bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transfer Optimization in Accelerating the Design of Turbomachinery Cascades
Authors: Wang Qineng , Song Liming , Guo Zhendong , Li Jun 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This paper draws motivation from the fact that engineering optimizations were mostly carried out from scratch. In contrast, however, humans routinely take advantage of the knowledge from past experiences whenever a new task is met. Such a transfer learning process by leveraging knowledge from already completed tasks can be promising to significantly improve the performance of current state-of-the-art algorithms, particularly in solving expensive black-box problems. In light of the above, we propose a Cokriging based transfer optimization framework for the design of turbomachinery cascades, which is demonstrated by optimization to re-design the first-stage vane of GEE3. Specifically, when building Cokriging surrogate in such a transfer optimization context, the samples from already completed tasks are treated as low-fidelity (LF) data. The acquisition function of expected improvement is adopted to guide the search for high-fidelity (HF) data. In order to make full use of the “past experiences”, one of our efforts was drawn to designing selection strategies of initial HF samples. In addition, as the “past experiences” may do harm to the optimization of the target task, the correlation coefficients between source and target tasks in each optimization process were calculated to avoid “negative transfer”. The test results show that, by learning from the past, the transfer optimization framework can reduce the computational cost by much as 50%. More importantly, our proposed transfer learning strategy can effectively avoid “negative transfer” and thus always achieve better solutions than the compared state-of-the-art algorithms.
Advances and Challenges in Purging Pipeline Sections: Field Measurements vs. 1D Purging Model
Authors: Botros Kamal K. , Hawryluk Andrew , Ryapolov Dmitry 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Effective purging of air out of a pipeline section before commissioning by direct displacement with natural gas has been safely practiced for decades with the recognition that flammable interfacial mixing zone between the driving gas (behind) and the air (ahead) is inevitable. In cases when the purge velocity is below a threshold dictated by the gravity current velocity (defined in AGA Purging Principles and Practices, 2001), natural gas being lighter than air can in fact ride over air being the heavier gas and short circuit the flow path to the vent at the other end of the pipe section, thus trapping behind pockets of air that could potentially introduce risk of internal explosion with subsequent damage to the pipe section and pose a safety issue to field personnel. Therefore, maintaining the purge velocity above this threshold by a good margin has been a common practice in the purging procedure to-date. In fact, maintaining the purge velocity above the threshold can be controlled by the injection press or flow, where tools and dynamic purging models have been successfully developed and proven to be useful. However, AGA recommends that the drive purge gas pressure be limited to 689 kPag (100 psig) in the inlet purge line to the pipe section to avoid the risk of detonation. In some cases when the inlet purge line is relatively small compared to the main pipe section, this limit on the purge pressure would result in gas/air interfacial velocity much lower than the threshold velocity, hence stratification will occur. This paper provides insight into the possibility of increasing the purge pressure above AGA limit to avoid stratification, while conforming to the safety aspects related to detonation. A purge model is developed to overcome the shortcoming in AGA purge software that limits the purge pressure to maximum of 689 kPag (100 psig). Field trial was conducted to validate the model which demonstrated, as a proof of concept, a successful purge procedure with purge pressure = 5517 kPag (800 psig) in NPS 1.5 purge line to purge nitrogen out of NPS 42, 5.8 km section of a pipeline.
Liquid Pipeline Rupture Detection Using Multiple Artificial Intelligence Classifiers During Steady-State and Transient Operations
Authors: MacDonald Christopher , Yang Michael , Learn Shawn , Hugo Ron , Park Simon 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
There are several challenges associated with existing rupture detection systems such as their inability to accurately detect during transient (such as pump dynamics) conditions, delayed responses and their inability to transfer models to different pipeline configurations easily. To address these challenges, we employ multiple Artificial Intelligence (AI) classifiers that rely on pattern recognitions instead of traditional operator-set thresholds. AI techniques, consisting of two-dimensional (2D) Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) and Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Interface Systems (ANFIS), are used to mimic processes performed by operators during a rupture event. This includes both visualization (using CNN) and rule-based decision making (using ANFIS). The system provides a level of reasoning to an operator through the use of the rule-based AI system. Pump station sensor data is non-dimensionalized prior to AI processing, enabling application to pipeline configurations outside of the training data set. AI algorithms undergo testing and training using two data sets: laboratory-collected data that mimics transient pump-station operations and real operator data that includes Real Time Transient Model (RTTM) simulated ruptures. The use of non-dimensional sensor data enables the system to detect ruptures from pipeline data not used in the training process.
