bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Responding to Uncertainty
Authors: Johnson L. Syd M 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
There are numerous contexts, beyond disorders of consciousness, where there is a need for decisive action in the presence of unavoidable epistemic uncertainty. The ethics of uncertainty can help. This chapter examines three complex decisional contexts with intersecting, interacting epistemic and ethical uncertainty. The first is pain. Pain, like consciousness, is a subjectively phenomenal experience, the quality and quantity of which are hard to put into words. Pain sufferers encounter testimonial injustice because of the subjectivity, invisibility, and objective uncertainty of pain. The second context is vaccine research and development, and the emergency approval of COVID-19 vaccines under conditions of time pressure and uncertainty. The third context is research with conscious nonhuman animals. There are known, certain risks of harm to the animals, but the benefits of the research are epistemically uncertain. Judging the permissibility of such research requires considering inductive risks, and the principles of inductive risk.
Epidemiology and Primary Health Care
Authors: Vaughan J Patrick , Victora Cesar , R Chowdhury A Mushtaque 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Universal Health Coverage (UHC) and the central role of epidemiological concepts, knowledge, and skills in planning, management, and evaluation of district health systems in support of primary health care. It focuses on interventions to improve the health status of whole populations and shows how epidemiology is essential to support local decision-making for improvements in the population’s health. Health planning is outlined using a systems approach for high-priority health services and public health programmes delivered by district health services and programmes. The differences between interventions for clinical medicine and public health are explained. The systems approach to district planning are also explained.
Population Demography
Authors: Vaughan J Patrick , Victora Cesar , R Chowdhury A Mushtaque 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews population measurements and the demographic and epidemiological transitions and how these may change over time. Knowledge of the population age and sex structure and distribution are essential to estimate those people at most risk and for estimating population access to services and programmes. Sources of population information are presented and factors highlighted for the quality of population data. Definitions of demographic rates and life expectancy, population growth, census procedures, death certification, and demographic surveillance are all outlined.
Outbreaks and Epidemics
Authors: Vaughan J Patrick , Victora Cesar , R Chowdhury A Mushtaque 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers understanding communicable diseases, main modes of transmission and causes of different outbreaks, and the definition of an epidemic and pandemic. Different kinds of outbreaks and their investigation and control are described. Person-to-person or propagated transmission, such as with SARS and Covid-19, can rapidly lead to an epidemic when on average one case leads to more than one new case. This is the reproductive rate or R value. It is important both to investigate and control local epidemics at the same time. Understanding and controlling major epidemics and pandemics are more complicated tasks and usually require specialist expertise. A district outbreak/epidemic checklist is provided.
Using Qualitative Methods
Authors: Vaughan J Patrick , Victora Cesar , R Chowdhury A Mushtaque 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Qualitative methods can provide quick insights and information that can help to improve delivery, access, quality and coverage of health services and programmes. These methods ask questions and make observations that can complement quantitative information from routine information systems, health surveys, and quantitative studies. These quick methods help to understand people’s beliefs and why they make use and do not make use of local health services and programmes. The main methods include record reviews, observations, exit interviews, key informant interviews, focus groups, and rural appraisal. Importance of triangulation is explained.
The skull
