bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pneumococcal Carriage in Burkina Faso After 13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Introduction: Results From 2 Cross-sectional Population-Based Surveys
Authors: Kaboré Lassané , Adebanjo Tolulope , Njanpop-Lafourcade Berthe Marie , Ouangraoua Soumeya , Tarbangdo Felix T , Meda Bertrand , Velusamy Srinivasan , Bicaba Brice , Aké Flavien , McGee Lesley , Yaro Seydou , Betsem Edouard , Gervaix Alain , Gessner Bradford D , Whitney Cynthia G , Moïsi Jennifer C , Van Beneden Chris A 
Published: January 2021

Abstract

Background
Burkina Faso, a country in Africa’s meningitis belt, introduced 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) in October 2013, with 3 primary doses given at 8, 12 and 16 weeks of age. To assess whether the new PCV13 program controlled pneumococcal carriage, we evaluated overall and serotype-specific colonization among children and adults during the first 3 years after introduction.

Methods
We conducted 2 population-based, cross-sectional, age-stratified surveys in 2015 and 2017 in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso. We used standardized questionnaires to collect sociodemographic, epidemiologic, and vaccination data. Consenting eligible participants provided nasopharyngeal (all ages) and oropharyngeal (≥5 years only) swab specimens. Swab specimens were plated onto blood agar either directly (2015) or after broth enrichment (2017). Pneumococci were serotyped by conventional multiplex polymerase chain reaction. We assessed vaccine effect by comparing the proportion of vaccine-type (VT) carriage among colonized individuals from a published baseline survey (2008) with each post-PCV survey.

Results
We recruited 992 (2015) and 1005 (2017) participants. Among children aged &lt;5 years, 42.8% (2015) and 74.0% (2017) received ≥2 PCV13 doses. Among pneumococcal carriers aged &lt;1 year, VT carriage declined from 55.8% in 2008 to 36.9% in 2017 (difference, 18.9%; 95% confidence interval, 1.9%–35.9%; P = .03); among carriers aged 1–4 years, VT carriage declined from 55.3% to 31.8% (difference, 23.5%; 6.8%–40.2%; P = .004); and among participants aged ≥5 years, no significant change was observed.

Conclusion
Within 3 years of PCV13 implementation in Burkina Faso, we documented substantial reductions in the percentage of pneumococcal carriers with a VT among children aged &lt;5 years, but not among persons aged ≥5 years. More time, a change in the PCV13 schedule, or both, may be needed to better control pneumococcal carriage in this setting.
Local Transmission Plays No Important Role in the Occurrence of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Immigrants to Canada: An In-depth Epidemiologic Analysis
Authors: Long Richard , Lau Angela , Egedahl Mary Lou , Paulsen Catherine , Heffernan Courtney , Edwards Brett , Cooper Ryan 
Published: January 2021

Abstract

Background
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis has increased among migrants in Canada. The cause(s) of this increase is unknown.

Methods
We performed a retrospective cohort study in a Canadian province with substantially increased immigration between 1982–2001 and 2002–2019. The proportion of MDR tuberculosis among migrants arriving from high MDR (HMDR) tuberculosis burden countries during these 2 periods was used to estimate the proportion of cases due to immigration versus change in proportion in the country of birth. Epidemiologic, spatiotemporal, and drug resistance pattern data were used to confirm local transmission.

Results
Fifty-two of 3514 (1.48%) foreign-born culture-positive tuberculosis patients had MDR tuberculosis: 8 (0.6%) in 1982–2001 and 44 (2.0%) in 2002–2019. Between time periods, the proportion of MDR tuberculosis among migrants with tuberculosis from HMDR tuberculosis countries increased from 1.11% to 3.62%, P = .003; 31.6% attributable to recent immigration and 68.4% to a higher proportion of MDR tuberculosis in cases arrived from HMDR tuberculosis countries. No cases of MDR tuberculosis were attributable to local transmission.

Conclusions
In stark contrast to HMDR tuberculosis countries, local transmission plays no important role in the occurrence of MDR tuberculosis in Canada. Improved tuberculosis programming in HMDR tuberculosis countries is urgently needed.
Human-centered development of an electronic health record-embedded, interactive information visualization in the emergency department using fast healthcare interoperability resources
Authors: Thayer Jeritt G , Ferro Daria F , Miller Jeffrey M , Karavite Dean , Grundmeier Robert W , Utidjian Levon , Zorc Joseph J 
Published: January 2021

Abstract

Objective
Develop and evaluate an interactive information visualization embedded within the electronic health record (EHR) by following human-centered design (HCD) processes and leveraging modern health information exchange standards.

