bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Meaning and Affect in the Placebo Effect
Authors: Chiffi Daniele , Pietarinen Ahti-Veikko , Grecucci Alessandro 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This article presents and defends an integrated view of the placebo effect, termed “affective-meaning-making” model, which draws from theoretical reflection, clinical outcomes, and neurophysiological findings. We consider the theoretical limitations of those proposals associated with the “meaning view” on the placebo effect which (a) leave the general aspects of meaning unspecified, (b) fail to analyze fully the role of emotions and affect, and (c) establish no clear connection between the theoretical, physiological, and psychological aspects of the effect. We point out that a promising way to overcome these limitations is given by grounding the placebo effect on Peirce’s theory of meaning, in which the role of the meaning constitution and change is placed in logical and objective structures. We also show the connection between our theoretical proposal and the appraisal theory and integrate it with emotion regulation.
A Genealogy of Autonomy: Freedom, Paternalism, and the Future of the Doctor–Patient Relationship
Authors: Genuis Quentin I T 
Published: March 2021

AbstractAlthough the principle of respect for personal autonomy has been the subject of debate for almost 40 years, the conversation has often suffered from lack of clarity regarding the philosophical traditions underlying this principle. In this article, I trace a genealogy of autonomy, first contrasting Kant’s autonomy as moral obligation and Mill’s teleological political liberty. I then show development from Mill’s concept to Beauchamp and Childress’ principle and to Julian Savulescu’s non-teleological autonomy sketch. I argue that, although the reach for a new principle to guide choices in physician–patient relationships can rightfully be seen as important, the notion that is now called autonomy within bioethics has corollaries that undermine critical aspects of medical care. As such, there is need for a richer account of the interplay between the free choice of patients and the informed recommendations of doctors.
Differences in seed dormancy and germination in amphicarpic legumes: manifold bet-hedging in space and time
Authors: Sánchez-Martín Ricardo , Gómez José Maria , Cheptou Pierre-Olivier , Rubio de Casas Rafael 
Published: March 2021

Abstract

Aims
Dispersal through space or time via dormancy is one of the primary processes whereby organisms can influence the environment they experience. In plants, strong evolutionary correlations are expected between the two kinds of dispersal because both are performed by the seeds and play comparable adaptive roles. In this paper, we investigated these evolutionary correlations using amphicarpic plants, which simultaneously produce aerial seeds with high spatial dispersal propensity and subterranean seeds that do not disperse.

Methods
We investigated the variation in dormancy and germination in aerial and subterranean seeds of two amphicarpic legumes (Vicia amphicarpa L. and Lathyrus amphicarpos L.) and two closely related homocarpic taxa (Vicia sativa L. and Lathyrus cicera L.) by estimating germination percentages following different combinations of dormancy breaking treatments (i.e. dry after-ripening, cold stratification and physical scarification).

Important Findings
Our results showed complex interactions between spatial and temporal dispersal. Right after dispersal, aerial seeds were more dormant than their subterranean counterparts, but this trend reversed with after-ripening, as seeds developed physical dormancy. Seeds of homocarpic plants germinated at higher percentages than those of their amphicarpic congeners and lost dormancy homogeneously with after-ripening. Conversely, amphicarpic seeds exhibited varied dormancy strategies modulated by both physiological and physical dormancy. These are expected to increase variation in emergence timing, providing multiple levels of diversifying bet-hedging. This strategy might be adaptive under highly unpredictable conditions by enabling plants to rely on historically favorable sites in good seasons without preventing spatial and temporal migration.
Effects of plant intraspecific variation on the prediction of C3/C4 vegetation ratio from carbon isotope composition of topsoil organic matter across grasslands
Authors: Luo Wentao , Wang Xiaoguang , Auerswald Karl , Wang Zhengwen , Bird Michael I , Still Christopher J , Lü Xiao-Tao , Han Xingguo 
Published: March 2021

