bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Birth of Nuclear Eternity
Authors: Pelopidas Benoît 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter reconnects modes of futures-making with the requirements of democracy by focusing on the naturalization of nuclear weapons and their removal from the realm of democratic choice at a particular point in time. The chapter revolves around the concept of ‘nuclear eternity’ as a means of reducing public choices about the use of nuclear weapons. It critiques the idea that nuclear weapons have always been perceived as ‘here to stay’ and reassesses the dominant narrative about the 1960s as an emancipatory decade by arguing that the decade actually witnessed a significant shrinking of future political possibilities. Finally, the chapter identifies three shapes of the future which produce ‘nuclear eternity’—an absent post-nuclear future, an inconsistent post-nuclear future, and a disconnected post-nuclear future—and illustrates them with historical examples
Future as a Horizon of Expectations
Authors: Jedlowski Paolo , Pellegrino Vincenza 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter adopts a sociological approach to conceptualize futurity as a horizon of expectations. It provides a practical application of sociological theory—future present and present future, horizon of expectations, futurization and defuturization—to contemporary discourse. It observes that hegemonic discourses emphasize ‘defuturization’—decreasing the openness of people’s present futures—and explores the problems this poses for the self-expression of younger generations. As well as exploring the impact of futurity/defuturization upon the development of processual research methods, the chapter reflects upon ways in which sociology may intervene in communicative practices and foster the capacity of individuals to work through their own horizons of expectations and open up the present future.
God
Authors: Ottati Douglas F. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Interpreters sometimes read Niebuhr as an ethicist whose writings are shaped by an anthropology rather than by theology or a doctrine of God, but this is too simple. Niebuhr’s understanding of God is marked by his turn toward myth and a relational core theology keyed to biblical images of God as Creator, Judge, and Redeemer. Though neither systematic nor as extensively developed as his anthropology, theology remains integral to his thinking. A doctrine of God is present implicitly in Niebuhr’s work even where not articulated explicitly, and it makes a creative contribution to Christian theology. Indeed, it ought to be developed further, especially with respect to aspects of religious experience and a sense of hope.
Sin
Authors: Crouter Richard 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the evolution of Niebuhr’s theological view of sin from his earliest work in liberal theology in the late 1920s through his major texts, Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932), An Interpretation of Christian Ethics (1935), and his magum opus, the first volume of The Nature and Destiny of Man. These works address the traumatic events of the 1930s and 1940s: unjust war reparations from the Second World War, economic collapse, and the rise of European Fascism. The chapter ends with a reflection on the ‘changing perspectives’ Niebuhr brought to bear on his thoughts about sin and his reception by political philosophers in Man’s Nature and His Communities: Essays on the Dynamics and Enigmas of Man’s Personal and Social Existence (1965).
Love
Authors: Simmons Frederick V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Reinhold Niebuhr regarded love as the law of human nature. He interpreted that love as agape, identified it with God’s love, and claimed that Jesus revealed it as universal, self-transcending, forgiving, non-resistant, and sacrificial. According to Niebuhr such love produces harmony yet humans inevitably succumb to something less. This inveterate shortcoming grounded Niebuhr’s Christian Realism and concentrated his social ethics on justice, which he related to love dialectically. It also shaped Niebuhr’s exposition of the Christian Gospel as primarily disclosure of God’s forgiveness, which enables human beings to love self-transcendently and thus fulfil their nature by freeing them from their failure to do so. Niebuhr’s account of love stimulated widespread interest in the topic and extensive criticism of his proposals. Nonetheless, Niebuhr argued that the paradoxical relationship of sacrificial and mutual love in history validated that account and the social ethics and soteriology he connected to it.
Eschatology
Authors: Lyon Jodie L. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Reinhold Niebuhr’s eschatology is the culmination of his anthropology. Because humans are finite, history must have an end; because humans are free, history must have a purpose. The biblical prophets anticipated the climax of history in their visions of the messiah, but also exposed the pride inherent in human hearts. Jesus revealed the meaning of history through the cross: suffering love. Since agape will always be at least partially defeated in history, humans currently wait in an interim for the second coming of Christ and the triumph of sacrificial love. Niebuhr explains that Scripture proclaims the eschaton through the symbols of the Parousia, the Last Judgement, and the Resurrection. These symbols must be viewed as meaningful without being literal. Pride often perverts eschatological understanding, causing humans to ignore the limitations of humanity or despair of their finitude. Niebuhr’s eschatological proclamations are circumspect, but their vagueness allows them to avoid the pride of which Niebuhr so frequently warns.