Undermatching and Low Strain In-Service Failures in X70 Line Pipe: Contributions From Standards, Specifications and Coating
Authors: Barbaro Frank , Fletcher Leigh 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Some 10 incidents of low strain in-service and pre-service hydrotest failures in girth welds have been reported in North America since the Enterprise Products ethane pipeline failure in 2015. No such failures have been reported in Australia, despite the similarities in Standards, the line pipe data, and the use of manual SMAW using fully cellulosic procedures.
There are however significant differences that warrant further investigation and adoption in terms of best practice to ensure the security and safety of our pipeline networks.
Some unique differences and observations in terms of pipe properties, weld qualification procedures, test methods and even full scale pressure burst tests before and after coating are described to highlight subtle differences in the standards that may provide clarity in explaining pipeline girth weld failures and it is anticipated may also provide guidance for the future.
Peer Review of the Plausible Profiles Corrosion Assessment Model
Authors: Kiefner John 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
An enhanced corrosion assessment model has been developed by TC Energy. The new model is called the “Plausible Profiles Model for Corrosion Assessment” or “Psqr” for short and is described in three IPC 2020 papers1,2,3. The Psqr model uses a probabilistic approach for creating a number of plausible profiles along a corroded area. The predicted failure pressure for each plausible profile is calculated using RSTRENG, resulting in a probabilistic distribution of predicted failure pressures. The predicted failure pressure for the corroded area is taken to be the lower 5th percentile value of the distribution.
TC Energy requested that PRCI sponsor an independent review of the Psqr model by subject matter experts (SMEs). The PRCI Corrosion Technical Committee and TC Energy jointly selected a team of SMEs to conduct the review. The team was comprised of the following individuals:
• Maher Nessim — C-FER Technologies
• Ming Gao — Blade Energy Partners
• Ravi Krishnamurthy — Blade Energy Partners
• Phil Hopkins — Independent Consultant
• Andrew Cosham — Ninth Planet Engineering
• Michael Rosenfeld — RSI Pipeline Solutions
• Bruce Nestleroth — Kiefner and Associates, Inc.
• John Kiefner — RSI Pipeline Solutions
This paper describes the work carried out by the SMEs and presents their findings and conclusions. Basically, they found that the model is more accurate and exhibits less scatter than existing models such as RSTRENG, B31G, and Modified B31G4. They recommended that the Psqr Model be implemented in conjunction with a high-quality corrosion management plan such as that outlined in TC Energy’s technical report5, and they recommended specific minimum Psqr-predicted failure stress levels for use on pipelines being operated at maximum stress levels ranging from 40% of SMYS to 80% of SMYS.
A Novel Three-Dimensional Non-Contact Magnetic Stress Inspection Technology and its Application on LNG Pipeline
Authors: He Guoxi , He Tengjiao , Liao Kexi , Zhu Hongdong , Zhao Shuai 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
On the basis of the metal-magnetic-memory (MMM) effect, a three-dimensional high-precision non-contact pipeline magnetism-based stress inspection (PMSI) technology is developed for trenchless inspection of buried pipeline defects. This technology is a new non-destructive testing technology, which can find the possible stress concentration area (SCA) along the buried gas transmission pipeline. Hence, we could further judge according to the testing data that the stress concentration is caused by the overpressure which results from whether the pipeline external load at the potential landslide of the soil or serious metal loss such as corrosion defects. The stress inspection method determines the relative risk of defects by directly quantifying the change level of stress, rather than calculating the geometric parameters (length, width, height) of defects. The PMSI was carried out on a 10.3 km LNG pipeline and two level-II SCAs were found. A comprehensive index F was defined to evaluate the severity quantitatively and judge the grade of the defect status as well as the sensitive. Thus, the relative stress and thereby the safety state of the pipeline are judged, and then the precise position of the relatively serious section on the pipeline is determined.
An Integrated Approach to System-Wide Landslide Monitoring in the Appalachian Basin Region of the U.S.
