bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Responsibility
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The final consequence of the dual legal nature discussed in the book concerns the international responsibility of international organizations. In particular, this chapter describes how the absence of a common conceptualization affected the work of the International Law Commission, the International Law Institute, and the International Law Association. Afterwards, the chapter focuses on the dual attribution of conduct to an international organization and to its member states. It contends that dual attribution is extremely important in practice and it reviews the cases in which it was at issue. After providing a set of principles on how to apply the dual attribution, it distinguishes between three sets of circumstances: dual attribution via institutional links, dual attribution via factual links, and exclusion of dual attribution when the conduct is attributable to only the organization or its member states. Finally, it discusses the effects of dual attribution in terms of joint responsibility.
Conclusion
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the main findings of the book. The concept of an international organization is defined by looking at the nature of the legal systems they develop. The notion of ‘dual legal nature’ describes how organizations create particular legal systems that derive from international law. This peculiar condition affects the law they produce, which is international and internal at the same time. The effects of the dual legal nature are discussed by analysing international responsibility, the law of treaties, and the validity of organizations’ acts. This conceptualization allows the development of a common legal framework applicable to all international organizations, despite their differences in terms of powers, membership, size, and other descriptive features. In particular, the most valuable consequence of this conceptualization is to rebut a frequent argumentative motif, under which organizations are either perceived as vehicles for member states’ interests or as autonomous entities.
Concepts, Conceptions in the Psychology of the Referring Mind
Authors: Taylor Kenneth A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Concepts function to make objects available for thinking and talking about; conceptions mediate and help guide our reasoning about those objects. Concepts unite all subjects who are capable of thinking and talking about the same thing(s)—subjects whose conceptions of that thing may differ. This distinction is integral to the picture of the psychology of the referring mind that is developed in this chapter: a picture with internalist, externalist, and “communitarian” elements. In the first part of the chapter, the concept/conception-distinction is discussed at length, and important implications of it for our understanding of coreference puzzles and propositional attitude ascriptions are drawn out. In the second part, an overall account of rational cognition and conation that fits with the recommended picture of the referring mind is sketched.
Representing Representations
Authors: Taylor Kenneth A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter champions the priority of objectual representations and reference to the world over fine-grained “inner” mental representations. The main argument rests upon demonstrating that our attitude ascriptions practices give priority to de re ascriptions of mental contents over de dicto ascriptions of mental contents. The argument thereby advances a rejection of the Fregean tradition that construes modes of presentations of objects as essential to the characterization of mental contents within attitude ascriptions. A novel argument is advanced invoking the evaluative commitments expressed with embedded referential slurring terms in argument position, showing them to reveal derogatory attitudes of the ascriber, not the ascribee, and then showing by analogy that the same obtains for existential and referential commitments: they do not typically invoke Fregean modes of presentation by which the ascribee cognizes the world. The chapter ends by reexamining substitution puzzles and the nature of de re belief.
Recruiting Asian Americans with the Right Stuff
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Asian Americans who joined the OSS were highly qualified individuals. They were nearly all proficient or native in the Asian languages and were highly educated, many with advanced degrees. They held qualifications necessary for their assigned tasks as creators for propaganda materials, for gathering and interpreting data for strategic and tactical intelligence reports, and for conducting raids behind enemy lines; they were not relegated to menial tasks performed by bottom-ranked soldiers. Many were commissioned and noncommissioned officers, which meant that European American enlisted men had to salute and obey their orders. They were recruited from Asian immigrant communities that were politically divided and regionally attached, making any assessment of their recruits’ loyalty difficult at best, even if three-quarters of them were American-born or naturalized US citizens.
Morale Operations and Talking Their Way Into Japan
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The Morale Operations section of the OSS recruited Asian Americans with the requisite skills in media communications. They hired individuals to help with propaganda materials aimed at two targets. One was to the Chinese public, to help stiffen their resolve to resist the Imperial Japanese forces. The other was aimed at the Japanese public and Imperial Japanese military personnel, to weaken their morale and willingness to continue with the war. The means of communication was in print or over the radio. For the former, some were graphic artists and employed to design cartoons and other pictorial representations for those not sufficiently literate in the Chinese language. Others were experienced typesetters and printers. Still others were writers who produced propaganda leaflets that Morale Operations distributed throughout the countryside in China.
