bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Epilogue
Authors: Parrington John 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter returns to the various alternative views about human consciousness first mentioned at the start of this book, and assesses how this book’s account compares to, and hopefully builds on, these other viewpoints. The view of human consciousness developed in this book can explain the uniqueness of our species’ conscious awareness, but in an entirely materialistic fashion. This approach views language—the system of abstract symbols linked in a grammatical structure but also one that connects the individual to the world outside via word meaning—and other forms of human culture like music, art, and literature, as a material force that has reshaped human brain functions at every level. This has led to a qualitative shift in such functions, compared to that of every other species, including our closest animal cousins, the great apes. Unlike a purely ‘bottom up’ approach to human brain function, this view sees language, as well as other mediators of human culture, as imposing both structural and dynamic changes in our brains. Structurally, it sees the different brain regions, as well as their interconnections, as altered in humans. The chapter then reflects on what impact, if any, might this approach to understanding human consciousness have on diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.
Party System Closure
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe Introduction starts with some examples of pairs of old and new democracies, some larger, some smaller, some in the East, some in the South, and illustrates how party system development can differ despite very similar background conditions. We then proceed to identify four main factors that differ within each pair, as possible explanations of the way party politics in general, and partisan interaction in particular, evolved in different countries. After stating the aims of the book and how it builds on previous studies, we summarize its main conceptual, operational, and methodological innovations, putting specific emphasis on the importance of history and a combination of large- and small-N studies. Finally, we explain the logic and structure of the book with a brief summary of the content of each chapter.
Party System Closure in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe fifth chapter identifies the most important common trends across time in closure, contrasting core and periphery countries, various macro-regions of Europe, and different time periods. Dividing the total time span into smaller blocs allows us to control for the age of the party systems, and to see how time-bound the identified configurations are. We analyse here how the three components of closure combine across the party systems, and how the degree of closure, the trajectories of closure, and the party system types are related to each other. The chapter reveals the association between the degree of closure, the way that competition is structured, and the cross-temporal pattern of the closure figures. Multipolar and tripolar systems are found to be more open than bipolar and grand coalition ones, with centre-based and two-plus-one systems in the middle. As far as party trajectories are concerned, a process of ‘continuous growth’ leads to higher levels of closure than the ‘maturation and decay’, ‘mid-life crisis’, and ‘stop and go’ patterns.
Size Does Matter
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe eighth chapter looks into inter-temporal and cross-sectional differences in the effective number of parliamentary parties, and analyses the covariation between closure and fragmentation. The chapter allows us to revisit classical debates in comparative politics about the merits and vices of two- and multi-party systems. After showing how the inter-war and post-Cold War years were more fragmented than other periods, we find that concentrated systems tend to breed stability, and if they do not, then they often do not survive. And yet, there is only a moderate, far from deterministic, relationship between closure and fragmentation. In particular, we found that the recent proliferation of parties in the West poses a challenge to party system institutionalization.
Oesophageal disorders
Authors: Ambrose Tim 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers core curriculum topics relating to disorders of the oesophagus. A diagnostic and therapeutic approach to symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease is covered including physiology testing and the role of anti-reflux surgery. Other benign conditions causing dysphagia and chest pain are presented incorporating disorders of motility, infections, and the management of eosinophilic oesophagitis and oesophageal stricturing. Coverage is given to the investigation and management of patients with foreign body or caustic substance ingestions. There is particular focus on the investigation and management of oesophageal malignancy including in palliative stages, along with the various stages of Barret’s oesophagus. This includes diagnostic features, surveillance intervals and management of dysplasia associated with Barrett’s. Additional curriculum material regarding disorders of the oesophagus will also be covered in the mock examination chapter.
Biliary disorders
Authors: Ambrose Tim 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers core curriculum topics relating to disorders of the biliary tract including physiology and biochemistry of bile formation and the pathogenesis of gallstones; complications of gallstones disease including biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, biliary obstruction, and cholangitis, and options for operative and non-operative management. Material is also provided on conditions of the gallbladder including adenomyomatosis, gallbladder polyps, and porcelain gallbladder; primary sclerosing cholangitis and other causes of cholangitistumours of the bile duct, gall bladder, and ampulla; indications and complications of endoscopic and radiological treatment of biliary disease including endoscopic retrograde choalngiopancreatography, cholangioscopy, and Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography. There is also discussion on the diagnosis and management of biliary complications after liver transplantation. Additional curriculum material regarding disorders of the biliary tract will also be covered in the mock examination chapter.
