bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Nation Connected
Authors: Johnston Jean-Michel 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter opens with an illustration of the Prussian government’s use of telegraph networks to unite the German nation during the war with France in 1870 by ensuring the timely and ubiquitous distribution of news. Otto von Bismarck and Generalpostmeister Heinrich Stephan then sought to build upon this unifying conception of telegraphic communication by improving and homogenizing the new Kaiserreich’s network, but they soon faced obstacles from within and outside the state. On the one hand, the federal structure of the new empire granted Bavaria and Württemberg the right to manage their own networks. On the other hand, the increasingly global network upon which trade and finance depended, and the news cartel established between Havas, Reuters, and Wolffs Telegraphisches Büro limited the imperial administration’s ability to manage the cost and nature of information circulating on its lines. These issues, and particularly the economic crisis of 1873, led to conflicts in the Reichstag, where deputies openly questioned the technology’s capacity to ‘annihilate space’ and formed alliances based upon the sections of society which they believed should or should not possess an advantage in communication. At a local level, meanwhile, government efforts to build new, more imposing, post and telegraph buildings alongside subsidiary offices threatened the business community’s privileged position within the urban landscape. The distance and time involved in the transmission of telegrams came to define one’s local and social status—as shown vividly in the novels of Theodor Fontane in the early 1880s and in the popular press.
Prudential Normativity, Moral Scepticisms, and Metaethics
Authors: Fletcher Guy 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In earlier chapters it was argued that prudential value gives agents normative, prudential reasons and that prudential judgements are normative judgements on a par with moral judgements. This chapter spells out some ramifications of these theses by examining four different areas of inquiry about morality and moral discourse, showing how the theses hitherto defended in this book affect them. It begins with the form of moral scepticism found within the ‘why be moral?’ debate. It then examines hermeneutic moral error theory and proposes a companions-in-guilt argument based on the normativity of prudential discourse. Third, it examines arguments given within the literature on revisionary metaethical views, pointing out and questioning their commitment to prudential justifications. Finally, it is shown how the normativity of prudential properties applies to a central debate about thick concepts, that between reductionists and non-reductionists about such concepts.
Prudential Normativity
Authors: Fletcher Guy 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In earlier chapters, it was argued that prudential discourse is normative, like moral discourse. If that is true, then we should expect to be able to take resources from metaethics and fruitfully apply them to meta-prudential questions and vice versa. This chapter tries to do precisely that. In particular, it aims to show how various long-standing debates about prudential value can be enhanced by importing ideas from metaethics and how bringing these two lines of inquiry together generates a number of significant benefits both inside and outside of theorizing about prudential normativity.
Developing Reliable Measures
Authors: Alwin Duane F. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents a general approach to assessing the reliability of measurement of survey questions—those in common use in many surveys. The approach, which relies on a robust set of longitudinal design requirements, applies the quasi-Markov simplex model to multi-wave data in the evaluation of measurement errors for survey questions. Under particular assumptions, this model produces a set of estimates that conform to the psychometric definition of measurement reliability, defined as the ratio of true variance to observed variance. These models attribute some of the over-time inconsistency in measurements to unreliability and some to true change. This strategy rejects traditional notions of reliability that rely on internal consistency estimates for composite variables, as well as the simple test–retest approach to estimating reliability. Rather, the emphasis is on the separation of unreliability from true change in observations made over time. The importance of meeting several design requirements for using these over-time statistical models is also emphasized. These include the use of large-scale panel studies representative of known populations, with a minimum of three waves of measurement, separated by lengthy re-interview intervals, and limited to exactly replicated questions over the multiple waves. Results are presented from several three-wave panel studies that have employed this design, which provide evidence for the utility of the approach in the evaluation of the quality of survey measurement with respect to question content, context, and form.
Reliability in Latent Growth Curve Models
Authors: Shryane Nick 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In this chapter I give an overview of reliability in the context of latent growth curve models. Although conceptually similar to latent factor models, reliability is more complex in a growth context. Two different conceptions of reliability were compared: growth curve reliability and growth rate reliability. The former evaluates the reliability of a measurement at a specific time point, the latter evaluates the reliability of the estimate of change over time. The differences, strengths, and limitations of these approaches are discussed, and demonstrated with an example on memory change in older adults. I show that using multiple measurements at each time point (with a second-order latent growth curve model) can improve growth curve reliability but will not necessarily improve growth rate reliability.