Fighting Like a Man, Special Operations Style
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Asian Americans also joined Special Operations. Their work for this section involved engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Imperial Japanese forces in Burma. Led by Carl Eifler, they were immensely successful against the enemy who outnumbered their units operating behind the battle lines. While they found their linguistic and cultural skills used far less than imagined, they nevertheless contributed to the defeat of the Imperial Japanese forces in the region. Other Asian Americans planned, trained for, and were about to penetrate Japanese-occupied Korea before the war ended. Two of these missions, known as Eagle and Napko, involved the former contacting the Korean underground movement and the latter planning to use YuHan Corporation pharmaceutical offices as their safe houses while operating covertly inside Korea. Both projects, however, were cancelled once the war ended.
Race, Loyalty, and Asian Americans
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the intersection of race and loyalty. For all OSS members including Asian Americans, prosecuting alleged Asian American collaborators hinged on varying understandings of loyalty. For Frank Farrell, loyalty was fixed and emerged from the historical self, as George Fletcher asserted, as evident in the successful prosecution of the Tokyo Rose case. But for others, such as philosopher Simon Kellar, and Asian American investigators, loyalty was fluid, multilayered, and contingent, and violation of it by words alone was insufficient for prosecution for treason under Article III of the Constitution. As a result of their work, many alleged collaborators were exonerated.
Redistributing the Poor
Authors: Lara-Millán Armando 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This book argues that the changes taking place in the United States’ largest jails and public hospitals have been drastically misunderstood. And more generally, the way that states govern urban poverty at the turn of the twenty-first century has been misunderstood as well. It is widely believed that because US society has divested in public health, the sick and poor now find themselves subject to powerful criminal justice institutions. Rather than focus on the underinvestment of health and overinvestment of criminal justice, this book argues that the fundamental problem of the state is a persistent crisis between budgetary catastrophe and expansive new legal rules. Redistributing the Poor pushes the reader to think about the circulation of people for the purposes of generating absent revenue, absolving new legal demands, and projecting illusions that crisis have been successfully resolved. This book delves into the heart of the state: the day-to-day operations of the largest hospital and jail system in the world. It is only by centering the state’s use of redistribution that one can understand how certain forms of social suffering—the premature death of mainly poor, people of color—are not a result of the state’s failure to act, but instead are the necessary outcome of so-called successful policy.
The Medicalization of the Los Angeles County Jail System, 1978–2015
Authors: Lara-Millán Armando 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents the historical transformation of the Los Angeles County jail system in order to explain why medicine has becomes a useful tool for jailers. Jails were successfully pressured into providing expanded healthcare by various legal agencies at the exact same time that they faced unprecedent budget constraint. In response, jails began thinking of their inmates less as violent gang members and more as mentally ill, substance abusers, and less threatening homeless persons. Doing so allowed them to draw in funding from other agencies and to release thousands of inmates. In total this resulted in the mere circulation of inmates between general housing and medicalized space as the key solution to the jail’s fiscal retrenchment and legal demands.
Opioids, Observation, and Restricting Access in the Public Emergency Room
Authors: Lara-Millán Armando 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents ethnographic evidence of the restriction of medicine in the large, urban public emergency room. There are two routine problems facing triage staff: that there are always too many urgently sick patients whom staff have no real reason to favor for scarce hospital beds, and far too many less-urgently sick patients who technically should never receive beds. The rational rules of triage do not provide the means to reconcile these two problems and, moreover, they mandate that all of these patients be treated. The chapter details how a culture of understanding patients through criminal stigma, the widespread administration of pharmaceutical drugs during the wait, and police presence all work the resolve these two fundamental problems of hospitalization. It is this work that triage staff do—to produce patients that appear less medically needy—that ensures the extreme waiting lines do not become legally problematic.
Institute for Clinical and Economic Review
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Although its origins date to 2006, the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER) gained prominence around 2015 when it focused its health technology assessment (HTA) efforts on a new highly effective, though expensive, treatment for hepatitis C. ICER, a small, private organization, seemed to fill a void in the United States because it offered a systematic value assessment approach and made its analyses publicly accessible. Drawing inspiration from England and Wales’ HTA body, ICER has used the quality-adjusted life year (QALY) and cost-effectiveness analysis. That decision gives ICER a powerful approach applicable to a wide range of technologies, but it has also spurred controversy. The organization has responded to criticisms by revising its “value framework.” Changes include separation of budget impact analysis from value determinations, introduction of other value measures beyond the QALY, increasing consideration of contextual elements, and adoption of a “societal perspective” where data support it.
