bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Physical activity disparities across Europe: clustering European regions by health-related physical activity levels
Authors: Lera-Lopez Fernando , Marco Rocio 
Published: September 2021

Summary
In the context of stagnating global levels of physical activity (PA), this study examines the geographical segmentation of PA at the regional level (196 regions) in Europe. Cluster analysis and multinomial logistic regression are applied. Cluster analysis provides a taxonomy of four differentiated groups according to the health-related PA levels of the European regions. This taxonomy shows that there are significant regional disparities among European countries in terms of the regional PA level. The cluster profiles in terms of regional socioeconomic characteristics are described for each group, emphasizing the regional characteristics associated with PA. Regional economic variables, tertiary education and social Internet use are significant variables for characterizing the types of regions. The results emphasize the relevance of a European regional approach for reducing inter-regional PA disparities and improving health through PA in Europe. Practical implications of this research are based on regional European coordination, such as collaborative models of sport infrastructure use, co-financing of inter-regional facilities, mutual physical educational scholar programs and promotion of common inter-regional sport competitions and sporting events. Finally, formal schemes for exchanging of best regional practices to promote health-enhancing PA might increase the perception and the role of PA at the regional level in the European society.
Self-medication in Greece: the financial impact from expanding the OTC market
Authors: Naoum Vasiliki , Nomikos Nikos , Naoum Panagiota , Athanasakis Kostas , Kyriopoulos John 
Published: September 2021

Abstract

Objectives
To assess the financial impact of self-medication enhancement through a potential expansion of the over-the-counter (OTC) drug list in Greece.

Methods
An analysis consisting of two scenarios was conducted. The first scenario estimated the financial effects of hypothetically switching 5% of the volume of the total sales of reimbursed drugs in Greece to OTC, while the second scenario estimated the effects of switching to OTC the total sales volume of a set of active substances (which are currently reimbursed), facilitated by a consensus panel meeting. The analysis was conducted from the third-party payer, individual and societal perspectives. Data and costs refer to the year 2019.

Key findings
Switching 5% of the volume of the total sales of reimbursed drugs to OTC was estimated to lead to total annual savings of 227.57 million euros. The annual savings from the third-party payer, individual and societal perspectives were estimated at 97.06 million euros, 91.81 million euros and 38.69 million euros, respectively. Switching the total sales volume of the reimbursed drugs of the active substances which emerged from the consensus panel meeting was estimated to lead to total annual savings of 567.57 million euros. The annual savings for the third-party payer, individuals and society were estimated at 232.91 million euros, 241.01 million euros and 93.65 million euros, respectively.

Conclusions
Although the present analysis is model-based, and thus did not incorporate some potentially significant parameters, it demonstrated the financial savings which a potential expansion of the OTC drug list could produce for the third-party payer, individuals and society in Greece.
Law and Legalities at Work: HR Practitioners as Quasi-Legal Professionals
Authors: Kirk Eleanor 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Building upon research that explores the managerialisation of law and the production of ‘symbolic’ and ‘cosmetic’ compliance, this article explores the way in which HR professionals understand and engage in the (re)production of legality at work. Drawing on interviews, observation and discourse analysis, it presents rich qualitative data on the legal consciousness of HR professionals to argue that the profession has become increasingly lawyer-like, or quasi-legal. Legal expertise confers legitimacy and authority upon a somewhat compromised professional identity, which clambers for status within corporate hierarchies. The mobilisation of law occurs in ways that reflect the familiar contradictions of HRM practitioners’ conflicted role as both ‘employee champions’ and ‘business partners’. Labour law is mobilised in ways that lend substance and authoritativeness to organisational policies and procedures, but also help employers to ‘sail close to the wind’ legally: law is harnessed to protect employers, keeping them out of court and legitimising a managerial paradigm of what is ‘right’, ‘fair’ and justifiable. The overall effect is primarily to strengthen the employer’s hand to act, whether by stifling disputes, conferring legitimacy upon organisationally defined versions of legality, or justifying core-periphery divides and the necessity for flexibility and organisational ‘agility’. The encoding of quasi-law can render labour law itself largely invisible to workers, making it difficult for them to have recourse to it when required.
Educators’ perceptions of the early impact of COVID-19 on midwifery training in Kenya: a cross-sectional survey
Authors: Shikuku Duncan N , Tallam Edna , Wako Ibrahim , Mualuko Agnes , Waweru Lucy , Nyaga Lucy , Bashir Isaak , Ameh Charles 
Published: September 2021

Abstract

Background
This paper presents a descriptive analysis of the perceptions of Kenyan midwifery educators regarding the early impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on the continuity of midwifery education.

