bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
“An Inexplicable Confusion”
Authors: Durham William H. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
While visiting Galápagos, the young Charles Darwin was confused by the similarity of various finches he observed. We now understand that what we see as different finch species are “species before speciation is complete.” The confusion is inherent: many of them remain similar enough to form fertile hybrids. But a robust difference exists between the groups of ground finches and tree finches, raising the question, what prompted the evolution of that clear distinction? The primary habitats for tree finches are tree species of the wonderful Galápagos daisy genus, Scalesia, that dominate the forests of the humid areas of various islands. Did the evolution of daisies into trees influence the evolution of differences between ground and tree finches? For that matter, how did highland trees evolve from lowland shrubby daisies, thus forming the highland habitat for tree finches? Several lines of evidence, including a contemporary interaction analysis of various birds and trees, suggest that the giant daisies of Galápagos and the tree species of Darwin’s finches coevolved.
One Big Social‒Ecological System
Authors: Durham William H. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Galápagos is no longer the “little world within itself” that Darwin visited: it is now one big social‒ecological system (SES): the evolutionary fitnesses of all, or nearly all, Galápagos organisms are today a joint product of natural conditions and human activity. But this also makes Galápagos an effective microcosm. At first glance, the place seems totally unique: it is small and isolated, its habitats are extreme, its wildlife is peculiar, and its initially tiny human population is diverse and growing rapidly. But on a larger scale, are those not all true about Earth itself? The small size and isolation of Galápagos may exacerbate some threats and challenges, its position in the heartland of El Niño may exaggerate the swings and changes of contemporary climate, and its land area for human use is close to a record low (3%, although human impact reaches to every corner of the archipelago), but these conditions make both problems and solutions show up faster in Galápagos than elsewhere. Galápagos is now a valuable test bed for the sustainability challenges facing the whole of planet Earth.
Introduction
Authors: Encarnación Omar G. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter mentions New York police commissioner James P. O’Neill, who during a safety briefing for the 2019 WorldPride festival apologized for an event that took place on June 28, 1969. It recounts the raid of the Stonewall Inn in 1969, a bar in Greenwich Village that provided a safe environment for LGBT people to gather and socialize. The raid turned into a violent clash that spread around the bar’s vicinity and lasted for several days. It also speculates what prompted the rioting at the Stonewall Inn, exploring the theory that the death of singer-actress and gay icon Judy Garland put gay New Yorkers on edge. The chapter discusses the paramount importance of the Stonewall Riots to the rise of the contemporary gay rights movement. It points out that conventional wisdom considers the Stonewall rebellion to have been the first instance of gay resistance in American history.
A Shameful History and a Dark Legacy
Authors: Encarnación Omar G. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces Alfred Kinsey, America’s most famous sexologist, who argued in 1953 that homosexual relations are more severely penalized by public opinion and statute law in the United States than in any other major culture in the world. It looks at the US Supreme Court’s 2003 ruling in the Lawrence v. Texas case, which meant that the United States was no longer the only major Western democracy criminalizing homosexual conduct between consenting adults. The chapter also mentions Alabama, Florida, Idaho, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Michigan, Utah, and Virginia, which banned consensual sodomy without respect to the sex of those involved, and Texas, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri, which prohibited acts of sodomy by same-sex couples. It discusses America’s democratic peers in Western Europe and the Americas that ceased to make consensual homosexual relations a crime, such as France in 1791 and Brazil in 1830.
The Doer
Authors: Halvorson Charles 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 to administer the Clean Air Act of 1970 and a bevy of other ambitious new environmental interventions marked a high point in Americans’ belief in the capacity of the federal government to intervene in the economy to improve the public welfare. While Richard Nixon intended the EPA to simply implement policies that would be formulated elsewhere, the complexity of developing and enforcing functional policies that could achieve the Clean Air Act’s mandates made the agency’s regulations increasingly key to determining what pollution control looked like in the lives of ordinary Americans and the operations of American businesses. This recognition of the power in implementation sent environmental advocates, business representatives, and White House advisors scrambling to find ways of influencing the decision making of the new agency at the heart of the nation’s environmental governance regime.
