bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perceptual Reasons and Defeat
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Perceptual evidence about the external world is paradigmatically defeasible. If something looks red to you, it is reasonable to believe that it is red, but if you are wearing rose-tinted glasses, it may not be reasonable at all to believe this, unless you have some independent source of evidence. In this paper, I will compare four models for how to understand this phenomenon. These models differ in their answers to two questions: what evidence we get about the external world through perception, and what our having that evidence consists in. I like one of these models better than the others, but in this paper my primary concern will be to compare their virtues and vices.
Armenian Transnational Social Field and Diaspora Entrepreneurs
Authors: Koinova Maria 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter and the following Chapter 9 are interconnected as they both discuss Armenian diaspora mobilizations. This chapter focuses on the transnational social field and the four types of diaspora entrepreneurs. Armenians have lived in the Caucasus and the Middle East prior to the 1915 Armenian genocide, a defining moment historically and especially for the diaspora. Self-determination claims of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh have been interconnected historically, considered part of ‘Eastern Armenia’. They both seceded from the Soviet Union in 1991. An independent Armenia was internationally recognized as a state, unlike the de facto state of Karabakh, unrecognized at present. A devastating 1988 earthquake and a war between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Karabakh (1992–4) created opportune moments for the diaspora in Western countries to connect to Armenia and Karabakh. The diaspora in Europe was primarily formed by survivors and descendants of the Armenian genocide, with roots in ‘Western Armenia’ in Turkey and the larger Middle East, and organized by diaspora parties. Fragility of statehood in Armenia and Karabakh, and recurrent violence and authoritarianism in the Middle East continued to create push factors for Armenians to emigrate across the globe and for the diaspora to mobilize. The highest priority in the diaspora, especially in Europe, remained the recognition of the Armenian genocide, while Karabakh’s recognition and supporting Armenia took a back seat. The chapter presents data on migration in the Armenian field, in the Caucasus, the Middle East and globally, and specifies the individual profiles of Armenian diaspora entrepreneurs.
Making deeper insights part 1
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Data analysis is not just about physically performing the analyses. We also need to think carefully about our data, and various issues that they might have. In this chapter, we explore conceptual issues raised by the bat diet workflow demonstration. This chapter discusses statistical variables, populations and samples, independence and non-independence in data, and working with numeric and categorical variables. In the last two items of that list, we look both at quantitative summaries of variables and relationships and also at graphical summaries.
Responsibility, Criminalization, and Political Economy
Authors: Farmer Lindsay 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
One of the most important and distinctive themes of Lacey’s recent work has been the analysis of penal practices from the perspective of political economy. However, it is arguably the case that ‘political economy’ is primarily viewed as a dimension of the context in which the criminal law develops rather than as a method of legal analysis. In this chapter I explore the meaning and critical potential of the concept of political economy—how it is used by Lacey, the different traditions that she draws on—and what the perspective and theory of political economy contributes to our understanding of criminal law. I seek to deepen the relevance of political economy to the analysis of criminal responsibility by exploring how the development of the modern conception of English criminal law in the early nineteenth century was itself shaped by contemporary understandings of political economy. Most historical work on the development of the modern criminal law has focused on the impact of utilitarianism to show how changes in penal laws and institutions were linked to new efforts to shape individual conduct in society. However, equally important to the intellectual and political culture of the early nineteenth century were understandings of the new ‘science’ of political economy. This chapter explores the ways in which theories of political economy shaped the modern criminal law in this period and thereby to open up new possibilities for exploring connections between criminal law, criminal responsibility, and political economy—and thus for critical criminal law theory.
David Malouf’s Fly Away Peter (1982)
Authors: Riley Kathleen 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The final chapter of Part I examines the theme of impossible nostos within David Malouf’s novella Fly Away Peter, which is set at the time of the Great War. The story traces the journey of a young Australian, Jim Sadler, from an Edenic bird sanctuary on the Queensland coast to the perverted pastoral of the Western Front where he realizes he has hitherto been living ‘in a state of dangerous innocence’. The principal motif Malouf employs is the miracle of bird migration, through which he explores the idea of homecoming, what it means to belong, to leave one’s home, and to return. The chapter concludes by focusing on the unconventional Penelope figure, Imogen Harcourt, whose solitary ruminations extend the book’s philosophical enquiry from the nature of home to the nature of being.
