bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Truth
Authors: Sunstein Cass R. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
When free nations protect falsehoods, and even lies, they do so for identifiable reasons. Officials cannot always be trusted; they are fallible and possibly biased. They might be trying to protect their own power. Whenever you punish falsehoods, you deter people from saying things that are true. People can learn from falsehoods; their own convictions might be clarified or fortified. In any case, it is important for people to know what others think, and censorship or regulation can give oxygen to falsehoods. These points are important, but they are too abstract to answer many concrete questions—involving, for example, fraud, perjury, libel, and false commercial advertising. They provide orientation, but not trump cards.
The Appearance of Corruption
Authors: Shaw Daron R. , Roberts Brian E. , Baek Mijeong 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The sanctity of political speech is a key element of the U.S. Constitution and a cornerstone of the American republic. When the Supreme Court linked political speech to campaign finance in its landmark Buckley v. Valeo (1976) decision, the modern era of campaign finance regulation was born. In practical terms, this decision meant that in order to pass constitutional muster, any laws limiting money in politics must be narrowly tailored and serve a compelling state interest. The lone state interest the Court was willing to entertain was the mitigation of corruption. In order to reach this argument the Court advanced a sophisticated behavioral model, one with key assumptions about how laws will affect voters’ opinions and behavior. These assumptions have received surprisingly little attention in the literature. This book takes up the task of identifying and analyzing empirically the Court’s presumed links between campaign finance regulations and political opinions and behavior. In so doing, we rely on original survey data and experiments from 2009–2016 to openly confront the question of what happens when the Supreme Court is wrong, and when the foundation of over forty years of jurisprudence is simply not true.
What Do Americans Know about Campaign Finance?
Authors: Shaw Daron R. , Roberts Brian E. , Baek Mijeong 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 2 establishes a baseline by reviewing public opinion concerning money and politics, pre– and post–Citizens United, focusing on what Americans know about money in politics and campaign spending. On the one hand, given that citizens are typically not well informed about politics, it should come as no surprise that they do not know all that much about candidate spending or campaign finance. On the other hand, the public is not completely off base with respect to its sense of money in politics, and this basic intuition is perhaps even sharper in the post–Citizens United era. The data suggest that while Americans know a little bit about campaign finance, there is no systematic correlation between the regulatory environment of the state and how much people in that state know about campaign finance.
Theorizing Political Responsiveness in Prosecutorial Decision-Making
Authors: Boyd Christina L. , Nelson Michael J. , Ostrander Ian , Boldt Ethan D. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter details our theory for why we should expect the priorities and preferences of the president, Congress, and a U.S. Attorney’s local public to affect prosecutorial behavior. We argue that principal-agency theory provides a useful tool to understand how political principals like the president and Congress can influence U.S. Attorney decision-making. We expect that presidential rhetoric and congressional hearings on crime-fighting priorities will provide important, meaningful signals regarding these principals’ priorities and that federal prosecutors will adjust their behavior depending on the strength of the signals they have received from their principals. Additionally, we anticipate that U.S. Attorneys will be mindful of their local public’s preferences because they are often drawn from the district in which they serve and will continue to work in the district when their tenure ends. We also introduce the empirical measures used to capture political superiors’ communication to federal prosecutors that we rely on in the remainder of the book.
Introduction Identity
Authors: Bittner Stephen V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
After laying out the principal arguments, the introduction surveys the history of wine consumption from Kievan Rus in the tenth century to the Soviet embrace of Georgian foodways and wine toasting in the twentieth. It highlights the role of Peter the Great, who encountered fine European wine during travel abroad, and who forced the Russian aristocracy to adopt European modes of consumption. By the early nineteenth century, European wines were common fixtures on elite Russian tables, and domestic wines from the Don region, Crimea, and the Caucasus began to appear as well. Wine thus spoke to instabilities in Russia that vodka could not, particularly the tension between a narrow elite that had been acculturated to European modes of consumption, and broad masses that remained oblivious to them.
Science
Authors: Bittner Stephen V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 2 traces Russia’s response in the 1880s and 1890s to the ‘great wine blight’, the phylloxera epidemic that nearly destroyed European viniculture entirely. Long after a French botanist, Jules-Émile Planchon, devised a sure-fire solution—grafting the scions of endangered European vines onto the rootstock of immune American vines—Russian scientists persisted with the use of an ineffective pesticide. The reasons why they persisted had a lot to do with the unusual views of Aleksandr Kovalevskii, a pioneering natural scientist and chairman of the Bessarabian Phylloxera Commission. Kovalevksii argued that the ‘struggle for existence’ envisioned by Darwin’s theory of speciation was occurring on the inter- rather than the intra-specific level, between different species of grapevines. Planchon’s grafting, in Kovalevskii’s view, thus constituted choosing sides in the existential struggle between American and European vines.
