bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Laws of Nature Are the Laws of God in Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The standard interpretation that the laws of nature in Leviathan are not laws because he calls them theorems is mistaken. The theorems, or “dictates of reason,” are the propositions that Hobbes proves. But they need the force of a command to be, as he says “properly called Lawes.” Hobbes uses reason to prove them, and reason is the “undoubted word of God.” The author argues against John Deigh’s ingenious defense of the standard view. Deigh maintains that words in phrases that are technical terms do not retain their meaning outside of the phrase. But if that were true, then “civil laws” and “natural liberty” would not be laws or liberty respectively. Also, if they were not laws, Hobbes’s division of two kinds of law, civil and natural, would be absurd.
Hobbes on Sovereignty by Acquisition in Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Hobbes describes two ways in which sovereignty comes to exist, sovereignty by institution and sovereignty by acquisition. Sometimes in Leviathan it seems that sovereignty by institution consists of a covenant among all and only the subjects of a commonwealth and that sovereignty by acquisition does not. If this interpretation were correct, then several unfortunate consequences follow: (1) Commonwealths could have two kinds of sovereigns governing the same territory, with different kinds of subjects with different obligations. (2) The kind of commonwealth that occurs most frequently in history, sovereignty by acquisition, would have a less prominent place in his political philosophy and be less clearly described. And (3) sovereignty by acquisition would lack Leviathan’s two most innovative aspects, authorization and representation. The author’s alternative interpretation of sovereignty by acquisition offered here contains the essential features of sovereignty by institution; and the unfortunate consequences are eliminated or mitigated.
The Rise and Fall of Peace on Earth
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
In the twenty-five years after 1989, the world enjoyed the deepest peace in history. To be sure, wars took place in this era, but less frequently and on a far smaller scale than in previous periods. The peace ended because three major countries – Vladimir Putin’s Russia in Europe, Xi Jinping’s China in East Asia, and the Shia clerics’ Iran in the Middle East – put an end to it with aggressive nationalist policies aimed at overturning the prevailing political arrangements in their respective regions. The three leaders had a common motive: their need to survive in a democratic age with their countries’ prospects for economic growth uncertain. The key to the return of peace lies in the advent of genuine democracy, including free elections and the protection of religious, economic, and political liberty. Recent history has shown, however, that democracy cannot be imposed from the outside, leading to a paradox: the world has a formula for peace, but the world has no way to put it into practice.
Europe: The Lost Peace
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
In the wake of the Cold War, both the United States and Western Europe had an unprecedentedly peaceful relationship with Russia. That relationship eventually ended, however, to be replaced by conflict, for two reasons. First was the unwise Western decision to expand the Western alliance, also known as NATO, to Russia’s borders despite having promised not to do so. Second were aggressive Russian policies toward its neighbouring countries. These measures were undertaken by President Vladimir Putin as a way of winning popular support for his dictatorial rule, which had begun to lose favor across the state due to its economic shortcomings.
Peace Regained?
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
World peace is possible if and when the primary twenty-first-century disturbers of the Peace—namely Russia, China, and Iran—adopt democratic political systems. Democracies have demonstrated a pronounced tendency to conduct peaceful foreign policies, especially toward one another. Unfortunately, the world has shown by trial and error that democracy cannot be imposed from the outside on these or other countries. The revolution must come from within. There are forces favoring democracy, as well as trends and institutions opposing it, in all three of these powerful countries; but when or indeed whether any or all of them become democratic is unknown and unknowable.
State Constitution-Making
Authors: Wood Gordon S. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the constitution-making by the thirteen independent republics. Most of them created bicameral legislatures, single executives, and independent judiciaries. They set forth the idea of separation of powers, which forbade members of the legislature or judiciary from simultaneously holding office in the executive, thus setting American constitutional development off in a very direction from that of the former mother country. At the same time, the Americans established written constitutions that were different from and superior to the institutions of government and they worked out devices (constitutional conventions) for creating these constitutions. Several of the constitutions had bills of rights.
Imagining the phonograph, 1877–1888
Authors: Moreda Rodríguez Eva 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the initial impact of the phonograph in Spain, arguing that, even though the device was rarely seen or heard in the country in its first decade of existence, it contributed to stimulating discussion and speculation that drew upon, and at the same time contributed to shaping, existing national discourses on science, technology, and modernity. At the same time, however, other key elements of the early reception of the phonograph elsewhere, such as the issue of the disembodiment of the voice, remained practically unexplored. The chapter covers the first accounts about the invention of the phonograph published in the Spanish press in 1877 and 1878, the range of demonstrations which took place between 1878 and 1882 at the hands of scientists and entertainers, and, finally, the multifarious discourses (in theatrical writing, juridical literature, and other realms) that emerged around the phonograph and its potential uses.
