bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Organization of Cell Membranes
Authors: Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Cell membranes are lipid bilayers that separate cells from their environment and also define different compartments within the cell. Cell membranes are composed of lipids and proteins. The main membrane lipids are phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol. They determine the biophysical properties of the membrane and its compartmentalization into domains called lipid rafts. Phospholipids and sphingolipids are also the source metabolites that mediate intracellular or intercellular signaling. There is a dynamic exchange of lipid components between the plasma membrane and the different intracellular membranous organelles. Membrane proteins contain domains that interact with the lipid bilayer; they include transporters, ion channel, receptors, and adhesion molecules that have a crucial role in cell physiology and cell–cell interactions. These proteins have a selective distribution in different functional domains of the membrane and undergo dynamic recycling in response to neuronal activity and other signals. Maintenance of the functional integrity of cell membranes is critical for cell function and survival. Disorders of membrane lipids or proteins provide the basis for a large number of neurologic disorders.
Intracellular Signaling
Authors: Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Interactions between cells in the nervous system are bidirectional and involve a large number of chemical signals. These interactions occur via receptors located at presynaptic terminals, postsynaptic processes, or at a distance. Activation of membrane receptors by neurotransmitters, growth factors, cytokines, or other extracellular signals triggers downstream intracellular signaling pathways that affect a wide range of cellular functions. The final common mechanism is regulation of the state of phosphorylation of multiple crucial proteins in membranes, cytosol, cytoskeleton, and nucleus. The coupling between extracellular signals and these intracellular responses depends on transduction pathways that include G proteins that function as molecular switches; second messenger molecules such as cyclic nucleotides and phosphatidylinositol metabolites; intracellular calcium transients; and activation of protein kinases and phosphatases. Alterations of these fundamental cellular mechanisms provide the bases for a large number of disorders of the nervous system as well as potential therapeutic targets.
Growth Factors, Survival, and Regeneration
Authors: Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Neurotrophic factors and hypoxia-inducible factors participate in fundamental processes including growth, differentiation, survival, and plasticity in the nervous system. They activate downstream cascades that promote protein synthesis and inhibit cell death mechanisms of apoptosis and autophagy. Axonal injury triggers retrograde neurotrophic signaling to the nucleus to regulate transcription of genes involved in axonal repair. Hypoxia induces expression of genes that control angiogenesis, erythropoiesis, and glycolysis. Growth factor and hypoxia-inducible signals are regulated by products of tumor suppressor genes. Excessive activation of these pathways lead to genetic tumor syndromes, many of them associated with epilepsy. Experimental models indicate that growth factors have neuroprotective effects against neurodegeneration. However, several human studies using growth factors administered systemically or via genetic methods have so far failed to show consistent beneficial effects. This has been attributed to inadequate dosing and delivery and enrollment of patients at late stage of disease. Approaches to promote axonal regeneration by targeting are an active area of research.
Synaptic Transmission and Presynaptic Synaptopathies
Authors: Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Transmission of information in the nervous system largely occurs via chemical synapses, which are sites of bidirectional communication. Chemical synapses have a complex morphologic and molecular organization. Presynaptic events include synthesis and vesicular storage of the neurotransmitter; trafficking, docking, and priming of the synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic active zones; calcium-dependent neurotransmitter release by exocytosis, and recycling of synaptic vesicles by endocytosis. Postsynaptic events are mediated by neurotransmitter-gated ion channels (ionotropic receptors) that mediate fast excitatory or inhibitory effects (classical neurotransmission) and G protein-coupled receptors that mediate neuromodulatory effects. The precise development and functional apposition of presynaptic and postsynaptic elements via scaffolding proteins and transsynaptic adhesion molecules assures fast and precise synaptic transmission and plasticity. Genetic disorders affecting presynaptic events may manifest with paroxysmal dyskinesia, congenital myasthenic syndrome, and some forms of familial Parkinson disease (PD). Presynaptic membrane proteins are also targets of toxic and autoimmune disorders.
Inhibitory Amino Acid Neurotransmission and Synaptopathies
Authors: Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Inhibitory neurotransmission is critical to determine neuronal excitability, limits the magnitude and duration of firing of other CNS neurons, and shapes the activity of neuronal networks. The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS is γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is expressed in local inhibitory neurons and in some projection neurons such as Purkinje cells and neurons in the striatum and globus pallidus. Glycine, together with GABA, is critical in inhibitory circuits of the brainstem and spinal cord. Given its importance the importance of GABAergic and glycinergic inhibition in controlling excitability in neurons and neuronal networks, impaired inhibitory transmission manifests with seizures, myoclonus, spasticity, ataxia, and pain. Several drugs used for treatment of these disorders act by increasing GABAergic inhibition.
