bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Deontic and Maximizing
Authors: Dorsey Dale 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter tackles the question of whether prudence is deontic (whether, in other words, there is such a thing as a prudential requirement), and whether prudence is maximizing (whether, in other words, one is prudentially required to act in accordance with the strongest balance of prudential reasons). I argue in the affirmative in both cases, against, most importantly, satisficing approaches to prudence.
Introduction
Authors: Maiden Martin , Dragomirescu Adina , Dindelegan Gabriela Pană , Bărbulescu Oana Uță , Zafiu Rodica 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThis chapter presents the aims and overall structure of the volume. There follows an overview of the history of Romanian. Essential information is given as to the nature and history of the Romanian writing systems. Particular attention is paid to the relationship-ancient and modern, past and present-between writing and phonology. The chapter concludes with a sketch of the major typological characteristics of Romanian morphology.
Nouns and adjectives
Authors: Maiden Martin , Dragomirescu Adina , Dindelegan Gabriela Pană , Bărbulescu Oana Uță , Zafiu Rodica 
Published: May 2021

AbstractWhat are the principal characteristics of the inflexional marking of number, gender, and case in Romanian nouns and adjectives? What role do ideas of ‘animacy’ and ‘mass’ play in the system? What are the patterns of desinential number marking? What are the origins and the nature of the so-called Romanian neuter (or genus alternans)? How is case marking expressed? How have patterns of root allomorphy been created, and then levelled? What is the status of morphological invariance? What are the origins and nature of the inflexional marking of the vocative?
Determiners and the deictic system
Authors: Maiden Martin , Dragomirescu Adina , Dindelegan Gabriela Pană , Bărbulescu Oana Uță , Zafiu Rodica 
Published: May 2021

AbstractHow did the definite article evolve morphologically from Latin ILLE? What is the determiner al and how did it evolve? What is the history of the indefinite article? How does locative and adverbial deixis work? What is the function of the formatives -a, -le, and -și?
Rape Culture and Epistemology
Authors: Crewe Bianca , Ichikawa Jonathan Jenkins 
Published: May 2021

AbstractIn this chapter, Bianca Crewe and Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa consider the complex interactions between rape culture and epistemology. A central case study is the consideration of a deferential attitude about the epistemology of sexual assault testimony. According to the deferential attitude, individuals and institutions should decline to act on allegations of sexual assault unless and until they are proven in a formal setting, i.e. a criminal court. Crewe and Ichikawa attack this deference from several angles, including the pervasiveness of rape culture in the criminal justice system, the epistemology of testimony and norms connecting knowledge and action, the harms of tacit idealizations away from important contextual factors, and a contextualist semantics for “knows” ascriptions.
Epistemic Responsibility in Sexual Coercion and Self-Defense Law
Authors: Liberto Hallie 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThose accused of sexual coercion and unjustified killing can defend themselves in American courts by arguing that a reasonable person in their situation could have held an exonerating belief—respectively: a belief in another person’s sexual consent, or another person’s murderous intentions. In this chapter, Liberto argues that this reasonable belief standard is problematic. Liberto presents an alternative suggestion by Donald Hubin and Karen Healey with regard to cases of sexual coercion that she labels the “reasonable expectation from state” (REfS) standard. Liberto argues that adopting a REfS standard for adjudicating both self-defense and sexual coercion cases is better than the “reasonable person” standard. However, contra Hubin and Healey, Liberto argues that expectations from the state towards victims of these criminal cases—expectations that ascribe epistemic responsibility to the victims—are misdirected.
