bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The goal of Insights from Data with R is to help you learn the most important tools in R, and the most important concepts, to allow you gain insights from data. After reading this book, and working along with the methods, you will have the tools to tackle a wide variety of challenges involved in getting insights from data using R. This chapter describes what we mean by ‘insights’ and introduces our overall workflow for gaining insights from data using R. We also introduce features of datasets that influence the types of insight one can gain, and introduce four workflow demonstrations, one of which is in the book, and three of which are online.
Workflow Demonstration part 1
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This and the next chapter involve us working through the process of getting insights from data. We have chosen a research subject that should have some interest to us all: food. More specifically, what bats eat. In this chapter you will experience a clearly specified set of research questions, learn how the study was performed and why it was done that way, and learn how to prepare your computer, R, and RStudio for the project, and how to read the dataset into R. The chapter also covers how you can clean, tidy, and manipulate the data in R. These are the solid foundations from which robust and reliable insights can grow.
Getting to grips with ggplot2
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
We have made quite a few graphs already but only briefly explained how we did so, specifically using ggplot. We need a deeper understanding… hence this chapter. We focus on making graphs with ggplot2. The ggplot2 package can help us to produce quite complex visualizations, with elements such as graphical keys, without the need to write lines and lines of R code. It is, nevertheless, still flexible enough for us to tweak the appearance of a figure so that it meets our specific needs. This chapter describes the underlying principles of the grammar used in ggplot2, and then demonstrates various kinds of plots and modifications to plots that ggplot2 can implement.
‘Technologies of Responsibility’
Authors: Ashworth Andrew , Zedner Lucia 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In her important monograph, In Search of Criminal Responsibility, Lacey explores changing relations between individual and state and charts the history of growing state ‘confidence in the possibility of shaping the habits and dispositions of citizenhood’ through the criminal law and other legal measures. She concludes, ‘we are seeing not so much a replacement of one paradigm of responsibility by another, but rather an accumulation of conceptions or “technologies” of responsibility.’ This chapter considers these controversial new hybrid legal orders such as the ASBO and its successors with which the state seeks to instil habits of respectable citizenship and to secure civil order. These diverse powers engraft new techniques of ‘responsibilization’ on to existing criminal laws, designed to police ‘irregular’ citizens who occupy precarious places at the margins, such as youth, those engaging in anti-social behaviour, the poor, and the homeless. Arguably these technologies do not signify the growth of state confidence so much as its resort to regulatory fixes to intractable problems of governance. It concludes by considering the implications of these developments for the attribution of responsibility both in and outside the criminal law.
Re-Situating Criminal Responsibility
Authors: Loughnan Arlie 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Inspired by the work of Nicola Lacey as a leading critical criminal responsibility scholar, in my chapter, I offer a reflection on time and space and criminal responsibility. I introduce the notion of interstitial space as a useful analytical device to advance the field of critical scholarship on responsibility for crime. With a study of the intellectual sphere of comparative jurisprudence at around the turn of the twentieth century, which I suggest was an historical example of an interstitial space, I argue that such interstitial spaces form part of the story of the development of ideas of responsibility for crime. In comparative jurisprudence, national laws and legal systems were viewed from a transnational vantage point, and, as such, legal analysis was simultaneously embedded and disembedded, both tied to territorial space and free-floating. My examination of the first decades of the life of a key institutional text of comparative jurisprudence, the Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation, shows that discussion of crime, punishment, and criminal justice encompassed an informative discussion of responsibility, with the light of comparative jurisprudence revealing the connection between criminal responsibility and broader ideas about ‘civilization’ and ‘progress’, which themselves reflected power relations between states.
Atomic Force Microscopy
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses atomic force microscopy (AFM), focusing on the methods for atomic force detection. Although the force detection always requires a cantilever, there are two types of modes: the static mode and the dynamic mode. The general design and the typical method of manufacturing of the cantilevers are discussed. Two popular methods of static force detection are presented. The popular dynamic-force detection method, the tapping mode is described, especially the methods in liquids. The non-contact AFM, which has achieved atomic resolution in the weak attractive force regime, is discussed in detail. An elementary and transparent analysis of the principles, including the frequency shift, the second harmonics, and the average tunneling current, is presented. It requires only Newton’s equation and Fourier analysis, and the final results are analyzed over the entire range of vibrational amplitude. The implementation is briefly discussed.
