bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Host–Pathogen Evolution and Coevolution in Avian Systems
Authors: Bonneaud Camille 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The significance of studying birds and their pathogens goes far beyond the applied conservation or epidemiological implications of their interactions. Evidence suggests that avian host–pathogen systems can be used to test fundamental theoretical predictions about adaptive evolution and coevolution in natural populations. This chapter highlights recent advances in the field of bird–pathogen evolution and coevolution, how these advances have come about, and future directions of research. Further, it shows that, while there is a growing body of work that provides support for both avian host and pathogen evolution, evidence for their antagonistic coevolution, the process of adaptation and counter-adaptation in response to the reciprocal selection pressures that they impose on each other, remains rare. Rigorously demonstrating the processes of evolution and coevolution is complex in natural populations and doing so necessarily requires borrowing methodological approaches from a range of disciplines to fully characterize phenotypic change, its genetic and mechanistic basis, as well as its adaptive benefits. Overcoming the challenge of such a task will, however, generate important insights into a range of processes, from disease transmission dynamics and pathogenesis to the maintenance of biodiversity.
Pathogen Transmission at the Expanding Bird–Human Interface
Authors: Hamer Sarah , Hamer Gabriel 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The interface between wild bird populations and human populations is expanding, with the emergence of pathogen transmission between birds and humans as one consequence. In this chapter, several case studies of the spillover of avian pathogens into humans, and to a lesser extent human pathogens into birds, are reviewed in the context of the ecological and evolutionary factors that are important for disease emergence. Transmission and disease emergence may be complex, in some cases sculpted by the interaction of multiple parasite species with birds or their vectors. Additionally, avian migration allows opportunities for bird-associated pathogens and vectors to be transported over great distances, sometimes initiating new foci of zoonotic disease emergence. While several management strategies are being used to detect and respond to the emergence of avian zoonoses in birds and people, an increased understanding of the biology and circumstances that support transmission and spillover will further direct such efforts.
Exporting the European Order Beyond the Border
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The chapter focuses on the specific modus operandi of European policies towards the states of the Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa in the time period under consideration (1995 to 2015). It highlights the modalities of Europe’s attempt to export large parts of the European order beyond its borders. These have entailed the co-optation of political and economic elites in the MENA states, in addition to the selective ‘outsourcing’ of EU border controls to its southern periphery. Focusing primarily on trade policy and migration, security, and border control cooperation, the chapter shows that the interests and rationale of European policies towards its southern periphery remained largely unchanged during these two decades, both before and after the Arab uprisings.
Contestation, Leverage, and Interdependence
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses questions of interdependence and the power relations that underpin the dynamics of the relationship between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East. Highlighting the growing interconnectedness between the two regions in a broader framework of structural dependency, the chapter also sheds light on the strategies and policies adopted by MENA states vis-à-vis the Europeans. Emphasizing the agency of MENA states, this chapter provides empirical evidence of the bargaining power single countries have acquired in their relations with Europe, particularly on the issues of migration, security cooperation, and border control. These findings are then placed in the broader context of the major debates on dependency, power, and interdependence in the International Relations literature.
Medial Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
In primates, the medial prefrontal cortex (PF) supports sequences of self-generated actions that are performed spontaneously and without external cues to instruct the action that is appropriate. Instead, the actions are performed on the basis of memories of previous events and their outcomes. Inputs from the parahippocampal and hippocampal cortex provide information about the scene or context; and inputs from the amygdala and orbital prefrontal cortex specify the outcomes. In ancestral anthropoids the hippocampal system for navigation was co-opted to support the retrieval of sequences of actions performed with the hand and arm, as in foraging. Outputs to the medial premotor areas influence the choice of actions, either for exploiting current resources or for exploring so as to find new ones. In anthropoids, visual and auditory inputs also convey the actions of conspecifics and predators so that the animal can predict what others are going to do.
Orbital Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The orbital prefrontal cortex (PF) receives inputs from the olfactory, gustatory, somatosensory, visceral, and visual cortex. It is also interconnected with the amygdala which represents the current value of the resources, given the internal state of the animal. The worth of the different foods is compared in a ‘common currency’ of value. The central sector of the orbital prefrontal cortex uses vision to predict the value of the resources. These changes depend on the extent to which the animal has already become satiated on a particular food, and an interaction between the amygdala and the orbital PF cortex supports the ability to choose a new food, rather than the one on which the animal has become satiated. The lateral sector of the orbital PF cortex supports the ability to change behaviour depending on the outcome.
