bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Autonomous Subsea Field Development - Value Proposition, Technology Needs and Gaps for Future Advancement
Authors: Arcangeletti Giorgio , Mattioli Matteo , Ausborn Mark , Matskevitch Dmitri , Marcotulli Amedeo 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
With increasing demand of subsea processing and surveillance goals Best-in-Class Operators are developing advanced subsea instrumentation and controls to challenge in the next decade: i) a cost-effective way to inspect and repair subsea complex facilities and ii) to reduce the downtime, possibly increase the production performance while preserving the integrity and maintenance of the assets.
The so called "Autonomous Subsea Field Development" is a study triggered by an ExxonMobil URC (Upstream Research Company) initiative aimed to explore possible improvements and re-designs of subsea equipment considering the advancing capabilities of ROVs and new generation of Subsea Drones, and driven by the following questions:
with the advancements in AUVs and ROVs, can subsea equipment be re-designed to take full advantage of the new capabilities? Can this re-design improve from different perspectives (Availability, Costs, Operations, etc.) a subsea field development?
A dedicated study was conducted by SAIPEM to identify the value proposition, technology needs and gaps for future advancement by leveraging on the technological "building blocks" that could be integrated in a subsea field development scheme and on a field operational procedure.
Within the study, seven different cases, distinguished by their status of advancement (from Brown to Green Fields) and by the level of penetration of Subsea Drones in the architecture, have been analyzed.
A conceptual engineering process, based on the tenets of value engineering was conducted in a holistic fashion covering the full field development facilities during the life cycle in order to steer the conceptual engineering choices that could maximize the project value.
Using a systemic Value Engineering approach based on the NPV equation, the study identified the main technological and economic impacts coming from the adoption of Subsea Drones on a current and future Digital Subsea Field exploring the following pillars: i) CAPEX, ii) OPEX, iii) AVAILABILITY, and iv) RISK.
In the sequence of six cases investigated, it has been identified how these incoming "subsea capabilities" will be gradually implemented into redesigned subsea architecture and serviced in view of a new Life of Field concept.
A Critical Assessment of Deepwater Gulf of Mexico Floating Platform Engineering, Procurement, Construction and Installation EPCI Contracting Strategies and Cycle Times
Authors: D'Souza Richard B. , Basu Shiladitya 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
A major objective of a greenfield deepwater field development with a host platform, is to achieve the first production milestone set at project sanction. A field development consists of subsurface characterization, reservoir depletion, drilling and completion, subsea production system, host platform and export system. Of these, the floating host platform is a major capital expense and presents a significant execution challenge. Over fifty deepwater floating platforms have been installed in the US Gulf of Mexico (GoM) since 1986, representing the four major platform options; spars, semisubmersibles, Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs) and Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) platforms, operated by International, Independent and National Oil Companies. They are installed in water depths ranging from 500 m to 3,000 m, with production capacities from 40,000 to over 250,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day (boepd). Over this period the technologies, operator, and supply chain capabilities to execute deepwater projects have matured.
An operator embarking on a deepwater project must credibly benchmark cycle times for sequential field development stages (Appraise, Select, Define and Execute). Many variables determine these cycle times including reservoir characterization, fluid properties, estimated recovery, location, access to pipeline networks, water depth, subsea architecture, platform size and complexity and contracting strategy.
To provide these benchmarks, the authors have undertaken a critical assessment of ten recent, producing deep and ultra-deepwater field developments in the US GoM, focusing on project execution of the floating platform. Selected field developments capture all floating platform types, several contracting strategies, a wide range of water depths, various reservoir geologies and field locations that cover the entire GoM. The information is intended to assist operators validate cycle times when planning a development, especially the Execute stage.
In addition, the paper addresses emerging trends in deepwater GoM field developments following the oil price collapse in 2014 and 2020.
Experience with Chemical Injection and Umbilicals in Pre-Salt Fields
Authors: Da Silva Sidnei Guerreiro , Gonçalves Andre Athayde , Da Silva William Albuquerque , Filho Rafael Di Lorenzo 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The characteristics of Pre-Salt carbonate reservoirs demand downhole chemical injection to prevent scale, asphaltene, and wax deposits, besides the need of H2S scavenger, and MEG, normally injected at Xmas tree (WCT). The poor performance of injection systems installed in Santos Basin, together with production risks associated to the lack of chemical injection, led the project team to re-evaluate design requirements, such as chemical products characteristics, production systems equipments, umbilicals, and chemical injection valves. In addition, umbilical failures are being observed in other deep-water fields, related to subsea control systems functions. This paper focuses on Company operational experience and lessons learned related to umbilicals and downhole chemical injection.
