bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Telemedicine in the Surgical Disciplines
Authors: Santos Ariel , Combs Davin T. , Ajabnoor Yasser , Onks Cameron 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
In acute care surgery, regional trauma centers and the American College of Surgeons Committee of Trauma (COT) have worked to address the fundamental challenge of patient stabilization at remote referring facilities, followed by timely patient transfers. However, limitations with patient transport still exist because of adverse weather and lack of emergency vehicles or logistics for emergent transport, demanding ongoing patient care at the originating site. Integration of telemedicine protocols in regional trauma systems has been shown to be effective in facilitating appropriate and timely patient transfers and helps improve the efficacy of resuscitative care in critical-access facilities. Telemedicine has also been shown to be an effective means of service delivery for preoperative, operative and postoperative consultations, reducing time and cost barriers for patients living in remote areas and improving adherence to treatment plans. This increased continuity of care promotes positive outcomes and reduces preventable hospital admissions. Telemedicine also plays a role in surgical education, preceptorship, and mentorship, as well as continuing medical education and multidisciplinary conferences.
Pediatric Emergency Telehealth
Authors: Taylor Kylie , Mody Ameer 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Pediatric Emergency Telehealth (PET) has enormous potential to help address the health care needs of children and families. In some regions, health care is particularly fragmented or difficult to access for the pediatric patient. Telehealth may bridge those gaps, improve continuity of care, and enhance communication between children’s hospitals and general pediatricians practicing in both rural and urban communities. Launching a PET service requires careful preparation with community health networks and stakeholders to ensure that the model is providing adjunct services as opposed to on-demand primary care services. General pediatricians’ offices that lack the capability to implement a virtual care system may seek consultation from the PET service in terms of triage, recommendations, or direct patient care. A substantial effort is required at initiation of a PET program but is useful in mitigating disease exposure such as Covid-19, as well as improving emergency department metrics such as patient satisfaction, length of stay, wait times, and revenue capture.
Supporting Advance Practice Providers in the Emergency Department Using Telehealth
Authors: McKenzie L. Kendall , Carlisle Tearsanee , Haynie Lisa , McKay Jason , Hall Greg , Galli Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role of advanced practice providers (APPs) in the context of emergency telehealth by describing one of the first successful programs, started in 2003, at the University of Mississippi Medical Center (UMMC). Important issues germane to developing a program to provide telehealth supervision to APPs are covered. Specific concerns addressed by UMMC as the program was developed are described and generalized to the current health care environment. Major considerations regarding delivery models, contracts, technology, rationale for using APPs, regulatory concerns, and educational preparation are also discussed.
Emergency Telehealth Services in the Correctional Setting
Authors: Kendig Newton E. , Ellis David G. , Varughese Renoj , Ome Irondi Obinna M. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Millions of patients receive their primary health care in U.S. jails and prisons each year. Correctional health care systems frequently lack round-the-clock onsite physician services, and access to local hospital-based emergency services may be limited. Increasingly, correctional health care systems are relying on telehealth capabilities to improve their access to subspecialty services. Emergency telehealth services, however, are largely underutilized. Available reports suggest that emergency telehealth services can reduce outside medical trips and prove cost-effective in certain settings. Successful emergency telehealth programs emphasize the importance of a thorough diagnostic evaluation, effective communication with local correctional health care providers, and strategic use of point-of-care testing. This chapter provides practical recommendations for the telehealth evaluation and management of commonly occurring medical emergencies in the correctional setting.
Remote Physiologic Monitoring
Authors: Badashova Ksenya K. , Haile-Mariam Tenagne , Jarrin Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Remote physiologic monitoring (RPM) allows for the collection and transmission of clinical information from a patient to a clinician for evaluation (and potentially intervention) in a synchronous or asynchronous manner. The initiation and judicious utilization of RPM is fundamental to distance-based medical care and provides opportunities to improve clinical outcomes and decrease utilization of resources. COVID-19’s stress on medical systems has encouraged innovations, including those that incorporate RPM. Emergency Department (ED) RPM programs have shown that COVID-19 patients at risk for clinical decompensation can successfully be monitored and treated at home. RPM can capitalize on emergency medicine’s (EM’s) role as the interface between in-patient and out-patient care to implement increasingly complex medical services to patients in nontraditional health care settings. Despite their promise, the development and implementation of RPM programs is a challenging task that requires investment in human and other resources. The role of RPM in expanding EM and ED-based clinical care to improve patient outcomes and decrease costs will require continued investigations and innovations.
