bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Life-History Evolution in a Changing Environment
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The underlying current to this chapter is change. Environments are not static. They can shift directionally or exhibit natural variability, sometimes predictably (e.g. seasonal periodicity) but often unpredictably (stochasticity). The chapter begins by exploring how changes in the directionality and variance of environmental conditions can influence life-history evolution. Variability is the key word for the second half of the chapter. In response to environmental unpredictability, organisms have evolved bet-hedging strategies that maximize the geometric mean or long-run fitness. These life histories can involve one or more conservative or diversification bet-hedging traits. For example, under semelparity, selection can favour the germination of seeds or the hatching of diapausing eggs across multiple generations. Under iteroparity, rather than producing the maximum number of offspring that an organism is capable of producing in few breeding episodes, environmental variability can favour the production of fewer offspring per episode but across a greater number of breeding episodes. The chapter closes with a consideration of different forms of stochasticity and how stochastic estimates of fitness can differ from determinant estimates.
Number and Size of Offspring
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Offspring number and size are two of the most variable life-history traits. Among species, much of this variability can be attributed to genetic, developmental, physiological, or structural constraints. Some trait combinations are not possible because of differences associated with a species’ evolutionary history. Substantial variation in propagule number and size can exist among populations of the same species, generating questions concerning the adaptive significance of this variability. The most influential models are those attributed to Lack on clutch size and to Smith and Fretwell on offspring size. Fundamental to both sets of models is a trade-off between offspring number and parental investment per offspring. When offspring survival or fitness continuously varies with offspring size, the fitness of the parent depends on both offspring size and the number of offspring of that size that the parent can produce. If offspring survival is independent of offspring size, parental fitness is maximized when individuals maximize the production of minimally sized propagules.
Pain
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter is dedicated to pain and analgesia, the area where most of the knowledge about the mechanisms of the placebo effect comes from. Expectation of pain reduction plays a crucial role in placebo analgesia. The placebo analgesic effect is mediated by the endogenous opioid systems and antagonized by cholecystokinin (CCK) in some circumstances. In other conditions, the endocannabinoid system is involved. Many brain imaging studies indicate that several areas are involved in placebo analgesia, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and those regions involved in dopaminergic reward mechanisms. The prefrontal lobes are fundamental for a placebo response to occur: if there is no prefrontal control, there is no placebo response. The nocebo hyperalgesic effect is mediated by anxiety, which activates a CCK system that, in turn, facilitates pain transmission. The endogenous pain modulatory descending circuits represent the biological substrate for the action of placebos on pain.
Mental and behavioural disorders
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In this chapter some mental disorders are described. For example, in depression, fluoxetine treatment and a placebo treatment affect similar brain regions. In anxiety, patients’ expectations play a crucial role, as covert (unexpected) administration of anti-anxiety drugs is less effective than overt (expected) administration. The disruption of prefrontal executive control in Alzheimer’s disease decreases the magnitude of placebo responses. In addition, expectations appear to be particularly important when associated with the effects of drugs of abuse. Placebo effects appear to be powerful in psychotherapy as well, and the brain areas involved in the psychotherapeutic outcome are different from those involved in the placebo effect. As clinical trials for psychotherapeutic interventions represent a major problem, new recommendations are presented.
Everyday life
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter aims to stimulate further research on placebo-like effects outside the healing setting, thus involving the area of social psychology. Halo effects can be considered, at least in part, similar to placebo effects because the context plays a crucial role in both. Whereas placebo effects have to do with the evaluation of symptoms, halo effects have to do with judgements of a person’s quality and personality. The approach to placebo and halo effects is somehow related to expectations. If one expects pain reduction, he may experience a real analgesic effect. Likewise, if one expects either positive or negative qualities in a person, he may be misled to give either positive or negative judgements, respectively. Another example in everyday life is represented by the role of expectations and mindset in the generation of hunger and satiety.
