bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gender “Neutral” Hiring Processes
Authors: Lauve-Moon Katie 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Chapter 3 examines congregational hiring processes, which are most often perceived by congregants as “gender neutral.” This chapter draws on interview data to reveal hiring committees’ aversion to an “affirmative action” approach and shows that their failure to recognize the gendered hurdles faced by women prior to the job market actually results in masculinized hiring processes rather than gender-neutral ones and reinforces sexist hiring decisions. It also explores the conscious and unconscious gender biases of hiring committee members, which inevitably play a role in hiring decisions. Specifically, this chapters highlights congregants’ preferred hiring criteria, which are commonly understood as “gender neutral,” and shows how these seemingly neutral preferences actually result in unequal outcomes for women. For instance, while hiring senior pastors, congregations often preferred younger pastors who also have senior pastor or associate pastor experience. Some congregants also preferred pastors with direct and clear career trajectories. These seeming gender-neutral preferences disproportionately advantage men because women often connect with their callings and find opportunities for professional development later in life as a result of the gendered hurdles they face on their ways to the job market. This chapter further explores congregants’ unconscious gender biases, which often assumed men and women to be different but equal. However, congregants failed to understand how these assumed differences ultimately advantaged men in the pursuit of pastoral leadership.
Cooperation in Hierarchical Communities
Authors: Sterelny Kim 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter has three interrelated aims: to explain the origins of settled society and farming; the relationship between settled society and the emergence of large and persistent inequalities and the surprising stability of cooperation despite the fact that farming societies tend to become increasingly unequal. That is surprising because of the strength of egalitarian forager norms in the cultures from which farming emergences, because these initially unequal societies have not yet established coercive institutions controlled by elites and because the unequal distribution of resources is clearly against the interests of those outside the elite groups. The chapter offers an account of how elite claims for privilege have initial credibility, and of the erosion of options of collective resistance.
Introduction
Authors: Chung-Kim Esther 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
During the Reformation, religious leaders took a more decisive stance on the way that churches should deal with poverty. This study examines the role of church leaders in the development of poor relief reforms to provides a greater understanding of how religious ideals and rationales fueled the changes in church and society.While Catholics generally emphasized interpersonal charity, early Protestant reformers sought to eliminate begging by setting up or supporting poor relief institutions. Pastors and lay leaders helped to create and establish various approaches to alleviating poverty. While some church leaders sought to drive their local magistrates to deal with poverty within their communities, others initiated change mainly within their own churches. However, poor relief faced many practical challenges like raising money, new outbreaks of the plague, and the mass influx of religious refugees. Hence for minority Reformed and Anabaptist communities, church leaders had to find new ways to build and support their fledgling religious communities.
Johannes Bugenhagen
Authors: Chung-Kim Esther 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Johannes Bugenhagen’s church orders revealed the lasting imprint of religious values on the poverty policies of many German cities. Originally from Pomerania (the coastal region of present-day Poland and Germany), Bugenhagen crafted legislation that included practical measures for poor relief. As a Wittenberg pastor, professor, and organizer of church reform, Bugenhagen became the diplomat for translating Lutheran ideals into practical laws that would reorganize or create new institutions of poor relief in north German cities, as well as in Scandinavia. In his negotiations with city councils and political rulers, he highlighted an emerging need to support poor pastors who, as married clergy, now had families to support. His experience of creating laws for diverse circumstances led him to delineate flexible policies with an adaptable understanding of the deserving poor.
The International Rule of Law
Authors: Pavel Carmen E. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter argues that one of the main goals of an international rule of law is the protection of state autonomy from arbitrary interference by international institutions and that the best way to codify this protection is through constitutional rules restraining the reach of international law into the internal affairs of a state. State autonomy does not have any intrinsic value or moral status of its own. Its value is derivative, resulting from the role it plays as the most efficient means of protecting autonomy for individuals and groups. Therefore, the goal of protecting state autonomy from the encroachment of international law will have to be constrained by, and balanced against, the more fundamental goal of an international rule of law: the protection of the autonomy of individual persons, best realized through the entrenchment of basic human rights.