AbstractAimsUnderstanding the patterns and drivers of carbon isotope discrimination (13Δ) in C3 and C4 functional groups is critical for predicting C3/C4 vegetation ratio from the isotopic composition of soil organic matter. In this study, we aimed to evaluate how intraspecific variation will modify functional group-level 13Δ values and the associated prediction of C3/C4 vegetation ratio.MethodsWe investigated 13Δ of 726 individual plants (96 species; C3 and C4 functional groups) and topsoil organic matter in 26 grassland communities along an aridity gradient in northern China. The fraction of C4 contribution was calculated with mixing models that considered: (i) both intra- and interspecific effects on the 13Δ values of C3 and C4 functional groups; (ii) only interspecific effects; or (iii) none of these effects.Important FindingsWe found divergent responses of plant 13Δ at the intraspecific level to the changes of aridity across the gradient. The 13Δ of both C3 and C4 functional groups was negatively correlated with an aridity index, with higher sensitivity for C3 than for C4 functional groups. Intraspecific 13Δ variation played a key role in driving the total 13Δ variations of C3 plants. Overlooking such intraspecific effect in mixing models led to a greatly increased fraction of C4 contribution to soil organic carbon. A correction for the effects of intraspecific variation is therefore essential for correctly inferring C3/C4 vegetation ratio in the past. Our findings provide basic information for the reconstruction of past vegetation change from bulk materials in arid and semiarid biomes.
Accidently Insecure
Authors: Hough Peter 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates why accidents are rarely construed as matters of security and considers the case for giving greater recognition to accidental insecurity in international law and politics. Accidents are far removed from the conventional conceptualization of security politics and yet represent a much bigger threat to most people’s lives than those most typical security concerns: war and terrorism. The average citizen of the world is actually far less threatened by military action from another State or a foreign non-State actor than they are in ways rarely labelled as matters of security. The chapter looks at transport accidents, structural accidents, workplace accidents, and personal accidents. Since the 1990s, both academic and ‘real world’ political discourse has increasingly granted security status to non-military issues in ‘widening’ and ‘deepening’ the agenda of international political priorities. However, security ‘wideners’ and even many human security advocates, while acknowledging that diseases, crime, environmental change, and natural disasters can sometimes be matters of security, are often still reluctant to grant this status to accidents. This reluctance seems to boil down to two objections: (i) there are no military or power politics dimensions inherent in accidents; (ii) accidents are not deliberate attacks on countries or people.
Corruption and Global Security
Authors: Rose Cecily 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter studies the relationship between corruption and global security. It begins by discussing the term ‘corruption’, which lacks a legal definition and can mean different things to lawyers and to social scientists. The chapter describes the various ways in which corruption and insecurity can relate to each other. Corruption is both a cause of global insecurity and a consequence of it. In other words, corruption may lead to insecurity, and conversely, insecurity, as in post-conflict societies, may lead to corruption and to greater tolerance of it. In addition, corruption can also be a cause of security or stability, rather than insecurity. Finally, anti-corruption measures and campaigns may themselves inadvertently cause insecurity. The chapter then details the international legal framework concerning corruption. It explores the extent to which anti-corruption treaty laws can serve as tools or guides for States and also non-State actors seeking to combat corruption and promote global security. The chapter also considers one of the challenges facing researchers who study the causes and consequences of corruption, namely the difficulties involved in measuring corruption and the impact of anti-corruption laws.
International Law and State Failure
Authors: McLaughlin Rob 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the concept of State failure from the perspective of international law as it concerns the facilitation, regulation, and occasionally the degradation of global security. International law, in this context, is primarily conceptualized as an enabler for security-informed responses to the phenomenon of State failure. International law approaches State failure from the perspective of restorative legal and institutional facilitation, with a structural predilection for a State-centric security framework. This has resulted in the nexus between ‘State failure’ and international law being dominated by two interlinked purposes: (1) promoting the normative continuity of ‘Stateness’ for failed entities; and (2) managing the transition back to a minimum level of stable ‘Stateness’ with the least harm to the population and the international community. Ultimately, international law’s approach to State failure is primarily one of remedy, not of acceptance. The chapter seeks to evolve a working definition of ‘State failure’ from an international law perspective and assesses the adequacy of selected modes and indicators by which international law may recognize State failure.
Maritime Security
Authors: Guilfoyle Douglas 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses maritime security, reviewing relevant law of the sea concepts. The modern law of the sea encompasses both functional and zonal approaches: the question of the law applicable to any situation thus involves analysis of both the activity in question and where it is conducted. Several traditional law of the sea enforcement techniques are also being adapted to new challenges. Principal amongst these is the doctrine of port State jurisdiction. The chapter then surveys a number of challenges in the maritime domain. It looks at three major themes cutting across these various silos. The first is Maritime Domain Awareness; if the law of the sea regulates who may do what and where, then a challenge for enforcement is knowing who is doing what and where. The second theme is the turn to informality. Most new maritime security initiatives do not involve creating new organizations or legal instruments; responses to collective or regional challenges tend now to occur through informal coalitions. Finally, the broadening of maritime security brings a wider range of non-State or ‘grey zone’ actors into the picture, including migrants, seafarers, transnational criminals, and hybrid private/State actors such as the Chinese maritime militia.
