bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Economic and Social Council
Authors: Mégret Frédéric 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at the Economic and Social Council’s (ECOSOC) role in promoting human rights. The ECOSOC, whose origins lie in ambitious proposals drawn up in 1939 within the League of Nations for a ‘Central Committee for Economic and Social questions’, was supposed to be the central piece of that machinery, one that would work for the purpose of achieving ‘international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character’. Yet, ECOSOC has never been as central a body in the United Nations as one might have expected it to be. In every proposal for reform, it is one of the prime candidates for significant change or even elimination. The chapter suggests that this has significantly hampered its potential contribution to human rights over the years.
The Committee on the Rights of the Child
Authors: Evans Christine 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter looks at the Committee on the Rights of the Child, which was created ‘for the purpose of examining the progress made by States parties in achieving the realization of the obligations undertaken in the present Convention’, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). Among one of the principal tasks of the Committee is the review of State party reports. The Committee is unique among treaty bodies in that it currently reviews State party reports under three substantive treaties. Article 45 explicitly recognises the role of UNICEF and other competent bodies in the implementation of the Convention and it has resulted in a vibrant rights-based constituency for child rights across the globe. The chapter then evaluates the working methods of the Committee and analyses how these have developed.
The Committee on Enforced Disappearances
Authors: de Frouville Olivier 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the Committee on Enforced Disappearances (CED). Although many states doubted that there was any justification for creating a new committee only dedicated to the issue of enforced disappearances, the first years of the Committee have proved them wrong. This is due to the mobilization of civil society and families of the disappeared, particularly in some key states parties like Mexico, who understood well not only the complementarity between the Committee and other competent mechanisms, but also its added value. This is also greatly due to the dedication and dynamism of the members of the Committee, who all tirelessly worked so that, within a few years, the Committee would be ready to act effectively in order to eliminate enforced disappearances and assist victims in their legitimate quest for truth, justice, and reparation.
The Authority Entitled to Extend an Invitation for Direct Military Assistance
Authors: De Wet Erika 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter determines the authority that is required to extend an invitation for direct military assistance by forces of land, air, or sea. In so doing, it departs from the well-established principle in international law that the competence to request either direct military assistance or indirect military assistance rests with the de jure government. This is the authority whose representatives are accepted in international organizations, that accredits ambassadors, can legally enter into treaties, and can legally dispose of the state’s assets and natural resources. The chapter then identifies the criteria for the recognition of the de jure government. These criteria include in particular the traditional requirement of effective control as well as that of democratic legitimacy. In the post-Cold War era the latter has gained prominence in particular within the OAS and the AU. Once an authority is recognized as the de jure government, this triggers a strong presumption of continued de jure status. The fact that the de jure government would subsequently be confronted with an insurgency, and/or be embroiled in a sustained armed conflict with opposition groups, would not in and of itself lead to a loss of its de jure status. However, the question arises as to whether the presumption of continued recognition has any relevance in situations where the incumbent regime no longer is identifiable, or where it is challenged by an authority that claims to be democratically legitimated.
Formal Requirements for Valid Consent to Direct Military Assistance
Authors: De Wet Erika 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores potential formal requirements that may affect the validity of consent to direct military assistance. Customary international law only imposes two specific, formal limitations on the legal construct of military assistance on request. The first would be that the request for or consent to military assistance must be issued (and withdrawn) by the highest officials of a state, namely, the head of state and/or government. Where these two positions are not combined within the same person and there is disagreement between them as to whether consent exists, the domestic law of the country in question may be decisive in determining who has the final say in the matter. However, such disagreement between the two highest state officials is likely to be an indication of the political fragility of the consent, which should caution against relying exclusively on consent as the legal basis for the forcible measures. The second constraint imposed by customary international law concerns the requirement that ex ante consent as expressed in pro-invasion treaty clauses must be complemented by ad hoc consent at the time of the forcible measures. Apart from these two constraints, customary international law does not seem to impose any particular formal requirements on states expressing consent to forcible measures on its territory.
Right to be Tried without Undue Delay
Authors: Clooney Amal , Webb Philippa 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the right to be tried without undue delay. The speed of a trial is integral to its overall fairness. The longer a trial takes, the longer that the defendant, still presumed innocent, is in legal jeopardy; the longer that they may be kept in pre-trial detention; and the greater the risk that witnesses may forget details or evidence may disappear. However, despite the importance of efficiency in criminal justice, chronic delays in trials in domestic jurisdictions have been widely reported. In fact, the right to be tried without undue delay is one of the most litigated aspects of the right to a fair trial. Unlike some violations, delayed proceedings are relatively easy to prove; the question is what constitutes a delay that is ‘undue’ under international human rights law. There is no global time limit for a criminal proceeding and each case must be assessed on its facts, taking into account its complexity; the conduct of the defendant, the prosecution, and other state authorities; and—for most international bodies—the prejudice caused to the defendant by the delay.
Right to Appeal
Authors: Clooney Amal , Webb Philippa 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the right to appeal, which is a safeguard against wrongful conviction, ensuring that a defendant has at least one review of their conviction and sentence. The right to appeal is not absolute and states may place restrictions on the right, such as imposing conditions on access to courts of appeal by requiring defendants to apply for leave. The test is whether the conditions impair the very essence of the defendant’s right to appeal. Once an appeal is granted, the review by the higher tribunal does not necessarily involve the full range of guarantees that are required for a fair trial at first instance. An appeal may not always require an oral hearing, the presence of the defendant, the examination of witnesses, the presentation of new evidence, or detailed reasons for dismissal of the appeal. Among international human rights bodies, the European Court has taken a particularly narrow approach to the right to appeal, allowing for a number of exceptions to the enjoyment of the right and limiting the standard of review to points of law or the sentence only. The key issues regarding the right to appeal concern the stage of proceedings from which the defendant can appeal, the question of who can bring an appeal, and in what types of criminal cases the right must be provided.
International Negotiable Instruments
Authors: Geva Benjamin , Peari Sagi 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This book marries two fields of law: negotiable instruments and choice-of-law. Bills of exchange, cheques, and promissory notes are the main classical negotiable instruments. For centuries, these have played a vital role in the smooth operation of domestic and international commerce. The rapid technological progress of payment mechanisms has embraced the traditional institution of negotiable instruments leading to their adaptation in order to meet the challenges of the frequent mobility of people, goods, and high volumes of cross-border transactions. While the principles governing negotiable instruments tend to be based on a common set of ideas, detailed rules vary from place to place, which requires knowledge of the national law that should govern an international negotiable instrument. The book offers a thorough analysis of the choice-of-law rules applicable to negotiable instruments. The internal structure of negotiable instruments law is complex, which has given rise to a popular view favouring the exclusion of negotiable instruments from the scope of general contract and property law doctrines, and their subsequent exclusion from ordinary choice-of-law analysis. The book contests this view. Indeed, the complex structure of negotiable instruments creates a significant challenge for traditional contract and property doctrines and the choice-of-law analysis applicable to them. Nevertheless, the book contends that the complex case of international negotiable instruments should be analysed through the lens of traditional contract and property choice-of-law doctrines. It concludes that choice-of-law rules in the area of international negotiable instruments need to be dramatically revised and harmonized.
A deep learning approach to quasar continuum prediction
Authors: Liu Bin , Bordoloi Rongmon 
Published: January 2021