SONET/SDH, OTN, and RPR
Authors: Datta Debasish 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
With the emergence of high-speed optical transmission, the pre-existing plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) appeared unsuitable for achieving network synchronization, leading to the development of the synchronous optical network (SONET) and synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) as the two equivalent standards for circuit-switched optical networks. Several bandwidth-efficient techniques were also developed to carry packet-switched data traffic over SONET/SDH networks, offering some useful data-over-SONET/SDH architectures. Subsequently, with the increasing transmission rates for SONET/SDH and Ethernet-based LANs, a convergent networking platform called optical transport network (OTN), was developed. With the ever-increasing volume of bursty data traffic, a standard for packet-switched ring networks, called resilient packet ring (RPR), was also developed for better bandwidth realization in optical fibers. In this chapter, we first present the SONET/SDH networks and the techniques for supporting the data traffic therein, followed by a description of the basic concepts and salient features of the OTN and RPR networks. (147 words)
Survivability of Optical Networks
Authors: Datta Debasish 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Telecommunication networks with their unprecedented penetration in today’s society must deliver services that can survive unpredictable failures across the network. Recovery from failure can be made in various ways, broadly categorized in two types: protection and restoration schemes. Realization of these schemes varies for different network segments: access, metro, and long-haul networks. Protection schemes are proactive in nature and need more resources, while ensuring fast recovery from failure. However, restoration schemes are reactive in nature, as in such schemes a network starts exploring the possible alternate connections after a failure occurs, and hence they offer slower recovery while needing fewer resources. We present various protection and restoration schemes, as applicable to the respective network segments: PON, SONET/SDH and WDM-over-SONET/SDH rings, and long-haul WRONs, and we discuss the underlying issues for the implementation of these schemes. (135 words)
Union and its Challengers in the United Kingdom
Authors: Keating Michael 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The United Kingdom was created over time without a clear plan. Creation of the state largely coincided with the creation of the Empire so that there was not a clear distinction between the two. The union preserved many of the elements of the pre-union component parts, but was kept together by the principle of unitary parliamentary sovereignty. Within the union, the distinct nationalities developed in the modern period and produced nationalist movements. Most of these aimed at devolution within the state, but some demanded separation. Management of these demands was a key task of statecraft in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In the post-World War Two era, the nationalities question appeared to have gone away but it returned in the 1970s. Devolution settlements at the end of the twentieth century represented a move to stabilize the union on new terms.
The Millennium Settlement
Authors: Keating Michael 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Devolution to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland in 1999 was the culmination of over 100 years of intermittent debate about the territorial constitution. It aimed to reconcile the transfer of power to the peripheral nations with the maintenance of untrammelled sovereignty for the Westminster Parliament. This was achieved by allowing different interpretations of the settlement and leaving critical issues in abeyance. The settlement did not resolve the constitutional question. The devolution acts themselves were revised several times over their first twenty years. Wales which initially had a weaker form of devolution, moved towards the stronger Scottish model. The Northern Ireland settlement was punctuated by crises. The Scottish settlement was challenged by the independence referendum of 2014. There was no devolution for England, although an ill-specified ‘English question’ emerged.
Union and Unionisms in the United Kingdom
Authors: Keating Michael 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Unionism is a complex set of doctrines with various strands. There is assimilative unionism; patriot unionism, which accepts the multinational nature of the UK but insists on Westminster supremacy; contractual unionism, which insists on the historic rights of the nations; and a smaller devolutionary unionism. After 1999, unionists almost all accepted the new dispensation and regrouped against the renewed secessionist demands. This neo-unionism has sought a set of normative and constitutional principles to underpin it, but this has proved elusive. Historic unionism did not have such a comprehensive doctrine but combined the different strands according to time and place. Nor are neo-unionists agreed on the place of the UK within Europe. Neo-unionism is thus reduced to caricaturing its opponents as parochial and backward-looking at a time when peripheral nationalism, by and large, has accepted Europe and the pooling of sovereignty, and is mostly socially progressive.
Economic Union
Authors: Keating Michael 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Unionism has stressed the benefits of economic union but this is an elusive concept. The United Kingdom was formed as part of a wider imperial market, committed historically to global free trade, not as a national market. Only from the 1930s did a closed national market and national development strategy emerge. From the 1970s, the UK formed part of the wider European market. Policies for territorial cohesion were introduced in the 1930s and greatly expanded in the 1960s, but from the 1980s these were largely abandoned in favour of a laissez-faire approach. The UK now has some of the largest territorial disparities in Europe. The 1999 settlement devolved most of the regional development powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The recent re-commitment to regional development on the part of the UK Government has not been accompanied by measures on the scale of those deployed in the 1970s.
References for Preliminary Rulings
Authors: Broberg Morten , Fenger Niels 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 1 gives an account of the development of the preliminary ruling procedure and outlines the different types of preliminary references in the EU system. It gives an account of the broadly similar reference procedure laid down in the European Economic Area (EEA) Agreement where the EFTA Court admits preliminary references from the EFTA States, and it provides an account of other ways of obtaining guidance on interpretation of EU law, namely questions to the Commission and the European Ombudsman. Chapter 1 ends with a discussion of what future changes one might envisage for the preliminary reference procedure.
