bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Characterizations of Epicurean Atomism
Authors: Gorey Matthew M. 
Published: April 2021

AbstractThis chapter relates the history of atomism from Democritus to Lucretius and provides a survey of major opponents of atomism from Aristotle to Cicero, the latter of whom provides valuable evidence for Hellenistic responses to atomism. Early Epicureans, including Epicurus himself, were suspicious of figurative language. In contrast, opponents of atomism, most notably Cicero, made frequent use of tendentious metaphors and analogies to associate atomic physics with the disorder of rioting crowds and failed states. It is likely that Virgil adopted his own negative attitude toward atomic imagery in the Aeneid, where atomic motion symbolizes political and cosmic disorder, from these earlier anti-atomist writers.
Reform and Renewal
Authors: Monaco Lisa O. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Edward Snowden’s leaks regarding the “215 Program” prompted an overdue and democracy-enhancing debate, as well as ensuing reforms, which together provide a useful case study in how debate, oversight, and transparency can enhance democratic decision-making about national security programs. Rather than wait for a leak to expose a controversial program and incur the potential damage to national security, thereby undermining public confidence in the government’s activities, a more effective and meaningful answer may come from trying carefully to maximize debate and transparency before, during, and after programs such as 215 are implemented. National security and civil liberties need not be in conflict; they are, rather, intertwined. Goals should be to increase government accountability to protect civil liberties and incentivize national security agencies to expend their resources wisely.
Behind the Scenes with the Snowden Files
Authors: Nakashima Ellen 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This essay examines how the Washington Post dealt with the tension between its duty to inform the public and its desire to protect national security when it received documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The essay describes the push-and-pull between the media and the government. Journalists try to advance the public’s right to know, particularly about potential government encroachment on civil liberties, and the government tries to defend the security of the country while respecting civil liberties. Reporters with a bias for public disclosure voluntarily withhold certain documents and details based on a careful consideration of harm, and intelligence officials with a bias toward secrecy do not fight every disclosure. The Post’s coverage of the Snowden leaks provides an opportunity to gain insights into how to navigate the inevitable conflicts between journalists’ desire to inform the public and the government’s desire to protect its secrets from foreign powers.
Who Said What to Whom
Authors: Sunstein Cass R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
It is important to distinguish between two kinds of transparency. The government can be transparent about its “inputs”: about who, within government, said what to whom, and when, and why. The government can also be transparent about its “outputs”: its regulations and its policies, its findings about air and water quality, or its analysis of the costs and benefits of drone strikes. The argument for output transparency is often very strong, because members of the public can receive information that can help them in their daily lives and because output transparency can improve the performance of both public and private institutions. The argument for input transparency is different and often weaker, because the benefits of disclosure can be low and the costs can be high. It is challenging to make general pronouncements about input transparency and the appropriate evaluation of leaks and leakers without making a contestable judgment about whether a particular government is well-functioning and capable of self-correction.
An Entire World in Motion
Authors: Pineda Erin R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter develops an alternative framework for understanding the civil disobedience of civil rights activists: as a decolonizing praxis that linked their dissent to that of anticolonial activists and tied the context of Jim Crow to global white supremacy. If the constitutional, democratic state formed the normative horizon for liberal understandings of civil disobedience, activists’ horizon was defined by processes of imaginative transit—the process of thinking and traveling across boundaries and disparate contexts, through which activists in motion constructed civil disobedience as a means of transforming worldwide structures of racist imperialism, colonial rule, apartheid, and Jim Crow. Between 1920 and 1960, African American, Indian, South African, and Ghanaian activists proposed, debated, and wielded nonviolent direct action as a means of self-liberation from white supremacy’s structures of fear and violence, and way of disrupting and transforming the practices that held those structures in place.
Incarceration as Liberation
Authors: Pineda Erin R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter details the inward-facing purposes of civil disobedience by revisiting the student-led campaign of “jail, no bail” pioneered by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). It argues that accepting arrest was a practice of “comparative freedom,” through which activists reframed the experience of incarceration as one of liberation. The point of “jail, no bail”—withholding bail money and voluntarily staying in jail—was not to signal fidelity to law, stabilize state authority, or contain the unruly potential of dissent. Rather, through “jail, no bail” student activists transformed an experience defined by fear, stigma, and vulnerability into an enactment of courage, dignity, and freedom. Accepting arrest was thus a means of withholding collective and individual cooperation from illegitimate power, and thereby refusing the rituals of submission and domination that defined Jim Crow.
