bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Marine Salvage Industry: Proven in Preventing Oil Spills
Authors: Elliott Jim 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The marine salvage industry plays a vital role in protecting the marine environment. Governments, industry and the public, worldwide, now place environmental protection as the driving objective, second only to the safety of life, during a marine casualty response operation. Recognizing over 20 years after the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 that the effectiveness of mechanical on-water oil recovery remains at only about 10 to 25 percent while the international salvage industry annually prevents over a million tons of pollutants from reaching the world's oceans, ten years ago the United States began implementing a series of comprehensive salvage and marine firefighting regulations in an effort to improve the nation's environmental protection regime. These regulations specify desired response timeframes for emergency salvage services, contractual requirements, and criteria for evaluating the adequacy of a salvage and marine firefighting service provider. In addition to this effort to prevent surface oil spills, in 2016, the U.S. Coast Guard also recognized the salvage industries advancements in removing oil from sunken ships and recovering submerged pollutants, issuing Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) classification standards for companies that have the capabilities to effectively respond to non-floating oils. Ten years after the implementation of the U.S. salvage and marine firefighting regulatory framework, this paper will review the implementation of the U.S. salvage and marine firefighting regulations and non-floating oil detection and recovery requirements; analyze the impacts and effectiveness of these new policies; and present several case studies and recommendations to further enhance salvage and oil spill response effectiveness.
Contradictory Conclusions Surrounding the Effects of Chemical Dispersants on Oil Biodegradation
Authors: McFarlin Kelly M. , Prince Roger C. 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
Dispersed oil has now been shown to have a ‘half-life’ of 10–30 days in numerous lab and field-based experiments. On the other hand, the biodegradation of floating oil slicks is much slower, and unless dispersed by heavy weather or the addition of chemical dispersants, spilled oil will likely strand on a shoreline where it may persist for years. Dispersants are designed to mix into the oil to lower the interfacial tension between the oil and the seawater, allowing even minor turbulence to generate small droplets that have essentially neutral buoyancy. Whether droplets are generated by breaking waves in the absence of added dispersants, or by much less turbulence after dispersant application, the enormous volume of seawater available for dilution impedes the coalescence of the droplets. Droplet formation stimulates biodegradation by dramatically increasing the oil surface area for microbial colonization. Even though the majority of peer-reviewed literature strongly indicates that chemical dispersants have minimal effects once oil is dispersed, a sub-set of publications report negative effects of dispersants on microorganisms and oil biodegradation. It is likely that differences in experimental design and expectations have led to different conclusions regarding the effects of dispersants. As interest in oil spill response grows throughout the scientific community, it is important to understand how similar scientific questions have led to varying conclusions. Here we highlight the importance of experimental design and how the use of specific methods can produce apparently contradictory results. Various methods from numerous publications involving the fate of undispersed oil and dispersed oil will be compared and contrasted. We will focus on specific details of experimental design that impact the results and conclusions of various oil biodegradation studies, such as temperature, concentration, media storage, and substrate handling. An emphasis will be placed on experimental relevance and challenges associated with replicating real world phenomena in the laboratory.
California's Response to USCG Nationwide Standardization of Area Contingency Plans
Authors: Shinn Cassidee 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) - Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR), working with the United States Coast Guard (USCG), and Area Committee members, made significant strides to streamline the Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) for improved efficiency and statewide consistency to adhere to new USCG guidance. Beginning with Sector San Diego's ACP, which underwent major revision in 2018, and Sector Los Angeles/Long Beach in 2019, OSPR worked closely with USCG to ensure that there is comparable information statewide, improved maps and GIS compatibility, and updated environmentally and economically sensitive site information. OSPR created a new environmental sensitive site database, including more user-friendly Geographic Response Strategy pages for those identified sites. OSPR also revised the content of Section 9800, which describes the environmental, cultural, historic, and economic sensitivities of a given ACP area, and includes the Geographic Response Strategies. This paper describes in detail the contributions and changes that OSPR has made to California ACPs since 2018. It highlights its approaches to streamlining for efficiency and statewide consistency and lessons learned from the new revision and approval processes.
Evolution of Contingency Planning in California – a Federal and State Coordinated Effort
Authors: Shinn Cassidee , Burkholder Anna 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) agreed to the joint preparation of oil spill contingency plans following the enactment of California and federal laws in 1990. With little guidance initially, six Area Committees embarked on a new process to create the first coastal Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) in 1992. In 2015, when emergency regulations to expand OSPR's jurisdiction statewide became effective, developing inland Geographic Response Plans (GRPs) became a top priority. Over the last 30 years, the ACPs have evolved into robust, nationally recognized planning documents, and response plans have expanded into inland environments.
