bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Anti-S Antibody: A Rare Cause of Fetal Hydrops in a Previously Sensitized Mother
Authors: Bakht Azad , Turner Bettina , Warren Christina S , Simmons Julie H , Fadeyi Emmanuel A 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Anti-S is an IgG antibody and a rare cause of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. A 38 year old woman with blood group O Rh-positive presented to the hospital at 30 weeks gestation. Her past medical history was significant for sickle cell disease and alloantibodies against the Fya, Jkb, and S antigens. Obstetric ultrasound showed the fetus to have developed scalp edema, cardiomegaly, small pericardial effusion, and large ascites. Periumbilical blood sampling results showed the fetus blood type as blood group O Rh-positive with anti-S and hemoglobin of 2 gm/dL. After multiple intrauterine transfusions of red blood cells, the fetal hemoglobin increased to 12.9 g/dL. Anti-S can cause fetal hydrops, although it is rare. All pregnant women with anti-S should be closely monitored and treated during pregnancy for the possibility of developing a severe hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.
Do Cartels Overcharge?
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the research on the size of cartel overcharges and their other effects. The case against cartels is based on the empirical claims that cartels harm consumers because they increase prices and reduce output, productivity, and economic growth. They also redistribute income from consumers to those in the cartel. Research suggests that detected cartels overcharge their customers around average 20% to 25% of the purchase prices. However, there is a very wide variation with overcharges as high as 80% and greater. International cartels overcharge their customers more than national cartels. There is also some evidence that the overcharges in Europe are higher than those in the US. While the price overcharge is the most apparent effect of a cartel, it does not represent the economic losses it inflicts. Indeed, cartels also reduce productive, allocative, and dynamic economic efficiency.
The Cartel Infringement
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter sets out the legal basis for a private action for competition damages. Agreement and concerted practices infringe Article 101(1) TFEU and section 2 of the UK Competition Act 1998. Section 1 of the Sherman Act 1890 has the same effect. Those who infringe Article 101 are jointly and severally liable for the losses they cause by the actions of the cartel. Under the Damages Directive, some whistle-blowers and small-to-medium-enterprises (SMEs) who are members of a cartel have limited liability only for the losses they individually cause. Claimants can sue using three types of actions: stand-alone, follow-on, and hybrid actions. A stand-alone action requires the claimant to establish an infringement by ‘object’ or ‘effect’ under Article 101(1) TFEU. That is, the claimant acts as the prosecutor of the cartel to establish the infringement. However, most claims for cartel damages have been follow-on actions. They build and rely on a competition authority’s infringed decision. Anyone harmed by a cartel has standing to sue provided they can prove their loss.
Causation and Counterfactuals
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at the nature and requirements of the legal tests to establish causation in a competition infringement. The claimant must prove on the balance of probabilities that the harm it suffered was a direct result of the alleged violation of the law. More specifically, the claimant must show causation in law—that it was harm of a type prohibited by the law—and causation in fact—that the harm was physically caused by the infringement. Legal causation is used largely to draw the boundaries of the defendant’s liability for damages. Factual causation is a bit more straightforward. The harm must be caused by the impugned conduct in the sense that ‘but for’ that conduct the harm would not have occurred. Increasingly, causation is expressed in terms of a ‘counterfactual scenario’. However, the use of counterfactuals is problematic and has led to confused reasoning in recent English competition damage actions.
Overview
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview to the issue, methods, and guidance on the quantification of cartel damages. The core of any damage claim are the price overcharges. The empirical techniques which can be used to estimate overcharges (and pass-on) are set out in the European Commission’s Practical Guide. There are four approaches to quantification: before and after; yardstick; cost and margin analysis; and economic theory. One or more of three quantitative techniques can be used to apply these methods: price and financial analysis; statistical analysis; and simulation models. In considering the methods used to estimate overcharges and lost profits, there are several considerations which recur and will often prove critical to a damage claim. The two most important are (a) the impact of non-cartel factors on prices; and (b) accurately determining the cartel period.
