bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Causation in Terms of causae causantes
Authors: Belnap Nuel , MÜller Thomas , Placek Tomasz 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The chapter analyses singular causation within an indeterministic context. It assumes that effects are transitions and causes are basic indeterministic transitions, called causae causantes. It considers a variety of transitions as effects, depending on what their outcomes are (outcome chains, scattered outcomes, or disjunctive outcomes). By this analysis, a causa causans for a given transition occurs at a risky junction, where alternative basic transitions could prohibit the occurrence of the given transition. The causa causans keeps the occurrence of this transition possible. As an argument for the adequacy of this analysis, the chapter offers a few theorems showing that causae causantes satisfy inus-like conditions as proposed by Mackie.
Construct in Assessments of Spoken Language
Authors: Macqueen Susy 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Language assessment constructs conjoin two complex, dynamic phenomena: collective patterns of language use and individual language ability. Assessment constructs emerge from “spheres of activity” across multiple, overlapping dimensions, denoted in this chapter as theoretical, operationalized, stated, and perceived constructs. While theoretical constructs are assumptions about what causes differences in scores, the operationalized construct is what actually emerges in the interaction between the assessee and the assessment infrastructure. Stated constructs are descriptions of what the assessment claims to assess, and perceived constructs are the ways these statements are interpreted. Interrogating the congruence of these dimensions has the potential to provide a holistic view of the development, experience, use, and impact of assessment constructs across diverse stakeholder worlds.
Philodemus’ Terminology and Opponents
Authors: McOsker Michael 
Published: December 2021

AbstractThis chapter provides a summary of the technical terminology of Hellenistic literary criticism used in the On Poems and then summarizes the views of Philodemus’ opponents in the On Poems. Attention is focused on those thinkers whose views are not widely known. These thinkers held a variety of views: the Kritikoi (Megaclides, Andromenides, Heracleodorus, Pausimachus, and Crates of Mallos) identified verbal composition or the euphony that results from it as the quality that determines whether a poem is good or bad and so disregarded content entirely or at least to a great extent. Other thinkers, such as Heraclides and the Stoics, emphasized content in the evaluation of poetry. Some thinkers do not survive in enough detail (“Critic A” and the anonymous Doxai in Zeno) to evaluate or, like Aristotle, do not easily fall into debates over formalism and educational content.
Form and Content
Authors: McOsker Michael 
Published: December 2021

AbstractThis chapter discusses the relationship between form and content in Philodemus’ theory. In brief, content, which he calls ὑποτεταγμένη διάνοια or “underlying thought,” is logically prior, because it determines the form, at least in part. That is, when composing a poem, one must conceive of a content before beginning to compose, and the content determines, for example, the diction. But Philodemus pushes this idea further and treats content and form as more intimately related: examination of his epigrams suggests that he includes for example metrical effects and foreign words as relevant to the interconnection of form and content. More generally, he sets goals for form and content: both should be moderate, not too base, stupid, or simple, nor too elaborate, intellectual, or sophisticated.
Finding the Now in Big Science
Authors: Reed S. Alexander 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter articulates how Laurie Anderson’s work obscures its own origins and processes. After providing an overview of her biography and output (most notably, the Big Science LP), it declares an intent to find a “now” in the music. In this case, “now” refers simultaneously to the now of the album’s circa-1980 making (chronos), the now of our hearing it moment by moment (kairos), and the cultural now of the twenty-first century. As an introduction to the book, the chapter also describes the structure, methodology, and audience for the total volume.
Too Big to Fail
Authors: Reed S. Alexander 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the importance of magnitude as a theme in Laurie Anderson’s work, particularly Big Science. It begins by tracing histories of the titular phrase and then investigates the semiotics of bigness. Particularly with reference to individual identity, big systems, big edifices, and big collections of data all suggest superhuman states of consciousness. Accordingly, big knowledge systems such as linguistics, artificial intelligence, and the occult are all discussed. The chapter then reconciles their superhuman scale (and the attendant kinds of awareness it implies) with the paradoxical fact that such tokens of bigness are themselves human-made. Throughout, it draws connections between these notions and the album.
Describing Side One
Authors: Reed S. Alexander 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers the first in-depth musical analysis of Big Science’s first half. Using the paradigms of chronos and kairos explained earlier, it uncovers historical origins, intertextualities, structural characteristics, and the remarkable signs of the songs. Tracks discussed are “From the Air,” “Big Science,” “Sweaters,” “Walking and Falling,” and “Born, Never Asked.”
