bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reward sensitivity and action in Parkinson’s disease patients with and without apathy
Authors: Muhammed Kinan , Ben Yehuda Michael , Drew Daniel , Manohar Sanjay , Husain Masud 
Published: March 2021

AbstractClinical apathy results in dysfunction of goal directed behaviour, a key component of which is the initiation of action. Previous work has suggested that blunting of reward sensitivity is an important mechanism underlying apathy. However, an additional component might be impoverished initiation of action itself. This study aims to investigate the link between motivation and motor output and its association with apathy and dopamine. An oculomotor task that measures pupillary and saccadic response to monetary incentives was used to assess reward sensitivity, first in 23 young and 18 elderly controls, and then in 22 patients with Parkinson’s disease tested ON and OFF dopaminergic medication. To distinguish between pupillary responses to anticipated reward alone versus responses associated with motor preparation, a saccadic ‘go/no-go’ task was performed. Half of the trials required a saccade to be initiated to receive a reward and in the remaining trials no action was required but reward was still obtained. No significant difference in pupil response was demonstrated between the two conditions in all groups tested, suggesting pupillary responses to rewards are not contingent upon motor preparation in Parkinson’s disease. Being ON or OFF dopamine did not influence this response either. Previous work demonstrated associations between apathy and pupillary reward insensitivity in Parkinson’s disease. Here we observed this effect only when an action was required to receive a reward, and only in the ON state. These findings suggest that apathy in Parkinson’s disease is linked to reduced reward sensitivity and that this is most prominently observed when actions have to be initiated to rewarding goals, with the effect modulated by being ON dopaminergic medication. OFF medication, there was no such strong relationship, and similarly in the ‘no-go’ conditions, either ON or OFF dopaminergic drugs. The results provide preliminary data which suggest that apathy in Parkinson’s disease is associated with a reduction in reward sensitivity and this is most evident when associated with initiation of goal directed actions in the presence of adequate dopamine.
Computational support, not primacy, distinguishes compensatory memory reorganization in epilepsy
Authors: Tracy Joseph I , Chaudhary Kapil , Modi Shilpi , Crow Andrew , Kumar Ashith , Weinstein David , Sperling Michael R 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with impairment in episodic memory. A substantial subgroup, however, is able to maintain adequate memory despite temporal lobe pathology. Missing from prior work in cognitive reorganization is a direct comparison of temporal lobe epilepsy patients with intact status with those who are memory impaired. Little is known about the regional activations, functional connectivities and/or network reconfigurations that implement changes in primary computations or support functions that drive adaptive plasticity and compensated memory. We utilized task functional MRI on 54 unilateral temporal lobe epilepsy patients and 24 matched healthy controls during the performance of a paired-associate memory task to address three questions: (i) which regions implement paired-associate memory in temporal lobe epilepsy, and do they vary as a function of good versus poor performance, (ii) is there unique functional connectivity present during memory encoding that accounts for intact status by preservation of primary memory computations or the supportive computations that allow for intact memory responses and (iii) what features during memory encoding are most distinctive: is it the magnitude and location of regional activations, or the presence of enhanced functional connections to key structures such as the hippocampus? The study revealed non-dominant hemisphere regions (right posterior temporal regions) involving both increased regional activity and increased modulatory communication with the hippocampi as most important to intact memory in left temporal lobe epilepsy compared to impaired status. The profile involved areas that are neither contralateral homologues to left hemisphere memory areas, nor regions traditionally considered computationally primary for episodic memory. None of these areas of increased activation or functional connectivity were associated with advantaged memory in healthy controls. Our emphasis on different performance levels yielded insight into two forms of cognitive reorganization: computational primacy, where left temporal lobe epilepsy showed little change relative to healthy controls, and computational support where intact left temporal lobe epilepsy patients showed adaptive abnormalities. The analyses isolated the unique regional activations and mediating functional connectivity that implements truly compensatory reorganization in left temporal lobe epilepsy. The results provided a new perspective on memory deficits by making clear that they arise not just from the knockout of a functional hub, but from the failure to instantiate a complex set of reorganization responses. Such responses provided the computational support to ensure successful memory. We demonstrated that by keeping track of performance levels, we can increase understanding of adaptive brain responses and neuroplasticity in epilepsy.
T1-Weighted/T2-Weighted Ratio Mapping at 5 Months Captures Individual Differences in Behavioral Development and Differentiates Infants at Familial Risk for Autism from Controls
Authors: Darki Fahimeh , Nyström Pär , McAlonan Grainne , Bölte Sven , Falck-Ytter Terje 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Identifying structural measures that capture early brain development and are sensitive to individual differences in behavior is a priority in developmental neuroscience, with potential implications for our understanding of both typical and atypical populations. T1-weighted/T2-weighted (T1w/T2w) ratio mapping, which previously has been linked to myelination, represents an interesting candidate measure in this respect, as an accessible measure from standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences. Yet, its value as an early infancy measure remains largely unexplored. Here, we compared T1w/T2w ratio in 5-month-old infants at familial risk (n = 27) for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to those without elevated autism risk (n = 16). We found lower T1w/T2w ratio in infants at high risk for ASD within widely distributed regions, spanning both white and gray matter. In regions differing between groups, higher T1w/T2w ratio was robustly associated with higher age at scan (range: ~ 4–6.5 months), implying sensitivity to maturation at short developmental timescales. Further, higher T1w/T2w ratio within these regions was associated with higher scores on measures of concurrent developmental level. These findings suggest that T1w/T2w ratio is a developmentally sensitive measure that should be explored further in future studies of both typical and atypical infant populations.
The Integral Chow Ring of the Stack of 1-Pointed Hyperelliptic Curves
Authors: Pernice Michele 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
In this paper we give a complete description of the integral Chow ring of the stack $\mathscr{H}_{g,1}$ of 1-pointed hyperelliptic curves, lifting relations and generators from the Chow ring of $\mathscr{H}_g$. We also give a geometric interpretation for the generators.
Finding commonalities in rare diseases through the undiagnosed diseases network
Authors: Yates Josephine , Gutiérrez-Sacristán Alba , Jouhet Vianney , LeBlanc Kimberly , Esteves Cecilia ,   Undiagnosed Diseases Network, DeSain Thomas N , Benik Nick , Stedman Jason , Palmer Nathan , Mellon Guillaume , Kohane Isaac , Avillach Paul 
Published: March 2021