The Implications of Functional Form Choice on Model Misspecification in Longitudinal Survey Mode Adjustments
Authors: Smalley Heather Kitada , Emerson Sarah C. , Lesser Virginia 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, we develop theory and methodology to support mode adjustment and hindcasting/forecasting in the presence of different possible mode effect types, including additive effects and odds-multiplicative effects. Mode adjustment is particularly important if the ultimate goal is to report one aggregate estimate of response parameters, and also to allow for comparison to historical surveys performed with different modes. Effect type has important consequences for inferential validity when the baseline response changes over time (i.e. when there is a time trend or time effect). We present a methodology to provide inference for additive and odds-multiplicative effect types, and demonstrate its performance in a simulation study. We also show that if the wrong effect type is assumed, the resulting inference can be invalid as confidence interval coverage is greatly reduced and estimates can be biased.
‘They Do It Like This in Romania’
Authors: Morton James 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 10 explores the changing uses of Byzantine canon law among the Italo-Greeks in the thirteenth century. The Greek churches and monasteries of southern Italy became increasingly integrated into the administration of the Roman church following the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). Nonetheless, as the Salentine Group shows, some Italo-Greeks continued to copy nomocanons as late as the fourteenth century. Chapter 10 argues that the manuscripts retained a value as sources of cultural authority, explaining and justifying Greek religious ritual, even as they lost their value as sources of legal authority. To illustrate this point, the chapter begins with a discussion of Nektarios of Otranto’s Three Chapters, a polemical work of c. 1220–1225 that relies heavily on citations of Byzantine canon law to refute Latin attacks on Greek rites and customs. It then considers who these refutations were aimed at, looking in particular at the abortive attempt of Archbishop Marinus of Bari to outlaw Greek baptism in 1232 as a specific example of Latin criticism. It notes, however, that criticism like this from the official church hierarchy was rare and that controversy was probably more restricted to an unofficial, local level. The chapter concludes by examining evidence that canon-law based defences of Greek religious practice were not just aimed at Latins but also at other Greeks. As many Italo-Greeks began to adopt (consciously or otherwise) Latin rites into their worship, more conservative sections of the community attempted to resist such cultural change by mobilising canon law as polemic.
Introduction to the Study of Animals
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Because the objective of a study will largely determine the methods used, it is essential to define the objectives at the outset. Very broadly, studies may be defined as either extensive and intensive. Extensive studies are carried out over larger areas or longer time periods than intensive studies, and are frequently used to provide information on distribution and abundance for conservation or management programmes. Intensive studies involve the repeated observation of the population of an animal. The different types of population estimates—absolute, relative, and intensity—are described. The estimation of error and confidence intervals, including jackknife and bootstrap techniques, is described.
Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Habitat: Air, Plants, Plant Products, and Vertebrate Hosts
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

AbstractSuction and other samplers for aerial insects and other invertebrates, such as the exposed-cone Johnson–Taylor trap, are described, and their efficiencies under different meteorological conditions defined. Techniques for sampling small animals from plants are described, including the use of suction apparatus such as the D-Vac and Vectis for grassland sampling. Specialized methods for counting insects within plant tissues are described, and techniques for sampling parasites from their vertebrate hosts and homes are reviewed.
The Construction, Description, and Analysis of Age-Specific Life-Tables
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Methods for constructing a life-table and budget for a species are described, and the various methods for the analysis of stage-frequency data reviewed. Stage-frequency data comprise counts of the individuals in different development stages in samples taken from a population over a period of time. The analysis of stage-frequency data to estimate the durations of the stages, the numbers entering stages, and survival rates is described. Examples of survivorship curves are presented, and the calculation of population growth rate described. Analysis of life-table data and demographic methods, including key-factor analysis, are described.
Species Richness, Diversity, and Packing
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Methods to measure species richness and α-, β-, and γ-diversity are reviewed. A useful classification is α-diversity, the diversity of species within a community or habitat, β-diversity, a measure of the rate and extent of change in species along a gradient from one habitat to others, and γ-diversity, the richness in species of a range of habitats in a geographical area. Species inventories are frequently required for conservation management. Because a complete census is rarely feasible, the community must be sampled, and methods are needed to estimate via sampling the total taxa number present. A wide range of species richness estimators are described and their applicability reviewed. Models for species abundance, including geometric, log-normal, and broken stick are presented. Rarefaction techniques to compare species richness in communities sampled with differing effort are described. Methods to compare α-diversity between samples are described. Techniques to study community structure are introduced, and measures of niche size and overlap are presented. Similarity, indices are reviewed, and R code to measure niche overlap is presented.
