bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Featural dynamics in morphosyntactic change
Authors: Nowenstein Iris Edda , Ingason Anton Karl 
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines Icelandic Dative Substitution (DS) and argues that two of its diachronic side effects, referred to as Person-Specific Retention and an Elsewhere Condition Death Rattle, are explained by the way in which formal features constrain the trajectory of morphosyntactic change. The study is based on naturally occurring data and a recent language acquisition experiment and the analysis draws on weighted grammatical rules as well as Yang’s Tolerance Principle. It is argued that DS does not necessarily involve a change in the syntax, but should rather be viewed as a change in the interpretation of syntactic information at the interface with morphology, resulting in variability on the surface. The results are analyzed in the context of recent theories on specialization in linguistic change and the dynamics of variation in individuals.
Selling Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the lives and challenges of women who sold sex in the late Russian Empire by looking at the different ways in which registered prostitutes defined themselves, and how they were defined by those in authority. Some women who sold sex were urban workers who fought for their rights to be upheld and called out the illegal application of regulation. Others were migrant seasonal workers, who sold sex for a few months or weeks at a time, before moving on to a new place or job. The imperial police often conflated ‘promiscuous’ behaviour with prostitution and registered women as prostitutes against their will. This chapter incorporates women who sold sex into wider labour and migration histories of the late imperial period and pays attention to the interplay between policing practices and ideas regarding gender and sexuality.
Managing Commercial Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on individuals who facilitated the commercial sex transaction in late imperial Russia, namely brothel madams, pimps, and those who rented their properties to registered prostitutes. It examines the complex relationship between brothel madams and the police, as well as addressing the various roles given to madams in official legislation: guardians of public health, watchdogs, and money-makers for the local government. Brothel madams provided lucrative income for the authorities, both formally through taxation and informally through bribes and cash gifts. The rules of regulation enforced a paternalistic relationship between madams and registered prostitutes, as well as providing ample opportunity for exploitation. Finally, the chapter examines hidden managers, in the form of pimps and procurers, and their cultural significance in the late imperial period.
Living with Commercial Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the experience of living in towns and cities in the late imperial period, when prostitution was a visible component of urban life. It examines the different unsuccessful policies employed by the imperial state to enforce the spatial segregation of registered prostitutes and attempts to render brothels invisible on the urban landscape. Official efforts to push lower-class sexuality to the spatial margins are also addressed, particularly policies of zoning and brothel ranking. Some landlords frequently complained to the police about the negative impact of nearby brothels on their rental prices, whereas others helped women who sold sex to resist some of the residency restrictions placed upon them by the police. Ultimately, officialdom’s attempts to limit the visibility of prostitution were spectacularly unsuccessful, as commercial sex was visible everywhere across the Empire’s towns and cities at the turn of the twentieth century.
Non-local form factors in flat and curved spacetime
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the direct explicit calculations of non-local form factors in two-point functions in real scalar field theory. Two simple examples in flat spacetime demonstrate the relationship between logarithmic ultraviolet (UV) divergences in the cut-off and dimensional regularizations, which is used for deriving the form factors. The chapter then shows how one can establish the direct relation between logarithmic UV divergences and the logarithmic behavior of the momentum-dependent non-local form factors in the UV. In the low-energy (infrared) limit, it is possible to observe quadratic decoupling with respect to the mass of the quantum field. In curved space, analogous results are reproduced using the generally covariant heat-kernel solution. Calculations are given in full details.
General notions of perturbative quantum gravity
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the topic of perturbative quantum gravity. Symmetry analysis of classical gravitational models shows that quantum gravity is a Yang-Mills theory. Using power counting, depending on the choice of the action, all possible models are classified as non-renormalizable, renormalizable or superrenormalizable versions of quantum gravity. Gauge fixing in quantum gravity is described, and the bilinear forms needed to analyze the propagators of the quantum metric are calculated. The propagators of the quantum metric are then obtained for a generic model of quantum gravity, using the Barnes-Rivers projectors. In addition, gravitational waves and the notion of the graviton are briefly described.