Dorsal Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The dorsal prefrontal (PF) cortex generates and plans the goals or targets for foveal search and manual foraging. The goals are conditional on the relative recency of prior events and actions, and the connections of areas 9/46 and 46 explain how these areas can support the ability to generate the next goal. Area 9/46 can generate sequences of eye movements because it has visuospatial inputs from the cortex in the intraparietal sulcus and outputs to the frontal eye field and superior colliculus. Area 46 can generate sequences of hand and arm movements because it has inputs from the inferior parietal areas PFG and SII and outputs to the forelimb regions of the premotor areas and thence to the motor cortex. Both areas get timing and order information indirectly from the parietal cortex and hippocampus, and colour and shape information from the ventral prefrontal cortex. Inputs from the orbital prefrontal cortex enable both areas to integrate generate goals in accordance with current needs.
Human Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter and the next one consider how to account for the astonishing difference in intelligence between humans and our nearest living ancestors, the great apes. An integrated system that includes the dorsal prefrontal cortex and the parietal association cortex is activated when subjects attempt tests of non-verbal intelligence. It has been suggested that this system might act as a ‘multiple-demand system’ or ‘global workspace’ that can deal with any problem. However, closer examination suggests that the tasks used to support this claim have in common that they involve abstract sequences. These problems can be solved by visual imagery alone. But humans also have the advantage that they also have access to a propositional code. This means that they can solve problems that involve verbal reasoning, as well as being able to form detailed plans for the future. They can also form explicit judgements about themselves, including their perceptions, actions, and memories, and this means that they can represent themselves as individuals. The representation of the self depends in part on tissue in the medial prefrontal cortex (PF).
Human Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Humans differ from their nearest relatives, the chimpanzees and bonobos, in being predominantly right-handed. In the human brain handedness is also associated with an asymmetry in the arcuate fasciculus, favouring the left. This links the inferior parietal, superior and middle temporal cortex with area in the inferior caudal PF cortex (areas 44 and 45B), as well as the ventral PF cortex more anteriorly. There is activation in the inferior caudal PF cortex when subjects imitate, whether via gestures or speech; and damage to the arcuate fasciculus impairs the ability to repeat words. The ability to imitate gestures and sounds was essential for the evolution of learned communication. The left inferior caudal PF cortex (area 44) supports the sequences of speech, whether words, phrases, or sentences. The areas that are connected by the left arcuate fasciculus also support the semantic system. The ability to teach in sentences means that knowledge and skills can be passed on with high fidelity from one generation to another. It also aids communication on cooperative enterprises. The need to cooperate has also led to pressure to be able to understand the intentions of others, and the medial PF cortex forms part of the system that makes this possible. Cooperation requires that individuals obey social and moral rules, and damage to the medial and polar PF cortex impairs the ability to do this.
Reimagining the body image
Authors: Gallagher Shaun 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter considers a variety of criticisms and a number of applications in which the usefulness of the body image/body schema distinction is still apparent. The chapter suggests that one can find complexity in this distinction by exploring several theoretical and practical directions, for example, by developing a non-reductive neuroscientific explanation, by investigating various pathologies, by exploring deeper psychoanalytic aspects, and by analysing different forms of embodied performance. Each of these projects are complex ones and some of them involve social and cultural analyses, as reflected in recent work in feminist, race, and gender studies. More specifically, this chapter discusses body image and body-schematic processes in cases of expert performance.
Body models in humans, animals, and robots: mechanisms and plasticity
Authors: Hoffmann Matej 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Humans and animals excel in combining information from multiple sensory modalities, controlling their complex bodies, adapting to growth or failures, or using tools. The key foundation is an internal representation of the body that the agent—human, animal, or robot—has developed. In the biological realm, evidence has been accumulating in diverse disciplines, giving rise to the concepts of body image, body schema, and others. In robotics, a model of the robot is an indispensable component that enables to control the machine. This chapter compares the character of body representations in biology with their robotic counterparts and relates that to the differences in performance observed. Conclusions are drawn about how robots can inform the biological sciences dealing with body representations and which of the features of the ‘body in the brain’ should be transferred to robots, giving rise to more adaptive and resilient self-calibrating machines.