Vibration Isolation
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses vibration isolation of STM and AFM. First, the basic concepts of vibration isolation are illustrated by a one-dimensional system using elementary mechanics. The source of vibration, the environmental vibration, its characteristics, and methods of measurement are presented. The importance of vibration isolation at the laboratory foundation level and the proper mechanical design of STM and AFM are then discussed. The focus of this chapter in on the most important vibration isolation system: two-stage suspension spring with eddy-current damping. A detailed analysis of the two-stage spring system as well as aspects of practical design is presented. The principles and design charts for eddy-current damping system are discussed. Finally, the commercial pneumatic vibration isolation system is briefly discussed.
Empirical Challenges Comparing Inequality across Countries
Authors: Checchi Daniele , Cupak Andrej , Munzi Teresa 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This study presents new empirical results, using microdata from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) database, on development patterns in economic inequality for a set of countries that are less covered in the empirical literature, mostly due to a lack of appropriate data. After discussing the main challenges when harmonizing income and consumption microdata from middle-income countries, we focus on Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Africa, in a comparative perspective, and we compare them with a selection of benchmark middle- and high-income countries. We also run country-level regressions to correlate the inequality measures with selected macroeconomic indicators.
China
Authors: Li Shi , Sicular Terry , Tarp Finn 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the major trends in China’s income inequality over the past forty years and explains them as the outcome of four interleaved stories. The first story is a standard development story characterized by structural change, market development, labour absorption, and the Kuznets inverted-U path of inequality. The second is the economic transition story, in which changes in income distribution result from the shift from plan to market. The third is incomplete transition, with opportunities for rent-seeking, corruption, and hidden income. The fourth is the story of government efforts to moderate inequality through social and welfare policies.
Mexico
Authors: Campos-Vazquez Raymundo M. , Lustig Nora , Scott John 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on income inequality in Mexico, which increased between 1989 and 1994. Between 1994 and 2006, inequality declined; between 2006–14, inequality was again on the rise. The authors apply decomposition techniques to analyse the proximate determinants of labour income inequality and fiscal incidence analysis to estimate the first-order effects of taxes and social spending on the distribution of income. The key component that underlies the ‘rise–decline–rise again’ pattern was the evolution of returns to skills. In addition, while changes in fiscal policy in the 1990s were progressive and pro-poor, the redistributive effect has declined significantly since 2010, as transfers have become less progressive and net indirect taxes have increased.
China and the United States
Authors: Weide Roy van der , Narayan Ambar 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The United States and China are the world’s largest economies. Together they are responsible for about one-third of the world’s economic output. This chapter aims to examine whether the two economic giants are also lands of opportunity where resources are allocated in a way that minimizes unrealized human potential. Our analysis shows that despite stark differences in their levels of development, the US and China report remarkably similar levels of socioeconomic mobility—levels considered low by international standards. The US’s level of mobility has historically been low. Before it embarked on its transition from planned to market economy, socioeconomic mobility was relatively high in China. However, as it underwent a period of rapid economic growth, China’s socioeconomic mobility declined significantly. The chapter concludes that the world’s two major economic powers have converged to a low level of socioeconomic mobility where talent from disadvantaged backgrounds is excluded.
Correlations, response, and dissipation
Authors: Sethna James P. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter studies how systems wiggle, and how they respond and dissipate energy when kicked. The wiggling fluctuations are described using correlation functions, the yielding and dissipation are described using susceptibilities. The intricate relations between these quantities are explored using the Onsager regression hypothesis, fluctuation--response and fluctuation--dissipation theorems, and the Kramers--Kronig relation derived from causality (the response cannot precede the kick). The powerful tools of linear response theory described here are basic tools in our exploration of materials with scattering of sound, light, X-rays, and neutrons, and have become our primary description of the behavior of materials. Exercises describe applications to noise in nanojunctions, humans on subways, magnetic spins, molecular dynamics and Ising models, liquids and magnets, materials at critical points, and fluctuations in the early Universe.
Sovereignty and Debt in Nineteenth-Century Latin America
Authors: Zendejas Juan Flores , Cole Felipe Ford 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
After their independence from Spain and Portugal, Latin American governments became frequent borrowers in international capital markets. However, the region’s political and economic instability also led to recurrent episodes of sovereign defaults. During the particular historical context of the nineteenth century, remedies to debt defaults were not limited to bilateral negotiations between creditors and governments. They also encompassed military interventions or control commissions formed by foreign governments, bondholders, or merchant bankers. In North Africa and the Middle East, debt defaults could even trigger military interventions from creditor states ending in the establishment of colonial regimes. This paper shows that such interventions were rare in Latin America, as creditors only enlisted their governments’ military intervention in the most extreme cases. In most cases, external control was exerted privately by bondholders and merchant banks through the imposition of economic policies promoting trade openness and fiscal management. Additionally, bondholders turned to legal methods of contractual enforcement to obtain debt settlements that limited the sovereignty of debtor states over their land, infrastructure, and resources. By the end of the century, Latin American jurists began to respond to the increasing use of legal techniques to settle sovereign debts by developing counter-legal discourses aimed at limiting foreign intrusion in sovereign affairs.
