bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Origins: The Creation of the Takeover Code
Authors: Kershaw David 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This Chapter explores the origins of the Takeover Code and Panel. It considers the historical drivers that led both to the Code’s predecessor - the Notes on the Amalgamation of British Business - in the late 1950s and to the Code and the Takeover Panel in the late 1960s, and the reasons why the self-regulation of the UK’s market for corporate control succeeded. The Chapter commences by providing regulatory context within which the actual takeover events which led to the Notes and the Code should be interpreted. The Chapter posits three key elements of this regulatory context: first, the prevalent British regulatory style in the mid-20th century which involved a conception of the state that contained a strong bias towards market solutions. A conception in relation to which terms such as laissez faire or deference do not do justice. The state deferred but was actively involved in facilitating market action through its channels of communication with market representatives, the threat and possibility of state action, and through the setting up of inquiries and Commissions. The second, connected, element was the self-understanding of the City of London, as almost a State within the State, like the Vatican with its capital market pope,the Governor of the Bank of England. A self-understanding that reinforced the British regulatory style and the City’s “right of self-regulation”. The third element is the evolution of corporate ownership from the middle of the 20th century involving the transformation from retail to institutional ownership. With this context, the Chapter analyses the key takeover events that created public, political, shareholder and corporate consternation in the mid- and late -1950s and the early and late 1960s. The Chapter interrogates the multifaceted reactions to these events and attempts to trace how these reactions are translated into regulatory action – the Notes, the Code and the Panel - and the substance of the Code rules. Through this analysis the Chapter shows how the merchant banking community took control of takeover regulation and argues that the formation and the substance of the Code, as well as its success, owes much to the realisation of the City’s merchant banking community that there was money to made in an active and open market for corporate control and hostile takeovers. In setting forth this account this Chapter challenges an important current view that the Code is the product of institutional shareholder co-ordination to protect their interests. The final part of the Chapter considers the success of the Code and Panel. It posits three key drivers of success: first, the fact that the merchant banking community is hard wired to both the substance and the practice of the Code; second that the Courts stayed clearly on the side-lines and took a highly deferential approach to judicial review of Panel decisions; and, third, that the substance of the Code itself demarcated the Panel’s regulatory success through two keystone rules: the non-frustration rule and the mandatory bid rule.
Singapore (‘.sg’)
Authors: Tan Tee Jim S C 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Under Singapore law, protection for trade marks may be available both under the Trade Marks Act (Cap. 332, 2005 Rev Ed ‘TMA’) and at common law. These two systems function independently of each other. This section provides a brief summary of the two systems, with a more detailed analysis being provided under Section IV (Court Litigation and National Laws).
Rights Protection Against Applications for New gTLDs (Pre-Delegation Dispute Resolution)
Authors: Bettinger Torsten 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
The New gTLD Objection Procedures, defined in Module 3 of the Applicant Guidebook (AGB), allowed a third party to file a formal objection to a new gTLD application prior to delegation of an applied-for string. Four objection grounds were provided, each with particular standing requirements and tailored to address specific categories of harm. They were the String Confusion Objection, Legal Rights Objection (LRO), Limited Public Interest Objection, and Community Objection. Objections were administered by external Dispute Resolution Service Providers (DRSPs).
National Report for Tanzania
Authors: Masoud Benhajj Shaaban 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
The law relating to the treatment of contracts in insolvency in Tanzania—as is true for the general law on insolvency in Tanzania—is neither well developed in theory and practice nor quite explicit in a number of aspects. The lack of extensive application of the law is due to lack of material circumstances in which the law could apply and systematically evolve and develop. Recently, the law has tended to develop through other laws that address specific matters that have implications for insolvency. The statutory law as it exists to date has some general rules that govern the treatment of contracts in insolvency, although the case law is almost non-existent.
Introduction And Modern Historical Outline
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Goldberg Richard 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
The expression ‘product liability’ is usually understood to refer to the civil liability of manufacturers and others where damage or loss is caused by products which fail to meet the standards claimed expressly or impliedly for them or which are dangerous or otherwise defective. Such liability may arise either in contract or in tort and both aspects are covered in some detail in the course of this work. A further aspect which is discussed in less detail involves the use of the criminal law. Relevant provisions may apply either to particular types of product or be of more general application. The former are referred to only in passing whilst examples of the latter include Pt II of the Consumer Protection Act 1987 and other measures concerned with general product safety.
