bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Preface of destructive m<5 earthquakes in Java island, 2015-2019
Authors: Julius Admiral Musa , Daryono  , Dewa Ketut Kerta Widana I 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This study aims to denote the possible casualties and damages due to the M<5 earthquake. We used the desk study of literatures to explore earthquake disaster reports. The published significant and destructive earthquakes catalogue by BMKG Indonesia along 2015-2019 noted that six events out of them in Java island due to by below magnitude 5 (M<5) earthquakes. Those are sourced in the land and shallow depth focus on the active faults region. Those earthquakes also cause human losses, that is three events out of them induce casualties, and kill two (2) people. Preliminary analysis concludes that the short distance to earthquake source and local site condition was responsible for this unexpected building damages. We suggest this events to be the lesson learned for disaster risk managers to consider the low magnitude earthquake also able to generate the high hazard on the certain seismic prone areas.
Shear wave velocity as a tool for characterising undrained shear strength of Nordic clays
Authors: Long Mike , D’Ignazio Marco 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
There has been increasing recent use of shear wave velocity (Vs) measurements in geotechnical engineering practice. This has been driven by advances in cost effective and efficient methods of determination of Vs. Traditionally Vs measurements were used for seismic hazard assessment or dynamic analyses. However, they are being increasingly used for general site characterization studies, determination of strength and compressibility parameters by empirical correlation, assessment of sample disturbance effects and in the quality control of ground improvement schemes. This paper will briefly present the methods used to determine Vs and give some examples of Vs measurements in clays from Finland, Norway and Sweden. Despite similar depositional environments the range of Vs profiles for these three countries is significantly different. Differences in the profiles appear to be consistent with differences in basic clay properties, e.g. water content, density or plasticity. Nevertheless, the relationship between Vs and undrained shear strength (su) of clays appears to follow a similar trend for clays from Sweden, Finland and Norway. Correlations between Vs and su exist in the literature for Norwegian clays based on DSS tests. This paper studies the relationship between Vs and su from field vane test, which is commonly used in Finnish geotechnical practice. The proposed correlation is based on data from Sweden and Finland and is meant to be used for preliminary estimate of su from Vs in absence of test data or for validation of available test data.
Characterization in one-dimensional compression of a Danish Paleogene Clay
Authors: Di Remigio G , Rocchi I , Zania V 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The North Sea Basin is characterized by the presence of highly plastic, stiff Paleogene clays sedimented between 65.5 and 43 millions of years ago. During the Quaternary Period, this area underwent a series of cyclic glaciations that overconsolidated the underneath clay deposits and sheared the shallower layers. Different studies focusing on these superficial, folded strata are present in literature. On the other hand, less information are available regarding the mechanical behaviour of the deeper, intact layers. However, a good knowledge of these layers mechanical properties is necessary to guarantee an efficient design of the infrastructures built on these formations. This work focusses on the characterization of the Paleogene Røsnæs Clay Formation present in the Fehmarn Belt area, between southern Denmark and northern Germany, where a submerged tunnel will be constructed. The mechanical properties of the Intact Røsnæs Clay layer were determined and compared with those of the Folded Røsnæs Clay. Incremental Load Oedometer tests were performed by applying different load cycles in order to stress the sample below, in correspondence and above the estimated preconsolidation stress. The results were compared with those obtained from testing reconstituted samples in order to assess the influence of structure. This was done quantitatively by analysing the stiffness, the compressibility, and swelling indices. Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope micrographs were used to detect the presence of micro-folding. The mineralogical consistency among the different Oedometer tests was evaluated by means of X-Ray Diffraction. Despite the homogeneity in the mineralogy, differences in both the microstructure and the 1D behaviour of the Folded and Intact layers were observed. In particular, the Folded layers appear to have greater compressibility and swelling potential. These differences should be taken into consideration when building on partially pre-sheared Paleogene formations.
Random sampling of geosynthetics in Finland
Authors: Leppänen M M , Kalliainen A , Uotinen V-M 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
NorGeoSpec is a Nordic system for certification and specification of geosynthetics and geosynthetic related products. Traffic authorities of the member states have composed the guidelines and agreed on a 5-class specification system for geotextiles used for filtration and separation. Recently the quality certification system has been extended to include the reinforcement function, too. The classification system has made the specification of geotextiles easy for the designer, thus increasing the use.
The NorGeoSpec process includes a third-party quality control and audits, i.e. an inspection of the production process and testing of the products in an independent testing laboratory, in addition to the producers’ continuous quality testing. Also, continuous surveillance including unannounced random product sampling and control checks is possible.
With the support of NorGeoSpec, Finnish Transport Infrastructure Agency has carried out a random products sampling on geotextiles and reinforcing geosynthetics in 2015-2018. In addition, random sampling was made on roadside groundwater protection projects using geosynthetic clay liners and geomembranes.
