bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Papacy Takes Charge
Authors: Morton James 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 8 moves from the Norman kingdom of the twelfth century to the newly changed situation in the early thirteenth century, as the demise of the Hauteville dynasty and the minority of the young king Frederick II Hohenstaufen (r. 1198–1250) created an opportunity for Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216) and his successors to enforce their authority in southern Italy. Meanwhile, the Latin conquest of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade (1204) created an imperative for the papacy to develop a coherent policy towards the integration of Greek Christians into the Roman church’s administrative and legal structures. The chapter discusses how the papacy formulated this policy at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and the resulting increase in papal interventions in the legal affairs of the southern Italian Greeks. It then looks at Pope Honorius III’s (r. 1216–1227) short-lived effort to organise Byzantine-rite monasteries into an Order of St Basil under Grottaferrata (a predecessor to Eugenius IV’s more successful fifteenth-century order). It examines the Grottaferrata Nomocanon (Marc. gr. 171), a manuscript produced at the monastery in c. 1220–1230 that was apparently intended to provide a legal guide for the new order yet was still entirely Byzantine in character. The chapter finishes by focusing on the conflict between the Holy Saviour monastery of Messina and the papacy in the 1220s–1230s as an important example of the papacy’s efforts to bring the royal monasteries of the Kingdom of Sicily under episcopal control.
The Sampling Programme and the Measurement and Description of Dispersion
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The steps required during the planning of a sampling campaign are described. The time of sampling within the life-cycle, the size of the sampling unit, number of samples, and distribution of the samples is discussed. Statistical aspects of sample design are introduced, including the normal distribution, the negative binomial distribution and species dispersal, Taylor’s power law, and aggregation indices. Pattern analysis, SADIE spatial analysis, and crowding indices are described. Nearest-neighbour and closest-neighbour techniques to estimate population density are reviewed. Sequential sampling methodologies and software are described. Presence–absence sampling and binomial data analysis are described.
Absolute Population Estimates Using Capture–Recapture Experiments
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The main methods used to estimate population size using capture–recapture for both closed and open populations are described, including the Peterson–Lincoln estimator, the Schabel census, Bailey’s triple catch, the Jolly–Seber stochastic method, and Cormack’s log-linear method. The robust design approach is described. R code listings for commonly used packages are presented. The assumptions common to capture–recapture methods are reviewed, and tests for assumptions such as equal catchability described. The use of programs to select model assumptions are described. The main methods for marking different animal groups are described, together with the use of natural marks and parasites and DNA. Marking methods include paint marks, dyes, tagging, protein marking, DNA, natural marks, tattooing, and mutilation. Methods for handling and release are described.
Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Soil or Litter Habitat: Extraction Techniques
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Quantitative methods for taking sediment, soil, and litter samples, together with the different approaches and apparatus to extract the animals, are described. Mechanical methods discussed include wet and dry sieving, flotation, and elutriation. Behavioural or dynamic methods such as Berlese and Baermann funnels are described. Chemical and electrical methods to drive animals from cover are described, and the efficiency of the different extraction techniques is reviewed.
Observational and Experimental Methods to Estimate Natality, Mortality, Movement, and Dispersal
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the methods of directly quantifying the various processes that produce population change, natality, fertility, mortality, and dispersal. Natality is the number of births, fertility is the number of viable eggs laid by a female, and fecundity is a measure of the total egg production. The measurement of fecundity in various animal groups is reviewed. Stock-recruitment relationships used in fisheries research and the Moron–Ricker curve are described. The analysis of mortality within a generation is discussed, and apparent, real, and indispensable mortality defined. The term ‘dispersal’ covers any movement away from the initial locality, to define neighbourhood dispersal for the process by which individuals migrate into and via adjacent areas, and jump dispersal for longer-distance dispersal where individuals are transported or purposively move quickly to a new area. The determination of the home range or territory of an individual or, for social animals, a colony, is described.
Techniques for the Study of Long-Term Dynamics: Analyzing Time Series
Authors: Henderson Peter A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The definition of ‘long-term’ requires reference to the generation time and the scale over which environmental variation of interest operates. A long-term (large temporal scale) population study of an annually reproducing insect would be expected to include annual population estimates over at least ten years. An equivalent study of an amoeba, which can reproduce daily, might be completed in a few weeks. However, if the focus of a long-term study is the role of seasonal variation in determining population number, then it is likely that a study will need at least twenty-five years of data, irrespective of the size of the organism and the generation time. This chapter reviews a range of time series analytical techniques and presents R code listings for measuring synchrony and species associations, detecting break-points in time series and measuring community stability. Statistical methods to assess if a species has gone extinct are described. Techniques for detecting density dependence in time series are reviewed. Temporal β-diversity is defined as the shift in the identities and/or the abundances of named taxa in a specified assemblage over two or more time points. The measurement of temporal β-diversity is discussed. Numerous R code listings are presented.