The Techniques of Disavowal
Authors: Pineda Erin R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers the limitations of civil rights disobedience in transforming white citizens. Building on the work of James Baldwin, Charles Mills, and Elizabeth Spelman and chronicling a “failed” protest at the 1964 World’s Fair, this chapter attends to the discursive techniques of disavowal that white citizens and state officials used to dismiss black activism as inappropriate, irresponsible, gratuitous, and violent—thereby avoiding the claims such protest made upon them, while preserving their own innocence and moral standing. In stepping outside the South and the familiar set of events that make up the public memory of the “short” civil rights movement, this chapter also suggests that some aspects of campaigns like the one in Birmingham were enabled—and publicly legitimated—by the very techniques of disavowal that limited the movement’s radical potentialities.
The Have-Nots
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The Americans—and like them, the Soviets, British, and French—were not “haves” but “have-nots,” exerting their considerable diplomatic, trade, and military power to find and extract strategic materials. One strategy was to encourage the notion that peaceful applications of the atom in such countries should focus on subsistence, raw materials commodities, and basic sanitation and medicine. Such attitudes were deeply resented, and resisted, by independent former colonial states such as India, Argentina, and Brazil. In the late 1940s, when uranium seemed scarce, the US government made it policy to cast doubt on commercial uses of atomic energy and instead to trumpet the use of radioisotopes, which had potential applications in agricultural and medical research. In their quest for strategic resources to secure the weapons arsenal, US officials deemphasized industrial power and played up the ability of the atom to provide plentiful food and to improve human health.
Water, Blood, and the Nuclear Club
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
China’s Bomb set into a motion a series of events that resulted in the late 1960s in the signing of a non-proliferation treaty—an agreement that, by century’s end, would bind together nearly 200 participating governments. In their zeal to attract other countries into agreements about non-proliferation and safeguards, nuclear states—led by the United States—recommitted to the multiple promises of the peaceful atom. Two of the most politically volatile regions on earth, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East, would see bloody conflict in the 1960s and beyond, at the same time that politicians promoted nuclear programs there under the banner of the peaceful atom. If non-nuclear nations agreed to forgo weapons development in exchange for access to the atom’s civilian applications, those applications needed to be perceived as valuable, even if based on a mirage.
The Era of Distrust
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
By the mid-1980s, the state-sponsored positive framing of the peaceful atom served a range of government interests. It enabled the United States and European states to use nuclear power as leverage against developing countries in a time when petroleum seemed to swing the pendulum of global resource dominance toward several so-called backward countries. It was useful to countries trying to prop up the legitimacy of their nuclear weapons programs, while secretly working on bombs, and it provided environmental arguments to those whose priority was actually energy security. The peaceful atom’s promise of plenty helped to maintain a veneer of credibility for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, at a time when the IAEA seemed to have become the treaty’s policing instrument. The more the United States relied on the IAEA, the more it recommitted to making promises of peaceful nuclear technology, especially to the developing world.
Grasslands
Authors: Husain Faisal H. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter details Ottoman policies to regulate the exploitation of grasslands in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. The flow regime of the Tigris and Euphrates created extensive pastures that made the alluvium a major destination for pastoral groups, particularly during the harsh summer season. The Ottoman state regulated this lucrative pastoral economy by establishing herders’ associations, such as the Ahşamat, the Qara Ulus, and Qara’ul. This policy of social aggregation facilitated the monitoring, counting, and taxation of a mobile population that was difficult to control. The chapter demonstrates that mobile pastoralism was instrumental in Ottoman economic and political expansion into the challenging, peripheral environment of Iraq.
Conclusion
Authors: Husain Faisal H. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the Ottoman experience in the Tigris-Euphrates basin during the early modern period and what has happened ever since. After deposing the Pashalik of Baghdad in 1831, the Ottoman state pursued ambitious projects to improve navigation and irrigation along the Tigris and Euphrates. This centralizing era ended before achieving all its goals due to the outbreak of World War I. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to three nation-states in the Tigris-Euphrates basin—Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. The political divisions of the river basin have incentivized competition in the exploitation of water resources, to the detriment of the river system as a whole. The early modern experience of the Tigris and Euphrates, therefore, is instructive. Coordination in the management of river systems, the Ottoman Empire showed, can bring about a more efficient and sustainable use of resources.
