bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Layers of Life
Authors: Arora Manish , Curtin Paul , Curtin Austen , Austin Christine , Giuliani Alessandro 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Chapter 6 summarizes the work described in the book. It places Environmental Biodynamics in context of the broader field of general systems theory. It argues that to realize the full potential of Environmental Biodynamics, environmental medicine must refocus the examination of the interaction of environment and health from an emphasis on measuring physiological “moments” (i.e., static measures of environmental factors, infrequent anthropometry, momentary health indicators) to studying dynamic human–environment interfaces, physiological states, and the processes that constrain to those states. To this end, Chapter 6 provides a set of endeavors that must be undertaken to capitalize on and formally test the biodynamic interface paradigm. First, focus scientific inquiry on interfaces that connect biological and environmental systems; second, develop theoretical frameworks that focus on the identification and interpretation of constraints in biological–environmental interfaces; and third, develop laboratory, clinical, and epidemiological methods to relate the complexity characterized at the level of biodynamic interfaces to human health.
Wars of Revelation
Authors: Lissner Rebecca 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
More than seventy-five years since the end of World War II, military interventions—rather than major wars—have emerged as a defining feature of contemporary geopolitics. Yet, for all the fierce policy debates over interventions and their lessons, scholars have largely ignored the systematic linkages between these smaller-scale wars and transformations in the grand strategies of states that prosecute them. Wars of Revelation develops a new theory—the informational theory of strategic adjustment—to explain why military interventions can be crucibles of grand strategy. It argues that, by prosecuting a military intervention, states glean rich and rare information about adversaries’ capabilities and intentions, as well as their own military power and cost tolerance. The uniquely costly nature of warfighting renders this data particularly credible. Amidst background conditions of intense interstate competition and pervasive uncertainty, states face strong incentives to reassess their grand strategies in light of this new information. This process of grand-strategic updating begins with a reassessment of the strategic assumptions directly tested on the battlefield, but it doesn’t end there. Indeed, the grand strategic effects of military interventions are far-reaching because information conveyed via warfighting is widely extrapolated to related strategic assessments. Wars of Revelation demonstrates the plausibility of the informational theory of strategic adjustment in three historically detailed case studies that trace the evolution of American grand strategy over the course of the Cold War and into the early post-Cold War era: the Korean, Vietnam, and First Gulf Wars.
“A Transformation in the Nature of Power”
Authors: Lissner Rebecca 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the Vietnam War. Prior to President Lyndon Johnson’s decision to commit the United States to war in Indochina, the United States was avowedly committed to “pay any price, bear any burden,” in the famous words of President Kennedy’s inaugural address, to stop the spread of Communism around the world. Practically, this commitment required military capabilities that spanned the conflict spectrum, from enhanced counterinsurgency to flexible nuclear options, to check Communist aggression wherever it might occur. Yet warfighting in Vietnam revealed the unsustainability of this approach, prompting a far more limited international role for the U.S. military as local partners were expected to more equitably share the burdens of their own defense and Washington pursued détente with the Soviet Union alongside rapprochement with China.
“Beyond Containment”
Authors: Lissner Rebecca 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter studies the Persian Gulf War. Prior to the Persian Gulf War, the United States was focused primarily on Europe, where rapid changes to the regional security order provided early signals of the nation’s dawning preeminence, but few indications of what a “new world order” would entail. Beyond the Soviet Union, there were no clear threats to U.S. global interests, and emergent American grand strategy envisioned a world where economic and diplomatic power would predominate, resulting in some measure of multipolarity. Yet the shock and awe of the war revealed that the United States stood alone as the world’s sole superpower, backed by international political support—including from a surprisingly deferential Russia—as well as unprecedented military preponderance. Washington therefore moved toward a more militarily assertive form of hegemony, characterized by the discretionary use of force to enforce the terms of the “new world order.” The war also inaugurated the preoccupation with Iraq and nonproliferation as central focuses of post–Cold War foreign policy.
The Forgotten Reign of the Emperor Jovian (363-364)
Authors: Drijvers Jan Willem 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This book is the first modern scholarly monograph on the emperor Jovian (363–364). It offers a new assessment of his reign and argues that Jovian’s reign was of more importance than assumed by most (ancient and modern) historians. This study argues that Jovian restored the Roman Empire after the failed reign of Julian by returning to the policies of Constantius II and Constantine the Great. Jovian’s general strategies were directed to getting the Roman Empire back on its feet militarily, administratively, and religiously after the failed reign of his predecessor Julian (361–363), as well as to establish more peaceful relations with the Sassanid Empire. For an emperor who ruled only eight months, Jovian had an unexpected and surprising afterlife. The rarely studied and largely unknown Syriac Julian Romance offers a surprising and different perspective on person and reign of Jovian. In the Romance, Jovian is presented as the ideal Christian emperor and a new Constantine. But the Romance is also an important source for Roman–Persian relations and the positioning of Syriac Christianity in the late antique world of Christendom.
