bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diversification of Africa's Energy Portfolio': Economic Outlook a Case Study of Kenya
Authors: Lutta Nelson 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
Despite the global setbacks, in recent times Africa's economy has generally managed to grow, with an average GDP increase of about 5%. Africa's economic growth prospects have been the talking point in recent economic fora. This growth however, has been inhibited due to the insufficient access to reliable electricity for most of Africa. The future outlook for this yet looks set to change dramatically, with African countries diversifying their energy portfolio. A good case in point is in Kenya. As of March 2015, Kenya's effective installed electricity capacity was 2177.1 MW, with supply primarily being sourced from hydroelectric and thermal sources. With connectivity to the national grid at just 28%. As of 8th June 2016, Kenya was the 4th largest geothermal energy developer in the world, possessing the largest geothermal plant in the world, capable of providing almost 20% of the nation's total power capacity (280MW Olkaria plant). Geothermal is just the tip of the iceberg, for years wind energy has contributed just 5.1MW to the national grid, but with the construction of the lake Turkana power project set to come online by July 2017 injecting 310MW or about 18% of current installed electricity generating capacity, a different ball game is about to commence.
With Kenya's innovation and IT scene making waves worldwide, the incorporation of this into the energy scene has been quite successful with the M-Kopa model the latest crown jewel. Solar century and London distillers have held engagements to build the largest solar roof project in East Africa, almost 1 MWp. Kenya is currently the world leader in number of solar power systems installed per capita. With the Lamu coal power plant set to add 981.5 MW to the grid and Kenya aiming to replace some fossil fuel, electricity capacity, with nuclear energy (it is currently evaluating its grid system before considering the generation options).
These are key stepping stones for an energy boom with an unequivocal industrial and economic boom. Considering the major infrastructural projects of rail, road and pipeline being undertaken with these energy prospects, the future is only brighter. The fact that most of the developed world economies are slowing down only serves to fuel the fact that Kenya and Africa's economic revolution is inevitable. A key indication that the next decades belong to Africa, at least from an economic stand point.
What Will it Take to Commercialize Petroleum Resources in the East Africa Region; The Case of Developing Oil Refinery in Uganda
Authors: Abeinomugisha Dozith , Batebe Irene , Ariho Benjamin 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
Energy is one of the key drivers of economic growth and development world over. Overcoming energy poverty is one of world's great challenges. All the countries in the East African Region (EAR) are not producing sufficient energy to meet their current needs.
The energy mix in the EAR currently includes hydroelectric power, geothermal energy, solar, biomass and fossil fuels. The region's petroleum products consumption, the entire volume of which is currently imported, is estimated at 180,000 bbl/day and is growing at between 4 – 6% p.a. It is projected that the region will consume about 400,000bbl/day by 2030.
The discovery of commercially viable oil and gas deposits in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Democratic Republic of Congo however, marks a great opportunity to turn around the rather bleak state of the energy sector in the region. These resources however remain largely untapped due to lack of the necessary infrastructure such as road networks, upstream facilities, refinery, pipelines, and gas processing facilities, that are necessary to access, store, process and transport these resources.
A number of countries in the EAR are planning for the development of such key infrastructure to enable the commercialization of the discovered these resources. The EAR needs to harmonise the planning and development of petroleum infrastructure in order to leverage the power of collaborative action to attract investment and ensure optimal development of this infrastructure.
A case in point is Uganda which plans to commercialise its discovered oil and gas resources, estimated at 6.5 billion barrels as of 2016, through the development of an oil refinery, a crude oil export pipeline and power generation. These projects are being developed with joint participation of the East African Community (EAC) Partner States.
Uganda estimates to spend over USD 10 billion on oil and gas infrastructure in the next five years. The region needs to provide a conducive investment environment in order to attract financing for these projects. This can be achieved through providing incentives such as attractive taxation regimes, streamlined decision making and security, among others, given the high CAPEX investments. Given that background, this paper will; Assess the current status of the oil and gas infrastructure in the region vis a vis the growing energy needsDiscuss the optimal infrastructure requirements for the successful development of the oil and gas industry in order to meet the region's growing energy needs.Highlight the investment requirements, incentives, challenges and financing options for the planned refinery in Uganda.