Improving the Fatigue Performance of Welded Tubular Connections via Flared and Thickened Pipe Ends
Authors: Mansour Ghiath Guy 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Fatigue is a primary challenge in the design of steel catenary risers (SCRs) and different measures and methods are utilized to mitigate it. Traditional upset ends and steel lazy wave risers (SLWRs) are such methods to mitigate fatigue.
SLWRs were first used in 2009 on the Espirito Santo floating, production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessel of Shell Company's Parque das Conchas (BC-10) project offshore Brazil. SLWRs have been used increasingly since then and gained popularity especially in recent years.
A novel patented tubular connection assembly referred to as Flared Thickened Ends (FTEs) improves the fatigue life of SCRs and welded connections in general. This novel assembly has many advantages. It overcomes the thickness limitation of welding traditional upset ends and reduces offshore welding time, cost, and risk.
When FTEs are used in simple SCRs, they render simple SCRs a robustly viable alternative at significantly lower cost, shorter schedule, and with many additional advantages as compared to SLWRs. Of the many advantages, simple SCRs are more straightforward to configure, analyze, design, and install using varied installation methods and vessels. Simple SCRs use less materials and offer better long-term integrity, especially for insulated SCRs. In addition, they have a smaller footprint and are less prone to clashing than SLWRs.
Development of Perforating System for Unique HPHT Injection Application
Authors: Grove Brenden , MacGillivray Joseph , Cook Jason , Hoelscher Chris 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
An operator was developing a High-Pressure High-Temperature (HPHT) field in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico (GOM). Completion design for the injector wells was cased-and-perforated, with no mechanical sand control. This led to the requirement for a tubing-conveyed perforating (TCP) system, featuring deep-penetrating (DP) charges which would meet specific performance requirements, in order to enable the wells to achieve injectivity targets.
A perforating system was therefore developed and qualified to meet these requirements. This was an integrated system development, including both mechanical and explosive components, with simultaneous attention to performance, reliability, and quality assurance in the eventual field environment.
The development program yielded a 4-3/4-inch carrier system, perforating charges, firing head, and gun hanger. All key components and systems were qualified in customer-witnessed testing, and demonstrated to meet or exceed operational function and performance requirements.
The pressure and temperature rating of the newly-developed system is 30,000 psi at 425 °F. Explosive train function reliability was demonstrated at 380 °F for up to 28 days. The newly-developed perforating shaped charge was confirmed to exceed the stringent penetration depth and casing hole diameter performance requirements at downhole conditions. The firing head offers operational flexibility by being configurable for up to 15 pressure cycles prior to detonation, with an adjustable initiation threshold pressure to reduce risk to the completion string. The gun hanger was customized and demonstrated to exceed load requirements, and reliably set and release, in a test configuration featuring operator-provided field casing.
MultiResU-Net: Neural Network for Salt Bodies Delineation and QC Manual Interpretation
Authors: HajNasser Yesser 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Accurate delineation of salt bodies is essential for the characterization of hydrocarbon accumulation and seal efficiency in offshore reservoirs. The interpretation of these subsurface features is heavily dependent on visual picking. This in turn could introduce systematic bias into the task of salt body interpretation. In this study, we introduce a novel machine learning approach of a deep neural network to mimic an experienced geophysical interpreter's intellect in interpreting salt bodies. Here, the benefits of using machine learning are demonstrated by implementing the MultiResU-Net network. The network is an improved form of the classic U-Net. It presents two key architectural improvements. First, it replaces the simple convolutional layers with inception-like blocks with varying kernel sizes to reconcile the spatial features learned from different seismic image contexts. Second, it incorporates residual convolutional layers along the skip connections between the downsampling and the upsampling paths. This aims at compensating for the disparity between the lower-level features coming from the early stages of the downsampling path and the much higher-level features coming from the upsampling path.
From the primary results using the TGS Salt Identification Challenge dataset, the MultiResU-Net outperformed the classic U-Net in identifying salt bodies and showed good agreement with the ground truth. Additionally, in the case of complex salt body geometries, the MultiResU-Net predictions exhibited some intriguing differences with the ground truth interpretation. Although the network validation accuracy is about 95%, some of these occasional discrepancies between the neural network predictions and the ground truth highlighted the subjectivity of the manual interpretation. Consequently, this raises the need to incorporate these neural networks that are prone to random perturbations to QC manual geophysical interpretation. To bridge the gap between the human interpretation and the machine learning predictions, we propose a closed-loop-machine-learning workflow that aims at optimizing the training dataset by incorporating both the consistency of the neural network and the intellect of an experienced geophysical interpreter.
