bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sexual Selection, Mate Choice, and Competition for Mates
Authors: Schlupp Ingo 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Well over a century ago Charles Darwin redefined biology and introduced the theory of natural selection. One of the problems he encountered was the existence of traits, mainly in males, that seemed to defy the principles of natural selection: they did not aid its bearers in survival and were often outright detrimental. Darwin solved this conundrum by introducing sexual selection. Unlike natural selection where all individuals compete with each other for survival and reproduction, in sexual selection individuals within each sex compete with each other for reproduction. In the original formulation of the principle, Darwin recognized two mechanisms for this. Males would compete with each other for access to females, and females would choose mating partners of their preference. In this opening chapter I want to introduce the topics to be covered in the book, define some basic terms that we will need to understand the subject matter, and define the questions to be asked. My aim for this book is to summarize our growing, yet still comparatively limited empirical knowledge and theory, and to provide suggestions for future research. What interests me most is the relationship between the four forms of sexual selection and their consequences.
Italians on the Battlefield
Authors: Wilcox Vanda 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
From the period of neutrality onwards, Italy mobilized a mass conscript army which drew on Italians from around the peninsula as well as emigrants overseas, though after much debate colonial troops were not brought to Italy. Despite the lack of widespread war enthusiasm, most men within Italy complied with the draft, and the army was soon able to deploy over a million men at the front. For emigrants, the decision to return and fight was complex yet many did so. Fighting was concentrated along the Italo-Austrian border, where chief of general staff Cadorna hoped to break through Austrian defences. The tactical difficulties of trench warfare combined with difficult terrain led to strategic immobility along this front, with eleven battles fought along the river Isonzo. In 1917 a joint Austro-German attack at Caporetto achieved a major victory but Italy was able to recover and defend itself successfully, with Allied support, before eventually returning to the offensive in 1918.
Race, Nationality, and Citizenship
Authors: Wilcox Vanda 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
As a relatively new nation-state, which considered itself to be territorially incomplete, Italy faced a challenge in defining Italian identity. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, italianità—Italianness—became understood in increasingly racialized terms. Eugenics thrived in Italy and race theory underpinned attitudes not only to colonialism and colonial subjects but also to the conduct of war, among the general public and particularly in military circles. The results can clearly be seen in the conduct of the Italian army in Libya, both in 1911–12 and during the First World War, and in Italy’s treatment of Slav and German civilians under military occupation. Racial definitions of italianità also shaped attitudes to the rights, duties, and delimitation of Italian citizenship, especially under the pressures of war.
The Paris Peace Conference and Beyond
Authors: Wilcox Vanda 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
When the war ended, the domestic political situation was tense and the economy rapidly entered a crisis. Public opinion required that Italy’s huge sacrifices be vindicated by the war’s outcome, leading Vittorio Orlando’s government to request even more territory than had originally be agreed by the Treaty of London. Foreign minister Sonnino, an ambitious imperialist, demanded Fiume and also sought expanded colonial compensation. But Woodrow Wilson refused to accept Italian possession of Slav-inhabited lands, which he wished to see allocated to Yugoslavia. Diplomatic errors, Wilson’s opposition, Greek rivalry, and above all the changed international landscape meant that Italy’s leadership failed utterly to achieve its goals in Paris.
Passive European Union Influence
Authors: Lenz Tobias 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the European Union’s passive influence in the establishment of the Mercosur Permanent Review Tribunal in 2004. This is an useful case to study passive EU influence because the Tribunal’s establishment constitutes an unlikely case from the perspective of existing explanations of dispute settlement design and it is representative of a statistical association presented in Chapter 4. Through a detailed process tracing exercise that reconstructs the institutional preferences and strategies of national governments and the process of international bargaining on the basis of primary documents, interviews with policy-makers and secondary sources, it shows how the European Union, through its passive influence on the institutional preferences of Uruguay, the bloc’s smallest member state, shaped the design of the Tribunal. In the absence of passive EU influence, the chapter concludes, the Tribunal would have been less institutionalized.
The Origins of LWOP in California
Authors: Vannier Marion 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Chapter 1 turns to the Californian Congress where opponents of the death penalty first lobbied for LWOP before legislators. It critically examines the period during which the idea of sentencing offenders to life imprisonment with no possibility of release first emerged, starting in the early 1900s and culminating with the introduction of LWOP for capital murder in 1978 in the Californian Penal Code. What emerges from this archival research is that different experts—prison wardens, police officials, academics, spiritual leaders, and criminologists—offered LWOP as a strategic way for legislators to argue against the death penalty. This novel approach was however diverted from its progressive endeavours to serve more punitive agendas. Legislators concerned with preserving capital punishment in contexts of sensationalized crimes and early forms of populist demands drove the reforms that introduced LWOP. This historical investigation reveals that the punishment’s particular severity can serve agendas which are seemingly in tension with one another.
