bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Why Is There No International Theory?
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: December 2021

AbstractIn this essay Wight explained why there is no set of classic works regarding relations among states—what Wight terms ‘international theory’— analogous to the rich political theory literature concerning the state. In addition to works on international law, four categories of effort have populated the field: (a) those of ‘irenists’ advocating mechanisms to promote peace; (b) those of Machiavellians examining raison d’état; (c) incidental works by great philosophers and historians; and (d) noteworthy speeches and other writings by statesmen and officials. International theory works have been ‘marked, not only by paucity but also by intellectual and moral poverty’, because of the focus since the sixteenth century on the modern sovereign state, with the states-system neglected. Moreover, while there has been material and organizational progress within states in recent centuries, international relations have remained ‘incompatible with progressivist theory’. People who recoil from analyses implying that progress in international affairs is doubtful sometimes prefer a Kantian ‘argument from desperation’ asserting the feasibility of improvements and ‘perpetual peace’. Wight concluded that ‘historical interpretation’ is for international relations the counterpart of political theory for the state.
On the Abolition of War
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: December 2021

AbstractIn this essay Wight advanced four main criticisms of the proposal by Walter Millis for the abolition of what Millis called ‘the war system’. First, the proposal disregards ‘the positive or constructive functions of war in international society’, such as bringing about ‘desirable change’, gaining independence, preserving independence, and maintaining the balance of power. Second, the proposal to abolish war understates ‘the intractability of international conflicts’ and exaggerates the role of armaments and military formations in causing war. The true causes of war reside in ‘human passions and conflicting interests’, not weapons. Third, the proposal to eradicate war fails to recognize the price that must be paid to defeat aggression and establish order. Fourth, no effective alternative institution has been found to replace ‘the war system’ as a means to perform certain functions, including the prevention of detrimental change. The vision of an ‘international government’ ruling the world without war ultimately implies ‘a monopoly of power’, including nuclear arms, perhaps under ‘an American–Russian dyarchy’, despite ‘the intrinsic instability of dyarchy’ and its ‘disagreeableness’ for the rival powers, such as China and France.
Reflections on International Legitimacy
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: December 2021

AbstractIn this essay, presented at a Sussex history seminar in 1971, Wight set out reflections on international legitimacy—supported by historical examples—in addition to those included in his two essays entitled ‘International Legitimacy’, one published as an article in 1972 in the journal International Relations, and the other as a chapter in his 1977 posthumous book Systems of States. Wight pointed out in this essay that governments on some occasions have set aside established principles of legitimacy in order to serve other purposes—maintaining a preferred balance of power, gaining territory, promoting commercial relations, or pursuing state-consolidation, sometimes with a ‘lack of scruple’. Wight observed that rules regarding legitimacy have furnished grounds ‘for argument, controversy, conflict, even war’. He nonetheless concluded that ‘the influence of principles of legitimacy upon international politics has generally been overestimated’ and ‘has declined rather than grown, with the transition from the dynastic to the popular age’. Prevailing concepts of legality and legitimacy have correspondingly enjoyed less ‘moral ascendancy’.
Popular Legitimacy
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: December 2021

AbstractThe American and French Revolutions derived from—and promoted—a concept of legitimacy based on popular consent and the public will. This concept displaced the practice of relying on dynasticism, the prescriptive rights of hereditary monarchs. As a result, plebiscites have taken the place of dynastic marriages as mechanisms for the legitimization of transfers of sovereignty. Noteworthy examples include decisions in the unification of Italy and in the European settlement of 1919–1920. Plebiscites have not, however, been conducted when Great Powers have ruled them out—for instance, France’s rejection of a plebiscite concerning Alsace-Lorraine after the First World War. Popular legitimacy raises questions about the defining characteristics of a self-governing nation—its size and capacity for self-defence, its language and history, and the allegiance choices of its citizens. Disputes over minority rights may raise questions about national identity and cohesion, including the possible founding of new states seceding from established countries. In some cases, such as Israel, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia, religion is a fundamental source of identity and state legitimacy.