The Virtue of Epistemic Trustworthiness and Re-Posting on Social Media
Authors: Wright Sarah 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Re-posting fake news on social media exposes others to epistemic risks that include not only false belief but also misguided trust in the source of the fake news. The risk of misguided trust comes from the fact that re-posting is a kind of credentialing; as a new kind of speech-act, re-posting does not yet have established norms and so runs an additional risk of “bent credentialing.” This chapter proposes that other-regarding epistemic virtues can help us mitigate the epistemic risks that come with re-posting—specifically the virtue of epistemic trustworthiness. It further considers how an epistemically trustworthy person should regulate her re-posting behavior in light of the psychological evidence that retracting false beliefs is far more difficult than might be supposed. Behaving in an epistemically trustworthy way requires being responsive to the real risks that our actions expose others to, as well as recognizing the real ways that others depend on us.
Fake News and Epistemic Rot; or, Why We Are All in This Together
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C. 
Published: May 2021

AbstractFake news poses an interesting test case to theories of the epistemology of testimony. If they are to illuminate the nature of the epistemic challenges and harms fake news poses to (members of) a community, the theories themselves must move beyond several overly simplistic models of communication. After developing and criticizing some of these, this chapter goes on to offer a more nearly adequate model. The distinctive feature of the theory presented is that it goes beyond the reporter (speaker) and recipient (hearer), postulating several other roles people (and technology) play in communication. The upshot of these reflections is a case for thinking of epistemic responsibility in distinctly social terms—in terms of what we owe to each other as creatures who are both information-seeking and highly social.
An Epistemic Defense of News Abstinence
Authors: Bernecker Sven 
Published: May 2021

AbstractIf we have reason to believe that by following the news, we acquire more false beliefs than true ones or we acquire true but irrelevant beliefs, then we may be justified in taking a newsbreak. We are propositionally justified in temporarily ignoring the news either in a domain or from a source if (i) we are in a fake news environment or are justified in believing that we are, and (ii) it is cognitively difficult or time consuming to discriminate genuine from fake news or to obtain genuine news. The defense of news abstinence rests either on reliabilism about justification or the defeasibility theory. When reliabilism is combined with epistemic consequentialism, news abstinence in a fake news environment is not only epistemically permitted but also epistemically required.
Properties of Romance object clitics
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThe chapter deals with the core properties of clitics and aims to build the case for a syntactic analysis of cliticization. Phonologically, the main property of clitics is that they lack stress. Stress shift and other phonological processes (e.g. apocope, aphaeresis, and elision) confirm that clitics have a deficient prosodic status, which may trigger the extension of cyclic lexical rules to the post-lexical domain formed by the clitic and its prosodic host. The morphology of clitics challenges the customary idea that clitic elements lack a complex internal structure. Syntactically, clitics differ from free pronouns in many respects: they occur in a fixed position (set on a language-specific basis), and in most languages they must be close (or attached) to a verbal form. The displacement of clitics in the clause interacts with the behaviour of other syntactic elements, noticeably the verb, negation, and other clitic material.
Theoretical preliminaries
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThe chapter introduces some terminological conventions and a simple representation of sentence structure for the analysis of clitic placement and other syntactic displacements. It elaborates on four key notions: dependencies, nesting, domains, and criteria. The term dependency refers to the relationship between the clitic and the syntactic position where the corresponding argument is (allegedly) projected. The second important factor regarding clitic placement has to do with the identification of the clausal domains where clitics can occur. The third relevant factor in the definition of clitic placement is nesting, i.e. the mechanism whereby clitics are attached to morphosyntactic structures. Lastly, clitic placement is dependent on discourse-driven displacements that are triggered by instructions termed criteria.