Facing Epistemic Authorities
Authors: Grundmann Thomas 
Published: May 2021

AbstractDisrespect for the truth, the rise of conspiracy thinking, and a pervasive distrust in experts are widespread features of the post-truth condition in current politics and public opinion. Among the many good explanations of these phenomena there is one that is only rarely discussed: that something is wrong with our deeply entrenched intellectual standards of (i) using our own critical thinking without any restriction and (ii) respecting the judgment of every rational agent as epistemically relevant. This chapter argues that these two Enlightenment principles—the Principle of Unrestricted Critical Thinking and the Principle of Democratic Reason—not only conflict with what is rationally required from a purely epistemic point of view, but also further the spread of conspiracy theories and undermine trust in experts. As a result, we should typically defer to experts without using any of our own reasons regarding the subject matter
How Vice Can Motivate Distrust in Elites and Trust in Fake News
Authors: Priest Maura 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the vices of epistemic insensitivity and epistemic obstruction in special relation to contemporary political divides and contemporary habits of media consumption. It argues that both vices threaten to worsen political and social divisions between self-identified conservatives on the one hand, and those that the said self-identified conservatives themselves identify as “elites,” “liberal elites,” “experts,” “progressives,” or, “the left.” In turn, this worsening divide worsens distrust in news sources associated with “the wrong” political perspective. Partisans can become increasingly suspect of all news sources outside of their own political bubble; the entrenchment of the aforementioned vices makes persons more and more likely to deem any source outside their bubble “fake news.”
Echo Chambers, Fake News, and Social Epistemology
Authors: Lackey Jennifer 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
A familiar criticism of Donald Trump is that, in watching only Fox News and similar news sources, he is creating a dangerous echo chamber for himself. Echo chambers are said to be responsible for a host of today’s problems, including the degradation of democracy. This diagnosis is fundamentally incorrect, and this chapter examines the two dominant explanations of the distinctively epistemic problem with echo chambers and shows that each is wanting. Echo chambers, by themselves, are not epistemically problematic. Echo chambers are characterized in purely structural terms, but what is needed to capture what is wrong with Trump’s exposure to only Fox News is content-sensitive. It is not that Trump is relying on a single source for news, but that he is relying on one that is unreliable. Finally, the chapter calls attention to the challenge of social media bots and the role of non-ideal social epistemology.
Fake News, False Beliefs, and the Fallible Art of Knowledge Maintenance
Authors: Gelfert Axel 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThe term ‘fake news’, it is argued in this chapter, captures a novel kind of social-epistemic dysfunction that arises from systemic distortions of established processes of creating, disseminating, and consuming news-like content. Navigating informational environments populated by fake news requires the cultivation of epistemic routines that reduce our exposure to misleading and deceptive information, while at the same time continuing to allow us to partake in the collective growth of knowledge. Shifting the focus to epistemic routines steers a middle path between two frequently encountered dichotomous responses to the problem of fake news: viz., between emphasizing the individual’s responsibility to ‘think critically and check one’s sources’ and advocating technological tweaks (such as automated fact-checking). While epistemic agents ought to be held responsible for the epistemic routines they commit themselves to, there is also a collective need for making the predictable effects of such choices transparent to individuals, wherever technologically possible.
Romance Object Clitics
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThis book focuses on the evolution of object clitic pronouns in the Romance languages. It aims to explore the empirical facets of cliticization and elaborate on the theoretical ramifications of the topic. On the empirical side, the book deals with data ranging from Latin to modern languages and less well-known dialects from all areas of Romance. Medieval vernaculars take centre stage both in the reconstruction of the evolution from Latin to Romance and in the modelling of clitic placement in the modern languages. Syntactic, phonological, and morphological aspects are examined, but the main focus is on syntactic placement, which is the hallmark of Romance clitics. On the theoretical side, the books engage with the previous literature, in particular with Generative literature. In recent decades, our understanding of Romance clitics has grown in symbiosis with the Generative theory, and the importance of most empirical findings cannot be fully appreciated without being acquainted with the terms of the ongoing debate. The book challenges the received idea that cliticization resulted from a form of syntactic deficiency. Instead, it proposes that clitics resulted from the feature endowment of discourse features, which caused freezing of certain pronominal forms first and—through reanalysis—their successive incorporation into verbal hosts. This approach entails revising analyses of well-known phenomena such as interpolation, climbing, and enclisis/proclisis alternations (the so-called Tobler-Mussafia law), and addressing orthogonal phenomena such as V2 syntax, scrambling, and stylistic fronting.
