bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The introductory chapter presents the relevance of the topic in the framework of the practice of international organizations and existing legal scholarship. In particular, it describes how scholars and practitioners do not share a common understanding of what an international organization is and the consequences of this absence of agreement. The main claim is that in order to conceptualize international organizations we have to look at the characteristics of the legal systems they develop and the legal nature of their rules. Four main theses are presented: functionalism (international nature), constitutionalism (internal nature), exceptionalism (only some organizations develop internal rules), and informalism (only some rules have an internal nature). Finally, it sets up the aim of the book: to analyse different conceptualizations, to assess the existence of a general regulatory framework, and to provide a definition of the concept of an international organization in international law.
Functionalism
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Functionalism is conventionally considered the mainstream paradigm of the law of international organizations: organizations are agents of their member states by the means of a contractual relationship; the law created by international organizations is purely international law; the institutional veil is characterized by a crystallin transparency; the autonomy of the organization is minimal and only granted by a rigid conferral of competences and few implied powers; the conduct of member states acting in the institutional forum is relevant as a matter of international law. This chapter introduces the historical roots of this conceptualization and elaborates why under this perspective the rules of the organizations are purely international law. It describes the flaws of this theory, discussing the breach of institutional rules by the organization and the adoption of countermeasures against a wrongful act committed by a member state.
Introduction
Authors: Allison Mark A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The original goal of socialism in Britain was to supersede “politics” and achieve a non-governmental form of collective life. This Introduction argues for approaching the period between 1817 and 1918 as a “socialist century,” demarcated, respectively, by Robert Owen’s introduction of his first socialist “Plan” and the Labour Party’s adoption of its first constitution and party program. Adopting this approach brings into view a tradition of anti-political socialist activism that spans the century. But the particular purpose of Imagining Socialism is to disclose and elucidate the role the aesthetic concepts and modalities play in subtending the heterogeneous anti-political experiments it investigates. In so doing, this study reveals unexpected commonalities between what are often treated as discontinuous and even antithetical stages of socialist activity. The Introduction also elucidates this study’s central theoretical terms and defines its central object of study by distinguishing socialism from several adjacent traditions (including liberalism, civic republicanism, and Marxian communism). Finally, it argues that socialism is best conceived as a goal to be imagined, rather than a readymade ideological program to be imposed.
Self-Consuming Socialism
Authors: Allison Mark A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides a comprehensive reassessment of the most vocal advocates of socialism in Britain at midcentury, the Christian Socialists. In the revolutionary year 1848, a group of young professionals and clergymen resolved to address working-class discontent. Inspired by the egalitarian theology of their leader, the Anglican Divine Frederick Denison Maurice, they set out to “Christianize Socialism.” Refuting the oft-repeated claim that the movement was inauthentic because it discouraged working-class political engagement, this chapter’s analysis contextualizes Christian Socialist doctrine in light of scholarship on the diversity—and, in many cases, religiosity—of nineteenth-century socialism. Moreover, it reveals that the group’s signature anti-political undertaking, the sponsorship of cooperative workshops, the “Working Men’s Associations,” owes a quiet debt to Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s aesthetic philosophy. While maintaining that the Christian Socialists deserve to be taken seriously qua socialism, this chapter nevertheless identifies several deep-seated antinomies in their project. Through a reading of Charles Kingsley’s influential social problem novel Alton Locke: Tailor and Poet (1850), it explores the fundamental incongruities between not only the group’s Anglican Christianity and its socialism, but also its militant affect and resolutely moderate intentions. These contradictions doomed the movement to be a “self-consuming socialism”—an outcome eerily prefigured by Kingsley’s predilection for the topos of cannibalism. Finally, a brief coda considers the group’s legacy and impact on Britain’s “socialist revival” at the fin de siècle.
Utopian Socialism, Women’s Emancipation, and the Origins of Middlemarch
Authors: Allison Mark A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates that George Eliot’s investigation of the early, “utopian” socialists catalyzed the writing of perhaps the most iconic of all Victorian novels, Middlemarch (1871–2). The utopian socialists (as Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Henri de Saint-Simon, and their followers were increasingly known) frequently suggested that the transition to a new, nongovernmental social order hinged upon the emancipation of women. Their untimely calls for female liberation became newly salient with the coalescence, in the 1860s, of Britain’s first national campaign for women’s suffrage. This chapter’s reading of Middlemarch shows that socialist discourse provides Eliot a rich symbolic vocabulary with which to conduct her own novelistic investigation of the “Woman Question”—and to engage in a clandestine meditation on the claims of the suffragists. By incorporating socialist elements into her novel, Eliot could unobtrusively position herself in relation to the ideals and activities of this burgeoning movement—a movement in which a number of her closest friends were involved. Attending to Middlemarch’s socialist motif demystifies the novel’s shrouded origins and decodes a hitherto illegible record of Eliot’s proto-feminist aspirations which, like the early socialists’ own, were inextricably intertwined with skepticism about institutional politics. This chapter also provides a genealogy of “utopian socialism,” a category that has exerted a distorting influence on scholarship since Marx and Engels tarred their rivals with it in The Communist Manifesto.
