How far did they come from? Archaeological and archeometric provenance studies on glass beads recovered from the Malbork-Wielbark cemetery
Authors: Łuczkiewicz Piotr , Daszkiewicz Małgorzata , Kuzioła Aneta , Kleemann Jörg , Mecking Oliver , Presz Adam 
Published: January 2021

Abstract
The cemetery at Malbork-Wielbark, Pomeranian voivodship, northern Poland, was in use from phase A1 of the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age (end of the 3rd/beginning of the 2nd century AD) to the early Migration Period (phase D1 – beginning of the 5th century AD). To date over 2,000 cremation and inhumation burials have been excavated at this site, yielding at least 3,500 glass beads. They appear mainly in inhumation graves from the early and late Roman Period and the early phase of the Migration Period (phases C1b–C3–D1), and at that time they were deposited in about 40 % of the graves in this cemetery. They are rarely found in cremation graves, and when they do appear it is usually in assemblages of later date. The number of beads in cremation graves throughout the lifespan of the necropolis was usually limited to just one or no more than a few. There is no clear correlation between the presence of glass beads in graves (cremation and inhumation) and the ‘quality’ of the grave goods, and therefore the status of the deceased. Beads (in varying numbers) appear sometimes in poor burials of various date, where they constitute the only (or almost only) grave goods. In theory, graves with more burial goods should contain a correspondingly greater number of beads, but there are many exceptions to this rule. Extensive, multi-element necklaces were one of the characteristic features of dress during the so-called “Wielbark Baroque” (phase B2/C1–C1a). In Malbork-Wielbark, such prestigious necklaces, with numerous glass beads, appear mainly in richly furnished burials from phase C of the Roman Period. In some really rich graves, however, the presence of beads seems to be reduced to a symbolic minimum.
Anthropological analyses could be performed for 25 bead-bearing burials of the 41 excavated during 2008–2018. The results seem to suggest no relationship between the age of the individual, the type of burial rite and the variation in the number of beads in the grave. However, it is interesting that a relatively large proportion of the graves with a greater range of glass ornaments and items of dress were burials representing the infans I and infans II age groups. The selected beads were subjected to various laboratory analyses, examining both the morphology of the materials, based on surface observation with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and their chemical composition. The chemical composition of all beads submitted for analysis was determined using the Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) technique. This analysis was performed for each colour in the case of multicoloured beads. A total of 43 glasses were analysed, including 18 single-colour beads and 25 analyses of variously coloured glasses taken from eight multicoloured beads. Additionally, some samples were analysed using an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) microanalysis system fitted with SEM, and for some the chemical composition was determined by wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF).
The obtained results showed that all analysed samples represent soda-lime-silica glass (SLS glass), the majority of these samples having been made using a natural soda (natron). Due to the low content of Mg and K, they are referred to as LMLK glass. This means that, taking into account the results of the analysis, the majority of the analysed beads are consistent with glass beads produced in the Roman tradition. Only five of the 43 glass samples represent types of soda-lime-silica glass using plant ash as the flux. Due to the high content of Mg and K they are referred to as HMHK glasses. The individual glasses used in each bead came not from one but from various glass-melting factories. There is virtually no correlation between the type/ variety of glass and the dating of the graves in which the beads were deposited.