Humanitarian Relief in Situations of Armed Conflict
Authors: Gillard Emanuela-Chiara , Weizmann Nathalie 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses humanitarian relief in situations of armed conflict. In many modern wars, more civilian deaths and suffering occur as a result of humanitarian crises prompted or exacerbated by the conflicts than from actual hostilities. International humanitarian law (IHL) includes an important body of rules aimed at ensuring that the basic needs of civilians caught up in conflict are met. While these protections can be considered as a manifestation of the ‘freedom from want’ dimension of human security, it is essential to bear in mind that the relevant rules of IHL are well established, binding on States and, in case of non-international armed conflict, also organized armed groups. The chapter outlines the rules of IHL regulating collective humanitarian relief operations, with a particular focus on how they balance the dictates of belligerents’ security interests and civilians’ ‘human security’ needs and entitlements. It then considers one particular way in which a pressing national and international security objective—countering terrorism—interacts with and adversely impacts the capacity of humanitarian actors to operate in a principled manner, and thus impairs the human security of populations in need.
Outer Space Security
Authors: Freeland Steven , Gruttner Elise 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains how, since the dawn of the space age, security has been a driving force in the development of technical capabilities in outer space. Over the last sixty years, the development of space-related technology has been inextricably linked to military capability—both real and perceived. Today, space is more accessible and depended upon than ever envisaged. The continuing development and reliance on commercial and military space technology challenges the core principle of the ‘peaceful purposes’ doctrine that underpins the current international legal regulation of outer space. The chapter explores the development of activities in outer space, the regulation of national and global space security, and the practical capabilities of leading spacefaring nations. It also highlights some of the critical issues that impact upon security-related concerns for States when it comes to the regulation of armed conflict in outer space. Ultimately, the use of outer space for military purposes gives rise to difficult international law issues relating to the use of force. What is not straightforward is precisely how various aspects of these activities are to be regulated at the international level should they transcend outer space and result in armed conflict.
International Courts and Tribunals and Violent Conflict
Authors: Tams Christian J. 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines international adjudication and arbitration, assessing the diverse roles of international courts and tribunals (ICaTs) in relation to violent conflicts. It shows that, over time, ICaTs have come to render decision upon decision, but—contrary to the expectations of early arbitration movements—hardly ever prevent ‘wars between nations’. Their mandates have been expanded, but typically only cover aspects of violent conflicts. While such aspects are today increasingly submitted to arbitration or adjudication, ‘conflict litigation’ remains controversial and challenges the authority of ICaTs. As the chapter demonstrates, the significance of arbitration and adjudication over questions of violent conflict has varied over time and forms part of the general history of international dispute resolution. Having surveyed this general history, the chapter sketches out the evolving legal framework governing courts and conflicts. It discusses which aspects of violent conflicts are addressed by ICaTs under contemporary international law and highlights current challenges of ‘conflict litigation’.
The Use of Force
Authors: Wilmshurst Elizabeth 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the collective security system established by the United Nations Charter and focuses on the use of force. The vision of the founders of the United Nations—‘determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war’—was to make the preservation of international peace a collective responsibility and to locate that responsibility in the United Nations and, in particular, the United Nations Security Council. States were obliged to refrain from the use of force in their international relations, and there would be no resort to armed force except ‘in the common interest’, as declared in the preamble to the Charter. However, contemporary security threats such as global terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction give rise to questions about whether the law is ‘sufficient’. The chapter then outlines the international legal framework and discusses some of the difficulties in interpreting or applying aspects of the law in the context of recent challenges to the international legal order. It considers whether this legal framework is still appropriate to deal with current security threats and whether the efficacy of the law is still recognized in the practice of States.
India
Authors: Chimni B. S. 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews the general place of international law in India’s conduct of international relations. It touches upon provisions of the Indian Constitution on international law and identifies the reasons why the potential of international law in realizing national security interests is yet to be tapped. The chapter also surveys India’s response to critical areas of national and global security interests in the matrix of the history and geopolitics of the South Asian region, notions of the self, and evolving international law.
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Authors: Greminger Thomas 
Published: March 2021