Independence and the Effect of Empire
Authors: Degive Nicolas , Oosterlinck Kim 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
‘Sovereign’ bonds issued by colonies are often supposed to benefit from an implicit imperial guarantee. This guarantee is usually presented as the main reason why yields on colonial bonds are exceptionally low. This paper investigates investors’ perception of this guarantee during the interwar period, a period during which the guarantor faced financial turmoil and some colonies began their journey towards independence. On the basis of an original database tracking the yields of six colonial bonds we show that, in general, market participants believed the guarantee would be honoured. This general observation needs, however, to be nuanced. In 1931 when Britain left the gold standard, investors felt the British guarantee was less valuable. Furthermore, when colonies were facing extreme financial distress, markets reassessed the likelihood the guarantee would be honoured. This was also the case when it became clear that India would become independent.
The Uses of Intrinsic Value
Authors: Queloz Matthieu 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores Bernard Williams’s genealogy in Truth and Truthfulness and argues that by emphasizing the historicity of needs and the ways in which practices can acquire or lose their points, Williams brings pragmatic genealogy from its Neo-Humean phase into its Neo-Nietzschean phase. The chapter begins by reconstructing Williams’s notoriously elusive genealogy and reveals its affinities with Cambridge pragmatism. It then addresses three influential challenges raised by Colin McGinn. Williams’s notion of intrinsic value is elucidated and his position distinguished from indirect utilitarianism. It emerges that Williams’s distinctive contribution to the pragmatic genealogical tradition is to identify the practical pressures driving thought away from a stance of instrumental valuation to a stance of intrinsic valuation, thus showing how intrinsic values have their uses, and to illustrate how the method equips one to do justice to self-effacingly functional practices. The chapter concludes by considering the depth of Williams’s debt to Nietzsche.
Desire and Action
Authors: Charles David 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Aristotle held, it is argued, that desire, like anger, is to be defined as inextricably psycho-physical process (or activity), a specific type of bodily change. It is the realization of a goal-directed essentially material capacity. This is the type of capacity required if desire is to be the efficient cause of bodily movements, their origin and controller. Its form, if constituted by this capacity, needs to be, in its own nature, an enmattered form to be their cause. This account of desire is an instance of the Impure Form Interpretation developed in Chapters 1 and 2. It is argued that this interpretation best capatures Aristotle’s own positive theory and his critical remarks on alternatives, such as the ‘harmony theory’. Attempts to understand his account of desire in terms of two definitionally distinct components, one purely psychological, one purely physical, are rejected as inadequate because they cannot properly accommodate the efficient causal role he attributed to its form.
Accounting for Natural Capital
Authors: Barker Richard 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Chapter 13 sets out the principles that lie behind designing a system of accounting for responsible business. It considers this in the context of accounting for natural capital. It describes how accounting in a mutual context has to be intrinsic in the sense of promoting the enhancement of natural capital for its own ends, not extrinsic to shareholder interests in being motivated by a desire to enhance profit and shareholder value. Secondly, the accounting system should reflect the full impact of a company on natural capital. Thirdly, accounting needs to recognize the strong non-linearities in natural capital—for example, threshold levels below which it is prone to collapse. Finally, accounting for natural capital should reflect a corporate purpose that places the intrinsic benefits of natural capital at its heart.
Technical Elements of Machine Learning for Intellectual Property Law
Authors: So Anthony Man-Cho 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) technologies have transformed our lives in profound ways. Indeed, AI has not only enabled machines to see (eg, face recognition), hear (eg, music retrieval), speak (eg, speech synthesis), and read (eg, text processing), but also, so it seems, given machines the ability to think (eg, board game-playing) and create (eg, artwork generation). This chapter introduces the key technical elements of machine learning (ML), which is a rapidly growing sub-field in AI and drives many of the aforementioned applications. The goal is to elucidate the ways human efforts are involved in the development of ML solutions, so as to facilitate legal discussions on intellectual property issues.
