bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The social cost of carbon dioxide under climate-economy feedbacks and temperature variability
Authors: Kikstra Jarmo S , Waidelich Paul , Rising James , Yumashev Dmitry , Hope Chris , Brierley Chris M 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
A key statistic describing climate change impacts is the ‘social cost of carbon dioxide’ (SCCO2), the projected cost to society of releasing an additional tonne of CO2. Cost-benefit integrated assessment models that estimate the SCCO2 lack robust representations of climate feedbacks, economy feedbacks, and climate extremes. We compare the PAGE-ICE model with the decade older PAGE09 and find that PAGE-ICE yields SCCO2 values about two times higher, because of its climate and economic updates. Climate feedbacks only account for a relatively minor increase compared to other updates. Extending PAGE-ICE with economy feedbacks demonstrates a manifold increase in the SCCO2 resulting from an empirically derived estimate of partially persistent economic damages. Both the economy feedbacks and other increases since PAGE09 are almost entirely due to higher damages in the Global South. Including an estimate of interannual temperature variability increases the width of the SCCO2 distribution, with particularly strong effects in the tails and a slight increase in the mean SCCO2. Our results highlight the large impacts of climate change if future adaptation does not exceed historical trends. Robust quantification of climate-economy feedbacks and climate extremes are demonstrated to be essential for estimating the SCCO2 and its uncertainty.
Rise and fall of vegetation annual primary production resilience to climate variability projected by a large ensemble of Earth System Models’ simulations
Authors: Zampieri Matteo , Grizzetti Bruna , Toreti Andrea , de Palma Pierluca , Collalti Alessio 
Published: September 2021

AbstractClimate change is affecting natural ecosystems and society. Anticipating its impacts on vegetation resilience is critical to estimate the ecosystems’ response to global changes and the reliability of the related ecosystem services, to support mitigation actions, and to define proper adaptation plans. Here, we compute the Annual Production Resilience Indicator from gross primary production (GPP) data simulated by a large ensemble of state-of-the-art Earth System Models involved in the last Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In theSustainability (Taking the Green Road)andMiddle of the Roadscenarios (ssp126 and ssp245), the areas where vegetation shows increasing GPP resilience are wider than the areas with decreasing resilience. The situation drastically reverses in theFossil-fuel Development (Taking the Highway)scenario (ssp585). Among the larger countries, Brazil is exposed to the highest risk of experiencing years with anomalously low GPP, especially in theTaking the Highwayscenario.
Causes of increased dissolved inorganic carbon in the subsurface layers in the western shelfbreak and high latitudes basin in the Arctic Pacific sector
Authors: Chu Gangzhi , Luo Xiaofan , Zheng Zijia , Zhao Wei , Wei Hao 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The expansion of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC)-rich water carried by the Pacific inflow creates a DIC maximum layer and exerts important influences on ocean acidification in the subsurface Arctic Ocean. This study analyzed shifts in the DIC distribution of the subsurface Arctic Ocean during 1998–2015 through hindcast simulation using a three-dimensional ocean-sea ice-biogeochemical model. For this purpose, the study was divided into two time periods (1998–2007 and 2008–2015). The results showed that the lower boundary layer of the Pacific Winter Water, defined as an isopycnal of 27 kg m−3, became deeper by ∼50 m in the central Canada Basin and expanded northward during 2008–2015 relative to 1998–2007. Accordingly, the subsurface DIC maximum layer deepened and expanded northwards into the Makarov Basin at high latitudes around 85° N. During 2008–2015, DIC concentrations, averaged over a 50–250 m water column, increased significantly in the Chukchi-East Siberian Shelfbreak and Makarov Basin. The DIC increase over the shelfbreak is mainly attributable to increased local biological degradation and the transportation of DIC-rich water from the Chukchi Shelf through Barrow Canyon. Estimates of the DIC budget indicated that advection controlled the increase in DIC content in the Makarov Basin during 2008–2015. This is attributed to the shift of the ocean circulation pattern, in which the ocean current along the Chukchi-East Siberian Slope to the Makarov Basin became stronger during 2008–2015, promoting the transport of DIC-rich Pacific Water into the Makarov Basin.
Rock engineering challenges in post-mining
Authors: Alber M 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
A legacy of environmental challenges with abandoned mines remains for many generations. The challenges include among others: (i) danger from sinkholes above shallow old mine workings and (ii) effects of rising water level in deep mines. Abandoned shallow mines show after > 20 years no damaging subsidence. Sinkholes, however, may still develop by structurally controlled failure. Main contributing factors are the geometry of an underground opening. Geological factors include the resource type (orebody or seam), height of rock overburden and cohesive soil, water flow and discontinuity spacing. The latter determines the bulking factor of the displaced roof and thus the maximum caving height. For steeply inclined openings it must be considered whether the caved rock moves down the dip and prevents self-stabilization. Rising water levels in deep abandoned mines may induce seismic events. Despite significant progress in monitoring and numerical methods there is still no appropriate geological or rock mechanical basis for explaining or predicting water pressure induced seismic events. Some research topics are suggested to approach this issue.
