bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Trilobite’s Eye
Authors: Wilk Stephen R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The eye of the trilobite has a lens not made of modified chitin or any of the usual optical materials, but of birefringent calcite. Although the trilobite was one of the most common of sea arthropods in the Cambrian period, it became completely extinct at the end of the Permian period, before the advent of the dinosurs. Very few creatures today have calcite lenses. Certainly one of the features that makes a calcite lens undesirable is that it is a birefringent crystal, and the refractive index varies considerably with direction and polarization. This make it difficult to bring light to a tight focus. Yet the trilobites persisted for twice as long as the dinosaurs did. How can an eye using a calcite lens possibly work?
The Secrets of X-Ray Spex
Authors: Wilk Stephen R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
X-Ray Spex are cheap cardboard or plastic “glasses” that are sold in novelty stores and through magazine advertisements. They produce the illusion of x-ray vision, with the viewer apparently able to see the bones in their fingers, or to see a person’s body under their clothes. How do the spectacles work, and how could the effect be done so cheaply? Who first discovered this effect and capitalized on it? Modern “x-ray spectacles” are constructed differently from the “classic” ones. How do they differ, and why did they change the design?
Government Needs to Get Its Own House in Order
Authors: Clarke Richard A. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
To address leaks of classified information, the government should focus not on the media but on improving its monitoring of employees with access to sensitive data and changing how it handles “authorized” leaks. National security agencies should adopt “machine learning” technology to monitor activities of those in government with access to highly sensitive material. Polygraphs, field investigations, and additional screenings that the government currently uses are generally not efficacious. Machine learning technology would be far more effective and would be ethical because it is limited in scope and those who choose the relevant positions would be aware of the monitoring. To address “authorized” leaks, which are not actually authorized, the government should consider creating a senior interagency mechanism for rapid review of declassification requests from senior officials. This would clarify that a failure to adhere to policy-related disclosure procedures is a clear, serious violation, rather than “just something everybody does.”
Covering the Cyberwars
Authors: Sanger David E. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Daniel Ellsberg’s release of the top-secret Pentagon Papers established the precedent that the US government cannot impose prior restraint on the publication of sensitive national security information—even when it is classified. Over the ensuing fifty years, an uneasy, informal arrangement between government officials and news organizations has evolved to manage the challenges of publishing this material. The age of persistent cyber conflict is testing this arrangement. While the US government frequently reveals cyberattacks on its institutions, corporations, and the power grid, it surrounds its own offensive cyber operations with intense secrecy. This essay argues that if the United States is serious about creating “norms of behavior” in cyberspace and deterring cyberattacks on American citizens, the public must be able to debate how and why the U.S. employs cyberweapons against other countries—an objective threatened by the aggressive policies of the Obama and Trump administrations aimed at criminalizing leaking.
Leaks in the Age of Trump
Authors: Seidman Louis Michael 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The balance of power in the longstanding struggle between populist and establishment forces in American politics has shifted, which has resulted in a dramatic change in the conditions that had produced the Pentagon Papers settlement. To better recognize the legitimate claims of populist and establishment forces, we should therefore rethink the untrammeled power of the government to punish low-level officials who reveal government secrets and question the media’s practical immunity from government controls. The questions posed by the shift in forces need to be addressed in the way policy questions are best resolved—that is, humbly, pragmatically, and experimentally, with careful attention to empirical outcomes, a balancing of competing interests, and a recognition that no solution will be perfect or will last forever. This essay argues for such a practical, not constitutional, approach and, more specifically, proposes an end to press immunity, more robust defenses for leakers in criminal prosecutions, and improved whistleblower protection.
Barack Obama
Authors: Scacco Joshua M. , Coe Kevin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter analyzes Barack Obama’s administration in relation to the components of the ubiquitous presidency, especially how Obama adapted to the changing contexts of accessibility, personalization, and pluralism. It first tracks Twitter attention to Obama across seven years of his presidency, showing how attention spiked in relation to both traditional major addresses and newer approaches (e.g., his own tweets emphasizing elements of the ubiquitous presidency). The chapter then analyzes West Wing Week, a web series pioneered by the first official White House videographer, which takes the form of reality television and reveals the “backstage” of the presidency. Finally, the chapter uses semantic network analysis to track the relationship between the president, the press, and the public on Twitter in the context of the Affordable Care Act (commonly known as Obamacare). These relationships conform to the cascading activation model, in which presidential communication influences the terms used by the press and the public.