Do Drugs for Special Populations Warrant Higher Prices?
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Despite its widespread acceptance, cost-effectiveness analysis, which examines an intervention’s incremental cost per unit of health gained, can run up against intuition in the context of drug coverage for conditions affecting special populations. In particular, the “rule of rescue” (i.e., spending more for populations perceived to be in immediate and great peril) may be justified for certain conditions. Examples include rare diseases and the “orphan drugs” used to treat them; cancer, with its attendant societal dread; and pediatric conditions, which are often inherited and severe. Cell and gene therapies may also challenge traditional value assessment, given their high manufacturing costs and potential for one-time, curative treatment. Health technology assessment (HTA) bodies worldwide have made exceptions for these populations by comparing cost-effectiveness ratios to higher (less stringent) benchmarks and by incorporating additional value considerations. Still, evaluating these higher-priced therapies remains a challenge for HTA and society.
Improving Value Measurement
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Value assessment is becoming more prominent in the United States, but challenges remain. First, should assessments include only impacts pertinent to payers or take a broader, “societal” perspective? Second, should quality adjusted life years (QALYs) be used to measure benefits? Critics complain that QALYs discriminate against people with health conditions and fail to capture aspects of health. Third, should assessments account for drug price reductions anticipated to accompany patent expirations? Prices do not always follow the expected pattern, but assuming they will not can lead to an overstatement of a drug’s true long-term cost. Fourth, how should data gaps be addressed? Outcome-based risk sharing agreements let payers and drug companies amend pricing decisions as additional data become available. Finally, who should conduct value assessments? Government agencies do so in many other countries, but that seems unlikely in the United States. For now, the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review, a private organization, has stepped into this role.
The Path Forward
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Factors interfering with market-based alignment of drug prices and value make explicit value assessment necessary. The widely used quality-adjusted life year serves as a starting point because it accounts for both quality and length of life. Cost estimates could improve by accounting for drug price changes accompanying the loss of market exclusivity. Consistent use of a societal perspective when relevant would also improve value assessments. Prices should sometimes reflect government contributions to development, although such adjustments make the most sense when government facilitates late-stage research. The Institute for Clinical and Economic Review, a private group with a leading role in US value assessment, should make its analyses transparent and defer to payers regarding judgements about value. Finally, payers should embrace value-based pricing. They may not always get the lowest prices, but aligning price and value will mean society expends its resources efficiently and improves the population’s overall health.
Diplomacy in Retreat
Authors: Martin Peter 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The Cultural Revolution was the most destructive period in the diplomatic history of the People’s Republic. It would bring down much of what had so far been achieved and leave indelible scars on multiple generations of diplomats—just as it left scars across the country. China’s progress in establishing diplomatic ties with the outside world ground to a complete halt from the middle of 1966 until the end of 1969. As factional violence exploded across the country, China harassed foreign diplomats at home and used its embassies to promote revolution abroad. Most of its diplomats were brought back to Beijing and pitched against each other in scarring political battles, public “self-criticisms,” and brutal outbreaks of violence. Many were later sent to labor camps in the countryside.
Rethinking Capitalism
Authors: Martin Peter 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Deng Xiaoping’s domestic economic reforms and his outreach to the West marked the start of an extraordinary period of learning and experimentation in China. Diplomats were at the vanguard of this process. Far more exposed than even the most powerful Beijing officials to just how far China had fallen behind, they found themselves confronted with unsettling truths: the capitalist model they had long reviled had delivered greater prosperity and higher living standards than communism. Some even began to question the Party’s monopoly on power. As China pursued economic reforms at home, the country’s diplomatic corps also underwent a makeover: China professionalized its diplomats, ditched Mao suits for Western attire, retired many of the 1950s old guard, and expanded its diplomatic network.
The Fightback
Authors: Martin Peter 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter tells the story of the events of the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre inside the foreign ministry and follows the painstaking efforts of Chinese diplomats to salvage China’s reputation. In the aftermath of the massacre, the country’s diplomats made painstaking efforts to salvage China’s international reputation. Channeling the same impulses they’d used to woo the world in the 1950s, the country launched a new charm offensive with its neighbors, embracing tools from economic diplomacy to sports diplomacy, media management, and arms control to try to win friends. At the same time, China’s diplomats were branded traitors by nationalists who saw engagement with the United States as a throwback to China’s humiliating past after the 1999 bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade.
