bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Competing Reasons
Authors: Snedegar Justin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
One of the most important facts about the normative domain is that some considerations are contributory, rather than decisive, when it comes to determining what we ought to, must, or may do. This chapter investigates different ways that contributory reasons bearing on our options can compete with one another to determine the overall normative status of those options. Two key themes are (i) that the theory of this competition must include a distinct role for reasons against, in addition to reasons for, and (ii) that the theory must allow for comparative verdicts about which options are more strongly supported than others, rather than simply which options are required or permitted. I reject a simple and familiar balancing account of the competition, as well as an account that understands the competition in terms of giving and answering criticisms of the options. I introduce a new account that incorporates a distinct role for reasons against.
Punishment and Comparative Political Economy
Authors: Garland David 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter is an exposition and critical assessment of Nicola Lacey’s work on punishment and comparative political economy. It traces the trajectory of Lacey’s work, describing how she was the first to bring the ‘varieties of capitalism’ framework to bear on the central questions of comparative penology and how she then proceeded to use an expanded version of the framework to develop an original explanation of American penal exceptionalism. The chapter then seeks to assess Lacey’s work by examining the theoretical fit between her political economy framework and the institutional characteristics of systems of criminal punishment, paying particular regard to the causal mechanism hypotheses that underpin her account.
The “Third” UN
Authors: Carayannis Tatiana , Weiss Thomas G. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The chapter explains the selection of and concentration on the main knowledge brokers in the Third UN. It explores the growth in numbers of the two major types of non-state actors that are the easiest to count, international NGOs and TNCs, as well as their dynamics within the UN system. The widespread push, including within IGOs, for evidence-based policymaking has created a further demand for think tanks and research that translate applied and basic research into accessible and user-friendly materials. It is impossible to appreciate the nature of the policy process without understanding the “whole” UN—First, Second, and Third.
Nanometer-Scale Imaging
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the imaging mechanism of STM at the nanometer scale, where the features of interest are of about one nanometer and up. Using an s-wave tip model, using the Bardeen tunneling theory, Tersoff and Hamann showed that the STM image in this case is tip-independent: it is determined by the local density of states of the bare sample surface at Fermi level, taken at the center of curvature of the tip. The Tersoff-Hamann model has found numerous applications in interpreting the STM images, from the superstructure of surface reconstruction to the confined or scattered waves of the surface states. However, as shown by Tersoff and Hamann in their original papers, for features much smaller than one nanometer, such as at the atomic features of 0.3 nm, the non-spherical electronic states of the tip could play a significant role and thus cannot be overlooked.
Tip Treatment
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses various methods for tip treatment. First, a general discussion about the experimental facts of STM and AFM tips is presented, which points to the subtleties and significance of the last few atoms at the tip apex. The standard method of making an STM tip is the electrochemical etching of a tungsten wire. The experimental procedure is described in detail. The study of the tip using field-ion microscopy is outlined. The tungsten tips freshly made from electrochemical etching often do not provide atomic resolution. Ex-situ and in-situ tip treatments are necessary. Several ex-situ tip treatment methods are described, inducing annealing, field evaporation, and annealing with a field. In-situ tip treatment method such as high-field treatment and controlled collision are described. Then, tip treatment for electrochemical STM is described. Tip treatment methods for spin-polarized STM are described. Finally, tip functionalization, especially with Xe atom and CO molecule, is described.
Transformations, Ruptures, and Continuities in the Inter-American Development Bank’s Policy from 1980 to the Present
Authors: López Pablo J. , Rougier Marcelo 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter shows that, although the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) mandate remained unchanged over the course of over fifty years from its creation, the Bank’s lending policies in Latin America changed over time, consistent with the prevailing policy framework in developed countries. Unlike in other multilateral development banks (MDB) with a presence in the region—especially the World Bank—Latin American countries played a bigger role in the IADB’s decision-making process from the very moment the regional bank was created. However, donor countries, in particular the United States, enforced IADB policy guidelines, with a varying degree of conflict over the different periods. The authors establish that the institution underwent a transition phase, which began in the 1980s, marking a move away from a developmental role associated with state-led industrialization processes. The IADB became a supporter of liberalization and deregulation policies in the 1990s and then, from the 2008‒9 global crisis, played a new active role for development.
