bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Infectious diseases and prions
Authors: Hamer Davidson H. , Khan Amira , Bhutta Zulfiqar A. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Infectious diseases continue to contribute considerably to the global burden of morbidity, disability, and mortality, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Lower respiratory infections, diarrhoea, and tuberculosis remain among the top ten causes of mortality for all ages and sexes. Moreover, the emergence of many new viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic pathogens as well as rising antimicrobial resistance are current challenges. Despite a decline in infectious disease mortality, the growing dangers of antimicrobial resistance and emerging infections pose a critical threat to the health of millions. It is imperative, now more than ever, to scale up interventions for prevention and control of infectious diseases while promoting judicious use of antimicrobials.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Authors: Karim Quarraisha Abdool , Singh Urisha , Baxter Cheryl , Abdool Karim Salim S. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from its origins, remarkable scientific advances, and unprecedented global responses through to the current state of the epidemic, progress towards ending acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and remaining challenges. It explains the origins of HIV-1 and HIV-2, the development of a surveillance system, and the viral structure. It outlines different antiretroviral drugs used in the treatment of HIV infections, and current drug research. The prevention of both mother-to-child transmission and sexual transmission is outlined, including pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use. The development of modern technologies and social media to help people living with HIV is covered. Programmes to modify behaviour and reduce risk from injecting drug use are explained.
Malaria
Authors: Baiden Frank , Malm Keziah L. , Binka Fred 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Malaria is a subtropical and tropical protozoan infection that accounts for nearly half a million deaths each year. Most deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa and are caused by Plasmodium falciparum. The least studied of the five Plasmodia species that cause malaria, P. knowlesi, along with P. vivax cause life-threatening disease, mostly in Southeast Asia. Children, pregnant women, and non-immune travellers to endemic countries are most vulnerable to severe malaria. Cerebral malaria and anaemia are complications that results in neurological deficit and death if treatment is delayed or inappropriately administered. Rapid diagnostic tests have emerged as accurate and reliable means to diagnosing malaria at point-of-care.
Substance use and misuse
Authors: Minh Giang Le , Shoptaw Steve 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Around the world, substance use disorder is best understood along a spectrum that ranges from no use or use that causes no problems (i.e. the majority of people) through occasional use that brings occasional problems of moderate severity (i.e. some people) to frequent use that with severe problems (i.e. a minority of people). Across cultures, few people use substances (&lt;10%) at levels that present severe problems. This chapter provides an overview of global trends of substance use and substance use disorder, offers criteria that define substance use disorder, and presents epidemiology on cannabis, opioids, amphetamine-type stimulants, and cocaine/crack. Relevant findings on public health consequences and intersections between substance use, infectious diseases, and other health threats are presented. A methodological toolbox containing best methods for studying substance use is provided. The chapter closes with a discussion of approaches to treatment and prevention of substance misuse, emphasizing integration of services (e.g. a one-stop shop).
Alcohol
Authors: Room Robin 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion on alcohol, its uses, and its effects, both positive and negative, followed by a review of the recent research on its cumulative effects on health. The history of alcohol as a public health issue is also briefly reviewed. The temperance movements of the nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries sought to prohibit alcohol altogether, but by the 1930s the alternative of controlling alcohol sales to limit its adverse effects was the dominant aim. As these controls weakened after the 1950s, a ‘new public health’ approach argued for stronger controls. Although this approach gained ground among researchers from the 1970s onwards, it has often been resisted in the policy process. Seven main strategies to prevent or control alcohol problems are described, and their effectiveness briefly assessed. The chapter concludes with an account of alcohol policy in a globalizing world. An international convention on alcohol control has been called for to counter the influence of trade agreements and the globalization of alcohol production, distribution, and promotion.
Child health
Authors: Vaivada Tyler , Khan Amira , Irfan Omar , Bhutta Zulfiqar A. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the health status of children, particularly those less than 5 years of age. The global mortality burden among this group still remains unacceptably high and progress in reducing it remains unequal across countries and regions. Most children suffer and die from a small number of conditions—the main causes of morbidity are highly correlated with the major causes of death. Likewise, nutritional status, child growth, and development are intertwined. Strikingly, even in the poorest settings, a significant proportion of these outcomes could be prevented with a few interventions that are well known, feasible, deliverable without complex technology, and affordable. Strengthening the health system and integrating interventions into packages of care that can be delivered during pregnancy, childbirth, the neonatal period, and childhood at all levels—from home to hospital—will be key to increasing the coverage of health interventions and in further reducing child mortality.
