bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Authors: Lele Uma , Goswami Sambuddha 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the evolving roles of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and its reforms from the 2007 Independent External Evaluation until the arrival of Director-General Qu Dongyu. The chapter outlines how FAO’s adoption of a strategic framework and matrix management enabled it to meet the goals it has adopted for itself, toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG2 (zero hunger). It is a substantially expanded but necessary agenda. FAO has made considerable progress in its vision and strategy and laid the groundwork with a framework to be accountable for results. The chapter identifies four issues for FAO going forward. The first is the old debate on the balance between FAO’s normative, public goods function and the embrace of SDGs to help member countries advance them. Second, matrix management is a challenge that is by no means unique to FAO. Third, a big challenge is increasing resources in the context of FAO’s assessed contributions. Finally, the chapter makes a case for establishing FAO as a center of excellence to achieve a transformative, sustainable food system and to address its global public goods and SDGs functions, supported by predictable funds to be accorded to FAO, well beyond its current level of assessed and voluntary contributions, with expected transparency in the use of resources.
The International Fund for Agricultural Development
Authors: Lele Uma , Baldwin Brian C. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The International Fund for Agricultural Development’s (IFAD’s) vision for the post-2015 rural world is one in which extreme rural poverty is eliminated through inclusive and sustainable agriculture and rural development, and in which poor rural people and communities, including those who live in remote areas, are empowered to build prosperous and sustainable livelihoods. IFAD is focused on rural people at the bottom of the pyramid, women, and marginalized people. External evaluations have shown that IFAD, a small and agile organization, has been effective in addressing its declared mission. Its dilemma going forward is whether to assist poor people in only poor countries, or even in low middle-income countries and middle-income countries, as it has done in the past. An assessment is needed of whether the current paradigm of average per capita country income is sufficiently robust to support IFAD’s mandate, particularly in countries with acute per capita income inequality. Demonstrating impacts has been a challenge, but then IFAD is not alone in that regard. A vigorous program of impact assessments is underway but generalizing beyond findings of individual impact evaluations has been a challenge. The Eleventh Replenishment (IFAD11, 2019–21) may barely reach US$1.1 billion of the US$1.2 billion replenishment target over a three-year period. The ongoing IFAD12 Replenishment (2022–4) needs to exceed that to secure IFAD’s financial future, including market-based borrowing at rates that MICs will find expedient to borrow at for rural development programs where, traditionally, highly concessional and/or grant funding has been available.
Solidification and Refining
Authors: Engh Thorvald Abel , Sigworth Geoffrey K. , Kvithyld Anne 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Solidification involves a phase change from liquid to solid. Most impurities have a lower solubility in solid than in the liquid phase. Consequently, solidification presents an opportunity to refine or purify metals. The redistribution of impurities during freezing (called segregation) also has a considerable influence on the properties of the solidified casting. This chapter deals primarily with three subjects: removal of impurities during solidification; transferral of unwanted elements to parts of the casting where they do not harm the finished product; and grain refinement, where a nucleant is added to achieve a small (refined) grain structure. The segregation coefficient is defined. The mass transfer coefficient of impurities from solid to liquid is considered and used to model macrosegregation. Two important industrial processes are described in detail: the refining of silicon for solar cells, and the grain refinement of aluminium.
Recycling
Authors: Engh Thorvald Abel , Sigworth Geoffrey K. , Kvithyld Anne 
Published: November 2021

AbstractMetals recycling and its key features is defined. Important principles and strategies are considered. Scrap, its sources and characteristics and variation, is investigated in some detail, highlighted with some examples. The unit processes in recycling—collection, shredding, sorting, pretreatment, blending, and processing of final residues—are described. How selecting methods in various process routes impact the recycling is an important message. Three examples of recycling are discussed in detail: magnesium, dross, and batteries. Limits and opportunities are commented on at the end.
Field and laboratory analysis for non-invasive wildlife and habitat health assessment and conservation
Authors: Knott Cheryl D. , Scott Amy M. , O’Connell Caitlin A. , Susanto Tri Wahyu , Kane Erin E. 
Published: November 2021