Elementary Particle Physics
Authors: Iliopoulos John , Tomaras Theodore N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Determining the nature of matter’s smallest constituents, and the interactions among them, is the subject of a branch of fundamental physics called “The Physics of Elementary Particles” – the subject of this book. During the last decades this field has gone through a phase transition. It culminated in the formulation of a new theoretical scheme, known as “The Standard Model”, which brought profound changes in our ways of thinking and understanding nature’s fundamental forces. Its agreement with experiment is impressive, to the extent that we should no longer talk about “The Standard Model” but instead “The Standard Theory”. This new vision is based on geometry; the interactions are required to satisfy a certain geometrical principle. In the physicists’ jargon this principle is called “gauge invariance”; in mathematics it is a concept of differential geometry. It is the purpose of this book to present and explain this modern viewpoint to a readership of well motivated undergraduate students. We propose to guide the reader to the more advanced concepts of gauge symmetry, quantum field theory and the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking through concrete physical examples. The presentation of the techniques required for particle physics is self-contained, and the mathematics is kept at the absolutely necessary level. The reader is invited to join the glorious parade of the theoretical advances and experimental discoveries of the last decades which established our current view. Our ambition is to make this fascinating subject accessible to undergraduate students and, hopefully, to motivate them to study it further.
Elements of Group Theory
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The mathematical language which encodes the symmetry properties in physics is group theory. In this chapter we recall the main results. We introduce the concepts of finite and infinite groups, that of group representations and the Clebsch–Gordan decomposition. We study, in particular, Lie groups and Lie algebras and give the Cartan classification. Some simple examples include the groups U(1), SU(2) – and its connection to O(3) – and SU(3). We use the method of Young tableaux in order to find the properties of products of irreducible representations. Among the non-compact groups we focus on the Lorentz group, its relation with O(4) and SL(2,C), and its representations. We construct the space of physical states using the infinite-dimensional unitary representations of the Poincaré group.
Scattering in Quantum Field Theory
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
We show that the use of the perturbation expansion around the free field Hamiltonian imposes severe constraints for the scattering formalism to be applicable. We present the physical assumptions which are necessary in order to define the asymptotic states and the scattering matrix in quantum field theory. A very important physical requirement is the property of short range for all interactions, which implies the absence of zero mass particles. We derive the reduction formula and obtain the Feynman rules for the scattering amplitude. We give examples of low order computations for the electron Compton scattering, the electron–positron annihilation into a muon pair and the decay of charged pions.
Infrared Effects
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
It is shown that the presence of zero mass particles makes the elements of the S-matrix divergent. We explain the physical origin of such divergences. We argue that they are due to the long range of the interactions which violate the assumptions we made when we derived the asymptotic conditions for scattering. We study these divergences in the particular case of QED at tree, as well as one-loop level and present the Bloch–Nordsieck solution. We show that the cancellation of infrared divergences among virtual exchanged and real emitted soft photons is true to all orders in the perturbation expansion and we obtain the Sudakov double logarithm formula for Coulomb scattering.
The Weak Interactions
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
We present the phenomenology of the weak interactions in a historical perspective, from Fermi’s four-fermion theory to the V−A current×current interaction. The experiments of C.S. Wu, which established parity violation, and M. Goldhaber, which measured the neutrino helicity, are described. We study in turn the leptonic, semi-leptonic and non-leptonic weak interactions. We introduce the concept of the conserved vector current and the partially conserved axial current and show that the latter is the result of spontaneously broken chiral symmetry with the pion the corresponding pseudo-Goldstone boson. We study Gell–Mann’s current algebra and derive the Adler–Weisberger relation. Strangeness changing weak interactions and the Cabibbo theory are described. We present a phenomenological analysis of CP-violation in the neutral kaon system and we end with the intermediate vector boson hypothesis.
The Standard Model and Experiment
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
We review some basic experiments which established the validity of the Standard Model. They include the discovery of charm as well as the other two heavy quark flavours, that of the intermediate vector bosons W± and Z and of the BEH scalar. We show the successes of the model in the domain of hadron spectroscopy, but also its shortcomings. The rich subject of CP-violation in the hadronic and the leptonic sectors is reviewed, as well as the questions of flavour violating transitions. We end with an overall comparison between theory and experiment and point out the few cases in which some tension persists.
