bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reconstructive Approaches to Nasal Defects
Authors: Bentz Michael L. 
Published: January 2021

Nasal reconstruction is commonly performed for treatment of defects arising from excision of nonmelanoma skin cancers, although other tumors, trauma, or infection may also result in significant nasal deformities necessitating corrective surgery. Patients being evaluated for nasal reconstruction should have a functional assessment of airflow through both the internal and external nasal valves to determine the need for reconstructive maneuvers that will maintain or improve the nasal airway. Aesthetic considerations relate to which nasal subunits are missing and how local, regional, and sometimes free tissue transfer can be used to optimize the final appearance of the nose. Reconstruction must incorporate a plan for reestablishing nasal lining, support, and cover depending on which elements are missing. Postoperative considerations include the need for nasal splints and interventions to optimize nasal scarring and contour such as scar massage, steroid injection, and laser treatments. Patients who are not good candidates for autologous nasal reconstruction may be considered for prosthetic reconstruction.
This review contains 13 figures and 67 references
Key words: Nasal reconstruction, Nasal airway, Mohs surgery, Skin cancer, Nasal aesthetic subunits, Facial flaps, Skin graft, Forehead flap, Nasal cover, Nasal lining, Nasal support, Prosthetic rehabilitation
Pediatric Upper Airway Obstruction
Authors: Chan Michael W. , Schmidt Suzanne M. 
Published: January 2021

Upper airway obstruction is a common reason that children present for emergency care, and causes range from simple and benign etiologies to life-threatening conditions requiring emergent intervention. Both congenital and acquired conditions can result in airway obstruction at various levels, and due to the high risk of acute decompensation associated with some of these conditions, rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential. This review covers assessment and stabilization, diagnosis, and treatment of foreign-body aspiration, croup, bacterial tracheitis, epiglottitis, peritonsillar abscess, and retropharyngeal abscess. Figures show a diagram of the pediatric airway, an anteroposterior radiograph of the neck demonstrating the characteristic “steeple sign” in croup, an algorithm for the treatment of croup, lateral radiographs demonstrating a thickened epiglottis, consistent with a diagnosis of epiglottitis, and a widening of the prevertebral soft tissues of the neck, consistent with a diagnosis of retropharyngeal abscess. Tables list causes of upper airway obstruction by anatomic location, symptoms of upper airway obstruction by anatomic location, severity of croup, and microbiology of deep neck abscesses.

This review contains 5 figures, 13 tables, and 32 references
Key words: Upper airway obstruction; Pediatric upper airway obstruction, Foreign-body aspiration, Croup, Bacterial tracheitis, Epiglottitis, Peritonsillar abscess, Retropharyngeal abscess, Stridor
Pediatric Upper Airway Obstruction
Authors: Chan Michael W. , Schmidt Suzanne M. 
Published: January 2021

Upper airway obstruction is a common reason that children present for emergency care, and causes range from simple and benign etiologies to life-threatening conditions requiring emergent intervention. Both congenital and acquired conditions can result in airway obstruction at various levels, and due to the high risk of acute decompensation associated with some of these conditions, rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential. This review covers assessment and stabilization, diagnosis, and treatment of foreign-body aspiration, croup, bacterial tracheitis, epiglottitis, peritonsillar abscess, and retropharyngeal abscess. Figures show a diagram of the pediatric airway, an anteroposterior radiograph of the neck demonstrating the characteristic “steeple sign” in croup, an algorithm for the treatment of croup, lateral radiographs demonstrating a thickened epiglottis, consistent with a diagnosis of epiglottitis, and a widening of the prevertebral soft tissues of the neck, consistent with a diagnosis of retropharyngeal abscess. Tables list causes of upper airway obstruction by anatomic location, symptoms of upper airway obstruction by anatomic location, severity of croup, and microbiology of deep neck abscesses.