Moral Realism
Authors: Carnahan Kevin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Reinhold Niebuhr’s moral realism can be confusing, as he draws upon multiple categories that are often in tension in contemporary discussions of moral reality. This chapter lays out three frameworks Niebuhr used to discuss moral reality: naturalism, moral ideals, and divine nature and command. It argues that these frameworks are mutually supportive in Niebuhr’s thought and locates each in the context of contemporary discussions in moral philosophy. In relation to naturalism, Niebuhr’s thought is compared with the neo-Aristotelian thought of Philippa Foot and Rosalind Hursthouse. Concerning ideals, Niebuhr is put in dialogue with philosophers such as W. D. Ross, Martha Nussbaum, and Isaiah Berlin. Niebuhr’s treatment of divine command and nature is compared with the work of Robert M. Adams.
Human Nature and Moral Norms
Authors: McKenny Gerald 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
According to Reinhold Niebuhr, moral norms are grounded in human nature. This claim places Niebuhr in the mainstream of Christian natural law thought. However, Niebuhr distanced himself from the natural law tradition that was most familiar to him. His criticisms of that tradition may leave the impression that he rejected natural law thought, but a closer look at the relationships of nature and freedom and of justice and love in his thought indicate otherwise. This chapter examines Niebuhr’s grounding of moral norms in human nature and shows how his position is best understood as a version of natural law thought. It ends with a corrected version of Niebuhr’s position that might contribute to natural law thought today.
The 1940s: Global War and Global Responsibility
Authors: Smith Graeme 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The 1940s were a remarkably active and productive decade for Reinhold Niebuhr. Two of his most important books were published during this period, The Nature and Destiny of Man and The Children of Light and Children of Darkness. He worked with others to establish a new journal, Christianity and Crisis. Alongside this he was instrumental in setting up two campaigning organizations, the Union for Democratic Action and the Americans for Democratic Action. This chapter provides a historical overview of the decade detailing these achievements. It then examines Niebuhr’s contribution to the nascent ecumenical movement, in particular his chapter on social ethics written for the Oxford Conference of 1937, his address to that conference, and then his preparatory chapter and address to the first Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Amsterdam 1948. Niebuhr argued that the underlying cause of the global crises was secularism, in response to which the Church should preach a message of redemption.
The 1960s: The Struggle for Justice and the ‘View from the Sidelines’
Authors: Dorrien Gary 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
When Reinhold Niebuhr retired from teaching in 1960 at the age of sixty-eight, he was famous for espousing Cold War militarism, blasting liberal theology and the Social Gospel, and urging the Civil Rights Movement to proceed with patient moderation. In his retirement years he substantially changed or refashioned these positions, transmuting his legacy and the meaning of Niebuhrian realism. The Social Gospel tried to moralize the public square, but Niebuhr said that politics is a struggle for power driven by interest and will-to-power. The Social Gospel taught that a cooperative commonwealth is achievable. By the end of his career, Niebuhr said the ideal of a good society must be given up. Social ethicists ever since have struggled with both sides of his legacy.
John Dewey
Authors: Rice Daniel 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the relationship between the American philosopher John Dewey and the theologian Reinhold Niebuhr. Although a generation apart in age, Dewey and Niebuhr were among the major proponents of the social and economic liberalism of the 1930s in its opposition to the predominant laissez-faire ideology of the day—a form of classical liberalism that Dewey labelled ‘pseudo liberalism’ and Niebuhr identified as American conservatism. While Dewey and Niebuhr collaborated on various political causes, they engaged in a controversy over the meaning of liberalism. In 1932 Niebuhr attacked Dewey in Moral Man and Immoral Society and in subsequent articles and books. Dewey, in return, responded critically to Niebuhr in print. This chapter deals with the personal relationship between Dewey and Niebuhr, their conflicting evaluations of liberalism, and the many ways in which their respective views of liberalism came together in the assault against the conservatism of the age.
The Structure of a Free Speech Right
Authors: Gardbaum Stephen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the structural elements or components of a free speech right. The nature and extent of a free speech right depends upon a number of legal components. The first is the legal source of the right (in common law, statute, or a constitution) and the force of the right having regard to how it is enforced, and whether and how it can be superseded. The second component is the ‘subject’ of free speech rights, or who are the rights-holders: citizens, natural or legal persons. The third is the ‘scope’ of a free speech right, while the fourth is the kind of obligation it imposes on others: a negative prohibition or a positive obligation. The fifth component is the ‘object’ of a free speech right: who is bound to respect a right of freedom of expression and against whom the right may be asserted. Finally, there is the ‘limitation’ of a free speech right.
