bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cattle Cultures in Ancient Nubia
Authors: Dubosson Jérôme 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThis chapter presents an overview of archaeological findings testifying to the ritual and cultural role of cattle in Nubian pre- and protohistoric societies. On the one hand, these consist of animal remains found in various cemeteries along the Nile, such as cattle skulls or horns, which were placed inside graves or next to them on the surface. On the other hand, these consist of painted and engraved figures of cattle in Nubian rock art, discovered mainly from the First to Fourth Cataracts and showing animals with deliberately shaped horns, marked or decorated hides as well as pendants hanging from the neck. The temporal and spatial distribution of these findings suggest a millennial continuity of practices and possibly common ideas in connection with cattle among Nubian cultures. Anthropological data from contemporary East African pastoral societies, which share similarities in funerary rituals and in attitude towards cattle with these past cultures are presented, in order to widen the interpretative horizon.
Bioarchaeology of Nubia
Authors: Buzon Michele R. 
Published: January 2021

AbstractBioarchaeology is the excavation and analysis of human remains from archaeological sites. Through numerous campaigns related to the building of dams and other projects, thousands of skeletal remains have been excavated from ancient Nubian sites. Paleopathological and morphological analyses of these collections have provided significant information about the lifeways of past inhabitants, including health, disease, activity patterns, traumatic injuries, diet, and biological relationships. From early case studies of pathological curiosities and racial typology to contextualized biocultural analyses of changes in health and population composition, Nubian bioarchaeology has adapted and expanded together with methodological and theoretical advancements in bioarchaeology more broadly. The integration of bioarchaeology within the larger archaeological research project from planning through analyses encourages more contextualized interpretations that combine skeletal evidence with settlement, environmental, and mortuary data to create a picture of life and death in the ancient Nubian past.
The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 2
Authors: Williams Bruce Beyer 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
After Aspelta’s reign (ca. 600–580 bce), for almost two centuries, the Nubian situation was relatively stable. The northern states, first Saite, then Persian, offered little temptation for revanchist moves from Kush, nor did either have an interest in expanding southward. Near the end of the 5th century bce, there is a revival of records by Amannote-erike which continued for more than a century. While these record events in the life of a state under pressure, they reveal much about its geopolitical situation, as well as its social and economic life. They also offer insight into the organization of life in adjacent parts of Northeast Africa, and the scale of activity. Long stretches of Nile Valley between Aswan and the confluence of the Niles have dispersed opportunities for occupation and enclaves in the cataracts were a vulnerability that played a major role in developments of the last century or so of the Napatan Period.
From Foraging to Food Producing
Authors: Usai Donatella 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThe Nile valley has been the cradle to groups of foragers practicing hunting, gathering and fishing, and technologically advanced pottery production. This social, economic, and cultural system developed during the early and part of the middle Holocene periods and was gradually supplanted by socially more complex communities with a mixed food-producing subsistence system. Differences from northern and southern part of valley can now be emphasized and they describe a dynamic world whose making has been boosted by local and external agents.
The Pre-Kerma Culture and the Beginning of the Kerma Kingdom
Authors: Honegger Matthieu 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The Pre-Kerma is an Upper Nubian culture that developed between 3500 and 2500 bce. It preceded the Kerma civilization and was in part contemporaneous with the A-Group from Lower Nubia. It consisted of an agro-pastoral population that maintained contacts with Lower Nubia and produced pottery somewhat similar to that of the A-Group. It is best known from settlements dated between 3000 and 2600 bce, in particular those from Kerma and Sai Island. The settlement sites have yielded a large number of cereal storage pits, which imply that agriculture was practiced on a larger scale than during the preceding periods. At Kerma, an extensive agglomeration of more than fifty huts, animal pens, and an imposing system of fortifications suggests the social complexity of the urban Kerma civilization. The Pre-Kerma culture maintained contacts with the A-Group, while being much less involved in exchanges with the earliest Egyptian dynasties. Its existence bears witness to a certain social dynamism in Upper Nubia that helped give rise to the Kerma kingdom.
Wisdom in the New Testament
Authors: Kovalishyn Mariam Kamell 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Wisdom, in the New Testament, has made several shifts. As a genre, it has gained clear apocalyptic overtones, unsurprising when Wisdom herself was always located with God and served to reveal God to his people. But more importantly, the New Testament teaches us that wisdom is to be found in the crucified Christ, and that he is the ultimate arbiter of the wisdom of God. He reveals the ways of God to us in his humility and his submission to God, and he teaches his followers what it means to obey and worship God “in Spirit and in truth.” How believers respond to the mystery of Christ crucified and his demands on their lives reveals their growth in wisdom.
