bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Out of Africa, Again
Authors: Hannoum Abdelmajid 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the condition of African migrants who seek to cross to Europe. It looks at the causes that make them decide to cross “without papers,” in condition and take high risks, including the risk of death. The author argues that poverty by itself does not explain why many young Africans take the risk to cross, he instead argues that the youth are usually motivated by the desire to reinvent a new life in a Europe that exerts tremendous fascination on the imagination. The chapter also examines the consequences of the new flux of young African migrants.
Causes of Migration to and from the Ch’orti’ Maya Area of Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador
Authors: Metz Brent E. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The Ch’orti’ Maya area, where the borders of Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador meet, has seen many populations come and go over the past two millennia. Linguistic, archeological, cultural, and genetic research in the past three decades has changed the image of a stable demographic region to one of immigration and emigration, population mixing, and ethnic abandonment and re-articulation. The main attraction for immigration has been the extraction of natural resources, such as minerals and agricultural produce, particularly cocoa, indigo, livestock, tobacco, coffee, and sugarcane. The harsh exploitation by which invaders have harvested these resources has in turn driven native populations to migrate within and beyond the region. Epidemic diseases, population fluctuations, and climate change have also played major roles in migration and stasis. The longitudinal research for this history is based on ethnography, ethnohistory, review of official documents, and a compilation of secondary historical, demographic, and genetic sources. More genetic research would enhance our understanding of these processes, especially population mixing between various Maya and non-Maya groups at yet undetermined historical moments.
Major Impact of Massive Migration on Spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains
Authors: Mokrousov Igor 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Dissemination of epidemic Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains is a global concern, and any world region may be at risk of their introduction. This is a well-known cliché, but the reality is more nuanced. Based on the analysis of East-Asian and Euro-American lineages of M. tuberculosis, three conclusions can be drawn. First, an ordinary human exchange is not sufficient for wide dissemination of an M. tuberculosis strain in a new location. In contrast, a massive influx of migrants dramatically changes the population structure (both human and the pathogen’s). Second, an emerging strain can emerge in its area of origin, but it will not necessarily be successful elsewhere. Third, a strain should be sufficiently prevalent in its country of origin to be efficiently imported to a new location. Summing up, the virulence of M. tuberculosis strains is conditional, but it is not an absolute feature, and the role of human migration in their spread is crucial.
The Internet and Social Media
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter traces the challenges to the Internet’s founding values of freedom of information, communication, and innovation back to its first years. The issues of security, privacy, and misinformation raised by the Information and Communications Revolution have roots in early decisions, taken either as conscious choices or as products of the pioneers’ libertarian spirit, and later reinforced by democratic governments’ determination to keep the Internet free of censorship and open to innovation. Despite early hopes that controlling information flows would be technically impossible, measures by authoritarian governments have become more sophisticated and effective, especially in China. At the same time, democracies agree on basic principles but disagree over privacy and data localization. These tensions were resolved pragmatically: an independent NGO operates the Internet, advised by both governments and a freewheeling forum. The spread of Chinese 5G technology is likely to challenge U.S. dominance of Internet operation, governance, and embodied values.
Cyberwarfare and Cybersecurity
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Information warfare is part of the technology-based challenge by China and Russia to the post–World War II liberal order. Russia uses traditional and social media in a long-range, systematic, worldwide disinformation campaign to undermine Western democracies and alliances and the idea of objective truth. China seeks to dominate the technology, management, and policy of the future Internet through its competitive 5G technology, so as to surpass the United States politically and technologically. It exports the techno-authoritarian system of mass surveillance and artificial intelligence that it developed to control its Uyghur minority. Like a nuclear attack, a large-scale cyberattack could spiral out of control into a cyber-apocalypse in the absence of agreed guidelines. But to authoritarian governments, the free flow of information is also a form of cyberattack, complicating negotiations. It is critically important to develop internationally agreed norms for cyberwarfare, building on the Tallinn Manual and similar efforts. This will take time.
Frugal Innovations for the “Bottom of the Pyramid”
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter presents examples of innovative technologies for low-income and disadvantaged people. Such innovations often offer unattractive prospects for profit and require collaboration between private industry and governments or nonprofit organizations or foundations. Most innovations, from cars to computers, are first marketed to high-end consumers and later trickle down as lower-cost products for mass markets. For orphan technologies like a malaria vaccine or fly- and odor-less latrines, there is no “Cadillac” product to amortize research and market development costs, but focused R & D can produce simple, cheap, effective products. Sometimes, an existing product can be repurposed, as when a cell phone becomes a tool for mobile finance or a livestock deworming medicine becomes a cure for human elephantiasis. Other times, a brand-new intervention is needed, as with smokeless, fuel-efficient wood stoves. Big problems require big programs. The CGIAR supports a worldwide, near-billion-dollar-a-year network of international institutes for research on smallholder agriculture in low-income countries.