Final remarks on Part II
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This brief concluding chapter summarizes the general situation in semiclassical theory and quantum gravity. Even in the framework of the usual perturbative quantum field theory, there are several approaches leading to theoretically satisfactory models of quantum gravitational effects, starting from quantum field theory in curved spacetime. Here, the expression “satisfactory” does not mean perfectness, as there is no theoretically perfect model of quantum gravity. The chapter then goes on to review the main unsolved problems of quantum gravity, such as higher-derivative ghosts and instabilities and the cosmological constant problem. It concludes with the hope that the basic aspects of the models presented in this book will be useful for anyone who intends to start working in this fascinating area.
The Anglo-Nigerian Defence Agreement
Authors: Wyss Marco 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The British government only agreed to Nigerian independence once the colonial secretary and the minister of defence had secured a Nigerian commitment to a defence agreement in 1958. But by setting a date for independence, Britain lost a substantial degree of leverage. Meanwhile, the Nigerian government came under pressure; indirectly from the rise of pan-Africanism and non-alignment, and directly from the emergence of an opposition following the elections of 1959. The negotiations for the actual defence agreement thus became more arduous for the British. The combined strength of the ruling parties, the Northern People’s Congress (NPC) and the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), eventually assured its safe passage in the Nigerian parliament. But simultaneously, it exposed the Balewa government to criticism that it undermined Nigeria’s independence and declared foreign policy of non-alignment.
Manifestoitis, 1979–1997
Authors: Thackeray David , Toye Richard 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Labour’s internal crisis, which had led to clashes over the content of election manifestos in 1974 and 1979, worsened in the early 1980s with both the Left and the Right of the party claiming to act as ‘custodians of the manifesto’. Some of those unhappy with the growing authority of the Labour Left broke away to create the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981. While the SDP sought to ‘break the mould’ of British politics, the Alliance struggled to define a coherent progressive programme and identity. Labour’s disastrous ‘suicide note’ manifesto in 1983 led to a change of approach, from 1987 it stressed the moderate nature of its programme. Tony Blair drew inspiration from Thatcher’s approach, centring the New Labour programme in 1997 around a small series of pledges, which were presented as a ‘contract’ with the British people.
Beyond the Purview of International Criminal Judgments
Authors: Sander Barrie 
Published: April 2021

AbstractThis chapter examines three aspects of mass atrocity situations that have generally received little or no attention within the judgments of international criminal courts: first, the structural and slow violence that tends to exist prior to, during, and after the outbreak of situations of mass atrocity; second, the interventions of international actors, including the policies and practices of colonial powers, international financial institutions, and international peacekeeping forces; and finally, the roles performed by bystander communities and resisters during episodes of mass violence. By highlighting these blind spots, the chapter directs attention to the narrative limits of international criminal courts and highlights the risk that their judgments may undermine more nuanced understandings of human agency in mass atrocity contexts, whilst legitimating some of the structural and slow forms of violence and international interventions that they marginalise or exclude.
Conclusion
Authors: Sander Barrie 
Published: April 2021

AbstractThis chapter reflects on three strands of legitimation that pervade the judgments of the international criminal courts examined in this study. Specifically, the chapter suggests that the histories produced by international criminal courts have generally been apologetic to State interests, focused on spectacular forms of violence, and narrowly contextualised in ways that focus on localised systems of criminality rather than broader international networks, emphasise military and political figures at the expense of economic actors, and direct attention towards the ways in which the collective and systemic qualities of system crimes may expand individual agency to the neglect of the dilemmas and ambiguities of agency experienced within the spectrum of human relationships that exist in mass atrocity situations. The chapter concludes the study by offering two perspectives that may open up avenues for orienting the practices of international criminal courts towards a more emancipatory politics: first, a strategic expressivist perspective concerned with whether and how different actors may mobilise the expressive power of the vocabulary and practices of international criminal justice processes to advance their strategic agendas; and second, a critical perspective concerned with contextualising the historical narratives constructed within international criminal judgments, viewing them more modestly as moments of discursive beginning rather than instances of historical closure.
The Role of the Central American Bank for Economic Integration in Regional Integration and Development
Authors: Efraín Deras José , Cortés Alberto , Funes Guillermo 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The Central American Bank of Economic Integration (CABEI) is one of the few modern regional institutions that has proved to be durable in the Central American context, despite the many hurdles the Bank has had to jump since its creation. Accumulated knowledge and the relationships with its main stakeholders have allowed it to develop strengths and to create an efficient and solvent entity in providing medium- and long-term finance to promote regional integration, and the economic and social development of the isthmus. The partners’ commitment and the Bank’s status achieved in international capital markets have turned the CABEI into the main regional development bank source of financing in the region and a strategic development institution for the future of the region. The underlying strength of CABEI lies in its balance sheet in terms of liquidity, capitalization, the quality of its assets, and the capacity to generate income—thus the support of its shareholders who are also beneficiaries as clients.