AbstractLaboratory methods are increasingly being used in remote field camps, or during mobile field surveys, to aid in wildlife conservation. This chapter explains how field laboratories have allowed for technological advances in sample preparation and preservation, and for both low and high-tech on-site analysis. It highlights how field samples can be used for health and physiological analyses, including measuring the nutritional content of plant foods, assessing hormones, C-peptide, and ketones from urine, examining faecal parasites, and using genetic techniques to determine individual identity, relatedness, and population genetic diversity. We explain how measurements of physiology and health promise to greatly improve our understanding of the relationship between disease prevalence in wild animals and anthropogenic disturbances. The authors’ research with critically endangered wild orangutans in Indonesia provides an illustrative case study, using field laboratories for rapid analysis of orangutan health status, such as assessing indicators of energy balance from urine and parasite prevalence from faeces. In addition, the chapter shows how new information can be gained from field-collected samples by taking advantage of technological advances in laboratory methodology and equipment to determine the nutrient content of foods, measure steroid hormones, and C-peptide and reveal genetic relationships. Understanding how these variables impact wildlife health and viability provides a critical tool for species conservation and helps make long-term research sustainable, provides capacity building opportunities, and forges relationships with local partners. Continued technological advances in the near future should bring more capability into field laboratories, providing data to aid conservation that is easier to obtain and more accessible.
The future of technology in conservation
Authors: Mulero-Pázmány Margarita 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This final chapter discusses how conservation technology might evolve in the near future. The first section provides a global overview of the current scope of conservation technology. The second section focuses on the current limitations of conservation technology and describes advances that may help to overcome these constraints. The chapter will then discuss technological trends such as robotics and virtual reality, which are not yet widely used in conservation but offer promise in addressing current conservation challenges. Examples of integrating different technologies—with and without human intervention—in conservation research and management are given. Finally, the barriers to integrating technology into conservation and propose solutions to overcome them are covered.
The Problem of the Prior in Criminal Trials
Authors: Dahlman Christian , Kolflaath Eivind 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses a classical challenge to the Bayesian approach. It examines different ways of setting the prior probability of the prosecutor’s hypothesis in a criminal trial, in particular, the classical Bayesian solution of setting the prior at 1/N, where N is the number of possible perpetrators in the geographical area where the crime was committed. The authors argue that this solution is at odds with the presumption of innocence, and that other proposals are also problematic, either theoretically or in practice. According to the authors, a presumed prior determined ex lege is less problematic than other solutions, and the problem of the prior can be avoided by a reconceptualization of the standard of proof.
Paradoxes of Proof
Authors: Spottswood Mark 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers a review of scholarship concerning the proof paradoxes along with some critical comments of my own. Particular attention is given to problems of naked statistical evidence and the conjunction paradox, along with some thoughts on the discursive dilemma as applied to jury voting. For the sake of clarity, I try to separate what is known concerning human intuitions concerning these puzzles, how they are treated by existing law (to the extent they are noticed at all), and which results might be best from a normative perspective.
The Problem with Naked Statistical Evidence
Authors: Dahlman Christian , Pundik Amit 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
There has been much debate over the value of naked statistical evidence (NSE). However, while most scholars agree that it is problematic to base a verdict on NSE, they disagree on why it is problematic, pointing to different characteristics of NSE as the root of the problem. In the last decade, the debate has been energized by publications that propose a number of new approaches. This chapter joins the most recent debates on NSE—in particular, the objections to naked statistics based upon sensitivity, normalcy, incentives for lawful conduct, and free will. The authors argue that the problem of NSE is not an epistemic one, as some assume, but is actually a moral problem.
General Provisions
Authors: Law European 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the general provisions concerning the operation of the European Rules of Civil Procedure. It defines the scope of these Rules, limiting their application to domestic and cross-border civil and commercial disputes. It does so by reference to the definition of such disputes that is commonly accepted throughout Europe. The chapter then looks at the overarching procedural duties that are imposed upon the court, parties, and their lawyers. The most significant of these duties are the duty of co-operation, which is understood in these Rules to be of fundamental importance to the effective and proper administration of justice, and the general principle of proportionality in dispute resolution, which has itself become an increasingly important procedural principle across Europe since the start of the 21st century. Finally, the chapter articulates and, in some cases, gives concrete effect to the fundamental procedural principles that are inherent in the right to fair trial.
Case Management
Authors: Law European 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter details the provisions on case management under the European Rules of Civil Procedure. Rule 47 provides that ‘parties must present their claims, defences, factual allegations and offers of evidence as early and completely as possible and as appropriate to the careful conduct of litigation in order to secure procedural expedition’. In general, responsibility for the efficient and speedy resolution of disputes is shared between the court and parties. Rule 48 concerns the court control of proceedings. Meanwhile, Rule 49 sets out the court's general duty of active case management, which is part of the principle of co-operation. All European jurisdictions' procedural codes employ court orders or court directions as a means of communication between the court and parties in order to facilitate effective case management as provided in Rules 48 and 49. The process of rendering court orders under Rule 50 is intended to ensure that management under these Rules is carried out effectively and with sufficient respect for the parties' right to be heard.
Access to Information and Evidence
