bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Other Attempts at Conservative Party-Building in Latin America
Authors: Loxton James 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines a number of other high-profile attempts at conservative party-building in Latin America. The first section examines RN in Chile, the PFL/DEM in Brazil, ADN in Bolivia, and Fujimorismo in Peru. Like the UDI and ARENA, all four were authoritarian successor parties; unlike the UDI and ARENA, however, they did not emerge from intense counterrevolutionary struggles and all faced serious problems of cohesion. The second section examines the Party of the U in Colombia, arguing that it was the “exception that proves the rule,” given its ties to violent armed groups. The third section considers four potential alternative paths to conservative party-building: (1) opposition to authoritarian regimes, (2) corporation-based parties, (3) the subnational strategy, and (4) conservative fusion. It discusses the viability of each by looking at several high-profile historical cases, and considers the implications for new conservative parties that cannot yet be definitively scored, notably the PRO in Argentina.
A Forest Future?
Authors: Rowlands Mark 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The other climate benefit of no longer eating meat is that it will make available huge swathes of new land for afforestation—the return of forests to land that has not recently been forested. One consequence of the inverted energy returned on energy invested (EROI) of meat is that we use far more land for farming than we would need if our diet were to be exclusively plant based. In the United States alone, somewhere in the region of 834 million acres could be made available through this strategy, much of it suitable for afforestation. Even the afforestation of land not currently used for farming has the potential to reduce global carbon dioxide emissions by nearly one-third. Adding in land currently dedicated to animal grazing and feed crops is a potentially game-changing development in the fight against climate change.
Pale Horse
Authors: Rowlands Mark 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The third benefit of no longer eating animals is a reduction in the prevalence of zoonotic diseases: diseases acquired from a nonhuman, vertebrate host. The majority of temperate diseases, almost all tropical diseases, and probably all newly emerging infectious diseases are zoonoses or they have zoonotic origins. A zoonotic pathogen can go through five stages, in which it transforms from one that afflicts only nonhuman species to one that is exclusively human. There are several factors that determine the likelihood of such a transformation. The most important of these, since it is most under our control, is the frequency of encounters between us and the animal reservoir. Eating animals and disturbing their environment are the two forms of human behavior most likely to increase frequency of encounters. Moreover, most disturbance of the environment is caused by expansion in animal agriculture. Eating animals, therefore, is the most important cause of zoonotic diseases.
One Hundred Years of Ineptitude
Authors: Rowlands Mark 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Most animal pathogens that infect humans employ an intermediate host. The original hosts of most coronaviruses are various species of bat. The original host of all flu viruses is the duck. But we tend to catch coronaviruses from animals that have been infected by bats. Influenza is more likely to be passed on by chickens or pigs. By eating animals, we engineer many opportunities for species, and their pathogens, to mix and mingle. We turn animals into intermediate hosts of harmful pathogens by inserting them into a particular point on a food chain that leads, ultimately, to us. These ideas are explained via SARS-CoV-1&2, the Spanish flu, the H5N1 influenza virus, and Nipah virus, among others. The role played by animal agriculture in virus mutation and reassortment is explained. By no longer eating animals, we would largely eliminate the threat of zoonotic diseases.
Thieves, Cut-Throats, and Confederates
Authors: Grasso Christopher 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
During the second half of 1862, Kelso was part of expeditions of as many as two hundred men against enemy bases in northern Arkansas and against large bodies of horsemen riding through Missouri’s southwest corner. He commanded detachments of seventy-five to one hundred twenty-five men on patrols taking rebel prisoners and killing rebel guerrillas, the bushwhackers who spread terror through the loyal populace. He helped lead strike forces of sixty to eighty riders against outlaw nests and guerrilla hideouts. With squads of eight to ten men, he attacked small enemy camps. Sometimes he wound up charging bushwhacker cabins by himself. Kelso’s regiment became a potent counter-insurgency force, though it was sometimes hard to tell a murderer from an honorable enemy soldier. As he fought cut-throats and Confederates, he also learned that not all the thieves were on the opposing side.
Great Infidel
Authors: Grasso Christopher 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Kelso tried to reinvent himself as a public lecturer, giving talks describing his military adventures but also voicing radical views on marriage and religion. To earn a living, however, he had to return to itinerant school teaching. But he also kept writing, producing hundreds of pages of poetry, essays, and lectures, including freethinking treatises on God and the Bible and a book-length verse satire. He participated in the civic life of Modesto, a railroad boomtown that had sprouted next to vast wheat fields and was run by its saloon bosses—except on those occasions when vigilantes donned masks to clean up the town. In 1881, he climbed a Colorado mountain he dubbed “Great Infidel,” in honor of himself, and pondered his “desolate and storm-beaten life.”