The Explosion in Law Publishing
Authors: Banner Stuart 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the rapid proliferation of case reporting that took place in the 19th century. There were few published court opinions available to lawyers in the early part of the century. Lawyers necessarily grounded their arguments on broad principles, including principles of natural law. But by the century’s end, lawyers complained that they were drowning in reported cases. It was a common observation in the second half of the century that the glut of published opinions had changed the nature of law practice. Precedents had pushed principles aside. Natural law accordingly began to play a smaller role in litigation.
Echoes of Natural Law
Authors: Banner Stuart 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the status of natural law in the legal system over the past century. In law schools, natural law never ceased to be a topic of study. This academic interest in natural law has had almost no effect on the working legal system, where natural law has been relied upon by only the most idiosyncratic of judges and lawyers. The history of our use of natural law has nevertheless continued to exert influence on the legal system, which still contains doctrines and practices that were once based on the law of nature.
Echoes Down the Years
Authors: Puglionesi Alicia 
Published: April 2021

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of human-machine assemblages used to speak for the dead, comparing the practices of the nineteenth-century American Spiritualist movement with those of present-day transhumanist mind-uploading. In both cases, forms of mediated communication give the dead a continuing voice in society through a participatory performance involving the medium—a person whose consciousness is suspended in a state of trance, or a set of algorithms—the deceased, and an audience. Mediumship becomes a theater in which audiences both desire and interrogate the capabilities of necro-communication technology. The chapter attends to these technologies’ implied models of selfhood, which disaggregate mental content—software—from the vehicle of its expression—hardware—in the tradition of Cartesian dualism. The chapter argues that the technologies in question inevitably structure, in concerning ways, political notions of possessive individualism, which become commoditized in the shift from human-performed mediumship to selfhood instantiated in proprietary software products.
Preliminaries
Authors: Cohn Margit 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the setting for the study of the executive branch, and sets aside several issues that may be considered as challenges to the project. A short section on the definition of ‘the executive branch’ is followed by an overview of the literature on the executive, showing that the immense body of research is almost entirely system-based, and contains limited theoretical and comparative analysis. To date, no general theory, or model of the executive branch, can be found in the current academic literature. An exposé of the central analytical concept used in this book—that of the ‘internal tension’ element of constitutionalism, leads to the discussion and rejection of two challenges to the project, which draws on the law and political practices of the United States and the United Kingdom. The first focuses on the alleged incomparability of parliamentary and presidential regimes, the second on the so-called ‘breaking down’ of the executive branch and the devolution of many of its functions to agencies placed outside the ‘core executive’. Variations do exist, but sufficient similarities, the existence of complex structures that do not follow simple binary divides, and the de facto dominance of the executive in both systems, fully support the analyses presented in the book.
Introduction
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter maps prostitution onto the shifting social, political, and economic landscape of modernizing Russia. It outlines the system for the regulation of prostitution in the Russian Empire and pays attention to the significant expansion of the system during late nineteenth-century industrialization and urbanization. The chronological setting of the study is analysed as a period of flux, in which social identities, cultural practices, and traditional gender roles were destabilized. Amid this fluctuation, the imperial authorities attempted to tighten their grip over the Empire’s vast lower class population, using emerging technologies (such as photography, fingerprinting, and statistical analysis) to ‘know’ and monitor those at the social margins. Women who sold sex were certainly one key focus of this attention, as local police forces attempted to compile accurate records of their names, ages, addresses, social classes, and ethnicities. Thereafter, the chapter explores how the Russian imperial state attempted to enforce a paternalistic relationship between those in authority and their subjects. Official approaches to the Empire’s lower classes combined strict discipline with custodial care and supervision. This paternalism was at the heart of the state regulation of prostitution, under which officialdom monitored the bodies and behaviour of registered prostitutes, and to a certain extent, their clients and managers.