The embodied and social self: insights on body image and body schema from neurological conditions
Authors: Cole Jonathan 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
In neurological illnesses, the body may present itself to perception in ways which allows insights into the concepts of body image and body schema. Three such conditions are explored. From those who live with spinal cord injury, paralysed and insentient from the neck down, aspects of the importance of the body in one’s sense of self are revealed. Some also describe a coming to terms with their altered bodies. When considering the body image, its adaptability and this reconciliation to a new normal should be considered. Studies on acquired severe sensory loss explore how conscious control, at the body image level, may partially replace the deafferented body schema. There is little evidence, however, for these subjects extending access to previously non-conscious motor schema. Lastly, some narratives from those with congenital absence of movement of facial muscles describe reduced emotional experience and felt embodiment as children. These can be developed as young adults, through shared social interactions. The importance of the social in elaboration of the body image is further implicit in a consideration of the stigma associated with facial disfigurement. Others’ responses to one’s body are crucial in developing our body image and sense of self.
Body schema and body image disturbances in individuals with multiple sclerosis
Authors: Normann Britt 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter argues that the concepts of body schema and body image can deepen our understanding of individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) and can advance our conception of the physiotherapeutic process. Experiences of agency and body ownership are closely connected to body schema and body image and relate directly to the self-experiences of individuals with MS. The chapter argues that the concept of self-pattern provides a way to integrate these different factors. Sensorimotor disturbances in persons with MS compromise body schema and can disrupt various elements of their self-pattern, including pre-reflective experiential, reflective, extended, and intersubjective factors. On this view, movement analysis, handling skills, and clinical reasoning within physiotherapy can be recontextualized. Specificity is particularly important in this context, as sensorimotor functions are cornerstones of intentionality and an individual’s perceptions of affordances in daily life and are not merely neurophysiological processes, as conceived in traditional views on physiotherapy.
Introduction
Authors: Alonso Alex 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The introduction sets out the influence of the United States on Muldoon’s work before and after he arrives there, and establishes that his emigration from Ireland in 1987 marked a turning point in his career. Muldoon’s continued preoccupation in the USA with his early life in Northern Ireland produces a distinctly transatlantic consciousness, with his later works characterized by an increasingly transnational outlook. The imaginative freedom to move between places results in—or results from—a kind of formal inventiveness that is the distinguishing feature of his US writing. The introduction also explores Muldoon’s cultural influences from Ireland and America, and shows how his own Transatlantic departure recurs as a kind of template throughout his American career.
‘I fluttered, like an erratum slip’
Authors: Alonso Alex 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Chapter 3 addresses a poetics and politics of error increasingly prevalent in Muldoon’s work since arriving in the United States. It argues that Muldoon’s slips and self-corrections have become a principle of composition in his American writing, part of which comes back to Joyce as well as the Freudian slip. In Muldoon’s US period, miswriting becomes a terrifically fertile form of writing, and the slip as a topographical and autobiographical phenomenon now extends across his poetry in America. This chapter explores the ways in which a poem might make an enrichment of errors, or turn the slip or mistake into a creative opportunity. Drawing on a series of close readings and archival findings, it offers a new model for understanding Muldoon’s later poetics.
Regional Outlook
Authors: Gingrich Jane , Greer Scott L. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The regional outlook for Ireland and the United Kingdom, both liberal market economies characterized by a limited role for the state, presents a brief comparative assessment of the historical development of their healthcare systems, health politics, and selected health-related indicators. The two are quite different in terms of health financing, with the UK’s health system relying on substantially larger tax expenditures and less private financing. Reported unmet need in the UK is therefore largely attributed to waiting times, whereas in Ireland it is mainly due to cost. Notably, reported unmet need is higher in both than it was in 2005. Since at least 2002, healthcare has tended to be a salient political issue in both Ireland and the UK.
Finland
Authors: Tynkkynen Liina-Kaisa , Koivusalo Meri , Keskimäki Ilmo 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers an in-depth look at health politics and the health system in Finland, which combines universal tax-financed health services provided by municipalities, national health insurance coverage for private provision, and an occupational healthcare system for those in employment. The chapter traces the development of the Finnish healthcare system, characterized by a long history of state and municipal governments sharing responsibility for organizing health services and multichannel healthcare delivery. The need to control costs, maintain financial sustainability, and ensure equitable access has underpinned political debate, but large-scale structural reform has been impeded. As the chapter shows, reform priorities have been advanced under the guise of more technical issues, such as public sector and administrative reform or, increasingly, choice, competition, and engagement with the private sector as means for change. Furthermore, via local measures such as cooperation among municipalities the system is gradually moving towards a more centralized organization without major reform. Widespread support for universal healthcare provision means that politics have focused to a large extent on how universal access is to be achieved, rather than whether the system should be universal.
