bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Food and nutrition
Authors: Shrimpton Roger , Sanders David , Thow Anne Marie 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Nutrition paradigms have shifted in the last few decades, and now there is an urgent need for the policy discourse and public health practice to catch up. Effective public health policy and practice responses to nutrition depend on an accurate understanding of the problem of ‘malnutrition’, its implications for human health, and its underlying causes. They also depend on the political economy of nutrition policy—including policies relating to food environments and the global food system. The aim of this chapter is to map out the public health dimensions of food and nutrition problems that increasingly assail the world as well as to provide some guidance on the population-based interventions necessary for diet-related diseases to be contained.
Leadership in public health
Authors: Fenton Kevin A. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the concepts of leadership relevant to and as applied in public health practice. It looks at various concepts of leadership, frameworks for developing public health leaders, leadership development, and explores how one’s leadership practice and values evolve across their career and life course. It draws upon examples and case studies of public health leadership at global, national, and local levels; in a variety of organizations; and in various contexts to illustrate the diversity of leadership challenges, approaches, and applications. As with other public health skills, effective leadership may be taught, evaluated, and developed, with an individual’s comfort and competence with their preferred and alternative leadership styles evolving over time. This is however highly dependent upon one’s professional ambition, engagement, experience, environment, opportunities, and challenges, both in professional and private spheres. The chapter ends by exploring the principles of authentic leadership, reinforcing the importance of practitioners, at whatever phase in their career, understanding their core values, life purpose, and aligning with their day-to-day practices and the organization’s priorities. While not everyone will currently or ever be in a senior executive leadership role, many aspire to do so at some stage in their career, and everyone working in public health will be called upon to lead an activity at some stage—whether a project, administrative task, strategy, or analysis. So, leadership is ultimately everyone’s business, and the time to prepare by laying strong foundations is now. Leadership is a craft that can be learnt, nurtured, and shared, but it will be for the individual to decide when, where and how they are being called to do so, and ultimately what their answer will be.
Ethical principles and ethical issues in public health
Authors: Kass Nancy , Paul Amy , Siegel Andrew 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Public health ethics considers moral dimensions of public health practice and research. While medical ethics dates back hundreds of years, and bioethics writings emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, ‘public health ethics’, articulated as such, did not appear significantly in the literature for several more decades. There has been great interest recently in defining public health ethics, examining how it resembles or differs from medical ethics or bioethics, outlining frameworks and codes, and providing conceptual and practical guidance on how ethics can inform public health practice and research. This chapter describes the emergence of public health ethics; work in bioethics with relevance for public health; the relevance of social justice theory in addressing public health problems; and discusses literature on ethics and public health research, including whether public health research ethics might differ from ethical guidance for other human research. The chapter concludes with an overview of ethics issues related to genetic research and emerging technologies.
The right to health supports global public health
Authors: Williams Carmel , Blaiklock Alison , Hunt Paul 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In this chapter, we explain how human rights, including the right to health, are important for global public health. We introduce key human rights concepts and principles, and illustrate three approaches to the right to health: judicial, policy, and empowerment. We propose that human rights and public health are natural allies with a complementary and supportive relationship. We describe the meaning of the right to the highest attainable standard of health and its place in international, regional, and national laws. We outline ten key elements of the right to health and how the right can be operationalized in public health practice. We demonstrate this with two case studies of critically important global public health issues—climate change and children’s health, and overseas development assistance—as well as one of an emerging challenge in health, the digitization of health through Big Data.
Law and the public’s health
Authors: Gostin Lawrence O. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Public health law safeguards the health and safety of the population, promoting the human right to life and health, and the realization of social justice. There is sometimes a tension between public health regulation to promote community health and protecting individual liberty and autonomy. Governments must balance the common good with individual freedoms. In many countries, there are constitutional rights to health or to life that provide a positive duty on government to advance the right to health. Governments have multiple legal tools available to improve the public’s health and safety, ranging from the economic power to tax and spend, to the authority to alter the environments in which people live, through to direct and indirect regulation, including, where necessary, deregulation. Although the law can be a powerful agent for change, intervention can also raise critical social, ethical, or constitutional concerns. These issues are illustrated through four brief case studies on infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases, unintentional injuries, and violence to self or others.