Paying for Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on men who paid for sex, a group that are often silent in histories of prostitution. It draws on letters written by male clients who denounced women as ‘clandestine prostitutes’ (as in, working outside the legal parameters of regulation). The chapter then moves on to address how the imperial state regulated the bodies of specific types of male client, including migrant workers and military personnel, for the purposes of public health. Rather than nameless and blameless clients, some men who paid for sex were regularly examined and their behaviour was scrutinized by those in authority. Finally, the chapter provides a case study of the regulation of male sailors within the Port of Emperor Alexander III in Libava (now Liepāja, Latvia).
Policing Commercial Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the institutions in charge of policing prostitution, namely provincial governments, municipal authorities, and medical-police committees. The devolved nature of Russian imperial governance meant that the severity with which regulation was applied varied widely from place to place, often depending on the specific economic, social, and environmental conditions of localities. The dynamics of medical-police committees are discussed, particularly the tension between the police and medical personnel. The chapter also explores the complex relationship between ‘policer’ and ‘policed’ in examining the (often informal) relationship between registered prostitutes and the police. Urbanization, limited resources, and the inability, or unwillingness, to enforce policy meant that regulation consistently failed to meet its medical and moral objectives. In the early twentieth century, the Russo-Japanese and First World Wars widened the gulf between state ambitions and realities even further.
Conclusion
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides a summary of the key arguments of the book: that reactions to regulation were complicated and multifaceted; that regulation varied widely from place to place; and that there was a huge gulf between the ambitions of the tsarist authorities for policing prostitution, and the corresponding reality. Thereafter, the chapter examines the abolition of the regulation system in July 1917 by the Provisional Government. The social and economic dislocation of the First World War, revolution, and Civil War undoubtedly saw many more women engaging in prostitution. After seizing power from the Provisional Government in October 1917, the Bolsheviks set out to eradicate prostitution as they regarded it as an unwanted remnant of the bourgeois, capitalist past. However, prejudices against women who worked as prostitutes that had been established under the regulation system were difficult to shift, particularly the perception that women who sold sex were responsible for the transmission of venereal diseases. These stubborn ideas meant that attempts to eliminate prostitution in the early Soviet period were destined to be unsuccessful.
Field models
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides constructions of Lagrangians for various field models and discusses the basic properties of these models. Concrete examples of field models are constructed, including real and complex scalar field models, the sigma model, spinor field models and models of massless and massive free vector fields. In addition, the chapter discusses various interactions between fields, including the interactions of scalars and spinors with the electromagnetic field. A detailed discussion of the Yang-Mills field is given as well.
Perturbation theory
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides a general description of perturbation theory in terms of Feynman diagrams. The general prescriptions of constructing Feynman diagrams in momentum space are given, including for an S-matrix. The connected Green functions and the corresponding generation functional are defined with full proofs. After introducing effective action, the chapter addresses loop expansion. The chapter ends with a discussion of Feynman diagrams in fermionic theory.
The Ivorian Regime and the French Security Guarantee
Authors: Wyss Marco 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In contrast to his Nigerian counterpart, the Ivorian leader did not have to face any meaningful opposition, and could rely on a strong presidential constitution, a one-party system, and his moral and tribal authority. But fearful of the potential of foreign-, especially Ghanaian-sponsored subversion to his regime, he entered into secret arrangements that put French forces in charge of his personal and regime’s security. When in 1963 subversion became a reality in francophone Africa, Houphouët-Boigny became increasingly paranoid. Detecting subversive activities and coup attempts in Côte d’Ivoire itself, he thus moved against supposed conspirators and simultaneously reasserted his authoritarian rule. The French support he thereby received was, however, limited, because Paris was concerned that too heavy an involvement in the domestic security of African states could be detrimental to its international reputation.
The Prosecutorial Targets Question
Authors: Sander Barrie 
Published: April 2021

AbstractThis chapter examines the practices that have influenced the selection of prosecutorial targets in different institutional settings and the implications for the scope and content of the historical narratives constructed by international criminal courts in their judgments. For this purpose, the chapter distinguishes between two forms of selectivity: first, situational selectivity, which concerns the mass atrocity situations that have been targeted for investigation within international criminal courts; and second, case selectivity, which concerns the individuals that have been targeted for prosecution within each situation. After revealing the prevailing influence of the political context on the prosecutorial focus of international criminal courts, the chapter turns to examine different strategies that have been deployed by defendants and their counsel—often in vain—in an effort to counter this hegemonic orientation.