Norway
Authors: Schoyen Mi Ah 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers an in-depth look at health politics and the predominantly tax-financed public healthcare system in Norway. It traces the development of the Norwegian healthcare system, as shaped by policy decisions affected as much by tensions between the center and the periphery as by those between left- and right-wing political leanings. Since the late 1990s, improving efficiency through enhanced coordination across the primary and secondary care sectors and the expansion of patient rights legislation have been high on the agenda. As the chapter explains, despite a far-reaching 2001 hospital reform, achieving a good balance between local hospital services close to the patient and regional hospitals able to offer more advanced specialist treatments remains on the political agenda. Questions about the public funding of private providers, made possible via a treatment choice scheme, reflect both traditional left–right and center–periphery conflict lines.
Lithuania
Authors: Murauskienė Liubovė 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines health politics and the compulsory health insurance system in Lithuania and traces the development of its healthcare system. Since the country declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1990, Lithuanian health politics have revolved around restructuring and rationalizing the overcapacities of the inherited healthcare system, increasing levels of public finance to those sufficient to meet healthcare needs, and making good on the patient rights implied by a universal system. Despite those efforts, high out-of-pocket payments remain an obstacle to health solidarity, healthcare provision—which is predominantly public—is overly dependent on inpatient care, and public financing measured as a share of GDP remains low. As the chapter outlines, other issues include low levels of satisfaction with and trust in the health system and the persistence of informal payments to ensure quality care.
Regional OutlookContinental Europe
Authors: Immergut Ellen M. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The Continental Europe regional outlook presents a comparative assessment of the historical development of the healthcare system, health politics, and selected health-related indicators for Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. In terms of health financing, these countries rely on the compulsory contributory insurance and corporatist administrative practices characteristic of Bismarckian health systems, to which the Netherlands and Switzerland have added mandated private insurance. Health outcomes are very positive, with high life expectancy, low infant mortality, and comparatively low levels of health inequality. Unmet need is the lowest in Europe, and satisfaction is among the highest. Since at least 2002, healthcare has tended to be a highly salient issue for Germany and the Netherlands, but not so for Belgium and Luxembourg, the two countries with the highest levels of public satisfaction with the health system. The key issues in Continental Europe have been cost containment, patient rights, and the introduction of long-term care, as well as some discussion of the role of private insurance and the efficiency of corporatist institutions.
The Netherlands
Authors: Anderson Karen M. , Van Druenen Ruud J. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an extended look at health politics and the mandated health insurance system in the Netherlands. It traces the historical development of the Dutch healthcare system, analyzing the emergence of a bifurcated public–private system and its replacement with mandated private insurance in 2006. The Dutch case is thus notable for large-scale privatization accompanied by expanding state regulation of private actors. Dramatic shifts in the party system since the 1980s shaped reform processes as the center-left consensus in favor of social health insurance and redistributive financing was replaced by center-right consensus supporting managed competition among private insurers. Reforms adopted since 2005 have aimed to control costs without sacrificing quality, largely by strengthening managed competition and the regulation underpinning it.
Luxembourg
Authors: Leist Anja 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter offers an in-depth look at health politics and the compulsory health insurance system in Luxembourg, which historically was based on a long tradition of mutual aid society funds, as well as coverage by the large company fund of the main employer in the previously dominant steel sector. An unusually high proportion of the compulsorily-insured in Luxembourg are cross-border commuting workers. The chapter traces the development of the Luxembourgish healthcare system, characterized by its consensual mode of decision-making, the Quadripartite, which tends to rule out radical change. Since the early 1990s, health policy reform efforts have focused on consolidating the plurality of sickness funds into a unified scheme, introducing direct third-party payment for low-income persons, and efforts to introduce a highly controversial gatekeeping function for primary physicians. Other healthcare issues have been long-term care, cost containment, as well as assisted suicide, which caused a constitutional crisis.