Hope’s Place in Our Lives
Authors: Stockdale Katie 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the nature of hope. It argues that hope is a way of seeing in a favorable light the possibility that an outcome one desires and believes to be possible obtains. This understanding of hope is similar to many competing accounts of the nature of hope in the philosophical literature. Setting the debate about which precise theory of hope is correct aside, the significance of human difference to experiences of hope and our relative power to affect the world is explored. A feminist perspective on hope reveals that oppression is a threat to hope. Attending to the power dynamics that shape how we hope, this chapter illustrates the ways in which people and institutions in positions of power use hope to further their ends. It then traces the relationship between the hope we place in others, normative expectation, and trust.
Hope, Faith, and Solidarity
Authors: Stockdale Katie 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter develops an account of the relationship between hope, faith, and solidarity in struggles against oppression. It argues that a particular form of faith, intrinsic faith, enables resilience in the face of evidence that suggests the pursuit of justice is futile. Intrinsic faith is a deep belief in the intrinsic value of one’s actions or way of life. Drawing upon testimony of scholars and activists, this chapter illustrates how intrinsic faith can flow from spiritual faith, faith in humanity, and moral faith. Faith helps bring people together in solidarity against oppression. And through solidarity, a form of collective hope for justice can emerge. The chapter concludes by exploring different ways in which individuals and groups can hope well for justice.
Digital Ontology and Appreciation
Authors: Thomson-Jones Katherine 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter takes up the aesthetic implications of images belonging to digital schemes. I consider how the most basic feature of digital scheme types—namely, their inherent replicability—properly conditions appreciation of digital artworks. Returning to the art examples from chapter 1, I show that the inherent replicability of digital imagery does not guarantee the multiple instantiability of digital image-based works. In the digital age artists face a choice as to whether to limit their works to a particular exhibition space, or make their works universally available on the screens of networked computers. I explore the interpretive significance of this choice and the way such significance rests on recognition of the underlying digital structure of an artwork.
Digital Interactivity
Authors: Thomson-Jones Katherine 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter concerns the distinctive and distinctively prominent forms of interactivity realized in digital art. The focus is on the complex relation between interactivity in the visual arts and the inherent replicability of digital representation. First, I show that, despite appearances to the contrary, replicability and interactivity are compatible in the case of digital images. To do this, I argue that an artwork’s appreciative display—the structure by which the work is intended to convey its artistic content—comprises not just the materials of the work but also their uses. Then I can explain both the transmissibility of the digital image—in terms of a single display type—and the interactivity of the digital image in terms of the boundaries for modifying instances of the type in question. Once this explanation is in place, I look at ways in which the combination of transmissibility and interactivity—a combination that is unique to images that are digital—has significance for the interpretation and social function of art.
Locational Technologies in Post-disaster Infrastructure Space
Authors: Sheller Mimi 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Drawing on research carried out in Haiti from 2010 to 2013, this chapter considers how mobile communication infrastructures and locational technologies are enrolled into uneven global assemblages of power that may have more, or less, democratizing effects depending on how they are performed. The takeoff of digital humanitarianism using platforms such as OpenStreetMap (OSM) was built upon idealistic beliefs in the power of open data and locational media. However, the inclusivity of digital communication is fragile, and disconnection arises even as organizations and individuals attempt to facilitate connection. This analysis of locational technologies in post-earthquake Haiti considers how humanitarian aid and post-disaster recovery processes might be improved by first recognizing the uneven topologies of accessibility within communication infrastructures; and second by building on local appropriations of connectivity within everyday life to envision and enact patchwork connections across diverse communication platforms, as well as strategic disconnections.
Digital Ruins
Authors: Garcia Gonzalo C. , Miller Vincent 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Geography has seen a rebirth of interest and appreciation of the ruined and abandoned spaces of industrial modernity. This work has often considered such ruins largely in terms of the phenomenological or affectual experiences of material decay, disorder, and blight. This chapter is an investigation into ruined spaces that do not have materiality or temporality: digital ruins. Existing in a kind of eternal present, such spaces do not decay, yet still demonstrate many affective and phenomenological experiences of what we understand to be ruin. Using ethnographic research of three abandoned and nearly abandoned virtual worlds, these landscapes provide a unique opportunity for a critical analysis of digital ruins as spaces of disconnection: particularly in their relationship with time, their algorithmic disconnection from the social imaginary of the Internet, the phenomenological disconnection one experiences in these places, and their founding premise as spaces of utopian disconnection from the limitations of materiality.
