bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reducing health inequalities in developing countries
Authors: Paes-Souza Romulo , Buss Paulo M. , Barreto Mauricio L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In the current international context of economic globalization, discussions have not only highlighted inequalities within individual countries, but also inequalities between countries. Inequalities between countries are related to the differences in economic and social development achieved by different countries, which are generated by the position that these countries have occupied during different phases of history within the global production system. The latter reflect historical aspects, and the international economic and political environments in relation to each country’s share of global resources and development opportunities. Policies for fighting poverty and inequality require local, national, and global approaches, but funding issues often hamper their feasibility.
Genomics and public health
Authors: Ramsuran Veron , Oliveira Tulio de 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The discipline of ‘public health genomics’ emerged as a need to provide ‘responsible and effective translation of genome-based knowledge and technologies for the benefit of the population’. It is becoming increasingly accepted that the one size fits all approach is going to be outdated soon. Targeted personalized medicines, therapies, and interventions approach will be the preferred form of treatment in the not too distant future. The fields of public health genomics, precision medicine, and precision public health have proven important aspects in improving population health. However, despite the advancements made, there are still improvements that need to be implemented to significantly improve health, especially within the developing countries. In this chapter we discuss the advancements made within the field and highlight challengers or future directions.
How access to healthcare affects population health
Authors: Inall Yvonne , Hunter Rachel Lamdin , Leeder Stephen , Beaton Angela 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores access to healthcare—the timely availability of professional health services to prevent, diagnose, and treat illnesses and to preserve or improve the health of individuals—and its consequences. The ethical context in which access is considered includes the human rights and social justice concepts of ‘a right to healthcare’ and ‘equity of access’. Conscious that these concepts differ from country to country, we offer working definitions. Countries and their governments vary in their political and social attitudes to access. Those with a strong social welfare agenda might focus attention and budgets on social factors such as education and social welfare; these not only determine health, but also access to care. Others, regarding healthcare as the individual’s concern, might give these factors less weight. Despite this complexity and much national variation, access depends, in general, most often on good primary healthcare, public investment, and political will, availability of data to guide resourcing decisions, and the development of a well-trained, integrated workforce with appropriate supporting infrastructure.
Health policy in developing countries
Authors: Htay Thein T. , Saw Yu Mon , Levinson James , Kadri S.M. , Brady Ailbhe Helen , Acquin Cecilia S. , Htet Aung Soe 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to underscore the role of an integrated stewardship process and decentralization of healthcare services through high standards of governance towards effective health policies in developing countries. Changing disease patterns and challenging health status in developing countries calls for a rigorous monitoring and evaluation of prevailing health systems so that their new health policies be able to tackle these emerging health needs. Three stages of health transition and globalization have highlighted their impacts on health problems and health policies. The optimal composition and interactions of actors in health policy have influenced the strategic directions and policy implementation. In implementing the global and national health policies within the context of health system strengthening, national policies will better assure that health priorities in local settings are addressed and country-led while international assistance supports the health sector priorities. With the creation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and now the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), more attention is being given in these countries to policies and programmes which are results- and outcome-oriented. Possible strategies to improve health policy and the overall status of health in developing countries are recommended including Universal Health Coverage and the SDGs, among others.
Cross-sectional studies
Authors: Kogevinas Manolis , Chatzi Leda 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter will first describe the uses of cross-sectional studies in epidemiological and public health research and then discuss methodological issues concerning the design, the main biases of these studies including response rates, and how to improve participation. In recent years these studies have also incorporated the collection of biospecimens. In aetiological research, cross-sectional studies are suitable epidemiological means for studying non-fatal diseases and effects on physiological variables that do not have a clear time of onset. However, the design of cross-sectional studies makes them less appropriate than other study designs for investigating causal associations. The chapter will finally discuss issues related to the statistical analysis of cross-sectional studies. Many of these issues are also relevant to other epidemiological designs.
