bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Eye Is Not Enough
Authors: Lagunes Paul 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
As shown in Chapter 3, nonelected officials can and often do abuse their power. Hence, the question: under what conditions can anticorruption audits improve government accountability? In order to approach an answer, in this chapter, I describe a field experiment that relied on a unique collaboration with the city government of Querétaro in central Mexico. Fifty building permit applications were randomly assigned to enter into an experimental group. The officials responsible for reviewing the permits were made aware that, as an independent auditor, I was carefully examining all the physical documentation for applications within this group. The same permit reviewers did not realize that another set of fifty randomly selected permit applications were part of a comparison group and, thus, also subject to my scrutiny. This design tests whether permit reviewers improve their behavior when exposed to outside scrutiny. With implications for corruption control, the study’s results reveal that monitoring spurs greater diligence and stringency among officials, but only when they sense the risk of a top-down sanction. The eye is only effective when accompanied by a whip.
Scaling Up
Authors: Lagunes Paul 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the scalability and generalizability of an intervention like the one described in Chapter 4. In the construction of public works, a lack of accountability results in corruption and inefficiency. The question, then, is whether civil society oversight that is explicitly supported by a relevant public authority with sanctioning capacity will improve accountability. Or, as is sometimes argued, does the added scrutiny demoralize and distract officials, causing undesired delays? To approach an answer, this chapter describes a field experiment that builds on a sample of two hundred district governments in Peru. Half of the districts were randomly selected to enter into a control group. The other half received letters indicating that specific public works under their charge were being monitored by a civil society organization with the support of the country’s leading anticorruption agency. The results suggest that, even as districts in the two groups completed public works at a similar rate, the intervention lowered the cost of public works in the treatment group. This is evidence that the monitoring intervention resulted in overall efficiency gains.
Beyond the Duration of an Audit
Authors: Lagunes Paul 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
How can corruption control achieve a lasting impact? That is the question that my coauthor Yanying Hao and I seek to answer in this chapter. New York City relies on the revenue it collects from property taxes. However, local tax assessors have been known to accept bribes in exchange for reducing properties’ tax burden. Given this risk of corruption, we describe a field experiment that builds on a formal collaboration with the local government in order to test for the systematic undervaluing of properties in the city. Out of 211 properties, one-third was randomly assigned to a control group. The other two-thirds were randomly assigned to receive anticorruption audits. If there was widespread corruption in the city’s property tax system, then properties in the control group would tend to be assessed at a lower value compared to the properties that received added scrutiny because of the experimental treatments. However, the empirical results do not bear this out—there is no statistical difference in how properties were assessed across the three study groups. From these results, my co-author and I conclude that New York City is at a vantage point when compared with other places that seemingly suffer from endemic corruption in their built environment. This chapter theorizes as to why this might be the case.
Historical Foundations
Authors: Coughlin Steven S. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers the history of the rise of ethical concerns in the public health movement and epidemiology, which is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in human populations. It explains that epidemiology is a basic science in public health. It also provides an overview of early developments in public health and ethics. The chapter looks at recent developments, including the origins of bioethics, regulatory safeguards for human subjects research, public health ethics, and contemporary epidemiological ethics. It begins with the end of the Middle Ages, wherein few advances were made in public health except for the control of a very limited number of communicable diseases achieved through the segregation and quarantine of persons thought to be infectious.
Risk and Precaution
Authors: John Stephen D. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter develops schematic remarks on different aspects of the ethics of risk. First, it outlines some problems in the ethics of chance, paying particular attention to the prevention paradox. It turns to the ethics of certainty, sketching ongoing debates over the precautionary principle in public health policy and how they relate to the evidence-based medicine movement. It also explains emerging issues around concepts of risk and precaution in epidemiology that are linked to the rise of Big Data analytics. The chapter addresses problems concerning the uses of research findings by policymakers rather than their generation by epidemiologists. It points out how problems of chance and certainty complicate the task of balancing between individual interests and the collective good.