Walkers on the way
Authors: Reader Ian , Shultz John 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at those who walk the pilgrimage many times. These are most commonly older retired male Japanese, and the chapter explores their various accounts of why they do this. It shows that faith is rarely an overtly stated or primary factor and that health and the wish to learn about themselves while keeping fit and meeting others remain dominant forces among such contemporary pilgrims. It also discusses a theme that runs through every chapter: how people who do the pilgrimage find themselves drawn back again and again to it, sometimes seeking new ways to do it in order to enhance their pilgrimage experiences. It demonstrates how pilgrims generally, and particularly walkers, devote immense energy and time between pilgrimages to preparing the ‘next journey’ and making records of their previous ones so that they are never really away from the pilgrimage. Instead they are mentally always on pilgrimage.
Prologue
Authors: Gandy Jr. Oscar H. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This prologue provides a brief introduction to the primary sources of the theoretical and philosophical frameworks which influenced the development of the panoptic sort as a point of focus and concern. It begins almost immediately with Karl Marx and other political economists seeking to understand the importance of technological systems in the continuing development of capitalism. It includes Jacques Ellul’s technicist emphasis as contrasted with Max Weber’s emphasis on rationalization and the search for efficiency and effectiveness in social as well as technological systems and institutions. Michel Foucault provides much more than an introduction to panopticism through his articulate linking of power and knowledge, and its application to discipline and social control. And while Foucault’s influence has been substantial, it comes in second to Anthony Giddens’ presentation of the nature and importance of the complexity within societal systems, and processes like “structuration,” that are linked to public policy and governance efforts that are becoming increasingly dependent upon surveillance and computational analytics.
Conclusion
Authors: Gandy Jr. Oscar H. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Majid Tehranian has suggested that we have only two options from which to shape our future, totalitarianism or communitarian democracy. Of course there are more. This brief conclusion suggests that we might even imagine a future that would be the result of a collaborative process involving “free acting, fully informed rational producers and consumers”. As has been my tendency so far, most of the possibilities I considered that have been identified by engaged scholars tend to invite a rather pessimistic view. My conclusion is one that nearly ends with Jacques Ellul’s description of a future in which we essentially come to accept control over our lives, in part because it all seems reasonable and sufficiently pleasant. But some of the final words have been reserved for L. Frank Baum’s Wizard of Oz, in which happenstance, associated with an unbalanced, cowardly lion, provides for a potentially alternative future.
The Rise and Demise of World Communism
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Sixteen states came to be ruled by communist parties during the twentieth century. Only five of them remain in power today. This book explores the nature of communist regimes—what they share in common, how they differ from each other, and how they differentially evolved over time. The book finds that these regimes all came to power in the context of warfare or its aftermath, followed by the consolidation of power by a revolutionary elite that came to value “revolutionary violence” as the preferred means to an end, based upon Marx’s vision of apocalyptic revolution and Lenin’s conception of party organization. All these regimes went on to “build socialism” according to a Stalinist template, and were initially dedicated to “anti-imperialist struggle” as members of a “world communist movement.” But their common features gave way to diversity, difference, and defiance after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. For many reasons, and in many ways, those differences soon blew apart the world communist movement. They eventually led to the collapse of European communism. The remains of communism in China, Vietnam, Laos, North Korea, and Cuba were made possible by the first three transforming their economic systems, opening to the capitalist international order, and abandoning “anti-imperialist struggle.” North Korea and Cuba have hung on due to the elites avoiding splits visible to the public. Analytically, the book explores, throughout, the interaction among the internal features of communist regimes (ideology and organization), the interactions among them within the world communist movement, and the interaction of communist states with the broader international order of capitalist powers.
Introduction
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Sixteen states came to be ruled by communist parties on the Leninist model. What did they have in common? How did they differ from each other? And how did these evolve over time? This book specifies those common features and differences and explores the reasons that the death of Joseph Stalin led to an explosion of differences. It demonstrates how and why these led to the collapse of European communism and the transformation of three remaining Asian communist states into “Market-Leninist” regimes. It goes on to evaluate the legacy of communism and its likely future in the five remaining communist states.
What Did Communist Regimes Have in Common?