Methods
A cross-sectional online survey was conducted among 51 midwifery/clinical medicine educators from 35 diploma training colleges from all eight regions of Kenya. Educators’ concerns and satisfaction regarding the delivery of training during the early phases of the pandemic were expressed as proportions on a three-point Likert scale.

Results
Of the educators, 76% were extremely concerned about face-to-face teaching during the pandemic; 96% of educators had started delivering virtual teaching (VT), with only 41% being extremely confident in facilitating VT; and 97% were unsatisfied with the measures in place in their institutions to continue face-to-face teaching.

Conclusion
To minimise the impact of COVID-19 on midwifery education in Kenya, capacity building for VT and mitigation measures for safe in-person training are urgently needed.
Control of inflammation using non-invasive neuromodulation: past, present and promise
Authors: Tynan Aisling , Brines Michael , Chavan Sangeeta S 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The nervous system has been increasingly recognized as a novel and accessible target in the regulation of inflammation. The use of implantable and invasive devices targeting neural circuits has yielded successful results in clinical settings but does have some risk or adverse effects. Recent advances in technology and understanding of mechanistic pathways have opened new avenues of non-invasive neuromodulation. Through this review we discuss the novel research and outcomes of major modalities of non-invasive neuromodulation in the context of inflammation including transcutaneous electrical, magnetic and ultrasound neuromodulation. In addition to highlighting the scientific observations and breakthroughs, we discuss the underlying mechanisms and pathways for neural regulation of inflammation.
The Indirect Genetic Effect Interaction Coefficientψ: Theoretically Essential and Empirically Neglected
Authors: Bailey Nathan W , Desjonquères Camille 
Published: September 2021