Drill Cuttings and Fluid Disposal; A Kenyan Case Study
Authors: Lilian Simiyu E. , Esther Mburu , Allan Rukunga 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
The objective of this research paper was to explore the health, safety, sustainability and social responsibility during disposal of cutting and drilling fluids in Kenya in regard to what affects the choice of method of disposal, the Kenyan government's regulatory requirements on disposal of the drilling wastes, methods of addressing drilling wastes, ways of reducing the volume of wastes, hierarchy of drilling wastes and the pros and cons of various methods of addressing drilling wastes. A comprehensive case study of the approach taken in Kenya with regard to handling of drilling wastes was done. Description for each approach used is provided as obtained through interviews, internet and questionnaires and statistics. Complete tables and graphs are provided and the methods are described in detail to permit readers to understand all results. The choice of method of disposal is determined and affected largely by the government policy and also by economic, technical and operation conditions and barriers. Methods of disposal included injection, thermal treatment, bioremediation, land application. This paper gives the best ways of disposal. A comprehensive description of the Kenyan government regulations is given as indicated in the Kenya Gazette, NEMA and UNEP. This paper gives insight to the acceptable drilling wastes disposal practices in Kenya and are also generally largely applicable other nations. In conclusion, it was found that Kenya would benefit from passing its own laws to regulate disposal in the coming days.
Solar Power for Sustainable Offshore Petroleum Exploration and Production in Africa
Authors: Tawiah Samuel , Marfo Solomon Adjei , Benah Daniel 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
A substantial percentage of Africa's upstream petroleum activity occurs offshore in high risk environments with attendant environmental concerns. Power demands on offshore rigs are met principally through the use of diesel engines and gas turbines. This adds to the already high safety hazards and environmental threat through greenhouse gas emissions, heat and noise generation. Additionally, petroleum generated power is an expensive venture that can have significant impact on oil and gas project economics. Moreover, some of these offshore locations are so remote that accessibility to petroleum fuel may be challenging. As petroleum exploration and production pushes steadily into deeper, farther waters especially in sub-Saharan Africa, safety, environmental and logistical security may be key for sustainability. Situated almost entirely within the tropics, Africa is a very suitable place for solar energy applications. This study assesses the potential of solar power for offshore oil and gas operations in Africa to mitigate the issues associated with the use of fossil fuel thereby ensuring sustainability of the upstream petroleum industry in Africa. The size of the solar power system that may meet the power requirement of a sample floating storage and production vessel (FPSO) in offshore Angola was estimated. Appropriate areas and extent of potential solar power application on this sample rig were also assessed. This was followed by some cost analysis to compare the two sources of power economically. It was found that solar power can currently provide only a small part of the power needed on offshore rigs primarily due to lack of space and weight restrictions.
Shale Oil and Gas in East Africa (Esp.Tanzania) with New Ideas on Reserves and Possible Synergies with Renewables
Authors: Duyverman Henk J. , Msaky Emma 
Published: February 2021

Short Abstract
Shale oil and gas in East Africa, with new ideas on reserves and possible synergies with renewables
Shale oil and gas production have lately revolutionized the oil and gas industry as a real "game-changer", especially in the US.
This has prompted many companies and governments to search for these unconventionals with successes in the UK, Poland and Argentina. These unconventionals do often occur onshore in places, where there is no conventional hydrocarbon production, thus enabling the local government or companies to have a new energy source, which is especially valid in Onshore East Africa.
New drilling technologies, which combine shale and geothermal drilling/production, are now being developed. Now it is possible to drill/produce both unconventionals and geothermal from a single well.Gas and oil could be produced from the central pipe, and hot water from the outer tubing, thereby reducing development cost for both methods.
In Tanzania a study was performed to look at unconventional oil and gas resources in sedimentary basins. A lot of data on Karoo geology, maturity, TOC's and volumetrics will be presented. In general, one needs a thick sedimentary basin with a lot of shales, good maturity and TOC values, and a fairly unfaulted basin to prevent seismicity when fracking. In East Africa and Southern Africa at large only the Karoo sediments of Permian/Triassic age are a suitable candidate for large shale oil/gas reserves. The possible large Karoo shale gas development in South Africa is a good example.
A large heavy oilfield at surface in Madagascar proves an oil source in the Karoo. In S.Kenya and also on Pemba oil shows are known, with a unknown Pre-Jurassic source.
Preliminary resource calculations in Tanzania indicate possible resources in place of 50-200 Tcf of gas for the Selous basin, comparable in size with the South-African Karoo Basin. The depth of the source rocks make gas the most likely hydrocarbon phase. One has to note that calculating unconventional resources is much more complicated than with conventional resources, since the adsorbed gas (or oil) needs to be calculated from core or log analyses. An onshore well could also text the synergies with geothermal drilling.
Recently, TPDC in Tanzania has started a new evaluation, based on new mapping, rock analyses and maturity studies, into the shale oil and gas potential.
Altogether, shale gas (or oil) could be an interesting incentive for onshore Tanzania and East Africa at large.
