bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Colgan Jeff D. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the book’s central arguments. Scholars usually think of a hegemon as establishing an international order after a major power war, which lasts roughly until the next big war. This chapter shows how flawed and incomplete that understanding is. It argues instead that changes in order are common in peacetime; a hegemon does not always want those changes; and nonstate actors like private firms or international organizations can play crucial roles. Further, it argues that there is no single international order, but rather a collection of subsystems. It illustrates and applies these arguments to global oil politics over the last century. For instance, it shows how the idea of “energy security” is confused and misleading. Political leaders often muddle the linkages between the security and political economy dimensions of oil.
Using Subsystems beyond Oil
Authors: Colgan Jeff D. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Chapter 6 moves beyond oil. It starts by showing how the subsystems framework lends itself to a particular method or approach to research. That method encourages analysts to really get to know the empirics of their subject before jumping to causal analysis. The chapter then addresses some additional theoretical questions not covered in chapter 2. For example, it identifies the standards of quality by which we can assess competing subsystems analyses from different analysts, and considers how changes at the subsystem level aggregate up to affect an ordering theme at the systemic level (e.g., the liberal order). The goal is to show how scholars can apply the subsystems framework in an analytically fertile way.
Climate Change
Authors: Colgan Jeff D. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Chapter 7 uses the subsystems theory and method developed in previous chapters to understand climate politics. To date, there is only a weak international order for climate. Still, the chapter identifies four emerging subsystems for climate politics, associated with: emissions reductions; climate-related capital; negative-emissions technologies; and the climate-trade nexus. This chapter then goes beyond analysis to prescribe and make recommendations for policymakers. It advocates using a “climate club” of countries committed to reducing emissions internally and using trade measures to penalize those outside the climate club.
The All-Consuming Nation
Authors: Lytle Mark H. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In some ways, The All-Consuming Nation is an autobiography of the baby boom generation since it highlights the consumer culture and rising environmental consciousness that have been central to that generation’s lived experience. This focus should appeal to a wide audience of regular readers. Those who are sensitive to such current issues as wealth inequality, climate change, and the environmental consequences of mass consumerism will also find the book as a way to see how the United States reached its contemporary crisis points, as well as possible ways to curb current excesses. The book alternates chapters on the evolving consumer economy with chapters on environmental critiques of mass consumerism. It considers the technologies that have fueled consumption, strategies such as planned obsolescence that sustain consumption, and the shift in retailing from brick and mortar to online shopping. Environmental critics have viewed every shift in patterns of increasing consumption as ultimately unsustainable. Finally, the book should serve as text for post–World War II surveys in American history, environmental history, as well as business and marketing courses.
Diversities, Silence, and Open Conflict
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
From 1940 to 1962, political and theological debates indicate that contemporary disagreements in the Church predate the Council. The geopolitical polices of the papacy influence various phases of development: (1) During the War, the clerical elite conduct a debate over Catholic cooperation in non-Catholic life. (2) From 1948 to 1955, international “containment” policies parallel the numerous allegations of heresy touching the views of Father Leonard Feeney, the social argument of Father James Keller, and the asceticism of Father John Hugo. John Courtney Murray’s studies on the American political proposition are silenced. (3) These largely private disagreements between “Right” and “Left” elements in the Church—represented by National Review, Fides Publishing, and others—experience a “cultural opening” and move into the public forum as the struggle against communism begins to lose its resonance. (4) Six months before the Council, political and theological disagreements express themselves in open and virulent juxtaposition.
The First Session
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Heterogenous, individualistic, and disorganized, American bishops traveled to Rome for the first session of the Council where they experienced an international Church, a sense of collegiality, a democratic assembly, and a growing adoption of the ecumenical and pastoral purpose of the Council. The first days were spend organizing weekly meetings and committees. Media outlets arose that would have a lasting impact on conciliar deliberations. Confronted with the power dynamics in the Church, the bishops began to manifest an initial opposition to control by Apostolic Delegate Vagnozzi and the Roman curia. Myer and Ritter emerged as leaders. Debates on the liturgy, the Sources of Revelation, and the Church led many bishops to move gradually toward a knowledge of the interrelationships between adaptation to the modern pluralistic society, worship, contemporary scripture scholarship, and a vision of the Church open to the world. A direction for the Council’s future developed.