The Jovian Narrative
Authors: Drijvers Jan Willem 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Jovian Narrative is by far the longest of the three parts of the Julian Romance. It offers an exclusively Christian perspective on the reign of Jovian. This chapter discusses a variety of elements and characteristics of the Jovian Narrative with the purpose of analyzing the literary images of both Julian and Jovian sketched in the text. It deals with relations between the various protagonists in the text; the role of cities (Constantinople, Antioch, Harran, Nisibis, and Edessa) as scenes for the various episodes of the narrative; the anti-Jewish aspects of the text; Jovian’s rise to power and his peace treaty with the Persians; Jovian’s eastern connections and his good relations with Shapur II and his second-in-command Arimihr; and his presentation as a new Constantine.
Introduction
Authors: Stamm Laura 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Introduction chapter lays out the book’s key arguments, historical and theoretical background, and methodology. By arguing that queer biographical films are biopics, this book asserts that media studies scholars and film critics have failed to appreciate the biopic’s rich queer legacy. The chapter includes discussions of the biopic’s biomedical history and use as a teaching tool in public school classrooms before demonstrating why the biopic might be attractive to queer filmmakers and audiences during the AIDS era and emergence of New Queer Cinema. Through understanding the queer biopic as a biopic, this book reorients the way we understand the biopic genre itself.
The Desire to See and Be Seen
Authors: Stamm Laura 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Chapter 1 interrogates Bruce LaBruce’s, Todd Haynes’s, and John Greyson’s respective approaches to community and belonging in the midst of the pandemic. By turning to the biopic genre, these filmmakers sought to challenge how dominant culture sees and represents pathologized bodies. Queer filmmakers’ use of the biopic draws on the genre’s history of creating an imagined community, national and otherwise, to represent alternative social relations constructed in the image of different (queer) individuals. Moreover, the chapter gives sustained consideration to films like Zero Patience (Greyson, 1993) to explore constructions of queer (or gay and lesbian) community—who they include, who they exclude, what they produce, and how they affect queer embodiment.
Suspended in History
Authors: Stamm Laura 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores cinema as a place to learn about one’s origins and make sense of one’s position in the world; it opens up an existential problematic by reorienting queer understandings of kinship and genealogy. The past becomes a place for identification and the biopic its cinematic form. Queer filmmakers’ returns to the past are also conditioned by longings for community and lineage. Matthew Mishory’s Delphinium: A Childhood Portrait of Derek Jarman (2009) conditions this chapter’s re-reading of Derek Jarman’s films as taking part in a project of queer genealogy. Mishory, Jarman, and Ken Russell form a lineage of queer filmmakers who look to queers of the past to reimagine that past differently, to re-present it queerly.
The Expansion of Life
Authors: Harold Franklin M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The story of life tells of relentless expansion from obscure beginnings to smother the earth in organized biochemistry. First came the prokaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea, followed some two billion years later by eukaryotic microbes. The latter pattern of organization underpins the rise of multicellular organisms, and their spectacular proliferation over the past 600 million years. There have been no fundamentally new kinds of organisms since, but the rise of mind culminating in humanity may signal a new phase in life’s history. Life has expanded in both quantity and quality, a gyre of mounting size, complexity, and functional capacity; in some elusive sense evolution is progressive. Multicellularity, the key invention, is not singular but happened multiple times in several eukaryotic lineages. The proliferation of higher organisms was probably enabled by increased energy flow, and dependent on the increase in atmospheric oxygen. It is studded with innovations in structure, physiology, and behavior, whose origin is a recurrent theme in evolutionary biology. Novelty is rooted in mutational events at the gene level, supplemented by the acquisition of genes from the outside by both gene transfer and symbiosis, and possibly by other avenues. Chance events were scrutinized and culled by natural selection. There appears to be no intrinsic progressive drive, but natural selection generally favors the more functional and better organized.
The Outer Banks of Order
Authors: Harold Franklin M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The story of life reads as a widening gyre of complexity and functional organization. This chapter rambles along its margins with the focus on mind, particularly human minds, whose productions are even now transforming the entire biosphere. Mind is not a wholly material phenomenon, but neither is it divorced from matter; and it is quite certainly a product of prolonged evolution. Genes have a role to play, but mental activities grow out of a much higher level of organization, where cells (neurons) rather than genes construct elaborate networks of communication. Just how mind (memory, judgment, feelings) emerges from the firings and couplings of neurons is largely unknown, a topic for continued reflection and debate. It has even been argued that our materialistic conception of the world is altogether false. In the meantime we can usefully consider how the human lineage, the primary carriers of mind, evolved its fateful characteristics. And we can speculate about the cosmos: is it a garden buzzing with exotic creatures, or a sterile desert sprinkled with a few pinpoints of life?
