bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Project Solarium 1953 and the Cyberspace Solarium Commission 2019
Authors: Steinmetz Mike 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The word ‘Solarium’ means different things to different people. To some, it evokes an era of global uncertainty with competing nuclear powers. To others, it brings to mind a threat so compelling that a US President formed a special project to reshape US policy rapidly. The word Solarium again inspires hope, optimism, and expectation that cybersecurity—one of the most critical challenges of the twenty-first century—can be addressed as successfully as challenges from the past. Will combining the name Solarium with the twenty-first-century threat’s gravity deliver similar results as it did in 1953? What exactly did Project Solarium 1953 provide? In what way is the global nuclear threat and spread of communism in 1953 comparable to the global cyber threat of the twenty-first century, and is there a risk that the comparison might either over-simplify a complex problem or, worse still, provoke an inappropriately exaggerated and perhaps even apocalyptic approach to cyberspace security? Are there other aspects of the 1953 Project Solarium that offer more useful insights into the human elements of policymaking? Does the naming of the 2019 Cybersecurity Commission as the Cybersecurity Solarium Commission provide little more than smart branding?
Demography and Health in the Context of Climate Change
Authors: Graves Alisha , Moumouni Nouhou Abdoul , Potts Malcolm 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Sahel is subject to uniquely rapid population growth—putting pressure on already scarce resources. The challenge to meet the basic needs of a rapidly growing population is compounded by the impacts of climate change. Despite the recent gains in child survival in the Sahel, three contextual factors combine to suggest that mortality rates could rise—especially among the most vulnerable populations, that is, infants and the elderly. These factors are: an ongoing protracted nutrition crisis, rapid population growth, and impacts of climate change on food production. Evidence-based population policies and large-scale investment in family planning and girls’ secondary education have the potential to curb current demographic trends, making it easier for the region to adapt to climate change and achieve long-term food security.
Informal Economies of the Sahel
Authors: Guèye Fatou , Aly Mbaye Ahmadou 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Sahelian countries, while sharing many features of other Sub-Saharan African economies, face some unique economic challenges, which merit particular scrutiny, notably: a sizable demographic bulge, being landlocked, a lower income per head, and a higher poverty incidence. The picture is further darkened by critical governance weaknesses, political instability, and radical Islamist threats, which, as discussed in other chapters in this volume, have caused serious security challenges within, and across, national borders. All these factors have contributed to a downsizing of the formal business environment and an expansion of the informal sector. This chapter assesses the relative weights of the formal and informal sectors in Sahelian national economies, its growth dynamics, as well as employment and productivity patterns. It also examines the implications of the rise of the informal sector for institutions and governance, social inclusion, and stability.
Corruption and The State in the Sahel
Authors: Blundo Giorgio 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Systemic corruption in the Sahel is the outcome of particular historical and institutional trajectories of state-building efforts, of factionalism and patronage, and of the inability of the state apparatus to rely on alternative mechanisms to ensure its survival and legitimacy. One key feature that emerges from the analysis and comparisons of multiple case studies is the extraordinary propagation of everyday corruption, to be distinguished from “big” corruption, and the ambivalent perceptions of it by citizens when dealing with the bureaucracy. Daily corruption practices manifest themselves in a variety of forms and underpin especially the delivery of basic public services. Corruption in the Sahel is an institutionalized way of managing people and exercising power in situations of limited accountability, and is closely connected with other dynamics operating within the social and economic system.
Militaries in Sahelian Politics
Authors: Elischer Sebastian 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The chapter analyses the trajectories of military rule across the francophone Sahel. It distinguishes between three clusters of countries. Senegal constitutes one extreme on the civil–military spectrum as it has enjoyed continuous civilian rule. Mauritania and Chad, where military rulers have remained part of the ruling elites since the 1970s, constitute the other extreme. Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali are located somewhere in between. Although the Burkinabè armed forces for a long time acted as a pillar of autocratic rule, a large segment of the military eventually helped pave the way for democratization. In Niger and Mali military rule ended with the liberalization of Africa’s political sphere in the early 1990s. Both militaries have again intervened in politics through coups, yet each intervention has proven short-lived. There remains, however, a visible faction that wishes to return to military rule within the armed forces in every Sahelian country.
