bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Emergent Representations of the East
Authors: McCann Gillian 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Using The Lamp, a publication of the Toronto Theosophical Society, as its primary example, this chapter examines the ways in which Theosophists advanced their cause both inside and outside the mainstream through their periodicals. The Theosophical journals functioned as platforms for cultural brokers between the East and West and included the exchange of a great number of topics related to the East, including ancient philosophy; sub-continental politics; and debates around cremation, karma, imperialism, and Indian immigration to countries such as Canada and Australia. The chapter demonstrates how the Theosophists in this way consciously participated in the creation of the occult counter-public sphere that helped to introduce new ideas into the mainstream. It was this oppositional sphere that was their key means for engaging with the public.
Philosophical Background Matters
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the rift between science and philosophy, but argues that scientists can benefit from philosophical insights without becoming philosophers. It presents an elementary introduction to philosophical concepts that recur throughout the book, including deduction, induction, inference, and others. It covers the problem of induction and the Uniformity of Nature assumption, and reviews Hume’s critique of induction. Other technical issues that confuse the public debate about science, concern explanation, uncertainty, and levels of organization of science, are in here as well. A central issue is the question of how we can resolve two opposing notions: the widely agreed on principle that scientific findings are never completely certain, and our conviction that some findings are certain: e.g., the earth goes around the sun in an elliptical orbit. The chapter sorts out this and other common misunderstandings.
Advantages of the Hypothesis
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter makes the case for the scientific hypothesis from two quite different points of view: statistical and cognitive. The consideration of statistical advantages picks up from the discussion of the Reproducibility Crisis in the previous chapter. First, it explores reasoning that shows that hypothesis-based research will, as a general rule, be much more reliable than, for example, open-ended gene searches. It also revives a procedure, Fisher’s Method for Combining Results that, though rarely used nowadays, underscores the strengths of multiple testing of hypotheses. Second, the chapter goes into many cognitive advantages of hypothesis-based research that exist because the human mind is inherently and continually at work trying to understand the world. The hypothesis is a natural way of channeling this drive into science. It is also a powerful organizational tool that serves as a blueprint for investigations and helps organize scientific thinking and communications.
Automatic Thinking
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the role of “automatic thinking,” in hypothesis formation. Automatic thinking refers to the default operations of our mind that affect how we view and understand the world. These operations are behind cognitive biases and heuristic reasoning, inductive reasoning, and, most importantly, our tendency to engage in continual, conscious and unconscious, hypothesis generation. Unconscious hypotheses allow us to predict what will happen next and see why things “make sense.” They also account for our susceptibility to the “cognitive illusions,” that lead us astray. The chapter also questions whether “inductive reasoning” should count as a form of “reasoning” at all, since the ability to recognize and respond to regularities in the environment appears to be an adaptive trait shared by all animals and, perhaps, plants as well. This chapter argues that much of the criticism of the hypothesis has failed to take these automatic mental processes into account. The chapter suggests that a better sense of our automatic mental activity can lead to improvements in scientific thinking.
Thinking Rationally About Heuristics and Biases
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 12 continues the discussion of biases in “automatic thinking” that began in the preceding chapter. This chapter takes up the topic of specific biases and their origins in heuristics and examines scientific thinking from two opposing points of view—one that focuses on the errors that automatic thinking causes us to commit, the other that stresses the adaptive utility of automatic thinking. These points of view reflect two distinct interpretations of rationality. In one, rationality is strictly logical and is exemplified by the tenets of Expected Utility Theory. Being rational in this sense means adhering to the principles laid down by economists seeking to characterize unemotional, machine-like, thinking that only looks at the bottom line. The other concept of rationality, called ecological rationality, typifies actual human behavior which, even though not strictly logical, nevertheless usually serves well enough for people to survive and thrive. Ecological rationality prizes efficiency and swiftness in mental functioning. It recognizes the constraints on careful thought that are imposed by limited information and time. The chapter argues that both interpretations have valuable lessons for scientific thinking. The chapter covers subjects ranging from biases and “negative data” to the egocentric factors that go into scientists’ ability and willingness to state their scientific hypotheses explicitly.
