bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fire-driven landscape heterogeneity shapes habitat selection of bighorn sheep
Authors: Donovan Victoria M , Dwinnell Samantha P H , Beck Jeffrey L , Roberts Caleb P , Clapp Justin G , Hiatt Greg S , Monteith Kevin L , Twidwell Dirac 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Patterns in disturbance severity and time since fire can drive landscape heterogeneity that is critical to conservation; however, there is limited understanding of how wildlife interact with the spatial–temporal complexities of disturbance outcomes and at what scales. We conducted multiscale modeling of habitat selection for male and female Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) over an 8-year period. We aimed to identify the spatial scales at which bighorn sheep responded to various habitat features and determine how fire severity and time since fire can shape habitat selection by bighorn sheep over different seasons and between sexes. With the exception of litter cover, spatial scales that extended beyond the finest spatial grain (i.e., a 30-m pixel) to include the surrounding landscape were better at predicting habitat selection. Escape terrain, elevation, fire severity, year, perennial and annual forb and grass cover, and shrub cover occurred in every best-supported model. Associations with escape terrain, elevation, and perennial and annual forb and grass cover varied by sex and season. In contrast, bighorn sheep were consistently positively associated with low- and high-severity fire. Females increased use of low- and high-severity burned areas with greater time since fire, while males tended to decrease use of areas that burned at high severity with greater time since fire. Our results support the importance of landscape heterogeneity created by fire severity and time since fire for Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep and reinforces calls to integrate disturbance-driven heterogeneity into our assessments and management of wildlife.
Neurobehavioral effects of acute low-dose whole-body irradiation
Authors: Bekal Mahesh , Sun Lue , Ueno Susumu , Moritake Takashi 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Radiation exposure has multiple effects on the brain, behavior and cognitive functions. It has been reported that high-dose (&gt;20 Gy) radiation-induced behavior and cognitive aberration partly associated with severe tissue destruction. Low-dose (&lt;3 Gy) exposure can occur in radiological disasters and cerebral endovascular treatment. However, only a few reports analyzed behavior and cognitive functions after low-dose irradiation. This study was undertaken to assess the relationship between brain neurochemistry and behavioral disruption in irradiated mice. The irradiated mice (0.5 Gy, 1 Gy and 3 Gy) were tested for alteration in their normal behavior over 10 days. A serotonin (5-HT), Dopamine, gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and cortisol analysis was carried out in blood, hippocampus, amygdala and whole brain tissue. There was a significant decline in the exploratory activity of mice exposed to 3 Gy and 1 Gy radiation in an open field test. We observed a significant short-term memory loss in 3 Gy and 1 Gy irradiated mice in Y-Maze. Mice exposed to 1 Gy and 3 Gy radiation exhibited increased anxiety in an elevated plus maze (EPM). The increased anxiety and memory loss patterns were also seen in 0.5 Gy irradiated mice, but the results were not statistically significant. In this study we observed that neurotransmitters are significantly altered after irradiation, but the neuronal cells in the hippocampus were not significantly affected. This study suggests that the low-dose radiation-induced cognitive impairment may be associated with the neurochemical in low-dose irradiation and unlike the high-dose scenario might not be directly related to the morphological changes in the brain.
The Global Security Agenda
Authors: Nasu Hitoshi 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses how, since the end of the Cold War, the global security agenda has not only widened but also deepened, moving the focus of security concerns away from the sovereign State to include other objects such as the environment, social groups, and regional institutions. The process of widening and deepening the global security agenda is premised upon the theory of securitization. Since its emergence, this theory has provided a critical perspective to security studies and contemporary debates about security governance. After briefly reviewing the trajectory of the theoretical debate, the chapter examines the institutional practice of securitization, with particular focus on the practices of the United Nations, European Union, African Union, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations as major international and regional security institutions. The understanding of how global and regional policy issues have been securitized in institutional practices is of particular significance to the development of international law because of the ways in which the process of securitization operates within, or interacts with, the existing framework of international law. The role of national security in the process of securitization of a global policy agenda also reveals normative constraint within the framework of international law.