This review contains 5 figures, 10 tables, and 32 references
Key words: Upper airway obstruction; Pediatric upper airway obstruction, Foreign-body aspiration, Croup, Bacterial tracheitis, Epiglottitis, Peritonsillar abscess, Retropharyngeal abscess, Stridor
Hair Transplantation: Biochemical Basis and Surgical Treatment
Authors: Ehrlichman Richard J. , Parungao Allan J. 
Published: January 2021

Modern day hair transplantation has undergone tremendous advances since the understanding of the patterns of male hair loss and miniaturization related to androgenic alopecia caused by DHT (dihydrotesterone). The concept of donor dominance, in which hairs genetically resistant to the effects of DHT can be moved to other locations where hair has been lost due to sensitivity to this hormone, is the basis for modern day hair transplantation. Early hair transplantation based on this knowledge involved moving plugs of hair from DHT resistant hairs posteriorly to the anterior hairline. These however resulted in abnormal hairlines which did not appear natural. Presently, hair transplantation is placed on the use of 1, 2, 3, and 4 hair follicular units to create more natural hairlines. In addition, knowledge of the biochemistry of hair loss has resulted in nonsurgical treatments that can regrow and maintain hair. Finasteride (Propecia) and minoxidil (Rogaine) are now important adjuncts before, during and after hair transplantation. Advances have been made in the harvesting of donor hair including the use of follicular unit extraction which removes individual 1, 2, 3 or 4 hair follicular units and the use of robots for extraction. Because of the limitations of donor sites and the fact that hair loss is progressive, future research will involve the use of stem cells.

This review contains 27 figures and 106 references.
Key Words: androgenic alopecia, cicatricial alopecia, DHT, donor dominance, follicular units, miniaturization, stem cells, telogen effluvium, trichophytic
Chest Wall Reconstruction Following Tumor
Authors: Shahzad Farooq , Matros Evan 
Published: January 2021

Plastic surgeons are typically called upon to reconstruct the chest wall in four situations: oncologic resection, infections, trauma and osteoradionecrosis. In this chapter we will discuss post-oncologic reconstruction. Chest wall reconstruction following tumor resection is typically performed at the same setting as the ablative surgery; this results in quicker patient recovery and overall better outcomes. The reconstruction should be planned with the ablative surgeon so that an assessment can be made of the extent of resection and available donor sites for reconstruction. The major components of reconstruction are 1) skeletal support and 2) soft tissue coverage. Skeletal support is indicated if the defect is >5 cm, 4 or more ribs are removed or more than 2/3rd of the sternum is resected. Prosthetic mesh is most commonly used. Soft tissue reconstruction is performed with regional pedicled flaps in the vast majority of cases. Free flaps are used when regional flaps are not sufficient (large defects) or not available.
This review contains 11 figures, 3 tables, and 49 references.
Keywords: chest wall, tumor, skeletal reconstruction, soft tissue reconstruction, mesh, acellular dermal matrix, titanium osteosynthesis systems, resorbable plates, pedicled flaps, free flaps
Midface Reconstruction
Authors: Rifkin William J. , Diaz-Siso Jesus Rodrigo , Rodriguez Eduardo D. 
Published: January 2021

Composite defects of the midface present a formidable reconstructive challenge. Progress in craniomaxillofacial surgery has led to improved understanding of the functional role of skeletal subunits, whereas microsurgical free tissue transfer has become a reliable means for soft tissue coverage of large facial wounds. Although historically divergent, the intersection of these subspecialties has provided surgeons with the resources to undertake complex reconstructive problems in an anatomic location where functional and aesthetic concerns are equally critical. Technological advances have allowed teams to plan procedures in precise detail, increasing surgical accuracy and creating optimal conditions for long-term oral rehabilitation. Interestingly, far from obsoleting them, these innovations reinforce the age-old surgical principles that have guided facial reconstruction for the past century. Perhaps the ultimate representation of these principles, facial transplantation has transformed even the most severe craniomaxillofacial defects into reconstructible problems; special considerations must be recognized when reconstructing the skeletal structures of the midface in the context of allotransplantation.