Public health policy in developed countries
Authors: Powles John , Gouda Hebe 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Public health policies might thus be thought of as the policies that guide these ‘organized efforts’ to protect and improve health. The scope of such policies depends a good deal, however, on what is considered to be entailed by ‘organized efforts’. and on how centrally ‘organized efforts’ are understood to be related to efforts that are more decentralized, more informal, less organized, perhaps even ‘spontaneous’. The relative importance and legitimacy of centralized versus decentralized uses of knowledge in protecting and enhancing health is a common underlying theme in discussion of public health policy. This chapter discusses public health policy, and differences in outcomes, across different developed countries.
Qualitative research imagination
Authors: Popay Jennie , Baum Fran 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In this chapter we will consider what the qualitative research imagination ‘is’—touching on key questions that should be addressed by all researchers regardless of their approach.) In the first part of the chapter we will consider the first two questions focusing on the type of ‘knowledge’ generated by qualitative research and in the second part on questions about the range of approaches that can be taken to data collection, analysis and interpretation, and the role of theory. The rest of this chapter is divided into three parts. First, we discuss the type of knowledge produced by qualitative research. We then discuss the potential for community/public involvement as ‘partners’ in qualitative research and finally consider key methodological issues in the conduct of qualitative research.
Methodological issues in the design and analysis of cluster randomized trials
Authors: Baisley Kathy J. , Hayes Richard J. , Moulton Lawrence H. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Randomized controlled trials are the accepted gold standard for evaluating the effects of interventions to improve health. In the majority of such trials, individuals are randomly allocated to the experimental conditions under study, for example, to treatment and control arms. However, in some situations it is more appropriate to randomly allocate groups of individuals to the treatment arms. These groups are referred to as clusters, and trials of this kind are known as cluster randomized trials (CRTs). Examples of clusters include schools, villages, workplaces, or health facilities, but there are many other possible choices. In some CRTs, all individuals within the selected clusters are automatically included. In others, there may be additional eligibility criteria. Similarly, the impact of the intervention may be measured in all individuals in the cluster, or in a random subsample. This chapter aims to discuss methodological issues that arise in the design and analysis of CRTs
Validity and bias in epidemiological research
Authors: Greenland Sander , VanderWeele Tyler J. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Some of the major concepts of validity and bias in epidemiological research are outlined in this chapter. The contents are organized in four main sections: Validity in statistical interpretation, validity in prediction problems, validity in causal inference, and special validity problems in case–control and retrospective cohort studies. Familiarity with the basics of epidemiological study design and a number of terms of epidemiological theory, among them risk, competing risks, average risk, population at risk, and rate, is assumed. Despite similarities, there is considerable diversity and conflict among the classification schemes and terminologies employed in various textbooks. This diversity reflects that there is no unique way of classifying validity conditions, biases, and errors. It follows that the classification schemes employed here and elsewhere should not be regarded as anything more than convenient frameworks for organizing discussions of validity and bias in epidemiological inference. Several important study designs, including randomized trials, prevalence (cross-sectional) studies, and ecological studies, are not discussed in this chapter. Such studies require consideration of the validity conditions mentioned earlier and also require special considerations of their own. A number of central problems of epidemiological inference are also not covered, including choice of effect measures, problems of induction, and causal modelling.
Statistical methods
Authors: Williams Gail , Ware Robert S. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to statistical methods with illustrative examples from public health and epidemiological research. The chapter begins by distinguishing between a study sample and a target population. It goes on to outline different methods of sampling, including probability and non-probability sampling methods. In the following section, the distributions of epidemiological variables are considered, leading on to discussion of probability distributions and statistical inference. Methods for comparing data from two or more groups are then outlined, including methods for continuous and categorical variables. Analysis of time-to-event data to evaluate survival times is then outlined. The final section of the chapter discusses the application of multivariable models to epidemiological data, including extensions of basic models to more complex data distributions. The chapter concludes by cautioning that increasing ease of access to sophisticated statistical methods may increase the risk of erroneous application. There is little substitute for consulting a qualified statistician, particularly with complex designs.