Where Narrative and Performance Meet
Authors: Yohannan Rizio 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter contextualizes and provides a translation of the Rāmāyaṇa Saṃkṣēpam, a concise summary of the Ramayana story, which serves as a training manual for a Kutiyattam artist preparing for the stage. It is taught by the guru to the disciple during the earliest stage of Kutiyattam training. Each of the five active schools of Kutiyattam in Kerala uses its own abridged version of the story to initiate pupils into an extended multiphase training of the performance form through gesture and facial expression. Performed in a seated posture, the Rāmāyaṇa Saṃkṣēpam demonstrates episodes in the Ramayana story with a focus on specific characters and a gamut of emotions which provide the basic vocabulary of Kutiyattam performance. The summary that is translated here is sourced from a handwritten text in Malayalam belonging to the Nepathya School in Moozhikkulam, Kerala.
Performing the Argument
Authors: Akshara K. V. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter elaborates on a predominantly oral performance tradition called Talamaddale which is linked to the popular traditional form of Yakshagana performed in the southern state of Karnataka, India. Unlike the song, dance, and spectacle of Yakshagana, Talamaddale is known for the improvisatory verbal skills of actors who engage in intricate debates around specific characters and situations from the Ramayana narrative and other puranas. Highlighting the performative aspects of Talamaddale, the chapter interrelates three layers of texts which are illustrated with vivid examples: the written prasaṅga or narrative; the songs from the prasanga sung by the bhāgawata or lead singer; and dialogues that are improvised between the actors in each performance. Focusing on the relationship between Talamaddale and the Ramayana narrative tradition, the chapter shows how episodes from the source texts are selected, elaborated, interpreted, and textured into argumentative performances in which different episodes from diverse versions of the Ramayana narrative come alive through debating techniques and verbal repartee.
The Night before Bhor Ārti
Authors: Rani Bhargav 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the nature and modes of audience participation in the month-long Ramlila of Ramnagar in Banaras. In contrast to the dominant scholarship that concentrates largely on the Ramlila’s singular dramaturgical structure, this chapter focuses on the everyday experiences of the līlā premīs (“lovers of the lila”) who negotiate and frequently subvert the phenomenology prescribed by the Ramlila’s ritual structure and protocols. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork, the chapter maps the multitude of playful or ludic practices that the pilgrims engage in during their attendance of the ritual, culminating in the long and playful night of waiting for the Bhor Ārti on the penultimate day of the Ramlila. Contextualizing its analysis within a broader culture of leisure and pleasure celebrated in Banaras as Banarasipan, the author argues that the Ramnagar Ramlila is an intensified experience and expression of Banarasipan.
The Challenges Ahead
Authors: Bharucha Rustom 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The concluding chapter focuses on the challenges that lie ahead in researching the multiple dynamics and contexts of performance in the Ramayana tradition. It highlights the need to prioritize the vocal and acoustic dimensions of Ramayana performance which tend to be undermined by the priority given to the visual aspects of movement, gesture, and spectacle. At an interpretive level, the essay calls attention to the ways in which specific codes and conventions of a particular performance tradition can be altered through individual performative choices. Calling attention to the challenge of translating the nuances of context-specific performance categories from different Indian languages, the chapter also highlights the need to research Ramayana performances as a means of livelihood for subaltern performers. The essay concludes by reflecting on the challenges posed by the political culture of the Hindu Right, which tends to oppose a pluralist affirmation of diverse renderings of the Ramayana narrative.
Divorce
Authors: Katz Sanford N. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses divorce, both as a termination of a marriage and as the legal, social, and psychological reorganization of that relationship and the parent–child relationship established through the marriage. “Reorganization” is an appropriate descriptor because the divorced couple may have a continuing relationship, albeit altered by post-divorce property and child custody arrangements. Alimony and the assignment of property may continue the adult relationships, but on a level different from marriage. Likewise, the judicial award of a child's custody to one parent or another changes the relationship from what it was during marriage. Ultimately, the petition for divorce not only restricts the personal autonomy of the couple but also limits their relationship with their children at least until they reach majority. The chapter then details the American divorce laws and procedure.