This review contains 7 figures and 29 references.
Key Words: aesthetic units, composite facial defects, facial transplantation, free fibula flap, free iliac bone flap, midface reconstruction, skeletal buttresses, staged reconstruction
Primary Repair of Soft Tissue Facial Trauma
Authors: Seu Michelle , Dorafshar Amir H. , Liang Fan 
Published: January 2021

Craniofacial trauma can result in a wide variety of injuries that cause soft tissue injury of face. However, despite the enormous diversity in presentation of these injuries, they tend to follow certain patterns. Most facial injuries are either contusions, abrasions, lacerations, or avulsions. The extent of injury and approach to repair can be further assessed by the size, depth, and number of facial subunits involved. A plastic surgeon in the setting of acute craniofacial trauma, armed with certain principles of facial anatomy and primary repair methods, can drastically restore function and cosmesis to the face, while also mitigating the chance of future deformity and functional deficit.
This review contains 3 figures and 26 references
Keywords: facial trauma, craniofacial surgery, primary repair, facial soft tissue defects, soft tissue, facial injury, plastic surgery, facial lacerations, facial avulsions
Pathophysiology of the Diabetic Foot
Authors: Kim Paul J 
Published: January 2021

The clinical manifestations of diabetes are evident in the foot. Peripheral neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease, dermatologic alterations, and musculoskeletal changes place the foot at high risk of ulceration. The diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is the end result of these pathophysiologic changes, which increases the likelihood of infection, hospitalization, and amputation. There are treatment options available, but DFU imparts a tremendous toll on the patient’s quality of life and healthcare resources. Although there is a growing understanding of the pathophysiologic processes unique to the diabetic foot, much work is still needed. This chapter focuses on the assessment and management of the diabetic foot and its associated conditions.
This review contains 7 figures, 3 tables and 62 references
Key Words:: Diabetic foot, Diabetic Foot Ulcer, Peripheral Neuropathy, Peripheral Vascular Disease, Foot Wound, Biomechanics, Deformity, Biomechanical Surgery, Infection
Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Sillman Jane S. 
Published: January 2021

Intimate-partner violence describes relationships characterized by intentional controlling or violent behavior by someone who is in an intimate relationship with the victim. The abuser’s controlling behavior may take many forms, including psychological abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, economic control, and social isolation. Abuse may ultimately lead to the death of the victim from homicide or suicide. Typically, an abusive relationship goes through cycles of violence. There are periods of calm, followed by increasing tension in the abuser, outbursts of violence, and return to periods of calm. These cycles often spiral toward increasing violence over time. The victims of intimate-partner violence are usually women, but intimate-partner violence is also a significant problem for gay couples and for the disabled and elderly of both sexes. This review discusses the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, outcomes, and prevention of intimate-partner violence. Risk factors for experiencing violence, risk factors for perpetrating violence, and consequences of abuse are also analyzed.
This review contains 5 figures, 14 tables, and 30 references.
Keywords: Domestic abuse, intimate-partner violence, elder abuse, child abuse, batterer, sexual abuse, physical abuse
ECT: Physiology, Indications, and Treatment
Authors: Fink Max 
Published: January 2021

Inducing grand mal seizures (electroshock, electroconvulsive therapy) developed as an effective treatment to alleviate the psychosis of dementia praecox. Clinicians quickly recognized that seizures also relieved depressed moods, suicide risk, catatonia, manic excitement, and delirium. It is an unheralded, often stigmatized, medical achievement. Seizures may be induced chemically or with electric or magnetic currents. Grand mal seizures must be repeated for persistent benefits. Not all seizures are equally effective. Effective seizures are marked by bilateral electroencephalographic brain wave changes and neuroendocrine discharges from hypothalamic-pituitary glands. Treatments are remarkably safe, with zero mortality. Immediate effects on memory are common but are almost always transient. They are not a practical deterrent to the treatments, although they are widely cited to reject its use. The stigmatization of induced seizures that places it as a “last resort” therapy is wasteful and unethical. It offers a remarkable opportunity for advancement in neuroscience.
This review contains 4 figures, 3 tables, and 90 references.
Key words: anesthesia, bipolar disorder, catatonia, delirium, electroconvulsive therapy, electroencephalography, major depression, melancholia, neuroendocrine, seizures
Fibromyalgia as a Biopsychosocial Model for the Intersections of Physical and Emotional Pain
Authors: Proch Ronne J , Hasan Babar 
Published: January 2021