Adolescent health
Authors: Patton George , Azzopardi Peter , Kaoma Natasha , Sabet Farnaz , Sawyer Susan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Many recent shifts are propelling adolescence into the forefront of global public health. There is a youth bulge with 1.8 billion, 10–24-year-olds comprising over a quarter of the global population. Nearly 90% live in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Dramatic declines in mortality and disease burden in infancy and early childhood in many countries have resulted in a focus on growing adolescent health problems including mental disorders, the consequences of unsafe sexuality, the growing rates of non-communicable disease risks, and the impact of injuries and violence on this age group. Youth-friendly health services have the potential to promote equity, effectiveness, accessibility, acceptability, and appropriateness of care, including early interventions for major health risks. Prevention frameworks have integrated life-course epidemiology with strategies developed in the social and behavioural sciences. There is some evidence that involving young people in the conceptualization and implementation of some of these interventions improves the outcomes.
Forced migrants and other displaced populations
Authors: Bateman Steel Catherine R. , Zwi Anthony B. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the global health dimensions of forced migration and the associated public health challenges. The chapter identifies different categories of forced migrants and examines the main causes of displacement in a global context in which globalization is simultaneously a force for greater integration as well as a contributor to forced migration. Global statistics and legal frameworks relating to forced migrants are examined and formal protections to which refugees and other groups of forced migrants are entitled are identified. The public health situations of forced migrants are varied and often poor, the health situation of different types of forced migrant are outlined and public health responses described. The role of public health professionals in developing a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of forced migration in order to advocate for forced migrant health, and enable forced migrants to speak and be heard, aiding them in transforming their own health outcome are discussed.
Health needs assessment
Authors: Kelly Michael P. , Powell Jane E. , Bartle Natalie 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter begins with a consideration of the technical processes used for conducting health needs assessment. The relationship between health needs assessment and health economics is then examined and the philosophy of utilitarianism and its influence on health economics is explored. Cost utility analysis and its links to studies of quality of life are described and the important relationships between equity and efficiency are considered. The chapter then proceeds to explore the political and philosophical issues attaching to health needs assessment. This leads to an elaboration of the concept of justice derived from the work of Sen. Using ideas about the importance of human capabilities an argument is developed about the relational approach to understanding justice. The relational as against the individualistic position is found to provide a novel and useful way of describing health need and of attempting to meet that need. It also provides a set of precepts about the ways that services might be configured.
The practice of environmental health in an era of sustainable development
Authors: von Schirnding Yasmin E.R. , Goldman Lynn R. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Environmental health practice is concerned with assessing, controlling, and preventing factors in the environment that can potentially affect human health. This chapter briefly discusses the roots and origins of environmental health practice from earliest times to the present day, against a backdrop of current international initiatives highlighting health, environment, and sustainable development issues of global concern. The concept and scope of environmental health is discussed, before highlighting environmental health issues and the burden of environmentally related disease, which are of importance in directing the work of the environmental health practitioner. It then addresses the multifactorial nature of environmental health effects, the role of epidemiology and toxicology, and the basic elements of the risk assessment process. Next, tools to aid decision-making are introduced followed by a discussion on the role of intersectoral action and partnerships. The final section of the chapter addresses policy elements and actions which can be taken to address environmental health issues, and the implications for environmental health management and service delivery. A greater capacity to influence policy agendas outside of the health sector will be needed in future.
Strategies and structures for public health interventions
Authors: Griffiths Sian , Fenton Kevin A. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes strategies for public health intervention and structures that support them. It uses examples of strategies in different parts of the world and at different levels—global, national, local, and individual—to illustrate various strategic approaches. The key elements of strategy are those of vision, mission, values, aims, plans, and their implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. The examples chosen provide descriptions of how these are articulated and also how interventions are made towards their achievement of better public health. The importance of the way health services are structured, the public health workforce, and underpinning research and use of evidence are emphasized.
