bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Issues Based on Species Life History and Behavior
Authors: Veech Joseph A. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Species vary tremendously in their life histories and behavior. The particular life history traits and behavior of the focal species must be considered when designing a study to examine habitat associations. For some species, individuals use different areas (of the landscape or territory) for breeding and foraging. As such, the important characteristics for the foraging and breeding habitats may be different. The dramatically different life stages of some organisms (e.g., amphibians and some insects) often correspond to equally dramatic differences in habitat use between juveniles and adults. For some species, habitat use differs among seasons. Species that are highly mobile and have individuals that move around substantially on a daily or weekly basis are particularly challenging for a habitat analysis. For these species, the most efficient and appropriate study design may be one that tracks individuals (through radio-telemetry or GPS) and analyzes the environmental or habitat characteristics at locations where the individual has stopped, rather than trying to survey for the species in pre-established and insufficiently small survey plots. In addition, individual movement and the issues mentioned above may necessitate that environmental variables are measured and analyzed at multiple spatial scales.
Infectious Disease Forecasting for Public Health
Authors: Lauer Stephen A. , Brown Alexandria C. , Reich Nicholas G. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Forecasting transmission of infectious diseases, especially for vector-borne diseases, poses unique challenges for researchers. Behaviors of and interactions between viruses, vectors, hosts, and the environment each play a part in determining the transmission of a disease. Public health surveillance systems and other sources provide valuable data that can be used to accurately forecast disease incidence. However, many aspects of common infectious disease surveillance data are imperfect: cases may be reported with a delay or in some cases not at all, data on vectors may not be available, and case data may not be available at high geographical or temporal resolution. In the face of these challenges, researchers must make assumptions to either account for these underlying processes in a mechanistic model or to justify their exclusion altogether in a statistical model.
Gut Microbiome Assembly and Function in Mosquitoes
Authors: Coon Kerri L. , Strand Michael R. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Most animals including mosquitoes and other vector arthropods harbor communities of microorganisms in their digestive tract that comprise a gut microbiota. Recent studies indicate the gut microbiota strongly affects several aspects of mosquito biology. In this chapter, we first summarize current knowledge of mosquito gut microbiota composition and acquisition. We then review impacts of the gut microbiota on nutrition, development, and vector competence followed by future perspectives for using the gut microbiota in vector control and altering disease transmission.
Clemens Pirquet
Authors: Burri Michael 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the professional ascent of Clemens Pirquet, a central figure in the international postwar humanitarian relief effort in Austria and a contributing expert at the League of Nations Health Organization in the 1920s. Pirquet administered American Relief Administration resources in Austria between 1919 and 1922, using his own Pirquet System of Nutrition. Pirquet had worked at Johns Hopkins, and his postwar ascent suggests the postwar significance of prewar international networks. His career as a scientist also underscores the importance of depersonalized data and statistics for an emerging (American) postwar model of public health, as experts in science and public policy sought to universalize the ideal of humanitarian relief around the figure of the child. The Rockefeller Foundation financed much of this new public health model, and Foundation advisers knew Pirquet well. Meanwhile, local politics mattered, as Pirquet was engaged in a bitter rivalry with Socialist leadership of 1920s Vienna.
Polycentric International Participation after the First World War
Authors: Castryck-Naumann Katja 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter argues that the League of Nations’ authority in interwar politics rested to a large extent on transnational and (post-) imperial practices from Eastern and Central Europe which were established in the context of wider geopolitical constellations. Agents from the former Habsburg and Russian empires, working as experts and officers in the Secretariat and the many commissions, are instructive in this regard. They used their mobilities, networks, and practices of internationalism from the prewar imperial era to shape the League’s outreach and brought issues of the post-imperial transformations in their region to the League’s agenda. This East Central European legacy will be shown by portraying two individuals, Ludwik Rajchman, director of the League’s Health Organization and Albert Apponyi, who served as a delegate and expert on issues such as disarmament and intellectual cooperation. Their biographies highlight the variety and transformative power of participation from East Central Europe in the League and show the organization as a polycentric body. Besides, internationalism in the post-First World War period comes out as permeated by different imperial pasts, post-imperial undercurrents, and transnational dynamics.
