Genesis of Antibiotic Resistance (AR) XXXVII: Fracking fluid and produced water induced Alteration of commensal microbial genome exacerbate AR pathogen (ARP), consequently Antibiotic Resistance Pandemic (ARP).
Authors: Kannan Subburaj , Cervantes Karla , Fuentes Liliana , Martinez Yuvette , Balino Armando , Fernandez Alayza , De Los Santos Ludwig , Espinoza Ivan , Villarreal Diego , Huerta Jose , Gayton Edith , Koenig Robert , Clark Stephanie , Ledezama Claudia , Martinez Azalia 
Published: June 2021

“Produced Water” is defined as all water that is returned to the surface through a good borehole made up of water injected during fracture stimulation process as well as natural formation water. Flow back Process allows the well to flow back excess fluids and sand. Once sand and fluid have been removed, gas and/or petroleum liquids begin to flow (the purpose). Flow back process equipment is designed to handle heavy solids so permanent equipment is put in place when the process is complete. Actual duration of the process varies from well to well and play to play. Therefore, all “flow back water (FW) is “produced water” (PW) (FW/PW).FW/PW is more of a concern with respect to drinking water than fracking fluids because flow back water has organic compounds from the formation, as well as heavy metals. Prefracturing fluids, drilling mud, FW/PW and impoundment water has been shown to induce an alteration in the microbial morphology colonizing shale gas reservoirs (reservoir souring, plugging, equipment corrosion, and a decrease in hydrocarbon production volume and quality). As a result of the selection pressure (halotolerant anaerobic microorganisms) leading to Clostridia, a class that includes spore‐forming microorganisms becomes dominant. 250ppm Cu2 in FW/PW has been shown to have a toxic effect on commensal microbial genome while the molecular mechanism remains elusive. Effluent samples collected from facilities treating oil and gas FW/PW were known to contain nickel 8 – 22mg. Metal accumulation due to FW/PW contaminated soil has been shown to enhance antibiotic resistance through co‐selection pressure plausibly via mobile genetic elements in vivo. Heavy metal contamination of soil has been shown to impart a selection pressure on antibiotic resistance in the commensal microbes. An analysis on the spectrum of soil antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) following 4–5‐year nickel exposure (0–800 mg kg−1) in two long‐term experimental sites showed that a total of 149 unique ARGs were detected, with multidrug and β‐lactam resistance as the most prevailing ARG types. Increase in frequency and abundance of ARGs has been shown to correspond an increase along the gradient of increasing nickel concentrations, with the highest values recorded in the treatments amended with 400 mg nickel kg−1 soil. Correlation of the increase in nickel concentration coinciding with an abundance of the mobile genetic elements (MGEs) along with ARGs, has been implicated in the soil contamination by FW/PW/PM enriched in heavy metal (Nickel). Taken together, FF‐PW‐PM has mutagenic potential in altering the genome of commensal microbes imparting selection pressure for antibiotic resistance. It is suggested that contamination of the water table, agricultural produce, and human exposure to the commensal microbes with an altered ARG's would likely to exacerbate AR thus potentiate ARP. Based on the detailed chemical analysis of produced water/wastewater originating from hydraulic fracking indicates that such epigenetic factors are hypothesized to alter the pattern of methylation/demethylation of a multitude of ARG in soil microbiome. Increased hydraulic fracturing across the globe plausibly alters the soil microbiome (Rhizobium‐Nitrogen fixation in legumes) impinging on microbes that are essential in nitrogen cycle directly entering the food chain thus affecting the “Human Gut Resistome”.Support or Funding InformationSupported by the Professional Development Funds by SWTJC to Subburaj Kannan.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.