Authenticity
Authors: Bittner Stephen V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The modern science of oenology emerged at the end of the nineteenth century, as vintners learned to remediate flawed grape must with sugar and a preservative to produce better wine. The advent of oenology was at the heart of an acrimonious dispute that pitted against each other two of Russia’s most prominent and influential vintners: Prince Lev Golitsyn, whose estate vineyard on the southern shore of Crimea produced some of the best wines in the world around the turn of the century, and Vasilii Tairov, the editor of the journal Winemaking Bulletin. At issue were the characteristics that made fine wine authentically European: was it appropriate to take oenological shortcuts, or was the production of fine wine a form of artisanship, done by methods passed down over many generations?
Hospitality
Authors: Bittner Stephen V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
During the late 1940s, several prominent vintners at Massandra—the former crown estate outside of Yalta—were imprisoned on trumped up charges. Unusual their fate was not—thousands of Soviet citizens met similar demises in the post-war years—but the reasons why they came to the attention of the procuracy and the police in the first place. Vintners were participants in a ‘gift economy’, in which they used the wine they produced to celebrate old alliances and create new ones. Their behaviour had roots in the war years, when the formal ways of getting things done fractured in the face of evacuation and retreat. As Moscow tried to rein in the centrifugal forces unleashed by war, vintners at Massandra discovered that the wine was never theirs to give.
Quality
Authors: Bittner Stephen V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The final chapter traces the emergence of a Soviet culture of connoisseurship in the 1970s and 1980s. It highlights efforts by Soviet vintners to improve the quality of their wines and to ween consumers from so-called bormotukha, low-quality wines sweetened with beet sugar and strengthened with grain alcohol that comprised the vast majority of Soviet production. Vintners were motivated by concerns that alcoholism was becoming a principal threat to public health, and that bormotukha, which often had an alcohol content as high as 19%, was contributing to the epidemic. The solution, in their view, was to encourage Soviet consumers to purchase conventional dry wine, which they presented in the press as a more cultured and refined drink than vodka and bormotukha.
He Fell, Slandered by Rumour
Authors: Werth Paul W. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Recounting the famous duel in January 1837 that killed Russia’s greatest poet, Alexander Pushkin, this chapter identifies this episode as one of the most important events of 1837 and indeed in Russia’s history. In light of censorship and official prohibitions on duelling, the precise circumstances of Pushkin’s death remained a mystery in public discourse for decades. Questions remain even today. But his demise in a duel punctuated with romantic intrigue proved central to his cult, which in turn became a critical resource for defining modern Russia and uniting its population in the late empire and the USSR. The episode helped to produce a cultural mythology that eventually made the poet Russia’s ‘everything’.
Provinces Animated
Authors: Werth Paul W. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The appearance of provincial newspapers in Russia represents a pivotal moment in the history of the Russia’s press and life beyond its two capitals. Arising in 42 provinces of European Russia by a decree of June 1837, the new gazettes offered possibilities to invest those territories with content and thus played a critical role in the emergence of provincial consciousness. They also gave provincial inhabitants the opportunity to participate directly in intellectual life, laid the foundations for a civil society on the local level, and created a forum for the exchange of useful information on agriculture and trade. Marrying unity with diversity, newspapers furthermore linked the provinces with one another by granting them a common intellectual experience, even while inducing their inhabitants to explore and celebrate the distinctiveness of each.
Northern Phoenix
Authors: Werth Paul W. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The year 1837 featured one of Russia’s most spectacular fires, which broke out at the Winter Palace on 17 December. All that was left standing was the hulking skeleton of what had been among the greatest palaces in the world. An unknown number had perished, many in desperate attempt to save articles from the fire and to prevent its transmission to the adjoining Hermitage. The catastrophe created distinct dangers for the regime. Yet it also provided a remarkable opportunity for Russia to demonstrate its resilience and unity of purpose. The emperor, Nicholas I, set an almost impossible deadline for the palace’s reconsecration: the spring of 1839, a mere 15 months after the building’s destruction. Astonishingly, his autocracy managed to achieve that goal, staging a triumphant rededication on Easter night. The whole process featured a curious combination of triumph and anxiety, thus offering insights about the monarchy’s aspirations and apprehensions.