Probes: Sources and Their Interactions with Matter
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Probes are generated using laboratory sources, or in large user facilities. Photon sources include incandescence and plasma discharge lamps. Electron beams are generated using thermionic or field-emission sources. RF plasma sources generate ions that are accelerated and used for scattering experiments. Specimens should be probed first with light, as it causes the least damage. Electron interaction with matter causes beam broadening, atomic displacements, sputtering, or radiolysis leading to mass loss and local contamination. Neutrons are heavier than electrons, penetrate more deeply in materials, and require more sample for analysis. Protons (positive charge, heavier than electrons) go a longer way in the specimen without significant broadening. Ions in solids undergo kinematic collisions with conservation of energy and momentum; they also lose energy continuously as they propagate. In the back-scattering geometry, they form important methods of Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) and low-energy ion scattering spectroscopy (LEISS). Medium energy ions generate secondary ions by sputtering that can be analyzed by mass spectrometers to determine specimen composition (SIMS). Alternatively, its composition is analyzed (ICP-MS), by creating an aqueous dispersion and converting it to a plasma. Finally, interaction of high-energy ions with core electrons can lead to inner shell ionization and characteristic X-ray emission (PIXE).
Optics, Optical Methods, and Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Propagation of light is described as the simple harmonic motion of transverse waves. Combining waves that propagate on orthogonal planes give rise to linear, elliptical, or spherical polarization, depending on their amplitudes and phase differences. Classical experiments of Huygens and Young demonstrated the principle of optical interference and diffraction. Generalization of Fraunhofer diffraction to scattering by a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in crystals forms the basis of diffraction methods. Fresnel diffraction finds application in the design of zone plates for X-ray microscopy. Optical microscopy, with resolution given by the Rayleigh criterion to be approximately half the wavelength, works best when tailored to the optimal characteristics of the human eye (λ = 550 nm). Lenses suffer from spherical and chromatic aberrations, and astigmatism. Optical microscopes operate in bright-field, oblique, and dark-field imaging conditions, produce interference contrast, and can image with polarized light. Variants include confocal scanning optical microscopy (CSOM). Metallography, widely used to characterize microstructures, requires polished or chemically etched surfaces to provide optimal contrast. Finally, the polarization state of light reflected from the surface of a specimen is utilized in ellipsometry to obtain details of the optical properties and thickness of thin film materials.
In the Beginning
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents a general account of the pure business of being true, otherwise put, of what is so of truths and falsehoods merely by virtue of their being that. It introduces Frege’s notion of a thought and of the thought’s logical and ontological priority, the idea that whole thoughts come first and are multiply decomposable, other items in the business of being true to be understood in terms of their role in such decompositions. It also discusses his idea of winnowing the psychological from the logical, and the distinction between generalities and particular cases.
Concepts
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
At the start Frege had not decided what a concept was to be, but knew well what a concept was supposed to do: to relate to objects which ‘fell under it’ in a fundamentally different way than a name relates to what it names. Such was to be the foundation of his account of quantificational logic. In the end two notions of concept emerge, one on which a concept has representational ‘intent’, another on which it does not. Some notions of unsaturation are discussed. The most natural of these fit what does have predicative intent. (This not all to the good.)
Objecthood
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
An object is whatever satisfies a call for completion by what predicates (engages in the business of truth-of). Object need not be a category, can be a relational notion. It is intrinsic to an object to have a capacity to recur. Therefore it must participate in the relation of identity. For this it is important that it be beleuchtbar in indefinitely many ways, but never allseitig.
Bedeutung
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Chapters 1–4 unfolded Frege’s general, fruitful, picture of the business of being true. Chapter 5 concerns some elaborations of that picture, in 1891–1895, with an eye on his then-central project: proving arithmetic to be logic. Here we find some interesting false steps, culminating in his technical notion, Bedeutung. This chapter examines and unravels some of these. They involve his treatment of the notion function, correlatively, a radical (but not properly motivated) syntactic revisionism, the conflation of two different sorts of Bedeutung, one having to do with evaluation and transmission of truth value, the other having to do with forming a representation, something to be either true or false.