Fire and Forget: A Moral Defense of the Use of Autonomous Weapons Systems in War and Peace
Authors: MacIntosh Duncan 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Setting aside the military advantages offered by Autonomous Weapons Systems for a moment, international debate continues to feature the argument that the use of lethal force by “killer robots” inherently violates human dignity. The purpose of this chapter is to refute this assumption of inherent immorality and demonstrate situations in which deploying autonomous systems would be strategically, morally, and rationally appropriate. The second part of this chapter objects to the argument that the use of robots in warfare is somehow inherently offensive to human dignity. Overall, this chapter will demonstrate that, contrary to arguments made by some within civil society, moral employment of force is possible, even without proximate human decision-making. As discussions continue to swirl around autonomous weapons systems, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that fire-and-forget weapons are not morally exceptional or inherently evil. If an engagement complied with the established ethical framework, it is not inherently morally invalidated by the absence of a human at the point of violence. As this chapter argues, the decision to employ lethal force becomes problematic when a more thorough consideration would have demanded restraint. Assuming a legitimate target, therefore, the importance of the distance between human agency in the target authorization process and force delivery is separated by degrees. A morally justifiable decision to engage a target with rifle fire would not be ethically invalidated simply because the lethal force was delivered by a commander-authorized robotic carrier.
Understanding AI and Autonomy: Problematizing the Meaningful Human Control Argument against Killer Robots
Authors: McFarland Tim , Galliott Jai 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The physical and temporal removal of the human from the decision to use lethal force underpins many of the arguments against the development of autonomous weapons systems. In response to these concerns, Meaningful Human Control has risen to prominence as a framing concept in the ongoing international debate. This chapter demonstrates how, in addition to the lack of a universally accepted precise definition, reliance on Meaningful Human Control is conceptually flawed. Overall, this chapter analyzes, problematizes, and explores the nebulous concept of Meaningful Human Control, and in doing so demonstrates that it relies on the mistaken premise that the development of autonomous capabilities in weapons systems constitutes a lack of human control that somehow presents an insurmountable challenge to existing International Humanitarian Law.
Toward a Positive Statement of Ethical Principles for Military AI
Authors: Galliott Jai 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter responds to the interesting lack of formal movement by states toward the development of practical ethical frameworks for military applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Despite prominent depictions of autonomous weapon systems as the first step toward a dystopian future and almost seven years of international discussions under the auspices of the United Nations, only the United States has developed explicit principles for military AI. In the absence of similar efforts by other states, the underlying technologies have continued to develop, particularly in the civilian sphere. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to review ethical principles that were originally developed for civilian applications of AI and then propose a version that could be deployed to armed forces that seek to deploy autonomous systems and military AI. This chapter will consider the limitations of such an approach and argue in favor of the development of a ‘minimally-just AI’ to ensure that autonomous weapons cannot be used for blatant violations of the laws of war. The Military Ethical AI principles outlined in this chapter are intended for use as a high-level framework and shared language to enable discussion among various stakeholders on the ethical and legal concerns that remain with militarized AI.
Autonomous Weapons and Reactive Attitudes
Authors: Ohlin Jens David 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The discourse surrounding Autonomous Weapons Systems (AWS) should encourage deeper consideration of how perceptions and reactive attitudes toward AWS could evolve in such a way to no longer reflect their deterministic nature. As AWS become more sophisticated and demonstrate increased behavioral complexity, it may well become more difficult for soldiers and policymakers to continue to view these systems dispassionately. This chapter draws on P.F. Strawson’s work to demonstrate how humans may find it impossible to fully rid themselves of reactive attitudes toward AWS. This chapter goes on to consider the consequences of humans and AWS in a shared environment. Human beings, whether enemy combatants or civilians, may respond to AWS not as sophisticated but ultimately deterministic actors, but rather as free agents and thus targets for feelings of gratitude or resentment. The link between behavior interpretation, perceived agency, and emotional attitudes has important implications for the deployment of AWS. A common argument in favor of AWS is that they would reduce collateral damage in counterinsurgency operations. It is far from certain that even the detached, calculated, and objective decision-making of an AWS would reduce the reactive response of the local populace. This chapter concludes by noting that some resentment to the lethal use of force is inevitable among civilians and combatants and argues that the deployment of an AWS is an unreliable tool for reducing this response.