Variations in Member State Use of Preliminary References
Authors: Broberg Morten , Fenger Niels 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 2 analyses the variations in frequency of preliminary references to the European Court of Justice from the different Member States. This analysis focuses upon two factors; firstly the structural factor that a relevant case must be pending before a national court in an EU Member State (structural factor), and secondly a behavioural factor that the national judge/judges hearing the national case must choose to make a preliminary reference (behavioural factor). The chapter determines each of these two factors and it concludes that about three-quarters of the total variation in preliminary references across Member States can be explained exclusively on the basis of total number of cases (a component of the structural factor). If we fully account for the structural factor and also account for the component whether the Member States may be categorised as either civil law or common law we are able to explain almost 90% of the total variation.
When Ought a Reference for a Preliminary Ruling be Made?
Authors: Broberg Morten , Fenger Niels 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 7 concerns the situation where the national court has discretion in its decision as to whether or not it should refer a preliminary question to the Court of Justice. It analyses (1) the different criteria that form the basis for the national court’s discretionary decision, (2) to what extent EU law interferes with that discretion, and (3) at what time in the proceedings it is best to make a preliminary reference. The chapter first identifies the different criteria that in general form the basis for the national court’s decision as to whether or not it should make use of the preliminary reference procedure. It then deals with the particular situation where a similar question is already pending before the Court of Justice or where the national court has a cluster of parallel cases before it and must decide whether to make a preliminary reference in all cases or only in one or a few test cases. Next, it discusses to what extent a national court not sitting as a court of last instance should refrain from posing a preliminary question because such a question could also be posed during a possible appeal procedure. Finally, chapter 7 examines at what stage of the proceedings it is most appropriate to refer a preliminary question and discusses to what extent points of fact and national law ought to be clarified before it is decided whether to make use of the preliminary procedure.
The Preliminary Ruling
Authors: Broberg Morten , Fenger Niels 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 11 examines the preliminary ruling as such, including the extent to which the Court of Justice reformulates the preliminary question. It considers when the Court of Justice renders the preliminary ruling as a judgment and when as an order. The chapter also examines when the Court narrows down the preliminary question, when it includes other EU law provisions, when it provides alternative answers, and when it includes issues that do not form part of the preliminary reference, but nevertheless may be relevant for the referring court’s decision of the main action. Moreover, chapter 11 analyses when and how the Court of Justice may tailor its preliminary ruling to the facts of the case before the referring court.
Litigation Costs and Legal Aid
Authors: Broberg Morten , Fenger Niels 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 13 presents the rules on costs and legal aid. It is for the referring court to decide on the allocation of costs in connection with a reference for a preliminary ruling. This means that parties to the main proceedings and any other persons or entities who intervene before the national court may have their costs covered. Others entitled to present observations before the Court of Justice as part of the preliminary reference are responsible for their own costs. The Court of Justice may grant legal aid to a party to the main proceedings who is wholly or partly unable to meet the costs of the proceedings before the Court. The legal aid covers, fully or partly, the costs incurred both for written and oral observations.
Sophie of Hanover on the Soul–Body Relationship
Authors: Leduc Christian 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter aims to examine Sophie of Hanover’s original, but often overlooked contribution to the debate over the soul–body relationship. It explains that her main interest is in problems pertaining to the influence of bodily motion on the soul, for instance how the mother’s physiological imagination has an impact on the development of the foetus or how ideas are caused by material determinations. It also argues that Sophie remains sceptical of any metaphysical explanation in the domain of rational psychology, for instance of the Leibnizian hypothesis of pre-established harmony. For a similar reason, I contend that it is very unlikely that Sophie would maintain a materialistic conception of ideas, as commentators have argued.
Mutation, Randomness, and Evolution
Authors: Stoltzfus Arlin 
Published: May 2021

AbstractMutation, Randomness, and Evolution presents a new understanding of how the course of evolution may reflect biases in variation and unites key concerns of molecular and microbial evolution, evo-devo, evolvability, and self-organization by placing these concerns on a solid theoretical and empirical foundation. It situates them within a broader movement away from externalism and towards a focus on the internal details of living systems, including their evolutionary causes and their predictable evolutionary consequences. In the neo-Darwinian theory, by contrast, selection is the potter and variation is the clay: external selection does the important work of evolution, and gets all the credit, while variation merely supplies an abundance of random raw materials. Indeed, one of the meanings of the randomness doctrine is that any peculiarities or tendencies of mutation are ultimately irrelevant. The theory that the course of evolution is determined externally, without any dispositional role for internal factors, was particularly attractive before the molecular revolution, when biologists had little systematic knowledge of internal factors. Today, scientists are deeply immersed in the molecular, genetic, and developmental details of life. The potential for a new understanding of the role of these internal factors rests on the recognition that the introduction process is a distinctive kind of cause, not the same thing (conceptually, historically, or theoretically) as the classical “force” of mutation, but with different implications, including the ability to impose biases on adaptive evolution. This predicted influence is verified by recent evidence from episodes of adaptation traced to the molecular level.