A Balancing Act
Authors: Halvorson Charles 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Eager to regain control over the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Nixon administration claimed a new White House prerogative to review administrative rulemakings before they became law, citing the potential economic disruption of expensive new mandates as justification for this regulatory review. Fearing that the influence that business representatives seemed likely to wield on the process and the possibility that the White House would use the new process to water down congressional mandates, environmental organizations turned to Congress and the courts to push back against regulatory review. Caught in the middle and eager to protect the EPA’s ability to fulfill legislative mandates, the EPA’s senior leadership increasingly turned to economics to understand and moderate the adverse impacts of its regulations and to justify a strong intervention program to the White House and the American public.
Put the Profit Motive to Work
Authors: Halvorson Charles 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
As the prosperity of the postwar period ran aground on the shoals of the dislocations of the energy crises and the deteriorating position of American manufacturing, critiques of the supposed inefficiency of large government programs gained ground among both Democrats and Republicans. Under Jimmy Carter, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which had been a champion of a liberal governance model in which experts established direct mandates for businesses to follow, became a key space for the development of market-based alternatives that shifted power back to businesses in the hopes of reducing the costs of achieving public welfare goals, even as the agency took on new authority to protect pristine air through the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. As Carter set out to bring more economic scrutiny to the EPA’s rulemaking through expanded regulatory review processes, environmental advocates were forced to contend with the rising salience of monetary approaches of environmental value.
Markets for Bads
Authors: Halvorson Charles 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
By the mid-1980s, as the nation confronted new problems such as the ozone hole and long-standing issues such as acid rain, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) faced reduced political support for direct mandate interventions. Harnessing growing support for market-based strategies among environmental advocates, the EPA increasingly turned to incentives, tradable allowances, and other market-based policies in the 1980s. This shift culminated in the development of the nation’s first cap-and-trade program to address the problem of acid rain in the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. As the nation looked forward to new concerns including global warming, an era of direct mandates informed by natural rights to clean air and a healthy environment seemed to be at a close, supplanted by a new environmentalism that held out market-based policies and a monetary conceptualization of environmental value as a new model for governance.
Sister Style
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Sister Style: The Politics of Appearance for Black Women Political Elites centers Black women’s bodies, specifically their hair texture and skin tone, to argue that phenotypic differences among Black women politicians directly impact how they experience political office and how Black voters evaluate them. The book brings together an interdisciplinary, multi-method, and blended epistemological approach of positivism and interpretivism to ask whether African American women’s appearances provide a more nuanced lens through which to study how their raced-gendered identities impact their candidacies and shape their political behavior. The authors take a deep dive into intersectional theory-building, through which they examine the intra-categorical differences among Black women. They find that Black women vary in their political experiences because of their appearances, and that dominant, Eurocentric beauty standards influence the electoral chances of Black women. They observe that skin tone and hair texture, along with the historical legacies that have shaped the current cultural and political contexts, dictate Black women elites’ political experiences and voter evaluations of them. The book asks the following questions: What do the politics of appearance for Black women mean for Black women politicians and for Black voters who evaluate them? What are the origins of the contemporary focus on Black women’s bodies in public life? How do Black women politicians themselves make sense of the politics of appearance? Is there a phenotypic profile into which most Black women politicians fit? What is the effect of variation in Black women’s phenotypes for candidate evaluations? And how do voters process the appearances of Black women candidates?
What Black Women Political Elites Look Like Matters
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter centers the narratives of Black women political elites to demonstrate how they think about their professional image and how they craft their look in response to voters’ expectations. A series of one-on-one interviews with Black women political elites shows that these women are deeply aware of how their bodies are assessed and that they are constantly determining how they want to present themselves. This chapter addresses Black women’s agency—how Black women prefer to look given the constraints of their physical characteristics. It also considers the political structure—how Black women believe voters and constituents view them based on their chosen appearance or styling choices. The chapter finds that Black women political elites vary in how they choose to present themselves and in their rationale for their styling choices. However, all the women interviewed recognize the racist and sexist constraints that inform their personal aesthetics.
Candid Conversations: Black Women Political Elites and Appearances
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter showcases how conversations are a generative tool to assess the differences and similarities in the aesthetic experiences of Black women political elites. The authors partnered with the Black Women’s Political Action Committee of Texas to provide the first ever scholarly focus group with Black women political elites. Through an organic conversation, they found that Black women candidates and elected officials face challenges from others, including fellow Black women, about how they choose to present themselves for political office. The authors documented generational splits in how age cohorts of Black women decide to style themselves and the political implications of these choices. Most notably, Millennial Black women political elites detailed discrimination and hostilities based on their styling preferences, often at the hands of older Black women.