Pastoralist Societies in the Sahel
Authors: Wilson-Fall Wendy 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on ways that pastoralists respond to ecological and climate variability through strategies of pastoral mobility and exploitation of micro-ecologies throughout the Sahel. The chapter reflects recent scholarly work that argues for recognition of the viability of mobile pastoral systems and their long-term value to national economies and rural community nutrition. West African pasturelands are as biodiverse as woodlands further south, and herders exercise strategic decision-making not accounted for among most government decision-makers before the mid-1990s. In addition to policy challenges, twenty-first-century Sahelian pastoralists are faced with constraints on pasture access, criminal activity, climate instability, and religious radicalism. This chapter argues that intra-regional issues of land use policy and tension between extensive pastoral production systems and projects of nation-building are at the center of current political instability in pastoral communities.
Burkina Faso
Authors: Harsch Ernest 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) shares many of the problems of other countries in the Sahel. Those include an arid and increasingly difficult climate, a weak economy, high levels of poverty, a youthful and rapidly growing population, ethnic and religious tensions, and a history of poor governance. While most states in the region also have experienced notable political instability, Burkina Faso has had a particular tendency toward rebellion, ranging from a military-led revolutionary experience in the 1980s to a popular insurrection that toppled a long-ruling autocrat in 2014. The latter upheaval brought a restoration of democracy, constitutional order, and the possibility of major reform. That progress, however, has been threatened by an escalation of regional and local jihadi attacks since 2015. As security has increased in priority for Burkina Faso, so has the country’s direct collaboration and engagement with its Sahelian neighbors.
Old-Age Pensions
Authors: Hinrichs Karl , Lynch Julia F. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Welfare states within the traditional OECD area arranged their pension systems after 1945 so that complete exit from paid employment during an ever-longer retirement period became a universal entitlement. The institutionalization of old-age pensions in the OECD area resulted from an expansion of pension systems in several dimensions: coverage was broadened to almost the entire (working) population, eligibility criteria for enjoying a pension became liberalized (e.g. flexible retirement), the range of benefits was expanded (e.g. survivors’ pensions) and, most importantly, the generosity of benefits substantially increased. This chapter describes the origins, organization, and social consequences of mature pension systems in the developed welfare states; discusses the challenges posed to these systems by demographic, economic, and societal transformations occurring since the 1970s; and traces trajectories of reform, both actual and anticipated. Throughout, our focus is on the pension systems of the rich democracies of Western Europe, North America, and the Antipodes, with more selective attention given to developments in Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe.
Disability
Authors: Priestley Mark 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Disability presents a key challenge for modern welfare states. It has been a core policy concern throughout their evolution, but the concept of disability, and what it means for public policy, has changed radically in the past half-century. Disability is now widely understood, from a social model perspective, as an issue of social inclusion and social justice. It is also framed by increasingly coherent international human rights frameworks. The chapter reviews changing ideas about disability, and changing policy responses to it, from the early origins of the welfare state to the contemporary global governance of human rights. It examines approaches to disability policy in terms of cash and in-kind entitlements, employment-focused policies, and broader rights-based approaches. Disability is a flexible administrative category that has been deployed selectively to control of labour supply and welfare entitlement. Reframing national disability policies within a global discourse of social rights has been an important development, but rights-based legislation alone is unlikely to resolve its structural basis in capitalist markets and there is still little evidence of marked improvement in aggregate social outcomes for disabled people.
Social Assistance
Authors: Bahle Thomas , Wendt Claus 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Social assistance guarantees basic social rights and provides means-tested, residual benefits to persons in need. It is the last safety net of the welfare state. The actual significance of social assistance varies by welfare regime: the more inclusive and generous a social security system, the less important usually is social assistance. In the Nordic countries, for example, with highly developed social security, few persons actually depend on social assistance. By contrast, in most countries with a liberal welfare regime, social assistance is an essential part of the welfare state. Yet in most cases, social assistance is not a viable alternative to inclusive social security. In Southern or Eastern European countries with rudimentary welfare states, social assistance is also patchy, exclusive, and rudimentary. In continental European countries, the situation varies by population group: most systems are more generous to the elderly than to families with children, and in particular to the unemployed. Moreover, in almost all countries social assistance benefits do not actually lift people out of poverty. Social assistance thus provides a basic minimum income for some groups, but does not effectively prevent poverty. In general, social assistance is more effective in countries in which it clearly operates as a last safety net within an otherwise well-developed overall social security system.