Reduction of natural disaster in Bulgaria by adopting DInSAR as a landslide monitoring approach
Authors: Milev N 
Published: September 2021

1. Extended abstract
Monitoring the actual behavior of landslides is essential for assessing and predicting the risk of disaster. However, since the target area is usually huge, monitoring has not often been conducted due to technical difficulties and cost problem.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a high-resolution radar device that is mounted on an artificial satellite. It transmits pulse waves to the Earth’s surface and receives the reflections. Differential Interferometric SAR (DInSAR) is a technique for detecting the displacements of the Earth’s surface using SAR data and it has the potential to be an efficient, effective, and economical method for monitoring the landslide behavior in extensive areas. The great advantage of DInSAR is that it can monitor huge areas without the use of any sensors on the ground surface.
The author is now conducting a project of application of DInSAR to monitor the landslide behavior in the northern Black Sea coast in Bulgaria as an international collaboration with Bulgaria, Japan, Indonesia and Croatia by members of ISRM.
The distribution maps and the time-transition of the displacements in that area were obtained over a period of six years starting in 2014. DInSAR was able to detect the typical landslide behavior in northern Black Sea coast. The results agreed well with the actual behavior described in the Bulgarian official report of landslides. This study can suggest that DInSAR will be a useful tool for long-term continuous landslide monitoring in the northern Black Sea coast. The SAR application project will continue.
Crack Initiation Evolution Under Triaxial Loading Conditions
Authors: Mutaz E , Serati M , Williams D J 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
In response to high demands for minerals and in the light of rapid advancement in instrumentation and testing facilities, mines, tunnels, and infrastructures are getting deeper at an annual increasing rate. For instance, Australia’s deepest Gwalia gold mine near Leonora is extending beyond 2 km depth in the hunt for more ore. In Europe, the Gotthard sub-alpine base tunnels exceeding 10 m wide are excavated at depths greater than 2 km. At depth, explosion-like fractures occur which are known as stress spalling, slabbing, or rock bursting due to high-pressure environment, high temperature, and low porosity. Although rockburst and spalling failures have both been observed in the past 50 years and investigated by numerous researchers, this phenomenon is yet mysterious and the physics behind is still not fully understood. Recent researches have suggested that the spalling strength can be related to the crack initiation point. Various methods have therefore been proposed to identify the crack initiation at laboratory scales based on stress-strain response. Limited models are also available based on applied stresses, but only under triaxial conditions. This study aims to compare the volumetric strain method (as a strain-based technique) with the improved Griffith and Hoek-Brown criterion (G-HB) (as a stress-based method) to determine the crack initiation stress threshold under triaxial loading conditions.
Development of a direct shear testing method using true triaxial apparatus
Authors: Asahina D , Takemura T , Kawakita S , Li Y 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Instability of faults and weak joints of rock mass is affected by underground three-dimensional loading conditions as well as hydrostatical fluid pressure within pores and cracks. This paper presents a direct shear testing method to characterize the shear behavior of Kimachi sandstones under various pore pressures and joint roughnesses. The direct shear test was conducted under three mutually perpendicular loads and with various levels of pore pressure through effective utilization of a true triaxial loading system. An overview of the experimental method, its advantages, and results showing the usefulness of the experiment were presented. Sample permeability in the direction parallel to the joint was measured during the shear test.
UCS field estimation of intact rock using the Schmidt hammer: A new empirical approach
Authors: Bolla A , Paronuzzi P 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
In the present work we discuss the results of a number of Schmidt hammer tests (total number of impacts N > 2,400) that were performed in situ on rock outcrops of different lithology (marl, calcareous marl, limestone, sandstone, quartz sandstone and rhyolite) that occur in Italy. Firstly, a specific field procedure to choose the reference value of the rebound index adopted to calculate UCS of intact rock is suggested. A relationship between L and N hammer rebound index values (RL and RN, respectively) is subsequently assessed. Considering the experimental datasets provided by a Schmidt hammer construction company and other research available in literature, a new exponential equation for the correlation between RL and UCS of intact rock has been derived. Considering the here-proposed RL-RN relationship, a new exponential correlation between RN and UCS has also been defined. The newly proposed procedure and relationships were successfully utilised to determine the intact rock strength of different rocks. The calculated UCS values are very similar when using both types of Schmidt hammer (L and N) and are generally in line with previous determinations from experimental data available in literature.
