bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Drobak John N. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Chapter 1 explains that this book examines two economic “principles,” or beliefs, that have shaped the perception of the economic system in the United States today: (1) the belief that the U.S. economy is competitive, making government market regulation unnecessary, and (2) the belief that corporations exist for the benefit of their shareholders, but not for other stakeholders. Contrary to what many economists and policymakers believe, the chapter shows that numerous markets in the United States are not competitive and that the belief in shareholder primacy is not an economic principle but a normative notion. In addition, the belief in the existence of competitive markets is used to argue that market regulation is unnecessary because competition provides all the needed constraints. If there are no constraints from competition and no regulation, serious harm can result, as shown by the Great Recession of 2008. The chapter also points out that there never was a purely laissez-faire market economy. The real question is how much market regulation is desirable. It is often difficult to debate this issue because many people label any expansion of government regulation as socialism. In addition, some people just do not like being told what to do by the government. That was a principle reason for the objection to the individual mandate in the Affordable Care Act. The chapter then introduces the relationship between the two economic narratives and the millions of job losses this century, using lessons from the new institutional economics to analyze the issues.
The Effects of Mega-Mergers
Authors: Drobak John N. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Chapter 4 shows that a good part of the decrease in competition has resulted from the recent wave of large mergers. Merger regulation, which is based solely on economic considerations, is limited to assessing the potential anticompetitive effects among the competing firms, without any consideration of the size alone of the combined firm or the effects on noncompeting firms. In addition, many mergers are justified by a claim of increased efficiencies in the new firm, which is often the result of layoffs and plant closures. Not only does this cause significant job losses, it also hurts families and communities. Even though economic theory does not take these kinds of externalities into account, they are nonetheless harmful consequences of mergers. Numerous studies have shown that many mergers do not result in lower prices, while some mergers have even led to price increases. In these mergers, workers suffered not for the sake of consumers but for the financial benefits reaped by the shareholders and managers of the merging firms and by the professionals who put the deals together. It also appears that investment advisors encourage mergers just so that they can profit from the transactions, regardless of the degree of benefit provided to consumers (or even shareholders). With little or no benefit to consumers from some mergers and significant harm to labor, the chapter argues that we need to reassess how the government should review mergers.
Recommendations
Authors: Drobak John N. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Chapter 9 lays out proposals for change. They range from simple and uncontroversial ones, like requiring the government to collect reliable statistics about the number of jobs lost through mergers and outsourcing, to controversial proposals, like adding labor representation to the corporate boards of directors. Although some antitrust scholars have recently proposed changing merger review to include consideration of the effects on labor, the chapter argues that changing the current process is not feasible. Instead, the chapter proposes the creation of a new government panel to review proposed mergers and outsourcing. The board would assess the expected displacement of labor in comparison with a realistic appraisal of the expected gains to consumers. The chapter argues that the proposed reforms cannot be achieved until the influence of business on Congress is limited. The chapter also deals with political effects, by pointing out that the harm to workers has aggregated over the years, culminating in popular support for both Donald Trump and Bernie Sanders in the 2016 presidential election. There is a dark side to this growing populist movement, however, because disgruntled labor has played a role in nationalistic and fascistic movements during the twentieth century.
Introduction
Authors: de Búrca Gráinne 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the current climate in which human rights law and institutions are under threat from the rise of political illiberalism, and are also being sharply critiqued by sceptical scholars who predict the decline and demise of the human rights movement. These developments are juxtaposed with the simultaneous rise of social movements and protests around the world, many of which invoke and claim human rights as part of their campaigns for social, political, environmental, racial, economic and other forms of justice. While some commentators have argued that human rights are ‘not enough’ in the pursuit of justice, this book takes the view that politics without human rights—i.e. without the kind of moral and institutional underpinning provided by the human rights framework with its explicit set of commitments to human dignity, freedom, and welfare—are not enough. It challenges the view of human rights as an ineffective, marginal or apolitical movement, and argues that human rights are the product of ongoing contestation and engagement between a multiplicity of actors, institutions and norms at different levels, including grassroots activists and advocates as well as international bodies and domestic institutional actors.