Syntactic evidence against deficiency
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractThe chapter revolves around the notion of deficiency. It is a widely held view that clitics do not have the same distribution as strong pronouns because the former have a deficient inner structure (Cardinaletti and Starke 1999 amond others). By the same token, languages display an intermediate class of weak pronouns, sharing properties of clitic and strong pronouns. The hypothesis of an intermediate class is particularly attractive for a diachronic analysis, as weak elements are the cornerstone of the evolution from strong pronouns to clitics. This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the status of weak elements with a twofold intent: first, to show that weak pronouns do not form a consistent class across languages and second, to challenge the hypothesis that deficient elements are obtained when the outer structural layer of strong pronouns peels off.
Clitic climbing
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractIn verbal periphrases, Romance clitics either climb to the inflected verb or remain attached to the non-finite verb. The chapter argues that climbing depends on the point where auxiliaries—including restructuring predicates—are merged. Since the incorporation of clitics takes place in a clause-intermediate position (e.g. Ledgeway and Lombardi 2005), climbing does not take place when auxiliaries are first merged above the locus of incorporation. The same analysis is then extended to perfective auxiliaries in order to account for the dialects in which clitics do not climb in compound tenses and, lastly, for the dialects in which clitics never climb. The second part of the chapter focuses on the complicated system of clitic placement of Sanvalentinese, a southern Italian dialect in which optional climbing interacts with a kind of V2 requirement targeting both the I and V domain.
Clitic combinations
Authors: Pescarini Diego 
Published: May 2021

AbstractOne of the major sources of microvariation is the ordering of combinations formed by two or more clitics. Diachronically, cross-linguistic variation increased over time because certain Romance languages have undergone a change, reversing the order of some clitic combinations (in particular, those containing a third person accusative element or the clitic en/ne). The chapter entertains the hypothesis that variation is due to a change in the syntactic structure whereby clitics are nested within clause structure (Kayne 1994). Clitics were originally nested in a separate position, while later on they began to form a single complex head. This change, which took place at a different pace and not in all the Romance languages, caused the emergence of various subclasses of clitic combinations, which differ in syntactic and morphological respects.
A Great Crusader, 1914‒1919
Authors: Wetzel Benjamin J. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
World War I consumed much of Roosevelt’s attention in his final years. An advocate of American preparedness, Roosevelt used both the Old Testament and New Testament extensively to justify his wartime views. He also continued to defend the separation of church and state and endured another libel trial. Denied a chance to command a division at the front, Roosevelt sent all four of his sons to fight in his stead. The death of the youngest, Quentin, in 1918 preceded his own demise by only a few months. After Roosevelt’s death, Methodist minister Christian Reisner wrote a 400-page book attempting to demonstrate the late president’s Christianity. Historians have since debated the extent to which Roosevelt should be characterized as a Christian. The book concludes by weighing in on that debate.
Epilogue Violence as a Cultural System
Authors: Falk Oren 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The Epilogue draws together theoretical discussion and case studies, restating and sharpening the general claims made about the cultural construction of violence, and outlining directions for extending the analysis. It proposes ways of thinking about both Viking Age and present-day violence using the model developed in this book. Historians have so far contributed little to the public and academic discourse on violence, and less to the theory and applications of risk. A more rigorous conceptualization of analytical categories, along the lines suggested in this book, can both nuance historical interpretation and create avenues for the discipline to participate in wider debates
Hilbert Spaces
Authors: Boules Adel N. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter is a good introduction to Hilbert spaces and the elements of operator theory. The two leading sections contains staple topics such as the projection theorem, projection operators, the Riesz representation theorem, Bessel’s inequality, and the characterization of separable Hilbert spaces. Sections 7.3 and 7.4 contain a rather detailed study of self-adjoint and compact operators. Among the highlights are the Fredholm theory and the spectral theorems for compact self-adjoint and normal operators, with applications to integral equations. The section exercises contain problems that suggest alternative approaches, thus allowing the instructor to shorten the chapter while preserving good depth. The last section extends the results to compact operators on Banach spaces. The chapter contains more results than is typically found in an introductory course.
