bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Incorporating Vector Ecology and Life History into Disease Transmission Models: Insights from Tsetse (Glossina spp.)
Authors: English Sinead , Barreaux Antoine M.G. , Bonsall Michael B. , Hargrove John W. , Keeling Matt J. , Rock Kat S. , Vale Glyn A. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Accurate models are crucial for predicting the spread of vector-borne diseases, and for developing appropriate control policies. Simple models often ignore finer details of vector biology, commonly due to lack of pertinent field data. However, for tsetse (Glossina spp), vectors of the parasites causing debilitating human and livestock trypanosomiasis in Africa, extensive field and laboratory data facilitate improved models and predictions of vector control outcomes. We review studies on the effects of environmental temperature, and fly age and sex, on survival and reproduction in tsetse, savannah species particularly–emphasizing the extreme maternal investment and sensitivity of early life stages to high temperatures. We consider implications of these results for predictive models of tsetse populations, and of the transmission and control of African trypanosomiasis. We discuss how further research on vectors, and improved models of vector populations and disease dynamics, can lead to improved predictions of vector abundance and disease spread.
On the Fraught Internationalism of Intellectuals
Authors: Feichtinger Johannes 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates the idea and practice of intellectual cooperation as a tool of international governance: an innovation of the League’s International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC). It shows how Austria’s involvement decisively shaped both the ICIC’s agenda and the future European intellectual order. From the mid-1920s onwards, cooperation included the newly emerging area of cultural heritage and its institutions, such as libraries, archives, and museums, all of which had a rich imperial tradition in Vienna. The chapter also elaborates how interwar intellectual cooperation subsequently informed the strategy that UNESCO, ICIC’s successor organization, would adopt after 1945. This chapter provides a relational history of the development of international intellectual cooperation between Austria and the League of Nations, and aims to illuminate the opportunities, expectations, and realities of international intellectual cooperation from a regional, actor- and institution-oriented perspective. It reconstructs the ‘international’ of intellectual cooperation in the making.
An Epilogue to the Making and Unmaking of Central Europe and Global Order
Authors: Clavin Patricia 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This epilogue uses the key themes of the book as a means to sketch out three directions for future research. The first explores the relationship between international orders embodied in international institutions and global currents. The second theme stresses the League’s emergent interest in environmental questions, and recovers the importance of geography in geopolitics, a term usually taken to mean a crude form of power politics. It looks, in particular, at the internationalization of river governance in Central Europe. The epilogue concludes by assessing the implications of Covid-19 for historians writing on the League and Central Europe, and global orders past and future.
Actors and Authority in the International Tax Ecosystem
Authors: Laage-Thomsen Jakob , Seabrooke Leonard 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an interdisciplinary framework for understanding changes in the international tax ecosystem. The chapter describes three broad disciplinary approaches to taxation grouped according to assumptions of how actors operate and project authority. On this basis, the international tax ecosystem framework consists of four components, with associated actors and forms of authority: jurisdictions, political mandates, markets, and normative environments. The framework emphasizes a sensitivity to different kinds of actorhood, and how changes are driven by actors’ claims to different forms of authority. After outlining the history of the international tax ecosystem, the framework is applied to present the most important changes to the tax ecology in the last decade. We argue that the evolution in the ecosystem is characterized by persistent legal indeterminacy and political complexity. The scholarly concern, then, is being open to different forms of actorhood and authority while untangling evolution within the international tax ecosystem.
Sophisticated Financial Engineering and Tax Arbitrage
Authors: Palan Ronen , Nesvetailova Anastasia , Petersen with Hannah , Phillips Richard 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter delves into the inner sanctum of corporate organization in order to find evidence of rise or decline in the use of techniques of tax arbitrage by the corporate sector within the EU region. We follow then with an analysis of the use of sophisticated financial instruments in tax mitigation techniques in the EU to assess the impact of finance-oriented tax mitigation techniques. Our conclusion is not positive. It appears to us that in comparison with the US (and possibly China), the European fiscal regime failed to address a core political issue. These political conditions encourage the use of those diverging rules and regulations one against the other and affect jurisdictional arbitrage with the overall aim of tax mitigation. Europe is emerging as the playground for international corporations’ tax arbitrage and financial techniques of tax mitigation.