Seeing Like an Activist
Authors: Pineda Erin R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
There are few movements more firmly associated with civil disobedience than the civil rights movement. In the mainstream imagination, civil rights activists eschewed coercion, appealed to the majority’s principles, and submitted willingly to legal punishment in order to demand necessary legislative reforms—and facilitate the realization of core constitutional and democratic principles. Their fidelity to the spirit of the law, commitment to civility, and allegiance to American democracy provided the blueprint for activists pursuing racial justice and set the normative horizon for liberal philosophies of civil disobedience. Seeing Like an Activist charts the emergence of this influential account of civil disobedience in the civil rights movement and demonstrates its reliance on a narrative about black protest that is itself entangled with white supremacy. Liberal political theorists whose work informed decades of scholarship saw civil disobedience “like a white state”: taking for granted the legitimacy of the constitutional order, assuming as primary the ends of constitutional integrity and stability, centering the white citizen as the normative ideal, and figuring the problem of racial injustice as limited, exceptional, and all-but-already solved. In contrast, building on historical and archival evidence, this book shows how civil rights activists, in concert with anticolonial movements across the globe, turned to civil disobedience as a practice of decolonization in order to emancipate themselves and others from a racial order that needed to be fully transformed. We can recover this powerful alternative account only by adopting a different theoretical approach—one which sees activists as themselves engaged in the creative work of political theorizing.
Seeing Like a White State
Authors: Pineda Erin R. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the political formation of the intertwined narratives about civil disobedience and the civil rights movement. Detailing their relationship to the 1960s push for “law and order,” it traces the significant ways that this context shaped the conceptualization of civil disobedience as a means of strengthening already extant constitutional principles. Theorists like John Rawls saw civil disobedience from the perspective of a white state: taking for granted the legitimacy of the constitutional order, assuming as primary the ends of constitutional integrity and stability, and figuring the problem of racial injustice as limited, exceptional, and all-but-already solved. Such a stance takes the state’s perspective by theorizing within the bounds of a presupposed legitimacy, prioritizing stability and maintenance of an existing system. This chapter shows how such a perspective delivers standards of judgment that bolster rather than undermine white supremacy.
Introduction
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The Wretched Atom is the first historical study of efforts to promote nuclear technologies globally from the Second World War to the close of the twentieth century. It focuses on countries that seemed to live at the knife’s edge of human existence—those with subsistence economies or resource shortfalls, or where peoples routinely were threatened by famine, drought, and disease. The promise of civilian atomic energy was a formidable tool of state power in the late twentieth century because it took advantage of social aspirations, anxieties, and environmental vulnerabilities, especially in the developing world. The deployment of rhetoric to promote atomic energy was inseparable from geopolitics writ large and has rarely been entirely peaceful. Instead it has been embedded in stories of conventional warfare, racial and neocolonial divisiveness, struggles to assert control over the earth’s natural resources, and the abetting of nuclear weapons programs both old and new.
Women’s Path to the Pulpit
Authors: Lauve-Moon Katie 
Published: April 2021

AbstractChapter 2 presents the life histories of women pastors and reveals the gendered barriers they face from childhood to becoming a pastor within the context of Baptist life. This chapter shows how women ministers face gendered barriers on their professional paths from childhood to adolescence to college to seminary to securing a pastoral position and after. These gendered hurdles include exclusionary theology reinforced by interactions with pastors, parents, and trusted peers, as well as a lack of opportunities for professional development, engaging same-sex role models, and family support. Women’s internalization of these barriers largely contributes to inner conflicts about pursuing the pastoral ministry and ultimately results in an indirect career trajectory.
Making Advice Modern
Authors: Golia Julie 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
From early periodicals to conduct books, advice in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries was largely a one-way transmission from advice giver to receiver. It also served conservative ends, reinforcing traditional gender roles to wide audiences, and soothing male anxieties about cultural change. But transformations in media and in American culture at the end of the nineteenth century paved the way for a new and strikingly modern paradigm of advice—one that was interactive, public, flexible in topic and form, and woman-centered. This chapter offers an overview of the rise of the advice column and frames its genesis in the context of the changing newspaper and advertising industries.
Cooperation in a Larger World
Authors: Sterelny Kim 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter has three aims. First: it presents a positive account of the origins of multi-level society in human social life, for even the simplest forager bands are nested units in larger communities, and those bands are open, with quite free movement in and out, and with individuals having social allies in other bands. This makes possible cooperation in various guises at larger social and spatial scales. Great ape bands, and hence very likely early hominin bands, were closed, with an individual’s residential group being his/her whole social world. Second, it introduces the reader to group selection models of the evolution of human cooperation. Third, it argues against the view that human social life in the Pleistocene was structured by regular intergroup conflict and by its permanent threat.