Standard Contracts for Cloud Services
Authors: Michels Johan David , Millard Christopher , Turton Felicity 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews the main issues that cloud contracts typically cover and what their terms provide. It examines whether approaches vary significantly between providers, and assesses how terms have changed over the past ten years. The approach is largely empirical. The chapter presents the results of a survey of the standard Terms of Service (ToS) under which providers offered cloud computing services in 2019. It looks at general terms relating to the contract, such as duration, termination, and variation clauses. The chapter then considers terms relating to the allocation of responsibility, liability, and intellectual property (IP) between customer and provider. It analyses these terms from the perspective of English law, and where relevant, European law.
International Tax Implications of Cloud Computing
Authors: Koukoulioti Vasiliki , Reed Chris 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the international tax implications of cloud computing. Current tax laws are based heavily on concepts of physical geography, such as controlling premises and physical equipment or employing staff in the jurisdiction. The geographical concepts do not accommodate the cloud business model in any sensible way. As a consequence, the taxation of cloud providers is particularly complex and uncertain. The chapter then explains the basic rules for direct taxation of cross-border profits, which apply no matter what technology (or lack of technology) is involved. It then discusses the complex exceptions to those rules which have been developed in respect of intangible products and services, in particular relating to intellectual property, and to cross-border income from the use of computing equipment, and it examines how they might impact cloud providers. The chapter also considers the current rules which determine taxation nexus, as well as indirect taxation, particularly Value Added Tax (VAT). Finally, it looks at how the OECD and the UN are attempting to deal with the major problems with the current system.
Power, government, and political life
Authors: Watts John 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The chapter offers a survey of the central features of later medieval political life. It was often bloody, but the resort to bloodshed was politically purposeful, and the focus on individuals reflected the parts they played in larger frameworks of power. Those frameworks were both ‘private’ and ‘public’—they were followings of men and women, linked together in relationships of marriage, service, or friendship for mutual advantage; but they also involved the performance of official roles, the negotiation of public business, the management of institutions. The frameworks of power were national, international, and ‘transnational’. Europe was divided into self-conscious political spaces, each with a measure of sovereignty and identity, but these spaces also overlapped and, within virtually any political setting, authority was contestable: it involved a complicated mixture of relationships among elites and much wider movements, voiced and promoted by representative assemblies and popular revolts.
The church and religious life
Authors: Swanson Robert 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Late medieval Europe identified itself as explicitly Christian and specifically catholic. Christianity provided moral and ethical guidelines for organizing and structuring human society; it also presented moral and ethical challenges to contemporary social structures and practices. It accordingly provoked constant debate on issues like the violence of warfare, the validity of lending money at interest, social differentiation, and relations with other religious traditions. These were also traumatic years in the western church’s institutional history, especially for the papacy. Preceding evolutions continued and were consolidated, but there was also reaction as obscured tensions and ambiguities became more apparent, revealing fissures and forces which threatened the church’s status and its claims to catholicity within Europe. The chapter deals with a broad range of issues: the papacy; ideas about the church, the pope, and conciliarism; the evolution of national and local churches, the lower clergy, and the religious orders; and, of course, spirituality, heresy, dissent.
Culture and the arts
Authors: Lee Alexander 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The later Middle Ages as a cultural period has been shaped by the Burckhardtian tradition: Burckhardt drew a sharp distinction between the ‘medieval’ outlook he believed had prevailed north of the Alps and the ‘rebirth’ of classical antiquity he saw taking place in the Italian peninsula. Over the past 60 years, however, the validity of such a contrast has been called into question. As a consequence, it is now generally accepted that the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were characterized more by diversity than by division. This chapter examines how, in every field of cultural endeavour, from painting and sculpture to poetry and music, there emerged a series of quite different, often heterogeneous trends. Originating in different parts of Europe, these were transmitted across the continent, where they interacted with parallel developments elsewhere. The effect was less that of a concerto than of a rich and discordant symphony of competing voices.