ABSTRACT
We present a novel intelligent quasar continuum neural network (iQNet), predicting the intrinsic continuum of any quasar in the rest-frame wavelength range of $1020 \, {\mathring{\rm A}}\le \lambda _{\text{rest}} \le 1600 \, {\mathring{\rm A}}$. We train this network using high-resolution Hubble Space Telescope/Cosmic Origin Spectrograph ultraviolet quasar spectra at low redshift (z ∼ 0.2) from the Hubble Spectroscopic Legacy Archive (HSLA), and apply it to predict quasar continua in different astronomical surveys. We utilize the HSLA quasar spectra that are well defined in the rest-frame wavelength range of [1020, 1600] Å with an overall median signal-to-noise ratio of at least 5. The iQNet model achieves a median absolute fractional flux error of 2.24 per cent on the training quasar spectra, and 4.17 per cent on the testing quasar spectra. We apply iQNet and predict the continua of ∼3200 Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 16 quasar spectra at higher redshift (2 &lt; z ≤ 5) and measure the redshift evolution of mean transmitted flux (〈F〉) in the Ly α forest region. We measure a gradual evolution of 〈F〉 with redshift, which we characterize as a power-law fit to the effective optical depth of the Ly α forest. Our measurements are broadly consistent with other estimates of 〈F〉 in the literature but provide a more accurate measurement as we are directly measuring the quasar continuum where there is minimum contamination from the Ly α forest. This work proves that the deep learning iQNet model can predict the quasar continuum with high accuracy and shows the viability of such methods for quasar continuum prediction.
The impact of astrophysical dust grains on the confinement of cosmic rays
Authors: Squire Jonathan , Hopkins Philip F , Quataert Eliot , Kempski Philipp 
Published: January 2021

