bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Performance Change of Quench Oils Due to Heat and Oxidative Deterioration
Authors: Sugiura Takahito , Ichitani Katsumi , Steiger Greg 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
In order to use quench oils over extended periods of time, it is necessary to understand how their properties and performance respond to heat and oxidation. This study investigates the effect of thermal and oxidative deterioration on dark and transparent quench oils. It describes the performance and property changes observed using accelerated testing methods and explains how quench oil behaviors in a laboratory setting compare with actual quench furnace usage.
Quenching Process Improvement Through Modeling
Authors: Habean Stefan , Sims Justin , Li Zhichao , Lynn Ferguson B. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
In this work, the authors employ computer modeling to investigate a quenching process recently demonstrated at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. A matrix of models was run to assess the effects of heat transfer and phase transformation kinetics on residual stress and microstructure in a relatively thick walled tube. The experiments at Karlsruhe were conducted using a high pressure water quench to produce martensite and residual compressive stress in the bore of a 4140 steel tube. Results show that the timing and rate of martensite formation and bainite kinetics have a significant effect on both the in-process and residual stress state.
Influence of Machining on Low Temperature Surface Hardening of Stainless Steel
Authors: Oberste-Lehn Ulli , Karl Andreas , Beamer Chad 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Austenitic stainless steels are carburized or nitrided (i.e., surface hardened) at low temperatures in order to maintain their superior corrosion resistance. Treatment temperature must be low enough to prevent precipitation in the diffusion zone, yet high enough to allow sufficient diffusion depths to meet design specifications. At these temperatures, prior machining processes can have a significant effect not only on diffusion, but also the surface hardness and corrosion resistance achieved. This paper presents practical examples showing how cutting, grinding, honing, and polishing processes influence the results of low temperature surface hardening treatments for stainless steel parts. It also discusses the influence of surface deformation and finish.
Impacts of Machining and Heat Treating Practices on Residual Stresses in Alpha-Beta Titanium Alloys
Authors: Frame Lesley D. , Rambarran Indranie , Sala Kevin , Sanders Cameron 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This paper presents the preliminary results of experiments designed to mimic typical machining and thermal processing practices for aerospace titanium alloys. The most significant finding is that multiple side mill passes result in lower magnitude compressive stresses than a single side pass, which suggests that successive interactions with the milling tool serves to relieve residual stresses at the surface. The most likely mechanism for this is that Ti exhibits significant springback during machining, and multiple tool passes essentially remove the “springback” layer. Each successive removal of material allows stress relaxation in the remaining surface layer. By contrast, with only a single pass, surface residual stresses did not sufficiently relax.
Advances in Low Pressure Carburizing and High-Pressure Gas Quenching
Authors: Heuer Volker 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Low pressure carburizing (LPC) in combination with high-pressure gas quenching (HPGQ) is a robust and versatile case hardening technology. This paper shows how recent advancements in LPC and HPGQ are being employed in the heat treatment of automotive and aerospace components. Significant progress has been made in areas such as fixturing, load densities, cycle times, distortion control, automation, traceability, and the integration of heat treatment into manufacturing lines. Practical applications are shown for both multiple- and single-layer treatment.
Efficiency Gains and Reductions in Furnace Maintenance Through the Use of High Temperature Ceramic Coating Technology
Authors: Odenthal Greg 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
High-temperature, energy efficient ceramic coatings are being used in heat treating and forging furnaces around the globe to rein in the high cost of refractory maintenance, reduce fuel consumption, and improve furnace efficiencies as well as product quality. These coatings also protect metal from high-temperature oxidation and corrosion. This paper shows how specialized ceramic coatings can provide an energy savings of up to 20% in industrial furnaces while reducing heat-up and turn-around times and extending refractory service life.
Building Out Your ROI: Making Sure Your Next Furnace Acquisition Makes You Money
Authors: Stern Bryan 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Decisions on capital equipment purchases are often based on the cost of the equipment and expected revenue. Although these are important, they do not provide a full financial picture of the value involved. This paper identifies the many aspects of heat treating that impact the value of a furnace purchase. It discusses hidden costs associated with installing, operating, and maintaining new equipment, the effect of depreciation and inflation, and the influence of unevaluated risk. It presents an analysis framework and tools that can help heat treaters not only make better purchasing decisions, but also know what to charge for services to stay competitive and still hit target breakeven timelines.