Natural and quasi-experiments
Authors: Craig Peter 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Natural experiments, defined as events or processes outwith the control of a researcher, which divide a population into exposed and unexposed groups, have long been used in epidemiology and public health. Evaluation methods that rely on observational rather than experimental data are classified as second best in conventional hierarchies of evidence. Natural experimental approaches have attracted renewed interest from public health researchers and decision-makers because they widen the range of interventions that can usefully be evaluated beyond those that are politically, ethically, or practically amenable to testing in randomized controlled trials. This chapter argues for seeing trials and natural experiments as part of a common toolkit for producers and users of evidence about the effectiveness of policies and programmes. It describes the most commonly used natural experimental approaches to evaluating population health interventions, and provides examples of their use in a wide range of countries and policy settings.
Clinical epidemiology
Authors: Stanaway Fiona F. , Noguchi Naomi , Loy Clement , Reid Sharon , Craig Jonathan C. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Clinical epidemiology is a science that extends the principles and methods of epidemiology to clinical practice and clinical research. In this chapter, we provide an overview of clinical epidemiological methods and how these approaches can be used to improve global public health. We have focused primarily on using evidence in decision-making in this chapter, rather than study design and conduct elements, such as randomized controlled trials, which are covered in detail elsewhere. Consequently, we have provided a framework for critical appraisal and reporting of relevant study designs (how to use and report), rather than a detailed discussion about how such studies should be designed and conducted (how to do).
Sexuality and public health
Authors: Parker Richard , Garcia Jonathan , Muñoz-Laboy Miguel , Sommer Marni , Wilson Patrick 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter seeks to provide an overview of this rapidly growing body of work in public health. It describes the initial public health response to sexuality in the context of HIV and AIDS, as well as the ways in which that response has been gradually broadened over time in order to provide a more comprehensive approach to sexual health and well-being. It also focuses on both the local and the global dimensions of this work, in both developed and developing countries, and as much in the work of local communities struggling to respond to the needs of their own populations, as well as on the part of a range of international agencies that are increasingly seeking to address a range of challenges to sexual health.
Economic appraisal in public healthcare: assessing efficiency and equity
Authors: Parkin David , Morris Stephen , Devlin Nancy 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter is an introduction to economic appraisal. It explains underlying concepts, describes methods used, and discusses the application to public health. Economic appraisal comprises techniques that weigh up the costs of an action, such as providing a public health intervention to an at-risk population group, against the benefits that it provides. Important underlying principles are opportunity cost, social versus private costs and benefits, marginal costs and benefits, efficiency, and equity. There are different types of economic appraisal, each of which measures the costs and benefits of options being compared. Measuring costs involves identifying and describing resource use changes, quantifying them in physical units and valuing them. Issues in cost measurement include use of macro or micro-costing and dealing with inflation and time preference. There are several approaches that can be used to measure benefits depending on the type of economic appraisal being used; a measure of special interest is quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). Modelling is often used in economic appraisal to combine data on the costs and benefits of an intervention. Given the inherent uncertainties involved in economic appraisal it is good practice to undertake sensitivity analyses that investigate the impact of uncertainty. Methodological challenges in undertaking economic appraisals of public health interventions include the importance of equity and inequality considerations, establishing robust evidence of the effect of public health programmes, the relevance of QALYs, and accounting for multisectoral costs and benefits.
Urbanization and health
Authors: Corburn Jason 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
A majority the world’s population (4.2 billion) are now living in cities and municipal regions. According to the UN, 55% of the world was living in cities in 2018 and over 68% were expected to live in urban areas by 2050. Urbanization is a dynamic and evolving physical, social, and economic transformation that shapes the health and well-being of populations living in cities and around the world. City living can be healthy, since they can offer more population groups the health benefits of life-supporting infrastructure such as clean water and sanitation, education, and social services, as well as greater cultural, religious, and political expression and freedoms. This chapter briefly reviews the historical debates around the connections between human health and urbanization and highlights some challenges for addressing twenty-first century urbanization. Twenty-first century urbanization presents new challenges for urban health.