Models of the Welfare State
Authors: Manow Philip 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
IN 1990, Gøsta Esping-Andersen published The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, a work which has turned out to be the single most important and decisive contribution to welfare state research in the past thirty to forty years. In essence, Esping-Andersen argued that we can observe systematic variation in the character of the developed welfare states of the West, which he grouped into three distinct welfare state models: a Scandinavian social democratic model, a conservative continental European model, and a liberal Anglo-Saxon model. This chapter provides a short description of Esping-Andersen’s three regimes; introduces a fourth, Southern European model, which will then be described in somewhat more detail; and outlines a historical and genealogical account of the development of all four models. Finally, the chapter briefly expands on the comparative perspective with a short discussion on whether the regime concept or the understanding of distinct welfare models can also be applied to other regions, such as Latin America and Asia.
Central and Eastern European Countries
Authors: Cook Linda J. , Inglot Tomasz 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses welfare state developments in eleven countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) that have joined the European Union since 2004. It addresses historical, socioeconomic, and political contexts, with reference to theoretical questions involving typologies, clustering, and patterns of convergence in social policies. It analyses diversity in welfare provision that we can observe not only within the region, but also in Europe as a whole. It also explores different social policy programmes and benefits, contrasting international and domestic influences that have become relevant especially since the Great Recession of 2008. These influences include continuing pressures of EU integration and countervailing domestic trends of rising nationalism, populism, and Euro-scepticism within CEE states, especially in Hungary and Poland. The chapter discusses four main areas of CEE welfare from 2008 until 2020: family policy, health care, employment and labour markets, and social security (pensions) and social assistance. It illustrates region-wide and subregional trends and commonalities, as well as divergence across individual welfare states. At least in Poland and Hungary, conservative, family-orientated ideas that are often promoted as an ‘antidote’ to more liberal European norms seem to have driven policy reforms more than any other factor. Nationalist and populist leaders have expanded many welfare programmes, but their rhetoric could not hide the high levels of inequality in income, health, housing, and many other areas that persist and have not been adequately addressed by social policy in CEE states.
Religion and Politics in the European Union
Authors: Leustean Lucian N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates the political mobilization of religious networks in the construction of the European Union by focusing on the role of key religious organizations in dialogue with European institutions, from the 1950 Schuman Declaration to the institutionalization of religious dialogue in Article 17 of the 2009 Lisbon Treaty. It sets out a typology of transnational religious structures, elaborates the main policy areas for religious/convictional actors, and discusses major challenges to the present structure and nature of the European Union, paying particular attention to the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Brexit), the movement of forcibly displaced populations, and the rise of populism and right-wing nationalism.
Protestantism and Europe
Authors: Nelsen Brent F. , Guth James L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Reformation still shapes European society—and its most important post-war creation, the European Union. This chapter explores how Protestantism fractured Western Christendom, sacralized national identity, and invented the nation-state as an alternative Christian society. In the process, Protestants fostered a profound antipathy to the Catholic ‘other’ and a powerful affinity for national borders making it difficult to imagine joining a federal Europe. They were reluctant to enter the EU and awkward on arrival. Protestants never caught the vision of a united Europe, nor did the continentals grasp how Protestant national identities would resist any sacrifice of sovereignty. This clash of irreconcilable visions—one Catholic, one Protestant—became an obstacle to post-war efforts to unite Europe and has led to enduring differences in the behaviour of states, elites, churches, political parties, interest groups, and public opinion towards integration and European identity.
Non-religion and Europe
Authors: Bullock Josh , Bullivant Stephen 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with the growing phenomenon of non-religion and its place in modern Europe. The secular is hardly a new idea in European history but its nature and forms evolve. The focus here is on the growing significance of non-religion in the twenty-first century, especially among younger people. This phenomenon is approached in different ways: conceptually, statistically, and ethnographically. The conceptual approach emphasizes the shift away from simply the absence of religion to the presence of a positively chosen alternative. The statistical section underlines the considerable variations in the presence of non-religion both within and across the different parts of Europe and the reasons for this. Finally, three ethnographic vignettes illustrate the diverse ways in which substantive and engaged expressions of non-religion ‘make sense’ within their particular socio-religious contexts.