Telehealth Facilitates Value-Based Care in Emergency Department Settings
Authors: Mulligan Deborah Ann , Drobac Krista , Shesser Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, the health care industry is increasingly aware of benefits emergency physicians could contribute to value-based care. The use of emergency telehealth—to reduce the number of hospital admissions, readmissions, and missed outpatient follow-up appointments—will play an increasing role in the shift to value-based care paradigms. Although certain legal, regulatory, and reimbursement challenges remain, the COVID-19 outbreak should stimulate lawmakers and regulatory agencies to promulgate further measures that facilitate widespread adoption of telemedicine, which will inevitably extend into emergency care. Emergency physicians should play a leadership role in the development and implementation of coordinated care before, during, and after acute unscheduled care needs of patients. Coordinated care is a recognized role of emergency telehealth in the value chain. For emergency telehealth to be effective, it must be appropriately integrated into standard practice of emergency medicine.
Tele-Ultrasound
Authors: Dearing Elizabeth , Boniface Keith 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Ultrasound is a noninvasive, nonionizing, relatively low-cost imaging modality that has increased in use in all fields of medicine over the past few decades. With growth in internet connectivity as well as marked improvements in ultrasound technology, ultrasound can now help guide remote clinical decision making using either synchronous or asynchronous imaging. Implementing a tele-ultrasound program requires an ultrasound machine with the ability to share or transmit images, a provider to perform the exam, and a remote expert for guidance and/or interpretation. Tele-ultrasound can therefore be used by a variety of health care professionals with less ultrasound training under the remote guidance of an experienced physician trained in ultrasound to help care for patients. Tele-ultrasound enables more advanced care in resource-limited settings. As telehealth continues to grow, the use of tele-ultrasound will undoubtedly have an important role in guiding clinical care.
Peripheral and Central Pain Pathways and Pathophysiology
Authors: Inbarasu Jery D. , Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Pain is an unpleasant sensory experience that may be associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Perception of pain includes 3 aspects: sensory-discriminative (intensity and location), cognitive (bodily sensation), and affective-emotional (suffering). Pain is a complex integration of anatomical pathways, including dorsal root ganglion nociceptive neurons, dorsal horn neurons, spinothalamic and spinobulbar pathways, the thalamus, the cortex, and local modulation. Peripheral and central sensitization may occur after tissue injury. This chapter reviews the peripheral and central processing of pain and concludes with a discussion of pain pathophysiology.
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Authors: Tracy Jennifer A. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The spinal cord begins as the cervical cord immediately below the medulla and extends through the spinal canal, where it becomes the thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal parts of the cord. In most persons, the spinal cord proper ends at the lower portion of the first lumbar vertebral body, where it forms the conus medullaris and, finally, the filum terminale. A cervical enlargement contains the innervation pathways of the upper limbs; a lumbar enlargement contains the pathways of the lower limbs. This chapter reviews ascending and descending pathways in the spinal cord.
Brainstem and Cranial Nerves: Midbrain
Authors: Flemming Kelly D. , Brazis Paul W. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is the uppermost segment of the brainstem. This chapter reviews the important structures in the midbrain, including cranial nerves III and IV. The midbrain extends from the level of the trochlear nucleus to an imaginary line between the mammillary bodies and the posterior commissure. Important structures at this level include the cerebral peduncles, superior and inferior colliculi, red nucleus, substantia nigra, decussation of the middle cerebellar peduncle, and cranial nerves III and IV.
Cranial Nerves I and II
Authors: Flemming Kelly D. , Benarroch Eduardo E. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Cranial nerves I (olfactory nerve) and II (optic nerve) are supratentorial, paired cranial nerves. This chapter provides an overview of their anatomy. Cranial nerve I is a special visceral afferent nerve carrying sensory information about odors. Olfactory receptors lie in the nasal cavity. Odorants activate receptors within the cilia of olfactory sensory neurons and trigger the opening of a cyclic nucleotide–gated channel. This channel allows a calcium influx and the opening of calcium-activated chloride channels. Depolarization then occurs.
Cerebellum
Authors: Hassan Anhar 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The cerebellum is crucial for planning, executing, terminating, and learning movements. The cerebellum compares actual with intended motor performance and optimizes the timing of motor function. Thus, it is important in the adaptation of movement and posture. In addition, the cerebellum contributes to cognition and behavior. The primary fissure divides the cerebellum anatomically into anterior and posterior lobes. The posterior lobe is divided from the flocculonodular lobe by the posterolateral fissure. The cerebellum may also be divided into functional zones, including the vermis (midline), paravermal region, and hemispheres (most lateral).
Cortex: Circuitry, Networks, and Function
Authors: Jones David T. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has revolutionized the understanding of the functional and structural architecture of the brain and serves as a lens for reviewing the complex cortical circuitry and networks of the cerebral cortex. The human brain is a complex information processing system whose proper functioning depends on the organization of its processing units. The scale of these processing units spans multiple levels from the genetic level to the systems level.