3D Simulation of an Automotive Wheel Hub and Induction Hardening Coil to Solve Coil Lifetime Issues
Authors: Muyskens Sean M. , Eddir Tareq I. , Goldstein Robert C. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This paper revisits a case study presented at Heat Treat 2009, investigating the failure of induction coils used for heat treating automotive wheel hubs. At the time, computer simulation was beginning to allow for virtual prototyping of heat treat applications as an alternative to experimental testing. As explained in the original paper on p. 86 of the 2009 HTS conference proceedings, although simulation helped in the development of a more robust coil, it was not used to pinpoint the cause of failure. In this current work, the authors tackle the same problem aided by more than a decade of improvements in compute power and finite element analysis techniques. To highlight the leaps made in virtual prototyping, the induction hardening coil previously analyzed using an axisymmetric 2D model is now examined using more precise 3D electromagnetic and thermal models while accounting for the rotation of the part.
Does 3D-Printed Coil Perform Better for Induction Hardening and How to Predict the Performance Based on Numerical Simulation?
Authors: Strakova Malvine N. , Eimuss Alvis , Geža Vadims , Ščepanskis Mihails , Hellriegel Marcus 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This study demonstrates the use of simulation in the design of induction hardening coils. It compares three coil geometries, two of which leverage the flexibility of 3D printing. The paper explains how to set up and run the simulations in order to predict temperature fields, hardness profiles, and microstructure distributions in the workpiece. Based on the simulations, the conventionally manufactured coil and one of the two 3D-printed coils do not achieve the desired martensitic microstructure everywhere along the surface of the workpiece. In the case of the 3D-printed coil, the simulations show that the workpiece overheats in an area where its diameter abruptly changes. To fix the problem, the coil was adapted with an additional winding that carries current in the opposite direction. Simulations show that the redesign reduces hot spot temperature by more than 200 °C, producing the desired microstructure in that area of the workpiece and a more uniform hardness profile.
Residual Stress Measurement Tools and Methods: Industrial View of Current Gaps and Opportunities
Authors: Lee Seung-Yub , Cernatescu Iuliana , Furrer David U. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of the types of residual stress that engineers deal with and the tools and techniques available to measure it. It identifies the causes of manufacturing-induced residual stress along with their effects. It summarizes the practical aspects of a wide range of measurement methods, including hole drilling, layer removal, contour, lab XRD, and synchrotron analysis. It assesses current challenges and gaps in determining stress in relation to stress type, stress component, microstructure, specimen geometry, materials type, and measurement location.
Effects of Molybdenum on Hardening Properties of Stainless Steels by Low Temperature Vacuum Carburizing and Pre-Treatment
Authors: Cha Sung Chul , Park Heon Joon , Jung Hae Hyuk , Chun Hyun Seok , Heo Sung Bo , Kim Jun-Ho 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Two stainless steel parts used in automotive engines are carburized in the course of their production to achieve desired properties. To reduce costs and improve product quality, the gas carburizing process that had been used was replaced by low-pressure vacuum carburizing. The two parts are similar in composition except that one contains 0.25 wt% Mo and the other 0.4 wt% Mo. Both also contain around 17 wt% Cr and thus naturally form a Cr2O3 passivation layer that provides corrosion resistance but also acts as a barrier to carbon. As a result, the parts are etched in a pickling solution prior to carburizing. In the initial assessment of the new carburizing and pretreatment process, engineers observed differences in the pitting and oxide regeneration behaviors of the two stainless steels. The paper describes how the engineers determined the cause of the pitting and the extent to which it could be controlled. Because of the tradeoffs involved, the engineers decided to make both parts from the same material and optimize process parameters accordingly.
Gas Cooling – Is Pressure or Velocity Most Important?
Authors: Hill Robert , Scheuring Greg 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This paper presents the results of a study examining the cooling rates of two vacuum high-pressure gas quenching furnaces: a large 10-bar furnace equipped with a 600-hp blower motor and a smaller 10-bar furnace with a 300-hp motor. In comparing critical cooling temperatures for H13 in the 1850°F to 1300°F range, the furnace that is almost three times larger in volume (110 vs. 40 ft3 of hot zone) cooled the same workload almost identically to smaller unit. The test results clearly show that gas flow, or velocity, is more meaningful than pressure when it comes to cooling rate.
Hardening of Selective Laser Melted M2 Steel
Authors: Yang Mei , Zhang Yishu , You Haoxing , Smith Richard , Sisson Richard D. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing technique that can be used to make the near-net-shape metal parts. M2 is a high-speed steel widely used in cutting tools, which is due to its high hardness of this steel. Conventionally, the hardening heat treatment process, including quenching and tempering, is conducted to achieve the high hardness for M2 wrought parts. It was debated if the hardening is needed for additively manufactured M2 parts. In the present work, the M2 steel part is fabricated by SLM. It is found that the hardness of as-fabricated M2 SLM parts is much lower than the hardened M2 wrought parts. The characterization was conducted including X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to investigate the microstructure evolution of as-fabricated, quenched, and tempered M2 SLM part. The M2 wrought part was heat-treated simultaneously with the SLM part for comparison. It was found the hardness of M2 SLM part after heat treatment is increased and comparable to the wrought part. Both quenched and tempered M2 SLM and wrought parts have the same microstructure, while the size of the carbides in the wrought part is larger than that in the SLM part.