AbstractThe interaction effect coefficient ψ has been a much-discussed, fundamental parameter of indirect genetic effect (IGE) models since its formal mathematical description in 1997. The coefficient simultaneously describes the form of changes in trait expression caused by genes in the social environment and predicts the evolutionary consequences of those IGEs. Here, we report a striking mismatch between theoretical emphasis on ψ and its usage in empirical studies. Surveying all IGE research, we find that the coefficient ψ has not been equivalently conceptualized across studies. Several issues related to its proper empirical measurement have recently been raised, and these may severely distort interpretations about the evolutionary consequences of IGEs. We provide practical advice on avoiding such pitfalls. The majority of empirical IGE studies use an alternative variance-partitioning approach rooted in well-established statistical quantitative genetics, but several hundred estimates of ψ (from 15 studies) have been published. A significant majority are positive. In addition, IGEs with feedback, that is, involving the same trait in both interacting partners, are far more likely to be positive and of greater magnitude. Although potentially challenging to measure without bias, ψ has critically-developed theoretical underpinnings that provide unique advantages for empirical work. We advocate for a shift in perspective for empirical work, from ψ as a description of IGEs, to ψ as a robust predictor of evolutionary change. Approaches that “run evolution forward” can take advantage of ψ to provide falsifiable predictions about specific trait interactions, providing much-needed insight into the evolutionary consequences of IGEs.
Insight Into Host-Microbe Interactions Using Microbial Flow Cytometry Coupled to Next-Generation Sequencing
Authors: Silverman Michael A , Green Jamal L 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
Antibody-based assays have been a cornerstone of infectious disease diagnostics for over 100 years [1]. These assays rely on the exquisite sensitivity and specificity of humoral response to almost all infections. While next-generation sequencing (NGS) has tremendous potential to improve diagnostics and uncover host-microbial relationships by directly identifying nucleic acids from infectious microbes, challenges and opportunities for new approaches remain. Here, we review a group of cutting-edge techniques that couple antibody responses with flow cytometry of antibody tagged microbes and NGS. These studies are bringing into focus the dynamic relationship between our immune systems and endogenous microbial communities, which are an important source of pathogens. For simplicity, we use the umbrella term mFLOW-Seq (microbial flow cytometry coupled to NGS) to describe these approaches.
Dosimetric comparison among dynamic conformal arc therapy, coplanar and non-coplanar volumetric modulated arc therapy for single brain metastasis
Authors: Torizuka Daichi , Uto Megumi , Takehana Keiichi , Mizowaki Takashi 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
In the delivery of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) by linear accelerator (LINAC), dynamic conformal arc therapy (DCAT) with non-coplanar beams is conventionally used. However, volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) can improve target conformity, thereby decreasing the dose to organs at risk by inversed planning methods, but few studies have directly compared DCAT and VMAT with and without non-coplanar beams in patients with single brain metastasis. We therefore conducted a planning study to compare the dose distribution in DCAT, VMAT using only a coplanar arc (CoVMAT) and VMAT with non-coplanar arcs (NcVMAT) in the treatment of single brain metastasis. DCAT, CoVMAT and NcVMAT plans were created for 15 patients. The three modalities were compared in terms of target conformity, target coverage, the dose to normal brain tissue, monitor units (MUs) and beam-on time. Both conformity indices (RTOG-CI and IP-CI) as well as the D98% of the gross target volume (GTV) were significantly better in the NcVMAT plans than in the DCAT plans. Comparisons of the doses to normal brain tissue revealed that the V20Gy, V15Gy, V12Gy, V10Gy and V5Gy were significantly smaller in the NcVMAT plans than in the plans based on the other two modalities. The MUs of the DCAT and NcVMAT plans were larger than those of the CoVMAT plans, and the beam-on time was longer in the NcVMAT and CoVMAT plans than in the DCAT plans. Compared to the CoVMAT and DCAT plans, NcVMAT plans significantly improved target conformity and reduced the doses to normal brain tissue at V20Gy, V15Gy, V12Gy, V10Gy and V5Gy.
Relationship with other Areas of International Law
Authors: Hongler Peter 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the interaction of the international tax regime with other international law disciplines such as trade law, investment treaty law, and human rights law. Moreover, it contains an overview of tax rules in non-tax agreements such status of force agreements or headquarter agreements signed by host states with international organizations.
The goal is to outline how these other legal regimes influence the international tax regime. The most obvious example is trade law as it limits the legislative leeway of states in tax matters in various ways. In particular, obligations derived from most-favoured nation and national treatment clauses are of great importance for tax policy and will be discussed in detail. But also, investment treaties provide for several policy limitations. In order to outline the interaction between trade law, investment treaty law, and the international tax regime, reference is made so several decisions of international courts.
The Refugee in International Law
Authors: Goodwin-Gill Guy S , McAdam Jane 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
The status of the refugee in international law, and of everyone entitled to protection, has always been precarious, not least in times of heightened and heated debate. People have always moved in search of safety, and they always will. This completely revised and updated edition casts new light on the refugee definition, the meaning of persecution, the role of gender and sexual orientation, the types of harm, and the protection due to refugees. The book reviews the fundamental principle of non-refoulement as a restraint on the conduct of States, even as States themselves seek new ways to prevent refugees and asylum seekers arriving. The book analyses related principles of protection—non-discrimination, due process, rescue at sea, and solutions—in light of what States, UNHCR, and treaty-monitoring bodies actually do, rather than merely deductively. It closely examines relevant treaty standards, and the role of UNHCR in providing protection, contributing to the development of international refugee law, and promoting solutions. New chapters bring into focus evolving protection demands in relation to nationality, statelessness, and displacement in the context of disasters and climate change. The book factors in the challenges posed by the movement of people across land and sea in search of refuge, and their interception, reception, and later treatment. The overall aim remains the same as in previous editions: to provide a sound basis for protection in international law, taking full account of State and community interests and recognizing the need to bridge gaps in the regime which now has 100 years of law and practice behind it.
Refugees Defined and Described
