bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Semi-Formal Diplomacy
Authors: Inkster Nigel 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter assesses semi-official diplomacy in the cyber domain. It begins by describing Track 2 and Track 1.5 diplomacy. Track 2 diplomacy consists of a broad spectrum of activities ranging from academic conferences designed to address specific conflict-related diplomatic issues to much more generic people-to-people contacts designed to create a climate of greater mutual understanding. Meanwhile, Track 1.5 diplomacy seeks to leverage the strengths of both Track 1 and Track 2 diplomacy. It became clear from an early stage that the United States, Russia, and China were in a position to determine the strategic evolution of the cyber domain due to their status as global geo-political actors, their advanced cyber capabilities, their possession of nuclear weapons, and their differences in values and ideology. Russia was the first to make a move towards semi-official diplomacy. Whereas Russia has taken a leading role in international negotiations on cyber governance and cybersecurity, China has arguably become more consequential in terms of how its relationship with the United States will shape the normative culture of the cyber domain. The chapter then considers other examples of semi-official diplomacy as well as prospects for further semi-official diplomacy in the cyber domain.
‘Cybersecurity’ and ‘Development’
Authors: Unwin Tim 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The links between cybersecurity and international development are crucially important, especially for the world’s poorest and most marginalized countries and people. Yet, they have rarely been explored in detail, and all too often international initiatives designed to support development have paid insufficient attention to cybersecurity issues. In large part, this is because the communities of expertise in the two fields are often distinct and separate, speak different languages, have different interests, and are physically located in different organizations and places. Cybersecurity tends to be the domain of computer scientists, security agencies, telecommunication ministries, the private sector, and foreign policy organizations, whereas international development is largely the field of social scientists, development specialists, aid ministries, civil society, and humanitarian organizations. This separation is true of most bilateral and multilateral donors, and, as a result technology-supported aid initiatives frequently ignore fundamentally important issues around digital security. This chapter provides an overview of the intersections between the two, why they are important, and what can be done to improve integration between them in the interests of reducing inequalities and poverty.
Making Sense of Cybersecurity in Emerging Technology Areas
Authors: Vishik Claire , Huth Michael , John Lawrence , Balduccini Marcello 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Shortening technology development cycles in information and communication technology (ICT) make it imperative to anticipate the emergence and evolution of new computing technologies and ecosystems. A wide range of questions must be answered to ensure that new technology environments are viable, including the examination of usability, efficiency, usage models, security, and privacy. These contextual aspects of new technologies are essential for their adoption. They are also important to understanding the potential of new types of cybercrime and requirements for the development of mitigation techniques. However, we lack methodologies to model and predict the features of the evolving ICT ecosystems, and the requirements their evolution places on legal systems and regulatory frameworks. The absence of such models is a significant obstacle to creating consistent approaches necessary to forecast both the technology development and the trends in cybercrime. The chapter discusses which potential methodologies could be used for forecasting cybersecurity concerns in disruptive technology areas and trends in cybercrime in complex environments. It proposes that a unified approach should be developed for predicting cybersecurity effects of innovative technologies and trends in cybercrime. It first examines concepts associated with emerging technologies and their impact on cybersecurity. It then looks at approaches to modelling and analysis already developed in adjacent spaces, with a focus on knowledge representation and risk engineering, and analyses representative examples to illustrate the benefits these approaches can bring.
Managing Risk
Authors: Corbeil Alexander , Rohozinski Rafal 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Internet and social media platforms are disrupting societies and politics on a global level. While these technologies have had immense benefit, facilitating individual empowerment and establishing the data economy, they have also helped to mainstream terrorism, hate, and anti-democratic beliefs. These forces will continue to disrupt traditional democratic politics and contribute to the breakdown of societal cohesion. Regulations that ensure the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms are now a necessary element in the establishment of a new social contract for the digital age. Stakeholders must work to reimpose gatekeeper functions that the Internet has swept away, in turn limiting the ability of dangerous marginal views to influence the mainstream. However, in doing so, these same stakeholders must ensure that their efforts do not result in an Orwellian future that leaves citizens less secure and less empowered.
