bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Images and Interpretation of Africans in Roman Art and Social Practice
Authors: Bell Sinclair W. 
Published: December 2021

AbstractThe representation of foreign cultures with manifest ethnic or “racial” differences, such as unfamiliar physical traits or exotic dress, has been a long-standing and often visceral site for human artistic expression. The visual and material culture of the Roman Empire provides an abundant record of such encounters which render visible complex formulations of ethnicity, social hierarchies, and power. The present chapter focuses on how artists represented the peoples whom Romans referred to as Aethiopians or Nubians (i.e., sub-Saharan or “Black” Africans) in different visual media, and it explores issues related to the social functions, patronage, and viewership of these works. In particular, the chapter discusses the formalized conventions, object types, and display contexts of their representations; examines the two critical axioms of their study (the philological and social historical); and maps out recent approaches to and future directions in their interpretation.
Iconography of the Non-Iconic
Authors: Anguissola Anna 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the role of non-iconic elements in the Roman visual arts, highlighting their contribution for the purposes of identifying, situating, and characterizing individual figures and whole scenes. Non-iconic or non-figural elements such as bases, frames, or supports, as well as features that relate to the material identity of an artwork (e.g., the type of metal, stone, and pigments), do not refer to things or facts about the subject or outside the artwork itself. Nonetheless, these elements play an essential role in establishing the meaning and context of an image. As recent scholarship has demonstrated, they participate in a complex semantics of visual codes and stereotypes designed to assist viewers in making sense of an image at both immediate and more sophisticated levels.
Drug Users: A Case Study
Authors: Turner Tim , Colombo Tony 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate how ethnographic research can generate unique insights into the situated meaning of illicit drug use within bounded play spaces of pleasure and excess. The case study draws on three summers of participant observation with British tourists on the Balearic island of Ibiza, a holiday resort culturally defined by narratives of hedonism, drugs and dance music. The chapter discusses three principal aspects of the ethnographic research. First, a step-by-step outline of the methodological framework is provided. Second, key findings on the pleasures of drug use are discussed, demonstrating how ethnography can generate unique insights into this area of study. Third, future directions for ethnographic research in relation to drug users are proposed.
Ethnographies of Drug Dealers
Authors: Curtis Ric , Begum Popy 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines how ethnographers and qualitative researchers have described drug dealers. Written as an interview, the chapter touches on many of the themes and tropes that have characterized the literature about drug dealers, including their propensity to violence, their hedonism, the apparent increase in the number of women in the business, their problematic family lives, and their lack of attachment to the workforce. The chapter explains how research funding that prioritized drug dealers at the bottom of the economic hierarchy and overlooked those at the top has sometimes led to peculiar characterizations of drug dealers and particular kinds of explanatory frameworks that are often rooted in thin subcultural soil. Ethnography about drug dealers in the service of government-funded research has transformed the field from ones dominated by individuals who conducted community studies to one where ethnographers work as part of a team to produce narrow findings that supplement, contextualize, and help explain survey data. Going forward, the ethnography of drug dealers will benefit from greater awareness of the importance of reflexivity in the field and from partnerships that enrich our understanding and act as a corrective to our individual myopic perspectives.
Ethnographic Reflections on Event-Time in Jail
Authors: Walker Michael L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter marshals ethnographic data from county jails in southern California to examine how a penal environment shapes the ways prisoners experience time, track time, and orient themselves to the past, present, or future. Building from research that conceptualizes the ordering of social behavior according to “event” or “clock” time, it is argued that incoming prisoners experience a disorienting incongruity between clock time in free society and event time in jail. Temporal congruity is conceptualized as another kind of social need like identity verification, group inclusivity, and other basic social needs identified by social psychologists. Additionally, and in part because penal time was organized around events, prisoners use somewhat idiosyncratic quality-of-life events to create timetables and thereby break indefinite time into manageable segments. Finally, a relationship between self-efficacy and temporal orientation (past, present, or future) is shown with the argument that as self-efficacy increases, so does the likelihood of prisoners being oriented to the future. On the other hand, the lower the self-efficacy, the greater the likelihood of an orientation to the present. Given the findings, it is recommended that jails operate on more conventional time schedules with regular access to natural light. This work has implications for the sociology of time as well as future studies of punishment.