The African Development Bank
Authors: Kraemer-Mbula Erika 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates how the African Development Bank (AfDB) has been deeply shaped by the history of its continent. Fuelled by a sentiment of independence, the creation of the AfDB was driven by a determination to create a regional bank run by Africans, funded by Africans, and serving African needs. African governments’ desire for autonomy and the quest to break with distorted patterns created by Africa’s colonial past helped position the AfDB as the largest development institution dedicated solely to serve the needs of the continent. This chapter argues that, over the years and—despite significant institutional reform, including the acceptance of non-regional members in its Board from 1982, including the United States and former colonial powers—the AfDB has managed overall to preserve its ‘African identity’.
From Sub-Regional Industrial Financier to Latin America’s Main Development Bank
Authors: Brando Carlos Andrés 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the historical evolution of the Andean Financial Corporation (CAF), according to its changing mandates, from its initial role as financial catalyst of economic integration to the expanding range of tasks it has assumed over time. The chapter analyses the most salient trends and changes in the CAF’s nearly fifty years of operations; specifically, by looking at patterns of loan allocations and the evolving origins of funding sources through the distinctive operational phases that have come to characterize concrete periods of its existence. The analysis shows, that by fulfilling the original mandate of treating less-developed countries within the group of founding members in preferential terms, the CAF conformed to one of the major political goals set by the Andean-region agreements which created the Corporation. Despite profound political change in all of the CAF’s founding countries, this regional development bank has managed to continue to operate according to its constitutive principles.
Conclusion
Authors: Sutton Rebecca 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The final chapter opens with one last encounter from South Sudan, highlighting the importance of the temporal element to everyday distinction practices. As is shown, struggles over distinction unfold at the most micro of levels: within a single individual. Having deferred normative questions, the discussion now confronts the conundrum of whether a special status for humanitarian actors is desirable. A debate is presented between two composite perspectives: the ‘help the helpers’ view (in favour of a special status for humanitarian actors) and the ‘against humanitarian exceptionalism’ view (wary of a special status). Ultimately siding with the latter outlook, the monograph argues that caution is merited in the face of proposals to give humanitarian actors a special civilian status. Emphasizing the relational nature of distinction, the discussion considers whether further fragmentation of IHL’s civilian category might adversely impact all those civilians not singled out for special treatment. This is a live issue that extends beyond the realm of humanitarian actors: advocates are increasingly calling for more lex specialis for different types of civilians, such as children and journalists. After contemplating the implications of this wider investigation for a range of issues, such as humanitarian practice and the civilian concept, the discussion gestures towards potential avenues for further inquiry.
What is statistical mechanics?
Authors: Sethna James P. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Statistical mechanics explains the simple behavior of complex systems. It works by studying not a particular instance, but the typical behavior of a large collection (or ensemble) of systems, which is far easier to calculate. Entropy, free energies, order parameters, phases and phase transitions emerge as collective behaviors that are not manifest in the complex microscopic laws. This text will develop the statistical mechanical machinery needed to generate the new laws governing these emergent behaviors. Exercises in this chapter discuss emergence, Stirling’s formula, random matrix theory, small world networks, an NP complete problem, active matter, and topics in statistics.
Entropy
Authors: Sethna James P. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores irreversibility, disorder, and ignorance as manifestations of entropy. Entropy measures irreversibility. The inevitable increase of entropy was discovered by analyzing a reversible heat engine, and implied the heat death of the Universe. Entropy measures disorder. Osmotic pressure is the entropy of ions in water; the residual entropy of glasses measures their atomic disorder. Entropy measures our ignorance about the world. Information entropy is used to compress messages and files on the Internet. Exercises span information entropy (burning information and Maxwell’s demon, reversible computation, card shuffling, Shannon entropy, entropy of DNA and aging, entropy of messy bedrooms, data compression), fundamentals of equilibration (Arnol’d cat map, proofs for and against entropy increase, phase conjugate mirrors), materials science (rubber bands and glasses), and astrophysics and cosmology (life at the end of the Universe, black hole entropy, Dyson spheres, cosmic nucleosynthesis and the arrow of time).