Austria, the League of Nations, and the Birth of Multilateral Financial Control
Authors: Marcus Nathan 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The end of the First World War marked a turning point in the practices of sovereign borrowing. The League of Nations loan for Austria issued in 1923 precluded foreign creditor control of Austrian assets and policies. Instead, financial control and oversight were placed in the hands of the League of Nations Council and the technocrats advising it. International negotiation and collaboration in Geneva preempted Austria’s neighbour countries from turning economic reconstruction into a tool of their particularistic foreign policy interests. Neither foreign bondholders nor guarantor governments were granted direct oversight over Austrian policies. In order to keep emergency borrowing by bankrupt states free from the machinations of international power struggles and coveted spheres of interest, the World Bank and International Monetary Fund continued the practice of multilateral oversight and control following the Second World War.
Hungary and the League of Nations
Authors: Peterecz Zoltán 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Although Hungary became a member of the League of Nations in 1922, its relationship to the organization was often troublesome. After the First World War, a defeated Hungary, in the wake of the Trianon Treaty, was in a diminished territory with a reduced population, while its economy and finances suffered. After years of hardships, only League membership promised the way out of financial calamity and political isolation. The positive role that the League of Nations played in the financial reconstruction of Hungary from 1924 to 1926 offers a unique opportunity to examine a country that did not wish to give up its independence and treaty revision, but was in a situation where it had to accustom itself to realities. The case of Hungary also provides an illuminating comparison with the Austrian financial reconstruction, with its many similarities, but some striking differences as well.
The League of Nations and the Optants’ Dispute in the Hungarian Borderlands
Authors: Berkes Antal 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
With the fall of the dualist Monarchy, the so-called Hungarian optants in the annexed territories chose the Hungarian nationality instead of the nationality of the three Little Entente states and transferred their place of residence to Hungary. As most of their land was expropriated without due compensation, they started to contest the land reforms before a series of national and international fora. The regional dispute initiated by the Hungarian optants against the Little Entente governments became part of a global controversy between the protection of private property (individual interests) and the sovereign states’ agrarian policies (community interests). The League of Nations provided a framework to debate about the conflict both at the level of international law and politics. This chapter claims that to face the delicate choice between socio-economic community interests and individuals’ property interests, all procedures of the League had to maintain a careful balance between the two.
Capital Taxation and International Cooperation
Authors: Ahrens Leo , Bothner Fabio , Hakelberg Lukas , Rixen Thomas 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the causes and consequences of automatic cross-border exchange of taxpayer information (AEI). First, we argue that the introduction of AEI was enabled by the willingness of the United States to exert its superior economic power. Second, we find that AEI leads to shifts of international investment out of tax havens, while at the same time very sophisticated tax evaders have been able to use loopholes in the AEI regime. Third, we focus on the impact of AEI on domestic tax policies and show that AEI removes the pressure of international tax competition and enables governments to increase taxes on internationally mobile capital. International cooperation in the form of AEI increases the domestic policy space of governments under conditions of economic globalization and may enable a return to more progressive tax systems and a reversion of the trend of rising income and wealth inequality.
Country-by-Country Reporting and Other Financial Transparency Measures Affecting the European Union
Authors: Janský Petr , Knobel Andres , Meinzer Markus , Palanská Tereza , Palanský Miroslav 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The EU faces large amounts of financial secrecy supplied to it by secrecy jurisdictions. In this chapter, we use the Bilateral Financial Secrecy Index to quantify which jurisdictions supply most secrecy to EU Member States. The chapter assesses the progress of two recent EU policy efforts to tackle financial secrecy: automatic exchange of country-by-country reporting (CbCR) data and black and grey list of non-cooperative jurisdictions. It is found that 34 per cent of the financial secrecy faced by the EU is supplied by other Member States, whose a priori exclusion from the blacklisting exercise reveals its fundamental flaw. Further 13 per cent is supplied by the EU’s dependencies, mainly the UK’s Cayman Islands, Bermuda, and Guernsey. The jurisdictions that supply the most secrecy not covered by automatic information exchange of CbCR data are the British Virgin Islands, United States, and Curacao. Finally the chapter discusses policy recommendations that stem from our analysis.
Identification Infrastructures and the Capitalization of Data in the Development of Data-Driven Regulation
Authors: Millo Yuval , Panourgias Nikiforos , Zachariadis Markos 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the establishment of a global identification infrastructure to improve the regulation of financial markets. The Global Legal Entity Identifier System (GLEIS), was developed to enable financial regulators to trace the owners of financial assets and liabilities, which was revealed as a problem by the global financial crisis of 2008. This chapter focuses on one of the key controversies that arose as part of the development of GLEIS—the issue of data quality. The chapter uses the GLEIS case to explain how differing views among infrastructure participants about the development of a complex data-driven regulatory system are reconciled. It shows that establishing such a system involves the turning of publicly available data into valuable assets in a process the chapter calls ‘capitalization through certification’ and argue that this process is relevant to broader debates about the use of business intelligence and analytics tools and techniques for regulatory purposes.