Uber Global Wealth Chains
Authors: Wigan Duncan 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Information asymmetries between regulators, suppliers, and clients in Global Wealth Chains (GWCs) are animated by conceptual uncertainty and legal indeterminacy. This chapter explores the impact of this uncertainty and indeterminacy in the digital economy where a concept-regulation-corporate form (C-R-C) gap obstructs tax traction. Firms such as Amazon, Airbnb, Facebook, Google, and Uber host services on digital platforms enabling consumers and businesses to connect and exchange. The chapter examines the C-R-C gap as the platform business model intersects with urban transport to impact fiscal sustainability. The immediate fiscal impact arises from a growth strategy that systematically generates tax assets, a mode of service delivery that circumvents the sales tax and an employment relation that removes social security obligations for the platform based multinational company.
Policy Reform Effects in the Tax Ecosystem
Authors: Gerbrands Peter , Unger Brigitte 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
International tax policy reforms such as Country-by-Country Reporting and Automatic Exchange of Information aim to increase tax compliance and revenues. Using a tax ecosystems perspective, this chapterapplies an agent-based simulation to assess the effects of these reforms. We demonstrate for EU Member States and selected European countries that reforms can be counteracted by tax competition and tax spillover effects which reduce their effectiveness. The model estimates European corporate tax revenue losses from tax avoidance and evasion of €104.9 billion in 2019. Without further reforms they would increase to €135.8 billion in 2029. A complete implementation of both Country-by-Country Reporting and Automatic Exchange of Information would help to decrease the total CIT gap by 16.4 per cent to €113.5 billion in the year 2029 The model explains why the seemingly small effect of CbCR is not so small and why the effect of AEoI may not be as promising as it seems.
Conclusion: Memory in the Balance
Authors: Collings Justin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This conclusion takes stock of the preceding chapters. It asks whether courts should invoke the memory of historical evil and, if so, how. It summarizes the virtues, defects, and dangers of the parenthetical and redemptive modes of memory. The redemptive mode has the virtue of taking the evil past seriously and intervening aggressively to redress its legacies. But it runs the risk of underwriting judicial activism, undermining the rule of law, promoting a sense of exceptionalism, and attaining a status of permanent exception. The parenthetical mode, by contrast, has the virtue forging ties to a deeper past and promoting a sense of normalcy. But, when applied too early and too often, it fails to take the evil past seriously and cure its lingering influence. The chapter ultimately argues that a hybrid redemptive-parenthetical approach, in which the redemptive mode takes temporal and substantive precedence, is the most desirable.
Did You Say ‘Theories of Choice’?
Authors: Sibony Anne-Lise 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter takes up two difficult questions: ‘does the law contain one or more theories of choice?’ and, if it does, ‘is there a meta-theory to tell us which theory of choice to use in which cases?’ Even if one retains a loose definition of what counts as a ‘theory of choice’, there are reasons to be sceptical about the enterprise of mapping out theories of choice underpinning the law. This is because the supply of such theories is both abundant and incomplete while the demand is generally weak. Consumer protection, which purports to protect ‘consumer choice’, would seem to be a designated area of law to look for theories of (consumer) choice. However, an enquiry into legislative work on consumer protection reveals paradoxical efforts to confirm the theory that consumers do well with information rather than investigate alternative theories. It also appears that consumer law embeds several different conflicting theories of consumer choice without any sign of a meta-theory indicating which theory applies to which cases. In addition, where there is a theory of consumer harm justifying legislative intervention, it seems to matter little that we do not have a theory for how consumer choice is distorted. In short, the legislative appetite for theories of choice seems limited. Legal scholarship offers a different picture. A space has emerged in which to discuss theories of choice within legal analysis, which is still in the process of being shaped. Tentatively, it is suggested that the legal literature offers a contrast between deep and narrow discussions of theories of choice, and wide and shallow ones.
Collective Intelligence
Authors: Engert Andreas 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The chapter provides an introduction to the social science of ‘collective intelligence’, the aggregation of individual judgments for purposes of collective decision making. It starts from the basic logic of the Condorcet jury theorem and summarises the main determinants of the accuracy of collective cognition. The recent research has focused on developing and refining formal aggregation methods beyond majority voting. The chapter presents the main findings on the two general approaches, surveying and prediction markets. It then contrasts these techniques with informal deliberation as a basic and prevalent aggregation mechanism. One conclusion is that while deliberation is prone to herding and can distort collective judgment, it is also more versatile and robust than formal mechanisms.
