bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pipeline Geohazards Screening: Using Results of Flood Scour Assessments to Provide a Simple Screening Tool for Pipeline Watercourse Crossings for Western Canada
Authors: Ryherd Julia , Small Colleen , Guthrie Richard , Ling Song , Beaugrand Hawley 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Pipeline watercourse crossing assessments typically require field investigations, river surveys, and detailed scour analyses to predict whether or not a pipeline may be subject to flood scour deeper than their depth of cover (DOC). Flood scour algorithms rely on discharge, median grain size, and some measure of channel cross-sectional area to determine the tractive force of water on the stream bed. These algorithms are applied to non-cohesive sediments typical of fluvial systems. To better define pipeline threats at a screening level, reducing unnecessary field and analytical expenses, and focusing effort on credible hazards, we developed a flood scour screening tool that uses return period discharge (Q) as the only input requirement. In order to develop the tool, we plotted the results of over 400 detailed scour assessments for several grain sizes (1100 data points) completed in Alberta and British Columbia, in 2017, 2018 and 2019. The results clearly show the importance of channel variability and grain size, but also show definable discharge related trends. We compared the results of the National Engineering Handbook (NEH) and the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) methods, both of which use industry accepted algorithms. We developed, and provided herein, relationships that can be used to screen out scour assessments at watercourse crossings where DOC is already known, or to support and expedite field programs where DOC is being obtained. If only Q is known, then a single graph, or single equation is used for a given region using fine sand as the assumed median grain size. If both Q and median grain size are known, then the user can determine a slightly less conservative result from a series of complementary equations. In all cases, we propose using the mean result of the USBR method, originally intended for design, to fully capture the potential variability in the calculated NEH flood scour. While conservative, the tool is easy to use, and we expect it will substantially reduce the assessment effort on smaller, or less erosive streams.
Pipe Knocked From Supports by Hydraulic Transient Event
Authors: Matta Lawrence M. , Manuel Jacob , Ramamoorthy Sathish 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Following what was considered a routine realignment of liquid product lines and tankage at a storage and transfer facility, an incident occurred that resulted in significant movement of a 20-inch pipeline, causing a large section of it to fall from its supports. The event also resulted in the failure of a gasket at a valve flange and loss of containment.
The alignment activities and pump startup were investigated for the potential to generate a hydraulic transient capable of generating sufficient force to cause the movement. A transient hydraulic model of the fluid in the piping as it was aligned at the time of the event was generated to assist in determining the cause and to help prevent a similar occurrence in the future. Several scenarios were modeled and are discussed in this paper: 1) pump shutdown from steady flow, 2) pump start up with the discharge valve open, 3) pump startup with the discharge valve closed, and 4) pump start up with a vapor cavity present near a closed valve at the high point in the line.
Pipe stress and finite element analysis were used to assess the displaced pipe and to determine if it could be placed back into service. The piping stress analysis indicated that the highest stress in the piping was below the yield stress of the material. Results from a detailed finite element analysis with material nonlinearity confirmed that there was no global plastic strain in the piping due to the event. This left a potential for local plastic strain due to the impact of the pipe against any hard surfaces, and this was addressed with visual examination. In the end, the pipe was lifted back onto the supports, lateral restraints were added at pipe support locations, and procedural changes were implemented to reduce the likelihood of future events.
Puddling Puddle Welds
Authors: Burden Dane , Roniger Nic , Romney Matt 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Unique characteristics of individual pipelines come from over a century of evolving design, construction, maintenance, regulation and operation. These characteristics are especially true for legacy, pre-regulated pipelines. Due to the unique nature of the threats present on these assets, there is a need for unique inspection technologies and techniques that can increase pipeline integrity. Reconditioned and repaired pipe utilizing puddle weld repairs is one such threat.
An advanced analysis was completed on a 10-inch, 68-mile light products pipeline. The pipeline was constructed with reconditioned pipe that was estimated to contain tens of thousands of puddle welds. Historical in-line inspection (ILI) data generally underperformed in classifying and discriminating puddle welds versus metal loss features.
The primary objective of this project was to assess the probability of identification (POI) of a multiple dataset ILI tool utilizing multiple magnetic flux leakage (MFL) magnetization directions and residual (RES) magnetization measurements. A secondary objective was to scrutinize data for signs of coincident features. Hydrostatic testing failures showed that puddle welds with porosity and cracking were susceptible to failure and that the identification of these features would be beneficial.