The Mystery of Reference and Objective Representational Content
Authors: Taylor Kenneth A. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the main themes and ambitions of the book and gives an overview of the content and organization of subsequent chapters. One of those ambitions is to explain how it is possible, for the vehicles of both language and thought, to be “semantically answerable” to the world—or, equivalently, to have objective representational content. In this chapter the problem, or mystery, of objective representational content is set out in some detail. The proposed explanation (“two-factor referentialism”) is outlined and contrasted with a fundamentally different rival approach. Various concomitant problems to be addressed are also articulated—e.g., concerning the relation between language and thought, the role of causation in the constitution of reference, the place of intentionality in the natural world, and the possibility of meta-cognition.
Prologue
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Did the OSS have a Trojan Horse in their midst? Joe Koide, a Japanese American recruit writing propaganda for Morale Operations of the agency, might have been a triple agent for the United States, Japan, and the Soviet Union. Kunsung Rie, a former employee at a Japanese consulate officer prior to the war, was now part of the Korean American team code-named Napko, in training to penetrate Japanese-occupied Korea in the summer of 1945. Lincoln Kan, a suave Chinese American, was a Secret Intelligence agent sent to Macao to gather intelligence prior to the Allied invasion of southern China. But he went missing for six months, only to fail to properly authenticate his identity to his superior officers at the headquarters. Had Kan been captured by the Japanese and turned?
Knowing Your Enemies and Allies: Research & Analysis and Secret Intelligence
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Asian Americans in Secret Intelligence had the right stuff. They were knowledgeable of the language, terrain, and local culture—skills necessary for the production of accurate intelligence assessments of the enemy, the local population, and the physical terrain. Some used open source materials; others gathered strategic and tactical intelligence behind enemy lines; a few in the Eastern Research Institute monitored radio traffic. Asian Americans also provided information on sites for aerial bombing or invasion during interviews, while others in Hawai’i were unaware that their correspondence with people in East Asia was recorded and given to the OSS to shed light on political factions surrounding the Chinese National government and the Korean independence movement. Penetration of Japan proper proved difficult; their network in Southeast Asia proved invaluable to the point that General Albert Wedemeyer made Secret Intelligence the pivotal agency for all intelligence in East Asia.
Countering Enemy Spies, Rescuing POWs, and Dealing with Collaborators
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Asian Americans joined X-2 (the counterintelligence branch) and were involved in spy hunts. They were not always successful, as the Japanese Mata Hari’s spy ring eluded capture. Yet Asian American like John Kwock were nevertheless effective in securing OSS facilities from penetration by Japanese and Chinese Nationalist agents under Tai Li. Their greatest contribution, however, came with the Allied POWs rescue operations for missions code-named Cardinal and Pigeon. They also took up war crimes investigations immediately after the cessation of hostilities. They looked into alleged collaborationist activities of their ethnic cohorts such as Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan’s radio propaganda broadcaster Herbert Moy, and others whose alleged activities were deemed treasonous by European American investigators such as Frank Farrell. With their expert knowledge of the local context in East Asia as well as the alleged traitors’ Asian American background, this provided them with a unique ability to assess these cases.
Epilogue
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Each of the three Asian American suspects were considered and then dismissed as the Trojan Horse within the OSS. The suspicion that the double agent was someone with a short family history in the United States was proven incorrect. Instead, the foreign agent inside the OSS was one whose family heritage traced back to the American Revolutionary War and whose ancestor signed the Declaration of Independence. Yet blame for the intelligence leakage to a foreign power ultimately rests on the FBI, the State Department, and the director of the OSS itself for their inadequacies in securing classified documents and ineptitude at counterintelligence.