New Technologies, New Issues
Authors: Weiss Charles 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Gene drivers and geoengineering promise great benefits but involve large risks. Yet, no norms govern their use. Both have global effects but could be implemented by governments, private firms, or individuals. There will be commercial and moral pressures to develop and deploy them. Geoengineering would create negative emissions that could mitigate climate change. Except for bioenergy with carbon capture and sequestration, even research and development on geoengineering would entail substantial environmental risks. Gene drivers would spread altered genes throughout a population, creating ecological risks for non-human organisms and permanently changing the genetic makeup of humanity. The scientific community has proposed principles to guide research and possible implementation of both technologies. Despite widespread agreement on general principles, fundamental disagreement remains between people favoring careful deployment, and those favoring moratoria or a complete ban. Binding treaties are unlikely. Norms based on adaptive management and the common human interest in survival are essential.
‘The Thought of Death Changes all our Ideas and Condemns all our Plans’
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The chapter highlights the variety of specifically Christian philosophical approaches to the question of the soul’s immortality. Leonard Lessius and Jean de Silhon, working within a broadly Aristotelian framework, argue that the purposiveness universally apparent in nature would be frustrated if humans were mortal. Descartes eschews such appeals to the divine purpose, but his dualist metaphysics offers grounds for belief in the soul’s capacity to survive death. He and Elisabeth of Bohemia discuss how far belief in a happier life after death should affect our pursuit of earthly happiness. Pascal rejects philosophical proofs of immortality, while insisting that we must take an existential stance that admits it as a possibility. Malebranche seeks to highlight the unreality of earthly goods, but, by distinguishing the physical from the intelligible body, he investigates the possibility of post-mortem forms of experience (sensations and attachments) that are in some sense continuous with those of this life.
Human Life as a State of Mediocrity in John Locke
Authors: Biase Giuliana Di 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter investigates the genesis and evolution of Locke’s idea of human life as a “state of mediocrity”. While this idea had ancient roots going back to the early Church fathers, it remained current in the seventeenth century where mediocrity was generally equated with a condition of partial ignorance and imperfection. Locke’s account of it is original; while life is a time of mediocrity, death opens the way to the extremes of eternal misery or eternal happiness. Initially, inspired by the Church fathers, Locke conceived of human life as a condition of intellectual mediocrity. Subsequently, and arguably prompted by his reading of the pessimistic outlooks of Nicole and Pascal, he redefined the state of mediocrity in more optimistic terms: humans are naturally suited to their mediocre state. A further development of his conception of mediocrity, again involving a partial rethinking of the human condition, can be found in the Essay, where Locke represents mediocrity as an imperfect state of insatiable desire. It is redeemed, however, by the ability of living human beings to attain perfect knowledge of morality.
Prevailing over Death
Authors: Schiavo Piero 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The history of philosophy abounds in more or less faithful accounts of the deaths of its protagonists, generally understood as a testing ground of the truth and sincerity of their thought, in which the narration itself often conveys a judgement on the philosopher and a presentation of the principles of his doctrine. The objective of this contribution is to analyse a particular case of this history of philosophy sub specie mortis: the death of Democritus who, thanks to his knowledge, was temporarily able to delay his own death. The reception and interpretation of this anecdote regarding the death of Democritus is analysed through its citations and commentaries in works of the modern era. They include critical editions of Diogenes Laertius’ Lives, Pierre Bayle’s Dictionnaire, the sceptical-libertine reading proposed by Boureau-Deslandes, some of the first histories of philosophy written in the 17th and 18th centuries, and other texts that mention the myth, oscillating between enthusiasm and scepticism.
Less than Zero
Authors: Callanan John J. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the historical context of Kant’s opposition to suicide in the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. I argue for an interpretation of his argument – generally thought unsuccessful – whereby Kant is assuming a premise that claims that the mathematical calculations of life’s anticipated pleasures and pains always produces a negative result. I claim that Kant’s broader rhetorical aim to counteract a cultural movement in 18th Century European society that promoted appeal to the passions as the justificatory grounds for moral actions.