Pancreatic disorders
Authors: McGregor Colleen 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers core curriculum topics relating to pancreatic disorders. This includes the investigation and management of acute pancreatitis incorporating knowledge on aetiology, staging of acute pancreatitis, complications including pseudocyst and walled off necrosis, nutritional support, and role of imaging and endoscopy. The chapter also covers genetic pancreatic disorders, anatomical variants of the pancreas, and describes the different cell types of the pancreas. These is also an emphasis on the aetiology and complications of chronic pancreatitis including pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and chronic pain. Finally the chapter also covers the presentation, diagnosis and management of benign and malignant pancreatic tumours. Additional curriculum material regarding pancreatic disorders will also be covered in the mock examination chapter.
The neutral relativistic scalar field
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the relativistic quantum field theory (QFT) of the neutral scalar boson field. It is a local, relativistic invariant, theory for a real field extension of the non-relativistic field theory of the Bose gas. Locality is a property that plays a central role in most of this work. The QFT is discussed both from the viewpoint of real-time evolution and statistical physics. The holomorphic formalism leads to representations of the S-matrix in terms of field integrals. The S-matrix elements are related to the continuation to real time of various kinds of Euclidean correlation functions. It is argued that the massive φ4 QFT has the quantum Bose gas with a pair potential, in the grand canonical formulation, as a non-relativistic limit.
Introduction to renormalization theory and renormalization group (RG)
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
A straightforward construction of a local, relativistic quantum field theory (QFT) leads to ultraviolet (UV) divergences and a QFT has to be regularized by modifying its short-distance or large energy momentum structure (momentum regularization is often used in this work). Since such a modification is somewhat arbitrary, it is necessary to verify that the resulting large-scale predictions are, at least to a large extent, short-distance insensitive. Such a verification relies on the renormalization theory and the corresponding renormalization group (RG). In this chapter, the essential steps of a proof of the perturbative renormalizability of the scalar φ4 QFT in dimension 4 are described. All the basic difficulties of renormalization theory, based on power counting, are already present in this simple example. The elegant presentation of Callan is followed, which makes it possible to prove renormalizability and RG equations (in Callan–Symanzik's (CS) form) simultaneously. The background of the discussion is effective QFT and emergent renormalizable theory. The concept of fine tuning and the issue of triviality are emphasized.
Relativistic fermions: Introduction
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Some basic concepts needed for the discussion of Fermi fields have been introduced earlier, as in quantum mechanics (QM) with Grassmann variables, a representation by field integrals of the statistical operator e&lt;συπ&gt;−βH&lt;/συπ&gt; for the non-relativistic Fermi gas in the formalism of second quantization, and an expression for the evolution operator. Here, it is first recalled how relativistic fermions transform under the spin group. The free action for Dirac fermions is analysed, the relation between fields and particles explained, an expression for the scattering matrix obtained, and the non-relativistic limit of a model of self-coupled massive Dirac fermions derived. A formalism of Euclidean relativistic fermions is then introduced. In the Euclidean formalism: fermions transform under the fundamental representation of the spin group Spin(d) associated with the SO(d) rotation group (spin 1/2 fermions for d = 4). As for the scalar field theory, the Gaussian integral, which corresponds to a free field theory is calculated. Then the generating functional of correlation functions is obtained by adding a source term to the action. The field integral corresponding to a general action with an interaction expandable in powers of the field, can be expressed in terms of a series of Gaussian integrals, which can be calculated, for example, with the help of Wick's theorem. The connection between spin and statistics is verified by a simple perturbative calculation. The appendix describes a few additional properties of the spin group, the algebra of γ matrices, and the corresponding spinors for Euclidean fermions.
The renormalization group (RG) approach: The critical theory near four dimensions
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
In Chapter 14, the singular behavior of ferromagnetic systems with O(N) symmetry and short-range interactions, near a second order phase transition has been determined in the mean-field approximation, which is also a quasi-Gaussian approximation. The mean-field approximation predicts a set of universal properties, properties independent of the detailed structure of the microscopic Hamiltonian, the dimension of space, and, to a large extent, of the symmetry of systems. However, the leading corrections to the mean-field approximation, in dimensions smaller than or equal to four, diverge at the critical temperature, and the universal predictions of the mean-field approximation cannot be correct. Such a problem originates from the non-decoupling of scales and leads to the question of possible universality. In Chapter 9, the question has been answered in four dimensions using renormalization theory, and related renormalization group (RG) equations. Moreover, below four dimensions, in an expansion around the mean-field, the most singular terms near criticality can be also formally recovered from a continuum, low-mass φ4 field theory. More generally, following Wilson, to understand universality beyond the mean-field approximation, it is necessary to build a general renormalization group in the form of flow equations for effective Hamiltonians and to find fixed points of the flow equations. Near four dimensions, the flow equations can be approximated by the renormalization group of quantum field theory (QFT), and the fixed points and critical behaviours derived within the framework of the Wilson-Fisher ϵ expansion.