AbstractObjectiveWhen studying any specific rare disease, heterogeneity and scarcity of affected individuals has historically hindered investigators from discerning on what to focus to understand and diagnose a disease. New nongenomic methodologies must be developed that identify similarities in seemingly dissimilar conditions.Materials and MethodsThis observational study analyzes 1042 patients from the Undiagnosed Diseases Network (2015-2019), a multicenter, nationwide research study using phenotypic data annotated by specialized staff using Human Phenotype Ontology terms. We used Louvain community detection to cluster patients linked by Jaccard pairwise similarity and 2 support vector classifier to assign new cases. We further validated the clusters’ most representative comorbidities using a national claims database (67 million patients).ResultsPatients were divided into 2 groups: those with symptom onset before 18 years of age (n = 810) and at 18 years of age or older (n = 232) (average symptom onset age: 10 [interquartile range, 0-14] years). For 810 pediatric patients, we identified 4 statistically significant clusters. Two clusters were characterized by growth disorders, and developmental delay enriched for hypotonia presented a higher likelihood of diagnosis. Support vector classifier showed 0.89 balanced accuracy (0.83 for Human Phenotype Ontology terms only) on test data.DiscussionsTo set the framework for future discovery, we chose as our endpoint the successful grouping of patients by phenotypic similarity and provide a classification tool to assign new patients to those clusters.ConclusionThis study shows that despite the scarcity and heterogeneity of patients, we can still find commonalities that can potentially be harnessed to uncover new insights and targets for therapy.
Comparison and interpretability of machine learning models to predict severity of chest injury
Authors: Kulshrestha Sujay , Dligach Dmitriy , Joyce Cara , Gonzalez Richard , O’Rourke Ann P , Glazer Joshua M , Stey Anne , Kruser Jacqueline M , Churpek Matthew M , Afshar Majid 
Published: March 2021

Abstract

Objective
Trauma quality improvement programs and registries improve care and outcomes for injured patients. Designated trauma centers calculate injury scores using dedicated trauma registrars; however, many injuries arrive at nontrauma centers, leaving a substantial amount of data uncaptured. We propose automated methods to identify severe chest injury using machine learning (ML) and natural language processing (NLP) methods from the electronic health record (EHR) for quality reporting.

Materials and Methods
A level I trauma center was queried for patients presenting after injury between 2014 and 2018. Prediction modeling was performed to classify severe chest injury using a reference dataset labeled by certified registrars. Clinical documents from trauma encounters were processed into concept unique identifiers for inputs to ML models: logistic regression with elastic net (EN) regularization, extreme gradient boosted (XGB) machines, and convolutional neural networks (CNN). The optimal model was identified by examining predictive and face validity metrics using global explanations.