Interim Periods and Debates on the Church and Liturgy
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Before and during the second session of the Council, American bishops took a collegial turn toward the revisioning of Catholic identity. In parallel with grass-roots commitments to the civil rights movement, the language of “human dignity, equality, mutual respect, the breaking down of social barriers” crossed over into religious speech patterns. Experiences of internationality as the bishops traveled back and forth to Rome and experiences of collegiality as they gathered in a voluntary meeting in Chicago furthered the acceptance of new pathways in Church and liturgy. Despite strong opposition from within their ranks and from the Roman curia, the leadership of Meyer, Dearden, Wright, Ritter, Shehan, and Hallinan, and the influence of the prominent theologians McManus, Diekmann, Ahern, and Coyle, led to an alliance with the Council’s majority favoring reform. An entrance into a new “politics of history” governed by participative processes, inculturation, lay ascendancy, and democratic discord developed.
Building Bridges to the World, 1963–1965
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The third and fourth conciliar sessions emphasized the call to create bridges to all men and women. The American bishops cross-stitched the theological common thread of human dignity with developments in the civil rights movement. Experiencing great opposition from factions within the conciliar assembly (Coetus Internationalis Patrum), they congealed in defense of religious freedom. Final adoption of Dignitatis Humane Personae both resolved the historic problem of Church teaching on Church and state and also highlighted the theological issue of development of doctrine. This new ecumenical and pastoral “cultural system of belief” repositioned internal adversarial markers of Catholic identity in relationship to Protestants, Jews, world religions, and non-believers. A new style of worship, teaching authority, and social cooperation emerged. Implementing structures of the post-conciliar Church in the United States witnessed to both a continuing commitment to this adaptation to modernity and the difficulties it would engender.
Causation with a Human Face
Authors: Woodward James 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Causation with a Human Face integrates normative work about causal reasoning coming out of philosophy, computer science, and other disciplines—work that specifies how people ought to reason causally—with descriptive research from psychology concerning how people in fact reason about causal relationships. It argues that each line of inquiry can beneficially inform the other. Normative ideas can suggest interesting experiments, and descriptive results can suggest normative ideas that are worthy of exploration. Among the normative ideas discussed are proposals about the role of invariant or stable relationships in successful causal reasoning and the notion of proportionality, which has to do with the extent to which causes and effects are specified at the appropriate “grain.” These normative ideas are reflected in the causal judgments that people actually make as a descriptive matter. The overall framework makes use of an interventionist treatment of causation, but many of the normative ideas and much of the empirical research explored will be of interest independently of this framework. The book also discusses the common philosophical practice of appealing to “intuitions” or “judgments about cases” in support of philosophical theses. Properly understood, these are not different in principle from results from psychological studies of causal cognition and hence can serve as a useful source of information. However, there are a number of important questions about both the normative and descriptive sides of causal cognition that cannot be successfully addressed by an intuition-based methodology, so that philosophers need to move beyond reliance on this.
Justice and Humaneness in a Naturalist Cosmos
Authors: Jiang Tao 
Published: October 2021

AbstractThis chapter reveals that Laozi completely jettisoned the idea of a Heaven that cares about human affairs and is actively involved in managing the human world. Instead, Heaven becomes indifferent to human affairs. Furthermore, in the Laozi Heaven would be eclipsed by the Dao as the origin of the cosmos encompassing the natural as well as the human world. The twin development of the idea of a detached Heaven and the subordination of Heaven to the Dao signified a naturalist turn during late fourth century bce, supported by recently excavated texts. Such a development would open up new conceptual spaces for subsequent moral-political deliberations. Laozi appropriated the Mohist idea of impartiality of Heaven but did so under a naturalist cosmos, making justice and impartiality a natural feature of the cosmos and rejecting humaneness as a heavenly attribute. Furthermore, he repudiated the universalism in both the Confucian and the Mohist projects.
Scientific Epistemology
Authors: Kornblith Hilary 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This book provides an introduction to a scientifically informed approach to epistemological questions. Theories of knowledge are often motivated by the need to respond to skepticism. The skeptic presents an argument which seems to show that knowledge is impossible, and a theory of knowledge is called upon to show, contrary to the skeptic, how knowledge is indeed possible. Traditional epistemologies, however, do not draw on the sciences in providing their response to skepticism. The approach taken here, however, shows how an epistemology which is informed by the sciences offers an especially illuminating understanding of the nature of knowledge and what makes it possible. Along the way, a distinctive methodology for philosophy is defended, as is an approach to understanding how inference is conducive to knowledge which highlights various structural similarities between the workings of our perceptual systems and native inferential mechanisms. A perspective on the human capacity to reflect on our beliefs is defended which highlights its importance in cooperative problem-solving.