Gendered Security
Authors: Heathcote Gina 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the links between women, peace, and security in the activities of international institutions, such as the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), and well beyond institutional settings. Since the adoption of UNSC Resolution 1325, there has been recognition within international institutions that there is a link between women, peace, and security. The chapter draws on a range of feminist approaches to mark a shift towards gender (rather than women) and security and a need for further expansion of the field to acknowledge plural feminist approaches. The latter is demonstrated through an incorporation of indigenous feminisms, an analysis of gendered security at sea, and the impact of the politics of austerity within Western democracies. The chapter then provides a gender analysis of UNSC Resolution 2467 (2019), which was drafted by Germany. Resolution 2467 focuses on conflict-related sexual violence and although it still continued an agenda for supporting punitive measures—sanctions and prosecutions—the draft introduced a reproductive health response to this form of gender-based violence.
Internal Strife and Insurgency
Authors: Henderson Christian 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses internal strife and insurgency. The terms ‘internal strife’ and ‘insurgency’ encompass a range of situations from peaceful and violent protests and demonstrations to rebellions against the government to full-blown armed conflicts. Such situations may either occur entirely between the governmental forces of a State and a non-State armed group (or between two such groups) or, as is more often the case, may be fuelled by third States or even involve them directly. The chapter then provides a broad yet concise overview of the international legal frameworks that regulate internal strife and insurgency, with particular focus on international human rights law (IHRL) and the applicability of the law of armed conflict, and the ways that these frameworks interact. What is more, from a global security perspective, it is the possibility of outside intervention and the attendant frameworks and rules of international law that are arguably most pertinent and controversial. There have been several recent developments potentially impacting the international law governing internal strife and insurgency and the chapter explores these and some of the recent situations that illustrate them.
Transnational Organized Crime
Authors: Hauck Pierre , Peterke Sven 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on transnational organized crime (TOC), pointing out some of the impacts attributed to this cross-border delinquency and its ties and linkages with other legal and illegal activities and actors. With the growing recognition that combating TOC requires more effective international cooperation, an impressive international legal regime has been constructed around this subject matter. A good part of this framework consists of so-called ‘suppression conventions’ that oblige State Parties to criminalize certain ‘evils’, to enforce relevant domestic laws, and to cooperate with each other in the persecution of these illegal activities. An often-downplayed problem is that these instruments are ‘rooted in the crime control policies of powerful Western states’, supposedly serving as models for other governments. They therefore tend to impose duties that are rather difficult to comply with for States with fragile institutions, often incapable of effectively delivering essential goods, such as safety and security. Against this background, it is increasingly acknowledged amongst both scholars and practitioners that tackling TOC requires the use of a broader and far more differentiated approach which addresses not only the multiplicity of non-State actors who have links to organized criminal groups (such as rebels and terrorists), but also the promotion of good governance, transparency, and professional ethics. The sound implementation of this approach must be seen as pivotal for achieving both global justice and security.
Contested Territory
Authors: Borgen Christopher J. 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the theory and practice of territorial contestation, past, present, and possibly future. It sketches the evolution of the so-called ‘modes of acquisition’ of territory and other concepts through different eras. Territorial disputes are perhaps the quintessential problem of public international law. In its transformation from the ancient world, through feudalism, and into the Westphalian system of States, territory has been repeatedly reconceptualized and reorganized from an era of frontiers to a modern world segmented by borders. This modern compartmentalization of territory emphasizes the concept of rightful ownership of title. The chapter then looks at the methods of resolving territorial disputes. It discusses political and military responses to territorial contests and judicial resolution. The chapter focuses on the particular role that recognition plays in resolving territorial disputes.
International Disarmament and Arms Control
Authors: Sossai Mirko 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses disarmament and arms control, which were envisaged as an integral part of the collective security system set out in the United Nations Charter. Whereas disarmament is related to the reduction (or even the total abolition) of a category of weapons, arms control was developed in the context of nuclear deterrence. Given that the goal of arms control conventions was the stabilization of the security environment, such agreements usually included measures such as mutually agreed limitations on certain armaments or freezing their number at a given level. International law on disarmament and arms control is in essence treaty law: hence, the chapter identifies the distinctive features of the existing legal framework. In the post-Cold War era, the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention has represented the most successful model for subsequent treaties. The chapter then focuses on current developments in both international politics and military technology and their impact on international security and arms control efforts.
