bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Child of the Interwar Period
Authors: Maes Ivo 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Robert Triffin was born in 1911 in Flobecq, Belgium. It was a turbulent period. At the age of 24, the young Triffin had already lived through World War I, monetary and financial turmoil after the war, the Great Depression, the 1935 Belgian franc devaluation, and the rise of fascism. In this chapter, the early period of Triffin’s life is discussed. It focuses on his undergraduate studies at Louvain University, his doctoral studies at Harvard, and his early academic career. During these years, like many people of his generation, Triffin became a profound pacifist. Moreover, as an economist, he became convinced that the market economy was fundamentally unstable. Special attention is paid to his two major publications during these years: an article on the 1935 devaluation of the Belgian franc (Triffin made the calculations) and his PhD on monopolistic competition and general equilibrium theory.
Architect of the European Payments Union
Authors: Maes Ivo 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In 1946, Robert Triffin went on to the International Monetary Fund, where he became head of the Exchange Control Division, before moving to Paris to lead the International Monetary Fund’s Representative Office in Europe. Thereafter, he was a special adviser to the (US) Economic Cooperation Administration in Paris. During these years, his focal point of interest was the European Payments Union (EPU). In his analysis of postwar Europe, Triffin emphasized that several structural factors, especially the low level of gold and dollar reserves and weak industrial capacity, impeded the successful operation of market forces. He favored a pragmatic regional approach with the EPU, giving priority to the abolition of bilateral trade and payment restrictions. Triffin played a key role in the EPU negotiations, especially with his proposal for the EPU unit of account.
Return to Belgium
Authors: Maes Ivo 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In 1977, Robert Triffin decided to return to Belgium. He put forward two reasons: the invitation for a visiting professorship at the University of Louvain and, “most of all,” the opportunity to be involved, as an adviser at the European Commission, in the process of European monetary union. Triffin’s return to Belgium coincided closely with the advent of Roy Jenkins as European Commission president, who consulted Triffin regarding his monetary integration plans. Triffin was enthusiastic about the European Monetary System (EMS), which was established in 1979. With the support of the European Commission, especially Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, he organized four international conferences on different aspects of its functioning. During the 1980s, Triffin promoted the development of the private European Currency Unit (ECU) market, especially the establishment of an ECU clearing system.
Epilogue
Authors: Maes Ivo 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
In his later life, Robert Triffin received wide recognition for his work. Especially his intellectual analyses with a focus on contemporary economic policy issues and his tireless fight for a true international monetary order were praised. In 1989, King Baudoin made him a baron. Triffin chose as his motto a paraphrase of Belgium’s national motto, transposing “Unity makes strength” into “Unity makes peace.” It is remarkable that throughout his life Triffin remained faithful to the ideals of his youth, a rare quality. The young Triffin was indignant about the Versailles Treaty, while the old Triffin fulminated against the Vietnam War. For him, economics was a way to contribute to a better world. He was never interested in high-level prestigious positions or financial gain. He was strongly attached to his independence and the pursuit of a better and more peaceful world. He was indeed a true monk in economist’s clothing.
Conclusion
Authors: Gillett Rachel Anne 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The conclusion reinforces the point made throughout the book that at times of great crisis, various Black networks in France and the francophone Atlantic found ways to transcend their differences. They did this through cultural production as well as political action. Yet this broader pan-African or pro-Black sense of solidarity coexisted with regional, political, and class affiliations, all of which found expression in music. Some of the complexity of these identities, in fact, found greater expression in music than in literature or politics; this complexity appears very clearly when one traces the musical activities of figures such as Wali Kané, Maïotte Almaby, or Paulette Nardal. The conclusion reflects on how their experiences impacted the following decades in their own lives and in French culture.
Introduction
Authors: Rudbøg Tim , Sand Erik Reenberg 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Against the backdrop of previous research this introduction discusses the historical relevancy the Theosophical Society played in cross-cultural interchanges during the nineteenth century. While sharing a number of the imperialistic tendencies of Orientalist approaches to Asia, the Theosophical Society represents another important aspect of the reception of Asian cultures and ideas that in turn had an impact upon the original Asian contexts and later Western imaginations. Much more still needs to be uncovered about the Theosophical Society and its relation to Asia, as the introduction outlines, but it entertained its own particular esoteric imagination of “the East” as the primary source of an ancient wisdom, which played into (1) the Theosophical reception of ideas, (2) representations of “the East,” and (3) interactions with “the East.” These three areas constitute the core parts of the book and are outlined in this introduction.