After Brown
Authors: Collings Justin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the U.S. Supreme Court’s mnemonic jurisprudence from Brown v. Board of Education to the present. It shows how, despite occasional instances of redemptive memory—especially during the Warren Court era (1953–1969)—the parenthetical mode of memory continued to predominate. The chapter shows how debates over the legacy of slavery and segregation gradually shifted into debates over the legacy of Brown. Anti-classification readings of Brown have been underwritten by narratives of parenthetical memory, whereas anti-subordination readings of Brown have relied on narratives of redemptive memory. The debates have been most poignant in the context of affirmative action and other race-conscious remedies for de jure or de facto race discrimination. In recent years, the parenthetical mode has once again gained the upper hand.
Forever in Hitler’s Shadow? The Court since 1975
Authors: Collings Justin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter highlights the German Constitutional Court’s mnemonic jurisprudence in the modern era. It shows how the Court has continued to invoke the Nazi era, and the collapse of the Weimar Republic that preceded it, as key reference points in constitutional adjudication. It stresses that the Court has continued to strike a balance, or forge a hybrid, between the parenthetical and the redemptive modes of memory. It notes that the redemptive mode sometimes leads to a form of exceptionalism. This is most striking in the context of Nazi-related speech. The Court has held that, because the Basic Law as a whole must be understood as a counter-proposal to Nazism, Nazi-related speech is partially exempted from general constitutional protections of speech and opinion. The chapter also suggests that the Court has sometimes paid more attention to the Constitution’s prehistory than to the Federal Republic’s lived experience under the Basic Law. The chapter ends by noting that in recent years, the Court has begun to show more sensibility to its own (and the Constitution’s) historicity.
Law and Governance of the Internet
Authors: Kettemann Matthias C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 3 analyzes existing international legal rules safeguarding internet integrity and presents the evolution of internet governance as a global regime for the internet. While there exist no international treaties directly protecting the internet (or protecting states and society from its dangers), indirectly protective norms exist both in treaty law and customary international law. Further, the majority of established principles of international law are relevant for the use and development of the internet. By describing existing elements of the internet’s order and the normative dynamics that have shaped the evolution of internet-related principles, especially related to internet governance, Chapters 2 and 3 together set the scene for the discussion of normative disorder on the internet.
Theorizing Order(s) on the Internet
Authors: Kettemann Matthias C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 5 shows the potential of theoretical approaches to solving the normative crisis on the internet. In turn, key theories of order in the broader sense are presented and discussed. Though the majority of these theories were not posited with a view to the internet, the present study draws from their epistemic potential for the regulation of the internet. Theories (and key representatives of that theory) include systems theory (Luhmann/Teubner), constitutionalization/global constitutionalism (Pernice), transnationalism (Viellechner, Calliess), legal pluralism (Seinecke), multinormativity (Forst), network theory (Vesting), interoperability theory (Palfrey, Gasser, Weber), massive online micro justice (De Werra), conflict studies (Mueller), and infrastructuralization (DeNardis). Further, the study assesses the historically sedimented discourses on internet governance and their influence on ordering the internet as well as more recent attempts to “define online norms.”
The Normative Order of the Internet
Authors: Kettemann Matthias C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 6 presents in detail the normative order of the internet based on the notion of a necessary identification of, and turn toward, a nomos of the internet, which is embedded in, and configures, the normative order of the internet. The study shows that this order has many facets, contains national, international, public, and private norms, but has importantly developed its own normative logic, instruments and rules on the relation of actors and its own conception of the legitimacy of norms. The normative order provides a normative infrastructure in which the internet’s nomos, including its means of normative production and justification, are anchored. The study will determine norms belonging to the normative order of the internet to be those that have a material (non-trivial) and a normative (not merely factual) connection to the internet as a network of networks. These norms will be shown to be formally and materially legitimated. Formal legitimation will be shown to be achievable through symbolic validation through norm emergence in processes involving multiple actors. Material legitimation is possible through norms being determinate enough for their purpose (thus allowing for non-binding instruments), coherent with the core principles of the normative order of the internet, consonant with the order’s values as expressed in its principles, and adhering systematically to the normative order as a whole.