Analysis of historical puddle weld investigations and newly completed multiple dataset ILI data revealed strong identification capabilities in the RES dataset. The high-field magnetizations offered secondary confirmation but often saturated out thermal effects or material differences. The final report included over 40,000 identified puddle welds and five classifications for further investigation. Field investigations for 212 features were completed and the results compared to the ILI data to assess performance. A confusion matrix was created for true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive (FP) and false negative (FN) conditions. The smallest TP puddle weld dimension was 0.7″ × 0.7″, and the population had a statistical sensitivity value of 98% (132 TP and 3 FP).
Three additional anomalies denoted as atypical were also investigated. The ILI signatures at these locations were consistent with previous repairs in which puddle welds with cracking were found and repaired. Two of the three features investigated were found to have cracking. Crack propagation was found to be both axial and non-axial in orientation. The results show that puddle welds can be detected and identified with extremely high accuracy. In addition, the preliminary classification results for atypical puddle welds show a high potential for identifying secondary coincident features. This paper details the stages, deliverables and results from an ILI advanced analysis focused on puddle welds.
A Novel Approach to Risk Management of Belowground Natural Gas Migration From Leaks on Low-Pressure Pipelines
Authors: Maddin Kim , Lu Dongliang , Tomic Aleksandar 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Small-diameter, low-pressure pipelines (operated at pressures below 40 percent of specified minimum yield strength [SMYS]) are unlikely to experience a rupture but may be vulnerable to leaks. In general, gas leaks result in less significant consequences to public safety than ruptures; however, under certain circumstances leaks may represent a significant threat. In particular, leaks resulting in belowground gas migration from low-pressure pipelines to a nearby confined space (e.g. the basement of a nearby structure to which the pipeline is not physically connected) may result in significant consequences as accumulation of gas to flammable or explosive levels may be possible. This paper explores the methods by which an Operator may address the threat of gas migration from leaks on low pressure pipelines in its risk assessment and leak management programs.
Research was conducted into the specific conditions that contribute to belowground gas migration and included: a literature review of studies into gas migration phenomena, and a review of historical incidents within the United States on similar pipeline systems which resulted in significant property damage, injuries, or fatalities. The research included consideration of the effect of pipeline operating conditions, pipeline attributes (including diameter and depth of cover), leak duration, proximity of nearby structures, attributes of nearby structures (including presence of basements, slabs, and openings in the foundations), leak severity (e.g. pinhole, full separation), ground conditions (including soil permeability and presence of belowground features), and gas odorization. Key conditions impacting the potential for belowground gas migration are identified, and risk assessment methods and leak management practices are recommended based on the likelihood of migration.
Based on the research conducted and the environmental conditions identified, a quantitative risk assessment approach, taking into account the likelihood of a leak on a low-pressure pipeline, the likelihood of belowground gas migration, and the potential consequences to public safety, is proposed.
Overcoming Challenges of EMAT Inline Inspection Validation for SCC Management in Natural Gas Pipelines: A Practical Approach
Authors: Phlipot Jake , Rapp Stephen , Whaley Daniel , Spencer Kevin , Williams Dan 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Pipeline operators rely on a variety of tools and technologies to manage threats to their pipeline assets. For natural gas pipelines, the management of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) has benefited from the introduction and evolution of in-line inspection (ILI) technologies, specifically Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) technology, that can reliably detect, identify and size cracking anomalies.
Since its introduction in the early 2000’s, the performance of EMAT technology has been evaluated and documented through many industry research projects and published articles that describe operational experiences. This paper builds upon that body of shared knowledge to provide an update of observed EMAT performance on a gas transmission system that has undergone extensive EMAT ILI assessments, on a large number of pipeline segments, with a specific focus on the practical strategies employed to overcome the challenges unique to EMAT ILI validation. Practical insights into effectively using EMAT ILI validated data as a key input to the SCC management plan are thereby provided.
In-Service Cracking/Leak at Bottom-Side Repaired Dent
Authors: Quickel Gregory T. , Bratton Joseph , Bruce William A. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Pipeline operators are often faced with excavating deformations caused by bottom-side indenters (e.g., rock dents). These dents are typically constrained by the rock, but during excavation, after the rock is removed, the dent is no longer constrained. Many operators have felt that it is prudent to perform in-the-ditch (ITD) non-destructive examination (NDE) techniques, such as liquid penetrant testing (LPT) and magnetic particle inspection (MPI), to determine if external cracking is present so that an appropriate repair method can be selected. Unfortunately, these external surface NDE methods do not identify the presence of internal cracking. Recent research [1], along with metallurgical analyses of cracks at bottom-side dents, demonstrates that the fatigue behavior of constrained dents is different than that of unconstrained dents, and that identifying the correct crack mechanism can be difficult.