Materials and Methods
We applied an HCD process to develop a Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) application that displays a patient’s asthma history to clinicians in a pediatric emergency department. We performed a preimplementation comparative system evaluation to measure time on task, number of screens, information retrieval accuracy, cognitive load, user satisfaction, and perceived utility and usefulness. Application usage and system functionality were assessed using application logs and a postimplementation survey of end users.

Results
Usability testing of the Asthma Timeline Application demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in time on task (P &lt; .001), number of screens (P &lt; .001), and cognitive load (P &lt; .001) for clinicians when compared to base EHR functionality. Postimplementation evaluation demonstrated reliable functionality and high user satisfaction.

Discussion
Following HCD processes to develop an application in the context of clinical operations/quality improvement is feasible. Our work also highlights the potential benefits and challenges associated with using internationally recognized data exchange standards as currently implemented.

Conclusion
Compared to standard EHR functionality, our visualization increased clinician efficiency when reviewing the charts of pediatric asthma patients. Application development efforts in an operational context should leverage existing health information exchange standards, such as FHIR, and evidence-based mixed methods approaches.
Population Genomic Analyses Confirm Male-Biased Mutation Rates in Snakes
Authors: Schield Drew R , Perry Blair W , Nikolakis Zachary L , Mackessy Stephen P , Castoe Todd A 
Published: January 2021