Sisterly Discussions about Black Women Candidates
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, through a focus group with members of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., the authors query a set of highly politically engaged Black women about the importance of appearance to this group of political elites. As a historically Black Greek Letter Organization, this sorority has, throughout its history, upheld restrictive and controlling cultural norms that disproportionately impact Black women. Yet, the authors’ findings demonstrate that while there are different preferences and tactics that Black sorority-member voters think are most useful for other Black women to gain elected office, those voters are uniform in their desire to see successful Black women political elites. The authors also observe a generational split regarding the perceived political implications for Black women candidates with natural hair, which the focus group participants tie back to respectability politics. The chapter concludes by highlighting the differences in how younger Black sorority members think about the politics of appearance and the implications for these differences for the future of Black women political elites.
Linked Fate, Black Voters, and Black Women Candidates
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines how linked fate—a feeling of closeness to group members—may shape how Black voters respond to Black women candidates. It provides a brief review of the relevant literature on linked fate and colorism, a novel inclusion to this foundational concept in Black politics. The chapter includes colorism in an analysis of linked fate and its significance to vote choice, and it more fully fleshes out these implications for the appeal of Black women candidates to men and women voters who report a sense of linked fate. Using experimental data, the authors do not find strong evidence of heterogeneity by linked fate. The chapter ends with a discussion of how Black women candidates’ bodies influence vote choice.
Special Elections
Authors: Bullock Charles S. , Owen Karen L. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Special elections are a significant point of entry into the U.S. Congress. These electoral contests are not numerous, and their occurrence is largely random. They have attracted extraordinary attention from the national parties, political consultants, and the media when control of the House of Representatives is up for grabs in every regular election. Perhaps never have special elections drawn as much attention as during the first two years of the Trump presidency. This volume provides a detailed case study of the most expensive special House election ever conducted augmented with mini-cases exploring the other competitive special elections held during the first two years of the Trump era. These case studies are placed in the context of quantitative analyses of the almost three hundred House special elections held since World War II. Bullock and Owen find the factors associated with success in special elections are similar to those that help incumbents win term after term. They show that the party identification of the previous incumbent correlates strongly with the special election outcomes. Moreover, this volume explores whether the performance of the president’s party in special elections predicts the fortunes of the president’s party in the next general election. It finds that the numbers of losses by the president’s party or takeaways from the opposition is significantly related to the next election results. This work highlights not only the unique context and outcomes of special elections, but also their important role in shaping who enters, leads, and controls Congress.
The 2017 Runoff in Georgia’s Sixth Congressional District
Authors: Bullock Charles S. , Owen Karen L. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Georgia requires a majority vote to win a special election. Had a candidate in the April jungle primary polled a majority, that would have sufficed. But no candidate won outright, so the top two finishers, Democrat Jon Ossoff and Republican Karen Handel, advanced to a runoff held nine weeks later. Chapter 3 details each campaign’s activities and the substantial sums of money infused into the contest, making it the most expensive House race in the United States. Yet, in the end even with the initial electoral vote and fundraising advantages to Ossoff, significant voter turnout, and what many believed a divided and disgruntled GOP, the contest became largely a standard partisan face-off.
Other Special Elections Held in the Wake of Trump’s Win
Authors: Bullock Charles S. , Owen Karen L. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Despite the predominant focus on Georgia Sixth’s contest, other special elections had similar high stakes. That is, in 2017 in Kansas, Montana, and to a lesser extent South Carolina, special elections to fill House vacancies were viewed as tests of public support for the president, his administration, and the policies he pursued. The testing in the House continued into 2018 in Pennsylvania, Arizona, and Ohio, and in the Senate in late 2017 in Alabama. Each of these contests is analyzed in Chapter 4. The latter part of the chapter looks for similarities across the seven House contests and the Alabama Senate election. From this analysis come suggestions for how the underdog party might maximize its prospects for winning when the opposition begins the special election contest with an advantage.