Privacy and Speech
Authors: Tourkochoriti Ioanna 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the concept of privacy and case law which shows the different approaches between Europe and the US concerning the balancing of freedom of speech when it conflicts with other rights. Judges and scholars also refer to the concept of human dignity in this area. The concept of dignity can serve in the US in order to limit freedom of expression, whereas it serves in Europe as a foundation of the need to limit freedom of expression. The requirement for government transparency creates a presumption in favour of protecting expression. The extended interpretation of ‘privacy’ in the law of many European states means depriving the public debate from information that would be crucial to a well-informed electorate. The chapter then looks at the intermediate concepts that judges have come up with in order to balance the exercise of rights in conflict. Those criteria concern the periphery of the activities that are to be protected by the right to privacy. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the right to be forgotten.
Insult of Public Officials
Authors: Bezemek Christoph 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses public insult, looking at the closely related question of ‘fighting words’ and the Supreme Court of the United States’ decision in Chaplinsky v New Hampshire. While Chaplinsky’s ‘fighting words’ exception has withered in the United States, it had found a home in Europe where insult laws are widely accepted both by the European Court of Human Rights and in domestic jurisdictions. However, the approach of the European Court is structurally different, turning not on a narrowly defined categorical exception but upon case-by-case proportionality analysis of a kind that the US Supreme Court would eschew. Considering the question of insult to public officials, the chapter focuses again on structural differences in doctrine. Expanding the focus to include the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR), it shows that each proceeds on a rather different conception of ‘public figure’.
Hate Speech
Authors: Harel Alon 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter highlights hate speech, which is abusive speech that targets members of certain groups—typically minority groups—including racial groups, ethnic groups, religious groups, and groups defined on the basis of sexual orientation. Most groups protected by hate speech legislation are groups that have been subjected to past discriminatory treatment. However, the restrictions on hate speech legislation have often been expanded and the proper scope of the groups that deserve protection have been subject to a fierce debate. While much of hate speech can be legitimately prohibited by standard recognized legal exceptions to free speech, such as fighting words or incitement to violence, other forms of hate speech cannot. To address the prevalence of hate speech as such, many legal systems prohibit some forms of hate speech and impose criminal or civil sanctions for violating such prohibitions. Those systems need to address the serious challenge of defining the category of hate speech, draw its boundaries, and determine the sanctions. The chapter then explores the moral and political arguments for and against the legal regulation of hate speech as such or, at least, some sub-categories of hate speech.
Glorifying Censorship? Anti-Terror Law, Speech, and Online Regulation
Authors: Bechtold Eliza , Phillipson Gavin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates how many Western democracies—and the European Union—are enacting increasingly draconian measures against terrorist-related speech that undermine long-standing free speech principles. It outlines a number of factors that tend towards skewed perceptions of the risks of terrorism. The chapter then sketches the rapid spread of laws aimed at terrorist propaganda, noting the unusual role of the UN Security Council in ‘directing national legislative practice’ in the criminal sphere. While there are legitimate arguments for restricting certain types of terrorist material, existing laws and policies tend indiscriminately to lump truly dangerous material together with mere expressions of support or sympathy for groups that use violence, including against despotic regimes, or groups that once, but no longer, used violence to achieve political ends. Skewed perceptions of the threat of terrorism appears to have an almost unique capacity to cause the weakening, if not outright abandonment of the standards that normally provide robust expression to freedom of speech.
Freedom of Speech and Human Dignity
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses how human dignity relates to freedom of speech as a fundamental right. Freedom of speech is among those rights that can be traced back to dignity. Indeed, it seems difficult to imagine human dignity without a person’s right to express ideas, beliefs, or interests, and to receive the expression of others and thus form opinions. This does not mean, however, that freedom of speech is connected to dignity in all its ramifications. Some limitations of the scope of free speech become problematic if freedom of speech is related to dignity. In its positive relation, dignity re-enforces freedom of speech. On the other hand, it may also occur that dignity limits freedom of speech. The chapter then looks at what happens if dignity enters into conflict with freedom of speech. The hardest cases of conflict between freedom of speech and dignity are probably hate speech and pornographic expression.
Paired-pulse measures (SICI, SICF, ICF, LICI, LCD)
Authors: Cash Robin F. H. , Ziemann Ulf 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) techniques provide an opportunity to examine and better understand the excitatory and inhibitory circuitry in the human cortex in health and disease. Typically, a conditioning stimulus is applied and the effect on cortical excitability is inferred by the change in motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude elicited by a test stimulus delivered shortly (milliseconds) thereafter. This approach has revealed a range of distinct, but generally overlapping, excitatory and inhibitory phenomena, which have been characterized according to their temporal and pharmacological profile, activation threshold, and various other properties. These phenomena have provided new pathophysiological insights into neurological and psychiatric disorders, and paired-pulse TMS measures have demonstrated clinical diagnostic utility. More recently, via implementation of TMS-evoked electroencephalography (TMS-EEG), paired-pulse TMS protocols have started to expand into nonmotor regions.