‘Everyone Knows What Life is’
Authors: Hutchins Barnaby R. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The literature treats Descartes’s position on life as either reductionist or eliminativist. Here, I argue instead that Descartes treats life as an irreducible notion. This makes sense of some otherwise incongruous claims: Descartes makes explicit, if weak, metaphysical commitments to the existence both of a category of ‘life’ and of living creatures. He appears to recognize life, but has no way to account for it reductively. This is a problem for him, as long as we take his epistemology to be purely reductionist. However, his treatment of the union of mind and body suggests that he can allow nonreductionist knowledge. If we do take him to have nonreductionist knowledge of life, we can consider him to be a (very weak) kind of vitalist with respect to life itself, while still being an eliminativist about life when it comes to accounting for the operations of living bodies.
Root and Branch—Representation, Collectivity, and Dissidence
Authors: Mowry Melissa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Chapter 2 offers significant original research grounded in a rich and detailed trove of archival sources, including pamphlets, broadsides, and rare manuscript sources not ordinarily considered as major parts of the Leveller oeuvre and builds on the work of historians such as Michael Braddick, David Como, David Adams, Gary DeKrey, Jason Peacey, and Rachel Foxley, who have come to understand the Levellers as a community and not just a political movement. Having laid out both the historical and the theoretical stakes of the project in the preceding chapter, this second chapter traces the Levellers’ refinement of their hermeneutics of collectivity through a domestic heuristics that rested upon an analogy between the House of Commons and commoners’ houses.
“Past Remembrance or History”
Authors: Mowry Melissa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Chapter 3 begins with the imaginative vacuum created by the Leveller community’s relative silence after 1653 when John Lilburne was exiled and tracks the Royalist use of literature to reimagine sovereign absolutism beyond the limits of Stuart martyrology as it had emerged in the immediate aftermath of Charles I’s 1649 execution. Writers like William Davenant (1606–1688) and Aphra Behn (1640?–1689) understood this project in clearly hermeneutic terms as they argued that the revitalization of Royalism depended on dissuading members of the commonalty that they were capable of independently producing the kind of knowledge that would ground their claims of political authority and entitle them to political participation.
Tyrants and Heroes—Reimagining Civil War History as an Instrument of Sovereignty
Authors: Mowry Melissa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Chapter 4 examines Daniel Defoe’s appropriation of a new mode of history for his five-year-long experiment in prose fiction that aimed at excluding non-elite affiliation. Rejecting the conventional historical wisdom that republicanism offered a cogent and effective political rebuttal to Stuart absolutism, this chapter illustrates the way late Stuart radical republicans interpolated sovereign exceptionalism as heroic individualism in order to marginalize the commonalty’s contributions to the civil wars. Defoe not only embraced the imbrication of history and individual exceptionalism that defined much late Stuart and early Georgian republicanism, but his imaginative writings further compounded the decline and marginalization of non-elite affiliation by questioning whether shared labor could ever serve as the foundation of a commoner becoming a political stakeholder.
An Overview of Diatessaron Witnesses
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers the most complete list of manuscripts related to Tatian’s long-lost Gospel harmony. Some of the manuscripts adduced here have not been mentioned in previous Diatessaron studies. Key eastern witnesses include the Arabic harmony and Ephrem’s commentary on the Diatessaron. Important western witnesses include the Latin Codex Fuldensis as well as the medieval Dutch and German harmonies, the Stuttgart harmony, the Liège harmony, and the Zurich harmony. Other medieval gospel harmonies are shown to be unrelated to Tatian’s. Still others are found to be distantly related to the Diatessaron. However, the fragmentary Greek Dura Parchment 24 (aka GA 0212) is defended as a witness to Tatian’s Gospel.
Tatian’s Compositional Practices
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter reverse-engineers the ancient compositional practices Tatian would have employed to draft and publish the Diatessaron. It shows how complicated and yet manageable was the task of harmonizing the fourfold gospel. It considers the mental processes of repititive reading and comparing similar texts as well as ancient writing materials; these include waxed tablets as well as bookrolls and codices made from papyrus or parchment.. The chapter answers rarely asked questions concerning the overall length of the Diatessaron and how much time was needed for a highly efficient scribe to make a copy. It also answers the question whether Tatian wanted his harmony to supplement or supplant the eventually canonical fourfold gospel.