Focal Cognitive Syndromes
Authors: Caselli Richard J. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The neurologic results of cortical lesions reflect the structural properties of the affected region. Lesions affecting primary sensorimotor cortices result in primary sensorimotor deficits that are qualitatively all-or-nothing, such as blindness (hemianopia) and paralysis (hemiparesis). Quantitatively, though, the severity of the deficit depends on the extent of the lesion (so that a hemiparetic patient may not be completely paralyzed but simply weak). Lesions affecting modality-specific association regions result in conceptually more complex disorders that are confined to a single modality, such as nonfluent aphasia (a form of motor speech disorder reflecting the language-dominant hemisphere) or prosopagnosia (a visual disorder impairing the ability to disambiguate visually similar entities, specifically faces, reflecting the “what” visual pathway in inferotemporal cortices).
Cellular Signaling
Authors: Staff Nathan P. , Madigan Nicolas N. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Cell communication in the nervous system is finely tuned to respond rapidly to external stimuli, to modify itself according to those stimuli, and to produce more effective responses in the future. The physical basis for this cell communication is the manipulation of ion gradients with ion pumps and channels, chemical neurotransmission, and synaptic plasticity, all of which are discussed in this chapter.
Cellular Injury and Death
Authors: Madigan Nicolas N. , Staff Nathan P. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Cell death occurs after an irreversible insult or stress overwhelms the cell’s compensatory mechanisms of homeostasis and repair. Cellular necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagy are increasingly understood to be interconnected biochemical processes that may coexist in vascular, inflammatory, and neurodegenerative conditions. Traditional classifications of cell death pathways are 1) necrosis; 2) programmed nuclear cell death, including apoptosis; and 3) autophagy. These processes occur in the context of variable cause and severity of injury, variable cellular metabolic and energy states, and variable fitness to compensate.
Chromosomal Syndromes
Authors: Gavrilova Ralitza H. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG) provides useful information for diagnosis, evaluation, and prognosis when patients have cerebral disease or related conditions. It is particularly helpful for evaluation of patients with transient neurologic disorders and altered states of consciousness. EEG electrodes are placed according to the International 10-20 System, which uses the inion and nasion and the ear or mastoid as landmarks to facilitate uniform placement.
Electroencephalography: Basic Concepts
Authors: Burkholder David B. , Britton Jeffrey W. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a useful diagnostic and prognostic tool for evaluation of patients with epilepsy, encephalopathy, focal lesions, coma, or brain death. The 3 main types of epileptiform discharges are spikes, sharp waves, and spike-and-wave discharges. Spikes have a steep ascent and descent and are brief (duration ≤70 milliseconds). Sharp waves, in contrast, are longer (70-200 milliseconds). Spike-and-wave discharges consist of a spike followed by an after-coming slow wave. All the discharges may occur singly or in trains, and any may be present in either focal epilepsy or generalized epilepsy.
Electroencephalography: Evaluation of Neurologic Disorders
Authors: Burkholder David B. , Britton Jeffrey W. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a useful diagnostic and prognostic tool for evaluation of patients with epilepsy, encephalopathy, focal lesions, coma, or brain death. The 3 main types of epileptiform discharges are spikes, sharp waves, and spike-and-wave discharges. Spikes have a steep ascent and descent and are brief (duration ≤70 milliseconds). Sharp waves, in contrast, are longer (70-200 milliseconds). Spike-and-wave discharges consist of a spike followed by an after-coming slow wave. All the discharges may occur singly or in trains, and any may be present in either focal epilepsy or generalized epilepsy.
Nerve Conduction Studies and Needle Electromyography
Authors: Crum Brian A. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Nerve conduction studies (NCSs) and needle electromyography (EMG) should be considered extensions of the neurologic history and examination of the peripheral sensory and motor systems. NCSs assess large, myelinated sensory and motor nerve fibers. EMG assesses primarily type 1 muscle fibers. Because of the limitations of NCSs and EMG, small-fiber function (ie, small-fiber neuropathies) and, to an extent, type 2 muscle-fiber diseases (ie, steroid myopathy) cannot be excluded with these studies. The main goal of NCSs and EMG is to obtain objective evidence of disease within the peripheral nervous system and to assist with localization of the problem.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Authors: Laughlin Ruple S. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The total volume of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the ventricles and subarachnoid space is about 150 mL. The absorption of CSF is directly linked to intracranial pressure. In steady states, the rate of CSF absorption equals CSF formation, and the normal resting pressure of CSF is typically between 150 and 180 mm H2O (reference range, 65-200 mm H2O [5-15 mm Hg]). The most common cause of error in measurement of CSF pressure is failure to position the patient properly (the correct position is lateral decubitus; the right atrial pressure serves as the reference [0 mm H2O]).