Effects of Excavation Damage on the Physical Properties of Rock Matrix
Authors: Kiuru R , Jacobsson L , Király D , Suikkanen J 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Posiva Oy has conducted investigations into excavation damage, including comprehensive laboratory testing of physical properties of rock specimens from excavation damaged rock mass. Laboratory testing was conducted on drill core specimens extracted from the excavated surface of a tunnel located at approximately 345 m depth in Olkiluoto, Finland. A total of 141 drill core specimens of three main rock types, a structurally isotropic coarse-grained pegmatoid (PGR) and structurally anisotropic veined gneiss (VGN) and diatexitic gneiss (DGN), were subjected to petrophysical testing, rock mechanics testing and petrographic analyses. Results from the various tests were subjected to rigorous statistical analysis in order to reveal the effects excavation damage has on the physical properties of the rock mass. Results of the study revealed changes that are credited to excavation damage in resistivity, S-wave velocity and various elastic properties of the rock specimens. Effects of excavation damage and the depth of the excavation damaged zone seem to be different to gneiss compared to pegmatoid. On microscopic level, the extent of excavation damaged zone appears to be 0.2 – 0.4 m depending on the measured property. This means that the deeper excavation damaged layer observed by geophysical surveys may be caused by larger scale fractures.
Analysis of size effects on the Hoek-Brown failure criterion of intact granite samples
Authors: González-Fernández M A , Estévez-Ventosa X , Alonso E , Alejano L R 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Scale or size effects of the uniaxial strength response in rock samples have been studied in detail in the past, so a good number of studies on different rocks are available. However, analyses on triaxial strength scale effects in rocks are scarce and they seldom address failure criteria (i.e. Hoek-Brown) evolution with specimen size. This obvious lack of data can be attributed to the difficulties of having available Hoek’s cell of different sizes. With the aim of filling this void, the authors have carried out sets of around 25 stress-strain triaxial tests on intact 30, 38, 54 and 84 mm diameter granite specimens, with various confinements (0.2 to 15 MPa), so reliable estimates of Hoek-Brown strength were obtained for every scale. We compare results with previous studies on UCS scale effects, showing a good correlation. Results suggest the studied granite undergoes a reverse size effect in terms of strength at low confinements. Indeed, the UCS increases as sample diameter increases up to around 50 mm, but decreases thereafter. However, results obtained put forward that this strength variation with scale tends to be mitigated for higher confinements where the scale effect may not be clearly recognised. So increased confinement can be associated with a decreased scale dependency component of strength.
Geomechanical characterization of an Italian complex formation with a block-in-matrix fabric
Authors: Napoli M L , Barbero M , Scavia C 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Melanges are chaotic and heterogeneous geological mixtures of strong rock blocks embedded in a weaker finer-grained matrix. These complex formations, often referred to as “bimrocks” (block-in-matrix rocks) and “bimsoils” (block-in-matrix soils), are characterized by a high spatial, dimensional and lithological variability. Such a variability, together with the presence of rock inclusions of different lithologies and dimensions, makes the collection of representative high-quality specimens for laboratory tests very challenging. As a consequence, the determination of the geomechanical properties of such geomaterials is extraordinarily problematic. In this paper a preliminary characterization of an Italian sedimentary chaotic melange is performed by means of several laboratory tests. In dry conditions it looks like a bimrock but it is very sensitive to water and will transform into a bimsoil if it comes into contact with water. Since conventional drilling methods could not be employed to collect the specimens, a manual coring had to be used. The irregular lumps obtained were then cut with a specially made cutting machine. Point load tests and uniaxial compression tests were performed on the melange specimens. Atterberg limits, grading curves and mineralogical analyses were further carried out on the matrix material, in order to characterize it. The paper comments on both the procedure of these tests and the results obtained.
Lithology, physical and mechanical characterization of Chinese Porphyry
Authors: Valido J A , Laz M M , Cáceres J M 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
A thorough characterisation of porphyry from China (Province of Fujian) was made, regarding three chromatic variants: red, brown and grey. The properties object of study are: petrographic, chemical and mineralogical analysis, real and apparent density as well as open and total porosity, water absorption at atmospheric pressure, resistance to salt crystallization, rupture energy, compressive strength, flexural strength, abrasion resistance and slip resistance. The achieved results remain into the expected ones for this kind of stone. Nevertheless, small differences were found according to the colour of the sample. Finally, those properties which are covered in the CE marking were compared with the representative values of commercial samples from countries as Italy, Argentina and Mexico.