Theosophy in the Bengal Renaissance
Authors: Johnson K. Paul 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the Theosophical Society’s association with the Bengal Renaissance in India, which is a significant, yet quite unexplored, dimension of both movements. The chapter traces the rise and fall of Theosophical influence in Bengal, beginning with contacts between Bengali and American spiritualists in the early 1870s prior to the formation of the Theosophical Society. Two years before its move to India, the Society established correspondence with leaders of the Brahmo Samaj. After the move to India in 1879, personal contacts were developed through the travels to Bengal of Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and the subsequent involvement of Bengalis in the Madras Theosophical Society headquarters. The role of Mohini Chatterji as an emissary of the Theosophical Society to Europe and America was the high point of this association, but by the early twentieth century, Aurobindo Ghose described the Theosophical Society as having lost its appeal to progressive young Indians.
Russia Resurrected
Authors: Stoner Kathryn E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This book refutes the idea that Russia plays a weak hand well in international politics. The book argues instead that Russia under Vladimir Putin’s regime may not be as weak as is sometimes thought in the West. It takes a multidimensional approach in assessing Russian state power in international relations, going beyond metrics of power like relative strength of the economy, human capital, and size of the military, to also include the policy weight or importance of Russian firms and industries, as well as where, geographically, Russian influence has spread globally. The book includes fresh empirical data on the Russian economy, demography and human capital, and conventional military and nuclear weaponry capacities in Russia relative to other great powers like China and the United States. The book argues that realpolitik alone does not explain Russian foreign policy choices under Putin. Rather, Putin’s patronal autocratic regime and the need for social stability play an important role in understanding when and why Russian power is projected in the twenty-first century.
The Reproducibility Crisis
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews and evaluates reports that scientists often cannot repeat, or “reproduce” published work. It begins by defining what “reproducibility” means and how reproducibility applies to various kinds of science. The focus then shifts to the Reproducibility Project: Psychology, which was a systematic effort to repeat published findings in psychology, and which gave rise to many of the present concerns about reproducibility. The chapter critically examines the Reproducibility Project and points out how the nature of science and the complexity of nature can stymie the best attempts at reproducibility. The chapter also reviews the statistical criticisms of science that John Ioannidis and Katherine Button and their colleagues have raised. The hypothesis is a central issue because it is inconsistently defined across various branches of science. The statisticians’ strongest attacks are directed against work that differs from most laboratory experimental science. A weak point in the reasoning behind the Reproducibility Project and the statistical arguments is the assumption that a multi-pronged scientific investigation can be legitimately criticized by close examination of one of its components. Experimental science relies on multiple tests and multiple hypotheses to arrive at its conclusions. Reproducibility is a valid concern for science; it is not a “crisis.”
The Land Company Experiment
Authors: Ablavsky Gregory 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The first major federal effort to remake territorial property came through large sales to land companies. This chapter recounts this history through the stories of three land companies: the Tennessee Company, the Ohio Company, and the Miami Company. The Tennessee Company represented what the federal government hoped to avoid. Created by speculator Zachariah Cox, the Company purchased millions of acres of land in Georgia’s Yazoo sale. Cox then spent the next decade challenging federal authority, threatening Native nations, bamboozling investors with dubious title, and asserting his own sovereignty in the southern borderlands. When it created the Ohio and Miami Companies in the Northwest Territory, the federal government sought to avoid such outcomes. The two companies, headed by Rufus Putnam and John Cleves Symmes, promised to distribute title systemically while also preserving peace with Native peoples. Yet this supposedly mutually beneficial relationship did not work out. Both companies felt abandoned and betrayed by the federal government when war with the Northwest Indian Confederacy ensued. Yet, like the Tennessee Company, the Ohio and Miami Companies also both succumbed to the lure of profit on bare promises of future title, creating still more property confusion and uncertainty that fell to the federal government to resolve. The experiment’s failure led Congress to reject large-scale land sales as a viable solution to the territories’ property uncertainty.