The evaluation and treatment of pain and chronic pain conditions has been a dynamic and perpetually evolving area of focus as we strive towards a more standardized and comprehensive approach informed by ongoing research. The recent emergence of disorders focused on the recognition of the pain experience outside of a definitive physical lesion, specifically Fibromyalgia, has continued to challenge previously held beliefs about pain and our approach to its treatment. This article reviews the history of pain management through review of past and present guidelines and the unintended consequences of the interpretation of these guidelines. The biologic cause and function of pain, types of pain, and the neurologic basis of pain are presented with illustrative figures. Fibromyalgia as a syndrome, its evolving diagnostic criteria according to the American College of Rheumatology, and the insight this disorder gives us into the pharmacologic treatment of chronic pain are discussed. Psychosocial considerations are also presented as they do play a significant role in both diagnosis and treatment of this order. Overall the purpose of this article is to better inform treatment plans, recommendations, provider communication, and expectations for pain relief through the understanding that not all pain is the same and thus should not be treated as such.
This review contains 6 figures, and 30 references.
Key Words: Dorsal Horn Neurons, Sensory/Discriminatory Pathways, Emotional/Motivation Pathways, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Opioids, Endorphins, Peripheral Sensitization, Central Segmental Sensitization, Central Suprasegmental Sensitization, Fibromyalgia
Psychopharmacology for Eating Disorder
Authors: Ruekert Laura , Wells Kimberlie 
Published: January 2021

The treatment of eating disorders should include the utilization of nonpharmacologic therapy and, when appropriate, pharmacotherapy to address symptoms of the eating disorder and any psychiatric comorbidities present. Due to the complex nature of eating disorders, a multi-disciplinary team approach to care is an essential component for maximizing treatment outcomes. Currently there are no FDA approved medications for anorexia nervosa; however, SSRI antidepressants may help with comorbid symptoms. The SSRI, fluoxetine, is FDA approved for use in bulimia nervosa for symptoms associated with bulimia, also addressing psychiatric comorbidities. Lisdexamfetamine is an FDA approved treatment for use in binge-eating disorder, helping to reduce binge episodes. Other pharmacotherapeutic options have demonstrated efficacy benefits in eating disorders, such as topiramate treatment in bulimia and binge eating disorder; however, nonpharmacologic therapy remains an essential first-line treatment across eating disorders and should always be employed regardless of whether or not pharmacotherapy is also part of the treatment plan.
This review contains 3 tables, 4 figures, and 30 references.
Keywords : Anorexia, bulimia, binge-eating disorder, pharmacotherapy, treatment, psychopharmacology, serotonin, olanzapine, eating disorders
Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders
Authors: Lindsey J William 
Published: January 2021

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a relatively common cause of neurologic symptoms and disability in young adults. The distinguishing pathologic features of MS are loss of myelin and inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS). The myelin sheath is essential for rapid conduction of nerve signals along large-diameter axons. Oligodendrocytes produce and maintain myelin in the CNS, and Schwann cells produce and maintain myelin in the peripheral nerves. In addition to MS, there are a number of related disorders causing demyelination, inflammation, or both in the CNS. This chapter discusses MS and related disorders, including neuromyelitis optica, optic neuritis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, transverse myelitis, Behçet syndrome, neurosarcoidosis, inherited demyelinating diseases (leukodystrophies, cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy [CADASIL]), and virus-induced demyelination (progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis). The section on MS covers epidemiology, etiology/genetics, pathogenesis, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, management, and prognosis. Figures include organization of the microenvironment of larger-diameter axons, typical magnetic resonance imaging findings in MS and neuromyelitis optica, postgadolinium images of the cervical spine in MS, and an approach to treatment of relapsing-remitting MS. Tables list MS and related disorders, distribution of neurologic deficits at the onset of MS, differential diagnosis of MS, disease-modifying therapies for relapsing-remitting MS, and selected leukodystrophies, as well as diagnostic criteria and selected symptomatic therapies for MS.