AbstractMale-biased mutation rates occur in a diverse array of organisms. The ratio of male-to-female mutation rate may have major ramifications for evolution across the genome, and for sex-linked genes in particular. In ZW species, the Z chromosome is carried by males two-thirds of the time, leading to the prediction that male-biased mutation rates will have a disproportionate effect on the evolution of Z-linked genes relative to autosomes and the W chromosome. Colubroid snakes (including colubrids, elapids, and viperids) have ZW sex determination, yet male-biased mutation rates have not been well studied in this group. Here we analyze a population genomic dataset from rattlesnakes to quantify genetic variation within and genetic divergence between species. We use a new method for unbiased estimation of population genetic summary statistics to compare variation between the Z chromosome and autosomes and to calculate net nucleotide differentiation between species. We find evidence for a 2.03-fold greater mutation rate in male rattlesnakes relative to females, corresponding to an average μZ/μA ratio of 1.1. Our results from snakes are quantitatively similar to birds, suggesting that male-biased mutation rates may be a common feature across vertebrate lineages with ZW sex determination.
National Human Rights Institutions in Post-Conflict Settings: An Evolving Research Agenda?
Authors: Molloy Sean 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The potential contributions that National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) can make in post-conflict settings has drawn increased attention from academics and practitioners alike. For some, NHRIs can assume positive roles assisting not only in the protection and promotion of human rights but also in peacebuilding and transitional justice processes. Conversely, scholars identify a spectrum of potential obstacles that may hinder the translation of this potential into practice. Others assess that NHRIs can even hamper efforts to transition from conflict to peace. Existing literature identifies a number of factors that determine the contributions that NHRIs can make in conflict-affected settings. These include the institutional design of an NHRI, the degree of autonomy from the government, and the level of expertise needed to navigate the post-conflict landscape. This article considers a number of mechanisms and avenues available that could help NHRIs to navigate post-conflict transitions. Specifically, the article examines the potential impact of peace agreements that include provisions on NHRIs; post-conflict guidelines developed for NHRIs operating in conflict-affected settings; and various accountability-based mechanisms that monitor NHRIs and post-conflict governments on an ongoing basis. After considering how these options could support the positive contributions that NHRIs make to peace, the article will argue that more questions than answers arise. By identifying these uncertainties, however, the discussion helps illuminate important gaps in the literature, pointing to the need for a more comprehensive and integrated research agenda on NHRIs in post-conflict contexts.
Brothers, Workers or Syrians? The Politics of Naming in Lebanese Municipalities
Authors: Mourad Lama 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Displaced Syrians in Lebanon face a multitude of legal, social and political categories that operate together to structure their lives and opportunities. One important site of juxtaposition of these various categories can be found in the area of municipal governance, namely in the form of bannered discriminatory curfews that line the public squares of many of Lebanon’s urban neighbourhood, towns and villages. The various named ‘targets’ of these curfews—whether foreigners, Syrians, displaced, labourers, brothers or the disembodied ‘motorbike’ (a class marker in this context)—instantiate the complexity of issues of Syrian belonging in this context. This article examines these categories through their historical, political and social dimensions, and through the lived experience of Syrians who encounter, negotiate and—at times—resist them. Building on over a year of fieldwork in Lebanon from October 2015 to December 2016, this article relies on a diverse set of sources, including ethnographic observation, documents and interviews with a wide array of actors including Lebanese citizens and displaced Syrians, mayors and municipal police officers, as well as lawyers, journalists, aid workers and central government officials.
The General Assembly
Authors: Clapham Andrew 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the General Assembly, which is the United Nations’ main deliberative organ. To the extent that it reflects the will of the majority of the UN members, it has some influence on the organization’s general direction. It is the organ generally mandated to discuss and make recommendations on any question within the scope of the UN Charter, and it is specifically asked to initiate studies and make recommendations to promote, among other things, human rights. However, the General Assembly is an assembly of state representatives. This political composition can make it difficult to find agreement on which human rights deserve promotion, and which states, or rather which governments, should be singled out for censure. Nevertheless, the General Assembly has developed the international law and universal standards which underpin the world of human rights protection, improved the United Nation’s institutional machinery, and authorized some important human rights-related field operations and investigative mandates.
The Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
Authors: Heyward Madeleine 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (PFII), which is the first permanent UN body in which state and non-state nominees hold equal status. The PFII is primarily a product of increasing recognition within the UN system of the need for more focused attention to protect and promote indigenous peoples’ rights—full accommodation of indigenous rights within existing human rights mechanisms and instruments ‘remains elusive’, and indigenous individuals and communities across the world continue to experience significant discrimination and social and economic disadvantage. Since the adoption in 2007 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the first comprehensive and generally applicable international instrument on indigenous rights, the PFII has taken an increasingly rights-based approach across its mandate. The chapter then considers the PFII’s institutional landscape and its strengths and weaknesses as a protector and promoter of human rights, with a focus on implementation of the Declaration.
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter studies the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the oldest of the monitoring bodies of the UN ‘core’ treaties. Preceded by a Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination in 1963, the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 21 December 1965 and entered into force on 4 January 1969. CERD oversees the implementation of the Convention. The chapter evaluates how CERD has worked to deliver its mandate, where it has innovated, and where it has been able to draw upon the wider human rights acquis to ground its positions, and where it may have struggled to deliver. It focuses on a number of issues around the core principles: discrimination and the grounds thereof; special measures; segregation; and the problem of addressing hate speech.
Sources and Principles of Islamic Law
Authors: Eisenberg David M 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the sources and principles of Islamic law. A broad understanding of the sources and principles of Islamic law is prerequisite to an examination of the legal foundations of Islamic finance. Islamic law comprises a complex and vast body of doctrine that has taken shape in extremely varied circumstances for well over a millennium as part and parcel of an evolutionary process still vigorously underway. The chapter then describes the technical terminology employed by Muslim jurists across the entire field of Islamic law. All the technical terminology is in Arabic but exact or rough equivalents can be found in other legal systems. The chapter also looks at the legal concepts relevant to Islamic finance from a historical perspective as the point of departure for an exposition of the Islamic law of contract, for which they provide the conceptual underpinnings.
Islamic Financial Institutions