What is the Septuagint?
Authors: Boyd-Taylor Cameron 
Published: February 2021

AbstractIn standard English usage the term Septuagint typically denotes the earliest Greek version of the Old Testament. Despite this seeming clarity, it is in fact a fuzzy concept, insofar as the boundaries of its application shift significantly from one context to another. This chapter delineates the four principal ways in which the term is currently used by biblical scholars, and discusses the historical background of each with reference to the reception of the Jewish Greek Scriptures. It begins with their inception in Hellenistic Judaism, and traces their reconfiguration by early Jewish and Christian tradents through to the advent of modernity and the rise of critical scholarship. Current issues in the field of Septuagint Studies are addressed.
Megillot (Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther)
Authors: Hiebert Robert J. V. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the primary ancient Greek versions of a group of five books in the Hebrew canon that are called the Megillot or Scrolls. Each book in this collection—which consists of Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, and Esther—is associated with the commemoration of a different event in the Jewish liturgical calendar. In the Septuagint, as transmitted by the Church, these books are not grouped together and there is no specific linkage to that liturgical practice. There are, however, some commonalities among the Greek versions, particularly with respect to certain aspects of the translation and transmission histories of most of them, that create some sense of connection, despite the diversity of their content. This has to do specifically with the so-called Kaige tradition, which features a translation approach marked by a significant degree of formal equivalence to the Semitic source text and distinctive translation equivalents.
The Psalter
Authors: Olofsson Staffan 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The LXX Psalms, dating from the second or the first century bce, is one of the most frequently discussed books in Septuagint studies. The chapter assesses major theories and recent developments in studies regarding the date and provenance of the translation, discusses its Sitz im Leben, gives an overview and emphasizes the importance of textual criticism of the Hebrew as well as the Greek text for scholarly work, presents translation models employed, with an emphasis on the Interlinear Paradigm, but also delves into specific details regarding the literal translation technique in the Psalms. The question whether and in what sense the translators’ theological background and milieu has influenced his translation is discussed. In the end the dependence of the Pentateuch on the Psalms and the extensive use of LXX Psalms in later Jewish and Christian literature is briefly presented.
Aquila
Authors: Veltri Giuseppe , Salvesen Alison G. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Subsequent to its inclusion in Origen’s Hexapla, the text of the biblical translation ascribed to Aquila, who according to both patristic and rabbinic testimony was a convert to Judaism, has been transmitted only fragmentarily in Greek. Isolated readings from Aquila’s version are cited in Greek in the margins of LXX manuscripts and in patristic works, but also in Hebrew translation in rabbinic literature. The discoveries of the Cairo Genizah and of the Hebraizing recension reflected in the Naḥal Ḥever Minor Prophets scroll have made possible a fresh look at Aquila’s translational approach and the transmission of his version, as well as the history of its reception among both Jews and Christians.
The History of Septuagint Studies
Authors: Albrecht Felix 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The editorial history of the Septuagint goes back to antiquity and is essentially connected with the emergence of the Septuagint itself, i.e. with the concept of Alexandrian ekdosis. However, this chapter focuses principally on the development of printed scholarly editions (both diplomatic and critical) up to the present day, and the principles on which they are based. Among other tasks, this involves noting scribal changes, both intentional and unintended; and the identification and reconstruction of text types or groups and the stages of transmission. The difficult process of producing critical editions of each book of the Septuagint corpus is ongoing work within the project of the Göttingen Septuaginta Unternehmen.
The Proto-Lucianic and Antiochian Text
Authors: Kauhanen Tuukka 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The Lucianic or Antiochian text of the Septuagint supposedly goes back to a recension dating to around 300 ce. It is the text quoted by the Antiochian patristic authors and transmitted in a small group of Septuagint manuscripts that vary from book to book. Its notable trait is that it often presents the text in a slightly better Greek style than the rest of the witnesses. However, particularly in the so-called Kaige sections of Samuel–Kings, the Antiochian text has noteworthy agreements with pre-Lucianic witnesses such as the Qumran Samuel scrolls, Josephus, Old Latin translations, and early patristic authors. Thus it seems that the base text underlying the Lucianic recension, the proto-Lucianic text, was an old text near to the original translation.