Characteristics of the Diatessaron’s Sequence
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This chapter elucidates the overarching structure of Tatian’s Diatessaron. The four separate Gospels differ among themselves in countless ways. To narrate Jesus’s ministry, Tatian incorporated all the Jewish festivals from the Gospel of John, but he rearranged the order of the feasts and the events surrounding them. Tatian’s narrative chronology has gone unrecognized in previous scholarship, because Ephrem’s commentary—albeit a key witness to the Diatessaron—suppressed most of the references to Jewish feasts. Besides the Diatessaron’s innovative chronology, Tatian often grouped characters and episodes thematically when rearranging the contents of the fourfold gospel. The Arabic harmony is the single best witness to the Diatessaron’s narrative sequence.
Quintessential Changes in the Western Archetype
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Diatessaron witnesses have long been split geographically into eastern and western. The eastern witnesses are shown to preserve the sequence of Tatian’s Gospel. The fourfold gospel was becoming canonical in the fourth century when a thoroughgoing recension of the Diatessaron likely emerged in the west. This chapter identifies the common traits among western witnesses. The early part of Jesus’s ministry was reworked substantially, and numerous episodes throughout the harmony were eliminated as seemingly redundant. Sometimes the western texts cluster additional material thematically, just as Tatian had done. At other times, the western witnesses undermine Tatian’s harmonizations by relocating material back to its placement in the canonical Gospels.
The Priority of Codex Fuldensis
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Codex Fuldensis is the oldest extant western witness to the Diatessaron. It is mainly for this reason that recent scholarship has privileged Fuldensis as the only western witness of any value for the reconstruction of Tatian’s Gospel. Yet scholars have not demonstrated the primacy of Fuldensis on the basis of redactional tendencies, so that is the purpose of this chapter. The Stuttgart, Liège, and Zurich harmonies contain a few interpolations. These later harmonies also reworked stories so that more material from one of the canonical Gospels would be grouped together. In several instances, then, the priority of Codex Fuldensis can be confirmed.
The Priority of the Stuttgart–Liège–Zurich Harmonies
Authors: Barker James W. 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Among witnesses to the Diatessaron, eastern ones better preserve Tatian’s narrative sequence. Western witnesses typically evince the same order. But when they differ, Codex Fuldensis is typically assumed to preserve the most primitive narrative sequence, since it is the oldest extant western manuscript. This chapter challenges that fundamental assumption. Paratextual data in Fuldensis offers valuable clues about the codex’s material production. In rare, yet significant cases, Victor of Capua and his scribe omitted or repositioned short Gospel episodes. The placement of such material in the much younger Stuttgart, Liège, and Zurich harmonies shows that they occasionally take priority over Fuldensis. In support of an earlier tenet in Diatessaron studies, these medieval Dutch and German harmonies sometimes independently attest the same Old Latin harmony underlying Codex Fuldensis.
Confession and Criminal Justice in Late Medieval Italy
Authors: Zanetti Domingues Lidia Luisa 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
This monograph provides an in-depth comparison of lay and religious sources produced in Siena (1260-1330) on criminal justice, conflict and violence. Two main trends have been highlighted in the development of criminal justice in late medieval Italy. Firstly, that the practice of revenge was still popular among members of all social classes. Secondly, that crime was increasingly perceived as a public matter that needed to be dealt with by the government, and not by private citizens. These two aspects are partly contradictory, and the extent to which these models reflect the reality of communal justice is still open to debate. The book sheds light on this question through the contribution of religious sources, which scholars have started comparing only very recently to secular ones with regard to these topics. The underlying argument is that religious people were an effective pressure group with regards to criminal justice, thanks both to the literary works they produced and their direct intervention in political affairs, and their contributions have not received the attention they deserve. It is suggested that the dichotomy between theories and practices of ‘private justice’ (e.g. revenge) and of ‘public justice’ (trials) should be substituted by a framework in which three models, or discourses, of criminal justice are recognised as present in late medieval Italian communes: in addition to the trends described above, also a specifically religious approach to criminal justice based on penitential spirituality should be recognised as an influence on the policies of the communes. This case study shows that, although the models were competing, they also influenced each other; and none of them managed, in this period, to eliminate the others, but they coexisted.
De la Coutume au Code Civil
Authors: Kim Marie Seong-Hak 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The monarchy in the seventeenth century grew more competent but more complacent, and the imperativeness of one law and one king dwindled. Complaints against the maze of conflicting laws and pervasive arbitrariness in the administration of justice were loudly voiced by exasperated philosophes like Voltaire in the eighteenth century, but the last decades of the ancien régime arguably lacked sufficient political impulse to bring meaningful changes. The monarchy did not achieve the goal of bringing French law into a code, and the demise of custom as law at the outbreak of the Revolution was swift and decisive. Yet the Civil Code of 1804 did not happen in a vacuum; rather, it was the culmination of developments of the preceding 600 years.