bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Radiculopathies and Neuropathies
Authors: Chuang Kathy , David William S 
Published: January 2021

“Radiculopathies” are disorders of nerve roots, whereas “neuropathies” are disorders of the peripheral nerve. These disorders may involve single roots or nerves, multiple roots or nerves, and even other aspects of the nervous system. This chapter reviews the anatomy and pathophysiology of the peripheral nervous system; the general approach to radiculopathies and neuropathies, including clinical manifestations and localization, diagnostic studies, and treatment; radiculopathies, including anatomy, cervical radiculopathy, lumbosacral radiculopathy, thoracic radiculopathy, and cauda equina syndrome; and neuropathies, including mononeuropathies and polyneuropathies. Tables describe the innervation of select nerve roots and peripheral nerves, differences between root and nerve lesions, commonly used neuropathic pain medications, distinctive patterns of neuropathy with limited differential diagnoses, differential diagnosis of demyelinating polyneuropathy, drugs that may cause polyneuropathy, and neuropathies associated with diabetes mellitus. Figures show the anatomy of a spinal segment, nerve fascicles, ultrasound images of the median nerve, magnetic resonance imaging of the lumbosacral spine, the Spurling maneuver, and physical examination maneuvers for lumbosacral radiculopathies.
This review contains 6 highly rendered figures, 8 tables, and 77 references.
Diet and Exercise in the Treatment of Obesity
Authors: Ariagno Meghan 
Published: January 2021

This review addresses the role of nutrition and physical activity in weight management. There is not one standardized approach toward weight loss, but research demonstrates the effectiveness of following a reduced-calorie plan, as well as emphasizing increases in physical activity. Other important elements of consideration include promoting contact with weight management clinicians to provide structure, encouragement, and support. Physical activity alone has not been proven to support weight loss but in combination with a lower caloric intake can be helpful toward achieving weight loss. Sustaining weight loss is difficult for most individuals, so the support of clinicians is valuable not only in the starting phase but in the long term as well.

This review contains 1 figure, 4 tables and 37 references
Key words: activity, calorie, carbohydrate, diet, dietitian, exercise, intervention, lifestyle, maintenance, obesity, portion, technology, weight
Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis
Authors: Adrogué Horacio J , Madias Nicolaos E 
Published: January 2021

Respiratory acid-base disorders are those disturbances in acid-base equilibrium that are expressed by a primary change in CO2 tension (Pco2) and reflect primary changes in the body’s CO2 stores (i.e., carbonic acid). A primary increase in Pco2 (and a primary increase in the body’s CO2 stores) defines respiratory acidosis or primary hypercapnia and is characterized by acidification of the body fluids. By contrast, a primary decrease in Pco2 (and a primary decrease in the body’s CO2 stores) defines respiratory alkalosis or primary hypocapnia and is characterized by alkalinization of the body fluids. Primary changes in Pco2 elicit secondary physiologic changes in plasma [HCO3ˉ] that are directional and proportional to the primary changes and tend to minimize the impact on acidity. This review presents the pathophysiology, secondary physiologic response, causes, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and therapeutic principles of respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis.
This review contains 4 figures, 3 tables, and 59 references.
Key words: Respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, primary hypercapnia, primary hypocapnia, hypoxemia, pseudorespiratory alkalosis
Myoclonus
Authors: Shibasaki Hiroshi , Koning-Tijssen Marina A J 
Published: January 2021

Myoclonus is defined as sudden, brief, jerky, shocklike, involuntary movements involving the extremities, face, and trunk, without loss of consciousness. Myoclonus is one of the most commonly encountered involuntary movements, and it can be seen in association with a variety of conditions. This review covers the epidemiology, classification, and diagnosis of myoclonus, as well as a thorough discussion of cortical myoclonus, myoclonus of brainstem origin, myoclonus of spinal cord origin, and myoclonus of undetermined origin. Figures show the principle of jerk-locked back-averaging, example data of jerk-lock averaging, schematic diagrams of cortical reflex myoclonus and spontaneous cortical myoclonus, a polygraphic electromyogram (EMG) recorded from a patient with postanoxic, reticular reflex myoclonus, surface negative slow electroencephalographic (EEG) potentials recorded before psychogenic jerks and voluntary movements mimicking the jerks in a patient with a diagnosis of psychogenic truncal movements, and an EEG-EMG polygraph in a patient with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Tables list the classification of myoclonus based on the estimated site of origin, causes of cortical myoclonus, and causes of progressive myoclonus epilepsy and gene abnormalities.