Powder Metallurgical Solution for a Complex Geometry Coupler Requiring High Dimensional Stability and Microstructural Uniformity through Heat Treatment
Authors: Stringer Craig , Wright Andy , Imbrogno Pete 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Powder metallurgy (PM) is the fabrication process of compacting metal powders to shape and sintering these compacts to yield the final material’s properties. The PM compaction process allows for complex geometries to be formed that would normally lead to long and expensive machining processes from wrought steels. Special alloy selection can allow for hardening of the microstructure during the sintering procedure. The sinter hardened (SH) alloys exhibit good mechanical properties along with good hardenability and dimensional stability and may be a suitable replacement for wrought steels where low distortion from heat treatment or microstructural control is required. In this study, it was found for a complex geometry coupler application, a SH alloy could successfully replace an austenitizing heat treatment process with a low carbon steel. The low carbon steel was found to have micro heterogeneities from heat treatment that lead to premature failure in the application. Dimensional distortion and production variance were also of concern with the low carbon steel. The SH material demonstrated acceptable physical properties, hardness and microstructural uniformity to solve the concerns associated with processing of the low carbon steel coupler. Post processing optimization also added to the life performance of the coupler by tailoring the final microstructure to mating components.
Stress Relief of Coil Springs using Fluidized Bed
Authors: Dickinson Andrew S. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
After manufacturing coil springs, internal stresses exist within the steel wire. These stresses can lead to defects and may impact the working lifespan of springs. Stress must be relieved to maximize the elastic properties of the spring alloys. Stress relief is a critical step during the manufacturing process, typically using large belt furnaces and convection ovens. The fluidized bed heat treatment system is an alternative for stress relief of small- and medium-sized coil springs. Springs are suspended in a parts basket and deposited into a fluidized bed furnace, consisting of fine aluminum oxide particles gently mixed by an upward air flow. With its high heat transfer coefficient, fluidized bed relieves the stress in coil springs in significantly less time than other conventional heat treatment methods. Bed temperature is accurately controlled using either electric heaters, with excellent thermal uniformity throughout the working area of the bed. Fluidized bed, with its advantages of uniformity and quick turnaround time, render it the best option for the rapid and efficient stress relief processing of coil springs and heat treatment of other metal components.
Alloying Effect on Nitrided Case Characteristics of Nitralloy 135M and AISI 4140 Steel
Authors: Rowan Olga K. , Pershing Michael A. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Nitriding surface hardening is commonly used on steel components for high wear, fatigue and corrosion applications. Case hardening results from white layer formation and coherent alloy nitride precipitates in the diffusion zone. This paper evaluates the microstructure development in the nitrided case and its effects on the hardness in both the white layer and the substrate for two industry nitriding materials, Nitralloy 135M and AISI 4140. Computational thermodynamic calculations were used to identify the type and amount of stable alloy nitrides precipitation and helped explain the differences in the white layer hardness, degree of porosity at the surface, and the hardening effect within the substrate. Some initial insights toward designing nitriding alloys are shown.
Ultra Large Bearings: A Complete Range of Seamless Induction Heating Solutions
Authors: Scarpellini Livia , Bono Marco , Cesano Mario , Ciscato Dario , Pillin Beatrice 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The Ultra Large Bearing (ULB) industry can increase the production performances by using induction heating on a full range of thermal processes. The paper presents the technological, economical, and process optimizations that can be achieved using induction heating technology in both hardening and tempering. Two different solutions are available for (seamless) race hardening: a high-power induction single shot process for small to medium size rings and induction seamless scan hardening for large sized bearings. The ultra-low frequency induction tempering process is described and compared with a traditional furnace. These technologies are presented and compared to show application ranges, specific features, metallurgical results, and efficiencies in processing and cost.
Retained Austenite Benefits or Avoidance Requires Dependable Determination
Authors: Wingens Thomas 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Retained austenite may be helpful or detrimental to the life of heat-treated components, but it can be difficult to accurately measure in manufactured steels. Commonly used visual sample investigations are subjective and often incorrect, magnetic measurements require part-specific calibration, and electron backscattering involves expensive equipment, intensive sample preparation, and long measurement times. Recent developments in X-ray diffractometry, however, provide measurements in minutes and can compensate for the influence of carbides in high-carbon steels as well as texture orientations in rolled sheet metals. This paper discusses the use of X-ray diffraction for measuring retained austenite and compares and contrasts it with other methods. It also provides a brief review of the formation of austenite and its effect on carburized gears, TRIP steels, and bearings.