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter delineates common features of all communist states. The sixteen communist regimes all had in common, during their early years in power, a commitment to revolution and to the use of revolutionary violence to consolidate their power, a determination to build socialism on the Stalinist model, membership in a world communist movement led by Moscow, and commitment to anti-imperialist struggle as the core mission of that movement.
How Did Communist Regimes Differ from Each Other?
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, and his successors’ decision to eliminate the use of mass terror and to improve the population’s standard of living, led to a variety of responses over time to the “de-Stalinization” of Soviet governance and of relations within the world communist movement. The responses included worker rebellions, full-scale revolution, democratization from below, democratization from within the communist party, retention of Stalinist despotism, and transformation of the economic system (to “market Leninism”) and integration into the capitalist international economy.
The Sino-Soviet Schism, 1957–1963
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The schism between Moscow and Beijing became irreversible once it became clear that Mao’s willingness to run the risk of nuclear war on behalf of Chinese national interests (Taiwan, in particular) by far exceeded Khrushchev’s willingness to run such risks, especially for purposes that served Chinese, but not Soviet, national-security interests. This led Moscow to precipitously withdraw its massive material assistance to China, and led China to denounce Moscow, increasingly openly, as an apostate to the cause.
China in a Postcommunist World
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Many theories of modernization would predict that one-party rule, strict controls against organized or dramatized dissent, and a marketized and privatized economy—as exist in China—are incompatible. This chapter offers a skeptical view of claims that either revolution from below (à la Hungary and Poland) or democratization from above (à la the Prague Spring or Gorbachev) are likely in coming decades in China. More likely is the combination of cooptation and repression that has taken place thus far.
Bureaucratic Leninism in Cuba
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
After 1970, Cuba became increasingly dependent on the USSR economically and adopted a Soviet-style management structure for the economy. But the economy ground down over time and crashed after the disappearance of the Soviet subsidy when that country collapsed in 1991. The party-military elite that runs Cuba has tried varieties of domestic and foreign policy adjustments but remains victimized by the US embargo and the inefficiencies of the bureaucratic Leninist model.
Stalinism in North Korea
Authors: Breslauer George W. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
North Korea never went through a process of de-Stalinization. It remained until 1994 under the control of a despot who arranged for the despotism to continue after his death. Thus, North Korean politics became a family dynasty that continues to this day, with Stalinist political controls and a confrontational posture toward South Korea and the United States.
Meaning of International Order and Evidence on Revisionism
Authors: Chan Steve , Feng Huiyun , He Kai , Hu Weixing 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
“Revisionism” is supposed to mean a rejection of the existing international order. Yet the meaning of international order has been underdeveloped in current research. This chapter delineates this idea, relying on the English school’s writings. It distinguishes the primary and secondary institutions of international order and introduces a collection of indicators to track and measure Chinese and US commitment to two aspects of international order: one that is norm-based and the other that is rule- or institution-based. These indicators encompass these countries’ official pronouncements, their involvement in wars and militarized disputes, their engagement in international political economy, and their participation in international organizations and multilateral treaties. The evidence shows that, contrary to customary depiction, the United States has become more revisionist over time and according to some measures, more so than China.
Projecting Imperial Power
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The nineteenth century is notable for its newly proclaimed emperors, from Franz I of Austria and Napoleon I in 1804, through Agustín and Pedro, the emperors of Mexico and Brazil, in 1822, to Napoleon III in 1852, Maximilian of Mexico in 1864, Wilhelm I, German emperor, in 1871, and Victoria, empress of India in 1876. These monarchs projected an imperial aura by means of coronations and acclamations, courts, medals, and costumes, portraits and monuments, ceremonial and religion, international exhibitions and museums, festivals and pageants, architecture and town planning. They relied on ancient history for legitimacy while partially espousing modernity. The empress consorts had to find a meaningful role for themselves in a changing world. The first emperors’ successors—Pedro II of Brazil, Franz Joseph of Austria, and Wilhelm II of Germany—expanded their panoply of power, until Pedro was forced to abdicate in 1889 and the First World War brought the Austrian and German empires to an end. Britain invented an imperial myth for its Indian empire in the twentieth century, until George VI relinquished the title of emperor in 1947. The imperial cities of Berlin, Paris, Vienna, and New Delhi bear witness to these vanished empires, as does Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City and the town of Petrópolis in Brazil. How the empires came to an end and how imperial cities and statues are treated nowadays demonstrates the contested place of the emperors in national cultural memory.