Express Warranties And Misrepresentations
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Goldberg Richard 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Before or at the time of entering a contract a buyer’s attention will frequently be drawn to statements which relate to the quality and potential of the goods. Such statements may take any one of a number of forms and the way they are classified will have an important effect on the remedies available should they ultimately be found to be false or unsubstantiated. Thus a statement may be no more than a mere ‘puff ’ or a matter of opinion and, as such, it will usually give rise to no liability whatsoever. Alternatively it may constitute a misrepresentation of fact inducing the representee to enter into the contract. The traditional remedy would then be rescission of the contract and an indemnity in equity, damages in the tort of deceit if the statement was made fraudulently, and, later, damages under the Hedley Byrne doctrine if it was made negligently. Within English law the Misrepresentation Act 1967 is now of considerable importance in such cases. Such a statement may also give rise to an estoppel, thus precluding its maker from asserting its falsity as against a person who was intended to rely on it and did rely on it to his detriment. Finally, the statement may be classified as a contractual term. Where this is so the maker will be taken to have warranted or guaranteed the truth of the statement and a remedy will be available without the need to prove deceit or negligence. The precise nature of this remedy (whether repudiation or damages) will depend on the status or importance of the term to the contract. This classification and its legal consequences will now be examined in more detail insofar as it affects the relationship of seller and purchaser. Thereafter it is proposed to discuss the possible application of some of the principles to manufacturers. In this latter context particular reference will be made to the express warranty theory of American law and to the collateral contract doctrine of English and Commonwealth law.
Causation, Remoteness of Damage, and Defences
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Goldberg Richard 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
One of the most important and complex elements in many product liability actions is the establishment of a causative link between the allegedly defective product and the relevant damage. Indeed, the significance of causation cannot be overstated since, whether the claim is in negligence or under the Consumer Protection Act 1987, proof of causation will often lead to either a settlement or a successful claim.
Product Liability and the Conflict of Laws
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Goldberg Richard 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
The conflict of laws is one of the names given to the subject that deals with the resolution of private law disputes between private law parties where the facts have a connection to more than one legal system. Such situations arise frequently in product liability. For example, a product is assembled in State A using different components manufactured in States B, C, and D. Alternatively, a product is manufactured in State A, placed upon the market in State B, and consumed by the purchaser in State C, causing him injury which requires treatment in State D. In product liability litigation the fact that there are foreign issues means that a lawyer presented with such a case by the claimant must consider additionally three basic and interrelated questions. First, can the desired court hear the case the claimant would present to it? This is the jurisdiction question. If the answer is ‘No’, the claimant’s case will not proceed in that forum but may be able to be presented in another forum. If the answer is ‘Yes’, this means that the rules of jurisdiction may allow the claimant’s case to proceed as desired. The question of jurisdiction has a general and a specific aspect: the court must have the jurisdiction to hear the claim considered both in a general sense and in the specific sense involving the specific parties that the claimant would involve in the litigation he hopes to conduct before it.
What Can Be Patented
Authors: Grubb Philip W , Thomsen Peter R , Hoxie Tom , Wright Gordon 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers the kinds of inventions that are patentable. Specifically, it explains the requirements of the European Patent Convention (EPC) and European national laws, and US law. There are three simple requirements for a patentable invention, as set out in TRIPs, the EPC, and in the laws of EPC member states. These are that (a) the invention must be new; (b) it must involve an inventive step; and (c) it must be capable of industrial application. The same three basic requirements are also present in the US system,. The remainder of the chapter discusses the law on special categories of invention: chemical compounds, manufacturing processes, and uses; pharmaceuticals and new pharmaceutical uses; microbiological inventions; and computer-related and business method inventions.
Obtaining a Granted Patent
Authors: Grubb Philip W , Thomsen Peter R , Hoxie Tom , Wright Gordon 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter first describes the types of examination conducted on patent applications. Every country that grants patents has some type of examination, however rudimentary. At the bottom of the scale are countries in which the only examination is a purely formal one, to check that the papers are in order and the fee has been paid. Some countries, while having essentially a registration system, do at least check that the application describes an invention of a type that is legally patentable. Around half of the countries that grant patents also carry out some form of substantive novelty examination, in which the prior art, or part of it, is searched for anything that could be an anticipation of the invention. The remainder of the chapter details specific filing, examination, and publication procedures and rules in the UK and the US.