Cancer epidemiology and public health
Authors: Boffetta Paolo , Zhang Zuo-Feng , Vecchia Carlo La 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Neoplasms continue to dominate globally as one of the major sources of human disease and death. There are multiple modifiable causes of cancer and understanding their attributable risk factors for each cancer is of importance. This chapter covers the role of cellular and molecular mechanisms as well as the experimental and epidemiological approaches as determinants of the main cancers. Even if major discoveries in the clinical management of cancer patients will be accomplished in the near future, the changes will mainly affect the affluent part of the world population. Promising approaches focused on prevention of the known causes, reducing its consequences, notably in resource-constrained settings are highlighted.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma
Authors: Riley Craig M. , Bon Jessica , Morris Alison 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma are highly prevalent, non-malignant respiratory conditions that have increased dramatically in the past half century, both in high-income and low-middle-income countries. COPD is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide, and both COPD and asthma have a profound impact on quality of life for patients and their families. Tobacco smoke remains the single most important cause of COPD, but occupational and indoor exposures have increasingly been recognized as risk factors, especially among middle- and low-income individuals. Different patterns of genetic susceptibility independent of exposure result in variability of disease expression with many patients not developing clinical COPD, although they may still develop respiratory symptoms. COPD prevalence differs greatly between countries even when controlling for smoking rates. While much progress has been made in understanding biological pathways involved in asthma, the understanding of why asthma initially develops remains elusive. Although a large number of potential risk factors have been identified, none can explain the global increases in asthma prevalence observed over the last few decades. Prevalence trends between countries have also varied, with some countries continuing to experience increases in asthma rates and some rates levelling off or even declining. These trends cannot be explained by divergent epidemiological methods or population makeup alone. Asthma control, especially for severe asthmatics and for those with non-allergic phenotypes, remains a public health problem with more efficient interventions needed to encourage smoking cessation, improve air quality, and reduce allergen exposure.
Diabetes mellitus
Authors: Naz Khan Farah , Izhar Shaikh Nida , Venkat Narayan K.M. , Ali Mohammed K. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Diabetes is an increasingly common, progressive metabolic disorder that results in a range of distressing symptoms, altered daily functioning, social and psychological impacts on individuals and their families, high healthcare expenditures, lost productivity, and premature mortality. Prevalence and absolute numbers of people with diabetes has grown worldwide, with no country or region spared. In this chapter, we review the data regarding diabetes burdens, describing patterns observed in low- and middle-income countries, and in high-income countries. We describe the major gaps that must be addressed, both in research and in implementation, to better detect, prevent, and treat diabetes. We describe what is known and yet unknown about vulnerable populations and describe efforts to address disparities in diabetes.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Rustomjee Roxana 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The failure to control tuberculosis (TB) in recent times stems, at least in part, from complacency towards TB control in the 1970s and 1980s and the subsequent devastating impact of the HIV-1 pandemic, the rising emergence of drug resistance as well as the growing disparity in disease burden between developed and developing countries. Progress has also been hindered by the slow development of more effective tools such as point-of-care diagnostics and treatments for active and latent disease, preventive vaccines, and laboratory assays of disease progression, immune protection, and cure. This lack of progress is, in turn, related to a poor understanding of the fundamental relationship between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the human host and especially the nature of what is referred to as ‘latent TB infection’. An increased focus on understanding the mechanics and drivers of transmission together with a concerted effort to translate research findings into policy and practice contextualized to local needs and resources is required. This chapter reviews recent advances in tackling tuberculosis, highlighting key unmet needs and strategies for an accelerated effort to achieve control.
Viral alcoholic and fatty liver diseases
Authors: Zigmond Ehud , Shouval Daniel 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections, alcohol, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are major risk factors in the development of chronic liver disease (CLD), cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Various estimates have been proposed regarding the global prevalence of HBV and HCV carriers. According to a recent Polaris Observatory HCV Collaborators and the World Health Organization (WHO) burden estimates that 257 and 71 million people are living in the world with HBV and HCV infection, respectively, leading to an annual death from cirrhosis/liver failure and HCC of ~900,000 and ~400,000, respectively. Alcohol consumption, which is a major risk factor for CLD and HCC, is responsible for about 3.3 million deaths annually worldwide and for 5.1% of the global burden of disease as measured in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). In recent years NAFLD and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) associated with the metabolic syndrome, have captured the attention of hepatologists, public health experts, and the pharma industry alike. Indeed, the incidence of NAFLD and NASH and its complications including cirrhosis and HCC, is rising to epidemic proportions in the Western population, and constitute a major health problem worldwide.