The Construction of States and Societies in the Sahel
Authors: Olivier de Sardan Jean-Pierre 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Today, there is a threatening divide between state and societies in Sahelian countries. Societies have become increasingly diversified and are permeated by growing divisions. In contrast, the states are relatively standardized. They are partly a legacy of the colonial legacy of the despotic state, but they also developed some original traits—for example, a very specific bureaucratic culture and a quasi-private monopolization by a business-oriented political elite. In a context of aid dependency and elite capture, Sahelian states are today confronted with widespread distrust on the part of their citizens and a serious crisis in relation to the delivery of state services. The social divide, the bias of development aid, the weakness of the political elites, and the failure of electoral democracy have paved the way for the rise of anti-Western and anti-state Islamic fundamentalism, and for politico-religious and politico-ethnic entrepreneurs.
Land Use Change and Climate-Smart Agriculture in the Sahel
Authors: Cotillon Suzanne , Tappan Gray , Reij Chris 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In the 1970s and 1980s, the Sahel experienced recurrent drought and famine. Farmers and their development partners reacted to this crisis by developing climate-smart agricultural practices and changes in land use, including water-harvesting techniques to restore degraded land to productivity. In several densely populated parts of the Sahel, farmers began to protect and manage woody species that regenerated naturally on their farmland. Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is a foundational practice that produces multiple benefits, such as maintaining or improving soil fertility, which raises crop yields, and increasing the production of tree-based fodder, fruit, and firewood. In Niger’s Maradi and Zinder Regions alone, farmers have applied FMNR practices on 4.2 million hectares. The findings presented in this chapter suggest that the future of agriculture in the Sahel will be largely determined by whether low-income smallholder farmers will manage to improve soil fertility, which will depend on maintaining substantial densities of on-farm trees thus increasing tree cover.
Senegala
Authors: Brossier Marie 
Published: December 2021

AbstractSenegal has a history of representative politics dating from the nineteenth century, and has experienced political stability since independence in 1960. Progressive political liberalization since the 1980s has occurred without coups or national conferences, making the country an outlier in the region. However, despite two peaceful transitions of power in 2000 and 2012, Senegal’s politics have also been continuously marred by autocratic behavior and periodic limitations on civil liberties. As such, Senegal remains a “patrimonial democracy.” The country’s social and generational inequalities have been exacerbated by mismanagement of resource reallocation by the state, as well as by its dependence on international aid and remittances. The worrisome socioeconomic situation has sparked migration but also bolstered the engagement of younger generations, with social movements increasingly active in the public arena and more women participating in politics. In addition, religious diversification and greater religious pluralism have increasingly challenged the historically central role of Islam, and especially the Sufi orders, in politics.
Civil Society and Political Order in the Sahel
Authors: Loada Augustin 
Published: December 2021

AbstractLike elsewhere in Africa, civil society in its current forms re-emerged in the Sahelian countries with political liberalization and the transition from authoritarian rule to democratic systems. This chapter surveys the emergence and the forms of civil society, and analyzes its roles and practices in relation to the efforts to create and maintain political order. Sahelian civil societies in each country have struggled to develop, to maintain their autonomy, and to participate in the construction of new political orders, in the face of the authoritarian impulses of powerholders to domesticate and control them. Civil society is called on to play an important role in promoting, defending, and protecting the principles and values of democracy and social justice in the face of states’ efforts to establish stable political order. The chapter explores the many factors shaping its ability to do so in the Sahel.
Security Provision and Counterterrorism in the Sahel
Authors: Barrios Cristina 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the politics of security provision and counterterrorism in the Sahel, in light of the main security challenges facing the region: poverty and structural food insecurity, economic and social grievances, organized crime, protracted crisis derived from territorial and ethnic competition, and terrorism and violent radicalization. It emphasizes the concept of human security against the current background of international policies and academic analysis that favors realpolitik, and it focuses on the characteristics of the contemporary state in this part of Africa to explain both the security challenges and the provision of security. The fragility of institutions and the authoritarian trends observed in Sahelian states affect their capacity and legitimacy. The chapter discusses these two aspects in detail, hinting at paths for security sector reform both by the countries and by regional initiatives such as the G5 Sahel.
Islamic Intellectual Traditions in the Sahel
Authors: Seesemann Rüdiger 
Published: December 2021

AbstractThis chapter offers an analysis of Islamic scholarly culture and intellectual currents in the Sahel through the lens of different conceptions of Islamic knowledge. It discusses three epistemological patterns called traditionalist, reformist, and Islamist and links them to broader intellectual developments within Islam. In the traditionalist paradigm, knowledge practices are rooted in classical Islamic notions of character formation, described as a habitus that can only be attained through internalization and personal connection to a master. In the reformist paradigm, which largely corresponds to “Salafi” or “Wahhabi” epistemology, the primacy of the textual evidence supersedes the authority of the master. The Islamist paradigm pursues a new epistemological approach that seeks to fuse Islamic and “Western” knowledge. The chapter indicates how the different epistemologies intersect with broader worldviews and highlights the ways in which “Salafi” or “Wahhabi” epistemology connects to jihadist action in the Sahel in the early twenty-first century.