Authors: Goodwin-Gill Guy S , McAdam Jane , Dunlop Emma 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter defines and describes refugees. The term ‘refugee’ is a term of art, that is, a term with a content verifiable according to principles of general international law. In ordinary usage, it has a broader, looser meaning, signifying someone in flight, who seeks to escape conditions or personal circumstances found to be intolerable. For the purposes of international law, States have further limited the concept of the refugee. Defining refugees may appear an unworthy exercise in legalism and semantics, obstructing a prompt response to the needs of people in distress. On the one hand, States have nevertheless insisted on fairly restrictive criteria for identifying those who benefit from refugee status and asylum or local protection. On the other hand, the definition or description may facilitate and justify aid and protection, while satisfying the relevant criteria ought in practice to indicate entitlement to the pertinent rights or benefits. In determining the content in international law of the class of refugees, therefore, the traditional sources—treaties and the practice of States—must be examined, also taking into account the normative impact of the practice and procedures of the various bodies established by the international community to deal with the problems of refugees.
Loss
and Denial of Refugee Status and Its Benefits
Authors: Goodwin-Gill Guy S , McAdam Jane , Dunlop Emma 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the loss and denial of refugee status and its benefits. Most international instruments not only define refugees, but also provide for the termination or denial of refugee status and the withdrawal of protection. The International Refugee Organization (IRO) Constitution, for example, described the circumstances in which refugees and the displaced would ‘cease to be the concern’ of the organization, and excluded various others, including ‘war criminals, quislings and traitors’, and ‘ordinary criminals extraditable by treaty’. Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights prohibits invocation of the right to seek asylum ‘in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations’. These categories have been expanded in other instruments and in State practice so that, in general, refugee status may be lost or denied because of voluntary acts of the individual; a change of circumstances; where protection is accorded by other States or international agencies; and in the case of criminals or other ‘undeserving’ cases.
The
Principle of Non-refoulement—Part 1
Authors: Goodwin-Gill Guy S , McAdam Jane , Dunlop Emma 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the principle of non-refoulement. In the context of immigration control in continental Europe, refoulement is a term of art covering, in particular, summary reconduction to the frontier of those discovered to have entered illegally and summary refusal of admission of those without valid papers. Refoulement is thus to be distinguished from expulsion or deportation, the more formal process whereby a lawfully resident alien may be required to leave a State, or be forcibly removed. The principle of non-refoulement prescribes, broadly, that no refugee should be returned to any country where he or she is likely to face persecution, torture, or other serious ill-treatment. The chapter examines the sources of the principle; the question of ‘risk’; the personal scope of the principle, including its application to certain categories of asylum seekers; exceptions to the principle; and its operation in the context of extradition and expulsion.
Protection under Human Rights and General International
Law
Authors: Goodwin-Gill Guy S , McAdam Jane , Dunlop Emma 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the development of the principle of non-refoulement beyond the Refugee Convention. In broad terms, this can be described as ‘complementary protection’ because the non-refoulement obligation derives from sources that are complementary to the Refugee Convention. However, though not a term of art, ‘complementary protection’ commonly implies the grant of a domestic legal status as well. Under general international law, the principle of non-refoulement is wider than its expression in article 33 of the 1951 Refugee Convention. While States have always recognized, to varying degrees, the protection needs of people falling outside the ‘refugee’ definition in article 1A(2) of the Convention, it is only in the last 25 years or so that they have begun to articulate such protection as an international legal obligation, rather than as a matter left to the discretion and humanitarian goodwill of national governments.
The Commencement of Emergency Arbitration
Authors: Sim Cameron 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter details the process for commencement of emergency arbitration. Prior to the commencement of emergency arbitration, an analysis should be conducted on three issues: the applicability of emergency arbitration rules; the jurisdiction of the emergency arbitrator; and the admissibility of the prospective claim for emergency relief. If the answer to any of these three issues is in the negative, then emergency arbitration is not an option. If, however, the answer to all three of these issues is in the affirmative, then the forum of emergency arbitration is available for the applicant to seek urgent relief. There are then four further matters which require consideration. The first matter concerns the commencement of arbitration on the merits of the applicant's underlying substantive claims. The second matter concerns the appropriateness of emergency arbitration versus an application before a national court of competent jurisdiction. The third matter concerns the impact on settlement prospects. Finally, the fourth matter concerns filing requirements and costs. Consideration of these four matters may tip the balance either in favour of or against emergency arbitration, or an application for urgent relief before a court of competent jurisdiction.
The Emergency Arbitrator
Authors: Sim Cameron 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the status, appointment, and removal of the emergency arbitrator. In an emergency arbitration, all power is concentrated in the emergency arbitrator as the sole decision-maker. The emergency arbitrator must provide justice on the run, by determining the application within narrowly prescribed timeframes, and making snap decisions that may have significant consequences for the parties. Thus, the identity of the emergency arbitrator is critical to the smooth conduct of proceedings and, more importantly, to ensuring the correct decision on the application is reached. The emergency arbitrator is appointed within a rapid timeframe, and generally without party input. However, the emergency arbitrator has been identified to have various legal peculiarities. Nevertheless, the status of the emergency arbitrator does not impact on the conduct of proceedings. This issue only comes to the fore in the context of enforcement of the emergency arbitrator's decision.
The Emergency Arbitrator’s Decision
Authors: Sim Cameron 
Published: September 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the emergency arbitrator's decision, which may take the form of an order or award. The challenge for the emergency arbitrator is to produce a principled and coherent decision within the prescribed timeframes, and to ensure this complies with formal requirements set out in the applicable rules. The core obligation as regards the emergency arbitrator's decision is that the emergency arbitrator should ensure that the emergency arbitration decision is valid. The majority of Emergency Arbitration Rules expressly recognise that the decision of the emergency arbitrator binds the parties when it is rendered. However, the emergency arbitrator and the arbitral tribunal are empowered to revisit that decision. Following the emergency arbitrator's decision, a party has three options to challenge it: before the emergency arbitrator; before the arbitral tribunal; or in enforcement proceedings before a national court. The chapter also considers the provisions concerning the automatic expiration of emergency arbitrator decisions, as well as the determination and allocation of the costs of the proceedings.