bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Stratospheric Ozone
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The international effort to protect the stratospheric ozone layer successfully integrated science and technology into international environmental diplomacy and solved a global environmental problem. Research scientists identified the problem and its cause, winning a Nobel Prize for their efforts. Opponents of government regulation attacked their findings, but their campaign fell flat. An epistemic community educated governments and convinced them that international action was needed to protect people from skin cancer and to shield ocean ecosystems from disruption. Manufacturers promised to stop producing ozone-destroying chemicals (chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs]) if they were proven to harm human health. Despite lingering scientific uncertainty, governments agreed in the Montreal Protocol to tentative measures to limit CFC production and sale. Once the science was well established, governments agreed to more comprehensive measures, including regular briefings on scientific and technological developments. This approach, however, has had less success when applied to the more difficult problem of climate change.
Climate Disruption, Not Just Global Warming
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the science of climate disruption, its impacts, and the international efforts to mitigate it. It outlines the long-term environmental and social consequences of each additional degree of average global temperature rise over preindustrial levels: 2°C is bad, 3°C worse, and 4–5°C catastrophic. The international response to climate change began on the model established for stratospheric ozone—scientific advice, a framework agreement, and implementation protocols—but broke down because the climate issue is much more complicated and far-reaching and involves much more powerful political and business interests. The scientific consensus that climate change is real, is caused by humans, and demands urgent action, has been overcome in the United States by a campaign of disinformation and obfuscation. In Europe, government and business response has been more positive. Even so, the world is still far short of the action needed to stave off a climatic calamity.
Nuclear Issues
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The world is closer to catastrophic, accidental nuclear war than it has been in decades. The successful regimes for arms control and nonproliferation, constructed by diplomats and scientists during the Cold War, have been undermined and deconstructed without serious efforts to replace them. The gravity of the nuclear threat is not widely recognized. Hundreds of nuclear missiles are ready for launch on a few minutes’ notice in accordance with the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Political leaders are increasingly willing to threaten to use nuclear weapons. Tactical nuclear weapons blur once-clear distinctions between atomic and conventional weapons, eroding the taboo against using nuclear weapons. Hypersonic missiles, autonomous weapons, and artificial intelligence make it easier to blunder into nuclear war. Nuclear issues require detailed understanding and respect for the interactions of science, technology, and world affairs. An annex to the chapter gives a brief introduction to nuclear science and technology.
No Miracle after All
Authors: Hutchison Keith 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the challenge to a simplistic understanding of the no-miracle argument for scientific realism posed by William Thomson’s 1847 experimental confirmation that the freezing point of water is lowered by an increase in external pressure. It shows how this unexpected phenomenon had been predicted by William’s brother James on the basis of Carnot’s 1824 analysis of heat engines, and the success of the prediction was rightly seen as good evidence for a theory that was soon permanently abandoned as the formulation of modern thermodynamics replaced Carnot’s presumption that heat was conserved with the modern first law of thermodynamics. Though James’s argument makes real use of this falsehood, the quantitative difference between his account of the phenomenon and later ones turns out to be marginal. To demolish the no-miracle argument, a bigger miracle seems needed, one where a successful prediction hinges on bigger deviations from the truth.
From the Evidence of History to the History of Evidence
Authors: Psillos Stathis 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks into the transition from the Cartesian natural philosophy to the Newtonian one, and then to the Einsteinian science, making the following key point: though the shift from Descartes’s theory to Newton’s amounted to a wholesale rejection of Descartes’s theory, in the second shift, a great deal was retained; Newton’s theory of universal gravitation gave rise to a research program that informed and constrained Einstein’s theory. Newton’s theory was a lot more supported by the evidence than Descartes’s and this made it imperative for the successor theory to accommodate within it as much as possible of Newton’s theory: evidence for Newton’s theory became evidence for Einstein’s. This double case study motivates a rebranding of the “divide et impera” strategy against the pessimistic induction introduced in the book Scientific Realism, which shifts attention from the (crude) evidence of the history of science to the (refined) history of evidence for scientific theories.
Selective Scientific Realism and Truth-Transfer in Theories of Molecular Structure
Authors: Nichols Amanda J. , Penner Myron A. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines theoretical advances in understanding molecular structures at the turn of the 20th century which resulted from the Blomstrand-Jørgensen/Werner debate about the structure of cobalt complexes. Both models made predictions testable through precipitation experiments, which eventually led to Werner’s model replacing the Blomstrand-Jørgensen model of cobalt complexes. We argue that this example of theory change fits within a selective scientific realist framework: namely, the factors which gave rise to the predictive success of the failed model survived in the theory that replaced it. We further argue that the lessons from this historical case can illuminate how two contemporary objections to realism—P. Kyle Stanford’s Problem of Unconceived Alternatives and Timothy D. Lyons’ pessimistic modus tollens argument—fall short as arguments against realism.