The benefits seen in free speech and its gradual extension from some to all
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Chapter 1 points out that the idea of free speech for all became widespread comparatively late. On the whole, it was treated as a prerogative of some people only, although an early exception was the Buddhist emperor Ashoka in India, who encouraged Buddhists of all persuasions to live and talk with each other and learn from each other, and people of different religions to do the same. Although it otherwise took a long time for free speech and expression to be extended to all, nonetheless, through different ages and cultures from antiquity to the present, the award of free speech, whether to some or to all, was seen as resulting in speech of a beneficial sort. That is why the title of this book speaks of good speech and its misuse, rather than simply of speech and its misuse.
The Fifth Dalai Lama’s God
Authors: Bell Christopher 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Chapter 2 reconstructs the Fifth Dalai Lama’s own understanding of Pehar’s narrative, and discusses how the Tibetan ruler negotiated with divergent accounts to produce Nechung’s charter myth. This standardization will have important consequences, since it will determine the character of Nechung Monastery and the state cult of the Five King Spirits from the time of the Great Fifth onward. The chapter ends with an exploration of Pehar’s ambiguous ontological status, which was a matter the Fifth Dalai Lama debated, both with himself and important figures in his administration. Ultimately, the deity’s fluctuating ontology is a powerful trait that makes him accessible in different mythic and ritual contexts.
The Liturgical Calendar
Authors: Bell Christopher 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Chapter 4 broadens its focus on Nechung Monastery’s ritual activities and annual calendar by exploring month-by-month the significant rites the monastic community historically performed every year. The New Year celebrations around the Jokhang Temple, the opera and musical performances at Drepung Monastery, and the Flower Offering Festival at Tsel Gungtang all illustrate the richness of Nechung’s liturgical involvement throughout the year, as well as its ties to other institutions and major Tibetan holidays. Moreover, these ritual practices and ceremonies reveal Nechung’s growing liturgical history, as the monastery accrued various rites from ritual masters, and in response to important events, throughout the centuries.
Wittenberg Reformers
Authors: Chung-Kim Esther 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Wittenberg reformers supported the transfer of formerly Catholic Church properties to government possession. This secularization of church property did not mean a rejection of religion per se; on the contrary, secularization of church property meant that political rulers consolidated the scattered ecclesiastical properties and possessions into a common chest so that they could support the reform of the church. While Martin Luther and Andreas Karlstadt denounced mendicant orders for their begging lifestyle, they called for cities to care for their resident poor so that begging would be obsolete. Their critique became the catalyst for change, including an educated pastorate with preaching as a central component of worship, schools for boys and girls, and a system of poor relief funded by monastic foundations, confraternities, and donations. In the transfer of property to the common chest, Wittenberg reformers were crucial in providing the theological foundations for the transition to a centralized poor relief system.
The Humanitarian Imperative for Minimally-Just AI in Weapons
Authors: Scholz Jason , Galliott Jai 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
For the use of force to be lawful and morally just, future autonomous systems must not commit humanitarian errors or acts of fratricide. To achieve this, we distinguish a novel preventative form of minimally-just autonomy using artificial intelligence (MinAI) to avert attacks on protected symbols, protected sites, and signals of surrender. MinAI compares favorably with respect to maximally-just forms proposed to date. We examine how fears of speculative artificial general intelligence has distracted resources from making current weapons more compliant with international humanitarian law, particularly Additional Protocol 1 of the Geneva Convention and its Article 36. Critics of our approach may argue that machine learning can be fooled, that combatants can commit perfidy to protect themselves, and so on. We confront this issue, including recent research on the subversion of AI, and conclude that the moral imperative for MinAI in weapons remains undiminished.
Proposing a Regional Normative Framework for Limiting the Potential for Unintentional or Escalatory Engagements with Increasingly Autonomous Weapon Systems
Authors: Wyatt Austin , Galliott Jai 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
While the Conference on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW)-sponsored process has steadily slowed, and occasionally stalled, over the past five years, the pace of technological development in both the civilian and military spheres has accelerated. In response, this chapter suggests the development of a normative framework that would establish common procedures and de-escalation channels between states within a given regional security cooperative prior to the demonstration point of truly autonomous weapon systems. Modeling itself on the Guidelines for Air Military Encounters and Guidelines Maritime Interaction, which were recently adopted by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the goal of this approach is to limit the destabilizing and escalatory potential of autonomous systems, which are expected to lower barriers to conflict and encourage brinkmanship while being difficult to definitively attribute. Overall, this chapter focuses on evaluating potential alternatives avenues to the CCW-sponsored process by which ethical, moral, and legal concerns raised by the emergence of autonomous weapon systems could be addressed.