Strategies for health services
Authors: Lee Chien Earn , Baum Fran 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Strategies for health services need to take into account the complex nature and contexts of healthcare. Key contextual factors that need to be considered include norms and values, macroeconomics, demographic pressures, changing disease patterns, technological changes, the quest for quality and reducing waste, and rising patient expectations. Healthcare systems have responded to the evolving environment by reassessing the relationship between the state and the market, the way health services are organized and financed, and the involvement of patients in their own care. These developments bring new opportunities to reorient health services towards the maximization of health gain. This chapter discusses strategies where public health professionals can play a potentially vital role in translating these opportunities into reality. It starts by looking at the needs assessment and priority-setting process to ensure that the health services provided reflect the health needs of the population that they serve. Following that, it reviews the design and organization of health services to enhance the efficiency with which services are delivered. It concludes by discussing the enablers (i.e. intelligent purchasing, a workforce with the appropriate capacity and capability, and a robust information and knowledge management system) that are necessary to implement, sustain, and enhance these services.
Humanitarian emergencies
Authors: Spencer Craig , Roberts Les 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The field of humanitarian assistance advanced spectacularly over the last half of the twentieth century. Prolonged high-mortality crises common in the Cold War era have become rare, corresponding with an increase in international spending, a healthier world, and the politicization of humanitarian assistance. This has created a completely new environment for relief workers in the twenty-first century. This new environment requires an emphasis on chronic diseases, urban settings, and people displaced within their own country. The relative importance of natural disasters has also resulted in a new set of skills deemed essential for humanitarian relief. The concepts of disaster preparedness, risk management, and disaster recovery have become central to the humanitarian endeavour and often these responsibilities fall on the shoulders of host governments. This chapter reviews the new environment in which humanitarian relief exists, the dominant emerging themes, and some of the promising technical advances.
Principles of public health emergency response for acute environmental, chemical, and radiation incidents
Authors: Murray Virginia , Waite Thomas , Sutton Paul 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In recent years there have been many environmental, chemical, and radiation disasters that have challenged the emergency preparedness of countries around the globe. This chapter on the principles of public health emergency response for acute environmental, chemical, and radiation incidents summarizes the stages of response to emergencies using a generic ‘all hazards’ framework and a ‘source–pathway–receptor’ risk assessment model which is adaptable to any situation and conforms with international obligations. The stages identified address incident management arrangements for emergency response including international obligations; public health risk assessment; public health risk management techniques and countermeasures; public reassurance in emergencies and incidents and finally the need to identify and publish the lessons from incidents Remembering that before any response can be mounted, the event has to be detected and identified as requiring special action. Detection requires early warning and forecasting to clinical awareness, timely surveillance, and intelligence. A significant number of evidence gaps remain and so detailed documentation and follow-up of future incidents will continue to be needed to fill those gaps and improve emergency preparedness and response in the future. By the use of case studies of some significant environmental, chemical, and radiological incidents and processes the stages of the emergency response are illustrated to facilitate an all hazards approach.
Rituximab in remission induction and maintenance therapy for microscopic polyangiitis associated with gastric cancer: A case report
Authors: Aritomi Takafumi , Nawata Masao , Nawata Aya , Himeno Yoshihisa , Saito Kazuyoshi , Tanaka Yoshiya 
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT
We herein report a case of a patient with gastric cancer-associated microscopic polyangiitis (MPA) who was treated with combination glucocorticoids and rituximab (RTX) for remission induction and maintenance, and finally to discontinue glucocorticoids without recurrence of gastric cancer or MPA in a year. A 69-year-old man was suspected of having MPA because of fever, high C-reactive protein levels, neuritis, and a high titer of myeloperoxidase-anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (MPO-ANCA). Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy indicated early-stage gastric cancer, for which he underwent surgery preceded by immunosuppressive therapy for vasculitis. Histopathological images showed vasculitis in the vicinity of the cancerous tissue, suggesting an association between gastric cancer and vasculitis. Postoperatively, fever and inflammatory response improved, but MPO-ANCA increased further and the patient developed alveolar hemorrhage. He resulted in remission with high-dose glucocorticoids and RTX, and he received maintenance therapy with RTX without additional immunosuppressive agents. After 1 year of treatment, he was able to discontinue glucocorticoids without recurrence of gastric cancer or vasculitis. There is no established treatment for malignancy-associated vasculitis other than glucocorticoids. Although more cases need to be accumulated in the future, RTX is expected to be useful in malignancy-associated vasculitis.