The Normative Order of the Internet in National Legal Orders
Authors: Kettemann Matthias C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 7 takes a close look at the norms of the normative order of the internet and studies how they are integrated into national legal orders and especially how non-traditional norms, such as standards and soft law—a legal “tertium” next to national and international law—are legitimated through national legal processes. The chapter shows that national legal orders have recognized international law and national law. Monism and dualism have emerged to explain how the two dominions relate to each other: the choices range from subordination to coordination with varying primacies. Together with global constitutionalists, the study goes beyond this debate. It will argue that this tertium of normativity has been recognized by national orders: normative instruments that are neither “national” law nor “international” law, but part of the normative order of the internet. This enrichment of the legal vocabulary has been called a “change in the composition of the medium of law” by Jürgen Habermas.
Practical Expressivism
Authors: Sinclair Neil 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Morality is a human institution that can be adequately understood as a naturalistically explicable coordination device, whereby human beings work towards, sustain, and refine mutually beneficial patterns of action and reaction. This morality owes nothing to an ethical reality that exists outside of human inclination: moral judgements and argument do not (attempt to) discover, describe or cognize a robust realm of moral facts or properties. Rather, such judgements express affective or practical states of mind, similar to preferences, desires, policies, or plans. Practical Expressivism argues that the locating of this expression within the wider coordinating practice of morality provides an attractive explanation and partial vindication of the forms and assumptions of this uniquely human institution. This book therefore defends a version of expressivism about morality, and one that embraces the ‘quasi-realist’ project of showing how an expressivist understanding of morality is consistent with the judgements of that practice being potentially disagreed with, logically regimented, and mind-independently true. In doing so it provides domesticating accounts of disagreement, logic, truth, and mind-independence, and shows how expressivism is compatible with truth-conditional semantics. The version of expressivism defended is ‘practical’ both insofar as it emphasizes the importance of the practical, coordinating, role of moral practice in pursuing the quasi-realist project, and insofar as it generates recipes and strategies that expressivists can repeatedly deploy to explain the forms and assumptions of our moral practice.
Due Diligence in International Tax Law
Authors: Avi-Yonah Reuven S. , Mazzoni Gianluca 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes how the due diligence standard was developed in international tax law before 2008, and then how the standard was greatly modified after the financial crisis, the enactment of the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act of 2010 (FATCA), and the subsequent development of the Common Reporting Standards (CRS). The chapter outlines how the due diligence concept is applied to private actors, especially financial institutions, to prevent tax evasion. It ends with some conclusions including that while due diligence in international tax law is currently embodied in a specific set of rules, there remains an absence of an overarching standard of due diligence, so that the overall efficiency of the rules requiring due diligence is weakened.
Failure Management
Authors: Rouse William B. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Failures are common phenomena in civilization. Things fail and society responds, often very slowly, sometimes inappropriately. What kinds of things go wrong? Why do they go wrong? How do people and organizations react to failures? What are the best ways to react? This book addresses these questions. The analytic approach to these questions is case based and addresses 18 well-known cases of failures. A multi-level framework is employed to integrate findings across the case studies. These findings are employed to outline a conceptual approach to integrated failure management. The overarching conclusion is that the conceptual design of an integrated approach to failure management can encompass all of the 18 case studies. They all would have benefitted from the same conceptual decision support architecture. This enables cross-cutting system design principles and practices, assuring that failure management in every new domain and context need not start with a blank slate.
2-Dimensional Categories
Authors: Johnson Niles , Yau Donald 
Published: February 2021

Abstract2-Dimensional Categories provides an introduction to 2-categories and bicategories, assuming only the most elementary aspects of category theory. A review of basic category theory is followed by a systematic discussion of 2-/bicategories; pasting diagrams; lax functors; 2-/bilimits; the Duskin nerve; the 2-nerve; internal adjunctions; monads in bicategories; 2-monads; biequivalences; the Bicategorical Yoneda Lemma; and the Coherence Theorem for bicategories. Grothendieck fibrations and the Grothendieck construction are discussed next, followed by tricategories, monoidal bicategories, the Gray tensor product, and double categories. Completely detailed proofs of several fundamental but hard-to-find results are presented for the first time. With exercises and plenty of motivation and explanation, this book is useful for both beginners and experts.
Bicategories and 2-Categories
Authors: Johnson Niles , Yau Donald 
Published: February 2021

AbstractIn this chapter, 2-categories and bicategories are defined, along with basic examples. Several useful unity properties in bicategories, generalizing those in monoidal categories and underlying many fundamental results in bicategory theory, are discussed. In addition to well-known examples, the 2-categories of multicategories and of polycategories are constructed. This chapter ends with a discussion of duality of bicategories.