This paper will describe in detail the contributions and advancements in California oil spill contingency planning over 30 years. It will highlight OSPR's approaches for statewide consistency and coverage, interoperability between various state and federal plans, tools (including Geographic Information System (GIS) and various databases), improved sensitive site contacts and management, and lessons learned. It will also cover goals for future improvements in both marine and inland contingency plans.
Response Coordination Between Multiple Countries in the Wider Caribbean Region Following a Possible 6 Million Gallon Oil Spill
Authors: Donohue Keith M. , Richards Matthew , Folbert Maartje 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
As the 2017 International Oil Spill Conference (IOSC) was wrapping up in Los Angeles, CA, an oil spill on a magnitude no one had expected was making its way across the lower Wider Caribbean Region. The Regional Activity Center, The Regional Marine Pollution Emergency, Information and Training Centre – Caribe (RAC/REMPEITC-Caribe), that was established in 1994 under the Cartegena Convention, stood up for the first time as a regionally coordinating body to facilitate communication, coordination and exchange of information during a major spill as was designed and intended under the Caribbean Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC) Plan. What was confirmed months later, was that a large spill from a refinery in Trinidad and Tobago had in fact impacted the States of Venezuela, Bonaire, Curacao and Aruba. On April 23, 2017, it became public knowledge that a spill had occurred from a 150,000 barrel (6.3 million gallon) waste oil tank at the Petrotrin Refinery in Pointe-a Pierre, Trinidad. What fallowed was successive reporting of subsurface oil and tarballs washing ashore over a thirty-six day period: first on Venezuelan Gulf of Paria coasts; then Paria, Isla Margarita, Los Roques and La Orchila coasts; followed by Bonnaire; then Klein Curacao and Curacao; and ultimately beaches in Aruba. Had it not been for the coordinating body of RAC/REMPEITCCaribe, these impacts may have never been officially connected to a single point source. Miraculously, through the Regional Center each of the impacted States exchanged oil samples from each other's coasts and the potential source tank in Trinidad. Subsequent analysis from laboratories in the Netherlands proved that the oiling events, which occurred across 600 nautical miles of ocean, were in fact from the same source, Storage Tank #70 of the Petrotrin Refinery.
This paper discusses how RAC/REMPEITC-Caribe worked across borders to help identify the source of a spill that reached across more than 600 miles of the Wider Caribbean Region, and shows just how connected these countries are. It sheds light on a major oil spill that few people outside the impacted countries are aware of, and it presents the April 2017 Petrotrin Spill as a realization that, not only are these scenarios likely, they are real cause for increased regional spill coordination and preparation.
Integrating Unmanned Aircraft Systems into Alaskan Oil Spill Response–Applied Case Studies and Operational Protocols
Authors: Garron Jessica , Altendorf Jereme M. 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT&gt;
(PS1-02) Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) have a high potential value to support oil spill response activities due to their capabilities to provide real-time situational awareness. A variety of UAS are available to support response activities, and determining the precise aircraft, sensor payload and flight patterns will depend on the operational need for surveillance. In support of UAS integration into America's airspace, the FAA has defined general protocols for the commercial use of small UAS (less than 55 lbs. total take-off weight) in 14 CFR Part 107. However, these regulations do not address any other concerns associated with flight of these small aircraft, such as shared operational airspace within a temporary flight restriction area, or regulations for flight over animals that fall under state or federal management. To address this lack of policy, a UAS protocol for flights of small UAS during oil spill response activities was developed and integrated into a series of tabletop oil spill exercises conducted in Alaska during 2018. The UAS protocol was vetted with state and federal agencies responsible for wildlife management both on and offshore, was modified for execution in remote as well as urban locations, and has been integrated into Area Contingency Plans in Alaska. This presentation will highlight the operational components of the UAS operational protocol, as well as the challenges, both perceived and actual, to UAS integration into the incident management structure of an oil spill response.