Integration Theory
Authors: Boules Adel N. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The Lebesgue measure on ?n (presented in section 8.4) is a pivotal component of this chapter. The approach in the chapter is to extend the positive linear functional provided by the Riemann integral on the space of continuous, compactly supported functions on ?n (presented in section 8.1). An excursion on Radon measures is included at the end of section 8.4. The rest of the sections are largely independent of sections 8.1 and 8.4 and constitute a deep introduction to general measure and integration theories. Topics include measurable spaces and measurable functions, Carathéodory’s theorem, abstract integration and convergence theorems, complex measures and the Radon-Nikodym theorem, Lp spaces, product measures and Fubini’s theorem, and a good collection of approximation theorems. The closing section of the book provides a glimpse of Fourier analysis and gives a nice conclusion to the discussion of Fourier series and orthogonal polynomials started in section 4.10.
Subordinate clauses filling an argument position
Authors: Pinkster Harm 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 15 deals with subordinate clauses, both finite and non-finite, which function as argument of their governing verb (traditionally called complement clauses). A distinction is made between declarative, interrogative, and imperative subordinate clauses. They are discussed according to the various subordinating devices: subordinators (e.g. quod, ut), question particles, infinitives (including accusative and infinitive clauses), gerunds, gerundives, and nominal clauses.
Subordinate clauses filling a satellite position
Authors: Pinkster Harm 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 16 deals with subordinate clauses, both finite and non-finite, which function as satellites in their sentence (traditionally called adverbial clauses). The finite clauses with a subordinator are discussed according to their semantic function, e.g. reason, purpose, and condition. The non-finite clauses are discussed according to morphological type: infinitives, participles (including ablative absolute clauses), gerunds, gerundives, supines, and nominal clauses.
Coordination
Authors: Pinkster Harm 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 19 deals with coordination, both syndetic (with an overt coordinator) and asyndetic. Three semantic types are distinguished: conjunctive, disjunctive, and adversative coordination. The conjoins that are coordinated may be clauses and noun, adjective, or adverb phrases. Conjoins can share a coordinator or have multiple coordinators. In addition there is epitactic coordination.
Comparison
Authors: Pinkster Harm 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 20 deals with comparison. A distinction is made between expressions of comparison (equivalence and non-equivalence) and of similarity and dissimilarity. The former typically uses the comparative expression quam, the latter a coordinator. Attention is given to the ablative of comparison and the ablative of measure of difference. Comparative clauses of quality with ut are dealt with separately and so are proportional comparative expressions. Finally there is the absolute use of the comparative and the elative use of the superlative.
Secondary predicates
Authors: Pinkster Harm 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 21 deals with secondary predicates (also called ‘praedicativa’), with quantifiers, and with the pronouns ipse and idem. The function of secondary predicate can be fulfilled by various categories of nominal expressions, such as adjectives, nouns, and participles which agree with the constituent to which they belong in case, number, and/or gender, but also by noun phrases in multiple case forms and prepositional phrases. The semantic relationship between the secondary predicate and the constituent it belongs to is usually implicit. A clause can contain more than one secondary predicate.
Discourse
Authors: Pinkster Harm 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chapter 24 deals with discourse, the way sentences form a coherent text. Coherence of a text is created by various means, apart from the internal semantic coherence. Forms of anaphora and various types of connectors create coherence between sentences. A distinction is made between conjunctive, adversative, and explanatory connectors, all syndetic connectors. However, asyndetic connection plays an important role as well. Some connectors are also used to connect paragraphs.
The Fiery Test of Critique
Authors: Proops Ian 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The book aims to provide a comprehensive study of the ‘Transcendental Dialectic’ of Kant’s first Critique. It argues that Kant conceives of ‘critique’ as a kind of winnowing exercise, aimed to separate the wheat of good metaphysics from the chaff of bad. However, he uses a less familiar metaphor to make this point, namely, that of ‘the fiery test of critique’. This turns out to be, not a medieval ordeal (a trial by fire), but rather a metallurgical assay: so-called ‘cupellation’—a procedure in which ore samples are tested for their precious-metal content. The upshot is that critique has a positive, investigatory side: it seeks not merely to eliminate the dross of bad ‘dogmatic’ metaphysics but also to uncover any hidden nuggets of value that might be contained in traditional speculative metaphysics. There are both gold and silver to be found. The gold is the indirect proof of Transcendental Idealism afforded by the resolution of the Antinomies, the silver Kant’s defence of theoretically grounded ‘doctrinal beliefs’ in a wise and great originator and in an afterlife. In the course of making these points, the book engages with Kant’s views on a number of central problems in philosophy and meta-philosophy, including: the explanation of the enduring human impulse towards metaphysics, correct philosophical method, the limits of self-knowledge, the possibility of human freedom, the resolution of metaphysical paradox (‘Antinomy’), the justification of faith, the nature of scepticism, and the role of ‘as if’ reasoning in natural science.