Authors: van Gijn Daniel R. , Dunne Jonathan 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The human skull is the skeleton of the head and is considered along with the mandible. It consists of paired bones and unpaired midline bones that contribute to the muscular attachments for mastication and facial expression, a bony foundation for the upper aerodigestive tract and support and housing for the special sensory organs, brain and other structures susceptible to trauma. The skull without the mandible is termed the cranium and consists of the neurocranium and viscerocranium (facial skeleton). The upper third of the skull is principally formed by the frontal bones and exaggerated at the superciliary ridges of the superior orbit and smooth glabella region centrally. The paired maxillary bones form the middle third, creating the circumference of the piriform aperture between, and are separated from the frontal and temporal bones by the zygoma laterally. They house the maxillary sinuses and meet in the midline inferiorly to form the upper jaw and most of the hard palate at the intermaxillary suture.
Viscera of the neck
Authors: van Gijn Daniel R. , Dunne Jonathan 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The thyroid gland is a symmetrical H-shaped endocrine structure in the lower neck. It consists of two lobes, each extending from the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage above to the sixth tracheal ring below – united by a median isthmus covered by the anterior jugular veins. The small, (usually) paired and inconsistent parathyroid glands lie behind the lobes of the thyroid gland. They measure 6mm by 4mm by 2mm and are ordinarily four in number – two superior and two inferior. They are involved in the careful regulation of the body’s calcium levels. Both superior and inferior glands are ordinarily supplied by the inferior thyroid artery. Drainage is into the venous plexus on the anterior surface of the thyroid.
The larynx
Authors: van Gijn Daniel R. , Dunne Jonathan 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The larynx, trachea and bronchi develop embryologically from the foregut in the form of an outpouching during the fourth week of gestation. The larynx bridges the gap from the base of the tongue above, to the trachea below lying within the hypopharynx. It sits in the neck spanning the distance from the third to sixth cervical vertebrae. It is a complex respiratory organ composed of a cartilage framework, ligaments, intrinsic and extrinsic muscles and is lined by an epithelial mucous membrane continuous above with the pharynx and below with the trachea. Its primary function is protection of the lower respiratory tract against aspiration. It allows the generation of a high intrathoracic pressure required for coughing, straining and lifting (Valsalva manoeuvre) and phonation. The anatomy of the larynx can either be considered by its surgical division of the supraglottis, glottis and subglottis (these landmarks are important in the consideration of cancer spread).
The ear
Authors: van Gijn Daniel R. , Dunne Jonathan 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
The delicate yet definitive deflections of the pinna (wing/fin) of the external ear contribute to the collection of sound. The external acoustic meatus is responsible for the transmission of sounds to the tympanic membrane, which in turn separates the external ear from the middle ear. The middle ear is an air filled (from the nasopharynx via the eustachian tube), mucous membrane lined space in the petrous temporal bone. It is separated from the inner ear by the medial wall of the tympanic cavity – bridged by the trio of ossicles. The inner ear refers to the bony and membranous labyrinth and their respective contents. The osseus labyrinth lies within the petrous temporal bone. It consists of the cochlea anteriorly, semicircular canals posterosuperiorly and intervening vestibule – the entrance hall to the inner ear whose lateral wall bears the oval window occupied by the stapes footplate.
Endocrine disorders
Authors: Levitt Naomi , Dave Joel , Ross Ian , Stevens Zane 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Diabetes mellitus, Management of diabetes mellitus, Diabetes in children and adolescents, Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism, Enlarged Thyroid Gland (Goitre), Pituitary dysfunction, Endocrine hypertension, Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma, Cushing's syndrome, Gynaecomastia, Hypoadrenalism, Hypercalcaemia, Hypocalcaemia, Hyperkalaemia, Hypokalaemia, Hyponatraemia, Hypernatraemia
Ophthalmology
Authors: Yorston David 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Global blindness?, Presenting features of eye disease?, Visual loss: refractive errors?, Cataract?, Corneal opacity?, Glaucoma?, Macular degeneration?, Diabetic retinopathy?, Red eye?, Injuries to the eye?, Red eye with no injury?, Conjunctivitis?, Corneal ulcers?, Uveitis?, Acute glaucoma?, Trachoma?, Xerophthalmia?, Ocular leprosy?, HIV infection and the eye?, Onchocerciasis and the eye?