The random sampling project has increased the knowledge of geosynthetics. The results of random sampling have shown some deviations from requirements and the variation between laboratories. Based on the results, the requirements on sampling and testing prior the use at the project site to prove the compliance has been added to Finnish general quality requirements (InfraRYL).
Testing sensitive clays through time and length scales
Authors: Birmpilis Georgios , Dijkstra Jelke 
Published: April 2021

AbstractIn the Nordics, engineering of sensitive soils is of vital importance for realising the urban environment and the infrastructure connecting and underpinning it. The hydro-mechanical behaviour of sensitive clays is strongly affected by the geological deposition history in the area and subsequent human activities resulting in changes in stress and environmental loading. Finally, the characteristic physico-chemical identity of the clay-water system is expressed by the sensitivity of the material. A combination of classic geotechnical tests in the laboratory needs to be complemented with state-of-the-art technologies for material analyses, in order to deepen our understanding of the interaction between the colloidal nature of the clay and the observed response at the engineering scale. Until now these activities have been performed separately. The microstructural observations using various microscopy techniques were not directly combined with classic geotechnical tests. In contrast, the work presented herein showcases methodologies for simultaneous monitoring of fabric and mechanical probing under controlled conditions on samples of sensitive clay. In order to enable real-time fabric measurements of samples of sensitive clay two non-invasive techniques are utilised: X-ray Scattering (XS) and X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT). Furthermore, a bespoke apparatus for sample probing is designed and built at Chalmers University of Technology. The design of the apparatus is adapted to the special challenges of very soft samples and addresses issues of sample quality in soft soil testing (i.e., sample mounting, membraneless configuration). The intention of this work is to demonstrate the feasibility of expanding geotechnical testing outside the limits of the traditional geotechnical laboratory, combining geotechnics with state-of-the-art technologies for material analysis. This, in the end, provides a critical view on the perception of the material and its constituents that aims to contribute in improvement in geotechnical laboratory testing and the development of advanced constitutive models for sensitive clays.
Effect of Strength Anisotropy on the Stability of Natural Slopes
Authors: Aamodt Magnus T , Grimstad Gustav , Nordal Steinar 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
It is well known that low plasticity soft clays have large variations in undrained shear strength with the direction of loading. Laboratory experiments show typically a cross anisotropic behavior, where the undrained shear strength in compression is significantly larger than the undrained shear strength in extension. The total stress based NGI-ADP model, as available in PLAXIS, captures such shear strength anisotropy well, when applied to embankments on or excavations from a horizontal or almost horizontal terrain. However, for non-horizontal terrain the direction of the in-situ principal stresses are inclined, and the axis of anisotropy are hence expected to be somewhat inclined too. As for natural slopes, the effect on the calculated factor of safety due to this inclination is not yet well documented. Previous studies show that this effect might not be a negligible effect and can increase the factor of safety by about 10% for gentle natural slopes. In order to study this, a new ADP model has been implemented in PLAXIS. The formulation is inspired by results from DSS laboratory testing where samples were consolidated under inclined effective stresses before shearing in the same or the opposite direction of the initial shear stress. As expected, the model shows higher factors of safety when applied to a slope than a conventional analysis. The paper then discusses to what extent this represents a real safety margin that has previously been neglected.
Investigations on load-bearing behavior of soil nailing combined with flexible facing for slope stabilization
Authors: Lehn J , Biczók E , Roduner A 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Soil nailing combined with a flexible facing made from steel wire meshes is a commonly used and economically efficient structural system for slope stabilization. Soil nails reinforce the natural soil, which strongly decreases earthwork compared to other retaining and supporting systems. The steel wire mesh ensures the transmission of force and guarantees the safety against local and global slope failure. In a first step the paper describes the structural system of soil nailing combined with flexible facing. For instabilities near the surface (local instabilities) state of the art calculations are outlined. To verify and improve the existing designing approaches, full scale in situ tests were conducted. Among others, different flexible facing systems, nail arrangements, and soil conditions were investigated. The flexible slope stabilization system and the soil were installed in a large box with a dimension of 12 m x 10 m. After the installation, the test box was lifted up stepwise using a crane. Different parameters like three dimensional deformation, rope forces, as well as the moment and normal forces in the nails were measured. The test results are used for numerical back analysis with a three dimensional finite element method. Using the validated and calibrated numerical model, extended parametric studies by 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional non-linear finite element analyses will be conducted in the future to identify the main influencing parameters.