Public health surveillance
Authors: Hien Nguyen Tran , Buehler James W. , Kimball Ann Marie 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Public health surveillance provides the epidemiologic foundation for modern public health practice. The ongoing monitoring of disease or health trends within populations informs what public health actions are taken and reflects whether those actions are effective. Surveillance may involve monitoring of diseases and other health-related conditions as well as their antecedents, characteristics, and consequences. Surveillance can guide the local response to individual cases of disease or more broadly inform public health programmes and policies. A key function of surveillance is to identify circumstances that merit further public health scrutiny, such as groups or locations that are disproportionately affected or changes in disease occurrence or severity. General principles that underlie the practice of surveillance are essentially the same for all countries, regardless of economic development. However, in many resource-poor countries, challenges to meeting needs for population health information are heightened and include potential tensions between groups with differing interests. Public health surveillance is conducted in many ways, depending on the nature of the health event under surveillance, the nature of healthcare and information infrastructures, the population involved, resources available, and information needs. The widespread and expanding use of the internet, electronic media, communication technologies, and mobile computing have enabled innovations in public health surveillance that reach far beyond traditional methods. Although surveillance methods were originally developed as part of efforts to control infectious diseases, basic concepts of surveillance have been applied to all areas of public health.
Sociology and psychology in public health
Authors: Quah Stella R. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The disciplines of sociology and psychology differ in interesting ways but they also have common links both conceptually and methodologically. They differ in overall scope: psychology typically focuses on the individual while sociology examines the individual’s social action (agency) and the community’s sociocultural, economic, political, and physical context (structure) within which they live, interact, work, and play. One important similarity between sociology and psychology is that both disciplines have a dedicated subfield for the study of health and illness. These subfields are, respectively, health sociology (also known as medical sociology) and health psychology. Thus, in line with the objective of this volume, the focus of this chapter is on the contributions to public health by health sociology and health psychology, the two subfields most relevant to public health.
Development and evaluation of complex multicomponent interventions in public health
Authors: Campbell Rona , Bonell Chris 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the issues to consider when developing and evaluating complex public health interventions and signposts where more detailed guidance can be found. It starts by considering what complexity means in this context, including the contribution that systems theory has made. When developing complex interventions we suggest: (i) reading quantitative and qualitative research on similar interventions, preferably within systematic reviews; (ii) consulting stakeholders, including those that the intervention is intended to benefit, to help ensure its relevance, acceptability and ownership; (iii) considering using theory to inform the intervention design and hypotheses to assess in evaluations; (iv) assessing whether the intervention could operate at more than one level (from individual through to policy) to increase its chances of success; and (v) reflecting on issues of equity and how the intervention could reduce health inequalities.
Implementation science and translational public health
Authors: El-Sadr Wafaa M. , Wasserheit Judith , Wiener Bryan , Howard Andrea , Hankins Catherine , Culligan Patricia J. , Harripersaud Katherine 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The pace of medical discovery in the past century has been breathtaking with new and improved drugs, devices, and diagnostics prolonging life, relieving suffering, and curing conditions that were previously untreatable. However, delays in care, incomplete information, and failed processes continue to plague modern healthcare in countries both rich and poor so that the benefits of medical discovery are not universally realized. Implementation science is the study of strategies undertaken to implement evidence-based technologies, services, diagnostics, or therapeutics in ‘real-life’ populations and service delivery contexts. The subject of study is the implementation method itself which can vary across place and time. The primary aim of implementation science is an optimistic one-focused on finding the opportunities to improve health and healthcare for all populations where gaps in care currently persist. This chapter explores the origins of implementation science, highlights the challenges facing implementation scientists, describes the key features of an implementation science study, and reviews examples of implementation science for resource-limited and high-income country settings. As the field of implementation science remains relatively new, this chapter provides practical guidance to the would-be implementation scientist on how to conduct research in this field.