1491
Authors: McHugh Dominic 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Chapter 7 harnesses a huge number of new archival documents to reveal the story behind Meredith Willson’s ill-fated final musical 1491. In writing a flattering musical about Christopher Columbus, Willson was out of step with the civil rights movement, and both personal problems (including the death of his wife) and collaborative issues (with the producer) meant that his final musical never even made it to Broadway. The chapter discusses the extant songs, critiques the many drafts of the book, and charts the show’s progress to the stage with several collaborators. In a final section, the chapter also examines Willson’s aborted attempts to write several other shows including Dennis the Menace.
A General Overview of Proportionality in IHL
Authors: Cohen Amichai , Zlotogorski David 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The third chapter is intended to provide the reader with basic knowledge regarding the principle of proportionality and its context in current IHL. The chapter begins with a description of how proportionality developed in contemporary IHL, from the Lieber Code of 1863 to the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions in 1977. It then analyzes whether the principle of proportionality is a general principle in IHL, that requires states to minimize harm to civilians, or, as some believe, a very specific obligation that applies in specific circumstances. The chapter then places the discussion of the principle of proportionality within the wider context of the changing nature of armed conflicts. Specifically, the chapter includes a detailed discussion of the relationship between proportionality in IHL, and parallel obligations in international human rights law, which applies in many modern armed conflicts.
Direct Participation in Hostilities and Its Effect on Proportionality
Authors: Cohen Amichai , Zlotogorski David 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Unlike members of the armed forces and combatants who can be targeted, civilians are protected from direct attack. However, civilians do not always enjoy protection. When civilians take a direct part in the hostilities, such as by taking up arms against the enemy, they lose their civilian protection and can be lawfully targeted. Classifying a civilian who is directly participating in hostilities as such is relevant to proportionality as well as to the principle of distinction, as it changes the proportionality analysis in two complementary ways. First, an attack on a civilian that is taking a direct part in hostilities would arguably augment the expected military advantage of the strike. Second, such civilians do not enjoy protection from attack and are also not considered civilians in the proportionality assessment. This means that classifying civilians as direct participants in hostilities might make an otherwise disproportionate attack proportionate, and vice versa. This chapter explains the concept of direct participation in hostilities, and its relevance to the proportionality analysis.
Human Shields and Proportionality
Authors: Cohen Amichai , Zlotogorski David 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
In contemporary armed conflicts, there is a growing tendency, particularly among certain non-state actors, to operate from within civilian concentrations such as villages, towns, and cities; and to locate military installations in proximity to civilians and civilian objects. By locating military objectives within civilian concentrations, non-state actors aim to use civilians and civilian objects in a manner that will frustrate their opponents’ military activities. This tactic—known as the use of human shields—attempts to create a legal barrier, as in certain cases it would be prohibited to attack military objectives if the attack is expected to result in disproportionate harm to civilians. This chapter discusses the issue of human shields and their effect on the application of the principle of proportionality while distinguishing between voluntary and involuntary human shields. We suggest that involuntary human shields should be considered civilians for the purpose of application of the principle of proportionality and explain when civilians should be considered involuntary human shields.
The Vagueness of Proportionality
Authors: Cohen Amichai , Zlotogorski David 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
When considering the term “proportionality,” most people intuitively assume that a quantitative value that can be attached to it. In this chapter, this assumption is questioned. First, the chapter presents empirical evidence that indicates that there is no agreement on a specific numerical formula among IHL experts or military officers. Second, the chapter critically evaluates attempts to create a formula for evaluating proportionality. Third, the chapter discusses the use of “rules of thumb” to reduce the uncertainties of the application of proportionality. We conclude that the principle is inherently vague, and intentionally so. No amount of knowledge or experience can lead to the same results, nor is it the goal of the principle of proportionality to achieve the same results across the board. In this regard, proportionality in IHL is not about numbers so much as it is about ensuring the undertaking of a process that weighs competing interests. The relative weighting to be used in any given case is intentionally left open, beyond the purview of the principle.
