bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Flow Profiling Using Fiber Optics in a Horizontal Steam Injector with Liner-Deployed Flow Control Devices
Authors: Javaheri Mohammad , Tran Minh , Buell Richard Scot , Gorham Timothy Lee , Sims Jack , Rivas Stephen , Munoz Juan David 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Horizontal steam injectors can improve the efficiency of thermal operations relative to vertical injectors. However, effective in-well and reservoir surveillance is needed to understand steam conformance. Uniform steam chest development improves steam-oil-ratio (SOR) in continuous steam injection and accelerates recovery in cyclic steam injection. Conformance of the injected steam can be achieved by flow control devices (FCD) deployed on either tubing or liner. A new liner-deployed FCD was used in a horizontal steam injector in the Kern River field. The liner-deployed FCD is intended to replace the tubing-deployed FCDs while reducing capital costs, surveillance costs, and well intervention costs for conformance control.
Fiber optics was used for surveillance, which is the most promising method in horizontal steam injectors considering reliability, accuracy, and cost. Fiber optic data enables monitoring the performance of liner-deployed FCDs as well as estimating the flow profile along the lateral length. Multi-mode Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) optical fibers and single-mode Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) optical fibers were installed in the well for these objectives. Algorithms for interpreting DTS were improved to include a new technique, Shape Language Modeling (SLM), and a probabilistic approach. The configuration of the FCDs was changed during a well intervention, and it was monitored by DTS and DAS. Data from both DTS and DAS confirms the open/closed position of the sliding sleeve of FCDs initially and after the intervention. The probabilistic estimates of steam outflow in several FCD configurations match well with the theoretical outflow that is expected from the critical flow of steam through chokes installed in the FCDs.
Creating Value for the High-Saline Bakken Produced Water by Optimizing its Viscoelastic Properties and Proppant Carrying Tendency with High-Viscosity Friction Reducers
Authors: Tomomewo Olusegun Stanley , Mann Michael Daniel , Ellafi Abdulaziz , Jabbari Hadi , Tang Clement , Ba Geri Mohammed , Kolawole Oladoyin , Adebisi Azeez , Ibikunle Omolara , Alamooti Moones , Iroko Adedayo 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Since the arrival and advancement of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (hydrofracturing) technologies, developing and producing unconventional formations like the Bakken Formation have become a mystery solved for operators in North America. This has also made unconventional reservoir assets the central focus of the oil and gas/energy industry at the state, national, and global levels. However, the produced water from these activities has high salt contents (∼110,000 to 350,000 ppm) total dissolve solids (TDS) in the Bakken Formation) and poisonous if untreated and in contact with the environment. The most common disposal method in the Bakken Formation is deep injections into disposal wells. However, there have been some fears that continuous injections, in addition to contaminating the ground water, could potentially lead to seismic activities either at the time of injection or in the near future. If treated and made fit for its respective applications, this water could be reused in the hydrofracturing process, thereby reducing operator costs of water acquisition and disposal. In addition, it could be used for power generation or to support coal mining and irrigation. Previous studies have discussed various means of improving the quality of the produced water. However, none have been able to cope with the issue of wastewater and residual oil high in TDS. This paper aims to study all relevant means that allow the Bakken Formation to produce water that can be used as an alternative based fluid for use with polymers like high viscosity friction reducers (HVFRs) to make hydraulic fracturing fluids that will be stable with reservoir conditions and able to reduce environmental footprints and operating costs. This research presents an experimental investigation using the Bakken Formation's hypersaline water with HVFRs. This work includes experimental research divided into base case scenarios that serve as a standard for comparison of the effectiveness of the other cases. The results show that the Bakken water high in TDS treated with higher dosages (4–8 GPT) of HVFRs withstand the effect of hardness, salinity, and heavy metals and remain stable at various shear rates (66–330 s−1). No treatment was done on the Bakken produced water except filtration and dilution.