The Rise of Federal Title
Authors: Ablavsky Gregory 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The failure of federal efforts to reform title meant that federal officials in the territories found themselves, unwillingly, adjudicating conflicting claims to ownership, often in ad hoc, unplanned fashion outside of courts. This chapter describes three sets of adjudications of territorial land rights. The first involved conflicting assertions of different Native nations to ownership, as federal officials, as part of their effort to “extinguish” Native title, had to decide which nation owned which land. The effort led them to try to understand Native land laws in an effort to parse these claims. The second required wading into the land rights of the French habitants of the Illinois Country, where territorial officials similarly attempted to understand past French land law to confirm preexisting claims to title. The third concerned veterans of the Revolutionary War, who were promised land in the U.S. Military District in the Northwest Territory. Frequently defrauded out of their rights, these holders of the so-called bounty lands appealed to the U.S. Secretary of War to protect their title. In all three cases, the result was that federal officials distilled the territories’ plural sources of ownership into a single federal title issued under federal authority. This decades’ worth of difficult and unheralded legal and administrative work became the foundation for the federal land system, especially when the Harrison Land Act of 1800 codified the resolution to long-standing heated debates about the public lands.
How Emotional Ties Influence the Diaspora to Return
Authors: Williams Nick 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 6 examines the role of emotional ties in fostering diaspora entrepreneurs to return and invest in their home country. The chapter utilises in-depth interviews with returnee entrepreneurs to B&H, Kosovo, and Montenegro, and draws on the theory of embeddedness. The chapter finds that while entrepreneurship is often considered to be a profit-maximising activity, in the case of returnee entrepreneurs to post-conflict economies, other motivations can be more prevalent. Indeed the analysis demonstrates that for entrepreneurs returning to post-conflict economies, an emotional attachment to the home country is the most important driver of activity. Furthermore, the desire for emotional gains influences investment activities over time, often leading to investment in family and friends, or activities which have a social impact.
Vectors and Functions and Operators
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces – briefly – vectors and functions and the similarities between them, some basic linear algebra concepts, operators (including the del and Laplace operators), eigenvalues and eigenvectors &eigenfunctions, the scalar (dot) and vector (cross) product between two vectors, the scalar product between two functions, the concepts of normalization, orthogonality, and orthonormality. The concept of an operator is first introduced by considering the rotation and stretching or compression of a vector. It is then generalized to a mathematical prescription that changes a function into another function.
Orbital-based Descriptions of Electron Configurations, Ionization, Excitation, and Bonding
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter deals with quantitative aspects of molecular orbital (MO) theory: Construction of an orbital diagram, bonding and antibonding overlap, Koopmans’ theorem, orbital energies versus total energies, an explanation of the unintuitive ground state electron configurations seen for some neutral transition metals, and a discussion of orbital energy gaps versus electronic excitations and other observable energy gaps. Localized MOs show the chemical bonds expected from the Lewis structure more readily than the canonical orbitals obtained from solving the SCF equations. It is shown that the delocalization of localized, not the canonical, MOs shows whether a system is delocalized. Algorithms by which to obtain localized MOs are sketched.
Approximate Molecular Orbital Theory: The Hückel/Tight-binding Model
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Huckel molecular orbital (HMO) theory is a simple approximate parameterized molecular orbital (MO) theory that has been very successful in organic chemistry and other fields. This chapter introduces the approximations made in HMO theory, and then treats as examples ethane, hetratriene and other linear polyenes, and benzene and other cyclic polyenes. The pi binding energy of benzene is particularly large according to HMO theory, rationalizing the special ‘aromatic’ behaviour of benzene. But there is a lot more to benzene than that. It is shown that the pi bond framework of benzene would rather prefer a structure with alternating single and double C-C bonds, rather than the actually observed 6-fold symmetric structure where all C-C bonds are equivalent. The observed benzene structure is a result of a delicate balance between the tendencies of the pi framework to create bond length alternation, and the sigma framework to resist bond length alternation.
Band Structure Theory for Extended Systems
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The electronic structure of infinite periodic systems (crystals) is treated with band structure theory, replacing molecular orbitals by crystal orbitals. The chapter starts out by introducing the electron gas and definitions of the Fermi momentum, the Fermi energy, and the density of states (DOS). A periodic linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) type treatment of an infinite periodic system is facilitated by the construction of Bloch functions. The notions of energy band and band gap are discussed with band structure concepts, using the approximations made in Huckel theory (chapter 12). One, two, and three-dimensional crystal lattices and the associated reciprocal lattices are introduced. The band structures of sodium metal, boron nitride, silicon, and graphite, are discussed as examples of metals, insulators, semi-conductors, and semi-metals, respectively. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the projected DOS and measures to determine bonding or antibonding interactions between atoms in a crystal.