O(N)-symmetric vector models for N large
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
So far, universal properties of O(N) symmetric critical systems have been derived within the framework of the formal ϵ = 4−d expansion. Therefore, it is reassuring to verify that the results obtained in this way remain valid, at least in some limiting case, even when ϵ is not infinitesimal. Here it is shown in the example of the O(N) symmetric (ϕ2)2 field theory, the same universal properties can also be derived at fixed dimension in the large N limit and, more generally, order by order in an 1/N expansion. Moreover, large N techniques are also useful, because they provide an insight into other non-perturbative questions, including issues relevant to four-dimensional physics like renormalons and triviality. Using a large N expansion, we exhibit a remarkable relation between the (ϕ2)2 field theory and the non-linear σ-model, valid to all orders.
Abelian gauge theories: The framework of quantum electrodynamics (QED)
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter is devoted Abelian gauge theory, whose physical realization is quantum electrodynamics (QED). Since many textbooks deal extensively with QED, the chapter focusses mainly on the more formal properties of Abelian gauge theories. First, the free massive vector field is considered, because its quantization does not immediately follow from the quantization of the scalar field, and thus requires a specific analysis. If the vector field is coupled to a conserved current, it is possible to construct a field theory with fermion matter renormalizable in four dimensions. In this case, a massless vector limit can be defined, and the corresponding field theory is gauge invariant. To directly quantize a gauge theory starting directly from first principles, it is necessary to introduce gauge fixing. The formal equivalence between different gauges is established. The Abelian gauge symmetry, broken by gauge-fixing terms, leads to a set of Ward–Takahashi (WT) identities which are used to prove the renormalizability of the quantum field theory (QFT). Renormalization group (RG) equations follow, and the RG β-function is calculated at leading order. As an introduction to the Standard Model of particle physics, the Abelian Landau–Ginzburg–Higgs model is described, where the gauge field is coupled to a complex scalar field with a non-zero expectation value, leading to a model that classically also describes a superconductor in a magnetic field.
Large-momentum behaviour in quantum field theory (QFT)
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Renormalization group (RG) equations are used to characterize the large momentum behaviour of renormalized quantum field theories (QFT), assuming implicitly that such a universal large momentum physics can be defined, something which, beyond perturbation theory is not obvious. Since the initial effective QFT is valid only up to an energy-momentum scale much smaller than some cut-off, large momentum means much larger than the renormalization scale, but still much smaller than the cut-off scale. The existence of this large momentum physics implies the existence of a crossover scale between low and large momentum physics. One theoretic reason for discussing the large momentum behaviour is the apparent connection between the existence of consistent interacting renormalized QFTs and the presence of ultraviolet (UV) fixed points. The absence of identified UV fixed points in infrared-free QFTs, like the φ4 field theory or quantum electrodynamics (QED), leads to the triviality issue. The physics reason is that in collisions it is observed that quarks, fundamental particles of the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics, behave like free particles at the shortest distances presently accessible (the property of asymptotic freedom). This property can be explained by RG arguments if the free theory is an attractive UV fixed point. Therefore, the identification of QFTs where the free theory is an UV fixed point is important, and this has led to examine the large momentum behaviour of all QFTs renormalizable in four dimensions. It is shown that only theories having a non-Abelian gauge symmetry can be asymptotically free. As an application, the total cross section of electron–positron annihilation into hadrons at large momentum is calculated.
A few solvable two-dimensional quantum field theories (QFT)
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The chapter is devoted to several two-dimensional quantum field theories (QFT), whose properties can be determined by non-perturbative methods. The Schwinger model, a model of two-dimensional quantum electrodynamics (QED) with massless fermions, illustrates the properties of confinement, spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking, asymptotic freedom and anomalies, properties one also expects in particle physics from quantum chromodynamics. The equivalence between the massive Thirring model, a fermion model with current–current interaction, and the sine-Gordon model is derived, using the bozonisation technique. The bosonization technique, based on an identity for Cauchy determinants, establishes relations, specific to two dimensions, between fermion and boson local field theories. Several generalized Thirring model are also discussed. In the discussion of the O(N) non-linear σ-model, it has been noticed that the Abelian case N = 2 is special, because the renormalization group (RG) β-function vanishes in two dimensions. The corresponding O(2) invariant spin model is especially interesting: it provides an example of the celebrated Kosterlitz–Thouless (KT) phase transition and will be studied elsewhere. This chapter also provides the necessary technical background for such an investigation.