Urbanization and The Dynamics of Change in the Sahel
Authors: Boyer Florence , Lessault David 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Since independence, Sahelian cities have been experiencing continuous and increasingly strong population growth, linked to migration and to an unfinished demographic transition. In contexts of rapid urbanization, facilities, infrastructure, and services (school, health, sanitation, etc.) are deficient, and a transfer of poverty from rural areas to cities takes place. Sahelian cities are also marked by the youthfulness of their populations, and an important area for research are the questions of what the city does to youth, and what youth does to the city. Knowledge of Sahelian cities remains fragmented. If the dynamics and challenges of capitals such as Dakar, Ouagadougou, or Bamako are fairly well known, those of N’Djamena, Niamey, or Nouakchott are less so. There are few studies of small and medium-sized cities, and these are in need of updating in the contemporary context of decentralization. This chapter surveys the state of knowledge of urbanization in the Sahel, and suggests directions for future research.
Sahelian Migrations Within Africa
Authors: Bredeloup Sylvie 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter will examine patterns and history of intra-African migration from the Sahel across national borders within Africa, beginning in the colonial period. During colonization, the French often recruited West African workers across borders who served in the army and provided security for French trading posts along the African coasts. At the time of decolonization, shopkeepers in marketplaces, as well as big merchants or gem traders from the Sahel were also entrepreneurs, occupying an intermediate position between native populations and national authorities in international trade networks. Over the decades, tougher controls at borders and intensified deportations despite regional agreements on the free movement of people, the outbreak of civil wars, or of political turmoil have all had a significant impact on population movements from the Sahel, and have also increased insecurity for Sahelian migrants.
Niger
Authors: Mueller Lisa 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Niger remains one of the least studied countries in Africa, despite its fascinating history and striking need for solutions to political and economic challenges to development. This chapter outlines those challenges, places them in historical context, and assesses the possibilities for relief. Chronic dilemmas include extreme poverty and a fragile democracy that is frequently interrupted by military coups and authoritarian resurgence. Emerging problems include climate change, terrorism, and migration pressures. Nigerien citizens, having long avoided some of the social unrest of other African countries, are increasingly showing signs of discontent as more of them take to the streets in protest to express their frustrations with multifaceted concerns. The overriding theme of Nigerien society is precarious stability: Politics and economics could generally be much worse, but they could also be much better.
Mapping the Sahelian Space
Authors: Walther Olivier J. , Retaillé Denis 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the geographical meaning of the Sahel and its spatial dynamics. Unlike other approaches that define the Sahel as a bioclimatic zone or as an ungoverned area, it shows that the Sahel is primarily a space of circulation in which uncertainty has historically been overcome by mobility. The first section discusses how precolonial empires relied on a network of markets and cities that facilitated trade and social relationships across the region and beyond. The second section explores changing regional mobility patterns precipitated by colonial powers and the new approach they developed to control networks and flows. The third section discusses the contradiction between the mobile strategies adopted by local herders, farmers, and traders in the Sahel and the territorial development initiatives of modern states and international donors. Particular attention is paid in the last section to how the Sahel was progressively redefined through a security lens.
Ethics
Authors: White Stuart 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter seeks to clarify some of the core ethical arguments surrounding welfare states. The analysis focuses on three key values. First, we will consider the concept of need. What are basic needs? How do we conceptualize and measure them? Do citizens have rights to what they need? Second, we focus on principles of equality and, third, we look at arguments surrounding the implications of the welfare state for liberty. A final section concludes by noting some normative issues moving increasingly to the forefront of debate. A changing global political context raises new issues about the international salience of these issues, questions which national welfare states have found it difficult to address.
The Regulation of Employment
Authors: Emmenegger Patrick , Marx Paul 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The regulation of job security is an important, but understudied, aspect of the welfare state. This contribution reviews academic debates that aim to explain the development of job security regulations across time and countries. While earlier debates focused on dismissal protection as an issue contested between capital and labour, the varieties-of-capitalism approach has emphasized the complementarity between job security regulations and the production models in coordinated market economies. Recently, political economists have begun to discuss diverging regulatory trajectories for open-ended and temporary employment contracts. This is argued to produce ‘labour market dualism’ and conflicts within the working class between ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’. The labour market crisis that began in 2008 seems to have changed the politics of job security regulations in those countries that were heavily affected.