Key words: cortical myoclonus, EEG-EMG polygraph, epilepsy syndromes, involuntary movements, myoclonus

This review contains 6 highly rendered figures, 3 tables, and 63 references.
Cardiovascular Disease in Pregnancy
Authors: Emerick Lindsay E , Foley Michael R 
Published: January 2021

Cardiovascular disease in pregnancy is present in 0.1 to 4.0% of those in developed countries and 0.6% in developing countries. It accounts for 18% of ICU admissions in the United States. The incidence is increasing due to increases in obesity, hypertensive diseases, advanced maternal age, and repair of complex congenital heart diseases. The physiologic changes to the cardiovascular system lead to a state of high flow and low resistance in pregnancy. This causes physical exam findings that mimic cardiac disease in pregnancy, making the diagnosis, treatment, and management of cardiac disease even more difficult for clinicians. Each cardiac disease poses unique risks and potential complications during pregnancy, labor, delivery, and postpartum. Preconception counseling, complete understanding of physiologic changes to the cardiovascular system during pregnancy, multidisciplinary team approach, and delivery in a tertiary care center are the keys to the successful management of patients with cardiac disease in pregnancy.

This review contains 4 figures, 6 tables, and 45 references.
Key Words: aortic stenosis, cardiac disease, cardiac risk assessment, congenital heart disease, endocarditis prophylaxis, Marfan syndrome, mechanical valve, mitral stenosis, pregnancy, pulmonary arterial hypertension
Post-term Pregnancy: Epidemiology, Outcomes, and Management
Authors: Caughey Aaron B 
Published: January 2021

The term pregnancy ranges from 37 and 0/7 weeks’ gestation to 41 6/7 weeks’ gestation; a pregnancy that progresses to 42 weeks and beyond is deemed a postterm pregnancy. Such pregnancies are uncommon, in well dated pregnancies, likely less than 3-5 percent. However, because of induction of labor, in the United States it is less than 1%. Postterm pregnancy is associated with a number of complications including stillbirth, meconium, both fetal growth restriction and fetal macrosomia, birth injury, preeclampsia, cesarean delivery, operative vaginal delivery, chorioamnionitis, and postpartum hemorrhage. One of the primary reasons for induction of labor prior to 42 weeks is that it has been associated with a lower risk of many of these complications including cesarean delivery. In women who do not wish to undergo induction of labor, antenatal testing is indicated certainly by 41 weeks of gestation and is commonly used at earlier gestations.
This review contains 1 table, 2 figures and 83 references
Key words: cesarean, induction, late term, acrosomia, meconium, postterm, stillbirth, term
Conventional Karyotype and Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) Technology
Authors: Cowan Janet M. 
Published: January 2021

Karyotype analysis of cells has been in use for many years and has led to the causative genetic change in numerous clinical syndromes, including trisomy 21, Klinefelter, Turner, Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes. The resolution of the test depends on the degree of condensation of the chromosomes in the karyotype, but even at high resolution (> 800 bands per haploid set) the changes identified are in the order of 5 Mb of DNA. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) bridges the gap between the relatively low resolution of karyotype analysis and the very high resolution of DNA analysis. With FISH it is possible to identify smaller changes in individual cells. The size of the change identified correlates with the size of the probe, which vary from 120 kb to 600 kb in size. FISH is widely used to confirm deletions or duplications identified by newer methods, such as array analysis.
This review contains 8 figures, 3 tables, and 25 references.
Keywords: Cytogenetics, chromosome, karyotype, chromosomal resolution, tissue culture, fluorescence, hybridization, probe
Nonsurgical Management Options for Pelvic Organ Prolapse: Review of the Current Evidence
Authors: Kow Nathan 
Published: January 2021

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a common disorder that impacts a woman’s quality of life and has been projected to increase in the near future. Although many different treatments are currently available, healthcare practioners should be familiar with the common nonsurgical options that are considered the first-line therapy. Advances in nonsurgical interventions have traditionally included pessaries and pelvic floor muscle therapy. These optiosn have not changed much over time, however there have been recent trials providing more evidence with regards to their efficacy. The objective of this article is to review the current evidence for nonsurgical treatment options for POP.

This review contains 2 tables and 19 references
Key Words: pelvic floor muscle training, pelvic floor physical therapy, pelvic organ prolapse, pessary, kegel excercises, uterine prolapse, cystocele, rectocele
Patient with Chronic Abdominal Pain from Pancreatitis
Authors: Cheng Jianguo 
Published: January 2021