Conclusion
Authors: Martin Peter 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chinese envoys today are in some ways unrecognizable from those who started out as the country’s first diplomats in 1949. They are more professional, more cosmopolitan, and more expert than any previous generation, studying for advanced degrees at top global universities, mastering obscure languages, and developing specialist expertise on topics from global finance to nuclear weapons. Nevertheless, China’s political system sets real limits on the ability of its diplomats to be persuasive. It’s also a system that leaves its practitioners with little space to improvise and show flexibility, little room to take the initiative, and therefore not much chance of changing the viewpoints of people they interface with. It leaves them effective at garnering influence through inducements or threats but poorly equipped to make real friends.
Wartime Suffering and Survival
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This book explores how people survive in the face of incredible odds. When our backs are against the wall, what are our interests, identities, and practices? When are we self-centered, empathetic, altruistic, or ambivalent? How much agency do the desperate have—or want? Such was the situation in the Blockade of Leningrad, nearly 900 days from 1941 to 1944, in which over one million civilians died—but more survived due to gumption and creativity. How did they survive, and how did survival reinforce or reshape identities, practices, and relations under Stalin? Using diaries, recollections, police records, interviews, and state documents from Leningrad, this book shows average Leningraders coping with war, starvation, and extreme uncertainty. Local relations and social distance matter significantly when states and institutions falter under duress. Opportunism and desperation were balanced by empathy and relations. One key to Leningraders’ practices was relations to anchors—entities of symbolic and personal significance that anchored Leningraders to each other and a sense of community. Such anchors as food and Others shaped practices of empathy and compassion, and of opportunism and egoism. By exploring the state and shadow markets, food, families, gender, class, death, and suffering, Wartime Suffering and Survival relays Leningraders’ stories to show a little-told side of Russian and Soviet history and to explore the human condition and who we really are. This speaks not only to rethinking the nature of the Soviet Union and Stalinism, but also to the nature of social relations, practices, and people more generally.
Order Under Assault
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
To provide a backdrop for our stories and to study effects of duress on order, this chapter explores political authority and the field of power (the state and Communist Party). The dearth of food deprived the state of a tool for control, and skills and routines of average officials were not initially aligned with wartime needs. Further, intense material deprivation and hunger shifted civilians’ incentives: survival compelled breaking rules, even for civilians not otherwise so inclined. Finally, some officials and cadres were tempted to steal and resell food in shadow markets for speculative profit, creating a competitor to the state: the collective farmers’ market (rynok). Elites and the police/NKVD knew of food theft and rynok speculation but could not stop it. Paradoxically, shadow opportunists and civilians simultaneously challenged institutional coherence and reproduced it: shadow practices bled the state of control, but also required the state to provide food.
Healthcare for the Poor
Authors: Loiacono Gabriel J. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Early American poor relief included extensive healthcare. Doctors’ visits, nurses’ care, and medicine could all be covered by poor relief. One nurse, called “One-Eyed” Sarah, healed poor residents of Providence, Rhode Island, in the very early nineteenth century. One of thousands of women, nationwide, who did the hard work of physically tending to their needy neighbors, Sarah’s work was highlighted in newspaper articles in 1811. Sarah was “Indian,” and her impoverished patients requested her by name. While her actual identity remains mysterious, this chapter explores what we can learn about a Native woman who nursed the poor back to health, while being paid by poor relief funds. Sarah’s life shows evidence of being controlled by overseers of the poor, as Cuff Roberts’s was. It also shows how she could use her experience to find income from overseers of the poor like William Larned.
Relationship Boundaries
Authors: Walsh Joseph 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The concept of worker/client boundaries (the assumed and sometimes unspoken rules that people internalize about the physical and emotional limits of their relationships with others) is important to all types of social work. The various social work practice theories include different assumptions about appropriate boundaries and thus it is important to closely examine this concept. The major aspects of worker/client boundaries include contact time, the types of information that are appropriate to share, physical closeness of the parties, the range of emotions that is appropriate to share, and the physical space in which the interaction takes place. Both personal and professional boundaries and how they interact to influence relationships with clients are considered.