Introduction
Authors: Elgat Guy 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The history of German philosophy’s thinking about guilt deserves our attention for: (i) German philosophy was more consistently interested in guilt than other European philosophical traditions; (ii) it presents different approaches to the phenomenon of guilt and thus provides an opportunity to survey the phenomenon from three distinct perspectives, metaphysical (Kant, Schelling, Schopenhauer), naturalist (Rée, Nietzsche), and phenomenological-existential (Heidegger); (iii) no sustained examination of the history of the philosophy of guilt with special emphasis on the German tradition has appeared. A main claim is formulated in this introductory chapter the examination of the history of German philosophy reveals that the different approaches to guilt embodied by the three perspectives follow upon each other in dialectical fashion. Some conceptual clarifications and methodological reflections are presented. Of central importance is the distinction between empirical or factical guilt (guilt for specific misdeeds) and ontological guilt (guilt in one’s very being).
Conclusion
Authors: Elgat Guy 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The concluding chapter addresses an apparent aporia: on the one hand, we have the Nietzschean argument that one must be causa sui for guilt to be justified, but on the other hand, we have the Heideggerian argument that not being causa sui is a necessary condition for guilt to be possible. The conclusion explains why this is only an apparent aporia. An alternative conception of guilt is sketched, one that rejects Nietzsche’s view of guilt as a form of self-punishment but retains Heidegger’s view that guilt expresses our normative commitments. This conception shows how guilt might nevertheless be justified.
Usul al-Fiqh and Ijtihad in Shi‘ism
Authors: Takim Liyakat 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The second chapter traces the genesis and development of both ijtihad (reasoning) and usul al-fiqh (legal theory) in Shi‘i intellectual history. It argues that the concern for knowledge and certitude, which characterized much of Shi‘i juristic literature in its formative period, was displaced with a recognition and acceptance of doubt as an inalienable feature of the law. The chapter also demonstrates that in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Shi‘i scholars elaborated and developed a specific Shi‘i theory of ijtihad. After discussing the Usuli–Akhbari dispute and its impact on legal theory, the chapter shows that Murtada Ansari constructed and methodically explored the epistemological categories of certainty, speculation, and doubt. This was important to Shi‘i legal history because it empowered jurists to issue rulings on many spheres of law that had hitherto remained beyond their realm, broadening, in the process, the scope of Islamic law and the possibilities of its revision.
Conclusion
Authors: Takim Liyakat 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The conclusion summarizes the basic thesis of the book. It argues that there is a necessity to revisit and recast the epistemological foundations of Shi‘i legal theory. This study has illustrated that some of the doctrines that are supposedly “Islamic” emerged in the past as a result of human interpretive endeavors and need not be binding for all times. It also suggests that contemporary jurists need to retrieve core values from the Qur’an and the sacred sources so that their juridical edicts accord with the objectives and moral injunctions of the Qur’an. Muslim reformers need to also engage their communities and to explain to them that, for a text to be relevant, there is a need for a revision or reinterpretation of the traditional exegesis. Furthermore, reforms are possible only if Muslims are free to express themselves and discuss matters candidly without fear of intimidation or reprisals.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Christopher 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the book’s central claim: that in a free and open society, higher education ought to be a right. It argues that prevailing anxiety about the distributive unfairness of higher education systems shifts needed attention away from a serious consideration of this possibility. However, that chapter also shows how justifying higher education as a right faces conceptual challenges, as well. First, arguments that set out to establish the importance of higher education often end up looking more like an argument in favour of what should be offered to all citizens on a compulsory basis. Second, arguments that set out to establish the general value of a higher education can end up making paternalistic conclusions about what is in citizens’ best interests. Meeting these two challenges, argues the author, can point the way toward a better understanding of why liberal societies should treat higher education as a right as opposed to a mere privilege.
Values and Aims of Higher Education
Authors: Martin Christopher 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter makes the case for a philosophical reconsideration of the fundamental values and purposes of higher education. First, it shows that contemporary conceptions of higher education are built on foundational assumptions about the public and political interests that it is responsible for securing on behalf of citizens. These assumptions take the form of de facto educational interests that structure the provision of higher education. Second, the chapter shows why these foundational assumptions are likely to be misconceived or, at the very least, require a stronger justification, and also how these misconceptions have come to hold undue sway over the way in which we often reason about justice in higher education.