Society, family, and gender
Authors: Kovesi Catherine 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
A shared understanding of Christianity as the foundation of society in this life and in the next; a predominant acceptance of classical Greek texts for understandings of the human body and of sexual differences between men and women; an overwhelming dependence on patriarchal structures with implications for constructions and experiences of masculinity and femininity; and an ideal of family and of community relationships (whether secular or religious) from which no individual could readily claim isolation were touchstones throughout late medieval Europe against which normative values were constructed. Marginalized and often persecuted groups, such as Jews, sodomites, or heretics, were understood and defined against this normative backdrop. That said, by the end of the period increasing political and legal consolidation of societal structures led to their interrogation by those whom these same structures excluded or constrained. The result is an image of surprising fluidity and change in society, family, and gender.
Divine Action in History
Authors: Abraham William J. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter probes the relationship of divine action to historical processes by looking at the creation of the modern state of Israel and its relationship to the Jewish people. The establishment of Israel has been described by many writers as a miracle of God. It argues particularistic claims like these should be taken seriously. It also suggests that these kinds of public claims about divine action are not going away, and we ought to reckon with them; if we do not, it is to our detriment for public understanding. It suggests the crucial link between history and theology is the nature of causation—it draws on Ernst Troeltsch’s work to bring out this point.
Divine Action and the Demonic
Authors: Abraham William J. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter identifies the realm of the demonic as one area of theological inquiry in the wider topic of divine agency and divine action. It sketches the kinds of actions demons do and the kinds of agents they are. The chapter then looks at the nature of evil as it manifests in persons, and suggests we do not need church doctrine to know about the existence of evil beings. We all intuitively know that evil exists and in some cases this belief is verified by experience. The chapter suggests that demons are complex spiritual agents who oppose all things divine. It responds to four objections to this view and concludes.
Introduction
Authors: Parrington John 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins by providing an overview of the power of the human brain, which is displayed in the wonders of modern civilization. Despite the human brain’s capacity for such intellectual and technological feats, we still know astonishingly little about how it achieves them. This deficit in understanding is a problem not only because it means we lack basic knowledge of the biological factors that underlie our human uniqueness, but also because, for all its amazing capabilities, the human mind seems particularly prone to dysfunction. Still, some would argue there is good reason to be optimistic about the prospect of developing new and better treatments for mental disorders in the not-so-distant future. Such optimism is based on the increasing potential to study how the brain works in various important new ways thanks to recent technological innovations. The chapter then considers two overly polarised views of the human mind. Ultimately, this book argues that society radically restructures the human brain within an individual person’s lifetime, and that it has also played a central role in the past history of our species, by shaping brain evolution.
Individual and Society
Authors: Parrington John 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates the relationship between the individual and society, which has been hotly disputed among philosophers and politicians through the ages. Recent studies have questioned the idea that human beings are naturally solitary individuals. Instead, they suggest that socialising with others is so central to our species that rejection is registered in the same brain regions that respond to physical pain. Other studies have undermined the idea that human beings are inherently selfish, indicating instead that altruistic acts trigger activity in the ‘reward’ region of the brain that is stimulated when a person experiences pleasure. Studies like these raise the question of how the human brain became so attuned to social cues in this way. Here there are two issues to consider. One is evidence that primates in general have evolved to be highly sensitive to social interactions with other members of their species, and this has been accompanied by enhanced brain growth in order to handle these more sophisticated interactions. Yet while social interaction may be hardwired into our brains because of evolutionary changes in our primate ancestors, some features of our strong tendency towards social interaction may be specifically human. The chapter then looks at Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s novel ideas about human consciousness.
Sanity and Madness
Authors: Parrington John 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains that the central difficulty in diagnosing and treating mental disorders is reaching a level of agreement about their underlying basis. In this respect, proponents of the view that mental disorders are primarily biological in origin were particularly excited by the Human Genome Project, as they believed this would make it possible to truly get a grip on the nature of such conditions. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have now been used to study a range of mental disorders. However, GWAS findings have been contradictory and confusing and this chapter looks at the reasons why, and at a number of possible biological causes of schizophrenia. The chapter then considers a very different way of explaining schizophrenia, one based on the idea that it is not genetics but the social environment that determines whether an individual succumbs to this disorder. A version of this hypothesis sees schizophrenia as primarily the result of defective family relations, and the disorder as a consequence of those distorted relations, but also as a response to wider pressures in society. One psychotherapy approach claimed to have a very good level of success in the treatment of schizophrenia is called 'Open Dialogue.