The paper discusses cracking mechanisms (e.g., stress corrosion cracking, fatigue, etc.) at bottom-side dents, ITD crack identification methods, differences between constrained and non-constrained dents, repair methods for dents, and presents a case study that uses NDE (MPI, unconventional LPT, and laser scanning) and destructive techniques (metallography, fractography, and hardness testing) to determine the metallurgical cause of a failure. The case study involves a pre-formed composite sleeve system that was used to repair dents in which correct installation procedures were followed but ultimately resulted in a delayed in-service failure.
In hindsight, if ITD NDE methods were chosen based on our current knowledge of recent research, the operator may have been aware of the presence of cracking and selected a different repair method, and therefore would have likely prevented an in-service failure. This paper provides a case study to help increase awareness regarding how to properly evaluate cracking in dents. Operators should ensure that their excavation and repair procedures are updated to reflect the most current industry knowledge to help prevent a similar failure.
Integrity Management of Flange Connections Using Reliability Model
Authors: Haider Syed , Sen Millan , Lawrence Doug , Rodayan Angela 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
There is demonstrated potential for failures to occur on station piping assets in facilities, therefore it is critical to take measures to manage preventable releases. In 2018, Enbridge developed a reliability model that uses available asset information to quantify the likelihood of failure of station piping assets. Enbridge based this model on the CFER PIRIMID software, with some modifications to minimize the use of default values and to meet the company’s integrity management program requirements. With successful implementation of station piping model, Enbridge realized opportunity to develop a much-needed flange model leveraging the station piping model.
Historical leak data indicates that flanged connections often experience a higher leak frequency than other assets in a facility. While there are industry guidelines that provide guidance for the assembly of process flange connections in a facility, there are few that discuss integrity management of flange connections once they are operational. Most published condition assessment flange models require inputs which are not readily available, e.g. condition of flange faces and gaskets. These inputs often require the flange to be disassembled just to obtain the data. For pipeline operators, data gathering is even more challenging as there are stations (with numerous flanges) that are spread out along the entire pipeline.
Given the high number of flange connections and their wide variation in parameters within transmission pipeline facilities, there is benefit in developing a reliability-based model to guide the integrity management of flange connections. A reliability model that works in two stages was developed for this purpose. The pre-inspection assessment stage was designed to utilize available inputs to prioritize groups of flanges for inspection, and the post-inspection assessment (second) stage is then applied to select the specific flanges that require maintenance action.
Enbridge utilized industry guidelines, relevant standards, historical failure data, and subject matter experts’ inputs to develop the station piping and flange models. This paper will discuss the design concepts, model architectures, the contributing factors, and their sensitivities to the likelihood of failure results. These concepts may be utilized by any operator managing such assets, and the model designs may be tailored to suit a wide range of facility environments.
The North Saskatchewan River Valley Landslide: Slope and Pipeline Condition Monitoring
Authors: Holliday Chris , Young Andy , Funk Terri , Murray Carrie 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Following a loss of containment incident in July 2016 on a 16-inch diameter pipeline on the south slope of the North Saskatchewan River located in Saskatchewan, Canada, Husky completed extensive studies to understand and learn from the failure.
The cause of the incident was ground movement resulting from a landslide complex on the slope involving two deep-seated compound basal shear slides as well as a near surface translational slide in heavily over consolidated marine clays of the Upper Cretaceous Lea Park Formation. One aspect of the studies has been to undertake structural analysis of the pipeline response to the loading imposed from the ground movement to minimize the potential for a similar occurrence from happening in the future and determine the integrity of the pipeline at the time of the assessment.
Given the scale and complexity of the landslide, slope stabilization measures were not practical to implement, so repeat ILI using caliper and inertial measurement technology (IMU), in addition to a robust monitoring program was implemented. Realtime monitoring of ground movements, pipe strain and precipitation levels provided a monitoring and early-warning system combined with documented risk thresholds that identified when to proactively shut-in the pipeline.
The methodology and findings of the slope monitoring and structural analysis that was undertaken to examine the robustness of the pipeline to withstand future landslide movement are presented herein. The work involved modelling of the pipeline history on the slope including loads that had accumulated in the original pipeline sections based on historical ILI results and slope monitoring. The pipeline orientation was parallel with the ground movement in the landslide complex, so the development of axial strain in the pipeline was the dominant load component, which are particularly damaging in the compression zone. The work provided recommendations and technical basis to continue safe operation of the pipeline with consideration of continuing ground movement and assisted the operator with decisions over the long-term strategy for the pipeline.