Concept and Object
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Frege propounded a doctrine on which the distinction between object and concept has the form of a traditional distinction between categories: what can be said of the one cannot so much as be said of the other. This idea has been philosophically influential. It has inspired various doctrines on various supposed limits of making sense, the general thought being that when one tries to stand back too far from the phenomenon of thought itself, one gets involved in what might be issues of self-reference in a way that blocks saying anything at all. So much philosophy is saying nothing at all. Which might be true anyway. But the core idea rests on a mistake. It fails to take account of the relational and functional nature of the notion object.
The Waves as “saturated” Novel
Authors: Kopley Emily 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Since Jacob’s Room, Woolf’s fiction had incorporated three tools borrowed from poetry: the lyric “I,” figurative language, and aural recurrence. These tools find their clearest expression in The Waves (1931), which Woolf described as “prose yet poetry; a novel & a play.” This chapter analyzes The Waves with respect to these three tools, and then considers the book’s genre. Since its publication, many critics have received it—and other work by Woolf—as prose poetry and free verse. But to read Woolf as writing in these genres is to disregard authorial intent and historical context, to impose associations and conventions on work conceived without them. And lineating Woolf’s prose to “reveal” it as free verse betrays a confusion of lineation with poetry. Woolf’s vexation with the word “novel” reflects her effort to expand the meaning of the term. One way to honor this expansion is to use the term to describe the work of hers that seems least novel-like.
History of a hypothesis
Authors: Dye Christopher 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The main ideas about preventing illness run through the whole of human history even if, in every age and in every place, they find new interpretation. Spanning 5,000 years, this chapter reveals prevention’s common themes, including the following: illnesses have preventable causes (Neolithic filtration and boiling of water); the choice of prevention over cure is conditional on the balance of costs and benefits, where the benefits depend on the risk, timing and severity of the hazard (shipping insurance, from 4000 BC); prevention is about improving health, not merely avoiding illness (Ancient Greece); prevention is for communal as well as personal health (Roman aqueducts and communal toilets); prevention is at a premium in the absence of a cure (fourteenth-century plague); the costs and benefits of prevention can be calculated and used to make choices about health (Franklin on fire insurance, Chadwick on sanitation); and the immediate, preventable causes of illness (diet, tobacco) depend, in turn, on deeper causes, in societies, economies and environments (Hippocrates to the Sustainable Development Goals).
Unlikely disasters
Authors: Dye Christopher 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
If the threat of disaster—an earthquake, a pandemic, or a nuclear accident—is unlikely or uncertain in time, place, and scale, then prevention may not be seen as better than cure. A potential health emergency becomes more manageable when the cost is commensurate with the hazard and the risk. Tactics to satisfy that criterion are familiar to the insurance industry: spotlight preventable hazards, pool the risks, and share the costs. A hazard—such as COVID-19, Ebola or Zika virus—is perceived to be more dangerous, and more likely to stimulate action, when classified as a public health emergency or a threat to national security. Among the methods for pooling risks and sharing costs are early detection and response systems for multiple pathogens; platform technologies for the development of new diagnostics and vaccines; collaborations through the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005); and shared genomic databases for bacteria and viruses.
Policing Human Rights
Authors: Martin Richard 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Human rights are a common feature of police reform, rhetoric and regulation in many jurisdictions. Yet how human rights law might serve to regulate policing, function as a discourse for describing what police ‘do’ or perform as a critical concept for engaging with what the police role is, or ought to be, has received limited attention. This book is an endeavour to produce one of the first sustained, interdisciplinary accounts of the empirical realities of human rights law in policing. The substantive insights are drawn from unprecedented access to the Police Service of Northern Ireland. The book takes the reader on a tour of four sites of policing: the public forums host to ‘official’ police narratives, routine policing, public order policing and police custody. It seeks to better understand how and why police officers performing different aspects of policing, operating in distinct regulatory sites and enacting their own identities and experiences, come to encounter and engage with human rights law in their everyday work. The book aspires to embrace criminology’s interdisciplinary spirit, drawing on concepts from criminology itself, as well as law, anthropology, sociology and organizational studies, to illuminate the empirical realities of human rights law. It offers a series of findings and insights that expose how human rights law functions in modern policing, and the histories, imaginations, visions and values police officers’ express in narratives, sensemaking and practices of routine police work.