Conclusions
Authors: Kettemann Matthias C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The concluding chapter sums up the main themes of the book: this study has established the emergence of a normative order of the internet. This order integrates norms that are materially and normatively connected to the use and development of the internet at three different levels (regional, national, and international), of two types (privately and publicly authored), and of different character (from ius cogens to technical standards). The consideration of the initial hypotheses, as addressed in the preceding chapters, is summarized and brought together here, demonstrating the logical progression and overall coherence of the study’s discussion, arguments, and final conclusions.
Plato’s “Two Worlds” Epistemology
Authors: Moss Jessica 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
How should we set about understanding epistêmê and doxa? Plato in fact offers us explicit instructions, in the famous “powers” argument of Republic V: he seems to say that each is to be defined as the cognition of a special kind of object. But there is a difficulty: over the past half-century, this interpretation—the “Two Worlds” or “Distinct Objects” reading—has been so widely questioned as to now be declared “outrageous.” The aim of this chapter is to shift the burden of proof onto those who reject that reading. I explain the debate, mount textual evidence and, through a survey of Plato scholarship over the past 2400 years, and a brief discussion of Distinct Objects epistemologies in other thinkers, argue that resistance to the Distinct Objects reading is motivated largely by the assumption that Plato must be talking about knowledge and belief as we understand them now.
Plato’s Objects-Based Epistemology
Authors: Moss Jessica 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
When we read Plato’s epistemology—both the Republic’s powers argument and other texts—without in any way trying to avoid a Distinct Objects interpretation, we find ample evidence not only for that interpretation, but also for a stronger one. First, cognitive powers and their accomplishments are individuated by their objects. Second, cognitive powers and their accomplishments are defined by their objects: it is the objects that make them what they are (section 2). Finally, cognitive accomplishments—understood as occurrent cognitions—inherit their character from their objects: cognition works on the principle Aristotle calls “like-by-like.” Thus Plato’s epistemology is thoroughly objects-based. Epistêmê is, in essence, the kind of thing one can have only in relation to a special kind of object; doxa is, in its essence, the kind of thing one can have only in relation to a different special kind of object
Conclusion
Authors: Moss Jessica 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
My main concern in the book has been to show that Plato’s epistemology is fundamentally different from ours, and to investigate—once freed of the constraints imposed when we try to read him through our own views—just how his epistemology works. Recognizing the differences will however raise an important question: why would Plato do epistemology his way? This chapter provides an answer, in broad strokes. Plato’s philosophy is largely driven by an ethical question: How should one live? His epistemology makes sense as part of his answer. For Plato, especially in the Two Worlds dialogues, the bright line in ethics is between blessed contact with Being and pitiable immersion in seeming. Therefore the bright line in epistemology—the salient division between higher and lower—is the line between accepting what seems as final, and going beyond this to find what Is.
Member States’ Due Diligence Obligations to Supervise International Organisations
Authors: Daugirdas Kristina 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
There are two reasons to consider member states’ obligations to supervise international organisations as a distinct category of due diligence obligations. First, due diligence obligations typically require states to regulate third parties in some way. But it is harder for states to regulate international organisations than other private actors because international law protects the autonomy of international organisations. Second, such due diligence obligations merit attention because they may compensate for the dearth of mechanisms to hold international organisations accountable when they cause harm. This chapter canvasses member states’ existing obligations vis-à-vis international organisations, and argues in particular that the International Law Commission (ILC) missed an opportunity to frame broader obligations when drafting the Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations (the ARIO). The chapter closes by making the normative case for establishing a due diligence obligation on member states to ensure that international organisations do not abuse their immunities.
Due Diligence and the Duty to Protect Human Rights
Authors: Baade Björnstjern 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter shows that a state’s duty to protect human rights is an obligation that requires due diligence. As a standard of conduct under international human rights law, due diligence demands balancing a foreseeable risk to a protected interest against countervailing interests. The chapter reviews the practice of human rights courts and treaty bodies, concerning gender-based violence, business activities, official misconduct, and natural hazards. It reveals the way that due diligence requirements are operationalised in practice. The chapter argues that, despite occasional arguments to the contrary, due diligence does not dilute established standards of international human rights law but complements them. It serves to effectively mitigate risks to human rights no matter the risks’ source, in a manner that is also able to address systemic problems.