Episodic Memory
Authors: Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and surrounding areas, is critical for episodic memory, which is the ability to learn, store, and retrieve events of daily life. The hippocampal circuits provide a framework for relating experiences that constitute the individual autobiographic events. Information processed in the hippocampus is conveyed back to the neocortex for consolidation of episodic memories. The medial temporal lobe participates in an anterior circuit for recognition based on familiarity and a posterior circuit involved in visual navigation. These circuits are also components of the default mode network involved in processing of inner thoughts. The medial temporal lobe circuits are susceptible to aging, Alzheimer disease, and other disorders causing episodic memory disturbances.
Perioperative Management of Lower Extremity Revascularization
Authors: Janardhanan Divya , Delvadia Radha , Podolnick Jason , Chen Michelle , Gage Parr K. , Lutzker Tatiana N. , Nikolaidis Melissa 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Anesthetic care of the patient with peripheral artery disease of the lower extremity is often complicated. As peripheral artery disease is in reality a systemic disease and other organ systems such as the cardiopulmonary, endocrine and renal systems are often involved, a complete workup of these patients must be done prior to administering any anesthetics. Once the patient is adequately evaluated, preoperative optimization is necessary to make sure that the proper medications are held or given, diabetic medications are appropriately dosed, and dialysis occurs in a timely fashion, if necessary. The choice of appropriate anesthetic is dependent on the patient; patient’s medications and comorbidities; and preferences of the patient, surgeon, and anesthesiologist. Monitoring will also depend on the surgery, patient, and comorbidities. Finally, postoperative care should be at an acuity level to closely monitor these often frail patients for postoperative complications.
Open Abdominal and Thoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair
Authors: Robinson Albert R. , Powell Thomas R. , Deng Yi 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the challenges that anesthesiologists face in the surgical repair of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms (TAAAs). The anesthetic management of these patients includes caring for acutely sick patients who typically also present with some combination of hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, and cardiac, pulmonary, and renal comorbidities. The aorta must be cross clamped and unclamped in AAA and TAAA repair, leading to hemodynamic instability as well as absolute and/or relative hypovolemia. Lung isolation is desirable in TAAA repair to facilitate access to the descending aorta. Techniques such as cerebrospinal spinal fluid drainage and hypothermia are used in at-risk cases to afford enhanced spinal cord protection. An understanding of a patient’s coagulation status and epidural anesthesia is important intraoperatively to decrease general anesthetic requirements as well as for postoperative pain management. Postoperatively, patients require continuous monitoring for bleeding and fluid management.
Monitoring for Vascular Surgical Procedures
Authors: Brennan Meghan , McGough Edward 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Given the diversity of vascular surgical procedures, ranging from low-risk angiography to high-risk open aortic repairs, a wide variety of anesthetic techniques may be used, and different monitoring techniques are needed to ensure patient safety. A broad range of techniques ranges from solely regional techniques for angiography and arteriovenous fistula placement to general endotracheal anesthesia for open abdominal aortic aneurysm repairs. This broad range of monitoring techniques is required for patients undergoing vascular surgical procedures and must be considered due to the type and complexity of the surgery and coexisting disease. In addition to the standards for anesthetic monitoring set by the American Society of Anesthesiologists, other neurologic and/or cardiac monitoring techniques may be required.
Airway Devices for Thoracic Anesthesia and Ventilatory Techniques
Authors: Neeraj Kumar , Gupta Priya , Chakraborty Indranil 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Lung isolation techniques are used extensively in operating rooms for surgical procedures involving the lungs or the mediastinum, out of the operating room for procedures performed by interventional pulmonologists, and in critical care units where a patient’s medical or surgical conditions require selective lung isolation or ventilation. This chapter outlines both adult and pediatric lung isolation devices currently in use. It also explains the physiological changes during one-lung ventilation and discusses ventilatory techniques recommended during lung separation. Individual one-lung ventilation devices are discussed in detail, including available sizes and availability for adult and pediatric populations. The chapter details the technique of using each device, advantages, disadvantages, and possible complications associated with the use.
Surgical Airway Management
Authors: Feng Zipei , Wu Mengjie , Nikolaidis Melissa , Deng Yi 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Surgical airway management is used to address a variety of diseases affecting the larynx, such as anatomic pathologies, tumors, and voice disorders. The management is typically the purview of otorhinolaryngologists, although other specialties such as pulmonary and surgical critical care physicians have lately begun performing percutaneous procedures as well. In this chapter we outline the approaches to common surgical airway management procedures as performed by otorhinolaryngologists, including direct laryngoscopy and bronchoscopy with intervention, cricothyroidotomy, and tracheostomy. Only traditional open procedures are described in detail here as these serve as the foundational knowledge for more advanced endoscopic interventions.