Privacy, Defamation, and False Facts
Authors: QC Richard Parkes 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Many claims brought to protect privacy or confidentiality involve a publication which is also defamatory. There are a number of tests that have traditionally been used to define defamatory words. Most commonly, perhaps, words have been taken to be defamatory if they tend to lower the claimant in the estimation of right-thinking members of society generally, or if they are likely to affect the claimant adversely in the estimation of reasonable people generally. Another common formulation has defined as defamatory any words which expose the claimant to hatred, ridicule, or contempt. Some definitions have created a higher threshold for what is defamatory than others.
Justifications and Defences
Authors: Warby Mark , Shore Victoria 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter identifies and considers the answers available to claims for breach of privacy brought against the media. The aim is to provide a systematic description of the defences and justifications available to defendants. Some are of general application, whatever cause of action is invoked. These are considered in Section B. Otherwise, the approach adopted is to group the various causes of action by which privacy may be protected, and the defences and justifications that may be invoked, according to the different aspects of privacy for which protection may be sought.
Planning, Environmental, Banking, and Professional Regulation
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Squires QC Dan 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we examined the negligence liability of authorities engaged in health and safety regulation. This chapter deals with regulation in other areas. It examines the tortious liability of authorities involved in regulation in the fields of planning, the environment, and banking, and of those authorities regulating professions such as law, accountancy, and medicine. In each of these areas, regulatory authorities are empowered to oversee and control the activities of third parties. Planning authorities regulate those involved in land development to ensure that development occurs in a manner that is compatible with wider public interests. Environmental regulatory authorities aim to minimize environmental hazards such as pollution and emissions caused by those engaged in industrial and other activities. Banking authorities seek to regulate financial institutions to ensure that they are not run in a manner that is fraudulent or otherwise detrimental to their customers and the wider financial markets. Regulators of professions attempt to ensure that only those who are competent are able to practise in particular professions.
Highways
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Squires QC Dan 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Damages claims brought against public authorities responsible for the maintenance of highways are common. It has been suggested that claims brought against local authorities in their capacity as ‘highway authorities’ represent the largest number of claims they receive. This is unsurprising given the total number of accidents that occur on the roads. While most accidents may be the fault of individual drivers, some could have been averted if the authority responsible for the highway had acted carefully in its maintenance of roads, its provision of signs, its removal of ice etc. Claims arising in such circumstances are considered in this chapter. As we shall see, claims brought against highway authorities are predominantly framed as breaches of the statutory duty contained in the Highways Act 1980 rather than as common law negligence claims. Common law claims tend to operate as a residual category, and they are brought when damages are not available under the 1980 Act.
Armed Forces
Authors: Fairgrieve Duncan , Squires QC Dan 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers claims brought against the Armed Forces where negligence of its members causes injuries to other members of the forces or to civilians. In order to understand the scope of liabilities where claimants are themselves members of the Armed Forces, it is necessary to consider the statutory immunity that was conferred upon the Forces. Section 10 of the Crown Proceedings Act 1947 provided the Crown with a broad immunity in relation to tort claims brought by members of the Armed Forces. This immunity was removed by the Crown Proceedings (Armed Forces) Act 1987. The 1987 Act abolished the immunity only prospectively, however, and for harm suffered prior to its coming into force, in May 1987, the immunity continues to apply. Since claims can be brought many years after an injury was suffered if the claimant was not aware of the injury the immunity continues to play a significant role.
Using Bayesian networks to identify musculoskeletal symptoms influencing the risk of developing psoriatic arthritis in people with psoriasis
Authors: Green Amelia , Tillett William , McHugh Neil , Smith Theresa ,   the PROMPT Study Group
Published: March 2021

Abstract

Objectives
The aim of this study was to explore the use of Bayesian networks (BNs) to understand the relationships between musculoskeletal symptoms and the development of PsA in people with psoriasis.

Methods
Incident cases of psoriasis were identified for 1998 to 2015 from the UK Clinical Research Practice Datalink. Musculoskeletal symptoms (identified by Medcodes) were concatenated into primary groups, each made up of several subgroups. Baseline demographics for gender, age, BMI, psoriasis severity, alcohol use and smoking status were also extracted. Several BN structures were composed using a combination of expert knowledge and data-oriented modelling based on: (i) primary musculoskeletal symptom groups; (ii) musculoskeletal symptom subgroups and (iii) demographic variables. Predictive ability of the networks using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was calculated.