National Narratives
Authors: Wertsch James V. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The chapter begins with observations about national narratives and conflict between Serbians and Bosnian Muslims and between Armenians and Azerbaijanis. It then turns to a section that distinguishes between national memory and “analytic history” that builds on narrative analysis to present the opposition between two ways of relating to the past. After reviewing various discussions of this opposition, the section concludes with a summary in the form of two columns and the general statement that in analytic history evidence is preserved at the expense of a narrative, whereas in national memory a narrative is preserved at the expense of evidence. The next section goes into some detail about a particular narrative template for Russia, the “Expulsion of Alien Enemies” schema. This provides an in-depth illustration of the notion of narrative template introduced in earlier chapters and shows how this pattern of emplotment is used by members of the Russian national community to make sense of everything from the invasion of the Mongols in the 13th century to the war with Napoleon in the 19th century and the “Great Patriotic War” of the 20th century—and to the invasion of ideas such as communism. The following section draws on contemporary cognitive psychology to develop the idea of “fast and slow thinking” about the past. Fast thinking concerns the unconscious cognitive processes involved in narrative templates. The concluding section provides an illustration of how the Russian national narrative template guides the interpretation of a Soviet war poster.
Founding a workshop
Authors: Adelson Robert 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Having obtained a crucial royal protection that allowed them to compete freely with their Parisian rivals, the Erard brothers concentrated on enlarging their workshop in order to meet the growing demand for their pianos—not only in Paris, but throughout France. The firm hired numerous skilled workers from German-speaking Europe, enticing them by offering a good salary and a stable contract. The success of the Erard firm depended on recruiting, training, and supervising their numerous employees, and stocking their workshops with great quantities of specialised raw materials for instrument manufacture. The Erards developed relationships with musical instrument dealers, musicians, and music teachers as an important way to extend their instrument-building empire across Europe.
Faster and louder
Authors: Adelson Robert 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Sébastien Erard’s most famous invention for the piano was the double-escapement action, which allows the pianist to rapidly repeat a given note without completely releasing the key, thus rendering the key and the hammer totally independent from each other. This action revolutionised the design of piano mechanisms and had a profound impact on music written for the instrument. Far from being an isolated discovery from the 1820s, Sébastien’s invention was the culmination of a lifetime of searching for ways to make the piano more responsive to the musician’s touch, all the while maintaining a powerful tone.
Camille Erard and the end of the Erard Empire
Authors: Adelson Robert 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Pierre Erard’s death meant that for the first time in over eighty years there was no longer an inventive genius running the Erard firm. But by assuming control of the firm, Camille became one of the only women of her time to run a large-scale international business and one of the few women to make her mark in the history of musical instrument manufacture. The recognition of her authority as head of the firm by musicians such as Richard Wagner and Clara Schumann gave Camille the confidence to undertake two ambitious and transformative construction projects. The first of these initiatives was to build a concert hall on the premises of the rue du Mail. The second was to construct a vast modern factory on the outskirts of Paris. In the end, a lack of innovation combined with increased competition from German and American piano builders was the cause of the eventual demise of the Erard firm.
Castellio’s Long Shadow
Authors: Bruening Michael W. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Castellio’s ideas spread widely throughout Europe, and his followers played a more important role in the development of French Protestantism than has hitherto been acknowledged. This chapter reveals the networks of Castellio’s supporters that developed in the Vaud, Montbéliard, France, and elsewhere in Europe. These allies often united around opposition to religious persecution and to the Calvinist teachings of predestination and strict moral discipline. Instead, they favored religious toleration and free will (and occasionally universal election), and they emphasized voluntary Christian piety. The Calvinists perceived the Castellionists as a threat to their dominance of French Protestantism. Fears about a Castellionist in Poitiers, Jean Saint-Vertunien de Lavau, seem to have led both to Geneva’s missionary program into France and to the convocation of the national synods of the French Reformed churches.
The Franco-Ivorian Cooperation Agreements
Authors: Wyss Marco 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Félix Houphouët-Boigny’s plans to develop his country within the French Community were shattered when in late 1959 the Community came to an early end. In response, and in order to burnish his African nationalist and leadership credentials, he refused to remain in a ‘renovated’ Community and to enter into cooperation agreements with Paris prior to independence. This strongly irritated Charles de Gaulle, who wanted to retain France’s sphere of influence in Africa and was concerned that Houphouët-Boigny’s example could lead to challenges from other former colonies. But the Ivorian leader, flanked by his allies from the Council of the Entente, stood firm, and Côte d’Ivoire became independent in summer 1960. Moreover, he succeeded in forcing de Gaulle to abandon his plans for a common French-led defence in francophone Africa, and obtained from France bespoke defence and military assistance agreements for the Entente in spring 1961.