Habitat Ecology and Analysis
Authors: Veech Joseph A. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Habitat is crucial to the survival and reproduction of individual organisms as well as persistence of populations. As such, species-habitat relationships have long been studied, particularly in the field of wildlife ecology and to a lesser extent in the more encompassing discipline of ecology. The habitat requirements of a species largely determine its spatial distribution and abundance in nature. One way to recognize and appreciate the over-riding importance of habitat is to consider that a young organism must find and settle into the appropriate type of habitat as one of the first challenges of life. This process can be cast in a probabilistic framework and used to better understand the mechanisms behind habitat preferences and selection. There are at least six distinctly different statistical approaches to conducting a habitat analysis – that is, identifying and quantifying the environmental variables that a species most strongly associates with. These are (1) comparison among group means (e.g., ANOVA), (2) multiple linear regression, (3) multiple logistic regression, (4) classification and regression trees, (5) multivariate techniques (Principal Components Analysis and Discriminant Function Analysis), and (6) occupancy modelling. Each of these is lucidly explained and demonstrated by application to a hypothetical dataset. The strengths and weaknesses of each method are discussed. Given the ongoing biodiversity crisis largely caused by habitat destruction, there is a crucial and general need to better characterize and understand the habitat requirements of many different species, particularly those that are threatened and endangered.
‘Ah, Assyria, the Rod of My Anger’
Authors: Faust Avraham 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 3 (‘Ah, Assyria, the Rod of my Anger’: The Assyrian Takeover of the Southwest) briefly outlines the interactions of the Neo-Assyrian empire with the southwest, from the first contacts in the ninth century bce, to the conquests and annexations of the last third of the eighth. The region was incorporated within the empire quite quickly at the time of Tiglath-pileser III, and Assyrian control was solidified in later campaigns, mainly at the time of Sargon II and Sennacherib. By the end of this century, the entire area was, directly or indirectly, under Assyrian control. The north, with the exception of Tyre, was divided between Assyrian provinces, whereas the south was mostly comprised of semi-autonomous clients.
The genetics of Huntington’s disease
Authors: Quarrell Oliver 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the nature of the genetic mistake. The genetic code, or DNA molecule, is wound up onto structures called chromosomes. The gene for HD is located on chromosome 4. As we have two copies of our genes the chromosomes are in pairs. Only one copy of the HD has to be abnormal to cause the condition. This results in a pattern of inheritance called autosomal dominant and both males and females can be affected. Genes code for proteins; the protein encoded by the HD gene is called huntingtin. Proteins are made of building blocks called amino acids. The gene for HD has an expansion of the genetic code for glutamine. Therefore, abnormal huntingtin has an expansion of the number of glutamines. The genetic code for glutamine is CAG so the mistake in the gene is sometimes called a CAG repeat expansion disorder or in referring to the protein it is called a polyglutamine repeat expansion. The gene is in one part of the cell and the protein-making machinery is in another part of the cell so a chemical messenger is required which is called RNA. Explaining this is important for understanding some current clinical trials
Laboratory testing
Authors: Quarrell Oliver 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the way genetic testing is done. Essentially, the test measures the number of CAGs which are repeated in the first part of the gene. It is possible to measure the size of a section of the gene for Huntington’s disease (HD) so as to know how many CAG repeats are present in the gene. The results are classified as: normal (under 27 repeats) intermediate alleles (27–35 repeats), reduced penetrance alleles (36–39) and those which are unequivocally abnormal (40 and above). The chapter also describes the relationship between the CAG repeat length and age of onset as well as the new mutations.
Genetic counselling for unaffected family members
Authors: Quarrell Oliver 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on aspects of genetic counselling for those at 50 per cent risk for Huntington’s disease (HD). There are various options including not being tested. Predictive testing for HD is described together with some perspectives from patients. There are four types of results from a predictive test: normal, intermediate allele, reduced penetrance, and abnormal. The implications of these are discussed. Options regarding testing in pregnancy are discussed which include: no testing and accepting a risk, invasive tests such as chorion villus sampling or amniocentesis and preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Finally, the issue of testing someone at 25 per cent risk is discussed.
Duties and Damages
Authors: Webb Charlie 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This essay looks at the relationship between primary and secondary duties. If I breach a duty I owe to you, the law’s standard response is that I must pay you damages for such losses as I thereby cause. Some have thought that we understand what duties we owe only by looking to the sanctions the law imposes in the event of “default”: if all the law will compel me to do is to pay you damages, this is the sum of my duty to you. But the truth is that the content of these sanctions tells us little to nothing about these duties; the question of how I should conduct myself in my dealings with you is simply different to the question of what action the law should take if I do not do as I should. So, just as our legal duties cannot be read off from the law’s sanctions, so we should not think that the law falls short when it fails to compel performance, or such performance as remains possible, of our duties. But while looking to the content of my duty does not tell us how the law should respond to its breach, the considerations which ground that initial duty may shed light on this question. How much light? In the final sections, I offer some reasons for doubting whether the basis of our secondary duties is always, or even commonly, to be found in the considerations which ground the relevant primary duty.