Ethnographies on Prisoner Reentry
Authors: Leverentz Andrea 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses ethnographies of reentry, or the process of people returning from prison to the community. In the chapter, both ethnography and reentry are defined broadly. For example, qualitative interviewing, participation observation, and a combination thereof are included under an umbrella of “ethnography.” These studies share an inductive or abductive analysis, with iterative engagement between data and existing literature and theories, and therefore the possibility for theoretical development. While much of the focus is on the return of people to the community after a period of incarceration, key works that focus on adjacent concepts, such as desistance, or why and how people with a pattern and history of offending stop, are also included. The chapter begins with a discussion of major ethnographic works on reentry, organized by those that focus on the individuals experiencing reentry (including major subgroups, such as men or women, people of different race/ethnic groups, youth, or young adults) and those that focus on systems and organizations. Then, it discusses major methodological issues, including researcher positionality. It concludes with brief discussions of future directions, which build both on earlier findings and on new technologies, and policy suggestions that emerge from both findings and practices in ethnographic work.
Politics, Policy, and Crime Ethnography
Authors: Guzik Keith , Marx Gary T. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter encourages social scientists, policy planners, and public administrators to reflect critically on the methods used to define crime problems and policy responses to them. It argues for the increased use of ethnographic methods in formulating policy by seeking points of connection with quantitative approaches. Quantitative methods are better suited for crime policy given their methodological rigor, instrumental and programmatic orientation, and relatively low costs per datum unit. However, qualitative methods have a complementary role to play, being better attuned to the subjective experiences of crime and crime control and better able to illustrate factors correlated with these phenomena. Ethnographic methods permit reflexivity regarding the broader settings and specific contexts of crime and criminological research. Two cases of ethnographic techniques within criminal justice practice are shared to demonstrate their viability—one from the US Department of Justice and another from Court Watch Poland. The chapter finishes with lessons for researchers and policy planners, including the importance of engaging in collaborative research, triangulating methods, embracing uncomfortable findings, and reconsidering research ethics.
Global Crime Ethnographies: Three Suggestions for a Criminology That Truly Travels
Authors: Vigh Henrik , Sausdal David 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter proposes a novel ethnographic approach to global crime/criminology—an approach centered on the following four main points: (1) an attentiveness to how global dynamics afford criminal flows and transnational figurations; (2) a theoretical and methodological sensibility that moves beyond methodological nationalism; (3) a research design that follows criminal flows, rather than merely investigating their starting, middle, or endpoints; and (4) an approach that takes flows to constitute the spatial criminal(ized) phenomena being research, rather than being epiphenomenal to such crime. In criminology, looking at a growlingly globalized world of crime and criminalization, there have been increasing calls for a globalization of criminological methods and theories—or for a “criminology that travels.” With such calls in mind, following the four points may be what is needed to make criminology sufficiently itinerant in a global day and age.
Towards a Cognitively Based Quantification of Metrical Dissonance
Authors: Gotham Mark 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Metrical dissonance is a powerful tool for creating and manipulating musical tension. The relative extent of tension can be more or less acute depending (in part) on the type of dissonance used and moving among those dissonance types can contribute to the shape of a musical work. This chapter sets out a model for quantifying relative dissonance that incorporates experimentally substantiated principles of cognitive science. Online supplements for this chapter at www.oup.com/us/ohtm provide mathematical formalisations of the principles discussed (Supplement 1) and an interactive guide for testing out these ideas (Supplement 2). We begin with a basic model of metre where a metrical position’s weight is given simply by the number of pulse levels coinciding there. This alone enables a telling categorization of displacement dissonances for simple metres and a first sense of the relative differences between them. These arbitrary weighting ‘values’ are then refined on the basis of tempo and pulse salience. This provides a more subtle set of gradations that reflect the cognitive experience of metre somewhat better while still retaining a clear sense of the simple principles that govern relative dissonance. Additionally, this chapter sees the model applied in a brief, illustrative analysis and in a preliminary extension to ‘mixed’ metres (5s, 7s,…). This sheds light on known problems such as the relative stability of mixed metres in different rotations, and suggests a new way of thinking about mixed metres’ relative susceptibility to metrical dissonance.