Measuring Drug Value
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
As healthcare costs increased around the world in recent decades, countries incorporated health technology assessment (HTA) into their decisions about which new technologies to pay for and how much they should pay. This chapter describes approaches for drug value assessment that are part of the HTA procedures in these countries, highlighting England and Wales’ National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, perhaps the world’s most visible HTA body. We then describe efforts since the 1980s to introduce HTA in the United States, including Oregon’s Medicaid experiment and the federally funded Office of Technology Assessment. The chapter explores the roots of resistance to these efforts, including the notion of American exceptionalism—the belief that personal and economic freedom is paramount and deep resistance to the idea of healthcare rationing. The resistance, explained at least partly by these factors, ultimately led to a scaling back of HTA in the United States.
Aligning Prices With Value
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Value-based pricing aims to optimize incentives for pharmaceutical companies making drug development investment decisions. To promote alignment of prices and value, this chapter recommends that Medicare, Medicaid, and commercial insurers build value assessment into their coverage decisions. Before doing so, it explores alternatives that purport to make this alignment unnecessary. The first, cost-recovery pricing, reimburses drug companies for only their costs, rather than for value. While cost-recovery prices can be low, they reward high internal costs rather than better drugs. Prizes and subscription plans pay a lump sum, rather than paying for each treated patient, but they still require value assessment to set the size of the prize or subscription fee. Radical alternatives suggest having the government develop new drugs. Whether the government would be effective remains unknown. Nonetheless, it would, like private companies, have to prioritize investments, requiring something like value assessment to do so.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Peter 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Chinese diplomats play a crucial role as the face of the world’s second largest economy. They have become more assertive and even aggressive in recent years, leading some to dub them “wolf warriors.” This chapter explains how their recent behavior has deep roots in China’s political system, especially the desire of the PRC’s founding leaders to model the country’s diplomatic corps on the People’s Liberation Army. “Wolf warrior” behavior represents a recurring response to political tensions at home, which has manifested itself again and again during the history of the PRC. The chapter also introduces the book’s source base of the memoirs of more than a hundred retired diplomats and dozens of interviews.
Ambition Realized
Authors: Martin Peter 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Within hours of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, China’s diplomats moved to improve ties with the United States. Spotting an opportunity to improve their country’s international image and influence as the United States became distracted by the Middle East, Beijing established important bilateral dialogues with countries around the world and invested in its soft power. China’s previous efforts to woo its neighbors after Tiananmen and especially after the 1996 Taiwan Straits also paid off. The period culminated with China hosting the 2008 Summer Olympics—the most significant moment of international validation for the regime since its founding. Beijing’s improved reputation was damaged, however, when it began to act assertively in the wake of the Global Financial Crisis.
Gendered Survival and Status
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
With men in the army or succumbing more quickly to starvation, women’s efforts were vital to the war effort and city survival. In large part this was due to pre-war skills and dispositions instilled in women: caregiving and breadseeking (finding scarce food). That women bore burdens of family survival also challenged dependency vis-à-vis men. Women also observed men succumbing to starvation, leading them to believe they were the stronger sex. Women also framed caregiving as patriotic duty, enhancing their sense of self-worth. Yet caregiving also reinforced their sense that they fulfilled themselves vis-à-vis an Other. Men sensed this shift in status; while many felt indebted to women, others belittled their efforts and characters. One manner in which Leningraders confronted shifts in gender statuses was commenting on resexualization after the peak of starvation had passed. In sum, gender shaped experiences of survival, which in turn reinforced the traditional gender order.
Valence of the Dead
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
Death was a Blockade constant, the dead a new anchor of valence. Perceptions and practices of the meaning of the dead, and of proper disposal, depended on social distance between the dead and an actor’s habitus (dispositions) and field. In the field of power (state and Party), officials perceived the dead as threats to the political order to be counted and disposed of expediently. In the field of labor and implementation, cemetery workers coded the dead opportunistically and entrepreneurially as commodities and objects of gain: e.g. negotiating prices (in money or kind) for disposal and commemoration. In the field of intimacy (kith and kin), actors close to the dead were guided by a moral economy of a dignified subject. Yet this logic faced a brutal contradiction: providing a dignified farewell required resources that could be invested in survival. This contributed to a sense of powerlessness and passive resistance to dehumanization.