The Accent Complex
Authors: Rice Alison 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
No matter how long they have lived in France and irrespective of their ability to express themselves in French, writers from outside France find that their French interlocutors consistently subject them to questions focusing on where they come from. Chapter 4 explores this obsession with origins that is often couched in expressions of admiration for an accent. Those who were born in France apparently presume that commenting on the way a woman speaks constitutes an innocent observation, an anodyne remark that will allow them access to a backstory on how she came to speak that way. Whether they are well-intentioned or not, such queries are nonetheless often prying and inappropriate, and they make many foreign-born women writers feel self-conscious when they utter even the shortest phrase in French. Paradoxically, this discomfort in oral exchanges often enhances these authors’ written productivity, prompting them to produce literary creations that place an accent on other, often ignored experiences in their adopted land, on the plights of immigrants and migrants of different ages and birthplaces who have endured xenophobic attitudes in France.
Iteration for Metaphysical Necessity
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This is the second of two chapters exploring the option of resolving various Tolerance Puzzles by denying Iteration, the claim that whatever is possibly possible is possible. This chapter argues for Iteration for metaphysical possibility, based on the premise that metaphysical possibility is the broadest form of possibility. Some reject this on the grounds that, for example, it is logically possible (although metaphysically impossible) that Hesperus is distinct from Phosphorus. We show that those who accept this premise should reject the form of existential generalization required to derive the conclusion that there is a form of possibility that attaches to the proposition that Hesperus is distinct from Phosphorus. We show how under certain attractive assumptions about the grain of higher-order reality one can show that there is a broadest form of possibility, and indeed define it in purely logical terms.
Tolerance and Chance
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores Tolerance Puzzles in which the operative modality is that of objective chance. We show that a principle of ‘Chance Fixity’, according to which facts about the chances at a given time are not themselves matters of chance at that time, is deeply embedded in ordinary and scientific reasoning about chance and rules out Iteration-denial for the relevant chance operators. We also develop a new ‘Robustness Puzzle’ in which the analogue of Hypertolerance completely untenable. This puzzle turns on strengthenings of Tolerance claims to claims about high (conditional) chance, as opposed to mere positive chance.
Resolving the Puzzles: Plasticity and Plenitude
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter develops a strategy for resolving Tolerance Puzzles based on two central ideas. The first idea is a principle of ‘plenitude’, according to which any given material objects coincides with innumerably many others differing from it in a wide variety of modal respects. The second idea is that because of this plenitude of candidate referents, the singular terms (like ‘this table’) and common nouns (like ‘table’) that feature in Tolerance Puzzles are subject to a high degree of semantic plasticity: small changes in the world, e.g. in the selection of parts to be made into tables, suffice to make a difference to what we refer to with these words. Such plasticity undermines the Security Argument for Non-contingency developed in chapter 2, by suggesting that even though Tolerance could easily have been false, Tolerance speeches robustly express truths.
Refinements and Choice Points
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter further develops the framework introduced in the previous chapter. We suggest that the best approach to many Tolerance Puzzles involves some contextual flexibility, allowing not only for contexts in which Non-contingency is false but also for contexts in which Hypertolerance is true. We discuss how plasticity and plenitude can also be used to solve the Coincidence Puzzles introduced in chapter 4, and conclude by considering a range of open questions and case studies.
Indiscernible Tolerance Arguments
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This is the first of two chapters devoted to a special subclass of Tolerance Puzzles based on ‘indiscernible modality’, on which qualitative truths are automatically necesssary. The interest in these puzzles lies in the fact that there is a distinctive argument for Non-contingency based on the premise that properties like being a table are qualitative. This chapter explores the options for resolving the puzzles compatible with accepting that premise, and hence Non-contingency for indiscernible modality.
Huawei’s Leapfrogging to Overtake Ericsson
Authors: Lee Keun 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Chapter 8 explores how Huawei was able to emerge as the leader in the telecommunications system sector, overtaking the incumbent Swedish giant Ericsson. It answers this question by focusing on whether a latecomer firm trying to catch up uses technologies similar to or different from those of the forerunners. The study investigated patents by Huawei and Ericsson and found that Huawei relied on Ericsson as a knowledge source in its early days but subsequently reduced this reliance and increased its self-citation ratio to become more independent. The results of mutual citations, common citations, and self-citations provided strong evidence that Huawei caught up with or overtook Ericsson by taking a different technological trajectory. Huawei developed its technologies by relying on more recent and scientific knowledge; in terms of citations to scientific articles and citation lags, Huawei extensively explored basic research and up-to-date technologies to accomplish its technological catch-up. This study suggests that leapfrogging by exploring a new technological path is a possible and viable catch-up strategy for a latecomer. Moreover, Huawei’s case re-confirms the hypothesis that catch-up in technological capabilities tends to precede that in market share. Huawei overtook Ericsson in terms of quantity and quality of patents before annual sales. In summary, the results suggest that Huawei’s catch-up with Ericsson in the telecommunications equipment market is owing not only to its cost advantage, the large domestic market, or the Chinese government’s support but also more importantly to its technological leapfrogging based on its technological strength and independence.