The Politics of Musical Time in the Everyday Life of Ballet Dancers
Authors: Still Jonathan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses disagreements and misunderstandings about musical time in the context of ballet classes and rehearsals, and the degree to which musicians’ metric-counting is regarded by both musicians and dancers as more correct than ‘dancers’ counts’. Metrical anomalies in music by Tchaikovsky, Bizet, and Verdi used in children’s ballet classes are examined in the light of research by William Rothstein on national metrical types and Franco-Italian hypermetre, and found to be less anomalous than they might seem at first. The problems of representation and human movement in these examples are discussed with reference to debates about dance in non-representational theory (NRT), and conceptual and disciplinary boundaries in music and dance scholarship.
Here at the Bottom of the Sky…: Negotiating Time through Phrase, Form, and Tradition within a New York Performance Network
Authors: Bakkum Nathan C. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
While improvisational interaction is often understood as the momentary give-and-take between musicians in performance, this chapter considers ways in which relationships between improvisers function at a range of different timescales. Organized around extensive conversation with drummer Tom Rainey, bassist Drew Gress, and other members of their performance network, the chapter reveals ways in which this group of musicians employs shared cognitive schemas, collaborative approaches to composition, and common musical histories to shape small- and large-scale musical time at the levels of gesture, form, and tradition. Through analysis of musical examples from several of Rainey’s working ensembles, the chapter demonstrates specific ways in which those shared conceptions of time are realized in sound.
The Radical Temporality of Drum and Bass
Authors: Young Toby 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
One of the key features of many genres within Electronic Dance Music (EDM) is the creation of simultaneous temporal layers. Genres such as drum and bass, dubstep, and future bass frequently use manipulation of rhythmic ostinati and subtle sonic shading to shift the listener’s perception between these multiple layers; for example, from a fast, intricate motion in the groove, suggestive of the ‘tensed’ experience of A-time, to a slow (or even a-temporal) motion in the vocals, pads, or instrumental lines, creating a sudden feeling of musical ‘space’, which might in turn connote a ‘tenseless’ B-time. This technique allows producers to create layered temporal narratives within the music, creating a complex landscape of musical momentum. Drawing on literature and methods from both sociology and philosophy, this chapter explores the complex relationship between these temporal systems, and in turn demonstrates how drum and bass offers a form of temporal resistance to contemporary life through both the sonic and social experience that the music offers. It concludes by arguing that, through the temporal ruptures caused by its uncertain shifting temporality, drum and bass provides clubgoers with a powerful ontological experience that illuminates the contradictions of time in a uniquely embodied way.
Forms of Time in Nineteenth-Century Music: Geology, the Railway, and the Novel
Authors: Kramer Lawrence 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
European art music in the nineteenth century was characterized by both an expansion and a contraction of the timescale typical of earlier periods. On the one hand there was an outpouring of miniatures, primarily for piano; on the other there was a proliferation of instrumental works, especially symphonies, lasting anywhere from 40 minutes to over an hour. Although it is possible to refer these changes to developments in compositional technique, their wider significance derives from the era’s production of several new and epoch-making forms of time––that is, of ways to conceive, order, and experience time. Time literally changed during the nineteenth century, and music changed along with it. The long span of geological ‘deep time’, the compressed and precisely measured time of railway travel, and the temporal complexity of the multiply plotted novel all have musical parallels. Robert Schumann’s Symphony No. 4 in D minor Op. 120 (1841), César Franck’s Symphony in D minor (1888), and Frédéric Chopin’s Prelude No. 18 in F minor Op. 28 (1835–9) provide pertinent examples.
Land and Agrarian Development in South Africa
Authors: Hall Ruth , Mtero Farai 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Land ownership and control historically underpinned patterns of unequal development in South Africa, with dispossession and the migrant labour economy being the basis for agrarian dualism and economic inequality. Yet land reform – the redistribution of white-owned commercial farms to black smallholders – has been a largely unfulfilled political promise during the first 25 years of democratic rule. South Africa’s negotiated transition produced a constitution that provides certain protections to property rights while simultaneously mandating land reforms through land redistribution, tenure reform and restitution, including via expropriation. Initially conceived as a pro-poor programme, land reform was reinvented over time, reflecting wider economic policy shifts, towards the creation of a small prosperous segment of black commercial farmers, thereby deracializing the dominant sector without restructuring landholdings and the agrarian economy. The shortcomings of land reform not only perpetuate inequalities inherited from colonialism and apartheid, but have also led to the production of new problems. We point to three recent and ongoing dynamics driving new and aggravated forms of land inequality: financialization, with the entry of new financial sector actors into corporate landholding, property portfolios and speculation; land concentration driven both by market forces and elite capture of public resources and corruption in land reforms; and land commodification driven by powerful corporate, political and traditional elites combining to expand large agricultural and mining investments in communal areas.