Religion and Latin Western Europe, 600–1500
Authors: Koziol Geoffrey 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The medieval Catholic Church evolved. That is, over the course of the Middle Ages everything about the religion changed, yet the changes occurred within well-established patterns and principles that remained constant. Among those patterns were: oscillations between episcopal and papal ideologies of ecclesiastical unity; a papacy whose theoretical claims to authority never matched its actual power; and a commitment to pastoral care. The Church also insisted on doctrinal and institutional conformity, manifested especially in its reliance on creeds that presented non-logical propositions as articles of faith. The result was to generate heresies, but in responding to heresies the Church also educated the laity in matters of faith, while allowing considerable latitude in matters of private and lay devotions. Among such devotions, the ‘bridal mysticism’ of devout women stands as an example of both the limitations and intellectual depth of the religion.
Judaism and Europe
Authors: Freud-Kandel Miri 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
It is not possible to make sense of Judaism today without understanding how it evolved in Europe. It was in Europe that the multiple options took shape for thinking about what Jewishness could mean once it became just one component among others in an individual’s sense of self. At the same time, European Jewry has endured a long and painful journey as it tried to create confident accounts of how Jewish identity could be understood. This journey reflects a struggle faced right across Europe between accommodating difference and acknowledging the inherent limitations of tolerance. With this in mind, this chapter examines the different pathways that have been forged by Jews across Europe as they sought to construct proud interpretations of both Judaism and Jewishness. In so doing, key themes are explored: cultural Judaism, religious reform, assimilation, anti-Semitism, secularization, and Zionism.
France
Authors: Chelini-Pont Blandine 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
For fourteen centuries, French territory was an assemblage of Catholic and monarchical interests; the result is a deep-seated Catholic imprint which endures to this day though more so in some parts of France than in others. After the Revolution, France experimented with various forms of government which promoted a progressive separation between state and religion (meaning the Catholic Church). This was a long, difficult, and at times painful process resulting eventually in a Republic, in which the notion of laïcité became ever more important. Since the 1970s, the French population has become both increasingly indifferent to religion and increasingly diverse. Currently 40 per cent of the population has no religion, and Islam constitutes an important presence in the country. The growth of Islam has provoked a variety of reactions: accommodation, restriction, suspicion, and resentment.
Germany
Authors: Minkenberg Michael 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the relationship between religion and the state in modern Germany, in particular the church–state regime from German unification onwards, and church involvement in politics at a variety of levels. It contrasts the ‘stubbornness’ of the ‘partnership model’ between church and state with a variety of policy changes, themselves the result of an increasingly fluid context of religious pluralization which puts pressure on the church–state relationship. The chapter aims to capture this tension, both from a historical perspective and in light of current challenges. The first section delineates the historical origins of the German model and its relevance for the relationship between the majority churches (Protestant and Catholic) and democratization. The second section addresses aspects of religion and state at particular levels of interaction: the polity (the constitution), and policies (the influence of churches in public education, and the governance of religious diversity—particularly Muslim rights).
Nordic Europe
Authors: Furseth Inger 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines religious change in the five Nordic countries: Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Iceland. Immigration came later to these countries than in many other parts of Europe, but it has transformed Sweden, Norway, and Denmark into relatively diverse societies; Finland and Iceland remain more homogeneous. In spite of these differences, the religious outlook is changing right across the Nordic countries with a decline in membership in the majority churches, falling indices of religious belief and practice in most of them, growing numbers of people who place themselves outside the faith communities, and multiplying forms of spirituality that lie beyond religious institutions altogether. The chapter addresses the implications that these changes have for religion and state relations, and the role of religion in politics, the media, and civil society.
Peripheries
Authors: Davie Grace , Jödicke Ansgar , Makrides Vasilios N. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This short chapter contains three case studies: on Malta, Cyprus, and the South Caucasus. Given their respective locations on the southern and south-eastern extremities of Europe, all three have been subject to diverse and at times competing religious currents over many centuries. The impact of these currents needs careful interpretation. In the twenty-first century, Malta remains an actively Catholic society. Cyprus is still divided on ethno-religious lines: Turkish Cypriots are concentrated in the north and Greek Cypriots live in the south. The situation in the South Caucasus is more complex. It is shaped by a mixture of Western European, Russian, and Turkish references, but overall the region remains more a periphery of Europe than of Iran or Asia.