Radiation and public health
Authors: Kheifets Leeka , Green Adele , Wakeford Richard 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses frequencies that range from above approximately 1020 hertz (Hz) for ionizing radiation at the high end of the spectrum to static fields and power frequencies of 50–60 Hz at the low end. In order of decreasing frequency, the spectrum comprises gamma-rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves and extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields (ELF EMF). This chapter reviews sources and health effects of human exposure to radiation within the electromagnetic spectrum, and for ionizing radiation exposure to subatomic particles, as well as reviewing policies for limiting human exposure where appropriate.
Occupational health
Authors: Koh David , Hoe Gan Wee 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Occupational health is the ‘promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in all occupations’. Work-related ill-health and injuries cause considerable mortality and morbidity to workers worldwide, and are a major cause of disability, lost productivity, and sickness absence. In the occupational setting, workers may suffer from occupational diseases (those directly caused by workplace hazards); ‘work-related diseases’ (those that are multifactorial in origin with occupational exposures contributing to part of the aetiology); and non-occupational diseases that affect the general population. Primary, secondary, and tertiary preventive measures can be used to reduce the burden of disease at the workplace. Prevention of occupational ill-health requires an understanding of the work processes, the range and extent of exposures to hazards, and the steps that may be available to reduce exposure. It also requires recognition of vulnerable occupational groups such as workers in developing nations, migrant workers, child labour, women workers, and impaired workers. The standard hierarchy of control strategies for reducing exposure to workplace hazards includes elimination, substitution, isolation, engineering measures, administrative procedures, and personal protective equipment. The workplace can be a suitable venue for health promotion activities although this should not be at the expense of elimination and control of exposure to occupational hazards. As occupational health practice has evolved to consideration of health issues beyond the ‘factory gate’, the discipline now has much in common with environmental health and encompasses the philosophy and principles of good public health practice.
Risk perception and communication
Authors: Fischhoff Baruch , Krishnamurti Tamar 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Public health depends on laypeople’s ability to understand the health-related choices that they and their societies face. The study of risk perception examines that ability. The study of risk communication examines the processes that determine how well communications help (or hinder) their recipients. Although focused on decisions involving risk, such research necessarily considers potential benefits as well, if only the benefits that come from reducing risks (e.g. through medical treatments, lifestyle changes, or improved air quality). Communication is a two-way process. Without listening to people, it is impossible to understand what they know and value, as a foundation for providing relevant information in a comprehensible form. Here, we draw on basic research in decision science (behavioural decision research) to inform the specific challenges faced by public health researchers and practitioners. This chapter seeks to help experts help laypeople make wise health choices.
Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease
Authors: Wong Nathan D. , Fan Wenjun 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) including coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral arterial disease, and other CVD manifestations comprise the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Key risk factors, including hypertension, cigarette smoking, elevated cholesterol, elevated glucose levels/diabetes, obesity, and physical inactivity comprise the top six leading causes of death globally. Prevention of CVD focuses on identifying and managing these and other key risk factors at both the population and individual level through approaches aimed at primordial, primary, and secondary prevention. Global risk factor assessment with short or long-term risk prediction algorithms can help identify those most appropriate for treatment. Novel risk factor evaluation and screening for subclinical CVD can also help further stratify CVD risk. Clinical trials have documented the efficacy of key interventions, including those involving antiplatelet, blood pressure, and lipid modification (from statins and newer non-statin therapies), as well as newer diabetes treatments that reduce CVD risk. Future efforts will best determine what combination of interventions at both the population and individual level can have the greatest impact on prevention of CVD.
Obesity
Authors: Peeters Anna , Lobstein Tim 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Overweight and obesity is a rapidly increasing global problem, impacting population health and healthcare systems. The World Health Organization prioritized the need to tackle obesity in its 2012 Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases 2013–2020 followed by its establishment of a Commission on Ending Childhood Obesity in 2015. This chapter analyses the problem of obesity from a public health perspective. It begins by considering definitions of overweight and obesity for adults and children, including the designation of obesity as a disease by many national and international organizations. It then describes the global trends for overweight and obesity, noting the disparities that exist in these trends and considering future projections. The fourth section discusses the financial and social consequences of overweight and obesity, and the fifth section explores in detail the many interacting causes of overweight and obesity. Finally, public health solutions to the global obesity problem are explored, highlighting the roles of the various potential contributors including civil society, commercial operators, and government at all levels.