A New Strategy for Anti-Corruption
Authors: Rothstein Bo 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Corruption in its various forms has turned out to be a resilient, sometimes well-organized, and well-entrenched enemy. It is difficult to trace any major results from the “good governance” programs the World Bank and other organizations have launched since the mid-1990s, the bulk of which have almost exclusively been guided by an economic approach called “the principal-agent” theory. It is argued that this theory is particularly ill-suited to the corruption problem. An alternative theory is presented based on the social contract tradition in political philosophy. This implies that corruption should be understood as a problem of collective actions which leads to very different policy recommendations for how countries can get corruption under control. The corruption problem is neither based in the historically inherited culture of a society, nor its legal system. Instead, most of the problem of corruption exists in what in organizations theory is known as “standard operating procedures.”
Getting to Sweden II
Authors: Rothstein Bo 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Issues about corruption and other forms of bad government have become central in the social sciences. An unresolved question is how countries can solve the issue of transformation from systemic corruption to the quality of government. Based on Elinor Ostrom’s theory of common pool resource appropriation, a new theoretical model for explaining this type of institutional change is developed. Sweden during the nineteenth century is used as an illustration by showing how the country made a transition from being largely patrimonial, nepotistic, and corrupt to a modern, Weberian, efficient, and impartial state structure. In addition to the “national trauma” of losing a major war, this chapter stresses the importance of three additional factors in Sweden: previous changes in courts and the legal system; recognition of the problem by the main contemporary political actors; and the new liberal ideology that made an important impact on the Swedish political scene.
Opening the Gates
Authors: Golemon Larry Abbott 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The fifth chapter explores how theological education was opened to women, African Americans, and working class whites. Congregationalist Mary Lyon founded Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary (1837) to provide a rigorous education built on the liberal arts, theology, personal discipline, and domestic work—all designed to produce independent women for missions. Other women, like Methodist Lucy Rider, founded religious training schools for women in their denominations. For African Americans, pioneers like AME Bishop Daniel Payne, who revived Wilberforce University (1856), developed a blend of liberal arts and theological education. W. E. B. Dubois fought for this model as the way to educate “the talented tenth” needed for racial uplift. The other model, pioneered by Samuel Armstrong at the Hampton Institute (VA) and Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee (Alabama), combined a religious training school with industrial work so that black pastors and teachers could be self-supporting. Finally, Bible colleges, like that of Dwight Moody, opened theological studies to working people with only a basic education. Emma Dryer brought practical, normal school approaches to the beginnings of the Moody Bible Institute (MBI) in Chicago. Under Dr. R. A. Torrey, MBI combined a literal reading of Scripture with experiential holiness, spiritual healing, end-times prophecy, and practical business methods—all of which marked the future fundamentalist movement.
Creating a Modern Profession
Authors: Golemon Larry Abbott 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The sixth chapter analyzes theological schools that realigned themselves with the modern research university. Several narratives are explored: the struggle between Thomas Jefferson’s University of Virginia and seminary founders like John Holt Rice; the influence of the German university through immigrants like Phillip Schaff and theologians who studied abroad; the pragmatic adaptation of the German encyclopedia for organizing theological studies; the impact of the American university’s pragmatism, social sciences, and social reform on seminaries; and the influence of progressive education and the religious education movement on theological schools. University Divinity schools led this movement, especially the University of Chicago built by William Rainey Harper, but a number of independent schools, like Union Theological Seminary in New York, sought such realignment as “theological universities.” This realignment of theological schools had significant benefits, as it increased elective studies, developed specialized fields of ministry, and brought the social sciences to theological education. However, the realignment had unforeseen problems as it widened the gap between academics and those of professional practice; distanced faculty from interdisciplinary work and church leadership; replaced the Bible as a unifying discipline with “the scientific method”; and replaced the integrative role of oral pedagogies with scholarly lectures and the research seminar.
Ethnicity and “Muslim fraternity”
Authors: Türkmen Gülay 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The chapter begins by introducing the case with the help of vignettes from the field. After setting the stage for the empirical puzzle, it goes on to the theoretical framework and situates the research question in the broader debates on religion and conflict, paying specific attention to religion’s role as a conflict resolution tool. It then ties these debates to the sociological literature on identity formation and ethnic boundary making and introduces the fourfold typology of religious and ethnic identities in the Kurdish conflict. To elaborate on the structural changes that have brought about these identity categories it turns to Bourdieusian field theory, discusses briefly the emergence of an autonomous religious field under the AKP, and familiarizes the reader with the actors in the political and religious fields in Turkey.