Due Diligence and the Obligation to Prevent Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: van den Herik Larissa , Irving Emma 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter analyses the due diligence component of the duty to prevent genocide and crimes against humanity. It examines the International Court of Justice (ICJ) judgment in the Bosnia Genocide case of 2007 and outlines the system of differentiated obligations based on a state’s ‘capacity to influence’ events in another state set out in the judgment. Furthermore, the chapter argues that developments under customary international law, which are buttressed and specified by the International Law Commission (ILC), support the existence of an obligation to prevent crimes against humanity of an equivalent character to the obligation to prevent genocide. The chapter examines the role that due diligence plays in delimiting the nature and scope, the content, and the temporal elements of the obligations to prevent genocide and crimes against humanity. Taking a future-oriented approach, the chapter enquires how new technologies inform state’s due diligence and whether non-state actors (including social media companies) can have the necessary ‘capacity to influence’, thus extending the preventive obligation’s potential reach.
Due Diligence Debates in International Anti-corruption and Money Laundering Law
Authors: Ivory Radha 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes and problematises the role of due diligence norms in international anti-corruption and money laundering law. It analyses the international legal framework against the abuse of trust or power for private gain—corruption—and finds that states are obliged to prevent the perpetration or facilitation of such conduct by non-state actors. The chapter demonstrates that, to this end, states must ‘responsibilise’ legal entities and require supervision by those entities of other non-state actors. Both horizontal (state-to-state) and traversal (state-to-business) anti-corruption due diligence obligations are calibrated by discretions and notions of risk. The chapter points out that the international economic crime standards seem to employ a ‘new’ approach to governance or—more problematically—to diffuse ‘new’ forms of ‘penality’ or global governmentality.
The Tricategory of Bicategories
Authors: Johnson Niles , Yau Donald 
Published: February 2021

AbstractIn this chapter, the tricategory of bicategories is presented in full detail. After a preliminary discussion of the whiskerings of a lax transformation with a lax functor, the chapter goes on to define a tricategory. The rest of the chapter proves in detail the existence of a tricategory with small bicategories as objects (i.e. a tricategory of bicategories), pseudofunctors as 1-cells, strong transformations as 2-cells, and modifications as 3-cells.
Comparative Reflections on COVID-19 Responses: Drafting, Powers, and Interpretation
Authors: Yeon Thomas 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This article examines comparatively approaches in Hong Kong and English law on powers created by the use of subordinate legislations to combat the COVID-19 pandemic from the perspectives of legislative drafting and statutory interpretation. These powers, being wide and flexible in nature, pose a tension between two competing concerns. On the one hand, they enable law enforcement officers to be able to deal with the unique challenges posed by a public health crisis. On the other hand, they pose the potential to restrict fundamental human rights disproportionately. This article will proceed in three parts. First, the article will analyse the responsibilities of drafters in drafting subordinate legislations and the techniques therein; the discussion will be contextualized within a need for urgent public health responses to combat the pandemic. Second, the powers conferred upon law enforcement officers and restrictions on individual liberty under Hong Kong law and English law will be analysed. Third, approaches to interpreting the relevant legislations under the two jurisdictions will be examined. It will be argued that despite the need to confer wide and flexible powers to the executive to combat the pandemic, specificity of language and precision in articulating these powers remain of cardinal and overarching importance.
IdeTo: Spreadsheets for Calculation and Analysis of Area Under the Disease Progress Over Time Data
Authors: Simko Ivan 
Published: February 2021

When disease ratings are obtained over time, area under the disease progress metrics such as area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) and area under the disease progress stairs (AUDPS), which allow integration of these measures into a single value, have found use for both survey or replicated experiment data. IdeTo, an Excel-based calculator, computes AUDPC, AUDPS, and their standardized and relative values for up to 200 individuals evaluated at 200 timepoints. In addition to the areas, descriptive statistics are provided for the group of individuals (e.g., accessions and replicates), and both Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients between the areas and other traits of interest. Graphs are provided to visualize the progression of disease scores over time, distribution of AUDPC and AUDPS values in the dataset, and their linear correlation with the traits of interest. [Formula: see text] The author(s) have dedicated the work to the public domain under the Creative Commons CC0 “No Rights Reserved” license by waiving all of his or her rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law, 2021.