Review of Richard W. Sterling,Ethics in a World of Power: The Political Ideas of Friedrich Meinecke(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1958; London, Oxford University Press, 1959)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: December 2021

AbstractMeinecke’s student and friend, Richard Sterling, composed this intellectual biography concerning Meinecke’s political ideas. Born in 1862, Meinecke was raised to venerate Hegel, Ranke, and Bismarck as pillars of the German State and conservative nationalism. Wight summed up Meinecke’s political evolution as follows: ‘In the first World War he justified the ultimatum to Serbia and the invasion of Belgium, he approved of unrestricted submarine warfare, and he explained to the minority peoples of the Central Powers that though the nation-state had been the proper goal for the Germans, it was their duty to remain content with the multi-national state. The shock of defeat started him on an assiduous criticism of his old beliefs. The moral autonomy of the State, the primacy of foreign policy, international relations as the fruitful competition of vigorously egotistic Powers, all gradually dissolved. He moved nearer to Goethe, and as an old man came to find the ultimate truth of politics not in the ideal, super-individual corporate personality of the nation-state, but in the martyrdom of the individual rebel against Hitler’s Reich.’
Habit and skilled action
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
What is the role of habitual movement in expert action? This chapter begins by reviewing traditional conceptualizations of habit according to which our well-learned movements are mechanical-like tendencies to respond to stimuli in a preordained manner. It then draws on a range of theoretical perspectives which emphasize the generative nature of habits. It proceeds to discuss a variety of the ‘crises’ which confront the performing body (e.g. injury, ageing, normalization of bodily processes) and suggest that habits must be inherently flexible if experts are to successfully address these latter challenges. In doing so, it draws on the work of theorists such as Bourdieu, Carlisle, and Dewey. The chapter concludes by discussing some of the pedagogical strategies such as discursive practice that coaches and practitioners may use to extend habitual movement capacities and address habitual crises. It argues that experts acquire flexible habits which allows them to act back upon the body and to initiate change.
Is optimal performance really ‘mindless’?
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers whether optimal/peak performance is as automatic or ‘mindless’ as many accounts of expertise suggest. It starts by exploring the phenomenon known as ‘flow’ which is typically presented as evidence that peak performance is mindless or automatic in nature. It then reviews recent literature in this area which reveals that the mind remains online during skilled action and especially during ‘clutch’ performances or when athletes are seeking to ‘make it happen’. It proceeds to discuss how ‘mindedness’ and bodily awareness are integral features of peak performance. It then uses this argument to uncover the potential perils associated with ‘non-mindedness’ or automated performance. In particular, the chapter discusses how excessive automaticity prevents athletes from exercising attentional control and results in a number of undesirable outcomes including slips, lapses, and in extreme cases, ‘choking’ under pressure.
Bodily awareness during skilled action
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Prominent theories of skill acquisition posit that the performing body is absent during ‘habitualized’ or well-learned action. This chapter challenges this position by arguing that the body is never forgotten during skilled movement. Instead, it possesses what might be termed an enduring presence. Drawing on Colombetti’s (2011) taxonomy of the bodily self, the chapter shows how skilled performers may experience either a reflective or pre-reflective mode of bodily awareness depending on what they attend to during online skill execution. It proposes that while the body is always lived through as the subject of experience, performers will often have little choice but to take the body as the intentional object of their awareness. The chapter concludes by arguing that it is the dynamic interplay of various forms of bodily awareness that facilitates optimal performance and allows skilled performers to confront the challenges (e.g. injury, performance slumps) that are a ubiquitous feature of competitive environments.
Exploring the orthogonal relationship between controlled and automated processes
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
After identifying some of the weaknesses associated with linear, or serial, models of skill learning—with a focus on their failure to fully account for the ongoing relevance of motor control and attention to action—this chapter synthesizes the evidence presented over the course of this book to construct a model of skilled action that captures the complex relationship between automaticity and attentional focus. This model explains how these two processes operate in a synergistic fashion to help experts overcome the challenges they face in seeking to not only maintain but to continue to improve performance proficiency over long timescales, to update and improve motor execution in training contexts, and to stabilize performance under pressurized conditions. The chapter concludes by briefly discussing the role metacognition plays in allowing expert performers to identify and apply situationally appropriate modes of control.
Practical and methodological considerations
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This penultimate chapter considers how athletes might develop the ability to exert attentional control. It outlines some approaches that might help athletes to switch their focus or re-distribute patterns of attention when they realize they have adopted task-irrelevant thoughts. It evaluates the use of mindfulness, quiet-eye training, pressurized training, among other approaches, as means of training attentional control. The chapter concludes by outlining a series of methodological approaches that might be employed by researchers wishing to test some of the predictions put forth by our model of skilled action and our proposal that skilled maintenance is underpinned by the flexible deployment of attentional resources.