Introduction
Authors: Ferguson Robert J. , Gillock Karen Lee 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This introduction presents a review of the current research on the background, significance, and causes of cancer-related cognitive impairments (CRCI); the theoretical foundations of Memory and Attention Adaptation Training (MAAT), as well as MAAT research to date. It also presents an overview of the MAAT treatment plan, including the four components of MAAT (education/reattribution, self-awareness training, self-regulation exercises, and compensatory strategy development) and a complete MAAT training schedule. The broad consensus of the research literature suggests that approximately 50% of people undergoing cancer treatment experience some form of memory and attention problems following—and often many years after—treatment. The causes reviewed here—primarily chemotherapy, genetic vulnerability, vascular damage/inflammation, and hormonal/endocrine disruption—are those thought to be most helpful in rounding out the MAAT clinician’s basic understanding of the variety of mechanisms that can contribute to CRCI. Regardless of the source of the cognitive problems, cancer survivors can likely compensate for memory and attention problems if they learn specific, adaptive behavioral strategies. The compensatory strategy approach highlighted in MAAT has been found to effectively generalize (or “transfer”) across multiple settings better than repetitive practice (computerized) interventions that limit improvement to trained tasks. The results of research to date on MAAT presented suggest it is efficacious and can be delivered via telehealth services to enhance survivor healthcare access.
Metabolic syndrome
Authors: Neligan Patrick J. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Obesity is a metabolic disease that arises from excessive energy consumption. The development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease appears to be an early indicator of escalating endocrine and metabolic dysfunction. Fatty liver results in insulin resistance. This is a precursor to type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, steatohepatitis, and cirrhosis. Obesity increases the risk for cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and neoplastic disease. This probably results from a combination of dyslipidaemia, dysregulation of glycaemic control, and ongoing inflammation associated with adipocytokines. Central obesity, characterized by a large reservoir of metabolically active visceral fat, closely correlates with cardiovascular risk, and is the key component of a constellation of symptoms known as the metabolic syndrome. There is little or no epidemiological data available regarding the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome and perioperative risk. No guidelines are available. Risk reduction associated with modulation of the specific components of this syndrome, cardiovascular disease, dyslipidaemia, and hyperglycaemia, are currently in a state of flux.
Cardiac surgery in obese patients
Authors: Ushakumari Deepu S. , Machovec Kelly A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Obesity is a preventable disease with rising incidence, affecting 13% of the world’s adult population. The World Health Organization and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health consider obesity to be a problem of epidemic and even pandemic proportion. Several classification schemes are utilized to categorize obesity. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons follows the classification scheme used by American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery guidelines using body mass index (BMI). BMI is the most commonly used and validated population-level measure of obesity. A recent National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey evaluation revealed an obesity prevalence of 35% among United States adults older than 20 years. The changing demographic of patients presenting for cardiac surgery reflects obesity in the general population. While the specific prevalence of obesity among patients presenting for cardiac surgery is not known, obesity is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and confers a higher risk of cardiac comorbidities, leading to increased likelihood of obesity among those requiring cardiac procedures. The BARI 2D trial, in examining a cohort of patients with central obesity, demonstrated that both BMI and waist circumference are independently associated with increased atherothrombotic risk. Frequent comorbid conditions, including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hyperlipidaemia, along with obesity-induced systemic inflammation, pose a challenge to care during cardiac surgical procedures, particularly those requiring cardiopulmonary bypass. Obesity is associated with significantly reduced quality of life in patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease, independent of comorbidities. This chapter reviews the perioperative preparation, intraoperative management, postoperative considerations, and pertinent outcomes for the patient with obesity presenting for cardiac surgery.
Preoperative evaluation of the morbidly obese patient
Authors: Subramaniam Rajeshwari , Pushparaj Hemkumar , Aravindan Ajisha 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
With the steeply increasing bariatric population throughout the world, including the affluent morbid obese and super-obese in developed countries and in the economically ‘middle class’ population in developing countries, anaesthesia for surgical procedures in bariatric patients is set to become routine. This is reflected by the increasing incidence of bariatric surgery, even in children. Bariatric patients usually present with systemic comorbidities. The presence of comorbidities and procedure-related risks has led to bariatric surgery being classified as an intermediate to high-risk non-cardiac procedure. Since bariatric surgery results in significant reversal of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obstructive sleep apnoea, and pulmonary hypertension, preoperative optimization of these patients will minimize surgical risk.