ABSTRACT
We argue that charged dust grains could significantly impact the confinement and transport of galactic cosmic rays. For sub-GeV to ∼103 GeV cosmic rays, small-scale parallel Alfvén waves, which isotropize cosmic rays through gyro-resonant interactions, are also gyro-resonant with charged grains. If the dust is nearly stationary, as in the bulk of the interstellar medium, Alfvén waves are damped by dust. This will reduce the amplitude of Alfvén waves produced by the cosmic rays through the streaming instability, thus enhancing cosmic ray transport. In well-ionized regions, the dust damping rate is larger by a factor of ∼10 than other mechanisms that damp parallel Alfvén waves at the scales relevant for ∼GeV cosmic rays, suggesting that dust could play a key role in regulating cosmic ray transport. In astrophysical situations in which the dust moves through the gas with super-Alfvénic velocities, Alfvén waves are rendered unstable, which could directly scatter cosmic rays. This interaction has the potential to create a strong feedback mechanism where dust, driven through the gas by radiation pressure, then strongly enhances the confinement of cosmic rays, increasing their capacity to drive outflows. This mechanism may act in the circumgalactic medium around star-forming galaxies and active galactic nuclei.
Psychological distress and line-of-duty head injuries in firefighters
Authors: Strack J E , Torres V A , Pennington M L , Cardenas M N , Dupree J , Meyer E C , Dolan S , Kruse M I , Synett S J , Kimbrel N A , Gulliver S B 
Published: January 2021

Abstract

Background
Head injuries are common injury in the fire service; however, very little data exist on the risks this may pose to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression in this high-risk population.

Aims
Our study aimed to compare levels of PTSD and depression symptoms in firefighters with a line-of-duty head injury, non-line-of-duty head injury and no head injury.

Methods
In this cross-sectional study, we assessed current PTSD and depression symptoms as well as retrospective head injuries.

Results
Seventy-six per cent of the total sample reported at least one head injury in their lifetime. Depression symptoms were significantly more severe among firefighters with a line-of-duty head injury compared to those with no head injury, but not compared to those who sustained a non-line-of-duty head injury. Depression symptoms did not differ between firefighters with a non-line-of-duty head injury and those with no head injury. PTSD symptoms were significantly more severe among firefighters with a line-of-duty head injury compared to both firefighters with no head injury and those with a non-line-of-duty head injury.

Conclusions
We found that firefighters who reported at least one line-of-duty head injury had significantly higher levels of PTSD and depression symptoms than firefighters who reported no head injuries. Our findings also suggest head injuries sustained outside of fire service could have less of an impact on the firefighter’s PTSD symptom severity than head injuries that occur as a direct result of their job.
Utilitarian Commitments of Transhumanists and Their Sociopolitical Implications
Authors: Levin Susan B. 
Published: January 2021