Early diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis is possible by combining clinical information with pancreatic function testing, endoscopic ultrasonography, histology, and traditional imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Such an approach helps improve the sensitivity and specificity of these complementary modalities. Pain management of chronic pancreatitis involves multidisciplinary and multimodal approaches. Behavioral modifications such as alcohol cessation, nutritional optimization, and cognitive-behavioral therapy play a significant role for better long-term outcomes. Pharmacologic management is directed at relieving both psychological and physical symptoms, and combination pharmacotherapies are often needed to address pancreatic deficiency, abdominal pain, and psychological disorders. Interventional approaches to celiac plexus and splanchnic nerve blocks and denervation (radiofrequency ablation, endoscopic or surgical denervation) may provide significant and prolonged pain relief. Neuromodulation in the form of spinal cord stimulation is a viable option for long-term pain relief. Managing complications of chronic pancreatitis, such as gastrointestinal complications (peptic ulcer, bile duct stenosis), pseudocysts, malnutrition, depression, diabetes, and painful diabetic neuropathy, is an integral part of comprehensive treatment and requires close collaboration between members of a multidisciplinary team.
This review contains 1 figures, 2 tables and 64 references
Key words: behavioral modifications, celiac plexus, chronic abdominal pain, chronic pancreatitis, interventional therapy, pharmacologic modulation, splanchnic nerves, surgical intervention
Pharmacologic and Technological Innovations in Pain Medicine
Authors: Gupta Anita , Abubakar Hawa 
Published: January 2021

The experience of pain is subjective, and treatment modalities should aim at providing the greatest amount of pain relief while minimizing adverse effects. Pharmacologic and technological innovations are making this possible. By taking advantage of new manufacturing processes, the pharmaceutical industry is retooling old and effective drugs. SoluMatrix diclofenac uses nanotechnology to address the need for an effective nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug at the lowest possible dose to minimize risks associated with cardiac, renal, and gastrointestinal side effects. Intravenous acetaminophen provides an additional alternative in multimodal analgesia in instances when the oral or rectal route of delivery is not desirable. Liposomal bupivacaine uses liposomal encapsulated, resulting in a local anesthetic with a prolonged duration of action that can be used effectively in the management of postoperative pain. With the recognition that opioid therapy still remains a mainstay in pain management, advances in science have allowed for the development of peripherally acting mu opioid receptor antagonists such as naloxegol, which minimize the bothersome side effect of opioid-induced constipation. In terms of interventional pain management, advances in radiofrequency ablation (RFA) technology have resulted in cooled RFA, which allows for the creation of larger spherical lesions, thereby alleviating pain by interfering with neurotransmission. Advances in stem cell research have led to the application of multipotent cells with the aim of treating the underlying disease process and thereby eliminating pain. Finally, pharmacogenetics testing and smart drugs provide an avenue via which issues surrounding how medication is consumed, determination of effectiveness, and ensuring compliance and adherence can be optimized.
Key words: Pain, Pharmacology, Medications, Technology, Innovation, Smart Pills, Personalized Medicine, Biotechnology, Device, Surgery, Multimodal
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Modalities and Exercise
Authors: Calvino Steven , LaSalle Jacob , Fealey David 
Published: January 2021

Function is the marker by which those in the medical profession treating patients with pain strive to improve. The profession of physical medicine and rehabilitation has, at its tenet, the goal of improving or even restoring physical function and therefore plays an integral role in the care of patients with pain. Physical modalities such as temperature therapy with both heat and cold; manual therapies, including manipulation, mobilization, massage, traction, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation; and kinesio taping, are important adjunct therapies often employed in comprehensive rehabilitation programs. Although there is in general a lack of rigorous scientific evidence to support the use of these alternative modalities individually, their low-risk profiles, low cost, and ease of application combined with plenty of anecdotal evidence for their efficacy make them indispensable to the pain practitioner. Incorporating these adjunct therapies in conjunction with appropriate exercise protocols along with pharmacologic and interventional tools may place the pain patient at a distinct advantage, improving function and pain perception. In the following review, we introduce these concepts to allow guidance for incorporation into the treatment algorithm of common pain conditions.

This review contains 16 figures, 2 tables and 79 references
Key words: cryotherapy, exercise, manipulation, manual, massage, mobilization, temperature, traction, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
Acute Care: Pain Management
Authors: Ranniger Claudia 
Published: January 2021

Pain is a chief complaint in more than 50% of emergency department (ED) visits. Injury accounts for approximately one-third of presentations associated with pain; other common diagnoses include neck and back pain, minor infections, abdominal pain, and headache. In the ED, pain is underdiagnosed and undertreated, and existing pain management practices in the ED are inconsistent. Inadequate pain management is common, and pain remains unchanged or worsens during the ED visit for more than 40% of patients. Patient satisfaction improves when expectations for pain control are met. This review covers the pathophysiology of pain and the practice of pain management. Figures show the approach to pain management in the ED, an example of a numerical and visual analog scale pain rating scale, field block of the pinna, ultrasound probe and hand position for ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia, regional anesthesia of the face, innervation of the hand and fingers, regional anesthesia of the median, radial and ulnar nerves, innervation of the foot, ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia of the posterior tibialis nerve, regional anesthesia of the sural nerve, and method of regional anesthesia of the dorsal foot.
This review contains 13 figures, 15 tables, and 71 references.
Key words: Acute pain, Pain management, Oligoanalgesia, Pain assessment, Inadequate pain management, Acute pain management, Pain management in the emergency department, Pain in the ED, Pain presentation
Microsurgical Reconstruction of the Upper Extremity
Authors: Kazmers Nikolas H , Thibaudeau Stephanie , Steinberger Zvi , Levin L. Scott 
Published: January 2021