Difficult airway management
Authors: Collins Jeremy , Mittal Brita M. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Difficult airway management in the morbidly obese population is an important topic as the physiological changes of obesity can lead to grave consequences when oxygenation is not rapidly established following anaesthetic induction. The correlation between elevated body mass index and direct laryngoscopy is unclear, probably because excess adipose tissue has a variable distribution among morbidly obese patients. The reader will be able to identify the subset of morbidly obese patients where difficult airway management is indeed expected. In such patients, optimizing modifiable factors such as preoxygenation, apnoeic oxygenation, positioning, and minimizing atelectasis is of primary importance. Alternative strategies for tracheal intubation other than direct laryngoscopy are discussed in this chapter, as well as safe extubation strategies for the difficult airway.
Venous thromboembolismIncidence, prophylaxis, and management
Authors: Valentine Elizabeth A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a disease spectrum ranging from deep vein thrombosis to pulmonary embolism. Venous thromboembolic disease is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in bariatric surgery. Both medical and surgical risk factors make this patient population particularly high risk for VTE. Venous thromboembolic disease can have a variety of presentations and can be particularly difficult to diagnose in the bariatric population. While no clear consensus exists on best practice for perioperative VTE prophylaxis, it is appropriate to treat this population as high risk for VTE. Combined prophylaxis with both mechanical as well as pharmacological measures should be considered for most patients.
Enhanced recovery after bariatric surgery
Authors: Livelsberger Jon , Spivak Alla 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to educate the reader on evidence-based management of surgery in the obese population, including obesity surgery. Included are strategies for patient education, optimization, and management during all phases of care starting with outpatient preoperative visits and ending once the patient has safely recovered from surgery. While the anaesthesiology team often serves to employ many of the management strategies discussed, it is most certainly a multidisciplinary approach. The main purposes are to improve patient experiences, improve patient outcomes, and reduce complications while ensuring that safe universal practices are underway. The final outcome, however, depends on the cooperation of the patient, perioperative team, and any specialized consultants involved.
Medicolegal issues and the obese patient
Authors: Berkeley Abiona , Ahmed Muhammad , Sosa-Herrera Jose 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In the United States alone, it is estimated that 15,000–19,000 medical malpractice suits are brought against physicians each year. A retrospective analysis of malpractice claims filed in the United States from 2005 to 2009 uncovered a total of 58,667 claims against American physicians. Of those claims, 96.9% (56,850 claims) were settled with only 3.1% (1817 claims) proceeding to trial. Of those malpractice claims taken to court, obstetrical and surgical claims, as opposed to clinic-based or diagnostic claims, predominated. Although data related to unsuccessful claims which were dropped or dismissed prior to trial or in which findings were in favour of the physician have been difficult to quantify, some authors report that these may comprise as many as 50% of all filed legal malpractice actions.
Stromal cells in Sjögren’s syndrome
Authors: Nayar Saba , Colafrancesco Serena , Barone Francesca 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The formation of tertiary lymphoid structures, defined as aggregates of lymphoid cells, developing ectopically in nonlymphoid locations, characterized by B-/T-cell segregation, differentiation of high endothelial venules, and development of follicular dendritic cells networks, supporting a germinal centre response, is a common histological feature associated with Sjögren’s syndrome. This ectopic lymphoid organization of immune cells is accompanied by the production of lymphoid chemokines and cytokines, responsible for leukocyte organization and survival. Interestingly, many of these factors detected within lymphoid structures are derived from nonhaemotopoietic stromal cells. This suggests that stromal cell activation is critically important for the maintenance and organization of tertiary lymphoid structures in inflammatory conditions.
Clinical assessment of salivary glands function
Authors: Tappuni Anwar R. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
One of the main features of Sjögren’s syndrome (SS) is the lymphocytic infiltration of the exocrine glands, mainly of the salivary and lacrimal glands, causing gland destruction. The severity of the salivary gland dysfunction is frequently associated with disease progression. Therefore, accurate assessment of salivary flow rates has diagnostic and prognostic value. However, in addition to the serological markers, the confirmative diagnostic test for SS at present is the assessment of lymphocytic infiltrate in a minor salivary gland biopsy. As the latter is an invasive and expensive procedure, there have been studies recently advocating the benefits of salivary gland ultrasound and other noninvasive tests in diagnosing SS and in eliminating or reducing the need for a biopsy.