Early-Stage Extension in the Southwest East African Rift: Integration of New Seismic Reflection Data
Authors: Scholz Christopher A. , Wood Douglas 
Published: February 2021

ABSTRACT
The western branch of the East African Rift is characterized by modest amounts of extension and by deeply-subsided, fault-controlled basins filled with large, deep lakes. Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa (Malawi) are two of the largest lakes in the world, with maximum water depths of 1450 and 700 m respectively. Newly acquired seismic reflection data, along with newly reprocessed legacy data reveal thick sedimentary sections, in excess of 5 km in some localities. The 1980's vintage legacy data from Project PROBE have been reprocessed through pre-stack depth migration in Lake Tanganyika, and similar reprocessing of legacy data from Lake Nyasa (Malawi) is underway. New high-fold and large-source commercial data have recently been collected in southern Lake Tanganyika, and new academic data have been acquired in the northern and central basins of Lake Nyasa (Malawi) as part of the 2015 SEGMeNT project. In the case of Lake Tanganyika, new data indicate the presence of older sediment packages that underlie previously identified "pre-rift" basement (the "Nyanja Event"). These episodes of sedimentation and extension may substantially predate the modern lake. These deep stratal reflections are absent in many localites, possibly on account of attenuation of the acoustic signal. However in one area of southern Lake Tanganyika, the newly-observed deep strata extend axially for ~70 km, likely representing deposits from a discrete paleolake. The high-amplitude Nyanja Event is interpreted as the onset of late-Cenozoic rifting, and the changing character of the overlying depositional sequences reflects increasing relief in the rift valley, as well as the variability of fluvial inputs, and the intermittent connectivity of upstream lake catchments. Earlier Tanganyika sequences are dominated by shallow lake and fluvial-lacustrine facies, whereas later sequences are characterized by extensive gravity flow deposition in deep water, and pronounced erosion and incision in shallow water depths and on littoral platforms. The age and provenance of the sub-Nyanja Event sequences is unknown, but may correlate to Miocene, Cretaceous or Karroo-age sedimentary packages documented elsewhere in the southwestern part of the East African Rift, including in the region around Lakes Rukwa and Nyasa (Malawi).
Structure, Stoichiometry, and Modelling of Mixed Calcium Magnesium Phosphonate Scale Inhibitor Complexes for Application in Precipitation Squeeze Processes
Authors: Shaw S.S. , Sorbie K.S. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In this paper, the properties of precipitated “mixed” calcium and magnesium phosphonate scale inhibitor (SI) complexes formed by 9 common phosphonate species are investigated. These complexes are of the form SI_ CaNl _MgN2 where the stoichiometry (Ca2+/SI and Mg2+/SI molar ratios, i.e. N1 and N2) in various precipitates are established experimentally, and the effect of solution pH on the stoichiometry is determined. Static precipitation tests were performed varying the amounts of Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in the system (at a constant ionic strength), at test temperatures ranging from 20°C to 95°C, at a fixed [SI] = 2, 000ppm. The stoichiometries of the solid precipitates were determined by assaying for Ca2+, Mg2+, and P in the supernatant liquid, under each test condition, by ICP spectroscopy. It is shown experimentally that, for all 9 phosphonates tested, these stoichiometries (i.e. N1 and N2 in SI_ CaN1 _MgN2) depend on (i) the nature of the SI (i.e. M2+ binding sites per molecule); (ii) solution pH, which affects the speciation of the SI; (iii) the relative magnitude of the SI binding constants to Ca2+ and Mg2+ at the test pH (Kb1 and Kb2, respectively); and (iv) the solution molar ratio of Mg2+/Ca2+. It is found that, as pH increases, the combined molar ratio of Ca2+ and Mg2+ to SI, i.e. Nt = N1 + N2 in the complex, increases up to a theoretical maximum, Nt,max, depending on the chemical structure of the phosphonate (corroborating earlier work, SPE 155114, SPE 164051). In addition, the precipitation behaviour of the various compounds is modelled theoretically by developing and solving a set of simplified equilibrium equations. Very good agreement is seen between the modelling and experimental results. Such models can be used directly in the simulation of field phosphonate precipitation squeeze treatments in order to design and optimize squeeze lifetimes.