A New Double Shearing Testing Equipment for the Shear Behaviour of Rocks and Discontinuities under Static and Shock Loads
Authors: Aydan ömer , Kodate Shinya , Iwata Naoki 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The dynamic mechanical behaviour and characteristics of rocks have been investigated using different techniques to evaluate the engineering structures under dynamic loads. The authors devised a new experimental apparatus to investigate the behaviour of rocks under shock waves. A new double shearing jig shown in figure 1 was developed and it was used to study the shearing of rocks and discontinuities under static and impact loading conditions using the device. Double shearing tests involve various rocks and discontinuities. The authors describe the experimental results under shock load and static loading and the results are compared with each other and their implications are discussed in rock mechanics and rock engineering. Although the system is quite simple, it is shown that it is very practical to study the shear behaviour of both intact rocks and discontinuities.
Q-slope application to coal mine stability
Authors: Bar N , McQuillan A 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The Q-slope classification system is used to assess the stability of excavated rock slopes and provide an indication of long-term stable, reinforcement-free slope angles. Q-slope is based on over 500 rock slope case studies from mines, road and rail cuts hosted in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks around the world. Q-slope has successfully been applied to slopes ranging from less than 5 m to more than 250 m in height in both civil and mining environments since its introduction in 2015. This paper describes the application of Q-slope to excavated coal mine slopes which are often hosted in complex, interbedded sedimentary strata. Q-slope application to coal mine slopes is compared to the likelihood of failure calculated by the Slope Stability Assessment Methodology (SSAM). A relationship between Q-slope and SSAM is also provided.
Effect of sampling interval on the output statistics of large 3D discontinuity surfaces generated by a multiscale random field model
Authors: Jeffery M , Huang J , Fityus S , Giacomini A , Buzzi O 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The scale effect is known to hinder reliable shear strength estimation of large-scale discontinuities. Recently, a stochastic approach was proposed to predict shear strength of large discontinuities directly at problem scale, thereby bypassing the scale effect. One aspect of the stochastic approach seeks to use the available roughness information from the 1D profile of a discontinuity to create a series of statistically representative 3D synthetic rock surfaces, via a rigorous random field model. The application procedure for producing such synthetic surfaces was validated at small scale; however, preliminary large-scale applications were not quite satisfactory. It was found that the absence of consideration for the multiscale nature of discontinuity roughness contributed to the issues encountered. This paper presents the details of the revised multiscale-based 2D LAS approach for producing representative large-scale synthetic surfaces with an emphasis on the effect of sampling interval, called segment length, on the statistics of the synthetic surfaces.
Methods for sampling discontinuity traces on rock mass 3D models: state of the art
Authors: Umili G 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Discontinuities are an intrinsic characteristic of rock masses, and they appear at every scale of a technical survey. Issues related to the procedure’s duration and the operator’s safety during the survey have encouraged the development of non-contact methods: images and digital models serve as representations of the rock mass for surveying the geometric features of discontinuities. In particular, various automatic and semi-automatic trace sampling methods were developed in the last decade, focused on estimating persistence and the degree of fracturing. A review of these methods is presented in this paper, highlighting their strengths and disadvantages.
The Unseen: A Case Study of Innovative Methods for Investigating Historic Mine Workings
Authors: Hartzenberg A , Joaquim A , Gibbons O , Coleman T 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Canadian mining operations have long been key contributors to economic vitality. This has resulted in Canada standing at the forefront of implementing best practices that relate to mine closure projects. In the case of closing historic mines this can be a particularly challenging task as often the level of information available is much less than active mines preparing to close. Closing historic mines provides an opportunity to apply new, and innovative methods to collect the data required to design and execute a successful mine closure plan. The site discussed in this study is in northern Canada and used interconnecting open pit and underground mining methods while in operation but has been closed for over half a century. Historic documents indicate that the mine was closed after a failure occurred at depth and some backfill material was lost. A pond currently exists where the open pit was located. This study is Rock Mechanics focused and discusses the methods used to assess the geometry and stability of the historic mine workings. The need for innovation stemmed from the limited historic plans and documentation that existed. Empirical methods suggested that the crown pillar at the site was unstable and should have failed, which did not align with on-site observations. Therefore, an alternative method of assessing the stability was required which involved undertaking bathymetric and three-dimensional sonar surveys to gain a better spatial understanding of the open pit and underground environment. The surveys confirmed that there were no visible signs of instability in the areas where the surveys were done. Advantages and limitations exist for the methods used to complete the survey and use the survey results during this investigation. These will be discussed in this paper.