Metastable vacua in quantum field theory (QFT)
Authors: Zinn-Justin Jean 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The methods to evaluate barrier penetration effects, in the semi-classical limit are generalized to quantum field theory (QFT). Since barrier penetration is associated with classical motion in imaginary time, the QFT is considered in its Euclidean formulation. In the representation of QFT in terms of field integrals, in the semi-classical limit, barrier penetration is related to finite action solutions (instantons) of the classical field equations. The evaluation of instanton contributions at leading order is explained, the main new problem arising from ultraviolet divergences. The lifetime of metastable states is related to the imaginary part of the ‘ground state’ energy. However, for later purpose, it is useful to calculate the imaginary part not only of the vacuum amplitude, but also of correlation functions. In the case of the vacuum amplitude, the instanton contribution is proportional to the space–time volume. Therefore, dividing by the volume, one obtains the probability per unit time and unit volume of a metastable pseudo-vacuum to decay. A scalar field theory with a φ4 interaction, generalization of the quartic anharmonic oscillator is discussed in two and three dimensions, dimensions in which the theory is super-renormalizable, then more general scalar field theories are considered.
The Wondrous Town Hall of Amsterdam
Authors: Bussels Stijn 
Published: June 2021

AbstractLaudatory poems describe how the Amsterdam Town Hall evokes a wondrous combination of dismay and delight in everyone who visits the building. This chapter sees these laudatory poems as interesting loci to observe how criticism in the Dutch Golden Age relied on the rich concept of wonder to explore the overwhelming impact of art and architecture, as well as to laud the patrons, founders, and owners of art and architecture. Moreover, this chapter clarifies how thinking about the impact of art and architecture bloomed in the Netherlands thanks to the appropriation of ancient rhetorical and poetical thought, such as (pseudo-)Longinus’ treatise Peri hypsous.
Présence d’espritin Action in Seventeenth-Century France
Authors: Gilby Emma 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThis chapter contributes to the story of how and where criticism functions in early modern France by analysing descriptions of présence d’esprit or ‘presence of mind’, which emerge in the mid-1650s as a way of signalling quick thinking. Présence d’esprit is clearly associated with the salons, where it is required for participation in literary and linguistic games, and emerges simultaneously at a crucial juncture in Blaise Pascal’s Lettres provinciales (1656–7), where it is used to shine a satirical light on the casuistry of the Jesuits. In both contexts, the attribution of présence d’esprit can be both negatively and positively accented. It crystallizes anxiety about the privileging of spontaneity and instinct over careful curation and the work of scholarship. These ambivalent views, mirroring changing attitudes to ‘la critique’, also demonstrate the complex interweave of poetics, rhetoric, and theology in the early modern period, and the places they share.
Sublimity byfiat
Authors: Lazarus Micha 
Published: June 2021

AbstractLonginus’ On the Sublime is thought to have been ushered onto the English literary scene by Boileau’s Traité du Sublime (1674). The search for antecedents to Boileau has yielded scattered references in Rainolds, Chapman, Junius, Milton, and a few rhetorical textbooks, but not enough to indicate a school of thought or even particular enthusiasm. The reception of Langbaine’s Latin translation of 1636 hardly predicts the vast literary influence the treatise would wield by the end of the century. A more promising readership may, however, be suggested by a string of citations in seventeenth-century sermons. In Longinus’ quotation from Genesis and praise of Moses’s oratory, clergymen found literary and rhetorical roots for their explorations of divine sublimity. Developing alongside Longinus’ reception in Christian rhetorics, these citations offer an alternative route for the early association of On the Sublime with Milton’s Christian epic, and its eventual entry into the literary mainstream.
On The Origins of The Airframe Revolution
Authors: Carignani Giuseppe 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The airframe revolution was the greatest development in aviation history after the Wright brothers, marking the advent of the modern dominant design in aerostructures, namely, the all-metal monoplane, which is still largely in existence. Therefore, the importance of the airframe revolution can hardly be overestimated. Nonetheless, its origin remains poorly understood. The common opinion is that the development of new materials and scientific advancements were the drivers of the transition. However, the historical record tells a different story. This chapter demonstrates that an event of ‘modular exaptation’, namely, the design of the Fokker D.VIII fighter, initiated the revolution in 1918, several years before its recognized inception. This evolutionary interpretation reconciles the gradualist Darwinian vision with the discontinuous character of radical innovation. The Fokker D.VIII case study suggests that detecting technological exaptations ex ante is possible and can provide firms with sustained competitive advantage.