The Paradox of Infinite Limits
Authors: Palacios Patricia , Valente Giovanni 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter distinguishes between different uses of mathematical limits in physics and determines the conditions under which an infinite limit should be understood as giving rise to an “infinite idealization,” intended as a misrepresentation of the target system by way of introducing an infinite system. It points out that when infinite limits are used as infinite idealizations they can lead one to the Paradox of Infinite Limits, which allegedly poses a threat to scientific realism. In particular, this depends on whether the idealization is essential for the explanation of the physical phenomenon under investigation. Instead, other uses of infinite limits such as approximations and abstractions do not raise any substantial problem for scientific realism. The chapter also argues that, even in the case of “essential idealizations,” there are ways of coping with the alleged incompatibility between infinite idealizations and scientific realism, which ultimately rely on empirical considerations.
The Consciousness of Being Alive as a Source of Knowledge
Authors: Renz Ursula 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question whether our consciousness of being alive can be a source of knowledge, and if so, of what kind of knowledge. It examines this question as it is discussed by a sequence of early modern philosophers who all implicitly consider the issue. The chapter begins with a discussion of the early modern idea of consciousness, viewed as an epistemic relation. It goes on to show that interest in the notion that we are immediately aware of being alive arose in reaction to Descartes’ dualism. For example, the Cartesian Louis de La Forge attempted, but failed, to accommodate the feeling of being alive within a dualist framework. Against this background, the chapter turns to discuss Spinoza’s early attempts to appeal to our consciousness of being alive in order to refute Cartesian scepticism. It concludes that our consciousness of being alive can be considered a source of knowledge, and that, however simple this lesson appears, it may be of moral importance.
‘Meditatio Mortis’
Authors: Jaworzyn Michael 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The Cartesian Johannes Clauberg (1622-1665) sometimes refers to philosophy as meditatio mortis, which he understands as the separation of the mind from the body. This chapter outlines the ways that Clauberg amends the Cartesian accounts of the union of mind and body and of the nature of life and death in such a way as to be able to accommodate this view of philosophy. It argues that Clauberg adopts a broader account of life and death than Descartes, and alters the nature and extent of the mind’s and body’s respective causal powers to that end. Finally, the chapter looks at the implications of this conception of philosophy in Clauberg’s broader philosophical and theological context. Not only does philosophical contemplation provide no guidance in the practical sphere – including in theology – but it can be detrimental to our everyday lives.
When the Manner of Death Disagrees with the Status of Life
Authors: Tropper Sarah 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the development of philosophical discussions of suicide between the Middle Ages and David Hume’s ‘On Suicide’. In tracing the development of several arguments for and against suicide, it shows that the medieval phase of blanket prohibition met some resistance in Renaissance fictional accounts or renditions of Roman sources, but that early modern philosophers neither absorbed nor countered those arguments. Rather, they returned to a prohibitionist stance with arguments based on assertions about natural rights and duties or the overall goodness of God’s creation. The essay shows that Hume’s argumentation for the permissibility of suicide is an attack on the metaphysical assumptions that led his immediate predecessors to proclaim its impermissibility, rather than a response to traditional medieval arguments.
David Hume’s Philosophical Approach to Suicide
Authors: Lima Teresa Tato 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Hume’s essay serves as a common point of reference within contemporary philosophical discussions about the morality of ending one’s own life. In Of Suicide, Hume seems to adopt a novel approach to the problem of how suicide should be faced: he emphasises the role that philosophy can play in assessing the morality of the act, specifically in relation to religious arguments against it. This paper explores the extent to which philosophy, as Hume conceives it, can determine the morality of suicide, viewed as a hypothetical duty towards oneself.
Affect and Effect
Authors: Marston Steph 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Spinoza argues that all entities are animated. Nonetheless, his philosophy provides a systematic grounding for our everyday distinction between living and non-living things. While all bodies in motion bring about transitive effects, living things share a further capacity for bringing about transformative effects, making real changes in themselves and in other entities. Further, this capacity in living things derives from their acting in virtue of their inadequate ideas. Inadequate ideas in Spinoza’s philosophy are thus intrinsic to living things’ being the kinds of things they are, underpinning both the everyday distinction between living and non-living things and the observable varying repertoires of effect among living things themselves.
