bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Amenorrhea: A Systematic Approach to Diagnosis and Management
Authors: Cron Julia A. 
Published: January 2021

Amenorrhea, the absence of menses, occurs in approximately 3 to 4% of women.4,7 It may be present as primary amenorrhea (the absence of menarche) or secondary amenorrhea (the absence of menses after menarche). The evaluation of the patient with amenorrhea requires an understanding of female anatomy and embryology as well as the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. A logical systematic approach to adolescents and women with amenorrhea leads to the appropriate diagnosis and management. When considering the appropriate evaluation and management of amenorrhea, several classification schemes may be considered. The following review outlines the necessary background to understand the various clinical conditions. In addition, the step-wise approach to diagnosis and management is presented.
This review contains 4 figures, 3 tables, and 45 references.
Key Words: amenorrhea, anomalies, embryologic development, hyperandrogenism, hyperprolactinemia, hypothalamic dysfunction, ovarian insufficiency, puberty, thyroid dysfunction
Developmental Biology I: Bone Development, Repair, and Regeneration
Authors: Borrelli Mimi R. , Ngaage Ledibabari M. , Wan Derrick C. , Longaker Michael T. , Lorenz H. Peter 
Published: January 2021

Defects of the skeletal system are extremely common and amount to a significant biomedical burden. Bone is a unique tissue that retains its regenerative potential into adulthood. The biology behind bone development, repair, and regeneration is thus of considerable interest, and may lead to advances in patient care. There are two distinct forms of osteogenesis; bones of the craniofacial skeleton develop via intramembranous ossification, whilst bones of the appendicular skeleton form by endochondral ossification. In this review, bone regenerative mechanisms based on skeletal stem cell function during fracture repair and during distraction osteogenesis are reviewed. Skeletal stem cell function more closely follows developmental mechanisms during distraction osteogenesis compared to fracture osteogenesis.
This review contains 5 figures and 50 references.
Keywords: skeletal stem cell, osteogenesis, skeletogenesis, mechanotransduction, regeneration, remodeling, focal adhesion kinase, ossification
Anesthetic Principles
Authors: Orgill Britlyn D. , Helm Douglas L. 
Published: January 2021

Advances in anesthesia have expanded the field of plastic surgery by allowing more procedures to be done, while also increasing the safety of the patient. Anesthesia is a spectrum ranging from local anesthetic injected by the surgeon, to regional and neuraxial blocks or general anesthesia with an anesthesia team. Anesthesiologists work with the surgeon to assess a patient’s preoperative risk and make joint decisions to determine if additional medical optimization is needed prior to surgery. New peripheral blocks allow alternatives to general anesthesia or serve as adjuncts to improve post-operative pain. Selection of drugs used to induce and maintain anesthesia are changing with the advent of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Protocols and emphasis on decreasing opioids. Teamwork and excellent communication are imperative to navigate anesthetic and surgical emergencies.
This review contains 3 figures, 4 tables, and 29 references.
Keywords: sedation, general anesthesia, regional anesthesia, peripheral nerve blocks, local anesthetic toxicity syndrome, ASA physical status, preoperative fasting guidelines, opioids, multi-modal analgesia, ERAS, crisis checklists
Principles and Practice of Palliative Care
Authors: Schaefer Kristen G , Bernacki Rachelle E 
Published: January 2021

The trajectories of serious illness and dying have changed in the last century; in the past, patients lived shorter lives and often died quickly of infectious disease, whereas patients in the 21st century live longer and often with prolonged debility in the advanced stages of illness. As a result, patients with serious illness can suffer undertreated symptoms and often feel poorly prepared for the final stages of disease. With more options for advanced life support and other aggressive interventions at the end of life, patients and families face increasingly complex medical decisions in the terminal phase of illness, and the treatments they receive do not always align with their goals and values. Emerging evidence suggests that integrating palliative care into the treatment of advanced illness can improve outcomes, decrease costs, and improve both patient and family satisfaction. Consequently, patient access to high-quality specialty-level palliative care is becoming standard of care at most academic cancer centers and more available in the community. This chapter describes the practice and principles of specialty-level palliative care and outlines specific "generalist" palliative care competencies essential for all physicians caring for patients with serious illness, including prognostication, patient-centered communication, and the navigation of ethical dilemmas in the field of palliative care. Tables outline the philosophy of palliative care, domains of suffering, location of death of hospice patients, the palliative performance scale, median survival times for cancer syndromes, indicators associated with a poorer prognosis in congestive heart failure, the NURSE mnemonic for accepting and responding to emotion, palliative care communication competencies in the intensive care unit, and the SPIKES mnemonic for breaking bad news. Figures depict causes of death in 1900 versus 2010, palliative care through the trajectory of serious illness, theoretical trajectories of disease, life expectancies for women and men, mortality at 1 year post discharge, and a model for patient-centered communication.
This chapter contains 6 highly rendered figures, 9 tables, 169 references, 1 teaching slide set, and 5 MCQs.
Management of Chronic Kidney Disease and its Complications
Authors: Hundert Joshua S. , Singh Ajay K 
Published: January 2021

Management of early renal failure helps in the reduction or prevention of end-stage renal disease. The monitoring of renal function is discussed, and the chapter includes a table that shows commonly used methods for monitoring. Risk factors for chronic renal failure include stroke and cardiac disease. Risk factors for renal disease progression are diabetes mellitus, hypertension, proteinuria, smoking, protein intake, and hyperlipidemia. Complications of chronic renal failure that are addressed include sodium and water imbalance, potassium imbalance, acidosis, calcium and phosphorus imbalance, and anemia. There is also a section that discusses the case for early referral to a nephrologist. Tables present the equations used to estimate the glomerular filtration rate (GFR); stages of chronic kidney disease and the appropriate steps in their management; risk factors for chronic kidney disease in which the testing of proteinuria and estimation of GFR are indicated; appropriate diet for patients who have chronic kidney disease; and guidelines for diagnosing and treating anemia resulting from chronic kidney disease. An algorithm outlines the steps in management of calcium and phosphate in patients with kidney disease.

This review contains 3 figures, 10 tables and 50 references
Key Words End-stage renal disease, chronic kidney disease, glomerular filtration rate, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease, Proteinuric renal disease, Hyperuricemia
Urticaria and Angioedema
Authors: Chen Justin R , Khan David A. 
Published: January 2021

Urticaria and angioedema are common diseases with diverse origins that constitute a substantial component of medical practice. Urticaria, or hives, refers to one or more areas of intensely pruritic papules or plaques with swelling of the superficial dermis (wheal) surrounded by local erythema (flare). Angioedema refers to deep dermal subcutaneous swelling that may manifest as swelling of the mucosa of the face, tongue, pharynx, larynx, or intestines that can be alarming and, in some cases, life threatening. These conditions are heterogeneous in their presentation and chronicity. Although allergies are responsible for some cases, autoimmunity and dysregulation of the bradykinin system often play a significant role, leading to challenging diagnostic and therapeutic dilemmas. This review discusses the epidemiology, natural history, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of acute and chronic urticaria and angioedema. Emphasis is placed on physical triggers, the role of proper laboratory testing, and alternative agents for refractory cases. Emerging therapies for hereditary and acquired angioedema syndromes are also covered. Tables list the causes of acute and chronic urticaria, an escalating treatment approach for difficult cases, and a comparison of available parenteral therapies specific to bradykinin-mediated angioedema. Figures illustrate the mechanisms of urticaria, photographs of typical presentations, and an evidence-based diagnostic algorithm for clinicians.
This review contains 9 figures, 8 tables, and 104 references.
Scleroderma and Related Disorders
Authors: Phillips Kristine 
Published: January 2021

Scleroderma spectrum diseases are a heterogeneous group of disorders that are distinguished by abnormalities of the connective tissue in the skin and, in some cases, other organs. Each disorder may be characterized by the extent of cutaneous and internal involvement, as well as histopathologic features of skin biopsy. Scleroderma spectrum diseases include systemic scleroderma, localized scleroderma, and eosinophilic fasciitis. This chapter reviews the classification, epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology and pathogenesis, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, treatment, outcome measures, management, and clinical course of scleroderma as well as the definition and classification, etiology/genetics, differential diagnosis, and treatment of localized scleroderma. Also discussed are the definition and classification, epidemiology, etiology/genetics/pathogenesis, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and treatment of eosinophilic fasciitis. Tables review the classification of—and antinuclear antibodies in—scleroderma as well as the key assessments and interventions in scleroderma management. Figures illustrate the disease's presentation and clinical manifestations, including several images of scleroderma of the hands; face, palmar, and buccal telangiectasias in a patient with scleroderma; a radiograph demonstrating calcinosis of the elbow; Raynaud’s phenomenon; high-resolution computed tomographic images of diffuse cutaneous scleroderma, scleroderma and severe pulmonary hypertension, and limited cutaneous scleroderma; plus an esophagram demonstrating hypomotility.
This review contains 11 highly rendered figures, 3 tables, and 72 references.
Acute Leukemia
Authors: Larson Richard A. , Walter Roland B 
Published: January 2021

The acute leukemias are malignant clonal disorders characterized by aberrant differentiation and proliferation of transformed hematopoietic progenitor cells. These cells accumulate within the bone marrow and lead to suppression of the production of normal blood cells, with resulting symptoms from varying degrees of anemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia or from infiltration into tissues. They are currently classified by their presumed cell of origin, although the field is moving rapidly to genetic subclassification. This review covers epidemiology; etiology; classiﬁcation of leukemia by morphology, immunophenotyping, and cytogenetic/molecular abnormalities; cytogenetics of acute leukemia; general principles of therapy; acute myeloid leukemia; acute lymphoblastic leukemia; and future possibilities. The figure shows the incidence of acute leukemias in the United States. Tables list World Health Organization (WHO) classification of acute myeloid leukemia and related neoplasms, expression of cell surface and cytoplasmic markers for the diagnosis of acute myeloid leukemia and mixed-phenotype acute leukemia, WHO classification of acute lymphoblastic leukemia, WHO classification of acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage, WHO classification of myelodysplastic syndromes, European LeukemiaNet cytogenetic and molecular genetic subsets in acute myeloid leukemia with prognostic importance, cytogenetic and molecular subtypes of acute lymphoblastic leukemia, terminology used in leukemia treatment, and treatment outcome for adults with acute leukemia.
This review contains 2 figures, 15 tables, and 119 references.
Keywords: Acute leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, cancer, cytogenetics, chromosomal abnormality
Cystic Tumors of the Pancreas
Authors: Zyromski Nicholas J. 
Published: January 2021

Pancreatic cysts are common, affecting up to 10% of the general population. Widespread use of abdominal cross-sectional imaging has increasingly identified asymptomatic patients with "incidental" pancreatic cysts. Our understanding of common pancreatic cysts has improved; however, the ideal management of patients with pancreatic cysts (particularly those with malignant potential) has not been standardized. This review discusses the clinical approach to patients with pancreatic cysts, with particular attention to those with "premalignant" cysts such as intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs).
This review contains 17 figures, 13 tables, and 42 references.
Keywords: Pancreatic tumor, cyst, branch duct intraductal papillary neoplasm, main duct intraductal papillary neoplasm, incidental finding, mucinous neoplasm
Urologic Infections
Authors: Vayngortin Tatyana , Atigapramoj Nisa S 
Published: January 2021

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect people of all ages. Although the incidence of invasive bacterial diseases continues to decline, the prevalence of UTIs in febrile pediatric patients continues to remain a focus for serious bacterial infection in this population. In older age groups, symptoms become more obvious and present more classically. Clinical practice guidelines have been developed because morbidity can be dependent upon the rapid identification of a UTI with prompt initiation of appropriate antimicrobials. This review provides a summary for the evaluation of UTIs with discussion of diagnosis and management.

This review contains 6 figures, 5 tables and 47 references
Key words: antibiotics, cystitis, pyelonephritis, urinary tract infection, uropathogens
Endoscopic Ultrasonography
Authors: Ryou Marvin , Kumar Nitkin 
Published: January 2021

Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) is a versatile tool that can be used to perform a variety of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in the upper or lower gastrointestinal tract. The proximity of the echoendoscope to the pancreas, liver, and other thoracic and abdominal organs allows detailed examination or minimally invasive intervention that would not be feasible by surgical or percutaneous approaches. EUS is available with radial or linear scanning arrays and is capable of guiding fine-needle aspiration to acquire tissue for cytologic analysis. This review covers the role of EUS in chronic pancreatitis; pancreatic cysts; submucosal tumors; suspected choledocholithiasis; fecal incontinence; staging of malignancy in esophageal, pancreatic, gastric, and rectal cancer; celiac plexus block/neurolysis; fiducial placement; pseudocyst drainage and cystogastrostomy/cystoduodenostomy; endoscopic necrosectomy; and biliary drainage. Figures show peripancreatic cysts, gastrointestinal stromal tumor, common bile duct stone, esophageal adenocarcinoma, pancreatic head mass causing biliary obstruction and invading portal confluence, fine-needle aspiration of a pancreatic head mass, rectal adenocarcinoma, abdominal aorta with celiac artery and superior mesenteric artery, celiac plexus neurolysis, necrosectomy, and EUS-guided choledochoduodenostomy for failed endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Tables list the Rosemont criteria for chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cystic lesions.

Key words: bile duct stone, biliary drainage, echoendoscope, endoscopic ultrasonography, fine-needle aspiration, pancreatic cyst

This review contains 12 highly rendered figures, 2 tables, and 62 references.
Medical Management of Wilms Tumor
Authors: Sze Sei-Gyung K. , Tracy Elisabeth T. , Routh Jonathan C. , Rice Henry E. , Wechsler Daniel S. 
Published: January 2021

Wilms tumor (WT) is the most common renal tumor of childhood and accounts for 5-7% of all childhood cancers. Remarkable progress in the treatment of WT has been made in the last several decades through collaborative clinical trials in the United States and Europe. With a multimodal approach including chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy, overall survival for WT is greater than 90%. However, there remains a subgroup of patients for which cure remains a challenge, and late effects of therapy are significant. New insights into clinical and biologic prognostic markers are being used to improve risk stratification and to tailor therapy to individual patients. Current treatment strategies aim to maintain excellent survival while reducing late effects for low-risk patients and optimize therapy to improve cure rates for high-risk patients.
This review contains 1 figures, 4 tables, and 45 references.
Key Words: chemotherapy, COG, kidney neoplasms, nephroblastoma, NWTS, pediatric cancer, radiotherapy, treatment outcome, SIOP, Wilms tumor
Management of Non–Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
Authors: Black Peter C 
Published: January 2021

Non–muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) makes up 75% of the fifth most common cancer in North America. With a high rate of recurrence and progression, which leads to significant treatment burden for patients and high costs to healthcare systems, NMIBC poses several critical clinical challenges. Enhanced cystoscopic techniques are improving detection and optimal resection of these tumors. The administration of intravesical therapies, including especially cytotoxic chemotherapy and bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) therapy, continues to evolve, and several promising agents are under development. Refined definitions of treatment failure are promoting clinical trial activity in this domain. The optimal timing of radical cystectomy for BCG therapy–unresponsive patients continues to be a key unresolved question, but advances in the molecular characterization of NMIBC are likely to enhance individualized, risk-adapted therapy in the near future.