This chapter contains 3 highly rendered figures, 7 tables, 82 references, 1 teaching slide set, and 5 MCQs.
Stroke and Other Cerebrovascular Diseases
Authors: Kasner Scott E. , Wilson Christina A 
Published: January 2021

Stroke is a leading cause of neurologic morbidity and mortality, and rapid treatment is key for a good outcome. This review addresses the epidemiology, common presenting symptoms, causes, and treatment of ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Current recommendations for the emergent evaluation and treatment of an acute ischemic stroke are highlighted, including recently updated indications and contraindications for intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator administration and recent guidelines for the expanded role of endovascular mechanical embolectomy for stroke due to acute large vessel occlusion. An algorithm of diagnostic evaluations to assist with identification of the cause of ischemic stroke is offered. Evidence-based primary and secondary stroke prevention is discussed, including the ideal choice of antithrombotic based on identified stroke mechanism and optimal risk factor management. Best practice supportive measures for the post-stroke patient are highlighted, including recent guidelines for the management of elevated intracranial pressure. Management of uncommon causes of ischemic stroke is also addressed.
This review contains 7 figures, 9 tables, and 84 references.
Key Words:Intracerebral hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, recombinant tissue plasminogen activator, subarachnoid hemorrhage, antiplatelet therapy, endovascular therapy
Kidney Neoplasia
Authors: Fay Andre P , Barrios Pablo M , Schutz Fábio A B , Barrios Carlos H 
Published: January 2021

The incidence of kidney cancer is rising. Due to the widespread use of abdominal imaging for unrelated indications, small renal masses have been increasingly detected incidentally. A better understanding of the biology underlying the different tumor types arising from the kidney cortex has opened new avenues to define diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment strategies. Complete surgical resection remains the standard approach to treat renal neoplasms, and no systemic treatments have proven to be effective after a curative intent surgery. Approximately 30 to 40% of patients with kidney cancer will experience recurrence after a definitive treatment and will ultimately succumb to their disease. Drugs targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor and mammalian target of rapamycin pathways have significantly changed the outcome of patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). Recently, the new era of immunotherapy has brought a new breath to the treatment of mRCC and will integrate into the landscape of treatment, improving clinical outcome.

This review contains 3 figures, 7 tables and 129 references
Key words: benign kidney tumors, cystic renal mass, kidney cancer, kidney neoplasms, metastatic renal cell carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, small renal masses
The Puerperium
Authors: Kleinman Sarah , Ricciotti Hope A 
Published: January 2021

The puerperium starts after the birth of a baby and continues until 6 to 8 weeks postpartum. Several recent interventions in management have been shown to improve outcomes. Delayed cord clamping, the practice of waiting for a period of time after a baby is born before clamping and cutting the umbilical cord, can increase hemoglobin levels, improve iron stores, and increase birth weight in newborns. Rooming in, the practice of mothers and newborns staying together, improves infant sleep and breast-feeding without affecting maternal sleep. Immediately after birth, significant physiologic and anatomic changes occur. Thromboembolic events are more common in the postpartum state than during pregnancy, but the majority of women do not require specific thromboprophylaxis but should be encouraged to walk after birth. Women who have not been previously immunized for influenza; tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis (Tdap); and rubella should be offered these immunizations. Women with uncomplicated pregnancies may engage in exercise within days after delivery. Pelvic floor physical therapy performed during pregnancy and postpartum may assist in maintaining or regaining muscle tone of the pelvic floor and may prevent or treat urinary incontinence. Perinatal depression affects one in seven women. Baby blues, which include mood swings, anxiety, tearfulness, and insomnia, should resolve by 2 weeks after delivery. Patients should be screened for depression using a standardized, validated tool and appropriate treatment initiated. All women should undergo a comprehensive postpartum visit within 6 weeks of delivery.

This review contains 2 figures, 1 table and 32 references
Key words: delayed cord clamping, hemodynamic changes, perinatal depression, postpartum, puerperium, rooming in, skin-to-skin contact