The Right to Higher Education and the Problem of Unequal Benefits
Authors: Martin Christopher 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter turns to the question of who should pay for an education system founded on the right to higher education. First, it explains how moral intuitions about fair funding can challenge the claim that higher education should be allocated as an entitlement or primary good. Second, its show how these intuitions are conventionally justified in terms of a distribution’s effects on socioeconomic equality. Third, it argues that there are also liberty-based reasons for the public to fund higher education. Finally, it shows why these liberty-based reasons take on a special significance in the context of the right to higher education, warranting full public funding so long as two other distributive conditions (non-exclusivity and support for diverse conceptions of the good) are satisfied.
Hobbes’s Materialism
Authors: Duncan Stewart 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at Hobbes’s materialism. The chapter begins by presenting his materialist account of human psychology, focusing on the account in the Elements of Law. The chapter then considers three arguments that Hobbes offers for his materialism, which draw on his nominalism and his views about the workings of language. The chapter then turns to Hobbes’s views about God. It considers his earlier view that we can only think of God as the first cause of things, as well as his later view that God is a corporeal spirit, before asking when Hobbes changed his mind about this issue.
More and Cudworth against Hobbes
Authors: Duncan Stewart 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers the criticisms of Hobbes made by two Cambridge Platonists, Henry More and Ralph Cudworth. The first half looks at their criticisms of Hobbes’s arguments: More’s replies to Hobbes’s arguments for materialism, and Cudworth’s replies to (what he took to be) Hobbes’s arguments for atheism. The second half of the chapter then looks at how More and Cudworth argued for the existence of immaterial beings that control the workings of the material world (the spirit of nature or plastic natures). These arguments imply that Hobbes’s materialist ontology is radically inadequate to explain the actual phenomena of the natural world.
Locke on Substance, Spirit, and the Idea of God
Authors: Duncan Stewart 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers Locke’s discussion of ideas of substance in Essay 2.23. Locke’s discussion is examined in the light of More’s discussions in The Immortality of the Soul. The chapter first argues that Locke is proposing a view about how one thinks about substances (not a view about their metaphysical structure) and that this view involves the idea of a so-called bare substratum. An argument against bare substratum readings (given by Michael Ayers and Robert Pasnau) is opposed, using evidence from the comparison with More. The chapter then considers arguments about the ideas of matter and spirit, arguing that Locke gives basically the same argument for the coherence of the idea of spirit that More gave against Hobbes. Finally, the chapter considers Locke’s account of the origin of the idea of God.
Locke’s Inclinations
Authors: Duncan Stewart 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Locke is officially agnostic about the nature of the human mind: he thinks we cannot know that materialism is true, but also that we cannot know that dualism is true. Despite this agnosticism, we can ask whether Locke thought one of those views was more likely than the other. The chapter considers arguments on both sides. A small number of texts suggest he thought dualism more likely. On the other hand, Lisa Downing has argued that Locke thought materialism more likely, on the basis of the similarities between human and animal minds. This chapter argues that the reasons she offers do not show us that Locke was inclined to materialism. Nevertheless, Locke did show the possibility of materialism, not just by saying it was possible, but by developing at length an account of the mind that did not depend upon its being an immaterial substance.
Epilogue
Authors: Duncan Stewart 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Though Locke himself was not a materialist, there were philosophers one might be inclined to call Lockean materialists. This epilogue looks briefly at the work of two of them, John Toland and Anthony Collins. Toland is argued to be both a Lockean and a materialist. His materialism, however, appears not to be distinctively Lockean, nor does it appear to arise from his Lockean commitments. Collins is argued to be more Lockean, in defending Locke’s claim about the possibility of thinking matter against the criticisms of Samuel Clarke. In doing so, however, he was not committed as Toland was to materialism.
Cities as Lobbyists
Authors: Payson Julia 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In the United States, state-local relations are characterized by increasing urban-rural polarization, and several states have recently engaged in high-profile preemption efforts that seek to limit local power. But cities aren’t powerless when it comes to shaping the political environment in which they operate. In fact, local governments are among the most active lobbyists in state politics. When and why do some local officials choose to hire lobbyists to represent them in other levels of government? How does this ability to pay for representation influence politics and policymaking? And what are the broader implications for intergovernmental representation? This chapter previews a theory of municipal lobbying that emphasizes political geography and outlines the structure and organization of the book. It also introduces the qualitative and quantitative data from dozens of sources that will be used throughout the book—including newly compiled longitudinal data on lobbying disclosures in all fifty states.