Wisdom in the Qur’an and the Islamic Tradition
Authors: Yazicioglu U. Isra 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Wisdom is a crucial qur’anic concept that has been discussed in richly variegated ways in the Islamic tradition, including in qur’anic exegesis, Islamic theology and philosophy, Islamic law, and Islamic spirituality. This article offers a general overview of the role of wisdom in the Qur’an and an interpretive presentation of its meaning, with a specific focus on a number of significant Muslim scholars and sages in classical and contemporary eras, such as al-Ghazali, Rumi, Ibn al-’Arabi, and Said Nursi. The article is organized around three questions to the qur’anic text and Muslim sources: How is wisdom a special gift from God? Why is it so precious? Why does it require a certain existential choice? The Qur’an considers wisdom as a gift from God that is linked closely with revelation. Ultimately, in the qur’anic tradition, wisdom is about understanding how the reality points to transcendent beauty, life after death, and living accordingly, in gratitude, with balance and justice.
Wisdom in Jewish Theology
Authors: Schofer Jonathan 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Two major strands articulating wisdom in Jewish theology appeared in the Middle Ages: the philosophical and the mystical. The greatest philosophical account of wisdom appears right at the end of The Guide for the Perplexed, by Maimonides. Maimonides offers an analytic treatment of verses from the book of Proverbs and uses of wisdom elsewhere in the Jewish Bible to set out wisdom as a distinct and valued human virtue. The greatest mystical treatment of wisdom appears in The Zohar, a tremendous Kabbalistic exposition of the Pentateuch. In The Zohar, wisdom is one of ten points of divine emanation called sefirot. Human attainment of wisdom requires ascetic and disciplined study of traditional Jewish sources, which brings intimate connection with divine emanation. In the eighteenth through twentieth centuries, new developments in Jewish thought brought renewed significance for wisdom in the writings of Hasidic Jewish leaders, Martin Buber, and Emmanuel Levinas.
Personified Wisdom and Feminist Theologies
Authors: Yoder Christine Roy 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Feminist theologians have been instrumental in recovering and reclaiming the many biblical and extrabiblical traditions about personified Wisdom (e.g., Proverbs 1–9, Sirach 24, Wisdom of Solomon 6–9) and the significance of her story for Jewish and Christian communities. This essay explores how the traditions about Wisdom have been particularly generative in Christian feminist theological discourse with regard to four matters: (1) possible sources for the initial personification of Wisdom in Proverbs 1–9; (2) Wisdom’s preeminent relationship with God and roles in the creation of the cosmos; (3) Wisdom’s relationship with humankind and the natural world; and (4) implications of personified Wisdom for understanding the nature and scope of knowledge.
The Pervasiveness of Wisdom in (Con)texts
Authors: Ahn John 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Wisdom as a distinctive category has been challenged. This piece further challenges and opens up the geographical, ideological, and contextual contexts of sapiential texts found in various cultures with written scribal traditions. The Hebrew Bible’s Wisdom texts are primarily studied and situated in the ancient Near East and Egypt. Here, these texts are directedly placed in dialogue with authors and texts of the ancient Far East. For example: Proverbs and the Analects, Job and Buddhism, and Ecclesiastes and Chinese Philosophy (Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu). As Wisdom authors and texts hardly reference divinely sanctioned prophets or revelatory laws, the content and message with emphasis on humanity, propriety, consciousness, and jen (virtue, steadfastness, justice, affection, and righteousness) offer a fresh new breath of distinctiveness, which was pervasive in the Greco-Persian context.
Advice
Authors: Vayntrub Jacqueline 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Challenging long-held assumptions about the identification and characterization of Wisdom Literature, this chapter examines: (1) how the scholarly category of biblical Wisdom Literature entails a developmental model of literary development in which the book of Proverbs functions as a paradigmatic text; (2) the circular reasoning involved in evaluating texts according to vocabulary and genre; and (3) other literary strategies shared by these texts, including notions of knowledge, its transmission, and survival across generational lines. Beyond a developmental model, a broad category of knowledge production and literary craft facilitates comparisons between texts like Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, Ben Sira, and others. These texts build and comment on the ancient Near Eastern literary and social institution of father-to-son instruction. The advice given in these instructions, and their framing themselves, reflect on the transmission of life-preserving and life-enriching knowledge across generational lines that enables the father to transcend his own individual death and persist in the success of his descendants.
The Social Setting of Wisdom Literature
Authors: Sneed Mark 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The question of the social setting of the biblical Wisdom Literature is an interesting one in that this type of literature seeks to exclude its social background as much as possible. Wisdom Literature, by its very nature, ostensibly portrays itself as universal in its appeal. The social setting of the biblical Wisdom Literature is introduced in this chapter, in order to provide insight into how a range of social facets impinge on their interpretation. Attention focuses on the Israelite scribal context for this literature and the location of its authors/original audience in the retainer social class. Other social variables treated are power, age, gender, and status of both the intended audience and its authors.