Authors: Theriault Bailey , Hennessy John , Markley Chris 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Landslides have the potential to adversely affect the integrity of pipelines. Identifying, characterizing, evaluating, and if necessary, mitigating and monitoring landslide hazards have become critical steps to successfully and safely building and operating pipelines in the Appalachian Basin region of the United States. Natural geologic, geographic, and climatic conditions in this region combine to create a high incidence of landslides, with landslide formation and movement often exacerbated by anthropogenic activity. Rapid expansion of pipeline construction and operation in the region, along with the ever-decreasing availability of preferred routing options, have resulted in increased landslide-related pipeline incidences, both during and post-construction. As such, there is an increasing need to identify, characterize, and closely monitor landslide hazards throughout the construction and operational lifespan of each pipeline system. This can prove challenging in an area where a pipeline may be subject to an average of two to five landslides per mile of pipeline, and where new landslide hazards may develop on an annual basis. Typical site-specific monitoring approaches (e.g., strain gauge, inclinometers, monitoring points, etc.) may not be economically feasible to use for all hazards when traversing long distances of such terrain, and such approaches likely do not address the need to identify new hazards that may develop over time (e.g., new or reactivated landslides).
Strong monitoring programs should seek to identify and use complimentary technologies to balance out the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Overdependence on a single or select number of tools could lead to overconfidence and an unnecessary number of false positives and negatives. This paper will provide an overview of monitoring approaches that have proven useful for the long-term monitoring and assessment of high density landslide areas at a system-wide scale, including the use of repeat LiDAR surveys (i.e., LiDAR Change Detection Analysis), in-line inspection (ILI) inertial measurement unit (IMU) data, aerial patrol/reconnaissance, and ground patrol. Case studies will be presented from the Appalachian Basin region, including how monitoring techniques were selected based on specific pipeline system configurations and individual Operator objectives, and how they are being used to track existing hazards and to identify hazards as they develop.
Safety Risk Acceptance Criteria for Pipelines
Authors: Nessim Maher , Kariyawasam Shahani 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The lack of established acceptance criteria has been one of the key challenges to the application of quantitative risk assessment (QRA) techniques in the Canadian pipeline industry. While a wide range of such criteria have been developed and published, it remains difficult for most operators to commit to specific criteria because such criteria may not be acceptable to all stakeholders. Recognizing this limitation, the Canadian Standards Association formed a Risk Management Task Force (RMTF) under the Technical Committee for the Z662 Standard on the Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems to propose criteria for potential inclusion in its non-mandatory Annex on Risk Assessment.
This paper describes the criteria that have been developed by the RMTF and provides the background information needed for users to understand and use them correctly. The discussion includes: a summary of the measures used to quantify the safety risk associated with an ignited product release; a summary of established international and Canadian criteria that have been considered; a description and interpretation of the ALARP (As Low As Reasonably Practicable) principle; and the rationale used by the RMTF to select specific individual risk and societal risk criteria for CSA Z662. The proposed criteria are also compared to the criteria underpinning other risk-based parts of the Z662 Standard, including Annexes C and O.
Guidance is provided on the analysis assumptions, methods and parameters required to ensure that the risk calculations produce results that are consistent with the definition and intent of the criteria. Key issues addressed by the guidance include the definition of individual risk (i.e. location risk versus personal risk), the pipeline length over which the frequency versus number of fatalities (F-N) relationship representing societal risk is calculated, and the effect of population density averaging over the pipeline length.
An Improved Analytical Strain Analysis Method for Buried Steel Pipelines Subjected to Abrupt Permanent Ground Displacement
Authors: Liu Xiaoben , Zhang Hong , Xia Mengying , Liu Jianping , Zheng Qian 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Abrupt permanent ground displacement is a typical loading condition for pipelines crossing geotechnical hazard areas. An improved analytical method for calculating longitudinal strain of buried pipeline under tension combined with bending load induced by permanent ground displacement (PGD) was proposed, in which, the pipe steel was considered as a bilinear material and the soil constraint on pipe was considered as a series of elastic-plastic nonlinear soil springs. Effects of elastic deformation of axial soil springs on pipe strain was derived accurately. Effects of axial force in pipe on pipe’s bending deformation was considered directly in the governing equation of pipe. Equilibrium between the section stresses in the large deformed pipe sections near fault trace and the section force and moment at the same position derived by the beam theory was used to obtain the nonlinear stress distributions in the pipe section and furtherly to obtain the equivalent modulus describing the locally decreased pipe stiffness. This method makes it possible to accurately derive the pipe longitudinal strain considering the effects of pipe material nonlinearity induced locally decreased pipe stiffness in large bending deformed pipe segments. A three dimensional nonlinear finite element model was also established by general software package ABAQUS to serve as a benchmark to validate the accuracy of proposed analytical method. Shell and pipe elements were employed to simulate pipes in large deformation and small deformation regions respectively. Distributed nonlinear soil spring elements were employed to simulate nonlinear soil constraints on pipe. Various loading conditions were performed to compare the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed analytical method comparing with the FE method. Results show the proposed analytical method can predict accurate longitudinal strain results even large plastic deformation appears in pipe. And comparing with FE method, analytical method has advantages in calculating efficiency, which is more suitable for application in engineering practice.