Morphophonological evidence against deficiency
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThis chapter sets out to elaborate on the correlation between the inner structure of pronouns and morphophonological properties with the intent of challenging the received view that clitics have a deficient inner structure. The chapter shows that in many languages the structure of clitics is at least as complex as (if not more complex than) the structure of strong pronouns. Moreover, it argues that morphophonological phenomena such as stress shift, allomorphy, and suppletion often result from morphophonological conditions (some of which are not productive any more) and do not provide solid evidence in support of the claim that clitics are deficient.
Clitics in embryo
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThe chapter aims to provide a principled account of the emergence of clitic pronouns in the transition from Latin to early Romance. The discussion revolves around the hypothesis that a double series of pronouns (which in Late Latin were still homophonous) emerged from the reanalysis of a discourse-driven displacement. So-called weak pronouns in Latin are strong pronouns that are displaced to the Wackernagel Position, which is analysed as a Criterial Position in the sense of Rizzi (2006, 2007). Productive interpolation in medieval Portuguese and Spanish results from the same syntactic displacement, but the Romance languages, unlike Latin, have exhibited a double series of pronouns (clitic/strong) from the earliest attestations. The emergence of a second series of pronouns witnesses a change in the morphophonological status of pronouns, which is the prelude to another change which will yield the incorporation of clitics into verbal hosts.
Doer of the Word, 1858‒1876
Authors: Wetzel Benjamin J. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Theodore Roosevelt was born into a religiously devout family in 1858. Antebellum New York culture was shaped by religion and revivalism, particularly the Businessmen’s Revival. This atmosphere, along with the American Civil War, which divided the Roosevelts, shaped the religious practices of the upper-crust Protestant family. Roosevelt greatly admired his father, who was devoted to philanthropy and good works. Roosevelt’s own youthful faith can be seen through revealing diary entries written on the family’s two extended trips abroad—to Europe and the Holy Land. Roosevelt himself officially professed faith and joined his family’s Dutch Reformed Church in 1874.
Standing at Armageddon, 1909‒1914
Authors: Wetzel Benjamin J. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter shows how Roosevelt continued to be involved in religious issues after his presidency. He joined the staff of the liberal Protestant publication Outlook where he worked under the Reverend Lyman Abbott and wrote several articles dealing with religious issues. Roosevelt also gave a series of lectures at Pacific Theological Seminary in 1911, including one on the importance of the King James Bible. Running for president again in 1912, Roosevelt and the Progressive Party used a plethora of religious imagery in his unsuccessful bid to recapture the Oval Office. The chapter concludes with Roosevelt’s moral character being vindicated in a libel trial in 1913.
The Kingdom of God on Earth, 1909‒1914
Authors: Wetzel Benjamin J. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In addition to writing for a religious periodical and running for president in 1912, Roosevelt also undertook two major journeys abroad during this time. His African safari of 1909‒10 allowed him to observe and comment on traditional African religions and Christian missionaries. When he returned to the United States via Europe, he once again found himself mixed up in Vatican politics. In 1913‒14, Roosevelt and his friend the Catholic priest John Zahm planned a scientific expedition in South America. Roosevelt and his expedition eventually charted an unknown river in Brazil. These incidents continued to show Roosevelt’s religious ecumenism and support of religion in general.
Introduction
Authors: Falk Oren 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The Introduction acquaints the reader with medieval Iceland and sketches the two key problems with which this book engages: how violence in history is to be understood, and how the history of medieval Iceland is to be reconstructed. It introduces the sources and acquaints readers with the accepted portrait of medieval Iceland, outlines the importance of risk and uncertainty for analysing violence, and lays out the structure of the book. By comparing the practice of violence to religion and education, the Introduction suggests that violence performs a critical function in imposing a tidy ethical order on chaotic reality
What Does Violence Have to Do with History?
Authors: Falk Oren 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Historians’ treatment of violence has been dominated by a binary theoretical orientation. A critique of this outlook leads to articulating a new, three-part model of violence as a cultural history problem. Neither functionalist readings in terms of power nor interpretations in terms of signification sufficiently explain violence: it is proposed that risk operates as a bridging category, bringing out the unique features violence introduces to the general social contest over domination and meaning. This chapter details the insights drawn from three key risk analysis theories—prospect theory, edgework, and the calculus of jeopardy—to model risk as a dimension of violence. It defines key concepts used throughout the book: violence (‘forceful physical action apt to cause harm’), power, signification, and risk, as well as risk magnitude, likelihood, realms, and domains