Subsea Chemical Storage and Injection- Qualification of HAMPRO 70V Pump
Authors: Thorkildsen Brede Andre , McKenzie Lachlan James , Følkner Stein , Pasquet Francois-Xavier , Bibet Pierre-Jean 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The development of Subsea Chemical Storage & Injection (SCS&I) technology is a continuation of the trend to move more of the hydrocarbon production systems subsea. This is driven by a need to make exploitation of remote resources profitable; unlock single-line long tie-backs and subsea to shore architectures, and to enable tie-ins with otherwise constrained topside infrastructure. The SCS&I System is also a significant contributor to the development of "All-Electric" subsea architecture where the umbilical is reduced to a power and communication cable only.
TechnipFMC https://www.technipfmc.com/ and Total https://www.total.com/en are collaborating to develop and qualify the SCS&I technology components and system.
In order to make the SCS&I technology competitive and field developments profitable, the reliability of the equipment is paramount. The HAMPRO 70V injection pump is one key component in the system for which high reliability must be ensured.
The objective of the qualification program is to confirm the adequate performance of the HAMPRO 70V pump in the following areas:
The reliability of the chemically exposed parts and the impact of chemical fluid cleanliness The reliability of the pump and motor rotating parts and the impact of lubricant performance The reliability of the electrical components The impact of transient behaviour on the pressure compensation system, rotating parts and electrical components
Due to the similarity of design, smaller versions of the HAMPRO pump will also be qualified by the activities in the program.
Four Point Bend Test of 5LPP – Concrete Coated Pipe
Authors: Mathakari Sachin Vijay , Cox Cameran , Rattenbury Phillip 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The objective of this paper is to present a 4-point bend test of 5LPP (Five Layer Polypropylene) concrete coated pipe. This is the first of its kind of bend test for a complex coating combination of 5LPP and concrete layers. The bend tests have been carried out to simulate S-Lay installation loading conditions to assess the coating integrity of the pipeline during installation. This paper reports the test arrangements including instrumentation, load schedule, test procedure and the challenges involved. Finally, the preliminary results and conclusions of the tests are documented.
Two separate full scale four-point bend tests are carried out to study the behavior of the 5LPP concrete coated pipe. The purpose of the first test is to understand the complex behavior of the 5LPP/CWC coated test pipe and validate previously made industry standard assumptions regarding the calculated coated joint stiffness. The purpose of the second test is to observe the coating integrity of the test joint and slippage behavior due to the simulated installation conditions (overbend and sagbend bending moments and/or corresponding curvatures). The nonlinear moment-curvature for the concrete coated pipe is estimated based on an analytical approach taking into consideration plane bending theory and slippage behavior of the coating layers. The moment-curvature is used to prepare the load schedule for the tests. The test string consists of a test joint (40ft) welded to half joints at the ends. The bend test is performed using industry established full scale 4-point bend test arrangements.
A global finite element model is used to simulate the tests using the analytical moment-curvature of the concrete coated pipe. The stiffness of the test pipe is calculated using the first bend test and compared against the analytical stiffness. The second test is carried out by applying loads corresponding to an estimated maximum overbend bending moment and then the test string is unloaded and rebent in opposite direction by applying loads corresponding to an estimated maximum sagbend bending moment. The results of the second test are documented at each load step and the integrity of the coating is measured against specified concrete coating damage criteria for tension as well as compression. Finally, field observations from the actual installation operation are compared against the bend test results. Conclusions are presented to address various aspects of concrete coated pipe for S-Lay installations.
A Numerical Investigation of Low Salinity Polymer Flooding Effects from a Geochemical Perspective
Authors: Chaabi Omar , Al-Shalabi Emad W. , Alameri Waleed 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Low salinity polymer (LSP) flooding is getting more attention due to its potential of enhancing both displacement and sweep efficiencies. Modeling LSP flooding is challenging due to the complicated physical processes and the sensitivity of polymers to brine salinity. In this study, a coupled numerical model has been implemented to allow investigating the polymer-brine-rock geochemical interactions associated with LSP flooding along with the flow dynamics. MRST was coupled with the geochemical software IPhreeqc. The effects of polymer were captured by considering Todd-Longstaff mixing model, inaccessible pore volume, permeability reduction, polymer adsorption as well as salinity and shear rate effects on polymer viscosity. Regarding geochemistry, the presence of polymer in the aqueous phase was considered by adding a new solution specie and related chemical reactions to PHREEQC database files. Thus, allowing for modeling the geochemical interactions related to the presence of polymer.