Legal Issues with Statistical Evidence
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines some of the legal and evidential issues surrounding statistical evidence. Courts are wary of statistical analysis and treat it as complex and difficult to reconcile with legal methods of determining damages based on documentary evidence. Indeed, the problem of estimated averages can conflict with the court’s approach. Moreover, there are statistical, economic, and legal issues surrounding statistical significance. The general concern is that reliance on conventional statistical significance levels may not reflect the legal standard of proof. The court can be assisted by the Practical Guide and Pass-on Guidelines of the European Commission, but also the best practice guidance of competition authorities for the submission of economic evidence.
Overview—Pass-on
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview on pass-on. Pass-on is where a business changes the prices of its goods and services in response to a change in costs of producing them. As already discussed, pass-on is allowed in EU and UK law, and is a key component of the compensatory objective of competition law damages. Pass-on operates both defensively and offensively. As a defence, it allows the defendant to reduce or eliminate an overcharge damage claim by proving that the purchaser passed-on all or part of the overcharge. This defence will invariably be invoked. Used offensively, pass-on gives the indirect purchaser the basis to damages claim. Without pass-on, an indirect purchaser could not sue the members of the cartel for damages.
The Law on Pass-on
Authors: Veljanovski Cento 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses the law on pass-on. Pass-on is key to the compensatory objective of antitrust damages. It ensures that claimants along the supply chain are only awarded their losses and not part of the overcharge passed-on in higher charges to their customers. Yet allowing pass-on does not avoid overcompensation and if applied alone would likely ensure that the claimant is under-compensated. This is because pass-on and lost sales are intimately intertwined, at least from an economic perspective. Thus, irrespective of whether pass-on is allowed or disallowed, the claimant suffers an additional loss of profits on the sales not made because its prices are now higher. The Damages Directive allows for a lost profit claim but leaves this to the national laws of the Member States. This is no doubt a policy decision to focus on the prospect of over-compensation rather than the legal principle of full compensation. The European Commission’s Practical Guide and the Pass-on Guidelines on the relationship between pass-on and lost profits due to reduced sales is explicitly recognized.
A Global Regime for Investment
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of investment treaties. Investment treaties, often referred to as ‘international investment agreements’ (IIAs), are essentially instruments of international law by which states (1) make commitments to other states with respect to the treatment they will accord to investors and investments from those other states, and (2) agree to some mechanism for enforcement of those commitments. A fundamental purpose of investment treaties, as indicated by their titles, is to protect and promote investment. International investment treaties consist principally of three types: (1) bilateral investment treaties, commonly known as ‘BITs’; (2) bilateral economic agreements with investment provisions; and (3) other investment-related agreements involving more than two states. The chapter then considers the significance of investment treaties and argues that together they constitute an international regime for foreign investment.
The General Structure of Investment Treaties
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter outlines the general structure of investment treaties. An investment treaty is an international agreement embodied in one or more written documents by which two or more states agree to certain legal rules to govern investments undertaken by nationals of one treaty party in the territory of another treaty party. A treaty is an instrument of international law that binds the contracting states. An investment treaty usually consists of a single document. However, the parties may use an exchange of letters or separate protocols to explain, modify, or elaborate on certain treaty provisions. The chapter then studies the ten topics that make up the basic structure of most modern investment treaties.
Scope of Application of Investment Treaties
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the scope of application of investment treaties. Any international regime must have rules to determine which persons and actions are governed by the regime. Therefore, the key questions that must always be answered in the application of an investment treaty are whether the alleged investment meets the definition of ‘investment’ under the treaty and whether the legal or physical person owning the investment meets the legal definition of ‘investor’. The chapter examines these two questions. At the outset, however, it should be stressed that while investment treaties exhibit strong similarities in definitions and definitional approaches, significant textual differences can also be found since contracting states always have control in defining the scope of the treaty. Consequently, persons interpreting investment treaties to determine the extent of their coverage must focus carefully on the language of the definitional sections of the specific treaty in question.