Conclusions Without Closure
Authors: Hass Jeffrey K. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
The conclusion provides brief lessons about the Blockade and survival. First, unresolved legacies of the Blockade remained: rebuilding authority and infrastructure; aligning wartime adaptations (practices and habits) with postwar politics; facing the expanded shadow economy; dealing with the flood of civilians hoping to enter the city; and framing and integrating the Blockade experience into a postwar narratives and propaganda. Some commentary on Stalinism and Russian historiography is offered: in particular, the need to square the circle of the Stalinist cult and dictatorship with everyday practices, without dismissing or understating either. The conclusion ends with possible lessons about social theory. Institutions require more exploration, especially regarding fields and the role of anchors. Power and authority need refinement, especially regarding “compulsion.” Social distance, anchors, and empathy and emotion require far more serious research and inclusion into theoretical frameworks. And suffering demands more attention empirically and theoretically.
The Meeting Room as Fieldwork Site
Authors: Schippers Huib 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
While we rightly pride ourselves on great depth and nuance in working with communities as ethnomusicologists, it is harder to claim the same qualities in how many of us regard, approach, and describe power structures. With public-facing ethnomusicology on the rise, there is both room and a need for more insightful approaches to working constructively with those in power, as various forms of structures (public authorities, NGOs, funding bodies, and even businesses) are crucial in turning projects with ambitions beyond academic impact into reality, benefiting musicians, communities, and other stakeholders. This is a critical juncture that distinguishes applied ethnomusicology; in this arena, a project without a clear strategy and support is just an idea. This chapter is based on more than forty years of negotiating spaces between dreams and ambitions of musicians and communities from myriad cultures on one hand, and on the other the ideas, forces and structures that drive those that fund, support, or otherwise enable cultural practices in different countries.
Control, Contribute, Collaborate
Authors: Wiens Kathleen 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter identifies tools that scholarly training brings to collaborative projects, and also identifies aspects of collaborative work that run contrary to the self-defined and self-guided nature of scholarly work. It suggests ways to modify and expand the ethnomusicologists’ toolkit in order to adapt to new forms of collaboration, and therefore thrive in culture and heritage projects and institutions. Public culture and heritage professionals bring a myriad of skill sets and backgrounds to every project. Furthermore, many projects are defined by stakeholder desires and institutional parameters. The culture clash between “self-guided” and “collaborative” requires navigation, adaptation, and reorientation of one’s own approach to work. The chapter uses examples from museum-based projects and operations to reveal the value of “pivoting” and adaptation: why and how professionals should and can do so, and the end result of doing so or not doing so. The lessons can apply to work in a variety of culture and heritage projects and institutions.
Fishing in a Common Pool
Authors: Durham William H. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
By 1992, overfishing along the South American coast prompted a large migration to Galápagos of fishers, middlemen, and buyers, who began a “gold rush” harvest of brown sea cucumbers (a spiny marine organism) for the lucrative Asian market. Attempts to regulate that harvest by the government of Ecuador and the Galápagos National Park Service provoked more than a decade of protests and violence, which were only curbed when fishers were given an effective role in decision-making. But because the brown sea cucumber requires a minimum density for reproduction—an example of the Allee effect—it proved too challenging for the first participatory management system, which failed, but it led to a simpler system that continues successfully today. Galápagos is proving to be a showcase not simply for genetic evolution but also for the cultural evolution of new forms of governance, ideally including sustainability that it can then model for the world.
The Case for Gay Reparations
Authors: 9780197535684  , Encarnación Omar G. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This book makes the case for why the United States should embrace gay reparations, or policies intended to make amends for a history of discrimination, stigmatization, and violence against the LGBT community. It contends that gay reparations are a moral imperative for bringing dignity to those whose human rights have been violated because of their sexual orientation and/or gender identity, for closing painful histories of state-sponsored victimization of LGBT people, and for reminding future generations of past struggles for LGBT equality. To make its case, the book examines how other Western democracies notorious for their oppression of homosexuals have implemented gay reparations—specifically Spain, Britain, and Germany. Their collective experience shows that although there is no universal approach to gay reparations, it is never too late for countries to seek to right past wrongs.
Gay Reparations and Their Critics
Authors: Encarnación Omar G. 
Published: May 2021

Abstract
This chapter mentions the publication of the New York Times op-ed that calls for gay reparations in the United States, and it discusses the reactions of social conservatives to the article. It talks about homophobic individuals, who have not accepted homosexuals and gay people as human beings entitled to live their lives and deserving of civil rights, who find gay reparations an abomination. It also refers to televangelist Pat Robertson, who implied that the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, were godly retaliation for abortion, homosexuality, and secularism in the United States. This chapter examines distinct arguments against gay reparations, such as the claim that it is wrong for gay rights activists to apply today’s values to acts of discrimination against the gay community that took place a long time ago. It also reviews claims that gay reparations are divisive and generate a new class of American victims.