Overcoming Market Power in Online Video Platforms
Authors: Noam Eli M. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The chapter proposes an ‘open video system’ to deal with digital dominance in the online streaming video sector. TV, in its third generation, is becoming online-based and, due to the fundamental technology and economics of the medium, controlled by a few global platforms. The extent is shown by market concentration numbers developed in the chapter. How to deal with this problem? Instead of following the breakup or public utility models, the chapter advocates the enablement of information intermediaries that would act on behalf of consumers. Platforms would need to provide such intermediaries with access to those elements in which they hold significant media market power. Such access would be given by way of an applications program interface (API), priced under a most-favoured nation arrangement, and administered through industry self-regulation. The intermediaries could create bundles of services, including independent algorithms. Given that much of media content will flow by way of the large platforms, their accessibility and interoperation will help in keeping the future media system open, diverse, competitive, and innovative, without the heavy interventions of alternative approaches.
Accelerating Adoption of a Digital Intermediary Tax
Authors: Brogi Elda , Maria Carlini Roberta 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The role of the digital platforms as intermediaries to the news has deeply changed the media environment. The chapter focuses on the economic threats to media pluralism, related to the concentration of the market and the disruption of the news media industry, resulting from the digital platforms’ business model; and argues for the role of fiscal policy in redistributing part of the tech dividend and in supporting media plurality. The policy proposal is a digital tax designed to support news media viability and media pluralism. The need for a reform of international corporate tax rules to tackle tax avoidance in the digital economy has been largely debated at OECD and at EU level, with different proposals of a digital tax; less attention has been given to the use of the revenues raised by such a tax. We argue that earmarking part of the digital tax’s revenue to sustain professional journalism is a way to finance a public good that, in the new digital environment, risks being undersupplied. Public media policies should be carefully designed to guarantee fair, objective and non-discriminatory distribution of the resources, to avoid media being captured by political interests. The search for resources to fund the post-Covid economic crisis in most of the EU countries could act as an accelerator of the adoption of a digital tax; to use part of its revenue to support media pluralism may be a structural way to counteract the ‘infodemic’.
Responding to Disinformation
Authors: Marsden Chris , Brown Ian , Veale Michael 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter elaborates on challenges and emerging best practices for state regulation of electoral disinformation throughout the electoral cycle. It is based on research for three studies during 2018–2020: into election cybersecurity for the Commonwealth; on the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to regulate disinformation for the European Parliament; and for UNESCO, the United Nations body responsible for education. The research covers more than half the world’s nations, and substantially more than half that population, and in 2019 the two largest democratic elections in history: India’s general election and the European Parliamentary elections. Regulating digital dominance in electoral disinformation presents specific challenges in three very distinctive fields: election law, media law, and mass communications regulation, and targeted online advertising, including data protection law. Implementing best practices against electoral disinformation will require action by EMBs, data protection agencies, communications and media regulators, parliamentary authorities, and ministries of justice and equivalent Neither effective implementation, nor a disinterested assessment of best practice, can be guaranteed. Electoral laws are—like much history—written by the winners, often immediately after their victory. Legal frameworks need to be updated as a response to disinformation challenges discovered during electoral processes, as well as encompassing international best practice. Our ten recommendations for policymakers take account of these imperatives and uncertainties.
Slaves, Subjects, Citizens
Authors: Lee Daniel 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter aims to extract Bodin’s ‘pure’ concept of political subjecthood, detached from neighbouring concepts with which subjecthood has historically overlapped – patriarchy, slavery, vassalage. The asymmetrical obligatory bond of imperium tying subjects to their sovereigns is irreducibly distinctive. One can legally be subject to a sovereign, without also being its child in patria potestate, its slave in dominio, its vassal in capite, or any other bondsman: such a ‘free subject’ is ‘citizen’. Bodin, however, observed that the earliest political societies – especially Assyria under the Biblical hunter-king Nimrod – blended together these concepts, rendering subjecthood indistinguishable from slavery. Only gradually, with the invention of law as a technique of sovereignty, could sovereigns isolate subjecthood. As with all obligatory bonds, however, even subjecthood can be dissolved. Citizenship can be lost as easily as it can be acquired. One element, however, is conspicuously absent in Bodin’s analysis of citizenship – territory.