The Role of the Directors
Authors: Micheler Eva 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the role of the directors. The duties of the directors are owed to the company and while the shareholders are the primary indirect beneficiaries of those duties, the law integrates the interests of creditors and also of wider society. The law is primarily focused on ensuring compliance with the Companies Act and the constitution rather than with the enhancement of economic interests. The Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986 serves as a mechanism through which the public interest is integrated into company law, while the UK Corporate Governance Code adds a further procedural dimension to the operation of the board of directors. The chapter then looks at how the idea of designing remuneration in a way that guides the directors to act either for the benefit of the shareholder or for the benefit of the company is flawed and has served as a motor justifying increasing rewards without bringing about commensurate increases in performance. It also analyses the duties of the directors to keep accounting records and to produce financial reports.
The Role of the Shareholders
Authors: Micheler Eva 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the role of the shareholders, who have substantial influence over the company. UK company law is shareholder-centred, but it would be wrong to conclude that shareholders are the principals of the directors or of the company. Shareholders normally appoint the directors and auditors, and they have a mandatory power to remove them. The shareholders are also responsible for approving certain transactions, including share issues, takeover defences, political donations, provisions made for employees on the cessation of business, and (under the Listing Rules) certain large transactions. Taken together, these powers give the shareholders significant influence over the management of the company. The rights of shareholders are, however, also subject to constraints. These constraints operate for the benefit of minority shareholders and creditors. The chapter then examines the UK Stewardship Code, through which the government attempts to exercise pressure on institutional shareholders to refrain from requesting short-term return. It also analyses the reflective loss principle, which restricts shareholders in pursuing damages claims against third parties in circumstances where the company has a competing claim.
Conclusions
Authors: Micheler Eva 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This concluding chapter summarizes how the previous chapters explained company law through a real entity theory. According to this theory, the law does not create organizations but finds them as a real social phenomenon. When human beings interact, habits, routines, processes, and procedures form. These affect the way participants of an organization act and so are real in their consequences. Organizations are characterized by this social structure. There also exists individual agency, which enables participants to deviate from the social structure and over time also to modify it. At a positive level, company law can be explained as making it easier for organizations to act autonomously and also as supplying a decision-making process that assigns roles to directors, shareholders, auditors, and a company secretary. Not all organizations are companies and not every company operates as an organization. Company law is nevertheless designed with a view to facilitating autonomous organizational action.
Hedging Bets with BITS
Authors: Dreyfuss Rochelle C 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter argues that bilateral investment treaties (BITS) and free trade agreements (FTAs) erect a high hedge around intellectual property rights, protecting them from the impact of state regulation. Two investor-state dispute settlements (ISDS) involving IP have been resolved by final award. In both cases, the state prevailed, suggesting that the hedge may not be as impenetrable as had originally been feared. However, the chapter contends that this view is mistaken. While the awards in the decided disputes may close the door on specific contentions, they invite further challenges and maintain the heavy shadow that the hedge provided by ISDS casts on state action. In order to trim that hedge, it will be necessary for the drafters of investment obligations and the tribunals that hear ISDS disputes to take into account the intangibility of IP rights in determining when IP is sufficiently localized in a host state that it should be considered protectable by that state's investment obligations. The chapter then explores ways to trim ISDS, including the possibility of using ISDS as a mechanism for building counter-norms—hedges that protect the public and its regulatory interest.
Emotion and the arts
Authors: Brown Steven 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
While many historical approaches equate the arts with aesthetics, I see the arts far more broadly than that. In addition, aesthetic emotions themselves need to be grounded in a general theory of human emotion. Along these lines, this chapter presents a communication model of emotion that covers the full gamut of processes from the production to the perception of emotion in the arts. The production side includes compositional processes for imbuing an artwork with emotions, as well as performance processes for conveying the emotions contained in an artwork. The perceptual mechanisms include recognition of the emotional content of an artwork, as well as the experience of felt emotions by people in response to such a work. The latter is where aesthetic emotions are situated in the model.
Italianating the Boy
Authors: Brown Pamela Allen 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In the 1580s John Lyly and other writers for children’s companies created novel plays featuring a keen-witted, hot-blooded, virtuosic innamorata, relying on the beauty and skills of the cross-dressed boy player. Plays aimed at a worldly elite audience exoticize and eroticize the “boy actress,” painting him as extravagantly Italianate in ways that shadow the foreign diva, evidence of her transnational impact on plays and playing. Lyly’s Gallathea, Sapho and Phao, and The Woman in the Moone; Peele’s Arraignment of Paris; and Marlowe’s Dido, Queen of Carthage show how the English contained the threat of the actress by appropriating and adapting her trademark playing and star scenes, such as solo song and madness. As a result, the skilled labor of both divas and boys left its mark on these innovative works.