AbstractThough transhumanists proclaim a bedrock commitment to personal autonomy, this commitment is undercut by evidence in their accounts of a utilitarian obligation to enhance. Their arguments invoke parallels with existing measures taken to promote the health and welfare of the public. Thereby, they reflect a current, broader tendency to extend the scope of “public health.” Their argumentative reliance on the sphere of public health manifests transhumanists’ willingness to defend their proposals on a utilitarian basis. Further, to avoid harming children-to-be, parents may be morally obliged to provide whatever bioenhancements are available when they make procreative decisions. Transhumanists’ notion that bioenhancement could be morally required, together with their utilitarian commitments, yields a strong concern that sociopolitical requirements would flow from the implementation of their agenda so as to put liberal democracy at risk. This risk has often been underappreciated by commentators across the spectrum of positions on bioenhancement.
Teaching Music to Students with Autism
Authors: Hammel Alice M. , Hourigan Ryan M. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
Teaching Music to Students with Autism is the first resource to provide a comprehensive study of the education of students with autism within the music classroom. The approach is centered in the inclusion or self-contained music classroom and is designed for music educators, music teacher educators, and all those who have an interest in the education of students with autism. The authors focus on the diagnosis of autism, advocating for students and music programs, and creating and maintaining a team-approach when working with colleagues. A significant portion of the book is focused on understanding the communication, cognition, behavior, sensory, and socialization challenges inherent in students with autism and ways to structure classroom experiences and learning opportunities for all students. A chapter of classroom snapshots (vigsnettes) written by teachers in the field of music education provides additional opportunities to transfer information to “real life” situations. Finally, the book offers a chapter of print and web resources for further study.
Understanding Cognition and Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Hammel Alice M. , Hourigan Ryan M. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
One of the most unique attributes of students with autism is the distinct way they think. This chapter sheds light on the cognitive world of students with autism in the music classroom. The following topics are included: theory of mind; central coherence; executive function; joint attention (and cognition); and music cognition and students with autism.
A Post-Romantic Priest of Music
Authors: McManus Laurie 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter introduces the concept of the priest of music as it relates to Brahms reception through 1874, the year of La Mara’s substantial biography of the composer. I argue that the concept, fundamentally an early Romantic art-religious creation, was superimposed uncomfortably onto Brahms’s first mature style in the early 1860s. Brahms’s study of counterpoint, recognized by critics as a turn from his earlier Romantic subjective style, inspired narratives of self-improvement and discipline. These narratives combined the ethical implications of counterpoint retained from its original associations with sacred repertoire with the success of the German Requiem (1868) to create the image of an ascetic priest devoted to pure music. As seen in La Mara’s biography of Brahms, critics could modify the outdated Romantic notion of priest to suit Brahms’s post-1850s biographical context and musical style.
Priestesses of Art
Authors: McManus Laurie 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter delves into the largely unexplored intersections of gender stereotypes and art-religious rhetoric in music criticism. It introduces case studies on the priestesses of art—and champions of Brahms’s compositions—Clara Schumann and Amalie Joachim, showing how for these performers, repertoire selection and performativity influenced the creation of motherly priestesses. In the context of nineteenth-century discourses on gender and sex roles, intensified by the nascent women’s rights movement, we encounter a paradox of the pure style: Priestesses were invested with a kind of natural sensual authority that was suited only to women as primordial life-givers. This analysis establishes a more nuanced gendered context for understanding the priestly rhetoric and its criticism.
Politics
Authors: Chollet Derek 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the politics of foreign policy. It recounts the bitter, and ultimately crippling, political brawls that Eisenhower, Bush, and Obama fought over their foreign policies. The chapter dives into Eisenhower’s battle with “America First” nationalists and his disagreements over national security with Senators Robert A. Taft and Joseph McCarthy. It discusses some of the forces undergirding Bush’s humiliating defeat after only one term in office, including the wounds inflicted by a resurgent “America First” movement and populist leaders such as Pat Buchanan and Ross Perot. The chapter documents the political turbulence of the Obama years, including his defining struggle against those who ridiculed his foreign policies as weak and defeatist. Finally, the chapter charts the role of Taft, McCarthy, Buchanan, and Perot in shaping the combustible politics of foreign policy in the 2010s and today.
Farm Income in India
Authors: Narayanamoorthy A. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The Green Revolution resulted in spectacular advancements in Indian agriculture. Having achieved food security for its citizens, the country has now become a net exporter of different agricultural commodities. But sadly, this does not reflect the real state of the Indian agricultural sector. In truth, our farmers are plagued by crop failures, poor income, and indebtedness. Such is their misery that they are of late driven to commit suicide. In this book, the author identifies poor returns from crop cultivation as the root cause of farmers’ problems. Using vast temporal and spatial data, the author explores further and attempts to address some very pertinent questions facing Indian agriculture today: What is the current trend in farm income? Are the returns from irrigated crops better than un-irrigated crops? Does increased productivity guarantee increased income? Has the agricultural price policy benefitted farmers? To what extent does rural infrastructure development help in increasing farm income? Has the rural employment guarantee scheme affected farm profitability? The answers will help us determine if we can double farm income by 2022–3, a target set by the present union government.
Introduction
Authors: Narayanamoorthy A. 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
This chapter delineates the various issues and myths concerning farm income in India in an emphatic manner. Indian agriculture has made rapid progress after the introduction of the Green Revolution in terms of production and productivity of crops. But, this development seems to have not made any big impact on the income of farmers. Owing to poor remuneration from crop cultivation that lead to increased indebtedness, widespread suicides of farmers have been reported in different parts of the country. Unfortunately, comprehensive analysis covering all the pertinent issues of farm income is not available in India. Besides flagging the pertinent issues on farm income, this chapter provides a brief overview of all the chapters included in this volume.