Coupling the two simulators was successfully performed, verified, and validated through several case studies. The coupled MRST-IPhreeqc simulator allows for modeling a wide variety of geochemical reactions including aqueous, mineral precipitation/dissolution, and ion exchange reactions. Capturing these reactions allows for real time tracking of the aqueous phase salinity and its effect on polymer rheological properties. The coupled simulator was verified against PHREEQC for a realistic reactive transport scenario. Furthermore, the coupled simulator was validated through history matching a single-phase LSP coreflood from the literature. This paper provides an insight into the geochemical interactions between partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) and aqueous solution chemistry (salinity and hardness), and their related effect on polymer viscosity. This work is also considered as a base for future two-phase polymer solution and oil interactions, and their related effect on oil recovery.
First Time Utilization of Cloud-Based Technology to Fast Track A 521 Million Cell Gas Condensate Reservoir Dynamic Model: A Case Study from Saudi Arabia
Authors: Al-Fawwaz Abdullah A , Al-Dhafiri Yousif M. , Akhtar Muhammad N , Ali Samad , Ibrahim Muhammad , Giddins Marie Ann , Amer Aimen 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The main objective of this study is to run a high-resolution dynamic simulation on a 521-million cell gas condensate field model for 50 years and capture the effects of gas condensate dropout. Two challenges were encountered on the user and service provider levels. The former is performing such work in a remote location with limited processing hardware resources. The latter is related to resolving memory, CPU allocation, technical support, system resources availability, integration between providers, and simulation needs on user demand.
The approach adopted in this field development planning study was to utilize the latest cloud technology to run the 521 million cell simulation on cloud clusters as well as two upscaled versions (5 and 21 million cells). Such procedures can save significant processing time and money. As opposed to direct purchase and installation of clusters that require maintenance, updates, and become outdated over time, with a cloud cluster that is kept updated and maintained by service providers, significant cost overheads (in millions) could be saved. Using such technology allows operators to get global technical support making executing such simulations viable even in the most remote locations.
The field under study is a gas condensate field that on its own can present multiple challenges including the gas condensate banking impact and compositional modeling. The main strategy adopted in this study was to utilize the static model with no upscaling, to capture the geological details. With the utilization of cloud technology, all simulations were completed in record time. The 5 million cell model was executed in 23 min, while the 21 million cell model executed in 4 hours, and the 521 million executed in 65 hours. The results of the simulations showed that the gas condensate banking effect was captured clearly after the implementation of local grid refinement (LGR) on the upscaled models. A good match was observed in the production profiles for all key parameters, such as gas rates, oil and condensate rates and their cumulative productions.
Using cloud technology saved the operating company over 5 million dollars in cluster hardware direct purchase, support and maintenance costs, making the utilization of the cloud computing technology not only economical, but also bringing about operational efficiencies.
This is the first time a cloud-based dynamic simulation is performed on a 521 million cell model in the world and the first time, an on-demand reservoir simulation based on cloud computing technology has been conducted in the Middle East region. This paper will also show that, given the right model parameters, carefully built smaller models can yield results similar to larger models, highlighting the importance of efficiency.
Online Modeling of CO2 Storage Systems
Authors: Erickson Dale Douglas , Metcalf Greg 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This paper discusses the development and deployment of a specialized online and offline integrated model to simulate the CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) Injection process. There is a very high level of CO2 in an LNG development and the CO2 must be removed in order to prepare the gas to be processed into LNG. To mitigate the global warming effects of this CO2, a large portion of the CO2 Rich Stream (98% purity) is injected back into a depleted oil field. To reduce costs, carbon steel flowlines are used but this introduces a risk of internal corrosion. The presence of free water increases the internal corrosion risk, and for this reason, a predictive model discussed in this paper is designed to help operations prevent free water dropout in the network in real time.
A flow management tool (FMT) is used to monitor the current state of the system and helps look at the impact of future events (startup, shutdowns etc.). The tool models the flow of the CO2 rich stream from the outlet of the compressor trains, through the network pipeline and manifolds and then into the injection wells. System behavior during steady state and transient operation is captured and analyzed to check water content and the balance of trace chemicals along with temperature and pressure throughout the network helping operators estimate corrosion rates and monitor the overall integrity of the system.
The system has been running online for 24/7 for 2 years. The model has been able to match events like startup/shutdown, cooldowns and blowdowns. During these events the prediction of temperature/pressure at several locations in the field matches measured data. The model is then able to forecasts events into the future to help operations plan how they will operate the field.
The tool uses a specialized thermodynamic model to predict the dropout of water in the near critical region of CO2 mixtures which includes various impurities. The model is designed to model startup and shutdown as the CO2 mixture moves across the phase boundary from liquid to gas or gas to liquid during these operations.