Socio-economic Aspects of Energy and Climate Change in South Africa
Authors: Inglesi-Lotz Roula 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Appreciating energy and electricity as cornerstones of socio-economic growth and development, this chapter deals with a variety of concepts and factors to demonstrate the evolution of the role of energy in the South African economy and the population’s living standards. The chapter also discusses historically the various types of transition of the energy sector since the country’s first connection to electricity. The importance of energy as a factor of production and a medium of wealth is profound in the analysis. Also, the findings show that the transitions in the South African energy sector have gone through different natures: demographics of the users, sectoral transitions, regional ones until the one the sector has been undergoing since 2018 that combines a market transition (from monopolistic towards competitive environments) with a fuel transition (from a fossil-fuel-dominated system towards a cleaner, renewable mix).
Value Chains and Industrial Development in South Africa
Authors: Morris Mike , Barnes Justin , Kaplan David 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the dynamics of global value chains (GVC) engagement and industrial development in South Africa through two case studies—the automotive and textiles/apparel sectors. The further industrialization and development of South Africa and of the Southern African region will depend heavily on further developing their engagement in GVCs and simultaneously upgrading their capacities into higher valued and more skill and intensive activities. The automotive industry is import and export intensive, offering the potential for technological advancement, increasing skill intensity and upgrading, and positive economic spillovers. Apparel is domestic market oriented, sourcing domestically, regionally in Southern Africa, and from Asia. It is an example of a low technology, labour intensive industry, exhibiting lower levels of managerial capabilities and skills. It is challenged by raising capabilities to meet new value chain requirements and extending the supplier base to increase value addition (and by implication employment) in the economy.
Innovation and technological change in South Africa
Authors: Kraemer-Mbula Erika , Maharajh Rasigan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the main achievements and remaining challenges in the governance of the South African science, technology, and innovation (STI) system. While reflecting on the inherited features from the apartheid period, it focuses on the period between the two White Papers in 1996 and 2019. The chapter discusses the main shifts in policy emphasis (intents) of these two policy/institutional developments and connects them to the STI system performance and its measurement. It shows that the drastic shift in policy orientation towards addressing social imperatives and the quantitative improvements in the STI outputs since 1994, have not materialized in a radical transformation of the economy or the social relations inherited from apartheid. The chapter argues that the assessment of the STI system needs to be expanded through an evolutionary lens in order to activate the needed systemic transformations.
Black Economic Empowerment in South Africa
Authors: Vilakazi Thando 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) policy has been one of the most direct attempts to achieve racial transformation in the South African economy. This chapter analyses the BEE programme and its outcomes against a wider understanding of meaningful economic inclusion, and offers a pragmatic, critical view of how BEE’s implementation transpired, and the pathways forward. The chapter builds on a vast literature to highlight that looking only at quantitative outcomes of BEE misses key issues in terms of the high barriers that sustain exclusion and concentration. Although BEE has evolved in the right direction, it has not done enough and a broader, integrated approach is required. Priorities for the pathway forwards include a focus on high barriers that exclude black businesses and people, funding as part of a broader set of interventions, coherence with parallel social and economic policies, and a strategic role for procurement and enterprise development.
Urbanization, Agglomeration, and Economic Development in South Africa
Authors: Turok Ivan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews the arguments and evidence for the existence of a positive relationship between urbanization and economic development in South Africa. It identifies the main tenets of agglomeration theory, which stresses the importance of city size, density, and connectivity. These ideas are applied to fundamental features of urban development, namely the triangular relationship between the location of firms, households, and transport systems. The urban premium is strengthened by government investment in urban infrastructure and supportive institutions. Contemporary South African cities are scarred by the disjointed urban structure they inherited, which undermines productivity and inclusion. Government policies towards housing, land, and transport have done little to improve the morphology of cities and harness urbanization for widely shared prosperity.