Billionaires in World Politics
Authors: Hägel Peter 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This book shows how the privatization of politics assumes a new dimension when billionaires wield power in world politics, which requires a re-thinking of individual agency in International Relations. Structural changes (globalization, neoliberalism, competition states, and global governance) have generated new opportunities for individuals to become extremely rich and to engage in politics across borders. The political agency of billionaires is being conceptualized in terms of capacities, goals, and power, which is contingent upon the specific political field a billionaire is trying to enter. Six case studies explore the power of billionaires in their pursuit of security, wealth, and esteem. The chapter on security analyzes Raj Rajaratnam’s relationship to the Tamil cause in Sri Lanka, and Sheldon Adelson's transnational electioneering in the Israel-Palestine conflict. Regarding the economy, the book studies how the Koch brothers' political protection of fossil fuels is affecting climate change mitigation, and how Rupert Murdoch's opinion-shaping is valorizing conservatism across borders. The chapter on social entrepreneurship and esteem examines the role of Bill Gates in the governance of global health and George Soros's attempts to build open societies as a 'stateless statesman'. An analytical conclusion evaluates the prior findings in order to address three major questions: Is it more appropriate to see billionaires as 'super-actors', or as a global 'super-class'? What is the relative power of billionaires within the international system? What does the power of billionaires mean for the liberal norms of legitimate political order?
Remaking Mobility
Authors: Becker Peter 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Our modern passport system emerged after the Great War. It superseded the tight control of individual mobility during wartime, but did not come close to prewar conditions of open borders. The League of Nations had to play an ambivalent role. It was commissioned by the governments to manage the abolition of passports, but obstructed in its implementation. In the end, the League had to settle with an agreement on international standards for issuing passports and visas and for controlling travel documents at the border. The discussions at the conferences highlight the difficulties of coming to terms with the social, political, and economic legacy of the war. One of the legacies was the mistrust towards nationals and foreigners; its impact was strongly felt in Central Europe, where the successor states of the Habsburg monarchy established a strict border regime within a highly integrated region with free movement of people, goods, and capital.
How Big Are Illicit Financial Flows?
Authors: Ferwerda Joras , Unger Brigitte 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In recent years several leaks have given us insight into how the wealthy and criminals hide their money. The boom of leaks has resulted in a ‘hot phase’ in tax regulation. As a result, the number of studies that want to measure illicit financial flows has also increased. This chapter tries to provide an overview of this booming new field. What do all these studies teach us about the seriousness and size of tax avoidance, tax evasion, and money laundering? What is precisely measured, and how? This chapter concludes that the term ‘Illicit Financial Flows’ has become a bit of a floating identifier, a name that is vague enough to be used for many different concepts but at the cost of losing its meaning. We argue that decomposing the problem of illicit financial flows and what each study aims to measure, might give more useful insights.
The Corporate Tax Haven Index
Authors: Ates Leyla , Cobham Alex , Harari Moran , Janský Petr , Meinzer Markus , Millán Lucas , Palanský Miroslav 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, we set out a new approach to the geography of profit shifting, based on a range of objectively verifiable criteria. These are combined in the Corporate Tax Haven Index, published for the first time in 2019. We present the technical argument for the index as a meaningful representation of the global distribution of the risks of corporate tax abuse and explore the new geography that emerges. Our findings show the UK’s dominant responsibility for corporate tax avoidance risks and the colonial roots of many exploitative double tax treaties. We discuss the index’s political implications for the immediate process of international tax reform, and for the longer-term prospects for global governance in this area. Greater clarity about the geography of profit shifting is likely to support growing demands for redistribution not only of taxing rights but also of decision-making power in the global architecture for tax governance.
The Emergence of New Corporations
Authors: Helgadóttir Oddný 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter centres on ‘Luxury Freeports’, which are specialized storage sites where art and other high-end goods can be kept indefinitely without tax and duty-payments being made. The chapter makes the case that Luxury Freeports are best understood as new entrants in the ‘offshore world’, and shows how these sites have, over the course of the last ten years, taken up a new niche role in the evolving global ecosystem of tax avoidance. Further, it examines the rapid spread of this new form of offshore and traces it back to the combination of spillover effects within the offshore world itself. More specifically, Luxury Freeports stem from the juncture of a competitive ‘push’ from the rapid spread of Open Customs Warehouses at the turn of the century and the investment ‘pull’ of large pools of money needing new investment outlets in the wake of the recent multilateral effort to clamp down on banking secrecy.