Introduction: a curious disconnect
Authors: Stoltzfus Arlin 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 1 begins with a synopsis of the central argument concerning models of evolution (and theories of causation) that incorporate a mutational introduction process, using a study of laboratory adaptation that shows proportional effects of a 50-fold range of rates for different mutations. The exploration of the role of variation in this book covers mutation and randomness, the neo-Darwinian dichotomy of selection and variation, the shifting-gene-frequencies theory of the Modern Synthesis (and its relation to population-genetic “forces“), developmental bias, self-organization, the emergence of evolvability as a major topic, and the causes of parallel adaptation. This chapter provides a guide to the remainder of the book, and explains how the main arguments relate to more familiar topics such as evo-devo, the distinctiveness of molecular evolution, the “directed mutations“ controversy, and debates about the adequacy of a “Modern Synthesis.”
Practical Randomness
Authors: Stoltzfus Arlin 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 3 addresses the idea of randomness as a simplifying assumption, beginning with a discussion (using examples from phylogenetics) of the reasons that scientists employ simplifying assumptions that are known to be incorrect. That is, some ways of thinking about mutation may be useful, even if they are only approximately correct. Approximations come at a cost, and thus the practical use of an approximation, e.g., the assumption that mutation is uniform when it really is not, is a matter of weighing costs and benefits. The application of probabilistic reasoning to problems of mutation may be understood as an extension of logic that does not rely on any concept of “randomness.” In this context, references to “chance” or “randomness” as something that exists in the physical world, rather than in our minds, represent what E.T. Jaynes calls a “mind projection fallacy.”
Evolutionary Randomness
Authors: Stoltzfus Arlin 
Published: May 2021

AbstractContemporary defenses of the randomness doctrine refer not to ordinary meanings of randomness, but to a special evolutionary meaning by which mutation is said to be independent of, or uncorrelated with, something like environment, selection, evolution, or adaptation. Chapter 4 addresses whether this type of claim is justified, either empirically or on the basis of principles of biology. In fact, claims of evolutionary randomness typically fail for obvious reasons. Mutation in a particular locale is not walled off from the rest of biology, but is sensitive to conditions such as gene expression and the concentration of DNA precursors, and this leads to nonindependence with conditions and even with fitness. The incipient fitness effects of mutational intermediates typically are not involved in feedback loops that enhance (diminish) the chances of completing a beneficial (harmful) mutation, but this narrow sense of independence has little practical value.
The revolt of the clay
Authors: Stoltzfus Arlin 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 9 presents an empirical case for the importance of mutational biases, based on studies of adaptation traced to the molecular level. Where Chapter 8 identified a variational cause of bias that does not depend on neutral evolution, absolute constraints, or high mutation rates, this chapter focuses on how quantitative biases in ordinary nucleotide mutations influence adaptive evolution. It uses published studies of parallel adaptation in nature and in the laboratory. The natural studies include both (1) cases of recent local adaptation, e.g., evolution of resistance to insecticides and herbicides, and (2) cases of fixed changes, e.g., altitude adaptation via changes in hemoglobins, spectral tuning of photoreceptors used in color vision, and so on. The results indicate that the kinds of changes that happen most often in adaptation are the kinds favored by simple biases in mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias.
Moving on
Authors: Stoltzfus Arlin 
Published: May 2021

AbstractChapter 10 includes a synopsis of key points from previous chapters as well as reflections on changing explananda, notions of causation, and the importance of identifying testable theories. The ongoing delay in recognizing the introduction process as a dispositional evolutionary cause reflects the lasting influence of the shifting-gene-frequencies theory, and a lack of influence of molecular studies of evolution. Evolutionary discourse proceeds as if the major issues are defined relative to the morphology and behavior of large charismatic animals, yet evolutionary biologists themselves focus increasingly on molecules and microbes. Verbal theories of causation play an important role in determining what causes are possible and what they may explain. In contemporary debates on the status of “evolutionary theory,” the pressure to defend or reject a flexible “Synthesis” distorts history and spawns confusion over what makes a theory. Testable theories, not loosely defined traditions, are what make science distinctive.