Social Interaction in Early and Middle Childhood
Authors: Lecce Serena , Devine Rory T. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the cognitive basis of social interaction by assessing the claim that children’s ability to understand the minds of others (or ‘Theory of Mind’ [ToM]) matters for their successful social interactions. To this end, it critically examines available research on the relation between ToM and social interaction during early and middle childhood, both within and outside the family. The chapter introduces ToM in a social context framework that considers the processes through which ToM has an impact on children’s social outcomes, and the circumstances under which an association between ToM and social interaction should be apparent. It sets an agenda for future research by emphasizing (1) the mediating role of intentional social interaction behaviours in explaining the relations between ToM and social outcomes in early and middle childhood; and (2) the moderating role of partner-related variables (including familiarity, the nature and quality of the relationship, and the level of partner ToM ability) and of social context in strengthening or attenuating the relations between ToM and social interaction.
The Netherlands: Traditions and Practices
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The chapter stresses the ‘polder’ tradition that emphasizes the importance of cooperation in government. The Netherlands has a long tradition of consociational government. Within a parliamentary structure where a system of proportional representation ensures that no one party will hold a majority, coalitions and collaboration are essential. The prime ministers are seen as weak with limited power, although they have a growing institutional and media presence that is generated by the new media demands, regular participation as head of the government in the European Union, and crisis management. Dutch cabinet government is driven through the networks at the centre of government where prime ministers are the key linking figures for parties, civil service, and parliament.
The Policy Dilemma
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The chapter considers the dilemmas that underpin policy debates: the civil service argument for evidence-based policy, the need for ministers to balance good policy and good politics, and the advisers’ challenge to manage the politics of issues. Friction is an inherent part of the policy dilemma in all cabinet systems as evidence-based assessments of the ‘best’ policy solution have to be filtered through the many layers of politics and negotiation that surround cabinet decision making. It involves ‘puzzling’ through to imperfect solutions in order to mitigate and manage political risk.
The Leadership Dilemma
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
How leaders develop cohesion and direction within a cabinet will depend on institutional and conventional traditions. All leaders will necessarily work through persuasion but there are also levers that can be pulled. There are several imperatives: the need to survive electorally; vulnerability to internal revolt; the means by which ministers can be persuaded to collaborate; and the capacity to set agenda and processes. The levels of support differed from one system to another. The chapter shows how these processes work and the extent to which they can assist leaders. It also examines the importance and form of both bureaucratic and political advice across the different systems.
Revolutions, 1685–9
Authors: Smith Hannah 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines James VII and II’s relationship with his army as he started on political and religious reforms to promote Catholicism. James’s unruly army defended him during Monmouth’s Rebellion in 1685 and supported his policies, sparking civil–military conflict. The king’s military reviews on Hounslow Heath were the biggest public spectacle of his reign and suggested his military power over his international and domestic enemies. But the king’s subjects scrutinized the army for tantalizing signs that its members might ultimately be the preservers, rather than the destroyers, of Protestantism and parliament. Throughout his reign, James could not rely on the unanimous backing of army officers and soldiers and by 1688, a group of his most senior army officers was conspiring with William of Orange to support the Dutch invasion which would dethrone James and bring about the Revolution of 1688–9.
Oligarchy and Opposition, 1714–50
Authors: Smith Hannah 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The interactions between the Crown, its ministers, the army, and parliament during the years of the Whig Oligarchy are the focus of this chapter. Parliament remained concerned about standing armies for many of the same reasons as its forebears. But the British army’s victories during the War of the Spanish Succession had transformed the army’s political as well as military reputation and army veterans could convincingly pose as patriotic defenders of the nation’s liberties. Nevertheless, fears over the abuse of military power arose again in the late 1740s and early 1750s. George II’s son and captain-general, the duke of Cumberland, had crushed the ’45 Rebellion and the Jacobite cause at the battle of Culloden. However, Cumberland’s popularity in the aftermath of the ’45 soon waned amidst allegations that he aimed at military government.
Breaking New Ground
Authors: Escobar-Lemmon Maria C. , Hoekstra Valerie J. , Kang Alice J. , Kittilson Miki Caul 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Why women first joined high courts (supreme courts, constitutional courts, and high appellate courts) when they did is the topic of chapter 2. Drawing on the book’s cross-national data set, this chapter explains why women broke the judicial glass ceiling sooner on some courts than others. To consider the influence of multiple factors on the timing of the first woman and given that some courts have never appointed women, the chapter uses an event history model. The cross-national analysis reveals that the more women completing tertiary education relative to men, the faster the first woman is appointed. Further, the results make clear that the judicial glass ceiling is not broken in a domestic vacuum: after other high courts in the geographic region have a woman justice, the faster the appointment of the first woman, and the first woman high court judge is appointed sooner the more advocacy organizations are connected to the international women’s movement.