Assessing Potential Impacts to Waterways From Small Volume Releases Originating From Facilities or Equipment
Authors: Fontenault Jeremy , Franey Tara , Horn Matt 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The pipeline industry strives for continuous improvement and reaching zero incidents. The risks associated with below grade pipelines are typically assessed in detail as part of operators’ pipeline integrity management program. However, the level of risk associated with above grade facilities and equipment is often not investigated to the same level. As part of an effort, with an anonymous pipeline operator, to refine the calculated risks associated with these facilities and valve sites, a focus was made on enhancing the consequence calculations with more accurate site-specific information. An approach was developed to assess whether smaller volume releases from these locations may impact nearby waterways following a release.
The operator identified 150 sites throughout North America where releases had the potential to contaminate a waterbody. In order to confirm/disprove this potential impact to water, hypothetical releases of multiple hydrocarbon products were simulated using oil spill modeling tools to assess the potential overland and downstream transport and fates of the released products. Hypothetical release scenarios were simulated until all of the modeled oil had been released and had either adhered to the land surface, filled a depression in the land surface, and/or evaporated to the atmosphere; or when oil was predicted to enter a perennial waterbody (stream or lake). The goal was to assess the potential for each release to reach a waterbody. A single release was simulated for each site based on a historical maximum volume for a release associated with the specific equipment type (e.g. valves) that could be released over a 24-hour period. Releases were simulated using conditions selected to produce reasonable, conservative results to maximize the potential for the largest volume of oil to enter a waterbody. These conditions were based on the spring season, where rivers and streams would be under some of the highest flow conditions, intermittent streams and waterbodies would contain water feeding larger water bodies, cool air temperatures would reduce evaporative losses, and no snow cover maximize overland transport.
This screening level analysis allowed for identification of each location’s potential to reach a nearby waterbody under the conservative set of conditions and assumptions. By eliminating sites where oil would not reach a waterbody, the operator was able to focus efforts on the highest consequence areas in order to complete more detailed field-level analysis. In regard to spill modeling, more detailed analyses could be conducted in the future to predict the range of possible outcomes from other types of releases and using more site-specific and season-specific data. As an example, slower releases/leak rates, enhanced evaporative losses, a range of environmental conditions, and/or losses to infiltration could be assessed to bound the range of potential impacts.
Design and Construction Challenges of a Roped Insulated Pipeline
Authors: Prasad Neetu , King Graeme , Najeeb Arfeen 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Thermally insulated hot buried pipelines pose a unique set of challenges. This paper discusses those challenges and how they were met during design and construction of the 150 km long Husky LLB Direct Pipeline, the longest thermally insulated oil pipeline in Canada.
Thermal insulation materials are soft and can be easily damaged during construction and backfilling, and by large restraining forces at bends when the pipeline is operating at high temperatures. The large temperature difference between pipeline installation temperature and maximum operating temperature leads to large axial compressive forces that can cause movement at bends, crush insulation, increase temperatures at ground surface, cause loss of restraint, and in the worst case, lead to upheaval buckling and loss of containment. Special design and construction features to deal with these challenges, including insulation specifications, insulation of pipe bends, pipeline pre-straining, long radius bends, deeper burial, and pipeline roping, were therefore necessary.
After pipe has been insulated with polyurethane foam it cannot be bent in standard field bending machines used for uninsulated pipes because the foam is too soft. The induction bends and cold bends that are shop insulated after bending are expensive. The Project minimized the number of these expensive insulated bends by using an engineered ditch bottom profile. This meant that shop bends were only needed to reduce excavation depth at sharp changes in ground surface elevation where the roped profile required excessive grading.
Care was therefore necessary in the selection and development of specifications for the insulation system and shop fabricated bends, and to design and construct a ditch profile to minimize forces on the insulation and control upheaval buckling. Close co-ordination with vendors and the construction contractor was crucial for a successful and timely completion.