Nanoparticles Screening Criteria for Wettability Alteration in Carbonate Reservoirs
Authors: Deng Xiao , Kamal Muhammad Shahzad , Patil Shirish , Hussain Muhammad Shakil 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Wettability alteration has been recognized as a key mechanism for enhanced oil recovery in oil-wet carbonate reservoirs. Nanoparticles can change rock surfaces from oil-wet to water-wet. However, there are multiple kinds of nanoparticles and different reservoir conditions. It is necessary to establish a screen system to guide nanoparticles selection. Temperature and salinity are two important reservoir conditions that may have a big influence on the performance of nanoparticles. Besides, divalent ions and monovalent ions can have a different impact. In this paper, different kinds of commercial nanoparticles were used as wettability modifiers on carbonate rock. Metallic oxide nanoparticles, SiO2, and titania nanoparticles were dissolved into brine solution under varying temperatures (50°C – 100°C) and salinity (2500 – 210,000ppm). Carbonate rock samples were aged by crude oil to make them oil-wet. After that, rock samples were immersed in brine and nanoparticle solutions to measure the contact angles under different temperature. Rock surfaces were then examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM) to see the adsorption and distribution of nanoparticles. Stability data shows that nanoparticles tend to be more stable under high temperature, low salinity conditions. Besides, monovalent ions have a smaller impact on nanoparticle stability than divalent ions. By monitoring contact angle with time, a quicker wettability alteration was observed with SiO2 and CaCO3 nanoparticles on carbonate rock under higher temperatures, indicating that temperature has a significant influence on the performance of nanoparticles. SEM images show that under low salinity conditions, nanoparticles tend to be more scattered. This paper showed that nanoparticles are very effective materials for carbonate wettability alteration under varying temperature and salinity. Besides, the relative performance of nanoparticles under different conditions and a screening guide according to carbonate reservoir conditions are provided
Effect of Cryogenic Treatment Thermal Shock on Rock Dynamic Elastic Properties and Permeability of Wolfcamp Core Samples – An Experimental Study
Authors: Ramezanian Mahdi , Emadi Hossein 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
A few researches have been conducted to study effects of cryogenic treatment (known as thermal shocking) on unconventional rock properties, while they have been extensively studied in geothermal projects. The results show that cryogenic treatment significantly alters the rock mechanical properties by creation of new cracks owing to thermally induced stresses resulting in the permeability enhancement. In this laboratory study, effects of cryogenic treatment (thermal shocking) on permeability and dynamic elastic properties of three Wolfcamp core samples (one outcrop and two downhole samples) at downhole conditions were experimentally evaluated. Permeability and dynamic rock mechanical properties were measured before and after conducting each cycle of thermal shock. Using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis, the mineral compositions of the cores were determined. The results demonstrate that implementing the thermal shock technique on the core samples results in increasing their permeability and ductility.
What are the Dominant Flow Regimes During Carbon Dioxide Propagation in Shale Reservoirs’ Matrix, Natural Fractures and Hydraulic Fractures?
Authors: Fakher Sherif , Elgahawy Youssef , Abdelaal Hesham , Imqam Abdulmohsin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection in low permeability shale reservoirs has recently gained much attention due to the claims that it has a large recovery factor and can also be used in CO2 storage operations. This research investigates the different flow regimes that the CO2 will exhibit during its propagation through the fractures, micropores, and the nanopores in unconventional shale reservoirs to accurately evaluate the mechanism by which CO2 recovers oil from these reservoirs. One of the most widely used tools to distinguish between different flow regimes is the Knudsen Number. Initially, a mathematical analysis of the different flow regimes that can be observed in pore sizes ranging between 0.2 nanometer and more than 2 micrometers was undergone at different pressure and temperature conditions to distinguish between the different flow regimes that the CO2 will exhibit in the different pore sizes. Based on the results, several flow regime maps were conducted for different pore sizes. The pore sizes were grouped together in separate maps based on the flow regimes exhibited at different thermodynamic conditions. Based on the results, it was found that Knudsen diffusion dominated the flow regime in nanopores ranging between 0.2 nanometers, up to 1 nanometer. Pore sizes between 2 and 10 nanometers were dominated by both a transition flow, and slip flow. At 25 nanometer, and up to 100 nanometers, three flow regimes can be observed, including gas slippage flow, transition flow, and viscous flow. When the pore size reached 150 nanometers, Knudsen diffusion and transition flow disappeared, and the slippage and viscous flow regimes were dominant. At pore sizes above one micrometer, the flow was viscous for all thermodynamic conditions. This indicated that in the larger pore sizes the flow will be mainly viscous flow, which is usually modeled using Darcy's law, while in the extremely small pore sizes the dominating flow regime is Knudsen diffusion, which can be modeled using Knudsen's Diffusion law or in cases where surface diffusion is dominant, Fick's law of diffusion can be applied. The mechanism by which the CO2 improves recovery in unconventional shale reservoirs is not fully understood to this date, which is the main reason why this process has proven successful in some shale plays, and failed in others. This research studies the flow behavior of the CO2 in the different features that could be present in the shale reservoir to illustrate the mechanism by which oil recovery can be increased.