Genetic epidemiology
Authors: Young Elizabeth H. , Sandhu Manjinder S. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The integration of epidemiological methods with genome-wide technologies has provided unprecedented insights into the complex biological mechanisms of traits and diseases in human populations. These advances have revolutionized the scope and scale of what can be done, ranging from studies of single gene variants measured in small samples through to the emergence of high-throughput genotyping, genome-wide association studies, and next-generation whole genome sequencing technologies which produce information on millions of genetic variants in thousands of individuals. In parallel, as these genomic technologies provide new opportunities to better understand disease biology, it is becoming increasingly apparent that a knowledge of genomic medicine will be essential for public health practitioners in meeting the public’s future healthcare needs.
As our understanding of disease aetiology and its underlying biological mechanisms increases, there is the potential for new drug development and improved therapeutic strategies to manage disease at the population level. At the same time, there is growing interest in the use of these genetic variants to predict individual disease risk over and above classical risk factors, and to develop stratified and personalized approaches to diagnosis and disease management. The public health community has a central role to play in critically and systematically evaluating these discoveries for their potential use in disease management. Thus, in this 21st century era of genetic epidemiology and genomic science, public health practitioners cannot overlook the global relevance of genetic epidemiology on our understanding of models of disease, personalized medicine, and the relationship between individuals and populations, treatment, and prevention strategies.
Health of older people
Authors: Sinha Samir K. , Ellis Brittany 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Declines in mortality and fertility have largely contributed to population ageing and an accompanying epidemiological transition from infectious to chronic diseases. Significant improvements in life expectancy have occurred overall, although these have not been equally distributed between socioeconomic groups or across countries. Ageing is associated with increased health and social care needs due to the increased risk and prevalence of chronic diseases, dementia, multimorbidity, and disability that demand different types of and approaches to care. Older people benefit from a wide range of preventive interventions that reduce morbidity earlier in life, and prevent disability later on, as well as gerontological and geriatric expertise related to the delivery of care, support, and services to meet their unique needs. This chapter considers the phenomenon of population ageing, the unique health needs of older people, and specific approaches to providing health and social care to them.
The political economy of non-communicable diseases
Authors: Thow Anne Marie , Lencucha Raphael , Reddy K. Srinath 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Non-communicable diseases are the major cause of death and disability globally, but are largely preventable. The five major modifiable risk factors are tobacco use, alcohol use, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, and air pollution—all of which have a strong environmental component. Implementation of policy to address non-communicable diseases (NCDs), however, has focused on individual responsibility rather than creating supportive environments for health promotion and NCD prevention, in part because of industry influence. A political economy perspective is helpful in considering how economic interests intersect with political decisions to shape the environments in which individuals live. When ‘environments of risk’ are considered from a political economy perspective, it enables us to critically assess sociopolitical factors that generate product environments characterized by health-harming products, built environments that condition physical inactivity over physical activity, and marginalization of pollution reduction. The enormous size and reach of these ‘industries of risk’ translates into significant political power. Industry actively exerts power in formal decision-making forums (‘decision-making power’), shapes the agenda in political debates (‘non-decision-making power’), and exercises ideological power in ways that are contrary to NCD prevention. Despite the power wielded by industry interests in the policy process, there has been innovation and meaningful policy change for NCD prevention. Key strategies include: assembling strong, local evidence to underpin policy; developing strong coalitions of actors with public health interests; preparing for push-back from industry; and developing specific proposals for healthier economic policy.
Principles of infectious disease control
Authors: Kim-Farley Robert J. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Infectious diseases remain a leading cause of morbidity, disability, and mortality worldwide. Lower respiratory infections are the third leading causes of death worldwide and their control is a constant challenge that faces health workers and public health officials in both industrialized and developing countries. This chapter provides a global and comprehensive view of the principles of infectious disease control through examination of the magnitude of disease burden, the chain of infection (agent, transmission, and host) of infectious diseases, the varied approaches to their prevention and control (measures applied to the host, vectors, infected humans, animals, environment, and agents), and the factors conducive to their eradication as well as emergence and re-emergence.