A Primer of Life Histories
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Life histories describe how genotypes schedule their reproductive effort throughout life in response to factors that affect their survival and fecundity. Life histories are solutions that selection has produced to solve the problem of how to persist in a given environment. These solutions differ tremendously within and among species. Some organisms mature within months of attaining life, others within decades; some produce few, large offspring as opposed to numerous, small offspring; some reproduce many times throughout their lives while others die after reproducing just once. The exponential pace of life-history research provides an opportune time to engage and re-engage new generations of students and researchers on the fundamentals and applications of life-history theory. Chapters 1 through 4 describe the fundamentals of life-history theory. Chapters 5 through 8 focus on the evolution of life-history traits. Chapters 9 and 10 summarize how life-history theory and prediction has been applied within the contexts of conservation and sustainable exploitation. This primer offers an effective means of rendering the topic accessible to readers from a broad range of academic experience and research expertise.
Genetic Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The genotype is that part of the genetic make-up of an organism causally responsible, to greater or lesser degrees, for the phenotype. The underlying genetic basis of a trait depends on genetic architecture; phenotypic differences can be caused by many genes, each having a small effect, and/or few genes each having a large effect. Some traits are influenced by groups of many genes linked together on the same chromosome and inherited as single units or supergenes. A particular type of genetic variation (additive genetic variance) determines trait heritability, i.e. the similarity in trait phenotype between parents and offspring. Trait heritability and genetic trade-offs influence the response of traits to natural and human-induced selection. A key point is that genes rarely act in isolation of one another, rendering it challenging to reliably predict evolutionary responses to selection. Thereafter, following a section on how the environment can affect the phenotypically plastic expression of traits, the chapter explores genotype-by-environment interactions, using reaction norms. These are visually heuristic and intuitively tractable depictions of how a trait varies with an environmental factor or with another trait. Reaction norms have long been used to study phenotypic plasticity. Today, they are increasingly seen as an invaluable tool for examining genetic differences in how individuals and populations respond to environmental change.
Applications
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
By affecting age-specific survival and fecundity, human-induced disturbances affect life history. This has potential to affect rmax with negative consequences for species viability and persistence. Several types of assessments are used to classify vulnerability to extinction, exploitation, and climate change. When information on rmax is unavailable, vulnerability assessments often rely on life-history correlates of rmax. These have included generation time, age at maturity, maximum size, longevity, fecundity, natural mortality, and individual growth rate. Empirical research indicates that links with rmax are strong for some traits, such as age at maturity and body size, but weak for others, such as fecundity. In addition to assessments of declining species, efforts have been made to identify life-history correlates of the rate and uncertainty in species recovery. Persistence and stability can be strengthened by the magnitude of life-history variation. The greater the variability in life history within and among, the greater the resistance and resilience of populations and species.
A brief evolutionary account of medical care
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, medical care is approached from an evolutionary perspective, starting from simple forms of defence behaviours to social grooming in non-human primates. Social grooming in apes and early hominids was likely to pave the road to altruistic behaviour. Whereas the very early forms of altruism and medical care in a social group relied on the involvement of many members of the group, in the course of evolution a single individual started taking care of the sick: the shaman. It is important to look at the doctor–patient relationship from an evolutionary perspective because it acts as a reminder that this unique social interaction can be studied using a neuroscientific and evolutionary approach.
The traditional concept of placebo
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, the history of medicine is basically described as the history of placebos, as most medical interventions were nothing but placebos; that is, inert. Over the centuries, doctors started using sham treatments to see whether the clinical improvement was attributable to the patients’ imagination and/or spontaneous remissions. Today placebos are widely used in clinical research to validate the efficacy of a therapy. Besides this clinical research approach, doctors and nurses use placebos to please and placate anxious patients. The placebo effect is a good example of how a mental activity may affect several physiological functions; thus, it is an excellent model for studying the mind–body interactions. The nocebo effect, which is opposite to the placebo effect, is another good model for understanding mind–body interactions.