Introduction
Authors: Baron Jaimie , Fleeger Jennifer , Lerner Shannon Wong 
Published: April 2021

AbstractThe introduction defines “media ventriloquism” and explains its value in an era wherein interactions are increasingly mediated. The political stakes of the project are high, particularly when the world is witnessing technological manipulation on a grand scale, yet the theoretical lens used in this volume allows the authors to approach ventriloquism from a number of disciplines and apply it to texts from nineteenth-century spiritualism to early Hollywood talkies to Korean video games. The introduction explains how the chapters are organized into sections and coins two new terms that unify their focus: the “technovocalic body,” which builds on Steven Connor’s idea of the vocalic body, and the “screen voice,” which is rooted in Sigmund Freud’s discussion of the screen memory. To explain these terms, the chapter turns to recent films by Spike Lee and Boots Riley and also references classics such as Singin’ in the Rain and Julie Dash’s Illusions.
What political corruption is
Authors: Ceva Emanuela , Ferretti Maria Paola 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes political corruption as a deficit of office accountability in the institutional conduct of officeholders. Office accountability is the basic component of a public ethics of office. It is realized when officeholders act in their institutional capacity on an agenda whose rationale may be vindicated as coherent with the terms of their power mandate. Office accountability differs from the idea that officeholders must respond ex post for their conduct. The idea of office accountability has an action-guiding and regulative function for officeholders as they conduct their institutional duties. This idea points to the interrelatedness between the occupants of institutional roles and their mutual duties. Political corruption is a deficit of office accountability that concerns officeholders’ interrelated actions; in this sense, it is a matter of a public ethics of office.
Responsibility for political corruption
Authors: Ceva Emanuela , Ferretti Maria Paola 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of the attribution of responsibility for political corruption to officeholders. Whenever a deficit of office accountability is suspected, officeholders should engage in good faith in answerability practices. This kind of practice is aimed at establishing and assigning retrospective and prospective responsibilities for political corruption to officeholders, both severally and as interrelated agents. In these communicative justificatory practices, officeholders engage in identifying a possible deficit of office accountability in their conduct as interrelated agents and can assume responsibility for the wrongness of an institution’s failure to remain faithful to its raison d’être. In this way, taking responsibility enables the practical changes required to overcome political corruption and possibly to prevent it from occurring anew.
Lagrange formalism in field theory
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to a general discussion of classical field theory. It presents the minimum information required about classical fields for the subsequent treatment of quantum theory in the rest of the book. The Lagrange formalism for the fields is introduced, based on the least action principle. Global symmetries are described, and the proof of Noether's theorem given. In addition, the energy-momentum tensor for a field system is constructed as an example.
British Leadership Questioned
Authors: Wyss Marco 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
During the transfer of power, the British built up the Nigerian armed forces, and both London and Lagos expected Britain to remain Nigeria’s main provider of military assistance after independence. But Britain’s military assistance role in Nigeria came to be questioned in the wake of the row over the defence agreement. Fearful of accusations from the opposition and African neighbours of neocolonial collusion with the former imperial power, Lagos began to search for alternative sources of military assistance. But their Western orientation and underpinning anti-communist sentiments prevented the Nigerians from turning to the Soviet bloc. Instead, they approached Commonwealth and/or non-aligned powers, as well as medium, lesser, and/or neutral European countries. Eventually, the FRG became responsible for the build-up of Nigeria’s air force. Although this was a major setback for the British, they consoled themselves that the Nigerian air force was at least in safe, Western hands.
British Partner
Authors: Wyss Marco 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Washington was largely a bystander during the transfer of power in Nigeria. Yet London and Lagos saw a postcolonial role for the United States in Nigeria as a provider of development aid, and the Americans increasingly identified Nigeria as a key state in Africa. After independence, this led to an Anglo-American ‘burden-sharing’ in Nigeria, wherein London was responsible for defence and military assistance and Washington became the main provider of development aid. But following the abrogation of the Anglo-Nigerian defence agreement, and in search of alternative sources of military assistance, the Nigerians began to approach Washington with requests for military assistance. The Americans, who wanted to focus on development aid, were hesitant. But eventually, increasing domestic instability, regional tensions, and what was perceived as a communist offensive in West Africa convinced Washington to militarize its aid policy in close consultation with the British.