A Method of Leakage Parameters Estimation for Liquid Pipelines Based on Conditional Generative Adversarial Network
Authors: Zheng Jianqin 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
At present, pipeline transportation is a very common mode in the long-distance transportation of liquid materials such as oil. Compared with other transportation ways, pipeline transportation is not only high-throughput and continuous, but it is also reliable and of low energy consumption. Although the probability of pipeline leakage is low, the result of leakage is catastrophic, including economic losses, personal safety, and environmental pollution. Once the liquid pipeline leakage occurs, risk assessment and emergency repair measures are urgent. The key to these is to determine the leakage parameters of the pipeline. However, many current leakage detection methods are based on physical mechanism and hydraulic calculations with assumptions, resulting in poor accuracy and a high false alarm rate. Therefore, from the perspective of data-driven, the relationship between leakage parameters and the operational flow rate and pressure is mined in this paper. First, due to the limited leakage accidents for one pipeline, a large amount of leakage data is generated through experimental simulation. For every second, the pressure and flow rate in upstream as well as downstream should be recorded, making it hard for common deep learning algorithms to cope with such a high-dimensional complex dataset. To overcome the dimensionality problem, a conditional generative adversarial network is then introduced to treat the dimensional data as labels when the leakage parameters model is trained. After training the leakage data, the leakage parameters can be estimated based on the detected data, when the leakage occurs. Finally, four examples of pipeline leakage are tested to demonstrate our superiority over two traditional algorithms, i.e. artificial neural network and support vector machine. Thus, this method has a potential prospect in the estimation of leakage parameters, and can effectively guide site management when the leakage occurs.
Research on Virtual Metering System of Offshore Oilfield Based on Multi-Level Electrical Submersible Pump
Authors: Bai Zonghan , Kang Qi , Wu Haihao , Gong Jing , Yao Haiyuan 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
In the production management of offshore oil field, the production of single well is very important for reservoir understanding and production allocation. Because of the high cost and short life of the conventional underwater flowmeter, the virtual metering technology has gradually become a trend. ESP (electric submersible pump) is a kind of mechanical equipment commonly used in artificial lift oil recovery method, and used in offshore oil field development and production. Based on the characteristics of ESP and real-time production data, this paper establishes the oil well flow inversion model and proposes a fast calculation method to meet the application requirements, which provides a new method for the acquisition of production information of offshore oil fields.
Communication and Mitigation Strategies Related to the Leading Indicator of Pressure Cycle Fatigue
Authors: Le Phat , Olson Scott , Shie Taylor 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Pressure cycle fatigue has been shown in industry to be a contributing factor to pipeline failure. There are methods for pressure cycle fatigue monitoring that can be used as a leading indicator for the risk of the pipeline to fatigue related failure. Once lines with high cycling are identified, the risk of the cycling to the asset and the mitigation strategies for the cycling can be discussed within the organization. By mitigating the driving force of crack initiation and grow to failure in-service, the pipeline community is safer.
Shell Pipeline Company, LP. (SPLC) experienced two in-service failures on the same pipeline in under a year where fatigue was a common root cause. Following the investigation of these failures, management requested communication of the risk of pressure cycle fatigue throughout the organization with the intent to mitigate the levels of pressure cycling across the system. All pipelines were put on a monthly dashboard of pressure cycling and sent to all staff for awareness and action.
The company measures pressure cycling on all pipelines by normalizing the number of cycles to 25% of the specified minimum yield strength (SMYS). From January 2016 to December 2019, the number of monthly cycles on the top ten highest cycled segments were reduced from 45,000 cycles per month, to 18,970 cycles. This is a reduction of 58%. The number of Very Aggressively cycled pipelines was reduced from 2 to 0. The number of Aggressively cycled pipelines were reduced from 13 to as low as 3. This paper will share the strategies and methodologies used to achieve these results.
The paper will share how the list of highly cycled pipelines and the monthly status reports were developed. The paper will also share how pressure cycling mitigation strategies for pipeline systems were developed in collaboration with facility engineering, business unit leads, controllers, schedulers, and integrity staff. The effectiveness of mitigation methods such as pressure reduction, installation of back-pressure control valves, changing of valve timing on startup and shutdown, changes to the scheduling on the pipeline, utilization of flying switch between tankage, etc. will be discussed.
By reducing pressure cycling, the risk of fatigue related failures can be reduced. This program is continuously being improved because there is both management commitment and ownership of the issue throughout the organization.