Ethical Issues in the Design and Conduct of Community-Based Intervention Studies
Authors: Kegler Michelle C. , Coughlin Steven S. , Glanz Karen 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the scientific, methodological, and practical foundations of community-based intervention research that bear on ethical concerns. It begins with a description of community-based intervention research, including intervention strategies, study designs, and data collection methods. Given the major role of partnerships in community-based research, it also analyzes ethical issues along a continuum of community-engaged research and discusses the establishment, implementation and dissemination phases of community engaged research. The chapter covers considerations for working with vulnerable or disadvantaged communities, as well as considerations for ethical issues in a global context. It discusses traditional ethical principles in research and briefly reviews professional codes of ethics with implications for community-based intervention research.
Wild Bird Populations in the Face of Disease
Authors: Huyvaert Kathryn P. 
Published: August 2021

AbstractParasites and pathogens typically have detectable negative fitness impacts on individual avian hosts, but the role of parasites in driving population dynamics is less straightforward. Questions about whether and under what conditions parasites influence host population dynamics have been long-standing in infectious disease ecology for many years. Understanding the role of parasites in host population dynamics requires estimating statistical parameters such as infection prevalence and host abundance at population scales. Mathematical approaches such as process-based models are also often used to simulate population-level dynamics of host and parasite interactions over time. This chapter first describes tools commonly used in disease ecology to estimate these key parameters, with a focus on accounting for imperfect detection of individual animals or their disease or infection status and mark-recapture approaches. Some of the mathematical approaches, including SIR models, network approaches, and agent-based models, that are commonly used to simulate and predict the population dynamics of host–parasite interactions are presented. Through a series of case studies, the chapter finishes by considering whether and under what conditions parasites affect the overall growth of populations, whether parasites have a tendency to cause cycles or to regulate populations of wild birds, and some examples of parasite-induced local extinctions.
Global Regulatory Standards in Environmental and Health Disputes
Authors: Foster Caroline E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Potentially global regulatory standards are emerging from the environmental and health jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice, the World Trade Organization, under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and investor-state dispute settlement. Most prominent are the three standards of regulatory coherence, due regard for the rights of others, and due diligence in the prevention of harm. These global regulatory standards are a phenomenon of our times, representing a new contribution to the ordering of the relationship between domestic and international law, and inferring a revised conception of sovereignty in an increasingly pluralistic global legal era. However, considered with regard to jurisprudential theory on relative authority, the legitimacy of the resulting ‘standards-enriched’ international law remains open to question. Procedurally, although they are well-placed to provide valuable input, international courts and tribunals should not be the only fora in which these standards are elaborated. Substantively, challenges and opportunities lie ahead in the ongoing development of global regulatory standards. Debate over whether regulatory coherence should go beyond reasonableness and rationality requirements and require proportionality in the relationship between regulatory measures and their objectives is central. Due regard, the most novel of the emerging standards, may help protect international law’s legitimacy claims in the interim. Meanwhile, all actors should attend to the integration rather than the fragmentation of international law, and to changes in the status of private actors.
Conclusion
Authors: Foster Caroline E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Regulatory disputes place significant demands on international courts and tribunals. At present the production of regulatory standards in the work of international courts and tribunals can be viewed in terms of an ordering of plural domestic and international legal orders rather than a process of constitutionalisation. Yet the new body of regulatory rubrics appearing across the jurisprudence addressed in this book and beyond marks a significant development globally. Collectively, these standards will set the terms for States’ exercise of public power with effects for populations beyond their own. However, international courts’ and tribunals’ contribution to the elaboration of global regulatory standards needs to be understood as part of a wider process involving intergovernmental negotiations and the administrative implementation of relevant norms. Public information and international engagement is essential. Meantime, transparent articulation of reasons for international adjudicatory decisions is needed, together with ongoing reflective interaction between judges, practitioners and the broader scholarly community.
From European Colonial Enterprise to ‘Normative Empire Europe’
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The chapter provides the historical context for contemporary relations between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa (MENA). It demonstrates that European policies towards its southern borderlands developed from the imperial policies of single European states during colonial times into the quasi-imperial policy of the common European bloc. When the beginnings and subsequent development of European integration are considered, the imperial foreign policies of the former colonial powers vis-à-vis the Middle East may be seen to have undergone a process of ‘Europeanization’. In this process, the European bloc developed into a ‘normative empire’, which selectively seeks to transfer its rules and practices, together with some border control duties, to peripheral areas for the sake of Europe’s stability, security, and economic benefits.