Results
Of 8952 encounters, 542 (6.1%) had a severe chest injury. CNN and EN had the highest discrimination, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.93 and calibration slopes between 0.88 and 0.97. CNN had better performance across risk thresholds with fewer discordant cases. Examination of global explanations demonstrated the CNN model had better face validity, with top features including “contusion of lung” and “hemopneumothorax.”

Discussion
The CNN model featured optimal discrimination, calibration, and clinically relevant features selected.

Conclusion
NLP and ML methods to populate trauma registries for quality analyses are feasible.
Weapons of War, Tools of Justice
Authors: Freeman Lindsay 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Just as the internal combustion engine revolutionized warfare in the early twentieth century, artificial intelligence is shaping warfare in the Digital Age. Fuelled by data rather than gasoline, artificial intelligence (AI) derivative technologies are driven by innovation in both the military and civilian sectors. Today’s defence scientists and engineers, like their predecessors, develop physical equipment and weapons, but instead of simply making them more powerful and lethal, they are also making them more intelligent and connected. As AI is increasingly integrated into military tools, the digital footprints of modern battlefields will grow exponentially, generating new sources and types of data that will fundamentally alter war crimes investigations. This article examines emerging military applications of AI in order to identify what opportunities and challenges these tools might offer international criminal investigators. Will more sensors and smart devices on the battlefield benefit or burden the investigation of war crimes? Moreover, will intelligent machines add to the fog of war or help us see through it?
The Notion of Undertaking
Authors: Kreuschitz Viktor , Nehl Hanns Peter 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the notion of undertaking. The concept of undertaking is based on that of economic activity. Essentially this regards an activity that is subject to market-based competition, or that is at least potentially capable of being provided in competition. There is no single set of criteria to determine this. Instead, a range of different criteria has emerged to determine whether economic activity is involved in particular sectors such as the exercise of public authority of the provision of social security, education, or healthcare. Often a number of such factors have to be weighed. Increasingly there are different activities such as building and exploiting airport facilities, which are economically linked, regarded jointly as economic activities which come within the field of State aid rules.
Distortion of Competition and Effect on Trade between EU Member States
Authors: Kreuschitz Viktor , Nehl Hanns Peter 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the distortion of competition and the effect on inter-Member State trade conditions. Article 107(1) TFEU provides that State aid is prohibited if two complementary conditions are fulfilled, namely if the State measure in issue distorts or threatens to distort competition and affects trade between Member States. The common trend within the EU Courts' case law is that no actual assessment of these criteria is required. In order to establish that competition is distorted and trade between Member States affected, it is not necessary to define the market or to carry out a thorough investigation as regards the impact that the contested measure might have upon the economic operators involved. All that matters is whether an advantage is granted to a market operator, at the detriment of another which will, as a matter of fact, encroach upon the good functioning of competition and trade between Member States.
WTO Subsidy Laws: The International Regulation of State Aid
Authors: Kreuschitz Viktor , Nehl Hanns Peter 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the concepts of subsidy control under World Trade Organization (WTO), prohibiting certain types of subsidies that might have a harmful effect on economic activity in other WTO members. A major innovation of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement) was the classification of subsidies into three categories, often referred to as ‘red light’, ‘yellow light’, and ‘green light’. ‘Red light’ subsidies are prohibited per se, with no need to actually prove any adverse effect. The ‘yellow light’ or ‘actionable subsidies’ are not prohibited, but may be challenged only if they cause ‘adverse effects’. Under the ‘green light’ category, certain selected types of subsidies were non-actionable even if they were specific and caused one of the harms listed in Articles 5 and 6 of the SCM Agreement.
Damages Actions in the Enforcement of EU Competition Law
Authors: Rodger Barry , Ferro Miguel Sousa , Marcos Francisco 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter sets the context for the EU’s Antitrust Damages Directive of 2014 in order to understand its significance and potential impact. It first provides a historical background to EU competition law before discussing its public enforcement, focusing on the traditional role of the European Commission in enforcing the EU competition law rules. It then considers developments in EU law private enforcement, citing the role of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and European Commission in seeking to promote and facilitate private enforcement, particularly damages actions. It also examines the experience of damages actions in the EU, the issue of collective redress, the US antitrust private enforcement context and experience, and EU private international law rules and their significance for raising damages actions across the Member States’ courts. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the development of competition law damages actions under EU law.
Germany