Experimental Study and Numerical Modeling of Seawater Breakthrough Using Inherent Boron as Tracer
Authors: Wang Yanqing , Li Xiang , Lu Jun 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Seawater injection is widely used to maintain the offshore oil reservoir pressure and improve oil recovery. However, injecting seawater into reservoirs can cause many issues such as reservoir souring and scaling, which are tightly related to the seawater breakthrough percentage. Accurately calculating the seawater breakthrough percentage is important for estimating the severity of those problems and further developing corresponding strategies to solve those issues. The validation of using natural ion boron as tracer to calculate seawater breakthrough percentage was investigated. Boron can interact with clays, which can influence the accuracy in seawater breakthrough calculation using boron. Therefore, the interaction between boron and different clays at various conditions were studied, and Freundlich adsorption equation was used to describe the boron adsorption isotherms. Then boron adsorption isotherms were coupled into the reservoir simulator to investigate the boron transportation in porous media, and the results in turn were further analyzed to calculate the accurate seawater breakthrough percentage. Results indicated that boron adsorption by different clays varied. pH value of solution can significantly influence the amount of boron adsorbed. As a result, the boron concentration profile was delayed in coreflood test. The results of reservoir model fit perfectly with that of coreflood test, indicating the validation of boron reaction model. Based on the reservoir simulator results, boron concentration profile in produced water was successfully used to calculate seawater breakthrough percentage by considering the clay content distribution. However, the seawater breakthrough point cannot be calculated by boron as boron concentration is still at the formation level due to boron desorption.
Minimizing Lost Circulation Non-Productive Time Using Expected Monetary Value and Decision Tree Analysis
Authors: Alkinani Husam Hasan , Al-Hameedi Abo Taleb Tuama , Dunn-Norman Shari 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Lost circulation and problems related to drilling present a major challenge for the drilling industry. Each year, billions are spent to treat these problems. There is not a single solution to lost circulation because of the complexity and kind of formations susceptible to this issue. Lost circulation treatment data for the Shuaiba formation (induced fractured formation) were gathered from drilled wells in Southern Iraq (over 2000). Treatments have been grouped according to the volume of mud loss as complete, severe, and partial loss remedies. Detailed costs and probabilities calculations were conducted. The costs of three types of loss treatments (partial, severe, and complete) were handled separately since some treatments of severe, and all treatments of complete losses have to be introducing through open end drill pipe (OEDP). Expected monetary value (EMV) and decision tree analysis (DTA) were utilized to choose the optimal mud loss pathway to treat the lost circulation type.
In this study, probability and cost were both considered to select the practical and efficient strategy of stopping mud loss. Too many of the remedy scenarios were investigated. The selection of the optimum strategy for every type of loss was based on the lowest EMV and efficiency. Once both conditions were satisfied, the treatment strategies were selected to treat each type of loss. Treatment strategies were provided for complete, severe, and partial losses as flowcharts that can be utilized as a reference in the field to stop or at least mitigate this troublesome problem. The methods used in this paper have the possibility to be adopted and invested to treat mud loss based on historical data of treatments in any formation worldwide.
Flow Control Devices in Steam Assisted Thermal Applications: A Way to Optimize Both Steam Injection and Fluids Production
Authors: Zhu Da , Uzcategui Alberto 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Flow Control Device (FCD) completions in steam assisted thermal applications have been implemented in several places: Canada, California, China, Oman and Colombia, among others. Such completion configurations have been more common in recent years to mitigate or avoid uneven and/or improper steam placement and steam breakthrough, which are some of the critical issues operators have experienced in these developments. This study presents different FCD technologies designed to optimize the steam injection and fluids production for diverse steam assisted applications including SAGD, CSS and Steam Flooding.
Three FCD technologies are introduced: (i) supersonic steam injection FCD, (ii) steam choking FCD and (iii) multi-directional FCD. Extensive Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulations, analytic near-wellbore simulations and flow loop testing were conducted to evaluate the performance of the three technologies: (i) the supersonic steam injection FCD showed a high pressure recovery (therefore, less upstream pressure requirements) and a reduction of the cumulative steam-oil ratio, (ii) the steam choking FCD demonstrated the highest steam choking capability for these type of devices and (iii) the multi-directional FCD showed promising results for CSS applications to allow for supersonic steam injection during the injection phase and steam choking capabilities during the production phase
Common FCD deployment risks such as erosion, scaling potential and high pressure drops were reviewed to provide the reader with a high level understanding of the factors which could induce these issues.
