“I had to get tougher”: An African Immigrant's (Counter)narrative of Language, Race, and Resistance
Authors: Bryan Kisha C. 
Published: November 2021

Background/Context With the incessant wave of anti-Black and anti-immigrant sentiments, the extant political situation in the contemporary United States presents an ideal space, place, and time to investigate Black immigrant students’ experiences and examine the ways in which dominant racial and linguistic ideologies shape their literate identities and position them in schools and society. While the Black immigrant population overall continues to increase, the Black immigrant student population in United States K–12 schools has experienced a steady upward trend. This student population shares some of the racialized experiences of Black American students but also refects distinctive cultural, linguistic, and literate identities, and experiences that we, as educators, must acknowledge and embrace if we are to help them effectively navigate the educational and social terrain of the U.S. Purpose/Research Questions The purpose of this article is to amplify (counter)narratives that highlight one adolescent African immigrant's (Noemi) identities and languages within and beyond school spaces, to exemplify the ways in which she utilizes alternative literacies to accommodate, and/or resist racial and immigration status-based microaggressions. The study was guided by the following questions: 1) What are Noemi's literacy, language, and identity practices in and beyond school spaces? 2) What are the ways in which she utilizes these practices to resist stereotypes and other forms of marginalization? Research Design Utilizing a narrative case study approach, the article highlights the lived experiences of a single participant–Noemi. Narrative case study allowed me to intentionally give life to Noemi's stories regarding her home and school experiences, the ways in which she has been positioned due to her unique identity, language, and literacy practices, and her methods of resistance. Data Collection and Analysis Data sources included two semistructured interviews and a Venn diagram that consisted of a comparison of the focal participant's home and school literacies. A relational content analysis was conducted using the information provided in the Venn diagram, and interview data were transcribed and analyzed using the constant comparative method. Critical race theory, a raciolinguistic perspective, and resistance theory were considered in the analysis and framing of the resulting counternarratives. Findings/Results Noemi's counternarratives were characterized by three emergent themes: (a) being raised African in America, (b) racial literacies, music, and social media, and (c) race, language, and the sociopolitical climate. Each of the themes and their corresponding subthemes were supported by elements of critical race theory and a raciolinguistic perspective. In addition, Noemi's counternarratives consisted of numerous “clapbacks” (effective responses to criticisms, stereotypes, and dominant ideologies) that served as indicators of resistance. Conclusions/Recommendations Noemi's counternarratives suggest three acknowledgments to be made. First, educators must acknowledge identity practices beyond those seen in academic spaces and tap into the vast metaknowledge of their immigrant populations. Second, we must not lose sight that dominant, hegemonic messages with regard to languages, literacies, and cultures are not only produced by the dominant group, but that they are also (re)produced by the media and nonwhite people to marginalize and maintain structural hierarchies. Therefore, critical conversations are needed with native nonwhite groups to prevent discriminatory practices and maltreatment of immigrant students. Finally, if we are to create equitable and socially just academic environments, educators must acknowledge manifestations of resistance (in its many forms) and use this knowledge to help transform schooling environments in which immigrants, like Noemi, are expected to thrive. They must also identify the ways in which they function as part of institutional norms, to create situations that require students to leverage “clapbacks” in schools.