Literary Genres of Old Testament Wisdom
Authors: Witte Markus 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This essay briefly traces the history of research into Wisdom genres (Gattungen) in the Old Testament. It outlines the following as essential linguistic, semantic, and pragmatic criteria of a Wisdom genre: (1) a horizontal form of communication that contains a dialogical element, even in monologues or didactic poems; (2) terminology that is directed at knowledge; and (3) a pedagogical focus. Two major genres can be distinguished in the literary history of Israelite-Jewish Wisdom: the instructional book and the commentary. In the Old Testament, only the instructional book is found. Its sub-genres include instruction, to which belong also treatise and testament as well as diatribe and protreptic, the didactic poem, with its special variants of the Wisdom psalm and the meditation, didactic dialogue, which can develop into dispute, and the didactic story. The smallest common linguistic unit of the poetically composed Wisdom texts is the saying. Intra-textual commentaries are offered by the “Praise of the Fathers” in the book of Ben Sira (Sir 44–49) and the “midrash on Exodus” in the Wisdom of Solomon (Wis 11–19). Extra-textual commentaries are performed by Jewish-Hellenistic exegetes, by Philo, and the pesharim from Qumran.
Theology of Wisdom
Authors: Longman Tremper 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the theology of wisdom in the Old Testament with a focus on the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job as well as a consideration of deuterocanonical (Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon) and New Testament wisdom. This study concludes that the theological message of wisdom centers on the concept of the fear of the Lord. Proverbs also demonstrates the pervasive theological dimension of wisdom through the picture of Woman Wisdom, who ultimately represents not only Yahweh’s wisdom, but Yahweh himself. To be wise entails a relationship with Yahweh. The New Testament associates Jesus with Woman Wisdom, thus implying wisdom can be achieved only through relationship with Jesus. This study of the theological dimension of wisdom challenges the contention of some scholars that wisdom is more practical and humanistic and distant from other theological traditions in the Old Testament.
Prophecy and Wisdom Literature
Authors: Boda Mark J. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
After tracing key contributions to the study of the interrelationship between prophecy and Wisdom Literature, this article showcases points of connection between these two literary traditions, focusing on the presentation of revelation and then theophany and theodicy. Adopting an intertextual approach rather than the traditional form-critical approach provides more flexibility for reading each of these literary traditions, encouraging interpreters to see greater interdependence in the literary world of the Hebrew Bible as well as to avoid caricatures of these literary traditions when siloed apart from one another. This intertextual investigation highlights the creational and international quality of prophetic literature along with the revelatory nature of Wisdom Literature as wisdom from above.
Apocalyptic and Wisdom Literature
Authors: Reynolds Bennie H. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
“Apocalyptic Literature” and “Wisdom Literature” are broad designations that represent widely recognized categories of inquiry in the fields of ancient Judaism, early Christianity, and beyond. The relationship between the two has been a prominent topic of study over the last five decades. Beyond their familiar connotations, one finds a complicated and contested relationship in recent scholarship on ancient Jewish and Christian literature. This article attempts to disambiguate both the terms and the recent history of research in order to highlight some of the most important progress made and some of the most promising avenues for future research.
Epistemology
Authors: Schellenberg Annette 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This article discusses how cognitive issues are related to the ancient Israelites’ idea of wisdom. Focusing on the aspects of experience and reasoning, tradition, skepticism, and revelation, it traces general assumptions found throughout all sapiential texts as well as historical developments and controversies among contemporaries. More concretely, it argues that for much of biblical history sapiential epistemology is characterized by a high esteem of experience and reasoning and the belief that all human beings share the same cognitive abilities (and limitations, respectively). In later times, however, these two characteristics lose their importance and are given up, respectively—not through the idea of revelation in general, which was implicitly present from the very beginning, but through the idea of special revelation only to an elect group.
Proverbs
Authors: Balentine Samuel E. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Wisdom can be taught and learned, as the instructions in Proverbs 1–9 make clear, and when utilized as strategies for dealing with typical and recurring situations in life, such as those suggested in Proverbs 10–31, they ensure both moral integrity and material prosperity. The motivation for obedience to proverbial truth is the transcendent authority of God, who is the source and substance of the knowledge towards which wisdom aspires. The most important lesson to be learned is itself therefore reducible to a single certainty that informs all of the wisdom sayings in Proverbs: “The beginning of wisdom is the fear of the Lord; the knowledge of the holy one is understanding” (Prov 9:10; cf. 1:7). This essay addresses five major interpretive issues in Proverbs: (1) composition history, (2) literary forms, (3) socio-political context, (4) moral reasoning and ethical conduct, and (5) thematic coherence.