Understanding Disinformation Operations in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Barela Steven J. , Duberry Jérôme 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Remarkable developments in digital technologies have provided the conditions for a dramatic rise in state-sponsored disinformation operations crossing international borders. Spreading dezinformatsiya has a long history, but today it is done with a volume and accuracy that has left the targeted societies deeply destabilized as facts and events become sharply contested among citizens. This chapter is a descriptive work illustrating the essential components of this activity and draws three important conclusions. First, because disinformation aims to twist the truth in subtle ways when key facts remain secret and unavailable, exposing an operation becomes a tedious and difficult task. Second, the new digital world has opened the door to omnipresent operations that occur below the threshold of armed conflict and are accelerated exponentially by big data warehousing and algorithms that allow individualized targeting during an election cycle. Third, when disinformation operations disrupt the flow of information during a political campaign, the candidates involved and the process itself emerge with a dangerously eroded legitimacy. With a view to fill in critical missing data, the chapter ends with a clarion call to allow access for social scientists to study in detail of what is happening in the opaque public square of online social media wherever more political understanding is being fashioned.
The Specter of Chinese Interference
Authors: Sukumar Arun Mohan , Deo Akhil 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers a framework for scholars and policymakers to analyze China’s influence operations focused on India’s political and electoral processes. By analyzing recent evolutions in China’s approach to disinformation, the unique characteristics of India’s digital public sphere, the proliferation and dominance of Chinese apps in India, and tensions in the Sino-Indian relationship, the chapter argues that China has multiple levers to interfere in India’s elections and has shown an increasing willingness to exercise them elsewhere. Although evidence is scarce that China has already done so, the chapter calls for heightened scrutiny from India’s local and federal governments, national security apparatus, technology companies, international watchdogs, and other actors tracking the resilience of democratic processes in the digital age.
A Swedish Perspective on Foreign Election Interference
Authors: Fjällhed Alicia , Pamment James , Bay Sebastian 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the Swedish approach for safeguarding electoral processes, using the experience from its 2018 elections as a case study. Sweden serves as a particularly interesting example due to the measures it took ahead of its 2018 election, especially its strategy of bottom-up initiatives that emphasize building societal resilience rather than a top-down government regulatory approach. By exploring the characteristics of Swedish society and the implications of Swedish efforts made prior to the 2018 general election, the chapter presents suggestions for how these insights might help other state and nonstate actors within the international community develop similar countering strategies for foreign election interference, while also addressing the dilemmas facing such an approach. The chapter concludes by discussing lessons learned and the challenges facing government authorities seeking to employ similar strategies in the future to counter foreign election interference in Sweden or abroad.
When Does Election Interference via Cyberspace Violate Sovereignty?
Authors: Van de Velde James 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
When does foreign election interference via cyberspace violate U.S. sovereignty, and when do such violations warrant a response? When do violations of sovereignty constitute “armed attacks” or “acts of war”? This chapter posits triggers for discerning such violations of sovereignty. The rough determining factor ought to be whether activities in cyberspace were those of an authorized user. Malicious cyberspace operations that do not involve unauthorized activity should not be considered a violation of sovereignty (though they may be politically concerning). But any unauthorized state activity in another state’s networks (e.g., change of code or unauthorized access) ought to be considered a violation of sovereignty. While the U.S. Congress has the authority to “declare” war, what constitutes an “act of war” remains the discretion of the U.S. commander in chief and is almost entirely a political assessment. There is no defined legal or technical trigger to discern a cyberspace operation as an “act of war,” though something as simple as an information operation that caused mass rioting and death could conceivably be called an act of war (such as claiming the U.S. government created and disseminated the coronavirus). Notably, no cyberspace operation has to date been declared an act of war by any U.S. president.
Foreign Election Interference and International Law
Authors: Keitner Chimène I. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the possibilities, and limitations, of international law in regulating states’ attempts to influence each other’s elections. The principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, political independence, self-determination, and nonintervention reflect core understandings about the attributes and entitlements of states in the international system. The chapter begins by tracing attempts to further codify the nonintervention principle in the 1960s and 1970s. It then examines the tension produced by states’ conflicting desires to preserve the greatest possible freedom of action for themselves and to constrain the behavior of others. To date, this dynamic has impeded the ability to formulate explicit treaty-based solutions to the problem of foreign election interference. Identifying customary international law in this area requires inferring specific conduct-regulating rules from general principles, which can yield contested results. States are unlikely to agree to more granular, binding international rules as long as regimes currently in power benefit from constructive ambiguity. Although agreement on more concrete rules and enforcement mechanisms might remain elusive, like-minded states should continue to emphasize the importance of supporting peoples’ abilities to determine their own political destinies. This requires, at a minimum, promoting an antideception norm as a matter of both domestic and international law.