Monetary Transfers and Treatment
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the treatment accorded to monetary transfers by investment treaties. Nearly all investment treaties grant covered investors or investments the freedom to make monetary transfers. However, the precise nature of such provisions in particular treaties depends upon the differing interests of host country governments. While investors want broad and unrestricted guarantees on monetary transfers, host states seek, in varying degrees, to limit their commitments with respect to monetary transfers and to subject them to qualifications and exceptions. Although the provisions on monetary transfers vary from treaty to treaty, they all tend to address six basic issues: (1) the general scope of the investor's rights to make monetary transfers; (2) the types of payments that are covered by such rights; (3) the nature of the currency in which payments may be made; (4) the applicable exchange rate; (5) the time within which the host state must allow the investor to make transfers; and (6) exceptions to the right to make monetary transfers.
Treaty Entry into Force, Exceptions, Modifications, and Terminations
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the entry into force, exceptions, modifications, and terminations of investment treaties. While enunciating rules of international law governing foreign investors and investments, investment treaties at the same time incorporate various devices to regulate and limit the applicability of those rules and thereby allow contracting states to mediate tensions between demands of treaty partners and of internal pressure groups, such as labour unions, local manufacturers and merchants, and civic organizations. Such devices include treaty provisions on four matters: the entry into force of the treaty; treaty exceptions; treaty modifications; and treaty terminations. States employ the first two as part of the treaty negotiating process. On the other hand, states usually employ the latter two devices as a result of their unsatisfactory experience with a treaty that has entered into force.
Investment Treaty Dispute Settlement
Authors: Salacuse Jeswald W 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on investment treaty dispute settlement, examining the nature of conflicts between investors and states and the various means provided by treaties to resolve them. In general, investor–state disputes governed by treaties occur because a host state has taken a ‘measure’ that allegedly violates that state's treaty commitments on the treatment it has promised to accord to investments protected by that treaty. Before the advent of investment treaties, investors basically had three methods to seek resolution of their disputes with host states: (a) direct negotiation with host state governments; (b) domestic courts in the host country; and (c) diplomatic protection by their home states. In order to establish a stable, rule-based system for international investment, treaties provide means to resolve disputes about the interpretation and application of treaty provisions. Most investment treaties provide four separate dispute settlement methods: (1) consultations and negotiations between contracting states; (2) arbitration between contracting states; (3) consultations and negotiations between covered investors and host governments; and (4) investor–state arbitration.
Fundamental Breach
Authors: Stannard John E , Capper David 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the doctrine of fundamental breach, and considers the leading decision of the Court of Appeal in The Hongkong Fir. It examines the scope of the fundamental breach principle in two contexts, the first being its relationship to the classification of contractual terms, and the second its application to past and future events. The chapter also assesses the types of fundamental breach. There are a number of concepts akin to fundamental breach that overlap with it to a greater or lesser extent, but which need to be distinguished from it. These concepts include breach of condition; the doctrine of frustration; the doctrine of substantial performance; and the doctrine whereby time may be made of the essence by notice. When is a breach fundamental? The chapter studies a number of key factors which can provide useful guidance for the courts in approaching this question.
ITLOS’s Jurisprudential Contributions
Authors: Kittichaisaree Kriangsak 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the present and future contributions of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). Presently, ITLOS has made substantial contributions to the peaceful solution of ongoing maritime disputes and to international efforts against illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing. It has also provided guidance on the responsibility and liability regarding activities in the deep seabed area for the benefits of humankind as well as developed procedural rules and substantive law in international adjudication. Human rights at sea, marine environment protection and preservation, and delimitation of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles are some of the areas of the law of the sea elucidated by ITLOS’s rulings. Future challenges include legal issues pertaining to sea-level rise, dispute settlement as regards biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction, and potential contentious cases before the Seabed Disputes Chamber arising from exploitation of mineral resources in the deep seabed.