The Future of the Hypothesis
Authors: Alger Bradley E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter evaluates two possible futures for the hypothesis in scientific thinking in the age of Big Data. In one, the Big Data Mindset entirely shuns hypotheses and the scientific goal of understanding nature, settling instead for correlations teased from gigantic datasets by computer algorithms that even their developers don’t understand. In the other, Robot Scientist becomes capable of designing and executing complex though constrained hypothesis-based experiments. The day of the Robot Scientist has already dawned in the form of a fully automated laboratory that can experiment on simple organisms. The Robot Scientist and the Big Data Mindset take diametrically opposed approaches to scientific thinking. The Big Data Mindset is represented by the rise and fall of Google Flu Trends, a program that tried and failed to predict the outbreak of flu epidemics by analyzing disorderly masses of internet search terms. The Robot Scientist deals with Big Data intelligibly via neural networks and translations of logical natural language concepts into computer-friendly motifs. They are both enormously powerful strategies for exploiting opportunities afforded by Big Data, and today both have serious limitations. The Big Data Mindset renders people impotently dependent on its calculations; the Robot Scientist can’t invent truly innovative hypotheses. Nevertheless, we are very still early on in the computer revolution and both the Big Data Mindset and the Robot Scientist promise to work drastic transformations on the worlds of science and scientific thinking as their powers increase.
Quantum Theory for Chemical Applications
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
‘Quantum Theory for Chemical Applications (QTCA): From basic concepts to advanced topics’ is an introduction to quantum theory for students and practicing researchers in chemistry, chemical engineering, or materials chemistry. The text is self-contained such that only knowledge of high school physics, college introductory calculus, and college general chemistry is required, and it features many worked-out exercises. QTCA places special emphasis on the orbital models that are central to chemical applications of quantum theory. QTCA treats the important basic topics that a quantum theory text for chemistry must cover, and less-often treated models, such as the postulates of quantum theory and the mathematical background, the particle in a box, in a cylinder, and in a sphere, the harmonic oscillator and molecular vibrations, atomic and molecular orbitals, electron correlation, perturbation theory, and the basic aspects of various spectroscopies. Additional basic and advanced topics advanced topics that are covered in QTCA are band structure theory, relativistic quantum theory and its relevance to chemistry, the interactions of atoms and molecules with electromagnetic fields, and response theory. Finally, while it is not primarily a guide to computational chemistry, QTCA provides a solid theoretical background for many of the quantum chemistry methods used in contemporary research and in undergraduate computational chemistry laboratory courses. The text includes several appendices with important mathematical background, such as linear algebra and point group symmetry.
Self-consistent Field Orbital Methods
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the concepts underlying the Hartree-Fock (HF) electronic structure method. First, it is shown how the energy expectation value is calculated for a Slater determinant (SD) wavefunction in the case of orthonormal orbitals. This leads to the definition of the electron repulsion integrals (ERIs). Next, the energy is minimized subject to the orthonormality constraints. This leads to the HF equation for the orbitals. The HF orbital energies are Langrange multipliers representing the constraints. An unknown set of orbitals can be determined from an initial guess via a self-consistent field (SCF) cycle. The HF scheme is discussed for closed-shell versus open shell systems, leading to the distinction between spin restricted and unrestricted HF (RHF, UHF). Kohn-Sham density functional theory (DFT) is introduced and its approximate version is placed in the context of ab-initio versus semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods.
From Atomic Orbitals to Molecular Orbitals and Chemical Bonds
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
It is shown how an aufbau principle for atoms arises from the Hartree-Fock (HF) treatment with increasing numbers of electrons. The Slater screening rules are introduced. The HF equations for general molecules are not separable in the spatial variables. This requires another approximation, such as the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbital method. The orbitals of molecules are represented in a basis set of known functions, for example atomic orbital (AO)-like functions or plane waves. The HF equation then becomes a generalized matrix pseudo-eigenvalue problem. Solutions are obtained for the hydrogen molecule ion and H2 with a minimal AO basis. The Slater rule for 1s shells is rationalized via the optimal exponent in a minimal 1s basis. The nature of the chemical bond, and specifically the role of the kinetic energy in covalent bonding, are discussed in details with the example of the hydrogen molecule ion.
Angular Momentum and Rotational Motion in Three Dimensions
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter treats rotations in three dimensions and the angular momentum quantum mechanically. The angular momentum is a 3-vector that plays the same role in the kinetic energy of rotating particles as the linear momentum 3-vector plays in the kinetic energy for translational motion. The quantum operator for the three components do not commute, i.e. the full vector cannot be known. Each component commutes with the operator for the square-length of the angular momentum vector, and therefore one opts for calculating the square-length and one of the components, z, referred to as the projection. The angular momentum is quantized. The (azimuthal) quantum number ℓ = 0,1,2,3… quantifies the square-length as ℓ(ℓ+1), and the projection is quantified by the (magnbetic) quantum number mℓ = -ℓ…ℓ in integer steps. The eigenfunctions are called spherical harmonics. A ‘rigid rotor’ model is set up to treat the rotational spectrum of a diatomic molecule.