Introduction
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains why this book is organized as it is. Each neocortical area has a unique pattern of inputs and outputs. This means that the challenge is to understand the transformation that each of the prefrontal (PF) areas performs from input to output. Functional brain imaging allows us to visualize the human brain at work, but it does not have the spatial resolution to identify the mechanisms that support the transformations that the brain performs. It is neurophysiological recordings from cells that tell us how these are achieved. Chapters 3–8 are therefore mainly devoted to studies that have been carried out on the PF cortex of macaque monkeys because the methods are necessarily invasive. Apart from recording, the methods include making selective lesions in an area; it is these that identify the contribution that is unique to that area. The book ends by reviewing the evolution of the human PF cortex; and the final two chapters discuss the ways in which the human PF cortex is specialized in terms of function. In doing so, they attempt to account for the intellectual gap between humans and other primates.
Caudal Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The caudal prefrontal (PF) cortex supports the visual search for objects such as foods both through eye movements and covert attention, and its connections explain how it can do this. The caudal PF cortex, which includes the frontal eye field, has connections with both the dorsal and ventral visual streams. The direction of eye movements depends on its connections with the superior colliculus and oculomotor nuclei. Covert attention depends on enhanced sensory responses that are mediated through top-down interactions with posterior sensory areas. Along with the granular parts of the orbital PF cortex, the caudal PF cortex evolved in early primates. Together, these two new areas led to improvements in searching for and evaluating objects that are hidden in a cluttered environment.
Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The key to the granular prefrontal (PF) cortex is that it sits at the top of the sensory processing hierarchy, the motor hierarchy, and the outcome hierarchy. This means that it is a position to learn abstract task rules. These relate to conditional tasks that involve sequences, associations, and attentional performance. Because they can learn abstract rules, primates can show specific behavioural transfer from one problem to another when the problems share the same logic. And, since the different PF areas are closely interconnected, the PF cortex provides a general-purpose mechanism for the rapid solution of novel tasks.
Evolution of the Prefrontal Cortex in the Hominins
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
When body weight is taken into account, there was a rapid expansion of the brain during the evolution of the hominins, with the greatest increase occurring from around 400,000 years ago. After this time there is evidence of the bulging of the frontal lobe indicating the further expansion of the prefrontal (PF) cortex. Many selection pressures could have influenced these changes, but all of them involve a change in environment. This could occur via climatic change, via changes in the ecosystem, by migration, or by changes in the cultural environment. The cultural environment includes technology such as stone tool making, cooperation in hunting, and the improvements in communication that this required. The adaptation to new environments requires the solution of new problems, and this was aided by the ability of the PF cortex to support rapid transfer from one problem to another.
The space of the body schema: putting the schema in movement
Authors: Morris David 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter contributes to conceptual debates about the body schema and body image by studying the body schema’s role in shaping our sense of lived space. Contra ‘body-in-brain’ or representational views of the body schema as a centralized controller, the chapter supports ‘body-in-world’ views by showing how the body schema is itself of space, founded and actualized in schematizing movements of a body in the world. This suggests that capacities for, and divergences between, a body schema versus a body image emerge when body-schematizing activity runs into resistances or demands from environmental supports, including other perceiving bodies and the social sphere, over various timescales, e.g., of evolution, development, skill, and habit acquisition, as well as cultural formations. The chapter draws on phenomenological and psychological results concerning our sense of space in cases of directly touching and moving with things, but also in cases where movements coupled with surroundings through light (via our eyes or technological devices) yield a sense of distal things. These are complemented by conceptual insights from recent evolutionary-comparative approaches to the philosophy of mind and body, which give a new perspective on just where movement control arises in bodies.
A radical phenomenology of the body: subjectivity and sensations in body image and body schema
Authors: Preester Helena De 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The role of sensations for body experience and body representations such as body image and body schema seems indisputable. This chapter discusses the link between sensory input, the experience of one’s own body, and body representations such as body image and body schema. That happens on the basis of Michel Henry’s radical phenomenology of the body, which unites body and subjectivity and reconsiders the role of sensory input for the experience of the body and related representations. Without supporting, but inspired by, Henry’s ontological dualism between subjective and objective body, it is argued that the traditional view that considers sensory signals as all-important for bodily experience misses out a bodily dimension crucial for subjectivity—the body’s subjective dimension, not reigned by current sensory input. Cognitive science seems willing to accept representations that are over and above sensory input but still experiential in nature. The exact status of these ‘offline’ representations is, however, unclear. If it is true that these offline representations are responsible for crucial aspects of bodily subjective life (e.g., unity, ownership, presence), then it is unclear how these representations bring this experience about. Whereas online bodily representations are based on sensory input, offline bodily representations seem to be based on bodily experience over and above sensory life. In other words, they seem to represent or mediate what they are supposed to explain—the subjective body.