Order parameters, broken symmetry, and topology
Authors: Sethna James P. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces order parameters -- the reduction of a complex system of interacting particles into a few fields that describe the local equilibrium behavior at each point in the system. It introduces an organized approach to studying a new material system -- identify the broken symmetries, define the order parameter, examine the elementary excitations, and classify the topological defects. It uses order parameters to describe crystals and liquid crystals, superfluids and magnets. It touches upon broken gauge symmetries and the Anderson/Higgs mechanism and an analogue to braiding of non-abelian quantum particles. Exercises explore sound, second sound, and Goldstone’s theorem; fingerprints and soccer balls; Landau theory and other methods for generating emergent theories from symmetries and commutation relations; topological defects in magnets, liquid crystals, and superfluids, and defect entanglement.
Rethinking Sovereign Debt from Colonial Empires to Hegemony
Authors: Pénet Pierre , Zendejas Juan Flores 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This descriptive chapter identifies the available narratives on the evolution of sovereign debt across the four historical clusters we have chosen to examine and show how this volume updates and complements existing research. Consistent with the diplomatic framework outlined in the introduction, we survey patterns of similarities and differences between clusters in terms of risk analysis, legal clauses, bargaining power, and conceptions of state responsibility. Our periodization will not surprise the reader inasmuch it broadly conforms to the conventional reading that the Great Depression and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 were two critical junctures that deeply altered the form of creditor–debtor interactions in the sovereign sector. Yet, as we show below, this volume also makes substantial amendments to this conventional story. First, our focus on colonial history from the nineteenth-century building of empires to postcolonial transitions allows to diversify and identify discrepancies in the available narratives on each periods. Second, our attention to colonialism leads us to pay sustained attention to debt disputes arising during the postcolonial transitions of the 1960s–70s, a cluster of defaults which has not received sufficient scholarly attention. As explained below, our proposal to jointly analyse the historical threads of sovereign debt and colonialism allows for revisiting certain well-known cases of debt disputes and to examine previously unknown or little known events. The last section of this chapter presents the general organization of the volume as well as the list of selected case studies.
Maduro Bonds
Authors: Gulati Mitu , Panizza Ugo 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
For multiple decades, activists have sought to institute an international legal regime that limits the ability of despotic governments to borrow money and then shift those obligations onto more democratic successor governments. The goal of this chapter is to raise the possibility of an alternate legal path to raising the costs of borrowing for despotic regimes. All countries have systems of domestic laws that regulate agency relationships and try to deter corruption; otherwise the domestic economy would not function. Despotic governments are especially likely to engage in transactions that are legally problematic, since by definition, they lack the support of the populace; meaning that there is a high likelihood that actions that they take on behalf of the populace can be challenged as unrepresentative and contrary to the interests of the true principals. The foregoing conditions, if one translates them into the context of an ordinary principal–agent relationship, would constitute a voidable transaction in most modern legal systems. That means that if opposition parties in countries with despotic governments today were to monitor and make public the potential problems with debt issuances by their despotic rulers under their own local laws, it would raise the cost of capital for those despots. To support our argument, we use both the concrete example of the debt issuance shenanigans of the Maduro government in Venezuela and a more general analysis of the relationship between corruption, democracy, and a nation’s borrowing costs.
Bread and Honey
Authors: Percy Martyn 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides some thoughts on the ideas of mutuality and economics from a philosophical and theological perspective. It explores the changing relationships between business, finance, social flourishing, and morality, suggesting that the myopia of the market economy derives from values and assumptions that prioritize the individual over the social, and wealth over wider concepts of flourishing. It describes the values that promote human flourishing and how they have come to be condensed in a single value of profit that has progressively dominated our lives and societies. The chapter lays the foundations for the values that underpin putting purpose into practice and the economics of mutuality.
The Meaning of Mutuality
Authors: Dolan Catherine , Angelov Bojan , Gilbert Paul 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at how Mars regards the concept of mutuality as it is applied within its organization. What emerges is a considerable diversity of views about what it means and its significance. Even amongst the most senior levels of management and within the Mars family there is a significant divergence of attitudes towards it. While this ambiguity might be thought to be a source of confusion, it has also allowed different approaches to mutuality to be adopted resulting in a greater degree of experimentation and innovation than might otherwise have prevailed. To some, it is perceived as being predominantly about inclusive growth for the benefit of all parties; to others, it is the fact that it is neither charity nor amoral pursuit of profit that defines it; and to a third group, it is the long-term orientation predicated on enduring relationships that is of most significance.