Obstetrics
Authors: Setna Zeryab 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Obstetrics, like all fields of medicine, continues to evolve at a rapid pace, and keeping up-to-date with the latest literature, guidelines, and protocols can be a daunting task. This chapter contains 26 questions that encompass all of the important areas of this subject, with detailed explanations. Unique to this series, questions are rated by difficulty and are cross-referenced to the eleventh edition of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties to track revision progress and revise effectively.
Gynaecology and genitourinary medicine
Authors: Hayes Kevin 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Gynaecological practices are changing constantly, with more emphasis on management in primary care, conservative, rather than surgical, management of conditions, and an increase in sub-specialization such as gynaecological oncology and urogynaecology. This chapter contains 29 questions that encompass all of the important areas of this subject, with detailed explanations. Unique to this series, questions are rated by difficulty and are cross-referenced to the eleventh edition of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties to track revision progress and revise effectively.
Dermatology
Authors: Simcox Gemma 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter contains 37 questions that encompass all of the important areas of dermatology, with detailed explanations. The questions in this chapter will test your knowledge of the skin problems that are frequently encountered in non-specialist clinical practice. Other more rare skin disorders are also covered, either because they are potentially life-threatening or because they are a sign of systemic disease. The questions are designed to improve your ability to recognize the morphology and distribution of cutaneous physical signs. Unique to this series, questions are rated by difficulty and are cross-referenced to the eleventh edition of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties to track revision progress and revise effectively.
Trauma
Authors: Davies Nev , Vusirikala Anuhya 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter contains 19 questions that encompass all of the important areas of trauma, with detailed explanations. The questions highlight the important principles of trauma care and aim to help the reader comprehend the management of a seriously injured trauma patient. Unique to this series, questions are rated by difficulty and are cross-referenced to the eleventh edition of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties to track revision progress and revise effectively.
The Ageing Writer
Authors: Castro São Luís , Abreu Regina 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
As a demanding task that requires the orchestration of multiple processes, writing is an adept candidate to the ravages of old age. Yet writing is also an overlearned skill of which some components are especially resistant to use and decay. This chapter focuses on the ageing writer in health and disease. It reviews age-related changes in writing and examines how executive control plays a role in these changes. Linguistic-level (lexicon, syntax, discourse) and output (handwriting, typing) characteristics of older persons’ writing are outlined, and models explaining how writing performance depends on the integrity of executive functions are presented. The scope of the chapter is expanded by reviewing how writing outcomes can provide markers of dementia and, on a final positive note, how writing interventions can contribute to brace executive functions in older ages.
How Kant was Never a Wolffian, or Estimating Forces to Enforce Influxus Physicus
Authors: Goldenbaum Ursula 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter aims to show that Kant has never been a Wolffian but started his career precisely from the core problem of the Pietists to secure the influxus physicus and thereby liberum arbitrium. I will first present the battle of Pietist and other Lutheran theologians against Wolffianism as a theological-political battle, which explains its extension as well as its fierceness. Then I will explain how a metaphysical hypothesis such as Leibniz’s pre-established harmony could become the subject of a theological-political debate in the Protestant area of the Empire lasting for decades. Only in the third section I will situate Kant’s very first, but quite lengthy book in this context and contrast his declared intention to solve the controversy between Leibnizians and Cartesians about the estimation of forces with his actual metaphysical approach to save influxus physicus. It will be shown that Kant’s approach lacks any familiarity with modern mechanics and mathematics. Finally, I will point to the contemporary reception of Kant’s first book which confirms my evaluation.
Breaking with Rationalism
Authors: Watkins Eric 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on another aspect of the development of Kant’s thought in the pre-Critical period: the influence of Christian August Crusius. While Crusius’s emphasis on a libertarian notion of freedom and his restriction to the principle of sufficient reason are relatively well known, it is here argued that scholars have overlooked the fundamental importance of Crusius’s distinction between essence and existence and that Kant’s reaction to it constitutes both a fundamental break with the Leibnizians and a crucial enduring fixture of his own thought, extending through to his Critical period.