Experimental and Modeling Study on Enhancement of Squeeze Treatment in Sandstone by the Addition of Zinc Ion
Authors: Yan Fei , Kan Amy T. , Yan Chao , Wang Lu , Liu Ya , Tomson Mason B. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Scale inhibitor squeeze treatment is often used to control mineral scales in the oilfield. However, the performance of scale inhibitor squeeze treatment is sometimes not satisfactory due to low inhibitor retention in the formation and a short squeeze life. It has been previously found that the addition of transition metal ions increased the retention of phosphonate and carboxylate polymeric inhibitor in carbonate formation. In this study, laboratory squeeze experiments were conducted to evaluate squeeze treatment by the addition of metal ions (zinc) in Berea sandstone and oil field core materials. Several scale inhibitors including phosphonate, phosphinopolycarboxylic acid (PPCA), and phosphonated carboxylate polymer were investigated, and these scale inhibitors were mixed with metal ions in the inhibitor pill for squeeze application. Experimental results demonstrated that zinc ions in the inhibitor pills improved retention of scale inhibitors and increased squeeze life significantly. It is proposed that the metal-inhibitor precipitate or complex formed, and the formation of the precipitate/complex enhances the adsorption of scale inhibitor in the mineral matrix. It was also found that chemical composition of the mineral may have an impact on the performance of squeeze treatment, and high concentration of iron may limit the effectiveness of this treatment. The demonstration of metal ions to improve scale inhibitor squeeze will have significant implications on scale control in the oilfield.
Calcium Naphthenates in Complex Production Systems - Evaluation and Chemical Inhibition Challenges
Authors: Nichols D.A. , Rosário F.F. , Bezerra M.C.M. , Gorringe S.E. , Williams H.L. , Graham G.M. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Over the last 15 years, much research and many field application studies have led to considerable improvement in our understanding of the formation and mitigation of calcium naphthenate deposits.
In this field example, calcium naphthenates and stable emulsions are formed following mixing of fluids from different reservoir formations on a single FPSO. High TAN crudes containing low levels of ARN produce with low calcium formation waters whereas low TAN crudes are associated with high calcium formation waters. Mixing of these two systems has led to calcium naphthenate deposition and associated problems with its removal.
This paper outlines the challenges in this complex deepwater subsea production system and the interpretation of the cause of the deposit. A series of laboratory tests using a specialised flow rig were conducted to illustrate the effects of mixing different fluids and identify those mixtures with the largest naphthenate potential.
The work further illustrates the effect of bicarbonate ions on the system. Laboratory tests at low levels of bicarbonate (to prevent carbonate scaling at separator conditions) do not result in calcium naphthenate formation when mixing the high TAN crude with the current produced brine (moderate calcium). Naphthenates only formed when mixing with the high calcium brine. When bicarbonate is included at full field levels (in the presence of a scale inhibitor) significant calcium naphthenate formation is recorded with the lower calcium brines. The effect of CO2 within the produced fluids has also been evaluated.
The paper describes how several variables contribute to the likelihood of calcium naphthenate deposition and presents results from several naphthenate formation and inhibition tests covering a range of fluid compositions and mixtures. Chemical qualification in the lab using the worst case fluid mixtures has been conducted to select a calcium naphthenate inhibitor for field deployment. Field trials demonstrate both the effectiveness of the treatments and also the qualification exercise conducted for this field.
The results further indicate the complexity of accurately predicting a calcium naphthenate risk while illustrating that, even under challenging conditions, chemical inhibitors are effective in this system.
Field Method for Determination of Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Authors: Wang Lu , Kan Amy T. , Zhang Zhang , Yan Fei , Liu Ya , Dai Zhaoyi , Tomson Mason B. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Alkalinity is used to calculate the bicarbonate concentrations under various production conditions and the bicarbonate concentration is needed to calculate saturation indices for the prediction of carbonate and sulfide scale formation and also to predict the corrosivity of the produced water during production. Since the saturation index is related to the square of the bicarbonate concentration, the accuracy of alkalinity is vitally important for the prediction of corrosion and scaling indices of all oil and gas production systems. Unfortunately, the total alkalinity remains one of the most difficult parameters to be measured accurately in produced water due to both interferences and the difficulty in preserving the sample during storage. When collected samples de-gas during transport, the dissolved CO2 concentration decreases, pH increases, and brine components start to react with O2 and these reactions cause a reduction in bicarbonate alkalinity.
In this study, an experimental method was developed to determine bicarbonate alkalinity in minimal time and operating difficulty. The apparatus consists of four parts: a low pressure sealing vessel, high accuracy pressure gauge, a syringe for acid addition and a thermometer. The changed pressure in this closed vessel, which indicates the amount of CO2 evolved after the addition of a strong acid, is used to determine the bicarbonate alkalinity of the sample. A wide range of synthetic waters and two production water samples were tested. Excellent agreement has been observed between true and calculated concentration. The results enable a more accurate measurement of produced water composition without the error caused by collection and preservation of samples. The field method combined with our automatic titration method enables more accurate prediction of pH, saturation index and corrosion risk at typical conditions of deep water production.
This paper provides a reliable and detailed approach for field test of bicarbonate alkalinity with high accuracy and precision and a set of recommendations for field use.