Triadic body representations in the human cerebral cortex and peripheral nerves
Authors: Kanayama Noriaki , Hiromitsu Kentaro 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Is the body reducible to neural representation in the brain? There is some evidence that the brain contributes to the functioning of the body from neuroimaging, neurophysiological, and lesion studies. Well-known dyadic taxonomy of the body schema and the body image (hereafter BSBI) is based primarily on the evidence in brain-damaged patients. Although there is a growing consensus that the BSBI exists, there is little agreement on the dyadic taxonomy because it is not a concrete and common concept across various research fields. This chapter tries to investigate the body representation in the cortex and nervous system in terms of sensory modality and psychological function using two different approaches. The first approach is to review the neurological evidence and cortical area which is related to body representation, regardless of the BSBI, and then to reconsider how we postulate the BSBI in our brain. It can be considered that our body representation could be constructed by the whole of the neural system, including the cortex and peripheral nerves. The second approach is to revisit the BSBI conception from the viewpoint of recent neuropsychology and propose three types of body representation: body schema, body structural description, and body semantics. This triadic taxonomy is considered consistent with the cortical networks based on the evidence of bodily disorders due to brain lesions. These two approaches allow to reconsider the BSBI more carefully and deeply and to give us the possibility that the body representation could be underpinned with the network in the brain.
From implicit to explicit body awareness in the first two years of life
Authors: Rochat Philippe , Botto Sara Valencia 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
What might constitute the awareness of an implicit body schema at the origins of development, and how does it develop to become also the awareness of an explicit body image? Those are the questions driving this chapter. The first part reviews past and more recent empirical research that demonstrates that an implicit body schema is evident from birth and in the first weeks of life. The second part of the chapter goes over a blueprint of cardinal progress in perception and action in relation to both the physical (objects) and social (people) domains. These advancements are presented as the driving force behind the development of a private and public body image emerging from the middle of the second year, as infants begin to manifest self-concept and self-consciousness proper via mirror self-recognition and the use of personal pronouns, as well as social emotions like embarrassment or pride. Lastly, the chapter further elaborates on the emergence of a public body image expressed in the first manifestations of an ‘evaluative audience perception’, or EAP, which was recently documented in 14- to 24-month-old toddlers. This development is construed as indexing the emergence of a public body image, adding to the more primordial and innate body schema that is expressed even in utero. The chapter also speculates that the development of a public body image and associated self-conscious emotions is a major trademark of what it means to be human.
Cross-referenced body and action for the unified self: empirical, developmental, and clinical perspectives
Authors: Imaizumi Shu , Asai Tomohisa , Miyazaki Michiko 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses how the self emerges in the brain through the body and bodily actions. In terms of minimal selfhood, self-representation has two aspects: sense of body ownership and sense of agency over action. In the rubber hand illusion paradigm, multisensory and sensorimotor signals induce illusory ownership over a fake hand. Studies in healthy adults suggest a cross-referenced relationship between body and action as a mechanism of the self-representation. Specifically, one’s own hand can spontaneously move towards the fake hand due to illusory ownership, suggesting a body-to-action relationship. In contrast, an object which is moving synchronously with one’s hand can entail a sense of body ownership as well as a sense of agency, suggesting an action-to-body relationship. The chapter also discusses developmental and clinical perspectives. Immature self-recognition and body part localization in children suggest a prerequisite of representations of the self and body. Although such representations can deteriorate due to damage to the body and brain, amputees can incorporate phantom limb and prosthesis into their body representation through visuo-motor rehabilitation, regaining senses of ownership and agency over these limbs once again. The chapter proposes generation-loss-regeneration dynamism in self-representation originating from the cross-referenced body and action.