Timberland and the Smallholder Farmers Alliance
Authors: Locke Hugh , McIlwraith Atlanta , Khalil Lionel , Roll Kate 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Timberland designs, manufactures and sells footwear, clothes, and accessories for the outdoor. It is a good example of a business–nonprofit partnership. It has partnered with a Haitian non-profit organization, the Smallholder Farmers Alliance, with a view to creating a new supply chain to reintroduce organic Haitian-grown cotton and incentivize farmers to plant trees. From the start of the programme in 2010 it has grown to more than six thousand members in three thousand farms. It is an illustration of the results that can be achieved on the back of a strong understanding of the specific needs of farmers in a particular locality.
Dell
Authors: Koch Louise , Roberts Stephen , Ellis Justine Esta 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The computer manufacturer Dell runs the world’s largest electronics take-back programme. It has recovered more than 800,000 tonnes of electronics since 2008. In the case of individual consumers it partners with freight companies in retrieving equipment from consumers’ homes and partners with Goodwill, a not-for-profit organization that seeks to make people independent through education and training, in running 2,000 locations across the United States where consumers can drop off any brand of used electronics. The article points to the commercial as well as the environmental savings resulting from the recycling programme and describes the process by which Dell has been able to achieve this.
Protection of and Access to Relevant Data—General Issues
Authors: Liu Kung-Chung , Zheng Shufeng 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the protection of relevant data and issues that might block access to such data. There are at least three kinds of data, data specifically generated for the purpose of AI, big data, and copyright-protected data. Data specifically generated for AI should qualify as works worthy of copyright protection as compilations. If such data are public-sector information, measures that may facilitate the widest re-uses of public data should be taken. If such data are from the private sector, attention needs to be paid to whether these data are of critical importance and whether the use of competition law and/or ex ante regulation will be needed to ensure access. The issue of protection of big data should not be addressed in the sense of giving proprietary entitlement over big data to any entity. When looking at the private-sector components of big data, there are legal, technical and market factors working against the formation, accumulation, and free flow of big data. When looking at the public-sector components of big data, both the importance of open data and the re-use of public sector information come to the fore. Concerning the issue of accessing big data, there are barriers to its collection, storage, synthesis, analysis, and usage. However, behavioural barriers warrant special scrutiny. In that regard, competition law as an ex post remedy can be relied upon but is of limited use; therefore sector-specific regulation might be needed. As for copyright-protected data, the real issue is more about access than protection.
Ralstonia solanacearum Type III Effector RipJ Triggers Bacterial Wilt Resistance in Solanum pimpinellifolium
Authors: Pandey Ankita , Moon Hayoung , Choi Sera , Yoon Hayeon , Prokchorchik Maxim , Jayaraman Jay , Sujeevan Rajendran , Kang Yu Mi , McCann Honour C. , Segonzac Cécile , Kim Chul Min , Park Soon Ju , Sohn Kee Hoon 
Published: April 2021

Ralstonia solanacearum causes bacterial wilt disease in solanaceous crops. Identification of avirulence type III-secreted effectors recognized by specific disease resistance proteins in host plant species is an important step toward developing durable resistance in crops. In the present study, we show that R. solanacearum effector RipJ functions as an avirulence determinant in Solanum pimpinellifolium LA2093. In all, 10 candidate avirulence effectors were shortlisted based on the effector repertoire comparison between avirulent Pe_9 and virulent Pe_1 strains. Infection assays with transgenic strain Pe_1 individually carrying a candidate avirulence effector from Pe_9 revealed that only RipJ elicits strong bacterial wilt resistance in S. pimpinellifolium LA2093. Furthermore, we identified that several RipJ natural variants do not induce bacterial wilt resistance in S. pimpinellifolium LA2093. RipJ belongs to the YopJ family of acetyltransferases. Our sequence analysis indicated the presence of partially conserved putative catalytic residues. Interestingly, the conserved amino acid residues in the acetyltransferase catalytic triad are not required for effector-triggered immunity. In addition, we show that RipJ does not autoacetylate its lysine residues. Our study reports the identification of the first R. solanacearum avirulence protein that triggers bacterial wilt resistance in tomato. We expect that our discovery of RipJ as an avirulence protein will accelerate the development of bacterial wilt-resistant tomato varieties in the future. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license .