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Authors: Shields Stuart 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is not a regional development bank in the way that we might traditionally think of such institutions. This chapter sets out to explore what the implications of this might be in the context of two of the major themes that structure this edited volume: market promotion and regional integration. The chapter does this by outlining briefly the significance of the historical context of the constitutive moment when the EBRD was established. The chapter then utilizes these broad heuristics to analyse the social and intellectual context of transition amid the four policy shifts in the EBRD at various critical historical junctures: (1) Initial market construction; (2) institutional shock therapy; (3) the promotion of neoliberal competitiveness; and then (4) post-crisis re-invigoration; before offering some reflections on the EBRD as regional development bank within the wider framing of the principal agent problem.
Regional Development Banks and the Promotion of Public-Private Partnerships
Authors: Howarth David , Liebe Moritz 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The European Investment Bank (EIB) has been at the vanguard of public-private partnership (PPP) promotion and has been followed by most regional development banks (RDB) and many national development banks around the world. EIB activism on the promotion of PPPs can best be understood through the lenses of policy and norm entrepreneurship. Operating strategically, the EIB repeatedly created a ‘policy window’ through which to promote PPPs in different contexts. The EIB developed unrivalled PPP expertise among public bodies globally—with the possible exception of the United Kingdom Treasury. While the EIB was potentially motivated by ‘rationalist’ institutional goals, ideational considerations motivated a small group of British and Irish norm entrepreneurs to promote PPPs. The EIB promoted PPP usage to other RDB through the sharing of expertise and the joint financing of projects.
Against Representationalism
Authors: Papineau David 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In this chapter some initial arguments for representationalism are considered and dismissed. Naturalist representationalism is distinguished from phenomenal intentionalism and shown to be implausible. Appeals to the ‘transparency’ of experience are considered and shown to be problematic. These doubts are put on a more explicit footing and are shown to lead to a general argument that conscious sensory properties cannot possibly be essentially representational. Phenomenal intentionalism is argued to collapse into the qualitative view.
Introduction
Authors: Page Jamie 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter situates the book in relation to key questions relating to the themes of prostitution and subjectivity, explaining its contribution to existing scholarship on both and bringing the reader up to date on relevant historiography. It outlines several definitions of subjectivity as the term has been employed by historians and makes the case for the importance of seeing medieval prostitutes as ‘complex subjects’, both within the history of prostitution specifically and in the larger context of histories from below. A concluding section asks what ethical obligations might be at hand in the archival encounter with past subjects.
Conclusion
Authors: Page Jamie 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter returns to the issues surrounding ‘voices’ and subjectivities posed in the Introduction, and reflects on what the voices of medieval women like those whose cases make up Chapters 1–3 might play in present-day debates on sex work. The chapter reflects on the final difficulty of attributing ‘complex’ subjectivity to individuals and engaging meaningfully with their experience without at least some form of objectification, a vital concern for the history of prostitution.
Necessity and Proportionality and the Right of Self-Defence in International Law
Authors: O'Meara Chris 
Published: April 2021

AbstractStates invariably justify using force extraterritorially by reference to their inherent right of self-defence. In so doing, they accept that the exercise of such right is conditioned by the customary international law requirements of necessity and proportionality. To date, these requirements have received little attention. They are notorious for being normatively indeterminate and operationally complex. As a breach of either requirement renders ostensibly defensive action unlawful, increased determinacy regarding their scope and content is crucial to how international law constrains military force. This book examines the conceptual meaning, substance and practical application of necessity and proportionality as they relate to the right of self-defence following the adoption of the UN Charter in 1945. It provides a coherent and up-to-date description of the applicable contemporary international law and proposes an analytical framework to guide its operation and appraisal. This book contends that necessity and proportionality are conceptually distinct and must be applied in the foregoing order to avoid an insufficient ‘catch-all’ description of (il)legality. Necessity determines whether defensive force may be used to respond to an armed attack and where it must be directed. Proportionality governs how much total force is permissible and prohibits excessive responses. Both requirements are shown to apply on an ongoing basis throughout the duration of an armed conflict prompted by self-defence. Compliance with necessity and proportionality ensures that the purposes of self-defence are met (and nothing more) and that defensive force is not unduly disruptive to third-party interests and to international peace and security.