Suspension, Higher-Order Evidence, and Defeat
Authors: Lord Errol , Sylvan Kurt 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This paper has two main goals. The first and most central goal is to develop a framework for understanding higher-order defeat. The framework rests on the idea that higher-order evidence provides direct reasons for suspending judgment which leave evidential support relations on the first order intact. Equally importantly, we also seek to explain how this sort of defeat is possible by showing how direct reasons for suspension of judgment flow from the functional profile of suspension of judgment. As a result, our framework is embedded within an account of the nature of suspension of judgment that shows how new insights about its nature lead to a different picture of its rational profile. A second and subsidiary goal of the paper is to show how our framework provides a compelling basis for more moderate positions about disagreement and epistemic akrasia. We show that the puzzles about these topics rest on more fundamental mistakes about suspension and the relationship between reasons for suspension, reasons for belief, and evidence.
Defeaters as Indicators of Ignorance
Authors: Dutant Julien , Littlejohn Clayton 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In this paper, we propose a new theory of rationality defeat. We propose that defeaters are indicators of ignorance, evidence that we’re not in a position to know some target proposition. When the evidence that we’re not in a position to know is sufficiently strong and the probability that we can know is too low, it is not rational to believe. We think that this account retains all the virtues of the more familiar approaches that characterize defeat in terms of its connection to reasons to believe or to confirmation but provides a better approach to higher-order defeat. We also think that a strength of this proposal is that it can be embedded into a larger normative framework. On our account the no-defeater condition is redundant. We can extract our theory of defeat from our theory of what makes it rational to believe—it is rational to believe when it is sufficiently probable that our belief would be knowledge. Thus, our view can provide a monistic account of defeat, one that gives a unifying explanation of the toxicity of different defeaters that is grounded in a framework that either recognizes knowledge as the norm of belief or identifies knowledge as the fundamental epistemic good that full belief can realize.
Bases for Copyright Licences to be Implied
Authors: Mysoor Poorna 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the bases on which copyright licences can be implied. It begins by looking at analogies in other areas of private law dealing with implication. The most elaborate doctrine of implication are the rules of implication of a term into a contract—implied in fact, implied by custom, and implied by law. These are known to private law as sources of private and public ordering, which apply as much to the actions of persons vis-à-vis other persons (such as entering into a contract), as they do to the actions of persons vis-à-vis persons in relation to property (such as granting a licence). It follows that these also form the basis on which express copyright licences arise. The bases for implying copyright licences must be the same as the bases for express copyright licences to arise, because the courts cannot do by way of implication what they could not have done if there was an express provision. This way, the exercise of the discretion that the courts have in implying copyright licences is made more transparent and predictable, fostering legitimacy and coherence in the process. Accordingly, the bases for implying copyright licences are: the consent of the copyright owner (consent-based); an established usage in a trade or an industry (custom-based); and state intervention to achieve policy objectives (policy-based).
Consent-based Implied Contractual Licences
Authors: Mysoor Poorna 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter evaluates consent-based implied contractual licences. Consent-based implied contractual licences differ from consent-based bare licences in that there is consideration that flows from the licensee in exchange for the licensor undertaking not to revoke the licence, in addition to there being an intention to create legal relations. The existence of a contract provides the structure within which to assess the copyright owner’s consent as the basis for implying a licence. The modern significance of implied contractual licences lies in their application to copyright content placed online by or with the consent of the copyright owner, and is subject to terms of use that amount to a contract. This chapter applies the framework proposed in Chapter 3, rather than the rules of implying terms in fact, in order to make the process of implication more transparent. The chapter examines the case law in three broad categories of contractual copyright licences: (i) commissioning contracts; (ii) copyright exploitation contracts; and (iii) consumer contracts.
Policy-based Implied Bare Licences
Authors: Mysoor Poorna 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses policy-based implied bare licences. Unlike in the previous chapter, there is no contract in existence and no voluntariness on the part of the copyright owner, and indeed in some cases, no prior relationship between the parties. Historically, English common law has recognised an open-ended power of the courts to restrict or prevent copyright enforcement in the public interest, which has been acknowledged under section 171(3) of the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. The chapter considers how a successful invocation of this provision implies a bare licence to achieve policy goals. Although there is no statutory equivalent of this provision in other common law jurisdictions considered here, the chapter explores if the power has nevertheless been exercised by the courts based on their inherent powers. Since policy-based implied bare licences produce the same effect on copyright owners as the statutory limitations or exceptions, the framework for implying this type of licence draws inspiration from the three-step test and the fundamental rights regime.