The Metaphysics of Sensory Experience
Authors: Papineau David 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
What are the materials of conscious perceptual experience? What is going on when we are consciously aware of a visual scene, or hear sounds, or otherwise enjoy sensory experience? In The Metaphysics of Sensory Experience David Papineau exposes the flaws in contemporary answers to this central philosophical question and defends a new alternative. Contemporary theories of perceptual experience all hold that conscious experiences reach out into the world beyond the mind. According to naïve realism, experiences literally incorporate perceived facts, while representationalism holds that experiences contain ordinary properties of the kind possessed by physical objects. These ideas might seem attractive at first sight, but Papineau shows that they do not stand up to examination. Instead Papineau argues for a purely qualitative account of sensory experience. Conscious sensory experiences are intrinsic states of people with no essential connection to external circumstances or represented properties. This might run counter to initial intuition, but Papineau shows that it is the only view that fits the facts. He develops this qualitative theory in detail, showing how it can accommodate the rich structure of sensory experience. Papineau’s qualitative account has respectable antecedents in the history of philosophy, and is also probably the view adopted by most non-specialists, be they reflective high school students, practising neuroscientists, or philosophers working outside the philosophy of perception. By placing the qualitative theory on a firm footing, Papineau shows all those curious about experience that they need not be restricted to the options on the contemporary philosophical menu.
Business Ethics
Authors: Lutge Christoph , Uhl Matthias 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Business ethics continues to gain importance in the curricula of business studies courses. This book provides a comprehensive overview of both the essential concepts of business ethics related to the economy as a whole, and the more narrowly understood corporate ethics related to the individual company. In contrast to other works on the same topic, special emphasis is placed on a coherent theoretical foundation that puts tools of economic analysis, including behavioral economics, at the center. In particular, the importance of both empirical research and dilemma structures for business ethics receives special attention. The largest chapter of the book is devoted to corporate ethics and provides students and academics with guidance in the theoretical classification of the variety of concepts that often coexist in the debate. Abstract concepts are illustrated with the help of practice boxes.
Guided by Voices
Authors: Wiland Eric 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Guided by Voices defends both moral testimony and advice against a wide variety of common worries. It instead argues that it is often wise both to believe what other people tell you about what’s right and wrong, and to trust their advice. Deferring to others about moral matters is a way of gaining moral knowledge and understanding. Accepting testimony about morality can remedy epistemic injustice and forge epistemic solidarity. Best of all, taking advice is a way of forming a joint agent with your adviser, one whose activity is just as good as that of individual agents. Arguing against the presumption that moral reasoning is ideally done alone, Guided by Voices is the first book-length treatment of moral testimony and advice.
Competition within Technology
Authors: Pulkki Jani , Värri Veli-Matti 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter consist of a philosophical investigation of competition and its adverse effects on human moral growth. It considers competition as a Heideggerian technology, a mechanism, which ‘enframes’ our thoughts, feelings, and presuppositions about possible solutions to the ecocrisis. The history of competitive thought is scrutinized in terms of violent and mechanistically perceived human nature, evolutive mechanism, and the struggle for existence. Furthermore, economic ideas of scarcity, insatiable wants and needs, freedom, and merits are seen important features of defining what competition is. Competition is defined as the pursuit of scarce resources in a free society, and all of the defining concepts of competition are put under critical scrutiny. The chapter shows that competition is not only a neutral economic mechanism, but includes the human pursuit of superiority that impedes the development of empathy and willingness to help others, and limits the way we perceive the world and opportunities for ecological change.
Anarchy over Law? Towards a Genealogy of Modern War Justifications (1789–1918)
Authors: Simon Hendrik 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Hendrik Simon follows up on Anuschka Tischer’s analysis of European justifications of war. He turns to transformation of this discourse’s vocabulary in the context of the nineteenth century: to this day, most textbooks on the history of international law and international relations contain the proposition that European states held a sovereign right to go to war (liberum ius ad bellum) in the nineteenth-century international order. The latter is still understood as an anarchic mirror image of the modern international order, which (supposedly) emerged in the first half of the twentieth century. This assumption is challenged in this chapter: by outlining a genealogy of modern war justifications, starting with the French Revolutionary Wars, Hendrik Simon seeks to deconstruct liberum ius ad bellum as a myth which emanated from the realist and liberal narratives of the emergence of the modern international order. The fundamental argument is that the ‘long’ nineteenth century is not the anarchic converse of the modern discourse on war and international order—but its epoch of birth.