Science and Technology
Authors: Parrington John 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter challenges the common perception of scientists as a group that think and behave in very different ways from the rest of humanity. While scientists may occupy a very specific niche in society in their role in the construction of new knowledge, they are prone to the same strengths and weaknesses in terms of their individual minds, and are affected by the same social prejudices, as the rest of humanity. Moreover, far from being an alien activity, the pursuit of scientific knowledge is something that is a key resource for humanity as a whole. Everyone with an interest in the origins and fundamental nature of human conscious awareness should have a strong interest in knowing more about the process of scientific discovery, and an input into debates about both the direction and application of scientific research. To understand why, it is worth looking at how science first developed, which this chapter does. The chapter then goes on to look at some of the key ways in which scientists develop new scientific concepts about the world, building on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas about this process and extending them to a discussion of some of the main areas of science today. It also links this process back to the specific theme of the book about human consciousness.
A Metaphysics of Love
Authors: Pattison George 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The book is the third and final part of a philosophy of Christian life. The first part applied a phenomenological approach to the literature of the devout life tradition, focussing on the feeling of being drawn to devotion to God; the second part examined what happens when this feeling is interpreted as a call or vocation. At its heart, this is the call to love that is made explicit in the Christian love-commandment but is shown to be implied every time human beings address each other in speech. A metaphysics of love explores the conditions for the possibility of such a call to love. Taking into account contemporary critiques of metaphysics, Dante’s vision of ‘the love that moves the sun and other stars’ challenges us to account for the mutual entwining of human and cosmic love and of being/God and beings/creatures in love. Conditions for the possibility of love are shown to include language, time, and social forms that mediate between immediate individual existence and society as a whole. Faced with the history of human malevolence, love also supposes the possibility of a new beginning, which Christianity sees in the Incarnation, manifest as forgiveness. Where existential phenomenology sees death as definitive of human existence, Christianity finds life’s true measure in love. Thus understood, love reveals the truth of being.
The Logic of Inter-Party Competition and Cooperation
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe first chapter lays the foundation for a cooperation-focused way of thinking about party politics. It provides reasons why its analysts should go beyond individual parties and consider blocs of parties. It introduces the concept of poles, as distinct from blocs, and builds a party system typology around them. The second part of the chapter elaborates the concept of party system closure, relating it to the wider notion of party system institutionalization, and identifies its three components: alternation, innovation, and access. The chapter ends by considering the most likely causes and most important political consequences of closure.
A New European Dataset and the Measurement of Party System Closure
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe second chapter introduces the dataset of the book, defines its units of measurement, and operationalizes its key concepts. We discuss the method of creating our principal tool of analysis, the composite closure index. We reflect in detail on the question of how experiences accumulated through time can be taken into account when measuring stability. Finally, in a validation exercise, we also investigate whether our closure index could have been used to predict which democracies collapsed around the world between the two World Wars. With this exercise we also show that closure is a better proxy for party system institutionalization than the more traditionally used indicator, the electoral volatility index.
The Explanatory Model of Closure
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThis chapter provides a comprehensive explanatory model of party system closure. The model includes the variables analysed in the previous chapters (i.e. age and birth period of democracy, party institutionalization, parliamentary fragmentation, and polarization), with the addition of the degree of economic development, the type of electoral system (i.e. majoritarian or proportional), and the nature of the constitutional regime (i.e. presidential, semi-presidential or parliamentary). Then we ask the question: what would be the explanatory model of party system institutionalization had we operationalized it in terms of volatility rather than closure? We show that the determinants of closure are not identical with those of volatility. The latter is more a function of the behaviour of the citizens, the former is more a product of elite decisions. At the end of the chapter we place the factors responsible for closure into a causal chain.
Survival vs Quality
Authors: Casal Bértoa Fernando , Enyedi Zsolt 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe final chapter examines the impact of party system closure on the survival as well as the quality of democracy. We consider the question of whether closure is a necessary or sufficient precondition for the survival of democracy, and whether the other often proposed measures of party system stability, especially electoral volatility and parliamentary fragmentation, have a similarly important role. We use various indices to tap the quality of democracy, and we measure the relationship between these indices and closure by considering the intervening role of economic development. We find a special pattern in post-Communist Eastern Europe, indicating that closure can have pernicious consequences under certain conditions.