Emission reduction through preconstruction and utilization of alternative materials in infrastructure projects
Authors: Pahkakangas S , Dettenborn T , Forsman J , Niemelin T , Rantala K , Suominen M 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Construction have a significant impact on the amount of emitted green-house gas (GHG) and a potential to cut emissions is quite substantial. In this article, possibilities provided by preconstruction activities and utilization of alternative materials are discussed. Preconstruction means actions to be taken in advance when soils in the construction area are too soft. These actions may be e.g. deep mixing, replacement or preloading. Considering that constructed subgrades, ground improvement and some other earth works required for the infrastructure project can be very energy-intensive, emissions can be reduced substantially only if preconstruction options, areal mass balance and potentiality of alternative materials are identified early enough. Examined case studies also focus on possibilities to reduce emissions related to certain materials e.g. deep mixing binding agents. In deep mixing, blend of cement and quick lime is the most traditional binder component. Therefore, reducing the amount of cement + lime and selecting the cement type have a great impact on CO2 emissions. Cement amount can be reduced by alternative materials such as fly ash, blast furnace slag or gypsum. Possibilities to reduce CO2 emissions were studied in various infrastructure projects and reflected to climate strategies. The studies were focused on areas and operations where changes were possible such as transportation, construction materials or subgrade construction methods. This article describes the case studies related to construction of various infrastructure projects and identified possibilities to reduce emissions.
Tension tests on bored instrumented piles installed in marine Eocene clay
Authors: Knudsen J , Sorensen K K , Steenfelt J S , Trankjær H 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This paper presents parts of the results from two full-scale loading tests (tension) on bored cast-in-place piles installed in high plasticity marine Eocene clay at a test site in Hinge, central Jutland, Denmark. Testing was carried out to investigate the development and distribution of shaft resistance on the test piles. Each test pile was instrumented with distributed fiber-optic strain and temperature cables, in addition to traditional vibrating wire strain gauges and tell tales. Selected examples of retrieved data are presented. The measured shaft resistance is compared to an analytical method based on the Danish National Annex to Eurocode 7, part 1 which represents a conservative estimate for the shaft resistance of bored piles. The results from the two full-scale loading tests (tension) on bored cast-in-place piles in marine Eocene clay show that the Danish code-requirement, concerning shaft resistance, is too conservative.
Use of a 3D stratigraphic model as tool for improved communication and risk assessment in large infrastructure projects
Authors: Kahlström M , Mortensen P-A , Hauser C , Hansen Børner N 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
As more work processes are moving into the digital space, such as collaborative BIM environments, the toolbox of the geotechnical engineer needs an update to efficiently keep track. Visualization of soil conditions in 3D space, using implicit modelling tools, is rapidly changing how geotechnical engineers engage with digital data. For a large railroad development in Norway, a 3D stratigraphic model is developed to act as a hub for soil interpretation, decision making and communication of geotechnical challenges and risks. Lithology is interpreted from all geotechnical boreholes and used as basis for the model together with a terrain model from GIS. The model is dynamically updated as new geotechnical soil investigations are performed and is actively used in the geotechnical design work. Overall, the 3D stratigraphic model is successfully applied for: (1) Visualization of geotechnical uncertainty with a classification based on radial distance to the borehole, (2) communication of sub-surface conditions and risk to project stakeholders and (3) efficiently exporting cross-sections as basis for geotechnical analysis.
The effect of stress path on the dilatation angle of soils
Authors: Korhonen O , Lojander M , Löfman M S , Koskinen M , Korkiala-Tanttu L K 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Modelling the horizontal displacements in subsoil is essential in many geotechnical design situations. Especially dilatation angle should be correctly defined in order to ensure accurate modelling. Hence, this paper studies how the direction of stress path affects the dilatation angle of various soils. The study utilizes numerous anisotropically consolidated and drained compression triaxial tests, and the samples represent normally consolidated soft clay, stiff over-consolidated silt and dry sand. The plastic potential function is derived based on the triaxial test results, using stress values in which the dilatation angle is identical to the direction of stress path. The shape of potential function is assumed to be similar to the yield function, but with different parameters (non-associated modelling of strains). Finally, deformations are calculated by using the concept of potential energy, which is a second order function in mean effective stress - deviatoric stress-space. Simulated values are then compared to triaxial test measurements, and the agreement between values is found to be rather good.