Peace through Law: Lessons from 1914
Authors: Chimni B.S. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The theme ‘peace through law’ has engaged the continued attention of states and international law scholars – and indeed for a much longer time than often assumed, as the chapters in Part III have shown. In the context of the First World War, the urgency of this project again became particularly clear. But despite the changes in the normative and institutional structures since the beginning of the twentieth century, wars are still with us. It is in this context that Bhupinder S. Chimni revisits the rich reflections of the times on the causes of the First World War and asks whether more international law could have prevented the war. The aim is to draw certain lessons for our times.
Foreign Debt and Colonization in Egypt and Tunisia (1862–82)
Authors: Tunçer Ali Coşkun 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This paper explores two interlinked questions: why Tunisia and Egypt were faced with the international financial control after their default in 1868 and 1876, and why the international financial control eventually led to the colonization of these two polities by France and Britain in 1881 and 1882. The chapter maintains that the emergence of international financial control was a multilateral solution to a range of private financial claims against the Egyptian and Tunisian governments following defaults. Yet, international financial control organizations were unable to successfully address the conflicting interests among foreign bondholders, as the existence of foreign bondholders from different European powers acted as a check over the concentration of the power in the hands of a single European country. Only after colonization, when the legal pluralism and multilateral nature of the financial control organizations came to an end, the creditworthiness of Egypt and Tunisia started recovering in international financial markets. At odds with other cases of international financial control in the region, this chapter shows that the success of multilateral international financial control organizations in the first age of financial globalization was not unconditional. Although other cases of international financial control before 1914 offered a solution to competing imperial and bondholder interests, in the case of Egypt and Tunisia, international financial control organizations became obstacles to the ongoing colonization process by Britain and France.
The Fortune of Geopolitical Conditions in Debt Diplomacy
Authors: Angel Gustavo Del , Pérez-Hernández Lorena 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter revisits the relevance of geopolitical factors during sovereign debt negotiations. We explain how the Mexican government reached an agreement with international creditors for the repayment of its foreign debt in 1942, after more than twenty-five years of unsuccessful negotiations. The agreement, that included a haircut of 90 per cent, was the result of a change in the geopolitical situation of Mexico, when the United States entered the Second World War and considered that country a strategic ally. The agreement, we argue, also derived from Mexico’s proactive stance in debt negotiations and bond repurchasing. This chapter studies the process of negotiations since 1922 and the conditions that allowed Mexico to reach an unusually advantageous settlement.
Settlement Endurance
Authors: O’Flynn. Levy 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the question of settlement endurance—a question that overlaps with but is importantly distinct from the question of settlement achievement (as discussed in Chapter 2). We argue that even a brief popular act of entrenchment may solidify in the form of a lasting constitutional settlement. However, the process by which this act occurs is crucial. We particularly focus on deliberative peace referendums. One claim in this chapter will be that these referendums, by drawing on institutional supports for deliberation, may expose a broad but latent constitutional agreement that may already have existed at the popular (but not the elite) level in a conflict society. The referendum may also clarify the reasons on which an agreement is based, and hence deepen the sense of legitimacy that attaches to it.