Multiple Stellar Evolution: a population synthesis algorithm to model the stellar, binary, and dynamical evolution of multiple-star systems
Authors: Hamers Adrian S , Rantala Antti , Neunteufel Patrick , Preece Holly , Vynatheya Pavan 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
In recent years, observations have shown that multiple-star systems such as hierarchical triple and quadruple-star systems are common, especially among massive stars. They are potential sources of interesting astrophysical phenomena such as compact object mergers, leading to supernovae, and gravitational wave events. However, many uncertainties remain in their often complex evolution. Here, we present the population synthesis code Multiple Stellar Evolution (mse), designed to rapidly model the stellar, binary, and dynamical evolution of multiple-star systems. mse includes a number of new features not present in previous population synthesis codes: (1) an arbitrary number of stars, as long as the initial system is hierarchical, (2) dynamic switching between secular and direct N-body integration for efficient computation of the gravitational dynamics, (3) treatment of mass transfer in eccentric orbits, which occurs commonly in multiple-star systems, (4) a simple treatment of tidal, common envelope, and mass transfer evolution in which the accretor is a binary instead of a single star, (5) taking into account planets within the stellar system, and (6) including gravitational perturbations from passing field stars. mse, written primarily in the C++ language, will be made publicly available and has few prerequisites; a convenient python interface is provided. We give a detailed description of MSE and illustrate how to use the code in practice. We demonstrate its operation in a number of examples.
BG Tri: an example of a low-inclination RW Sex-type nova-like
Authors: Hernández M S , Tovmassian G , Zharikov S , Gänsicke B T , Steeghs D , Aungwerojwit A , Rodríguez-Gil P 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
We analyse a wealth of optical spectroscopic and photometric observations of the bright (V = 11.9) cataclysmic variable BG Tri. The Gaia DR2 parallax gives a distance d = 334(8) pc to the source, making the object one of the intrinsically brightest nova-like variables seen under a low orbital inclination angle. Time-resolved spectroscopic observations revealed an orbital period of $P_{\rm {orb}}=3.8028(24)$ h. Its spectroscopic characteristics resemble RW Sex and similar nova-like variables. We disentangled the H α emission line into two components, and show that one component forms on the irradiated face of the secondary star. We suggest that the other one originates at a disc outflow area adjacent to the L3 point.
Phase curve and variability analysis of WASP-12b using TESS photometry
Authors: Owens Niall , de Mooij E J W , Watson C A , Hooton M J 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
We analyse Sector 20 TESS photometry of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-12b, and extract its phase curve to study the planet’s atmospheric properties. We successfully recover the phase curve with an amplitude of 549 ± 62 ppm, and a secondary eclipse depth of 609$^{+74}_{-73}$ ppm. The peak of the phase curve is shifted by 0.049 ± 0.015 in phase, implying that the brightest spot in the atmosphere is shifted from the substellar point towards the planet’s evening terminator. Assuming zero albedo, the eclipse depth infers a day-side brightness temperature of 3128$^{+64}_{-68}$ K. No significant detection of flux from the night-side is found at 60 ± 97 ppm, implying a night-side brightness temperature of &lt;2529 K (1-σ). We do not detect any significant variability in the light from the planet over the ∼27 d of the TESS observations. Finally, we note that an ephemeris model taking orbital decay into account provides a significantly better fit than a constant-period model.
Independent component analysis based gene co-expression network inference (ICAnet) to decipher functional modules for better single-cell clustering and batch integration
Authors: Wang Weixu , Tan Huanhuan , Sun Mingwan , Han Yiqing , Chen Wei , Qiu Shengnu , Zheng Ke , Wei Gang , Ni Ting 
Published: February 2021

AbstractWith the tremendous increase of publicly available single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) datasets, bioinformatics methods based on gene co-expression network are becoming efficient tools for analyzing scRNA-seq data, improving cell type prediction accuracy and in turn facilitating biological discovery. However, the current methods are mainly based on overall co-expression correlation and overlook co-expression that exists in only a subset of cells, thus fail to discover certain rare cell types and sensitive to batch effect. Here, we developed independent component analysis-based gene co-expression network inference (ICAnet) that decomposed scRNA-seq data into a series of independent gene expression components and inferred co-expression modules, which improved cell clustering and rare cell-type discovery. ICAnet showed efficient performance for cell clustering and batch integration using scRNA-seq datasets spanning multiple cells/tissues/donors/library types. It works stably on datasets produced by different library construction strategies and with different sequencing depths and cell numbers. We demonstrated the capability of ICAnet to discover rare cell types in multiple independent scRNA-seq datasets from different sources. Importantly, the identified modules activated in acute myeloid leukemia scRNA-seq datasets have the potential to serve as new diagnostic markers. Thus, ICAnet is a competitive tool for cell clustering and biological interpretations of single-cell RNA-seq data analysis.