Nutrition
Authors: Mwangome Martha M. , Campion-Smith Tim , Berkley James A. 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Malnutrition, health and survival?, Measuring nutritional status?, Pathophysiological consequences of severe malnutrition?, Clinical assessment of nutrition?, Medical management within inpatient therapeutic nutrition programmes?, Inpatient therapeutic nutrition programme?, Outpatient therapeutic nutrition programme?, Supplementary feeding programmes?, HIV/AIDS and malnutrition?, Severe malnutrition in infants months old?, Pregnancy?, Nutrition in emergencies?, Recipes and formulas for management of malnourished children?, Vitamin A deficiency?, Vitamin B thiamine deficiency: beriberi?, Vitamin B riboflavin deficiency?, Vitamin B niacin deficiency: pellagra?, Vitamin B pyridoxine deficiency?, Vitamin B deficiency?, Folate deficiency?, Vitamin C deficiency: scurvy?, Vitamin D deficiency: rickets/osteomalacia?, Vitamin E alpha-tocopherol deficiency?, Vitamin K deficiency?, Iodine deficiency?, Zinc xxx, Other micronutrients?, Obesity?
Introduction
Authors: Denton Nathan 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Fat (i.e., adipose tissue) is one of the most misunderstood, controversial organs in the body. Not a day goes by without it making the headlines or ‘breaking’ the Internet. Reports about the world’s healthcare system being crippled by preventable obesity-related diseases jostle against advocates’ calls for fat acceptance, while the masses witness improbably sculpted bodies strut along the red carpet and photographs of celebrities supposedly falling off the ‘slim’ wagon. Fat means very different things to different people and is routinely conceptualized in everything from biological, medical, epidemiological, social, economic, and aesthetic, to moral terms. This multi-dimensionality makes it inherently fascinating, controversial, and emotive, but the abundance of studies and conflicting narratives have also resulted in great confusion and uncertainty about fat. Waisted provides an opportunity to re-centre our understanding by reviewing the biology of adipose tissue, exploring its important relationship to body shape and metabolic health, and considering the myriad social meanings of this enigmatic organ.
Candour and confidentiality
Authors: Smajdor Anna , Herring Jonathan , Wheeler Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter sets out the legal duty to preserve confidentiality and to promote candour. It explores the ethical basis for these obligations and the circumstances in which they can be breached. The recent emphasis on candour is designed to protect the position of whistle blowers. The chapter also outlines the law on data protection.
Doctors and the General Medical Council (GMC)
Authors: Smajdor Anna , Herring Jonathan , Wheeler Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the role of the General Medical Council. It explains the importance of the register and the licence to practice. It also considers how doctors can be removed from the register or have restrictions on their licence to practice. It discusses how the General Medical Council promotes candour in the profession and investigates concerns about doctors.
Human Tissue Act 2004
Authors: Smajdor Anna , Herring Jonathan , Wheeler Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers Human Tissue Act 2004 and includes topics on Regulation of Human Tissue, Human Tissue: Consent by Children, Human Tissue: Consent by Adults, Prohibited Activities in relation to Human Tissue, Restrictions on Donated Human Tissue, Restrictions on donations using life transplants, and Prohibition of commercial dealings in human material for transplantation.
Mental Capacity Act 2005
Authors: Smajdor Anna , Herring Jonathan , Wheeler Robert 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
This chapter covers the Mental Health Act 2005 and includes topics on The Core Test for Mental Capacity, The Obligation to Assist a Person to Gain Capacity, The Best Interests Assessment when a Patient Lacks Capacity, Non-Discrimination in Best Interests Assessment, Derivation of Liberty: General Principles, Derivation of Liberty: Life-Saving Treatment, Protection for Those Wrongly Assessing Capacity Or Best Interests, Definition of a Lasting Power of Attorney, General provisions on advanced directives, Effect of an advance decision, The Effect of Advance Decisions, Things that the Mental Capacity Act cannot authorise, and Authorising of Deprivation of Liberty.
Perseverance: An Essential Trait of Military Interprofessional Healthcare Teams
Authors: Meyer Holly S , Durning Steven J , Bader-Larsen Karlen S , Hamwey Meghan , Varpio Lara 
Published: November 2021