Authors: Law European 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the provision and testing of evidence, which is central to civil procedure. Effective access to information and evidence are basic tools that ensure access to justice is a real rather than a merely theoretical right. There is a great deal of variety across European jurisdictions in respect of the approach taken to evidence-taking, and particularly to access to relevant information. This is a consequence of a variety of factors: the distinction between the civil law/common law; legal history; and procedural culture, and particularly the distribution of roles between the court, judiciary, and parties. This divergence in approaches to evidence may be the source of difficulties in cross-border litigation. The chapter identifies the common core of the law of evidence and the best, or more convenient, rules, including those related to the management of evidence, in use in European jurisdictions. To do so, it looks at the ALI/UNIDROIT Principles, the IBA Rules of Evidence and of legal instruments addressing the issue of evidence and access to information within the European Union.
Means of Review
Authors: Law European 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines appeals and other types of recourse, including extraordinary motion for review. The ability to appeal from or otherwise challenge judgments is a well-established feature amongst procedural systems, albeit it is, in principle, not recognised by the European Court of Human Rights as falling within the ambit of the right to fair trial under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The present European Rules of Civil Procedure adopt the approach that there is a right to appeal, albeit one that may only be exercised with the permission of the appellate court according to special provisions with respect to access and scope. In this way the appellate process, and the right to appeal, provides an effective balance between the principles of finality in litigation, accuracy in decision-making, expedition, and proportionality. Principle 27 of the ALI/UNIDROIT Principles addresses the necessity of keeping the right balance between diverging aspects of the rule of law as follows: ‘(2) The scope of appellate review should ordinarily be limited to claims and defenses addressed in first-instance proceeding. (3) The appellate court may in the interest of justice consider new facts and evidence’.
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Measuring Chemical Quantities: The Mole introduces the mole as the chemist’s unit for the amount of substance and discusses its relationship with Avogadro’s number of chemical entities including atoms, ions, molecules and formula units. Calculations demonstrate the use of the mole to convert between mass and the number of chemical entities.
Gas Laws
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Gas Laws summarizes the general laws that describe how the volume of a gas changes in response to changes in pressure (P), temperature (T in Kelvin) or the number of moles (n). The ideal gas law, which combines Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Avogadro’s law, is presented, with explanations of using it to solve gas-law problems. Mathematical rearrangements of the ideal gas law to determine density and molar mass are described along with the use of Dalton’s law of partial pressures to find the pressure of each gas in a mixture. Finally the chapter presents ideal gas law and reaction stoichiometry, Graham’s law of effusion, and basic notions of real gases and their deviation from the ideal gas laws.
Chemical Equilibrium
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Chemical Equilibrium reviews the principles of equilibrium in systems of gases and liquids, starting with the concepts of reversible and irreversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium constant (K) and reaction quotient (Q) are described, and comparison of K and Q is used to determine the direction in which a reaction must proceed to reach equilibrium. Calculations involving K in terms of concentration and pressure are presented. The relationship between the magnitude of K, the equilibrium position and the concentrations of reactants and products is discussed for both homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria. The chapter ends with a qualitative treatment of equilibrium based on Le Chatelier’s principle, as well as how changes in reaction conditions can disturb a chemical equilibrium and how the chemical reaction responds to those changes.
Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions gives an overview of nuclear chemistry with emphasis on radioactive decay, binding energy and nuclear stability. Modes of radioactive decay are discussed, along with writing and balancing nuclear equations. Decay modes covered include alpha emission, beta emission, gamma emission, positron emission, and electron capture, along with a summary of how each type of decay process affects the parent radioisotope and determines the daughter isotope formed. Nuclear transmutation induced by changes in the nuclei is discussed. The chapter covers the kinetics of radioactive decay including the relationship between the half-lives of radioisotopes and radioisotopic dating. The chapter concludes with a quantitative coverage of the energy of nuclear reactions including the interconversion of mass and energy via the mass defect.
The Vicissitudes of War
Authors: Harris Randy Allen 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter charts the battles around the central notions of the Generative/Interpretive Semantics dispute: the existence of Deep Structure (rejected by Generative Semantics, redefined by Interpretive Semantics), the Katz-Postal Principle (rejected by both, in different ways), the notion of grammaticality (distended by Generative Semantics into contingencies and gradations, then rejected; retained by Interpretive Semantics). It also examines the rhetorical maneuvers around George Lakoff’s proposal of global rules (embraced as unfortunately inevitable by Generative Semantics, terminologically rejected but methodologically embraced by Interpretive Semantics). The chapter also documents some of the direct firefights and skirmishes across the Transformational Grammar battlefield, which left Generative Semantics in a position of clear ascendancy.
Chomsky Agonistes
Authors: Harris Randy Allen 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of Noam Chomsky’s current linguistic framework, the Minimalist Program, and the evolutionary milieu in which it is now mostly plied, including the linguistic implications of FOXP2, often called “the language gene” in popular media. The chapter also tackles the most touchy and slippery psychobiographical issue in the field of linguistics over the course of Chomsky’s lengthy and influential career: his rhetorical tactics, especially in connection with the truth. Chomsky has been widely accused of dishonesty, misrepresentation, and, in George Lakoff’s terms “fighting dirty,” as well as being venerated and defended just as widely. I examine that claim with respect to yet another Chomskyan tempest, the dispute over Daniel Everett’s claim that the language Pirahã does not exhibit recursion, a property that seems to be required by Chomsky's Universal Grammar, and through a close reading of an exchange over the existence of grammatical rules with philosopher and early Chomsky supporter, John Searle. Finally, it sifts through Chomsky’s record and the current state of the field to speculate about Chomsky’s legacy.
The Associations Between Sleep Disturbance, Psychological Dysfunction, Pain Intensity, and Pain Interference in Children with Chronic Pain
Authors: Solé Ester , Sharma Saurab , Ferreira-Valente Alexandra , Pathak Anupa , Sánchez-Rodríguez Elisabet , Jensen Mark P , Miró Jordi 
Published: November 2021