Kant’s Theory of Divine and Secondary Causation
Authors: Hogan Desmond 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines Kant’s theory of the relation between God’s causal activity in the world and so-called “secondary” causation, the causality of created beings. The central question he faces here is the traditional one for a theistic metaphysics: How does the activity of God viewed as primordial creator and conserver of the world relate in general to the causal activity, if any, of created beings? His own evolving account of the divine causal role is shaped by his ongoing engagement with three competing theories of divine causation distinguished in late scholastic philosophy, and vigorously debated in the modern period by Malebranche and Leibniz. It is shown here that the most significant milestone in the emergence of Kant’s mature account does not lie in his transition from pre-Critical to Critical philosopher, but in an earlier one from necessitarian to libertarian on human agency.
Intravenous bisphosphonates do not improve knee pain or bone marrow lesions in people with knee osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis
Authors: Zhang Xu , Cai Guoqi , Jones Graeme , Laslett Laura L 
Published: October 2021

Abstract

Objective
To summarize effects of intravenous bisphosphonates (IVBP) in patients with symptomatic knee OA and bone marrow lesions (BMLs), using a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

Methods
Literature databases were searched for placebo-controlled RCTs of IVBPs for knee OA from inception, and included validated pain and function scales, BML size and incidence of adverse events. Efficacy was compared using standardized mean differences (SMD) and risk ratios (RR) with fixed-effect or random-effects models. Methodological quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool, heterogeneity was assessed by I2 statistics.

Results
We included 428 patients in four RCTs of 2–24 months duration; most patients (84%) received zoledronic acid (ZA). Risk of bias was low-moderate. IVBP had large effect sizes on pain within 3 months [SMD = −2.33 (95% CI: −3.02, −1.65)] mainly driven by neridronate (resulting in substantial heterogeneity, I2 = 92%) with no effect for ZA alone. Differences in knee function were statistically significant at 3 months [SMD = −0.22 (−0.43, −0.01), I2 = 0.2%]. Effect sizes for pain did not reach statistical significance at any other time point. IVBPs improved a semi-quantitative measure of BML size within 6 months [SMD = −0.52 (−0.89, −0.14), I2 = 0%] but not at 12 months or two years. Adverse events [RR = 1.19 (1.00, 1.41) I2 = 52%], occurred more frequently with IVBP.

Conclusion
ZA has no effect on knee pain, possibly a short-term effect on BML size and higher rates of adverse events. Neridronate may improve pain in the short term, but this is based on a single trial.
Does environmental message framing impact proportional reach and sample representativeness related to motivational characteristics?
Authors: Wilson Kathryn E , Estabrooks Paul A 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Physical activity (PA) promotion messages are commonly used to engage target populations in PA programs. However, little is known about how recruitment messages impact program reach. Evidence suggests that framing messages to be congruent with individuals’ motivational orientation can maximize effectiveness. This congruency effect has not been tested in the context of brief PA promotion messages used in a recruitment environment. It is plausible that framed messages attract certain individuals, while deterring others. The purpose of this study was to determine whether message framing influences representativeness of a sample recruited for a PA program with regards to motivational factors. Three messaging conditions (gain-framed, neutral, loss-framed) were counterbalanced across days of data collection in a primary care waiting room. Patients were asked to complete a questionnaire including surveys on personality and PA, and basic demographic questions. Respondents were offered the chance to participate in a low-burden PA program. Interested respondents were instructed to provide contact information. The proportion and representativeness, with respect to motivational orientation, of individuals volunteering for program participation was assessed using chi-squared tests, and two-way (condition × group) ANOVAs, respectively. After controlling for demographic and behavioral covariates, there was no effect of message framing on the motivational orientation of the resultant samples. Results did not support a congruency effect of a covert message-framing manipulation. More work should aim to understand how recruitment materials and strategies influence motivational characteristics of the resulting sample to maximize intervention outcomes, and target individuals who are more likely to engage in risky health behaviors.