Abstract
This chapter details how, for several decades, the normative framework for European security has been based on the principles and commitments of the Helsinki Final Act. The Helsinki principles and commitments, the result of more than two years of almost unbroken diplomatic negotiations, became the basis for guiding mutual relations amongst the participating States during the Cold War and helped to smooth the process of post-Communist transition. They remain relevant today as the fifty-seven participating States of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) look to return to a rules-based system in order to enhance predictability, trust, and stability. The chapter looks at how OSCE principles and commitments have contributed to promoting security and cooperation in Europe. It explores how a political body, and the norms articulated by its participating States, fit into the framework of international law, and influence or are driven by it. Moreover, the chapter considers the impact that the unclear legal status of the OSCE has, particularly on operational activities. It analyses the OSCE as a political arrangement, its legal context, its structures, the status of its international legal personality and its impact, the OSCE as a regional arrangement under the United Nations Charter, and the various dimensions of the OSCE’s work.
Standard Sedation and Sedation With Isoflurane in Mechanically Ventilated Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019
Authors: Hanidziar Dusan , Baldyga Kathryn , Ji Christine S. , Lu Jing , Zheng Hui , Wiener-Kronish Jeanine , Xie Zhongcong 
Published: March 2021

Objectives:
To describe sedative and analgesic drug utilization in a cohort of critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 and compare standard sedation with an alternative approach using inhaled isoflurane.

Design:
This was a retrospective cohort study designed to compare doses of sedatives between ICU patients receiving standard IV sedation and patients receiving mixed sedation including inhaled isoflurane. Data were obtained from electronic medical records.

Setting:
ICU at large academic medical center where mechanical ventilation was delivered with Draeger Apollo (Draeger Medical, Telford, PA) anesthesia machines.

Patients:
Consecutive adult patients (≥ 18 yr) with confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 admitted to ICU between April 2, 2020, and May 4, 2020.

Interventions:
None.

Measurements and Main Results:
Thirty-five mechanically ventilated patients were included in the study, with a mean (sd) age of 59.4 (12.8) years. Twenty-three patients (65.7%) were men. Seventeen patients (48.6%) received standard IV sedation, whereas 18 (51.4%) also received isoflurane. The mean duration of mechanical ventilation (sd) was 23.3 (11.6) days in the standard sedation group and 23.8 (12.5) days in the isoflurane group. Mean (sd) duration of isoflurane exposure was 5.61 (2.99) days, representing 29.1% of total sedation time (sd, 20.4). Cumulative opioid exposure did not differ between the standard sedation and isoflurane sedation groups (mean morphine milligram equivalent 6668 [sd, 1,346] vs 6678 [sd, 2,000] mg). However, the initiation of isoflurane in patients was associated with decreased utilization of propofol (mean daily amount 3,656 [sd, 1,635] before vs 950 [sd, 1,804] mg during isoflurane) and hydromorphone (mean daily amount 48 [sd, 30] before vs 23 [sd, 27] mg).

Conclusions:
In the subjects that received isoflurane, its use was associated with significant decreases in propofol and hydromorphone infusions.
The optics of the human eye at 8.6 µm lateral resolution
Authors: Bonaque-González Sergio , Trujillo-Sevilla Juan M. , Velasco-Ocaña Miriam , Casanova-González Óscar , Sicilia-Cabrera Miguel , Roqué-Velasco Alex , Ceruso Sabato , Oliva-García Ricardo , Martín-Hernández Javier , Gomez-Cardenes Oscar , Marichal-Hernández José G. , Gatinel Damien , Holladay Jack T. , Rodríguez-Ramos José M. 
Published: March 2021

AbstractOcular optics is normally estimated based on 2,600 measurement points within the pupil of the eye, which implies a lateral resolution of approximately 175 microns for a 9 mm pupil diameter. This is because information below this resolution is not thought to be relevant or even possible to obtain with current measurement systems. In this work, we characterize the in vivo ocular optics of the human eye with a lateral resolution of 8.6 microns, which implies roughly 1 million measurement points for a pupil diameter of 9 mm. The results suggest that the normal human eye presents a series of hitherto unknown optical patterns with amplitudes between 200 and 300 nm and is made up of a series of in-phase peaks and valleys. If the results are analysed at only high lateral frequencies, the human eye is also found to contain a whole range of new information. This discovery could have a great impact on the way we understand some fundamental mechanisms of human vision and could be of outstanding utility in certain fields of ophthalmology.