Authors: Henderson Andrew 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses Islamic Finance Institutions (IFIs), which are established on the principle that there should be no separation between temporal and religious matters. Compliance with the Shari’a is in theory the governing law for all aspects of a practising Muslim's life, including financial and business transactions. Recognizing that, under the Shari’a, money does not have a time-value separate from the value of goods that are exchanged through the use of money, IFIs embrace the principle of sharing profit and loss and reject interest as a cost for accepting and lending money. Within these constraints, IFIs offer various services, including: (a) Islamic commercial banking; (b) Islamic wealth and asset management; (c) Islamic insurance; and (d) social services, where the IFI makes loans. In practice, a firm will offer Islamic financial services either as a full IFI, whereby its entire business is dedicated to offering Shari’a-compliant services and products, or through an ‘Islamic Window’, whereby a part of the firm's business is dedicated to offering Shari’a-compliant services and products. In either case, the firm will appoint a Shari’a Supervisory Board (SSB) entrusted with the duty of directing, reviewing, and supervising the firm's activities to ensure compliance with the Shari’a.
Murabaha and Tawarruq
Authors: Nethercott Craig R 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the murabaha structure, which is probably the most commonly used Islamic finance structure in modern Islamic banking. The simplicity of structure in its current application has promoted its use as a popular and flexible Islamic financing instrument. Indeed, the use of the murabaha has been extended beyond a widespread application as a standalone instrument to a composite component of Sukuk issuance in modern application. The murabaha contract is understood within the Islamic tradition to have a pre-Islamic origin evidenced in pre-Islamic literature and characterized as a fiduciary contract with the objective to assist less knowledgeable buyers in the determination of the fair price of unfamiliar goods. Today, murabaha is commonly used as a mode of finance, in its variant structures, for the acquisition of assets, commodities, and goods in the ordinary course of trade. The structure is also used as a corporate finance tool for working capital and liquidity management. The chapter then considers commodity murabaha (tawarruq) and its application.
Sukuk
Authors: Hanif Atif , Johansen Julian , Richardson Edana 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the sukuk market, which represents one of the more high-profile elements of the Islamic finance industry. Over the last two decades, the sukuk market has been a key driver behind the growth of Islamic finance globally, with the state of the sukuk market often seen as a barometer for the health of the wider Islamic finance market. However, the sukuk industry has also had its own specific hurdles to overcome. Internal scepticism, a multitude of complex structures, and legislative restrictions have all contributed to the current shape of the sukuk market. While this market may never challenge the conventional debt capital markets in terms of size or accessibility, it remains a key aspect of the Islamic finance industry generally and offers an important Shari’a-compliant resource for issuers and investors.
Military Assistance on Request and the Use of Force
Authors: De Wet Erika 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The book examines if and to what extent the proliferation of direct military assistance on the request of a recognized government is changing the rules regulating the use of force. Since the end of the Cold War, several (sub)regional organizations in Africa have codified military assistance on request in their respective treaty frameworks. In addition, in countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Mali, Somalia, South Sudan, Syria, and Yemen, internationally recognized governments embroiled in protracted armed conflicts have requested direct military assistance from individual states or groups of states. These requests are often accepted by the other states and at times the United Nations Security Council, even when the requesting governments have very limited effective control over their territories, lack democratic legitimacy and are engaged in wide-spread and systematic violations of international human rights and humanitarian law.This book departs from a definition of requested military assistance that refers to the exercise of forcible measures by third-state armed forces or those controlled by an international organization in the territory of the requesting state. It then examines the authority to issue a request for (or consent to) direct military assistance, as well as the type of situations in which such assistance may be requested—notably whether it can be requested during an armed conflict. De Wet finishes by examining the important and controversial question of whether and to what extent the proliferation of forcible assistance on request is changing the legal framework applying to the use of force in international law.
Introduction
Authors: De Wet Erika 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This introductory chapter provides an overview of the concept of military assistance on request. By expressing a request for military assistance, a state essentially expresses consent to be bound by an agreement in accordance with which another subject of international law can exercise forcible measures on the requesting state’s territory. Contemporary state practice suggests that these agreements can be divided into two broad categories, the first being requests for military assistance by a state to one or more states, while the second concerns requests for military assistance made to international organizations (notably in the form of regional and sub-regional organizations). One may further distinguish between ad hoc requests for (or consent to) military assistance in response to a particular situation that has arisen in the territorial state, and ex ante consent included in a pro-invasion (guarantee) treaty clause. The chapter then looks at the key legal controversies regarding military assistance, which will be discussed in the next chapters. It concludes by clarifying key concepts and the methodology applied throughout the analysis.
Direct Military Assistance on Request During Civil Wars
Authors: De Wet Erika 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines whether the right to self-determination in international law prevents military intervention on the side of the recognized government during a civil war. Post-Cold War state and organizational practice does not convincingly support the claim that direct military assistance at the request of a recognized government is prohibited during a civil war, otherwise known as a ‘non-international armed conflict’ (NIAC). Attempts to explain current state practice by means of counter-terrorism and counter-intervention exceptions to a general prohibition of such assistance also is not grounded in state or organizational practice, nor are such exceptions viable in practice. Instead, state and organizational practice seems to confirm the right of recognized governments to request military assistance from third states, also during civil wars/NIACs, as long as they retain their recognized, de jure status. The potential lack of ‘representativeness’ in such a situation does not seem to limit the extent to which the de jure government can act on behalf of the state (and its people) in matters pertaining to the use of force.
Conclusion
Authors: De Wet Erika 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This concluding chapter identifies what the customary international law requirements are for valid requests for military assistance. It also addresses the ambivalent relationship between this legal construct and the notion of collective security embodied in the UN Charter. On the one hand, there is the risk that military assistance provided by individual states or groups of states undermines the notion of the centralization of decisions regarding the use of force with the United Nations Security Council. It can further perpetuate the perception of neo-colonialism and imperialism that have been associated with military assistance on request ever since the Cold War. On the other hand, clauses such as article 4(j) and potentially article 4(h) of the African Union Constitutive Act and article 25 of the Economic Community of West African States Mechanism Protocol suggest that military assistance on request can be deployed as a mechanism for maintaining regional peace and security. This suggests that, depending on the context, military assistance on request can be utilized in the interests of international peace and security and could therefore be reconcilable with the notion of collective security underpinning the UN Charter.