Oil Spill Modeling Lessons Learned over Four Decades of Catastrophic Spills
Authors: French-McCay Deborah 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
Oil spill modeling developed tremendously over the past four decades, from simple floating particle trajectories of the 1979 Ixtoc spill to four-dimensional oil trajectory and fate models coupled with biological exposure, toxicity, and population models begun in the late 1980s to early 1990s, spurred by the Exxon Valdez, other major spills at that time and the Oil Pollution Oct of 1990. While many of the basic concepts and algorithms were developed in the 1990s, advances in computer hardware/software, as well as modeling techniques, have allowed for much better resolution of the needed model inputs, computations and outputs. Data availability and assimilation has greatly improved the performance of meteorological, hydrodynamic and ice (metocean) models, which are critical inputs to oil spill modeling. While large oil spills are traumatic events adversely impacting the environment and socioeconomic interests, they provide opportunities for process studies, model development and validation due to resources supporting the efforts and collections of needed data. Among other lessons, the Ixtoc spill modeling demonstrated the need for comprehensive, time-varying winds and currents from metocean models as input. In modeling the Exxon Valdez, spatially and temporally (hourly) varying winds driven by mountainous terrain, as well as coastal currents, were highly influential to the trajectory and fate of the oil. Measurement data was needed to drive modeling as the existing metocean models were not sufficiently accurate to account for observed oil movements. Other large spills in 1989 were in estuaries and coastal areas where oil movements were primarily driven by river and tidal currents, for which hydrodynamic models were reliable. The 1996 North Cape oil spill was the first for which water column exposure and effects modeling could be verified with field data. The Erika and Prestige spill trajectories were largely driven by the ships' movements while releasing oil and the winds. In modeling the Deepwater Horizon spill, metocean models were able to predict observed surface oil movements for several days and in terms of general overall direction. However, the modeled deepwater plume moved in various directions depending upon the hydrodynamic model used as input, highlighting the need for more accuracy in ocean models below surface waters. Recent developments in instrumentation, remote sensing, and data assimilation should improve both deepwater and surface trajectories. This combined with advancements in toxicity modeling and supporting data will facilitate confidence in biological effects modeling results. Described research and monitoring needs are based on modeling lessons learned.
Genomics Tools and Microbiota: Applications to Response in Coastal Ecosystems
Authors: Kostka Joel E. , Konstantinidis Konstantinos T. , Huettel Markus 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Microorganisms are central and cross-cutting to oil spill response strategies. Biodegradation mediated by indigenous microbial communities is the ultimate fate of the majority of petroleum (oil and gas) that enters the marine environment. Key ecosystem services provided by microbes, such as organic matter and nutrient cycling, may be adversely affected by oil contamination. The Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill was the first large scale environmental disaster to which the methods of genomics were applied to determine microbial response to a major perturbation. Here we present a case study on coastal ecosystems to highlight the knowledge gained by application of genomics tools to interrogate mechanisms of petroleum hydrocarbon degradation and to elucidate impacts of oil exposure on ecosystem health and functioning.
At Pensacola Beach, results showed that oiling led to a large increase in the growth of indigenous microbes in the form of a series of bacterial blooms. Oil contamination strongly selected for microbial groups capable of hydrocarbon degradation. Oil was degraded and benthic microbial communities returned to near baseline levels approximately one year after oil came ashore. These results indicate that when small particles (&lt; 1 cm) of weathered light oil are buried in the coastal zone, biodegradation by indigenous microbial communities is sufficient for the rapid mitigation of oil contamination after a major spill, whereas larger sand-oil-aggregates take longer to completely degrade because of their unfavorable surface to volume ratio. “Operation Deep Clean” removed these aggregates and enhanced biodegradation insofar as many larger oil aggregates were broken down into smaller ones thereby increasing the surface area available for microbial attack. For environmental managers, these results suggest that biodegradation in beach sands is relatively rapid because oxygen can easily penetrate to the buried oil, and resources may be better placed elsewhere in environments where degradation is limited by oxygen availability or microbial access to hydrocarbons. While specialist microbial groups such as nitrifiers show promise as bioindicators of oil contamination in coastal ecosystems, more work is needed to further validate these biomarkers. Despite substantial progress, a predictive understanding of the fate and impacts of oil spills remains hampered by challenges in interpreting the in situ activity and ecosystem response of benthic microbial populations. To advance this understanding, a dedicated funding mechanism is needed to support fundamental research. A polyphasic approach is encouraged that employs metagenomics in the field along with cultivation and microcosm or mesocosm experiments in the laboratory. Further, research during future disasters would be greatly facilitated by improved coordination between the emergency responders directing mitigation efforts and scientists investigating the success of those efforts.