Dynamic Fields and Response Properties
Authors: Autschbach Jochen 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
It is shown how electronic transitions can be induced by the interaction with an electromagnetic wave of a suitable frequency. The rate of a transition between two electronic states induced by a time-dependent field is derived. The transition rate expression is used to calculate the absorption coefficient due to electronic transitions. The differential absorption coefficient for left and right circular polarized light is specific to chiral molecules and has different signs for a pair of enantiomers. The discussion then shifts to general functions describing the response of an atom or molecule to an external. The ideas developed thus far are then applied to the dynamic polarizability, molecular linear response functions in general, and the optical rotation. Linear response theory is set up within time-dependent molecular orbital theory. The Chapter concludes with a discussion of non-linear response properties and two-photon absorption.
Dining on Painted Rice Cakes
Authors: Garfield Jay L. , Priest Graham 
Published: February 2021

AbstractThis chapter examines the ways that Dōgen employs paradox and contradiction in his philosophical essays. We show that in Shōji, Dōgen reiterates and endorses paradoxes entailed by Indian Madhyamaka thought. We then turn to Gabyō and show that Dōgen endorses the contradiction that reality both is and is not illusory. We then show that in Uji, Dōgen argues for the identity and difference between beings and time. In each case, we show that Dōgen endorses the contradictions he asserts. Finally, in Kattō, we look at Dōgen’s view on the relationship between speech and silence.
Epilogue
Authors: Sharf Robert H. 
Published: February 2021

AbstractIn this final chapter we argue that the paradoxes explored in this volume are not merely analytic, but existential. That is to say, the contradictions are not merely the result of pushing up against the limits of language and thought, but, more fundamentally, they emerge from the fact that we are, inescapably, both subjects and objects to ourselves. In exploring the nature and significance of this conundrum, we draw upon various philosophers from outside the East Asian tradition, including Schopenhauer, Wittgenstein, Merleau-Ponty, and Nagel.
Learning China’s History Lessons
Authors: Reilly James 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter draws upon extensive Chinese-language scholarship to explain how China’s experience as a target and practitioner of economic statecraft forged a distinctive strategic culture regarding economic statecraft. Chinese experts and policymakers express confidence that economic resources can be deployed for both strategic leverage and reassurance, faith that economic statecraft can be deployed in ways that advantage both China and the recipient country, and a belief that the Party-state can and should mobilize commercial actors to advance Beijing’s foreign policy goals. They justify China’s ambitious approach by skepticism toward Western claims of morality, identification of China as a developing country, and faith in the overriding benefits of economic growth. The chapter concludes by describing how this collective belief system influences experts’ views on policy challenges and their proposed solutions.
Orchestrating China’s Economic Statecraft
Authors: Reilly James 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explains how domestic institutional structures shape the three core techniques of China’s orchestration approach to economic statecraft. First, China’s “nested” orchestration combines direct action with delegation and orchestration. Top leaders implement some economic statecraft initiatives, while delegating authority to line ministries and government agencies. In turn, these agencies deploy orchestration techniques to mobilize and manage financial institutions, enterprises, and regional authorities. Secondly, line ministries and financial institutions establish policy initiatives and investment funds that reward companies and regional officials for developing innovative projects. The Belt and Road Initiative is the latest and largest manifestation of this technique. Finally, Beijing also relies upon economic statecraft techniques designed to facilitate interest alignment among the implementing actors. As a result, China’s economic statecraft frequently only requires a light touch. After describing how institutional structures and governance practices shape each technique, this chapter concludes with several weaknesses of Beijing’s approach.
The Many Meanings of Non-Affiliation
Authors: Ammerman Nancy T. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter shows that non-affiliation means different things in different cultural contexts and among people with different social resources. Some religious traditions, such as Judaism, do not make affiliation central, so non-affiliation matters less. Similarly, many immigrants come from places where belonging and belief are not typical ways of being religious. Not all “nones” are alike. Nor are less well-off nones like the more privileged non-affiliates often imagined. Using the Faith Matters Survey, this chapter shows that less highly educated nones are more likely to hold religious folk beliefs and less likely to be politically liberal, for example. But most important is that the people who are at the bottom of the status hierarchy are—if they are also unaffiliated—more pessimistic, less trusting, less engaged in their communities, and less empowered. They may even be less healthy. The absence of religious ties exacerbates the effects of being on the social and economic margins.