Group Secession
Authors: O’Flynn. Levy 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at Deliberative Peace Referendums in the context of secession—that is, where the members of a territorially concentrated group seek legal and political separation from a larger sovereign state of which the group has been an integral part. They typically do so with the aim of establishing a new sovereign state that enjoys international legal status on a par with other states in the international system. As we will see, secession is essentially unilateral: the decision to secede from the existing state rests ultimately with the seceding group. Consequently, the idea that secession referendums should be based on concurrent consent among more than one group will be out of place. Yet while the consent of the existing state may not be formally required, the degree to which the seceding group seeks to include others in its deliberations may make an important difference to how the legitimacy of the referendum is perceived—domestically, regionally, and internationally. In secession conflicts, therefore, Deliberative Peace Referendum design must reflect both the unilateral nature of the decision and the need to reach out to individuals in the existing state, the wider region, and international community. To this end, we consider (among other matters) both the structure of the ballot and the potential role of mini-publics. However, before doing so, we first discuss a prior question. Various legal and political philosophers disagree about when secession is justified. Some argue that secession cannot be sensibly justified on self-determination grounds. By corollary, they argue that the referendum should play no part in our thinking about secession conflicts. Against this view, we argue that the right to self-determination is an important public value of the sort that Rawls describes. Like all such values, it needs to be weighed in the balance against other, competing public values—which is to say that it can and should be tested through a Deliberative Peace Referendum
Indigenous-Settler Conflicts
Authors: O’Flynn. Levy 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In this chapter we look at the possibility of using deliberative peace referendums in the context of indigenous-settler conflicts, in which the root of the conflicts lie in historical acts by which colonizing powers asserted their own sovereignty over or in place of that of existing peoples in the same territory. Not all indigenous-settler states experience overt conflict, but those that do sometimes share certain characteristics, such as experiences of dispossession, assimilation and subalterneity. This presents an especially formidable obstacle to public-value deliberation. Adequate deliberative peace referendum design may require a preliminary period in which comprehensive and detailed changes to policies and laws are used to address political and economic inequalities—and a delay in the running of the referendum for years, or even decades. We must also consider whether an additional feature of indigenous-settler societies (apart from structural inequalities that are not, in any case, unique to these societies) will significantly impede deliberation in the course of a peace referendum. Several authors have explored the sharp divergences between the empirical, normative and epistemic views (including views about group sovereignty itself) of indigenous and settler populations. Hence indigenous-settler conflicts will be among the conflict subtypes that most significantly challenge our conception of deliberative peacemaking within the deliberative peace referendum.
Digitalized Invention, Decentralized Patent System
Authors: Ali Feroz 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Throughout the history of patent law, the manner of representation of invention influenced the process of the patent office in prosecuting them. This chapter traces how changes in the representation of the invention—from material to textual to digital—transformed patent prosecution. Early inventions were represented by working models, the materialized invention that needed little or no examination by the patent office, as they were the inventions themselves. Substantive examination became necessary when the representation of the invention shifted from material to textual, the point in history where the invention became textualized and represented by the patent specification, the written document that encompassed the invention. The textualized invention, apart from effecting critical changes in patent prosecution, centralized the operations of the patent office. With the adoption of new technologies like blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI), the manner of representation of invention will undergo yet another change resulting in the further evolution of patent prosecution. Like digital photography which changed the representation of images by radically changing the backend process, the digitalized invention will change the backend process of the patent office, ie, patent prosecution. The most significant systemic consequence of the digitalization of the invention will be the decentralization of patent system.
Latin Elegy and the Space of Empire
Authors: Lindheim Sara H. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This book argues that the subject in Latin elegy, beginning with Catullus, constitutes itself in relation to the dynamically expanding space of empire from the late Republic to the end of the Augustan age. The lack of fixity in the elegiac subject and space of empire go hand in hand. Questions of geographical space become questions about the de-centered, dislocated subject; in imagining geographical space our very nature as subjects comes to the fore. Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid each offers his own unique expression of the gendered subject, and their poetry runs the gamut of responses to the expanding geographical empire. First comes the dream of Roman imperium sine fine, an empire that capaciously stretches to the ends of the inhabited world. And yet, imperium sine fine requires the existence of some sort of fines, even if the fantasy demands that they be overrun. Formlessness, or worse, rapidly alternating forms, gives rise to anxieties and the desire to set down some fines, to establish where, exactly, the boundaries of empire are, what belongs “inside” and what can be relegated to “outside.” But fines, cartographically speaking, are never as stable as we want them to be, and, for a rapidly expanding empire, are always under pressure. The very constitution of the gendered elegiac subject mirrors, anticipates, runs parallel to the problems and anxieties that the map of expanding empire tries to solve, yet simultaneously reveals in its production of space.