South Africa
Authors: Leibbrandt Murray , Ranchhod Vimal , Green Pippa 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In this chapter the authors synthesize the findings from several recent studies on South Africa’s high income inequality. These studies use new datasets—including income tax data—and new empirical methods to investigate the drivers of household income and individual earnings inequality in South Africa. Increased returns to experience and an increased rate of return to tertiary qualifications are key drivers of a widening earnings distribution. Tax data merged with survey data show that those at the top of the earnings and income distributions have done well in both absolute and relative terms, thus increasing inequality. Direct taxes and social grants are progressive, indirect taxes are less progressive, and tax exemptions for health insurance and pension fund contributions are regressive. A significant proportion of the current middle class are vulnerable to falling into poverty. Overall, South Africa has not made progress in reducing its extreme inequality over the past decade.
Economic Inequality and Subjective Well-Being Across the World
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , D’Ambrosio Conchita 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
In this chapter the authors use repeated cross-section data from the Afrobarometer, Asianbarometer, Latinobarometer, and Eurobarometer to analyse the variables that are correlated with current and future evaluations of standards of living. They consider resource comparisons and the normative evaluation of distribution (conditional on these gaps), given by the Gini coefficient. The ‘typical’ pattern of a negative effect of gaps on the better-off but a positive effect of gaps on the worse-off is found only in Europe: gaps for the better-off in Africa and America have no correlation with current life evaluations and are associated with more positive expectations of the future. There is no positive estimated coefficient for gaps to the worse-off in Asia. The Gini coefficient is negatively correlated with current life evaluation only in Asia. On the contrary, future life evaluations are more positive in more unequal countries in Africa and America.
Accepting Moral Testimony
Authors: Wiland Eric 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
This chapter clarifies the putatively problematic phenomenon: what it is to accept moral testimony, and what seems to be the basic problem with it. It argues that you accept testimony that p, just in case 1) you believe the testimony that p for a testimonial reason, and 2) either a) the testimonial reason to believe p in fact makes the difference whether you believe p, or b) would alone be enough for you to believe p were there no nontestimonial reasons to believe (or disbelieve) p. To identify what seems to be the basic problem with accepting moral testimony, we need to understand how morality fits in to this formula. Philosophers often claim that accepting pure moral testimony is problematic. This chapter distinguishes three different ways of understanding purity and identifies the specific sense of purity that characterizes the alleged problem.
Free energies
Authors: Sethna James P. 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
Free energies ignore most of a system, to provide the emergent statistical ensemble describing things we care about. Free energies can ignore the external world. The cost of borrowing energy from the world is measured by the temperature, giving us the canonical ensemble and Helmholtz free energy. Similarly, borrowing particles and volume from the world gives us the grand canonical and Gibbs ensembles. Free energies can ignore unimportant internal degrees of freedom. These lead to friction and noise, and theories of chemical reactions and reaction rates. Free energies can be coarse-grained, removing short distances and times. Exercises apply free energies to molecular motors, thermodynamic relations, reaction rate theory, Zipf’s law for word frequencies, zombie outbreaks, and nucleosynthesis.
Politics, Ethics, and History in Just War
Authors: Lang Anthony F 
Published: April 2021

Abstract
The just war tradition can be used to ‘justify’ violence rather than limit it. If the tradition is understood as essentially a political rather than an ethical theory, one that requires consideration of questions about authority and justice as much as intentionality and proportionality, this enabling function might be limited. One important way to spell out the politics involved in the just war tradition is to focus on history and the function of historical examples drawn upon by theorists who write on war and peace. In this chapter, Anthony F Lang, Jr discusses how three theorists of just war—Hugo Grotius, Michael Walzer, and Cécile Fabre—use history in their evaluative work. Lang, Jr confronts these texts with postcolonial and feminist approaches as alternative ways to employ history in passing judgments on the use of collective force.