Non-religiosity, Secularism, and Civil Society
Authors: Campbell David E. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Understanding the secular population requires differentiating between people who are not religious (defined by what they are not) and those who are secular (defined by what they are). Non-religiosity is measured as the absence of the usual markers of religiosity—no religious affiliation, no religious attendance, and so on. Secularism is defined with new measures that reflect whether someone has a secular identity, receives guidance from secular sources, and has a secular worldview. Distinguishing between nonreligious and secular Americans reveals that they have very different levels of civic engagement. The former are civically disengaged, while the latter are often engaged in civic activity. Since both religionists and secularists share a high level of participation in civil society, it suggests the possibility of building bridges between them. But making such social connections will require conscious effort to overcome mutual suspicion.
China
Authors: Gent Stephen E. , Crescenzi Mark J. C. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines how the pursuit of market power over rare earth elements (REEs) influences China’s use of strategic delay in East and South China Seas. As the dominant global producer of REEs, China has the ability to set prices in this market. The desire to maintain this market power motivates China to continue to push its long-standing claims to sovereignty over seabed resources in the East and South China Seas. International institutions such as UNCLOS and the International Seabed Authority do not provide a dispute-resolution option that allows China to maintain unfettered access to deep sea mineral extraction. At the same time, China’s economic dependence on Japan and the global REE market constrains China from turning to military escalation to press its claims. Instead, China has relied upon strategic delay and gray zone tactics to gradually expand its presence in the East and South China Seas.
Law and Public Reason
Authors: Moyar Dean 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an account of Hegel’s conception of the law and of the law’s realization within Civil Society and the State. It is argued that Hegel is a legal positivist because he holds that right is binding only when it has been promulgated as law, and that law can be valid even if it does not measure up to the standard of right. The chapter gives an account of Hegel’s contextualism and shows that he is committed to an essential but limited role for philosophy in determining the content of the law. Ultimately Hegel’s view is best understood as a public reason conception of the rationality of law. The court system is a prototype of public reason in that its goal is to guarantee standards of evidence and publicity in a setting of mutual recognition. The chapter argues that Hegel does believe in the need for a written constitution, and that his view of the legislative power is a further elucidation of public reason based on the idea of representative interests.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith John Howard 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
“Perilous times are coming,” William Blackstone warned readers of Jesus Is Coming, “this wicked world, which is so radically opposed to God, and under the present control of His arch enemy, is not growing better. On the contrary, judgment, fire and perdition are before it.” This sentiment, omnipresent but subdued in early American Christianity, gained ascendance and increasingly defined its expression in the years immediately surrounding the Civil War, achieving dominance by the early twentieth century. Apocalypticism comforts its believers that there is nobility in the suffering of injustice at the hands of an evil oppressor, and that endurance will bring vindication. The righteous shall triumph over the wicked and unholy in a war to end all wars, and the meek shall inherit a sweeping creation of a perfected new world that will be the recreation of that lost paradise.
Biofuels in Kenya’s Tana Delta
Authors: Neville Kate J. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter tracks the dynamics of contestation over biofuels projects in Kenya’s Tana River delta, providing the first of two case study chapters that analyze how the dynamics of financing, ownership, and trade shaped local responses to proposed energy projects. Enthusiasm from some community members for producing bioethanol and biodiesel in coastal Kenya collided with concerns about land transformation and access, livelihoods and identities, and the distribution of benefits and burdens. By examining the adaptive strategies and shifting composition of pro- and anti-biofuels coalitions and campaigns in and beyond the delta, the chapter reveals how political economy characteristics of development initiatives shape mobilization efforts. The chapter exposes that biofuels debates bring together local social histories and economies, national interests, transnational activists, foreign investors, and international markets. As a result, it argues, a blended political economy and contentious politics analysis is needed to understand resistance to agriculturally based renewable energy projects.
The Return of Pathological Science Accompanied by a Pinch of Replication
Authors: Bausell R. Barker 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
No discussion of irreproducible science would be complete without at least a brief consideration of what happens when scientists go a step or two beyond questionable research practice (QRP)-driven research. So, continuing the metaphor of scientific journeys, Robert Park’s iconic book title, Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud, encapsulates the interdisciplinary examples of what Irving Langmuir (a Nobel Prize recipient in chemistry) termed pathological science more than 65 years ago. The chapter discusses more recent examples of this phenomenon in some detail from both the physical sciences (cold fusion) and their sociobehavioral counterparts (the Daryl Bem psi episode). The latter (undoubtedly a virtual mentee of Joseph Banks Rhine whose exploits were exposed by Professor Langmuir) is given more prominence here because of its influence on the genesis of reproducibility crisis itself.