Atrocity Crimes and Large-scale Human Rights Violations
Authors: Dieng Adama 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the prevention of conflicts and protection of populations from atrocity crimes and large-scale human rights violations, which remains a primary responsibility of States. Indeed, in the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, United Nations Member States reaffirmed their responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. The chapter argues that the international community cannot undertake meaningful prevention without respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms universally recognized and guaranteed by the International Bill of Rights and other international and regional instruments. As underscored by the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ‘recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace’. It is therefore crucial that respect for human rights is put at the heart of prevention of atrocity crimes.
Human Trafficking and Slavery
Authors: Stoyanova Vladislava 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, with the adoption of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (UNTOC Trafficking Protocol), the concept of human trafficking has become a dominant frame in addressing issues of human security. This chapter critically reviews this development by clarifying an important tension that permeates the international legal framework on human trafficking and slavery. This tension concerns the security of the individuals who might be victims of human trafficking and slavery vis-à-vis the security of the borders of their desired States of destination. Given this tension, the chapter discusses the main challenges that lie ahead in this area of international law.
Institutionalized Inhumanity
Authors: Mavronicola Natasa 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
Atrocity pervades human history. Over time, individuals and groups have wielded their relative power over other persons in a variety of cruel ways, not least torture and assassination. The legal framework that gradually emerged to counter such abuse reflected a deontic humanity—humanity not as it is, but as it ought to be. This deontic vision of humanity was premised on human dignity, an egalitarian idea according to which every single human person is fundamentally worthy of a certain level of respect. The lines set by international law are arguably orientated to serving as a bulwark against the desecration of this deontic humanity. The chapter considers the legal framework on torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and assassination, broadly conceived. It considers some of the main developments in respect of the law and the deontic humanity that underpins it as well as prominent challenges arising therein, at the heart of which are (national, global, or transnational) security structures, or appeals to security: from consequentialist arguments for abandoning the prohibition of torture, to the securitization of (groups of) persons in ways which contradict human dignity.
Migration, Displacement, Security, and International Law
Authors: Saul Ben 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the relationship between mass migration, security, and international law. The security implications of migration first depend on what type of migration is at issue and what international legal frameworks accordingly apply to it. The security implications of migration, and the international legal responses to them, also depend on how security is defined. In addition, the transit of migrants may threaten human security, as it may involve loss of life during perilous journeys at sea or during remote land crossings, and exploitative practices such as enslavement or human trafficking. Further, migrants or displaced persons may themselves occasionally present hard or soft security threats. Ultimately, international legal frameworks in relation to migration generally are relatively underdeveloped, including in relation to its security dimensions. Instead, a patchwork of international norms (hard and soft), regimes, and institutions apply to different facets of the migration-security nexus. The chapter focuses on the security dimensions (including terrorism) of international law governing refugees, complementary human rights protection, and due process in the expulsion of aliens (including disclosure of classified information). It identifies gaps and challenges evident in the existing regimes, and charts contemporary developments through soft law initiatives.
Energy Security in International Law
Authors: Morgandi Tibisay , Viñuales Jorge E. 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates the concept of ‘energy security’, understood as the ‘uninterrupted availability of energy resources at an affordable price’. Importantly, according to this definition, the ‘availability’ of energy resources is measured against existing energy demand, and threats to energy security are therefore threats to the supply of enough energy to meet existing energy demand. Energy supply depends upon both domestic and international factors which are so interconnected that it is difficult to distinguish where one starts and the other ends. What is clear, however, is that international law plays a fundamental role in addressing many threats to energy security. The chapter looks at existing threats to energy security and the international legal frameworks that have been established in response. The challenges to energy security include an exponential increase in world energy demand, shortages of national oil and gas deposits, the need to reduce dependence on fossil fuel production in order to counteract climate change, as well as risks of geopolitical instability. The chapter then focuses on the mechanisms aimed to ensure that the flow of energy remains uninterrupted and at an affordable price, as well as on those mechanisms aimed at increasing access to energy resources.