The Western Archetype as a Sufficient Hypothesis
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Previous generations of Diatessaron scholarship accepted a hypothetical “Old Latin Diatessaron” underlying the Latin Codex Fuldensis and the medieval Dutch and German Stuttgart, Liège, and Zurich harmonies. Recent research has instead asserted that these later vernacular harmonies derive directly from a glossed copy of the Fuldensis text. Revealing the inadequacy of that theory, this chapter reconstructs a plausible scenario for an Old Latin recension of Tatian’s Diatessaron to have emerged in Dutch territory around the same time as Codex Fuldensis was transported from Rome to Germany. It presents a comprehensive stemma Diatessaron witnesses, and it highlights the traits of the lost harmony atop the entire western Diatessaronic tradition.
Introduction
Authors: Zanetti Domingues Lidia Luisa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In the Introduction, the historiographical context in which the book is situated is sketched out, i.e. the historiography on conflict and criminal justice in late medieval Italy and Europe on one hand, and that on late medieval spirituality on the other. The open debates in these fields are highlighted, as well as how this work intends to contribute to their clarification. The rationale of choosing Siena as a case study is explained by detailing the nature of the sources available for this city in the period 1260–1330 and what sort of contribution they can offer to research on criminal justice in communal Italy. The documentation is situated in the context of the political, social, and religious history of Siena in this period. Finally, a chapter plan details the contents of the various chapters of this book.
Competing Models for Approaching Violence and Conflict and their Points of Contact
Authors: Zanetti Domingues Lidia Luisa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In the first chapter, the three models of approaching crime and violence that coexisted in late medieval Siena (the culture of revenge model, the public order model, and the penitential model) are described, and differences and similarities between them are analysed. The commonality of the language used by different social actors to talk about violence, criminal justice, and social harmony is identified as something that promoted exchanges between models. However, the chapter also highlights that, although models overlapped and the lay government tended to borrow concepts and ideas from penitential elaborations in order to promote ideas of peace and public order, the ultimate goals and visions that different social actors had were and remained different.
Defining the Complex Relationship between Mercy, Justice, and Revenge
Authors: Zanetti Domingues Lidia Luisa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Chapter 4 analyses religious views of justice in late medieval Siena through the analysis of the sermons of the Dominican Ambrogio Sansedoni and the Franciscan Bindo Scremi. It evaluates the influence of the theology of atonement (as proposed by Anselm of Canterbury) on Sienese pastoral literature, and it concludes that sermons aimed at the laypeople in communal Italy tended to favour the more traditional redemption theology. The main effect of this preference for religious conceptions of divine and human justice was that of conceiving of it as a spectrum going from strict retribution to complete forgiveness, but with a requirement to favour the latter over the former. Religious discourses which compared divine and human justice, moreover, are explored as loci in which criticism, albeit veiled, of local reforms of criminal justice could be expressed.
The EU and the WTO
Authors: Young Alasdair R. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the debates about the effectiveness of the World Trade Organization and the European Union’s nature as an international actor. The chapter makes three analytically significant points. First, the imposition of enforcement tariffs is very rare and comes long after the initial decision about whether to comply has been taken, which means that it is extremely unlikely that exporters will intervene in the compliance process, at least initially. Second, the importance that policy makers attach to WTO compatibility varies systematically, which helps to explain when the EU is more likely not to comply. Third, the EU considers the WTO to be legitimate, which is a necessary condition for a constructivist account of compliance to be a viable alternative. The chapter also situates the WTO’s dispute settlement system relative to international cooperation more broadly and outlines how it operates. It puts the EU’s compliance performance in context and, through a discussion of the EU’s efforts to ensure first-order compliance, introduces the EU’s policy making process. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the analytical implications of the EU’s relationship with the WTO.
The Limits of Demand-Side Explanations
Authors: Young Alasdair R. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents the qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) of all twenty-three EU policies that were successfully challenged before the WTO with reasonable periods to comply expiring before the end of 2019 and for which policy change was necessary for compliance. The chapter discusses how the conditions associated with compliance in the literature—the power of the complainant, the nature of the policy, and the number of veto players—are operationalized. The QCA finds that none of the conditions were necessary for compliance. It does, however, suggest (in line with expectations) that trade policy was sufficient for prompt and sufficient policy change. Contrary to expectations, however, the QCA strongly suggests that the power of the complainant was not associated with policy change. The analysis also found no association between the number of veto players and policy change. The QCA, therefore, contradicts the demand-side explanation of compliance and is consistent with the supply-side explanation. The chapter explores why the power of the complainant is not associated with policy change. It also contextualizes and justifies the case studies.