Neuroimaging
Authors: Kim Dong Kun , Black David F. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Neuroimaging is commonly used in the clinical setting to aid in determining a diagnosis and prognosis and in making therapeutic decisions. This chapter reviews indications, pitfalls, underlying physics, safety issues, and examples of select neuroimaging methods. Computed tomography (CT) is the most frequently used cross-sectional technique for the initial evaluation of a patient with acute neurologic symptoms because of its availability, speed, and reliability. CT is also invaluable for patients with acute trauma because of its high spatial resolution and bone–soft tissue contrast.
Principles of Psychiatry and Psychology
Authors: Polsinelli Angelina J. , Machulda Mary M. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Cognition, psychiatric and psychological constructs, and an approach to the evaluation of cognition and psychological disorders are discussed in this chapter. Cognitive evaluations may include simple office-based procedures, but formal neuropsychological testing and functional imaging have aided practitioners in further understanding and treatment of disorders, as well as understanding of normal function. Cognition is a general term used to describe processing information, such as attention, language, memory, decision-making, and problem solving. Cognitive psychology is the specialty of psychology that examines mental processes and studies how individuals perceive, think, learn, and remember.
Psychological Development Through the Life Cycle
Authors: Lapid Maria I. , Olsen Mark W. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Human development from conception to death can be viewed from a number of perspectives, including biologic, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral. This chapter reviews the major features of various facets of development from infancy through toddlerhood, preschool, school-aged, preadolescence, adolescence, the transition into early adulthood, adulthood, and late adulthood. It includes consideration of developmental tasks and challenges, as well as the importance of the environmental influence of family, peers, school, and the broader social milieu. Psychological aspects and specific stages of elderly persons are also described.
Personality and Illness
Authors: Palmer Brian A. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
A personality disorder (PD) is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) (DSM-5) as “an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment.” DSM-5 has revised the PDs to individual disorders. They no longer are reported in Axis II; DSM-5, unlike previous editions, does not use the axis system.
Miscellaneous Psychiatric Disorders
Authors: Martin Kari A. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
In a number of psychiatric disorders, patients present with medical and psychological symptoms that are not well explained by a medical condition or substance use. The prevalence of somatic symptom disorder in the general US adult population may be about 5% to 7%. Associated demographic characteristics include female sex, older age, fewer years of education, lower socioeconomic status, unemployment, and a history of childhood adversity, comorbid psychiatric illness, social stress, and reinforcing illness benefits. A high level of medical care utilization rarely alleviates the patient’s concerns.
Psychiatric Disorders Associated With Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence
Authors: Bhagia Jyoti 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers key psychiatric disorders of infancy, childhood, and adolescence. In some instances, the disorders are mentioned briefly herein and covered in more detail in other chapters, as indicated. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobiologic disorder present in 11% of US children between the ages of 4 and 17 years and is 3 times more common in boys than in girls. Some symptoms must be present before age 12 years, although the average age at diagnosis is 7 years. The causes of ADHD are unknown. However, several factors have been suggested that likely mediate expression of ADHD, including prematurity, prenatal toxin exposure, mechanical insults to the nervous system, and natal stress.
Pharmacologic Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders
Authors: Miller Keith A. , Morgan Robert J. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Human behaviors such as thinking, feeling, and action can be viewed as products of the interactions between brain circuits, neurotransmitters, and oscillations that are influenced to a certain extent by inherited genes, acquired values, and social norms. A psychiatric disorder reflects a dysfunctional brain, and 1 way to treat such a condition is through the use of pharmacologic compounds that can help restore order in a disorderly brain.
Nonpharmacologic Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders
Authors: Leffler Jarrod M. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Pharmacologic therapies often complement nonpharmacologic therapies in the treatment of psychiatric disease. An overview of the theory and practice of psychotherapy and interventions is provided in this chapter. Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud, has influenced many forms of psychotherapy. The underlying framework of psychoanalytic theory holds that a majority of a person’s psychological experiences are unconscious.
Ischemic Stroke: Uncommon and Special Situations
Authors: Arnold Fiebelkorn Catherine E. , Klaas James P. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Most ischemic stroke is caused by atherosclerosis (large- and small-vessel disease) and cardioembolic sources (eg, atrial fibrillation). However, it is important to recognize the clinical, laboratory, and radiologic manifestations of rarer causes of stroke since the treatment may differ from the treatment of more typical causes. This chapter reviews the less common causes of stroke in addition to stroke in special situations: stroke in children, stroke in pregnant women, spinal cord infarction, and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis.