhou , Ao Xiang , Xiao Xiang-Cheng , Zhou Qiao-Ling , Xiao Ping , Zhong Yong 
Published: April 2021

Abstract

Background:
Since 2019, a novel coronavirus named 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) has emerged worldwide. Apart from fever and respiratory complications, acute kidney injury has been observed in a few patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Furthermore, according to recent findings, the virus has been detected in urine. Angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) has been proposed to serve as the receptor for the entry of 2019-nCoV, which is the same as that for the severe acute respiratory syndrome. This study aimed to investigate the possible cause of kidney damage and the potential route of 2019-nCoV infection in the urinary system.

Methods:
We used both published kidney and bladder cell atlas data and new independent kidney single-cell RNA sequencing data generated in-house to evaluate ACE2 gene expression in all cell types in healthy kidneys and bladders. The Pearson correlation coefficients between ACE2 and all other genes were first generated. Then, genes with r values larger than 0.1 and P values smaller than 0.01 were deemed significant co-expression genes with ACE2.

Results:
Our results showed the enriched expression of ACE2 in all subtypes of proximal tubule (PT) cells of the kidney. ACE2 expression was found in 5.12%, 5.80%, and 14.38% of the proximal convoluted tubule cells, PT cells, and proximal straight tubule cells, respectively, in three published kidney cell atlas datasets. In addition, ACE2 expression was also confirmed in 12.05%, 6.80%, and 10.20% of cells of the proximal convoluted tubule, PT, and proximal straight tubule, respectively, in our own two healthy kidney samples. For the analysis of public data from three bladder samples, ACE2 expression was low but detectable in bladder epithelial cells. Only 0.25% and 1.28% of intermediate cells and umbrella cells, respectively, had ACE2 expression.

Conclusion:
This study has provided bioinformatics evidence of the potential route of 2019-nCoV infection in the urinary system.