Settlements of spread footing foundations on quick clay stabilized with lime and cement
Authors: Juvik E S , Bache B K F , Berre S S 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Since the early 70’s ground improvement by use of stabilizing agents such as lime and cement has been widely used for solving geotechnical problems; either as a way to improve slope stability, reduce settlements or vibrations, or to reinforce the inside of braced excavations. On a recently constructed motorway project in south of Trondheim, two bridges were founded with spread footings on a medium stiff, quick Norwegian clay stabilized with lime and cement. The post-tensioned concrete bridges are 78 m and 110 m long, with respectively 4 and 5 spans. In this article, evaluation of various foundation solutions is performed based on cost estimates. This showed that the cost of founding the bridges on stabilized ground to be the most viable alternative. Further, the article discusses the calculation methods used to evaluate settlement properties of the foundations. Settlement measurement is performed for about two years after completion of the structures. A comparison of the calculated deformations and measured settlements is conducted in this work. Settlements are measured to be 3-10 mm after one and a half year, except for one abutment that measured 21 mm of vertical displacements. Then the deformations nearly stop for many of the foundations. The measurements show a higher deformation rate in the first six months after casting of the bridge slab, than expected from the calculations. After some time, the measurements coincide well within the upper and lower bounds in the calculations done in the geotechnical design. Possible reasons for these observations are discussed.
Penetration of driven piles into pre-crushed blasted rock: Case Jätkäsaari
Authors: Vasilopoulos K , Korkiala-Tanttu L , Rantala K 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This paper deals with the ability of three driven pile types to penetrate a 0/300 mm pre-crushed blasted rock used as a fill material in the area of Jätkäsaari, Helsinki. The aim of this study was to test whether driven piles can be used as a foundation method in this fill instead of the more expensive drilled piles. In order to achieve that, a test area was created in Ahdinallas, Jätkäsaari. Piles with similar capacities of 300×300 reinforced concrete, RR170/12,5 steel pipe and TRM170/13 ductile iron were driven. The ground conditions in the test-piling area comprised of a 25-30 meter pre-crushed blasted rock layer, underneath of which was a 2-5 meter moraine layer. Thirty-three piles were driven in total, all equipped with a rock shoe. The area was laser-scanned prior and after piling. A pile driving record was kept, and inclinometer, torch, and PDA/CAPWAP measurements were made on the piles. All the piles that penetrated only the pre-crushed blasted rock stayed intact and were successful. Steel pipe and ductile iron piles however, penetrated the material with more ease and less hits/meter. As long as a pile would surely penetrate only a pre-crushed blasted rock layer, all of the tested pile types would be suitable for use as a foundation method. If there is a chance, however, that larger rock pieces are present, steel pipe piles or ductile iron piles would be a safer choice.
Effect of de-icing salt as winter maintenance for corrosion of steel piles on bridges
Authors: Uotinen V-M , Perälä A , Laurila J , Peura P 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Corrosion can have significant long-term effects on the structural resistance of steel piles in ground. There is a possibility that this effect can be intense if ground contains chlorides, sulphites or other aggressive chemicals. Also de-icing salt (NaCl) used on roads during winter maintenance may have effect on the corrosion of steel piles. In this research project a series of site investigations and laboratory tests have been conducted to investigate the effect of de-icing salt for corrosion on steel piles. Totally 12 sites were investigated, partly from locations where de-icing salt has been used and partly where de-icing salt has not been used. Most of the piles were part of bridge structures, but the study includes also data from a few special test piles. Investigated steel piles have been in ground for five to 24 years. The results show that the corrosion and its rate are low. The detrimental effect of de-icing salt on corrosion is negligible.
Vibrations from driven concrete piles in layered soft soils close to a railway embankment
Authors: Lodahl M R , Riis A E , Brødbæk K T , Leth C T 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Driven concrete piles are a well-known method for foundations for various structures on soft soils. In Aalborg, Denmark, the area around an old liquor factory is to be redeveloped. Due to soft soils in the upper 15 to 30 m, all buildings are to be built on foundations based on driven, concrete piles. On the western site boundary is a railway embankment, which is also placed on soft soils. Vibrations from driven piles are a well-known problem and can lead to damage to nearby structures.
The procedure for installing piles under the new buildings called for a desk study to be performed concerning the surface vibrations, caused by the pile driving. Moreover, a field test programme was set up, measuring surface vibrations due to pile driving on the site. A total of 24 piles were monitored during driving, logging peak point velocity used to quantify the vibration magnitude at various distances. All data was processed, and a model was set up to predict magnitude of vibrations from pile driving as a function of distance from the pile. This paper presents the derived model and comparisons with other published models.
Transport infrastructure and geotechnical engineering: ELGIP position paper
Authors: Paniagua P , L’Heureux J-S , Grøneng G , Woning M , Breedeveld J , Rogbeck Y , Löfroth H 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The European Large Geotechnical Institutes Platform (ELGIP) is a group of 14 European research organizations, leading in geotechnical engineering, which aims to promote internationally the profession, its network and its societal relevance. One ELGIP vision is that all transport infrastructure should aim for an optimal geotechnical design. The present paper shows the relationship between the pressing challenges on European transport infrastructures and the crucial role that geotechnical engineering plays in solving them, emphasising the need for improved knowledge and understanding of ground properties in transport infrastructure.