Introduction
Authors: Diner Hasia R. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Not only has diaspora been one of the key realities of the long history of the Jews, but it also has dominated historical thinking about that phenomenon. Historians have divided over the origins of the Jewish diaspora, debating how much it reflected the negative forces of expulsion and persecution or how much new opportunities in places more conducive to their security and prosperity opened up to them. Historians have also debated the impact of diaspora as either a source of strength and creativity as opposed to a clearly negative side effect of the lack of territorial sovereignty. Either way, the history of the Jews cannot and has not been told without an understanding of the centrality of diaspora.
Jewish Languages
Authors: Hary Benjamin 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the use of language varieties in the Jewish diaspora experience in the framework of sociolinguistic studies. Wherever Jews have lived and either wished to distinguish themselves from their neighbors or were encouraged or forced to distinguish themselves, they did so through clothing, food, ritual, and also through language: they have spoken and written somewhat differently from their neighbors around them. Examining the Jewish linguistic spectrum through theories of language continuum, distinctiveness, and repertoire allows us to recognize patterns and commonalities across time and a space. Sociocultural and sociolinguistic analysis of Jewish religiolects demonstrates a tight connection between language and religion, while also helping elucidate the ways in which Jews—as well as non-Jews—have crossed religious boundaries.
The Role of Images
Authors: Haug Annette 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the role of images, their power, and agency. Starting with the anthropological and powerful character of images, focus shifts to a historical specification of potential uses of images. As a case study, discussion refers to the transition from Hellenistic to early imperial Italy, a period when the frequency of images massively increased, and new media, materials, and production techniques came into play. This entailed not only the creation of new visual formulas and styles but also new image contexts and perceptual situations. Examination of this historical process allows for a reflection on the agents involved, as well as their specific interests and forms of (inter-)action. This, in turn, will allow for some insights into the historically specific interests invested in images, as well as some general reflections on the role of images.
Public Sculpture and Social Practice in the Roman Empire
Authors: Thill Elizabeth Wolfram 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
One of the more fruitful lines of research in recent decades has been the exploration of how Roman sculpture interacted with the lives of its contemporary viewers. This chapter employs monumental reliefs, large-scale sculptures set up in public areas by official authorities, as a case study to examine how sculpture contributed to social practice under the Roman emperors. Particular focus is given to the phenomenon of imperial portrait types, the blending of history and myth in sculpted narratives, issues of visibility, and the afterlife of some reliefs. The chapter also examines possible means of evaluating responses to relief monuments, from provincial imitations, to private copies in other media, to the written record. In the end, monumental reliefs prove an excellent means to highlight the general dissonance between ancient and modern perceptions of sculpture.
Pottery, Glass, and the Pictorial Habit between Late Republic and Early Empire
Authors: Flecker Manuel 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In the period of classical antiquity, art objects, especially objects of ceramic and glass, were not always used as image bearers to the same extent. Depending upon the prevalent pictorial habit, the phenomenon of images was by no means de rigueur, and imagery was used optionally depending upon the historical, political, and social situation. This chapter focuses on the late Roman Republic and the early imperial period. Like no other period of antiquity, the time span between the second century bce and the first century ce was a phase of accelerated change and upheaval but also one of consolidation. In this period, a pictorial habit developed that differed enormously from the artistic practice of the preceding period and that also continued into the imperial period. Furthermore, imagery was no longer limited to consumption by the elite class but was also available to the broader population. The development of ceramic and glass as visual media provides an excellent example of the profound changes in the culture of the image.
Theoretical Approaches to Roman Imagery and Iconography
Authors: Rowan Clare 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents a selection of interdisciplinary approaches used within the study of Roman visual culture. Iconology, creolization, hybridization, and entanglement are discussed alongside the problems of ‘Romanization’. Emphasis is given to the idea that images, like objects, have a biography and live a social life. Images in this sense can have a range of meanings depending on context and user. The role of images in Roman imperialism and memory is explored, with case studies including funerary contexts, the conquest of Egypt in 30 bce, the formation of Nemausus as a colony, and the siege of Jerusalem in 70 ce.