ABSTRACT

Introduction
Perseverance—doing something despite difficulty—is an asset to healthcare professionals, yet not all providers display this trait. The literature offers no conceptualization of perseverance as it relates to military caregivers. This research sought to explore the perseverance displayed by members of military interprofessional healthcare teams (MIHTs) and to construct a framework for explaining the role of perseverance in MIHTs’ collaborative work.

Methods
Using Grounded Theory, this interview-based study collected insights from 30 individuals who had participated in MIHTs and/or led MIHTs. Participants represented 11 different health professions, both officers and enlisted military members, and three branches of the U.S. military (i.e., Army, Navy, and Air Force). Data were collected and analyzed in iterative cycles until theme saturation was achieved.

Results
We identified practices through which perseverance was exhibited by members of MIHTs: (1) humility, (2) mission focus, (3) team effort, (4) failure is not an option, (5) comfort with discomfort, and (6) continuous improvement. We then clustered these practices into three subcategories, reflecting how certain practices may connect to support MIHT perseverance.

Conclusions
These six practices appear connected in significant ways to support the MIHTs’ efforts. Humility, mission focus, and team effort can help team members collaborate as a unified and mutually supportive team. From this base, MIHTs seemed able to become comfortable with discomfort and to refuse failure as an option. These orientations then allowed the team to engage in continuous improvement. Together, these practices may enhance team perseverance and ultimately team performance.
Supermassive black holes in cosmological simulations – II: the AGN population and predictions for upcoming X-ray missions
Authors: Habouzit Mélanie , Somerville Rachel S , Li Yuan , Genel Shy , Aird James , Anglés-Alcázar Daniel , Davé Romeel , Georgiev Iskren Y , McAlpine Stuart , Rosas-Guevara Yetli , Dubois Yohan , Nelson Dylan , Banados Eduardo , Hernquist Lars , Peirani Sébastien , Vogelsberger Mark 
Published: November 2021

ABSTRACT
In large-scale hydrodynamical cosmological simulations, the fate of massive galaxies is mainly dictated by the modelling of feedback from active galactic nuclei (AGNs). The amount of energy released by AGN feedback is proportional to the mass that has been accreted on to the black holes (BHs), but the exact subgrid modelling of AGN feedback differs in all simulations. While modern simulations reliably produce populations of quiescent massive galaxies at z ≤ 2, it is also crucial to assess the similarities and differences of the responsible AGN populations. Here, we compare the AGN populations of the Illustris, TNG100, TNG300, Horizon-AGN, EAGLE, and SIMBA simulations. The AGN luminosity function (LF) varies significantly between simulations. Although in agreement with current observational constraints at z = 0, at higher redshift the agreement of the LFs deteriorates with most simulations producing too many AGNs of $L_{\rm x, 2\!-\!10 \, keV}\sim 10^{43\!-\!44}\, \rm erg\, s^{-1}$. AGN feedback in some simulations prevents the existence of any bright AGN with $L_{\rm x, 2\!-\!10 \, keV}\geqslant 10^{45}\rm \,erg\, s^{-1}$ (although this is sensitive to AGN variability), and leads to smaller fractions of AGN in massive galaxies than in the observations at z ≤ 2. We find that all the simulations fail at producing a number density of AGN in good agreement with observational constraints for both luminous ($L_{\rm x, 2\!-\!10 \, keV}\sim 10^\text{43-45}\, \rm erg\, s^{-1}$) and fainter ($L_{\rm x, 2\!-\!10 \, keV}\sim 10^\text{42-43}\, \rm erg\, s^{-1}$) AGNs and at both low and high redshifts. These differences can aid us in improving future BH and galaxy subgrid modelling in simulations. Upcoming X-ray missions (e.g. Athena, AXIS, and LynX) will bring faint AGNs to light and new powerful constraints. After accounting for AGN obscuration, we find that the predicted number density of detectable AGNs in future surveys spans at least one order of magnitude across the simulations, at any redshift.
Dust destruction and survival in the Cassiopeia A reverse shock
Authors: Priestley F D , Arias M , Barlow M J , De Looze I 
Published: November 2021