Financial Crises
Authors: Finke Jasper 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the possible impacts of financial crises, which can be devastating. Prolonged economic recessions or depressions impede the State’s ability to provide public goods. Especially sovereign debt crises force States to reduce public spending, which requires cuts in the public health and education system, a decrease in social welfare benefits generally, lower salaries and pensions for public employees, and fewer public employees. Both a decline in public safety and higher poverty rates can cause mass migration, which can destabilize neighbouring States or even entire regions. While financial crises do not necessarily have all these consequences, they do have a destructive potential beyond the individual State. It might therefore be unsurprising to learn that one can observe structural and conceptual similarities in how States respond to situations that are more broadly perceived as security crises and financial crises. The chapter then demonstrates how an ‘emergency mindset’ is present in debates on what role law has played and should play in responding to financial crises. It considers two case-studies to illustrate the presence of an ‘emergency mindset’ in such situations that is conceptually similar to traditional security crises: the 2008 global financial crisis and the still unresolved multilevel financial crisis in the Eurozone.
Food Security
Authors: Elver Hilal 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on food security. Although ‘food security’ is not a legal concept and does not impose rights or responsibilities, it is a necessary precondition to the full enjoyment of the right to food. The right to food is enshrined in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as an integral part of the right to an adequate standard of living. As this right is indivisible, interrelated, and interdependent with all other fundamental rights and freedoms, it is ultimately essential for a secure, safe, and harmonious world. The chapter demonstrates that severe food insecurity continues to inflict massive casualties and create and prolong conflicts and emergencies despite well-established rules of international law, international humanitarian law, and international human rights law. It then looks at the international law principles protecting food security with the aim to diffuse emergency situations that create instability, inequality, and unrest, including those resulting from conflicts and natural disasters. The chapter provides suggestions for enforcing and enhancing existing laws and for the adoption of a new international convention which will set out clear duties and obligations for States and non-State actors with a view to eliminating food insecurity and preventing violations of the right to food for a safer, more secure world.
Artificial Intelligence and Robotization
Authors: Kunz Martina , Ó hÉigeartaigh Seán 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of international law governing the applications of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics that affect global security, highlighting challenges arising from technological developments and how international regulators are responding to them. Much of the international law literature thus far has focused on the implications of increasingly autonomous weapons systems. The chapter seeks to cover a broader range of global security risks resulting from large-scale diffuse or concentrated, gradual or sudden, direct or indirect, intentional or unintentional, AI- or robotics-caused harm. Applications of these technologies permeate almost every domain of human activity and thus unsurprisingly have an equally wide range of risk profiles, from a discriminatory algorithmic decision causing financial distress to an AI-sparked nuclear war collapsing global civilization. Hence it is only natural that much of the international regulatory activity takes place in domain-specific fora. Many of these fora coordinate with each other, both within and beyond the United Nations system, spreading insights and best practices on how to deal with common concerns such as cybersecurity, monitoring, and reliability, so as to prevent accidents and misuse.
Biosecurity
Authors: Revill James , Roessing Anna 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the term ‘biosecurity’, which is a relatively new addition to the global security lexicon. It looks at the origins and evolution of the concept of biosecurity, drawing attention to drivers of interest in biosecurity and the linguistic, cultural, and political challenges to cohesively defining this concept. Notwithstanding such conceptual difficulties, biosecurity has become an important topic in twenty-first-century security discourse as multilateral and national security-policymaking organs have recognized the potential security-related risks associated with contemporary biotechnology and have sought to mitigate such risks. The chapter then elaborates on what has been achieved in terms of building a biosecurity architecture. It also considers the current status of the biosecurity debate, drawing on examples from the patchwork of biosecurity measures undertaken across the globe to illustrate how this is an area that has made considerable progress over the course of the last two decades. Ultimately, biosecurity is a work in progress that will become increasingly salient in the global security discourse as life sciences and biotechnology continue to advance in a changing geostrategic context.