Genetically Modified Crops
Authors: Young Alasdair R. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents the EU’s responses with respect to three closely related policies: the approval of genetically modified (GM) crops for sale and (separately) for cultivation and efforts to lift member state bans on EU-approved GM varieties. These most similar cases differ in outcome; with the EU resuming approvals for sale (a change sufficient to placate Argentina and Canada, but not the United States), but not for cultivation and failing to address member state bans despite very permissive decision rules. In these cases, no tariffs were threatened and there was no exporter mobilization. Commission trade officials did push to accelerate approvals. The Commission, which was more favorably disposed toward biotechnology than most of the member states, was able, with the help of very a permissive decision rule, to overcome opposition to approvals for sale, but not for cultivation, reflecting greater concern among regulators about the environmental impacts of GM cultivation than about the safety of GM varieties. The member state governments also balked at forcing their peers to change their policies. There is little evidence that the WTO’s adverse ruling affected any of the protagonists’ preferences.
Sugar
Authors: Young Alasdair R. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses what should have been a hard case for compliance, the EU’s sugar export subsidies. The complainants—Australia, Brazil, and Thailand—were relatively weak, the subsidies were part of the EU’s common agricultural policy, some of the exports were related to the EU’s development policy, and there was a high threshold for policy change. Contrary to expectations, however, the EU complied promptly and sufficiently to appease the complainants. This chapter argues that the WTO ruling had relatively little to do with that outcome. Rather, the EU’s sugar regime was undermined by other policy developments and the reform process had begun before the WTO ruling. The change necessary to comply with the ruling, therefore, was minor and essentially reiterated an existing requirement to limit subsidized sugar exports to its WTO commitments in the light of the WTO’s interpretation of what the relevant exports were. There was no participant expansion because of the ruling nor is there any indication that it caused engaged actors to change their preferences.
The Role of the Body and Action-Readiness
Authors: Mitchell Jonathan 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the role of the body in emotional experience with reference to the bodily-attitudinal view as defended by Deonna and Teroni. While there is much of interest in this proposal, there are significant objections which undermine its plausibility. However, after critiquing that bodily-attitudinal view, it is suggested that bodily feelings, of an action-ready kind, can serve as phenomenological enrichments of non-bodily felt valenced attitudes. Finally, it is argued that in many cases the phenomenology of felt action readiness is a matter of the particular objects of emotional experience seeming to possess ‘demand character’, as calling for specific actions. Consideration of the role of the body and action readiness in emotional experience allows for a critique of a significant competitor to the feeling-towards-value view and leads to a more nuanced picture of the theory developed and defended in Chapter 4.
The Fall of the Angels
Authors: Wiebe Gregory D. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
For Augustine, angels became demons in their failure to love God above all. This chapter gives an overview of that fall, beginning with Augustine’s understanding of evil as pride’s apostasy from God, moving on to examine two issues that confront him concerning the devil’s fall. The first is the question of whether that fall can have any cause, which is explored in terms of Augustine’s basic commitment to the non-competitive relationship between the created will and the God that creates and empowers it. The second issue is Augustine’s understanding of when and in what conditions the devil fell, and the development of Augustine’s conviction that all angels must have been established in the good at their creation. What both discussions clarify, however, is that these issues arise because of how difficult it is to maintain the logical consequences of the demons’ lack of animal bodies. This fundamental difference of embodiment between demons and humans is made clear in Augustine’s treatment of the story of the fall of Adam and Eve, where the comparison of the fall of the angels to the human fall reveals a crucial component of Augustine’s demonology: demons must assume some kind of embodiment in order to interact with humans in history.
The Global Phenomenon
Authors: Joshi Mahesh K. , Klein J.R. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This book is not about globalization. It is difficult to comment on any set or sector of changes in today’s dialogue without talking about globalization or acknowledging it as the elephant in the room. Globalization, in its essence, is simply growth on a worldwide scale. It is the process of amalgamation of influences from economies, society, and cultures from around the world. This process of growing and expanding exists throughout the entire world. We live in an interconnected world and no amount of hand-wringing, whining, fear mongering, or wishful thinking will change that fact. The best we can do is try to stay relevant. This chapter examines pragmatic observations by practitioners, business people, academics, and entrepreneurs thinking about that relevancy. It sets the stage for this presentation of perspective by exploring the history, technology, business and economics, government and governance, and the blending of cultures that continues to change everything.