The Aesthetic Value of the World
Authors: Cochrane Tom 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In this book, Tom Cochrane defends Aestheticism—the claim that everything is aesthetically valuable and that a life lived in pursuit of aesthetic value can be a particularly good one. Furthermore, in distilling aesthetic qualities, artists have a special role to play in teaching us to recognize values; a critical component of virtue. Cochrane grounds his account upon an analysis of aesthetic value as ‘objectified final value’, which is underwritten by an original psychological claim that all aesthetic values are distal versions of practical values. This is followed by systematic accounts of beauty, sublimity, comedy, drama, and tragedy, as well as Appendix entries on the cute, the cool, the kitsch, the uncanny, the horrific, the erotic, and the furious.
Papal Overlordship and European Princes, 1000-1270
Authors: Wiedemann Benedict 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Relationships between popes and kings have often been seen, first, as feudo-vassalic, and secondly as part of a general attempt by medieval popes to elevate themselves to world rulership. This book challenges both assumptions. On one hand, the book examines how relationships between popes and kings changed and were formalized, and what such relationships entailed; rather than assuming that a king who was called a ‘vassal’ of the pope had certain duties common to all ‘vassals’, the book asks what the duties and rights of a vassal-king were. On the other hand, this book also focuses on the practicalities of these relationships and concludes that kings and their subjects—not popes—got the most out of them. Kings and subjects could petition the papal curia and they were likely to get their petitions approved. Thus they instrumentalized papal authority and papal overlordship for their own purposes. The narrative of medieval state-building—that national monarchs had to destroy papal and imperial power within their realms to achieve sovereignty—might therefore be turned on its head: kings could actually make use of papal authority to increase their power.
Dare to Think?
Authors: Levy Neil 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The previous two chapters argued that beliefs are pervasively outsourced to other people and to the environment, and that belief revision often occurs in response to changes in the cues that scaffold our beliefs. In light of these facts, we need to ensure the scaffolding of better beliefs. We need, that is, to manage the epistemic environment. Many people are uncomfortable with this suggestion, and urge that instead we should improve beliefs by promoting better reasons. This chapter examines the prospects for better individual reason, focusing on virtue epistemology. It argues that individual cognition is extremely unreliable, however virtuously it is conducted. Focusing on Quassim Cassam’s recent book on intellectual vices, it works through case studies, from climate denial and from historical scholarship, to show just how limited individual cognition is. It argues that even genuine experts are at severe risk of error when they stray outside their own sphere of expertise, and that spheres of expertise are much narrower than we tend to think.
Nudging Well
Authors: Levy Neil 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Cleaning up the epistemic environment, in the way advocated in the last chapter, is or entails nudging beliefs, and nudging is very controversial. A central reason why nudging is controversial is that nudges are believed to bypass rational cognition. This chapter describes this concern, and argues it’s misplaced. Typically (at least) nudges provide higher-order evidence in favor of the options nudged. Nudges recommend options, and agents respond to nudges as recommendations. Our responses to nudges are (usually, at least) rational responses to evidence. Once we see how nudges work through the provision of higher-order evidence, we are in a position to recognize that the cues to expertise and to reliability we examined in previous chapters work in precisely the same way: they provide genuine evidence and we respond to them in virtue of that fact.
Parallel transport and geodesics
Authors: Steane Andrew M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The mathematics of parallel transport and of affine and metric geodesics is presented. The geodesic equation is obtained in several different ways, bringing out its role both as a geometric statement and as an equation of motion. The Euler-Lagrange method to find metric geodesics, and hence Christoffel symbols, is explained. The role of conserved quantities is discussed. Killing’s equation and Killing vectors are introduced. Fermi-Walker transport (the non-rotating freely falling cabin) is defined and discussed. Gravitational redshift is calculated, first in general and then in specific cases.