Results
Over one million musculoskeletal symptoms were extracted for the 90 189 incident cases of psoriasis identified, of which 1409 developed PsA. The BN analysis yielded direct relationships between gender, BMI, arthralgia, finger pain, fatigue, hand pain, hip pain, knee pain, swelling, back pain, myalgia and PsA. The best BN, achieved by using the more site-specific musculoskeletal symptom subgroups, was 76% accurate in predicting the development of PsA in a test set and had an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.73 (95% CI: 0.70, 0.75).

Conclusion
The presented BN model may be a useful method to identify clusters of symptoms that predict the development of PsA with reasonable accuracy. Using a BN approach, we have shown that there are several symptoms which are predecessors of PsA, including fatigue, specific types of pain and swelling.
Factors associated with the intention to obtain a COVID-19 vaccine among a racially/ethnically diverse sample of women in the USA
Authors: Allen Jennifer D , Abuelezam Nadia N , Rose Raviv , Fontenot Holly B 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Widespread uptake of the COVID-19 vaccine is critical to halt the pandemic. At present, little is known about factors that will affect vaccine uptake, especially among diverse racial/ethnic communities that have experienced the highest burden of COVID. We administered an online survey to a Qualtrics respondent panel of women ages 27–45 years (N = 396) to assess vaccine intentions and attitudes, and trusted vaccine information sources. 56.8% intended to be vaccinated and 25.5% were unsure. In bivariate analyses, a greater percentage of non-Latina White (NLW) and Chinese women reported that they would be vaccinated, compared with Latina and non-Latina Black (NLB) women (p &lt; 0.001). Those who were uninsured, unemployed and those with lower incomes were less likely to say that they would be vaccinated. In analyses stratified by race/ethnicity, NLB women remained significantly less likely to report that they would be vaccinated compared with NLW women (adjusted odds ratio: 0.47; 95% confidence interval: 0.23, 0.94), controlling for age, marital status, income, education, employment, and insurance status. When analyses were additionally controlled for beliefs in vaccine safety and efficacy, racial/ethnic differences were no longer significant (adjusted odds ratio: 0.64; 95% confidence interval: 0.31, 1.34). Given that NLB women were less likely to report the intention to be vaccinated, targeted efforts will be needed to promote vaccine uptake. It will be critical to emphasize that the vaccine is safe and effective; this message may be best delivered by trusted community members.
Physiologically Relevant Estrogen Receptor Alpha Pathway Reporters for Single-Cell Imaging-Based Carcinogenic Hazard Assessment of Estrogenic Compounds
Authors: Duijndam Britt , Goudriaan Annabel , van den Hoorn Tineke , van der Stel Wanda , Le Dévédec Sylvia , Bouwman Peter , van der Laan Jan Willem , van de Water Bob 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) belongs to the nuclear hormone receptor family of ligand-inducible transcription factors and regulates gene networks in biological processes such as cell growth and proliferation. Disruption of these networks by chemical compounds with estrogenic activity can result in adverse outcomes such as unscheduled cell proliferation, ultimately culminating in tumor formation. To distinguish disruptive activation from normal physiological responses, it is essential to quantify relationships between different key events leading to a particular adverse outcome. For this purpose, we established fluorescent protein MCF7 reporter cell lines for ERα-induced proliferation by bacterial artificial chromosome-based tagging of 3 ERα target genes: GREB1, PGR, and TFF1. These target genes are inducible by the non-genotoxic carcinogen and ERα agonist 17β-estradiol in an ERα-dependent manner and are essential for ERα-dependent cell-cycle progression and proliferation. The 3 GFP reporter cell lines were characterized in detail and showed different activation dynamics upon exposure to 17β-estradiol. In addition, they demonstrated specific activation in response to other established reference estrogenic compounds of different potencies, with similar sensitivities as validated OECD test methods. This study shows that these fluorescent reporter cell lines can be used to monitor the spatial and temporal dynamics of ERα pathway activation at the single-cell level for more mechanistic insight, thereby allowing a detailed assessment of the potential carcinogenic activity of estrogenic compounds in humans.