The Script in Action
Authors: Martin Richard 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines how the public order script, explored in Chapter 6, was performed by commanders. It begins by exploring how commanders sought to sell the script to the parade and protest groups commanders sought to ‘win over’. If such groups could be won over with the PSNI’s pitch, the likelihood of disorder was greatly diminished, and commanders could better control the event. In some cases, however, the sales pitch proved unsuccessful; marchers and protestors proceeded with their own agendas. In such instances, commanders proved reluctant to intervene too forcefully, for reasons that will become clear. In two high-profile cases, the police approach to disorder has led to legal challenges, both of which reached the UK’s highest court. This introduces the second audience occasionally in receipt of the police script: the courts that must assess the internal self-application of human rights law by police. In their review of police decision-making in these cases, though, the senior judiciary have proven reluctant to interfere, showing deference to officers’ relative expertise, their access to intelligence and the exigencies of operational situations. The final section asks what role human rights law has come to play in managing the kinds of ‘trouble’ that Waddington (1994) identified over two decades ago as crucial to commanders’ decision-making.
Feeling the Pressure
Authors: Martin Richard 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Similar to the street-level bureaucrats in Lipsky’s classic study, the custody officers met in the course of fieldwork for this study were faced with a dilemma emergent from competing occupational demands and police functions. On the one hand, they were conscious of their statutory duties under PACE to act as guardians of suspects’ rights, and that the routine practices of their fellow officers could undermine the right to liberty. On the other, they were confronted with considerable organizational pressure to process arrests in custody and, in doing so, help their over-worked frontline colleagues who tirelessly bounced from one response call to another. This chapter aims to answer the question emerging from the last chapter: how did custody officers respond to the pressure they faced to authorize the detention of suspects, especially where the arrest seemed to be on dubious grounds? Did they succumb to workplace demands and authorize detention, or did they feel able to push back and challenge arresting officers and their supervisors? By the end of this chapter, the reader will come to understand how and, more importantly, why, the former attitude prevailed and what this tells us about custody officers as human rights practitioners.
The Information Economy of Early Modern Travel Writing
Authors: Netzloff Mark 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
England’s relations with European states were mediated through an information economy that depended not only on credential extraterritorial agents but also the illicit labor of individual travelers and other informants. The earliest forms of English travel writing emerged out of this context of the state’s networks of intelligence gathering. As described in the opening section, most travel texts from this period were not autobiographical accounts of personal travel but rather advice texts—often written by leading state officials—that outlined procedures for organizing the experience of travel and converting it into narrative form. After an initial section surveying travel advice texts of the Elizabethan period, the chapter analyzes the influence of this tradition on the practices of writing and narrative forms of the first-person travel accounts of Fynes Moryson’s Itinerary (1617) and Thomas Coryat’s Crudities (1611).
The Mercenary State
Authors: Netzloff Mark 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Throughout the late Elizabethan period, England’s population was incorporated in an ongoing military mobilization, with English armies maintaining a nearly constant presence on multiple fronts in the Low Countries as well as France and Ireland. Through an analysis of the autobiographical writings of English soldiers, this chapter examines how the conditions of military service enabled them to reflect on their economic position as mercenaries, able to transfer their labor power, as a way of reimagining their ability to assert their agency as political subjects. The chapter looks at texts written by English military agents themselves, with an extended discussion of George Gascoigne alongside analysis of lesser-known figures such as Sir John Smythe and the Norris family. The latter sections of the chapter examine the effects of extraterritorial military service on models of English domesticity, particularly the material histories of local communities, households, and families.
Vanity, Narcissism, Timidity, and Fatalism
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides account of four character traits in the intellectual domain: vanity and narcissism; timidity and self-fatalism. It argues that vanity and narcissism are vices of superiority while timidity and self-fatalism are vices of inferiority. They are characterized as opposed to acceptance of limitations and proper concern to be esteemed by others. Vanity is typical of those who show an excessive concern for being held in high esteem by other people. Timidity is instead exemplified by those whose fear to be exposed as intellectually inadequate is so extreme that they shun being noticed by other epistemic agents. Consequently, they exhibit insufficient concern for being held in esteem by their epistemic community. Narcissism is related to intellectual vanity. It involves a failure to accept one’s intellectual limitations due to an infatuation with one’s own intellectual abilities. Fatalism is a strengthening of timidity that consists in a disposition to resign oneself to the alleged intractability of one’s own intellectual limitations. The chapter also defends the view that vanity and narcissism are based on attitudes whose function is social-adjustive, while timidity and self-fatalism have attitudes serving an ego-defensive function as their causal bases.