Creep Strain Behaviors of Ti-6Al-4V Using Gleeble 3500
Authors: Zhang Kevin J. , Sheeley Chase , Frame Lesley D. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
During forging operations, strain can occur through three primary mechanisms: strain due to load applied through dies, strain due to thermal contraction, and strain due to creep. In materials behavior models, strain due to applied load and thermal contraction are directly considered and predictions are based on thermophysical properties and flow stress behaviors as inputs to the models. Strain due to creep after forging (during cooling) is often more difficult to predict and capture due to lack of materials data. In particular, data that capture the changing flow stress behavior during cooling (rather than from isothermal testing) are not commonly available. In this project, creep strain behavior during cooling was investigated by physical simulations using a Gleeble 3500. Standard cylinder-shaped Ti-6Al-4V samples with 10 mm diameter were heated to below β-transus temperature (1775°F) or above β-transus (1925°F), followed by constant cooling rates of 250°F/min and 1000°F/min with and without applied load during cooling to 1000°F. Total strain for the tests ranged from 2 – 6%. Characterization of prior microstructure and texture was carried out using XRD, optical microscopy, and SEM. The results provide insights on the relationship of flow stress behavior and microstructure as a function of temperature and cooling rate and are applicable to forging practices. These materials data can be used as input for future process modeling, potentially giving better prediction accuracy in industry applications.
Effects of Cold Work on Abnormal Grain Growth During Simulated Carburizing of 4121 Steel Containing Nb
Authors: Lee Sukjin , Jung Seo Eun , Cryderman Robert L. , Matlock David K. , Speer John G. 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Precision cold-forging processes are used to produce near-netshape parts that may then be carburized. During carburization thermal cycles, abnormal grain growth (AGG) after cold forging is known to develop microstructures which limit fatigue strength. In the present study, a small 0.04 wt.% Nb addition was made to a low-alloyed AISI 4121 steel containing 0.3 wt.% Mo. Subcritically annealed specimens were cold rolled (to simulate cold forging) at selected reduction ratios up to 50%, heated according to a simulated gas carburizing cycle at 930 °C, and water quenched to produce a final martensitic microstructure. The number density of abnormally grown grains increased rapidly as the cold rolling reduction ratio increased from 0 to 10%. With a further increase in reduction ratio, the extent of AGG decreased and was absent in samples subjected to the maximum reduction ratio of 50%. The evolution of fine (Nb, Mo)(C,N) precipitates at various stages of processing was characterized by thermodynamic calculations and electron microscopy and compared to the occurrence of abnormal austenite grain growth. The significance of these results for controlling AGG and thus optimizing fatigue performance in commercially-produced cold-forged and carburized components is discussed.
An Integrated Virtual Engineering Methodology to Evaluate Manufacturing Residual Stress in Cylinder Blocks through Casting and Quenching
Authors: Jan James , Swisher Steve , Yusuf Ali Mohammed , Chandrakesan Shanmugasundaram 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Computer simulations are increasingly being used in the automotive industry to evaluate the state of stress in cylinder blocks during casting and heat treat processes. With recent advancements, it is now possible to model casting and quenching processes as well as residual stress and high cycle fatigue. However, calculating the final stress in cylinder blocks requires the integration of several software tools with different meshing topologies, numerical methods, data structures, and post-processing capabilities. The intent of this research is to develop an integrated virtual engineering environment that combines casting simulation, computational fluid dynamics, and finite element methods in order to simulate the manufacturing process from the beginning of casting, through water quenching heat treatment, to engine dynamometer testing. The computational environment is built on three CAE tools, Magmasoft, AVL Fire, and Abaqus, and required considerable amounts of research and development to validate each numerical method and the tools that facilitate data exchange between them.
Process to Minimize Distortion during High Pressure Gas Quenching Processes
Authors: Sims Justin , Li Zhichao (Charlie) , Ferguson B. Lynn , Fetty Jason 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
A gas quenching method was developed by DANTE Solutions, in conjunction with the U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Aviation & Missile Center (DEVCOM AvMC), to control distortion in difficult to quench geometries. This new method addresses the nonuniform cooling inherent in most gas quenching processes. A prototype unit was constructed and tested with the aim of controlling the martensite formation rate uniformity in the component being quenched. With the ability of the DANTE Controlled Gas Quenching (DCGQ) unit to control the temperature of the quench gas entering the quench chamber, thermal and phase transformation gradients are significantly reduced. This reduction in gradients yields a more uniform phase transformation, resulting in reduced and predictable distortion. Being able to minimize and predict distortion during gas quenching, post heat treatment finishing operations can be reduced or eliminated, and as such, fatigue performance can be improved. This paper will discuss the prototype unit performance. Mechanical testing and metallographic analysis were also performed on Ferrium C64 alloy steel coupons and will be discussed. The results obtained showed that the slower cooling rate provided by the prototype did not alter the microstructure, hardness, strength, ductility, toughness, or residual stress of the alloy.