Theology
Authors: Van Leeuwen Raymond C. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Although wisdom is usually seen as separate from Covenant Theology, a full-orbed, canonical account of wisdom will lead us to consider wisdom and covenant as linked by their common root in creation. Biblical Israel conceived of wisdom as a divine or human capacity rooted and revealed in creation, and implicitly inseparable from covenant as its theological presupposition. This chapter discusses the nature of wisdom as a concept, the presuppositions and conditions associated with it, and what it does. It situates wisdom and covenant in the created order as all three realities converge in the fear of the Lord.
Chechen and Ingush
Authors: Komen Erwin R. , Molochieva Zarina , Nichols Johanna 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThis chapter is a grammar sketch of Chechen and Ingush, which form the Vainakh subbranch of the Nakh branch of the Nakh-Daghestanian family. The emphasis is on Chechen, since a reference grammar of Ingush exists. Attention is given to points of typological and theoretical interest. Chechen and Ingush distinguish themselves from the Daghestanian languages by having a much richer set of vowel phonemes, containing short and long diphthongs. Accompanied by extensive examples from existing texts, the chapter offers insight into features such as stress and tone, pharyngealization, verb classes, verb template, meanings of TAM categories, evidentiality, valence changing, the addressee dative construction, word order, clause chaining, clefting and the VIP demonstrative. A number of issues that need further research are outlined in the chapter, such as tone, intonation and schwa-zero alternations. Differences between Chechen and Ingush are identified, especially where they involve the semantics and pragmatics of morphological forms or syntactic constructions.
Correlatives in Languages of the Caucasus
Authors: Demirok Ömer , Öztürk Balkız 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThis chapter gives an overview of the landscape of correlatives in the languages of the Caucasus, identifying a bifurcation in the typology of correlatives. We show that one group of languages (e.g., Georgian) has correlatives that share certain properties with other relativization strategies available to these languages, such as the use of relative pronouns distinct from interrogative pronouns, while another group of languages (e.g., Lezgian) has correlatives that feature interrogative pronouns. Regarding the latter group of languages, we propose that interrogative pronouns in their correlatives are not syncretic forms that function as relative pronouns but have the same semantic import that they have in wh-questions. We develop an analysis of interrogative-based correlatives that is built on the semantics of wh-questions (cf. Rawlins, 2013), arguing that interrogative-based correlatives can be a subtype of universal concessive constructions also known as unconditionals. Empirically comparing our compositional analysis for interrogative-based correlatives to the analysis of Srivastav (1991) for relativization-based correlatives, we argue that a cross-linguistic typology of correlatives is well grounded.
Ellipsis in Languages of the Caucasus
Authors: Erschler David 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThis chapter deals with ellipsis, a phenomenon whereby some expected material goes missing in an utterance. The chapter overviews types of ellipsis frequently addressed in the literature: ellipsis in the noun phrase; argument omission; VP ellipsis; modal complement ellipsis; ellipsis in complex predicates; gapping, pseudogapping, and right node raising; ellipsis in comparative constructions, stripping; and ellipsis involving negation, sluicing and its generalizations, and fragment answers. It proceeds to review the occurrence of, and peculiarities exhibited by, these ellipsis varieties in a sample of the languages of the Caucasus. A number of ellipsis varieties that have not been earlier discussed in the literature but are present in some languages of the Caucasus are addressed as well. The data show that the languages of the Caucasus do not show a uniform typological profile as far as ellipsis is concerned. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the relevance of the presented data for theories of ellipsis.
Binding and Indexicality in the Caucasus
Authors: Ganenkov Dmitry , Bogomolova Natalia 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThis chapter introduces the inventory of anaphoric expressions attested in languages of the Caucasus and discusses their basic properties. It shows that Nakh-Dagestanian, Kartvelian, and Northwest Caucasian differ in the division of labor between nominal expressions and verbal inflection in reflexive constructions. It demonstrates that exempt uses of anaphors are found in Nakh-Dagestanian, but not in Kartvelian or Northwest Caucasian, and that different types of reflexive pronouns in Nakh-Dagestanian have distinct restrictions on locality, while Kartvelian anaphors are strictly local. The chapter also describes the well-known pattern of ‘reverse binding’ in Nakh-Dagestanian, where the reflexive or reciprocal appears in the subject position above the antecedent. It is shown that some instances of reverse binding can be explained by factoring in the distinction between syntactic binding and coreference. Georgian reflexives are also known to be grammatical in the subject position, with non-trivial implications for the semantic interpretation. Personal pronouns in Nakh-Dagestanian and, possibly, other Caucasian languages can undergo indexical shift in finite embedded reports.