ABSTRACT
Core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) produce large ($\gtrsim0.1\,{\rm M}_\odot$) masses of dust, and are potentially the primary source of dust in the Universe, but much of this dust may be destroyed before reaching the interstellar medium. Cassiopeia A (Cas A) is the only supernova remnant where an observational measurement of the dust destruction efficiency in the reverse shock is possible at present. We determine the pre- and post-shock dust masses in Cas A using a substantially improved dust emission model. In our preferred models, the unshocked ejecta contains $0.6\!-\!0.8\,{\rm M}_\odot$ of $0.1\,{\rm \mu m}$ silicate grains, while the post-shock ejecta has $0.02\!-\!0.09\,{\rm M}_\odot$ of $5\!-\!10 \, {\rm nm}$ grains in dense clumps, and $2 \times 10^{-3}\,{\rm M}_\odot$ of $0.1 \, {\rm \mu m}$ grains in the diffuse X-ray emitting shocked ejecta. The implied dust destruction efficiency is $74\!-\!94\,{\rm per\,cent}$ in the clumps and $92\!-\!98\,{\rm per\,cent}$ overall, giving Cas A a final dust yield of $0.05\!-\!0.30\,{\rm M}_\odot$. If the unshocked ejecta grains are larger than $0.1\,{\rm \mu m}$, the dust masses are higher, the destruction efficiencies are lower, and the final yield may exceed $0.5\,{\rm M}_\odot$. As Cas A has a dense circumstellar environment and thus a much stronger reverse shock than is typical, the average dust destruction efficiency across all CCSNe is likely to be lower, and the average dust yield higher. This supports a mostly stellar origin for the cosmic dust budget.
MutScape: an analytical toolkit for probing the mutational landscape in cancer genomics
Authors: Lu Cheng-Hua , Wu Chia-Hsin , Tsai Mong-Hsun , Lai Liang-Chuan , Chuang Eric Y 
Published: November 2021

Abstract
Cancer genomics has been evolving rapidly, fueled by the emergence of numerous studies and public databases through next-generation sequencing technologies. However, the downstream programs used to preprocess and analyze data on somatic mutations are scattered in different tools, most of which require specific input formats. Here, we developed a user-friendly Python toolkit, MutScape, which provides a comprehensive pipeline of filtering, combination, transformation, analysis and visualization for researchers, to easily explore the cohort-based mutational characterization for studying cancer genomics when obtaining somatic mutation data. MutScape not only can preprocess millions of mutation records in a few minutes, but also offers various analyses simultaneously, including driver gene detection, mutational signature, large-scale alteration identification and actionable biomarker annotation. Furthermore, MutScape supports somatic variant data in both variant call format and mutation annotation format, and leverages caller combination strategies to quickly eliminate false positives. With only two simple commands, robust results and publication-quality images are generated automatically. Herein, we demonstrate the ability of MutScape to correctly reproduce known results using breast cancer samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas. More significantly, discovery of novel results in cancer genomic studies is enabled through the advanced features in MutScape. MutScape is freely available on GitHub, at https://github.com/anitalu724/MutScape.
Capabilities for transdisciplinary research
Authors: O’Donovan Cian , Michalec Aleksandra (Ola) , Moon Joshua R 
Published: November 2021

AbstractProblems framed as societal challenges have provided fresh impetus for transdisciplinary research. In response, funders have started programmes aimed at increasing transdisciplinary research capacity. However, current programme evaluations do not adequately measure the skills and characteristics of individuals and collectives doing this research. Addressing this gap, we propose a systematic framework for evaluating transdisciplinary research based on the Capability Approach, a set of concepts designed to assess practices, institutions, and people based on public values. The framework is operationalized through a mixed-method procedure which evaluates capabilities as they are valued and experienced by researchers themselves. The procedure is tested on a portfolio of ‘pump-priming’ research projects in the UK. We find these projects are sites of capability development in three ways: through convening cognitive capabilities required for academic practice; cultivating informal tacit capabilities; and maintaining often unacknowledged backstage capabilities over durations that extend beyond the lifetime of individual projects. Directing greater attention to these different modes of capability development in transdisciplinary research programmes may be useful formatively in identifying areas for ongoing project support, and also in steering research system capacity towards societal needs.