Authors: Kersting Christian 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the transposition of the Antitrust Damages Directive in Germany. It first provides an overview of the transposition procedure, focusing on the role of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy in drafting the legislation to transpose directive 2014/104/EU into German law. It then considers the scope of the German regime regarding cartel damages and how it was incorporated into the German Act against Restraints of Competition (Gesetz gegen Wettbewerbsbeschränkungen, GWB) for exclusive application to competition law infringements. It also examines specific issues that arose during the transposition, including those relating to the directive’s definitions, the binding force of decisions of other Member States, parent company liability for fines, group liability for damages, the presumption and quantification of damages, joint and several liability and recovery of contribution from co-infringers, the liability of immunity recipients, the liability of small and medium-sized enterprises, disclosure of evidence, and settlements.
Greece
Authors: Ioannidou Maria 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the transposition of the Antitrust Damages Directive in Greece. It begins with a discussion of the transposition procedure, focusing on the Greek private competition law enforcement landscape. In particular, it considers the country’s Damages Act transposing the Damages Directive in the Greek legal order, adopted by Parliament (plenary session) on 14 March 2018, and the level of private competition litigation in Greece. The factors that partly explain the delay in the transposition of the Damages Directive by the Greek legislature are also examined. The chapter goes on to describe the substantive and temporal scope of the Damages Act as well as specific issues that arose during the transposition, including those relating to limitation periods, the binding force of decisions of other Member States, joint and several liability, parent company liability, presumption and quantification of damages by cartels, access to evidence, collective redress, and consensual dispute resolution.
Parties and Group Litigation
Authors: Brealey Mark , George Kyla 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the special considerations that apply to identifying the relevant parties in competition litigation as well as the way that claimants may group together to commence collective proceedings. It first explains private actions in the High Court, with emphasis on the nature of claimant and defendant. It considers the category of claimant under Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) and under the Competition Act 1998, along with the concept of ‘undertaking’, parent companies, subsidiary companies, and sister companies in relation to the defendants. The chapter also examines representative actions in the High Court during group litigation, collective proceedings in the Competition Appeal Tribunal (CAT), and settlement of collective proceedings. Different types of collective settlement are highlighted.
Interim Remedies
Authors: Brealey Mark , George Kyla 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers interim remedies that are available in the High Court and the Competition Appeal Tribunal (CAT), with a focus on interim injunctions, interim payments, security for costs, and stay of proceedings. It begins with a discussion of the High Court’s jurisdiction to grant interim or interlocutory injunctions, from interim injunctions in general to mandatory injunctions, quia timet injunctions, freezing injunctions, search orders, anti-suit injunctions, and interim injunctions in aid of foreign proceedings. It also describes the practice and procedure to be followed on an application for an interim injunction, before analysing interim payments, security for costs, and stay of proceedings in greater detail. Finally, it examines interim remedies in the CAT, taking into account a range of issues relating to interim orders in appeals, interim injunctions in private actions, interim payment, security for costs, and stay of proceedings.
Factual Evidence
Authors: Brealey Mark , George Kyla 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the use of factual evidence in cases involving a breach of competition rules. Potential sources of factual evidence range from the evidence of witnesses to statements of case and application notices supported by a statement of truth, contemporaneous documents, affidavits, and the admissions of other parties to the alleged anti-competitive agreement or concerted practice. The chapter first provides an overview of factual evidence used in High Court proceedings, including witness evidence and sources other than witness statements, as well as the formal requirements for witness statements. It then explores issues such as confidentiality, hearsay notices, witness summaries and summons, video links, depositions, and letters of request. It also discusses the use of factual evidence in Competition Appeal Tribunal (CAT) proceedings, focusing on issues such as admissibility and the admission or exclusion of fresh evidence.
Appeals to the Court of Appeal
Authors: Brealey Mark , George Kyla 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the legal principles applicable to appeals from the High Court to the Court of Appeal and appeals from the Competition Appeal Tribunal (CAT) to the Court of Appeal, as well as the extent to which fresh evidence may be adduced in the Court of Appeal. It first considers the general rules about appeals from the High Court to the Court of Appeal, along with the statutory basis of the Court of Appeal’s power to hear appeals from the High Court. Other issues such as appellant’s notice, respondent’s statement of objection, appeals against case management decisions, and grounds for appeal are also examined. The chapter proceeds by analysing the procedure and grounds for appeal from the CAT to the Court of Appeal, before concluding with an assessment of the conditions that must be met to justify the reception of fresh evidence or a new trial in the Court of Appeal.