Managing Religious Diversity in Europe
Authors: Sealy Thomas , Magazzini Tina , Modood Tariq , Triandafyllidou Anna 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Since the mid-twentieth century, religion in Europe has faced three inter-related trends: the waning of Christianity, increasing secularization, and rising levels of diversity stemming from growing globalization and changing migration patterns. As a result, all European states confront the same broad question: how to adapt existing church–state relations and norms of secularism to an extra-Christian religious diversity that the continent has not known before. At the same time, Europe features a ‘bewildering variety’ of political and institutional connections when it comes to the governance of religious diversity, reflecting different historical inheritances. To make sense of this, this chapter discusses these dynamics in relation to three processes: the politicization, institutionalization, and securitization of religion and divides its discussion into three confessional regions—a majority Protestant North-West, a majority Catholic South, and a majority Orthodox East—in order to analyse how, from their many different starting points, European states are addressing contemporary religious diversity.
The Baltic Countries
Authors: Rimestad Sebastian 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The three Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) have a varied religious history. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they were the last region of Europe to be Christianized. Today, they—and especially Estonia—are among the most secularized societies in the world. This is not only due to the Soviet past but also to Baltic German dominance at key moments in their history. While Lutheranism has dominated in the north (in Estonia and Latvia), the Roman Catholic Church is still the main religious player in the south (in Lithuania and parts of Latvia). Primarily due to Russian migration, the Orthodox Church also plays a significant role in Baltic affairs. There is, finally, a small but vibrant cluster of new religious movements, notably neo-pagan groups.
Italy
Authors: Ferlan Claudio , Ventura Marco 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The history of religion in Italy reveals both a continuing Catholic presence and growing religious diversity. This chapter traces this history from medieval times, through early modern, pre-unification Italy, to the struggle for unity, the forcible end of the Pontifical States, and the problematic coexistence of the Holy See, the Catholic Church, and the Kingdom of Italy after 1861. The later sections deal with the appeasement of the Holy See under fascist rule and the Lateran Pacts of 1929; then the transition from fascism to democracy and from monarchy to republic, through the referendum of 1946 and the Constitution of 1948. Central to this evolution is the explicit acknowledgment that Italy is no longer a Catholic state; conversely laicità is identified as the supreme constitutional principle. Since 1989, cultural Christianity and the consolidation of various forms of Catholic preference are learning to coexist with an increasingly multi-religious population.
The Low Countries
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Notwithstanding certain similarities, Belgium and the Netherlands have different national histories. Keeping this in mind, this chapter is divided into four sections: early history, pillarization, secularization, and Islam and new developments. From its foundation in 1830, Belgium has been predominantly Catholic, whereas the Netherlands claimed to be a Protestant nation, despite a large minority of Catholics. In the late nineteenth century, self-contained worlds (‘pillars’) emerged in both countries. Catholics, and in the Netherlands orthodox Protestants as well, used their many-branched pillars of societal organizations to emancipate and mobilize their constituencies. In the 1960s, the pillars started to crumble and the number of non-affiliated rose to 42 per cent in Belgium, and 68 per cent in the Netherlands. Notwithstanding the immigration of significant groups of Christians and Muslims and a flourishing market in spirituality, both countries have become very secularized. A final note summarizes the situation in Luxembourg.
Ukraine and Russia
Authors: Coleman Heather J. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the intertwined religious and political histories of Russia and Ukraine, focusing on church–state relations and religion’s role in relations between the two nations. It analyzes the common origins of these countries in medieval Kyivan Rus’, and the ongoing debate about the significance of the decision to accept Orthodox Christianity in 988 to both the relationship between church and state and the cultural orientation of Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians. It traces the legacy of separate religious development in the medieval era; changing church–state relations in Russia; the use of religion as a mode of governance; the civilizational debate about Orthodoxy and European identity; the experience under the Soviet regime; religious revival amid the collapse of communism; and post-communist tensions about the role of religion in a pluralist society, and about competing visions of a ‘Russian World’ on one hand and autocephaly for Ukrainian Orthodoxy on the other.
Spain and Portugal
Authors: de la Cueva Julio 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The modern religious history of Spain and Portugal begins with the religious unity between the state and society forged around Catholicism, and ends with the present era epitomized by ongoing secularization and incipient religious pluralism. With some difficulty, the Catholic Church adapted to the trials posed by nineteenth-century liberalism, reaching an accommodation with the constitutional monarchies in both Iberian countries. The first serious challenge came with the arrival of the republics in Portugal in 1910 and in Spain in 1931. The republics did not last long, however; two Catholic dictatorships governed the fate of the Peninsula until the 1970s, though separation of church and state was formally maintained in Portugal. The dictatorships ended in 1974 and 1975, respectively, giving way to the establishment of new democracies, accompanied on the one hand by secularization in both the state and society, and on the other by growing religious pluralism.