Abstract

Objectives
This study aimed to better understand the associations between both sleep disturbance and psychological dysfunction (i.e., anxiety and depressive symptoms, and anger), and pain intensity and pain interference, in a sample of children with chronic pain.

Design
Cross-sectional design.

Methods
Three hundred and forty-two children with chronic pain (8–18 years) completed measures assessing pain intensity, pain interference, sleep disturbance, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and anger. Regression analyses examined the direct, interaction (with sex), and mediation effects of sleep quality and psychological dysfunction on pain intensity and interference.

Results
Sleep disturbance was significantly associated with both pain intensity and pain interference. However, measures of psychological dysfunction were associated significantly only with pain interference. Sex did not moderate these associations. The measures of psychological dysfunction mediated the associations between sleep disturbance and pain interference but not those between sleep disturbance and pain intensity.

Conclusions
The results confirmed significant cross-sectional associations between both sleep disturbance and psychological dysfunction and pain outcomes in children with chronic pain. Future research to test for causal associations is warranted.
Regulatory Agencies and Private Damages in the EU: Bridging the Gap between Theory and Practice
Authors: Cherednychenko Olha O 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Regulatory agencies have traditionally been concerned with deterring unlawful conduct in the public interest. This article explores the emerging role of agencies in securing compensation for individuals in mass damage situations resulting from violations of EU private law. It identifies three main models of the relationship between administrative enforcement and private law remedies, notably damages, within the agencies’ operation: (1) separation, (2) complementarity, and (3) integration. These models reflect elements of the current legislative and agency practices in a variety of jurisdictions across different areas of EU private law and provide an analytical framework for assessing such practices in terms of their potential to reconcile the pursuit of the public interest with a concern to ensure justice between private parties. The analysis points to the need to systematically rethink the prevailing regulatory theory concerning the tasks of regulatory agencies along the lines of a holistic approach to deterrence and compensation.