Artificial Intelligence and Trademark Assessment
Authors: Moerland Anke , Freitas Conrado 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) has an unparalleled potential for facilitating intellectual property (IP) administration processes, in particular in the context of examining trademark applications and assessing prior marks in opposition and infringement proceedings. Several stakeholders have developed AI-based algorithms that are claimed to enhance the productivity of trademark professionals by carrying out, without human input, (parts of) the legal tests required to register a trademark, oppose it, or claim an infringement thereof. The goal of this chapter is to assess the functionality of the AI tools currently used and to highlight the possible limitations of AI tools to carry out autonomously the legal tests enshrined in trademark law. In fact, many of these tests are rather subjective and highly depend on the facts of the case, such as an assessment of the distinctive character of a mark, whether the relevant public is likely to be confused or whether a third party has taken unfair advantage of a mark. The chapter uses doctrinal research methods and interview data with fourteen stakeholders in the field. It finds that AI tools are so far unable to reflect the nuances of the subjective legal tests in trademark law and, it is argued, even in the near future, AI tools are likely to carry out merely parts of the legal tests and present information that a human will have to assess, taking prior doctrine and the circumstances of the case into account.
Ghosts
Authors: Dean Andrew 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines how Philip Roth responds to Jewish American readers and contexts in his fiction. Roth exploits the tensions and transitions in Jewish American political aspirations in the period, setting heated political debates about assimilation and particularism against different measurements of value in the novel. By using live cultural debates from the period, Roth courts ethnic categorization, while ultimately relativizing such categories in his attempt to pursue alternative understandings of literary value. In Roth’s earlier ‘Nathan Zuckerman’ fictions, the comedy and intelligence emerge through his practice of contrasting the ‘humble needs’ of a desiring body with the rush either to pass political judgement or to withdraw the novel from the complications of embodied life. The second half of the chapter demonstrates how Roth engages both directly and indirectly with the work of Hannah Arendt and the 1950s context for thinking about the Holocaust. This section of the chapter focuses in particular on an unpublished screenplay housed in Roth’s literary archive.
Hebraism in Religion, History, and Politics
Authors: Grosby Steven 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This work is an investigation into Hebraism as a category of cultural analysis within the history of Christendom. Its aim is to determine what Hebraism means or should mean when it is used to refer to a culture or characteristics of a culture. In tracing those characteristics that arose in the changing relation between a doctrinally orthodox Christianity and the nation of a ‘new Israel’, sovereignty, and their legal anthropology, Hebraism refers to the development of a ‘Jewish Christianity’ or an ‘Old Testament Christianity’. It represents a ‘third culture’ in contrast to the cultures of the Roman or Hellenistic empires and Christian universalism. While the initial formulation of Hebraism as a cultural category was by Matthew Arnold, an earlier approximation is found in the work of John Selden, with considerable refinements by several scholars in the twentieth century. The categories of Hebraism and Hebraic culture provide a means by which to examine differently the history of religion and the history of early modern Europe.
Conclusion
Authors: Grosby Steven 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Hebraism has to do with the changing relation between Christianity and Judaism, between the New and Old Testaments, made possible by the cultural phenomenon of different contents coexisting within a symbol, for example, Israel. This concluding chapter provides a summary of the characteristics of Hebraism as a ‘Jewish Christianity’ or ‘Old Testament Christianity’, including patriotism. The chapter further situates Hebraism within the analysis of the axial age. In doing so, the distinctiveness of religion is taken up, as well as the place of pluralism in cultural history that requires the distinction between unity and uniformity. The chapter also discusses the place of sovereignty in Hebraic culture.
Educational Inequality Regimes amid Algebra-for-All: The Provision and Allocation of Expanding Educational Opportunities
Authors: Hanselman Paul , Domina Thurston , Hwang NaYoung 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Schools can approach the task of sorting students to privileged learning opportunities in different ways, potentially creating distinct and durable educational inequality regimes. We test this idea by exploring variation in socioeconomic inequalities in advanced mathematics course-taking across California middle schools during a statewide algebra-for-all initiative. This case provides unique insight into local stratification processes since the state pressured schools to boost advanced course enrollments but provided little guidance about how to do so. We distinguish two critical organizational processes: the provision of different types of opportunities and the allocation of students to opportunities. The former, we argue, creates the potential for inequality; the latter determines what level of inequality is realized. Using panel data for all public middle schools in the state over a decade, we demonstrate a curvilinear association between opportunities and inequality, with disparities highest when opportunities are most differentiated. However, allocations at most schools were less unequal than would be expected under a test-based meritocratic allocation regime. Further, we find substantial school-level variation which is systematically related to organizational characteristics and consistent over time. These patterns provide evidence for local educational inequality regimes.