This review contains 3 Figures, 10 Tables and 91 references
Key words: bladder cancer; cystoscopy; narrow band imaging; fluorescence cystoscopy; transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT); intravesical chemotherapy; bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) therapy; urine markers.
Sperm Retrieval in the Obstructive, Nonobstructive Azoospermic and Aspermic Patients
Authors: Flannigan Ryan , Schlegel Peter N. , Vaughan Jr. E. Darracott 
Published: January 2021

Sperm retrieval includes essential procedures in the treatment and management of male factor infertility. Appropriate diagnostic investigation is necessary to correctly identify the etiology of azoospermia among obstructive, nonobstructive (defective spermatogenesis), and aspermia. In this chapter, we discuss the necessary work-up of an individual presenting with azoospermia along with the relevant medical and surgical management to optimize success with surgical sperm retrieval.
This review contains 7 figures, 2 tables, and 68 references.
Key Words: anejaculation, azoospermia, MESA, microTESE, nonobstructive azoospermia, obstructive azoospermia, PESA, TESE, testicular biopsy
Электромагнетизм и гравитация - порождение структуры частицы
Authors: Чеснаков Михаил 
Published: January 2021

Аннотация
Концепция, согласно которой все частицы находятся в непрерывной связи между собой, в статье дополнена концепцией развития структуры связанного состояния от простого к сложному.
Показано, как в рамках модели последовательное усложнение структуры связанного состояния гипотетических мнимых частиц приводит к появлению материальных частиц с всевозможными формами взаимодействия и созданному частицами сложному пространству. При этом оказалось возможным объединить электрические, магнитные и силы гравитации. Масса не является формой потенциальной энергии, а является одним из двух компонентов импульса. По способу и месту образования существуют спиновая, оболочечная, релятивистская и зарядовая массы. Вектор электрической составляющей фотона на самом деле оказался вектором магнитной составляющей. Из модели также следует, что взаимодействие между частицами отвечает принципу квантовой нелокальности (информация о локализации частицы проходит со скоростью выше скорости света, следовательно, свойства частиц не определенны до взаимодействия), и, так называемая, «квантованная запутанность» есть следствие этого принципа.
Abstract.
The concept according to which all particles are in continuous communication with each other is supplemented in the article with the concept of the development of the structure of a bound state from simple to complex. It is shown how, within the framework of the model, the sequential complication of the structure of the bound state of hypothetical imaginary particles leads to the appearance of material particles with all possible forms of interaction and a complex space created by particles. In this case, it turned out to be possible to combine electric, magnetic and gravitational forces. Mass is not a form of potential energy, but one of two components of momentum. According to the method and place of formation, there are spin, shell, relativistic and charge masses. The vector of the electrical component of the photon actually turned out to be the vector of the magnetic component. It also follows from the model that the interaction between particles corresponds to the principle of quantum no locality (information about the localization of a particle passes at a speed higher than the speed of light, therefore, the properties of particles are not determined before the interaction), and the so-called "quantized entanglement" is a consequence of this principle.
Aktivitas Antibakteri Fungi Endofit dari Rimpang Jahe Gajah (Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe) terhadap Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Authors: Sari Ni Ketut Yuliana , Kawuri Retno , Parwanayoni Ni Made Susun 
Published: January 2021

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengisolasi dan menguji aktivitas antibakteri fungi endofit dari rimpang jahe gajah (Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe) terhadap MRSA. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian eksplorasi yang dilanjutkan dengan eksperimental. Sampel penelitian diperoleh dari tiga lokasi. Sampel pertama dari Desa Pancasari, Singaraja, Bali. Sampel kedua dari Desa Peguyanganan, Denpasar, Bali. Sampel ketiga dari Desa Tebuana, Tampaksiring, Bali. Penelitian ini dilakukan di Laboratorium Mikrobiologi Jurusan Biologi, Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Udayana. Delapan isolat fungi endofit berhasil diisolasi dengan masing-masing zona hambat terhadap MRSA yaitu Fusarium sp. 1 (21 mm), Fusarium sp. 2 (19 mm), Fusarium sp. 3 (20 mm), Fusarium sp. 4 (21 mm), Aspergillus sp. 1 (32 mm), Aspergillus sp. 2 (25 mm), Fungi S3F1 (13 mm) dan Fusarium sp. 5 (25 mm). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa fungi endofit dapat dijadikan sebagai alternatif penghasil senyawa antibakteri.

Kata Kunci : Antibakteri, fungi endofit, Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.