The advent of free tissue transfer has revolutionized upper extremity reconstruction in the setting of trauma, infection, and oncologic resection. Current microsurgical techniques allow for soft tissue coverage, osseous reconstruction, and free functioning muscle transfer. This review highlights perioperative planning considerations in terms of the timing of reconstruction and flap choice, as well as indications and contraindications, for upper extremity microsurgical reconstruction. Many commonly used fasciocutaneous, muscle, and osseous free flap options are reviewed, with specific emphasis on surgically relevant anatomy, flap variations, and pearls and pitfalls. Many of these free flap options are illustrated using case examples.
This review contains 15 figures, 3 tables and 109 references.
Key words: bone defect, elbow, free flap, hand, microsurgery, reconstruction, upper extremity, wrist
Neurobiology of Psychotic Disorders
Authors: Cadenhead Kristin , Joseph Jamie , Kelsven Skylar , Minichino Amedeo , Mirzakhanian Heline 
Published: January 2021

Efforts to prevent or lessen the functional impact of psychosis can be informed by a better understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings at the earliest stages of the disorder. Understanding these processes early in the psychosis spectrum will in turn allow more targeted efforts to prevent or minimize functional limitations among patients with psychosis. Advances in technology have enabled the study of a host of biomarkers implicated in the neurobiology of psychosis offering unique avenues to investigate mechanisms of disease while at the same time shedding some light on more patient-tailored treatments and setting the foundation for personalized medicine in psychosis. Insights into the neurobiology of psychosis are reviewed, including findings from neuroimaging, neurocognitive, and electrophysiologic studies and findings related to the role of hypothalamic-pituitary axis activity and neuroinflammation in the emergence of psychosis. Biomarker-informed treatments are discussed, and potential promising biomarkers and related treatments are proposed.
This review contains 5 figures, 13 tables, and 85 references.
Key words: attenuated risk syndrome, biomarkers, prodrome, psychosis, schizophrenia, treatment
Overview of Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
Authors: Black Donald W. 
Published: January 2021

The chapter “Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders” is new to DSM-5 and includes two disorders that begin in childhood (reactive attachment disorder, disinhibited social engagement disorder), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder, and adjustment disorders. In each condition, the individual has been exposed to a traumatic or stressful event or, in the case of the childhood conditions, early social neglect. The disorders are briefly reviewed, and interested readers are referred to reviews on PTSD and adjustment disorders.
This review contains 5 tables, and 28 references.
Key words: acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder, disinhibited social engagement disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), reactive attachment disorder, stressors, trauma
Metabolic Encephalopathy - Part I
Authors: Gill Rick , McCoyd Matthew , Ruland Sean , Biller José 
Published: January 2021

Encephalopathy can range from the acute confusional state to frank coma, and is broadly defined as a constellation of symptoms and signs reflecting diffuse cerebral dysfunction. The potential causes of encephalopathy are vast requiring a thorough initial assessment and systematic diagnostic approach. Obtaining a comprehensive history may be challenging and ancillary sources of information are often helpful in narrowing the differential diagnosis. The general examination may provide hints as to the cause of encephalopathy and the neurologic examination can guide both acute management and focus the diagnostic investigations on specific etiologies which fit the clinical presentation. The systemic manifestations of infection and toxic exposures are common causes of encephalopathy. In sepsis, not only is brain perfusion compromised, multi system dysfunction is common and additional factors related to the specific infection such as hypoxia in pneumonia or secondary CNS involvement can complicate management. An understanding of the common physical examination findings of toxic exposures can aid in the diagnosis and rapid treatment of reversible toxic encephalopathies such as narcotics, benzodiazepines or environmental toxins. Cardiopulmonary dysfunction can lead to hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and advances in critical care, and particularly targeted temperature management following cardiac arrest, have improved the neurologic outcome in these patients.
This review contains 2 figures, 3 tables, and 25 references.
Key words: encephalopathy, delirium, ascending reticular activating system, acute confusional state, subclinical seizures, Glasgow Coma Scale, Full Outline of Unresponsiveness (FOUR) Score , hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, serum neuron-specific enolase