“Let all the dukes and all the devils roar!” Mad Skills and Madwomen
Authors: Brown Pamela Allen 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The wildly popular star scene of female derangement enriched the stock of theatergrams deployed by playwrights across the map. Isabella Andreini’s triumph playing La Pazzia (“Madness”), featuring her skills in singing, impersonation, languages, and improvisation, spurred many imitations. On the English stage female madness took several forms. Bereaved madwomen leap from deep mourning to subversive songs and jokes, as with Ophelia in Hamlet and Cornelia in Webster’s The White Devil. Others express furious grief cut off by showy suicides (Isabella in Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, and Zabina in Marlowe’s Tamburlaine). Sapho in Lyly’s Sapho and Phao and Dido in Marlowe’s The Tragedie of Dido, Queen of Carthage suffer comic and tragic erotomania. Most distinctive are the comic virtuosas: Pandora in Lyly’s The Woman in the Moone and the Jailer’s Daughter in Shakespeare and Fletcher’s The Two Noble Kinsmen amuse and astonish with multiple prolonged pazzie and prodigious displays of skill.
Introduction
Authors: Kumojima Tomoe 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The introductory chapter provides the historical and cultural contexts to situate the discussions on Victorian women’s travel writing on Meiji Japan in the wider academic debate on the British Empire, Victorian literature, and female travel writing. It provides an overview of Anglo–Japanese relations between 1854 and 1912 to trace shifts in the bilateral relationship and foreground its singularity in a multitude of East–West encounters. It then examines travel writings by both male and female travellers to Meiji Japan and fictional representations of the country in Victorian literature and theatre. It surveys travelogues by a group of female travellers alongside those by diplomats and journalists like Kipling, Japan-related writings by Wilde and Stevenson, and theatrical pieces such as The Mikado. The chapter considers the literary invention of Japan and analyses how women travellers negotiated discursive constraints due to gender and colonialism and challenged mainstream representations of Japan and Japanese people.
Ritual’s Evolutionary Landscapes
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Understanding the role of ritual in the evolution of social complexity requires attention to many complex, interacting processes operating at different levels. This chapter attempts to sort these out into a coherent overarching framework by building on the ideas of British biologist, philosopher, and polymath C. H. Waddington, who put forward the idea of an ‘epigenetic landscape’ to explain how organisms develop. Waddington’s basic model can be extended to explain how cognitive-developmental and social-historical landscapes unfold and how all three kinds of landscapes interact. Adopting this overarching perspective on cultural evolution helps bridge the unnecessary divisions among branches of evolutionary theory and psychology that emphasize distinct but potentially complementary aspects of social learning and cultural transmission.
‘The Kinge and His Cubbs’ in Peril
Authors: Akkerman Nadine 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers several thwarted plots against the Stuarts, which had a particular affect on Elizabeth’s relationship with her brother Henry. First, the Main and Bye plots - a pair of overlapping plots whose combined intention was to overthrow King James in favour of his first cousin, the English-born Lady Arbella Stuart, and install Thomas Grey, 15th Baron Grey of Hilton, as de facto king, to secure greater religious toleration for Catholics in England – which would have seen Elizabeth killed. The plotters included Sir Walter Raleigh and, more importantly, Lord Cobham, husband of Elizabeth’s governess Lady Kildare. Though the plots failed, they resulted in Lady Kildare’s removal from office and Elizabeth and Henry being separated for their own safety – the court at Oatlands was dissolved and Elizabeth moved to Coombe Abbey near Coventry, the residence of the Haringtons. The second plot was the notorious Gunpowder Plot which would have had Elizabeth crowned queen: the confession of Guy Fawkes showed beyond doubt that although the primary aim had been to blow up parliament with James and Henry in attendance, this was merely a clearing of the way, as ‘they intended that the king’s daughter the Lady Elizabeth should have succeeded’. The plot showed that having Elizabeth in the country was not safe either, and so she was moved closer to the court, to Kew. This enabled her and Henry to visit each other regularly and even share their education. They behaved and were in many ways treated as if they were twins.