Epilogue
Authors: Parr Sean M. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This brief closing section of the book explores how three recent examples of coloratura singing by the rising generation of singers reflects the relevance, importance, and power of the melismatic female singer. Rather than serving as a general sign of technical skill, decoration, or word painting, coloratura now also signals particular intensities, emotions, inflections, madness, and even death, depending on the performer and composer involved. And current coloraturas such as Natalie Dessay, Diana Damrau, Lisette Oropesa, Erin Morley, and so many more continue to revivify the power of the singing voice.
Introduction
Authors: Reich James D. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains the theory of religion employed in the book, as well as the basic issues at play in the overlap of religion and literary theory that will be explored. Starting from the assumption that religion is a heuristic category rather than a real object in the world, the Introduction argues that, for the purposes of this project, religion is best understood as a network of influential relationships centered around something understood to be ultimate or unsurpassable. Theology, according to this definition, is the attempt to articulate, normatively or descriptively, the shape of this network from a position that accepts the ultimacy of its center. The Introduction then explains the fundamental set of philosophical issues driving the overlap of literary theory and religious philosophy in Kashmir in these centuries: namely, the relationship between appearances and essences, or between how things appear and what they really are.
The Will of Objects
Authors: Reich James D. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores a long digression at the beginning of Mahimabhaṭṭa’s text that gives a strange theory of word-meanings. Mahimabhaṭṭa argues here that all nouns actually express verbal activity—that the only reason we call something a “pot” is because it is enacting the activity of being a pot. Mahimabhaṭṭa explains that the reason this is the possible is because all things, even seemingly insentient objects, are an expression of God and are therefore possessed of agency and willpower. This chapter argues that this assertion is actually an intervention in some of the important changes that had recently taken place in non-dual Śaiva philosophy in Kashmir, including the changes that Abhinavagupta had relied on for his literary theory. The chapter explores what this can tell us about Mahimabhaṭṭa’s Śaivism and the deeper motivation for his attack on the theory of poetic manifestation.
Mahimabhaṭṭa on Literary Being
Authors: Reich James D. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter returns to Mahimabhaṭṭa’s reliance on Dharmakīrti and shows that, for Mahimabhaṭṭa, unlike for Abhinavagupta, understanding poetry involves illusion. Poetry, he argues, relies for its effects on a cognitive mistake on the part of the reader, who attributes emotions to imaginary characters who cannot actually have them. This means that poetry cannot be valuable in itself, and this is, again, an inversion of Abhinavagupta. Poetry does, however, have instrumental value, and to explain this, Mahimabhaṭṭa again relies on Dharmakīrti, who also thought that inference delivered quasi-mistaken information, but could still be relied on because of its practical usefulness. For Mahimabhaṭṭa, the use in question is moral training, which is the fundamental goal of poetry. This chapter rounds out the evidence for the argument that Mahimabhaṭṭa’s theory is directed, in part, at Abhinavagupta’s theory, and inverts it in many important ways.
Confirmation Bias
Authors: Gorman Sara E. , Gorman Jack M. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines confirmation bias, which refers to people’s tendency to attend only to information that agrees with what they already think is true. Confirmation bias is responsible for not only a great deal of denial of scientific evidence but also the actual generation and maintenance of incorrect scientific information. That is, scientific and medical professionals are as prone as anyone else is to “seeing what we believe,” making it especially difficult to help people sort out what is true science from the mistakes and outright fabrications. The chapter demonstrates how confirmation bias, although a highly adaptive human trait, often causes scientific misperceptions due to resistance to the often counterintuitive disconfirmation process of scientific inquiry. It then proposes some ways of countering confirmation bias.
Risk Perception and Probability
Authors: Gorman Sara E. , Gorman Jack M. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter studies the psychology of risk perception, starting with an overview of classic risk perception theory. When it comes to health, people are intolerant of risks of harm that feel uncontrollable while they are perfectly content to accept risks that they perceive are within their control, even if these perceptions are incorrect. These dangerous health misperceptions fall under the psychological category called “uncontrollable risk.” The chapter assesses the question of why many statistically improbable risks seem much more relevant to people than statistically probable ones. It then looks at some of the heuristics and biases that affect risk perception. People’s brains are not designed for linear risk perception even though that is how the world really is. Recognizing this is a crucial step in correcting mistakes when making health decisions and in planning interventions to help people make those decisions on a scientific basis.