Improving Situational Awareness Using a Comprehensive Surveillance Strategy
Authors: Cramer Martin , Santner Richard 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
Having accurate, timely, and relevant situational awareness information is vital during an oil spill response to ensure informed operational and strategic decision making as well as effective coordination of field operations. Recent technological advancements have greatly enhanced situational awareness data collection capabilities such that numerous real-, or near real-time, data streams and inputs into the Incident Management Team are now possible. Although these advancements are generally beneficial, they can easily result in data overload and the subsequent burial or masking of critical information. This issue is compounded by the absence of standardized mechanisms or processes to assess and manage the data. Another area of concern is while surveillance is a key component of situational awareness, it is often comprised of random acts of surveillance rather than an objective driven, fit-for-purpose strategy.
To address these issues, IPIECA, in coordination with the American Petroleum Institute (API), held stakeholder workshops in the United States and United Kingdom on situational awareness needs as well as the development of a comprehensive surveillance strategy. The results are being incorporated into an Oil Spill Surveillance Strategy technical support document currently under development by IPIECA.
This paper will primarily focus on the key components of situational awareness as well as considerations for developing a comprehensive surveillance strategy. Additionally, it will discuss key findings of the workshops, exercise blind spots, data flow and timing, who should own the data collection process and other related topics.
In Situ Burn Testing of Weathered and Emulsified Crude Oils
Authors: Pfützner Christopher J. , Tuttle Steven G. , Loegel Thomas N. , Leska Iwona , Fisher Brian T. 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the ignitability and effectiveness of burning crude oil spills at sea with respect to the type of oil, weathering time, and seawater emulsion content. In the event of an oil or fuel spill at sea, in situ burning can be a practical method of removing the oil and preventing it from reaching vulnerable coastlines. However, the specific chemistry of the oil and its resulting behavior dictates how well this method works. In order to understand this behavior, Santa Barbara Channel crude oils were tested and burned in combinations of fresh, weathered, and seawater-emulsified at discrete ratios. A cone calorimeter was used to monitor time to ignition, mass loss, heat release rate, and smoke production for laboratory-scale burn tests. Weathering generally increased ignition time, but also changed the miscibility with water; this changed both heat released and burn efficiency. Emulsions with seawater fractions below approximately 20 % were found to improve the heat release rate and burn efficiency compared to oil-only burns; suggesting that some water emulsification can benefit oil burning. The results indicate that a targeted approach to the type of oil and degree of emulsification can expand the window of opportunity for in situ oil burns.
Response Guide: Understanding Underwater Electric Transmission Line Dielectric Oil Leaks
Authors: Cormier Annjea 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Addressing the underwater dielectric fluid leaks, this paper presents case studies and recommendations based on extensive response actions. Dielectric fluid leaks that occur underwater are significantly more challenging due to their dispersing properties in water which make these spills significantly more difficult to assess and cleanup. After distilling information from past case studies, it was determined that the success of a dielectric spill response depends on three variables: the amount of time until completion, damage to natural resources, and the cost.
Although every incident poses its unique challenges and variables, this research highlights overarching best practices that can be applied to future spills. The analysis focuses on notification, discovery methods, sampling strategy, potential toxicity, effective clean-up strategies, and clean-up endpoints. The research concludes by acknowledging that these spills will be reoccurring until upgrades and increased maintenance is completed on aging U.S. electrical infrastructure.
Preparing for Transport of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Through the Panamá Canal
Authors: Levine Ed , D'Meza Octavio , Murillo César , Platt CDR Jeffery , Valdes Dennisses 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT:
While the efforts of the National Response Team (NRT) - Panama Canal (in Spanish, Autoridad del Canal de Panamá or ACP) Subcommittee are primarily focused on environmental protection issues, there is evidence that these same concerns may simultaneously have tremendous economic impact. The basis for the Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the ACP and NRT agencies was conceived over concerns for pollution events within the area of responsibility of the ACP. In keeping with the spirit of the MOA the Subcommittee has made giant strides improving the preparedness and response capabilities of the ACP. In doing so, the economic interests of the ACP as well as the countries of Panama and the United States have all benefited. Any impacts that may interrupt the day-to-day operations of the Panama Canal would have deleterious worldwide economic effects. We will discuss the increase in LNG vessel traffic over the years since the opening of the expanded locks and the preparedness activities of the two groups.