Finally, field data where FCD completions have been installed is presented to compare the FCD wells performance versus conventional well designs and illustrate the success of these completions strategies.
Keywords: flow control devices, supersonic steam injection, steam choking
Incorporating Economic Decisions into Reservoir Simulation to Support Accurate and Efficient Optimization and Analysis of Field Development Strategies
Authors: Browning Jim , Gorell Sheldon 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Economic optimization of a reservoir can be extremely tedious and time consuming. It is particularly difficult with many wells, some of which can become non-economic within the simulated time period. These problems can be mitigated by: 1) analyzing the results of a simulation once it has run, or 2) applying injection or production constraints at the well level. An example of option 1 would be integration with a spreadsheet or economic simulation package after the simulation has run. An example of option 2 would be to set a maximum water cut, upon which the well constraints could be changed, or the well could be shut in within the simulation. Both of these methods have drawbacks. If the goal is to account for how changes in a well operating strategy affects other wells, then analysis after the fact requires many runs to sequentially identify and modify well constraints at the correct times and in the correct order. In contrast, applying injection and production constraints to wells is not the same as applying true economic constraints. The objective of this work was to develop an automated method which includes economic considerations within the simulator to decrease the amount of time optimizing a single model and allows more time to analyze uncertainty within the economic decision making process.
This study developed automated methods and procedures to include economic calculations within the context of a standard reservoir simulation. The method utilized modifications to available conditional logic features to internally include and export key economic metrics to support appropriate automatic field development changes. This method was tested using synthetic models with different amounts of wells and operating conditions. It was validated using after the fact calculations on a well by well basis to confirm the process.
People costs are always among the most significant associated with running a business. Therefore, it is imperative for people to be as efficient and productive as possible. The method presented in this study significantly reduces the amount of time and effort associated with tedious and manual manipulations of simulation models. These savings enable an organization to focus on more value-added activities including, but not limited to, accurately optimizing and estimating of uncertainty associated decisions supported by reservoir simulation.
Security Implications of IIoT Architectures for Oil & Gas Operations
Authors: Hou Bowen , Paul Donald L 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Implementing the IIoT paradigm into the classical oil & gas field OT systems is one of the essential concepts for Digital Oilfield 2.0. The transition in architecture and the corresponding technology changes can create a new cyber-physical security risk profile through alterations in the digital information structure of the oilfield OT system. With the onset of IIoT implementations in the industry, it is an opportune time to review and assess the emerging cyber-physical risk landscape.
In the paper, we identified and compared the current oilfield OT logical structures with the designs emerging through the IIoT implementations. The analysis includes extensive reviews of developing standards, such as those proposed by Industrial Internet Consortium, and ongoing published experiences to find the primary points of transition. The security risks stemming from the IIoT implementation appear to raise significant concerns with regard to potentially severe cybersecurity outcomes, which could materially impact the integrity and safety of oilfieldoperations. The study concentrated on the cybersecurity threats that could pose negative physical and operational conditions resulting from loss of visibility and / or loss of control of the operational processes in field facilities.
Extensive literature reviews were the basis for identifying the implications of cybersecurity risks in the ongoing stages of integrating the IIoT into the field. The reviews identified the modified strategies for cyber-physical systems, including potential threats and counter measurements for the field IIoT model. However, these proposed strategies still miss a fundamental denominator - the assessments generally ignore that it is the fundamental nature of IIoT structure itself that creates cyber-security vulnerabilities. To investigate further, we performed a contrasting analysis based on specific case studies of field IIoT devices such as the pump-off controller and OT architectures. Three foundational threat implications emerged on the transformation of IIoT architecture into the oilfield: 1)The exponential growth of connected distributed artificial intelligence (DAI) devices enormously increases the complexity of designing the software of each facility and system. 2)The cutting-edge Machine to Machine (M2M) characteristic in the IIoT model pushes the human out of the traditional control and monitor loop. 3)The widespread scale of DAI devices with the unique IP address in the network shifts cybersecurity risks to each connected endpoint. The cornerstone of the distinctive IIoT attributes illustrated in the paper contributes to the potential loss of control, leading to potential for serious damaging operational outcomes in the field.
The goal of this paper is to aid oilfield security planning and design processes through animproved recognition of the cyber-physical security impacts emerging from the implementation of IIoT architectures and technologies integration into field OT domains.