bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A New Equilibrium? Economy and Society, 1375 to 1400
Authors: Bailey Mark 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Historians have traditionally argued that the social and economic equilibrium of the post-plague period was finally established with the downturn in grain prices from the late 1370s and the softer policies of landlords after the revolt of 1381. Upon closer inspection, however, neither the economic nor the social trends were so straightforward. First, the economy experienced three distinct sub-periods and did not finally stabilize until the late 1390s. Second, the deteriorating economic conditions combined with changing attitudes to labour to fuel social conflict during the 1380s between certain types of landlords and their villein tenants and serfs. Tougher seigniorial attitudes are evident in the targeting of hereditary serfs on a few estates and in draconian revisions to the labour laws in 1388. This mini seigniorial reaction failed, however, and the bark of the new legislation proved worse than its bite. From the early 1390s the great landlords largely abandoned direct exploitation of their demesnes, running down their administrative structures and further releasing their grip upon their peasantry. The implications of all these changes by the 1390s for a possible golden age of the peasantry are discussed.
Scales of Memory
Authors: Collings Justin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Since the Second World War, constitutional justice has spread through much of the democratic world. Often it has followed in the wake of national calamity and historical evil—whether fascism or communism, colonialism or apartheid. Unsurprisingly, the memory of such evils plays a prominent role in constitutional adjudication. This book explores the intersection of constitutional justice and collective memory. It focuses on three jurisdictions—the United States, Germany, and South Africa—and on three towering evils—Nazism, apartheid, and slavery. It argues that courts tend to approach historic evil through one of two principal modes of memory: the redemptive mode, which treats the evil past as an aversive reference point against which the new constitutional order must aggressively define itself; and the parenthetical mode, which treats the evil past as an aberration from an otherwise noble tradition. The redemptive mode emphasizes caesura, the redemptive mode continuity. Most courts deploy both modes at various times. But some tend to emphasize one over the other, and some tend to fuse the two in something of a hybrid. These emphases have consequences. They help shape the stability of a constitutional regime, and they profoundly influence a polity’s capacity to come to terms with its past.
After Hitler: 1951–1975
Authors: Collings Justin 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the German Constitutional Court’s engagement with the memory of Nazism in the first quarter century of the Court’s operation. The chapter shows how the Court came to identify itself, internally and externally, as an overtly anti-Nazi institution. It highlights how the Court construed the postwar German Basic Law as a fundamentally anti-Nazi document and the basis of an anti-Nazi state. The most dramatic case in this regard is the Court’s Civil Servants judgment of 1953, which is discussed at length. The chapter also explores the mnemonic backdrop to the Court’s landmark fundamental rights judgments of the late-1950s. The chapter concludes by discussing the Court’s 1975 abortion judgment, which controversially invoked the memory of Nazism to explain why the right to life had a different valence in Germany than in other democratic states, and why the German Constitution accordingly required the state to protect unborn life throughout the duration of pregnancy.
Finale
Authors: Guirao Fernando 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The Nine failed to establish an industrial free-trade area with Spain and thus to gain access to the Spanish market, the largest west European industrial market outside their direct influence. The decision of the Council of Ministers of the European Communities, in October 1975, to suspend FTA negotiations with Spain, without denouncing the 1970 Agreement, meant the ultimate success of the Spanish government’s politico-economic strategy, the last episode of the European rescue of the Franco regime. The EC Council decision might have been inevitable in terms of public opinion and democratic morality, but it meant to permit Madrid to retain full control over the country’s import policy while fully exploiting the export prospects offered by the 1970 Agreement. In the end, the decision was detrimental for the overall interests of all the parties involved, whether the Spanish population or Western Europe. The final section of this book invites economic historians to estimate the costs of the Spanish EEC policy concerning the inefficient allocation of resources, weak technological transfer, lesser accompanying investment, and limitations to total-factor-productivity increases. Political historians, in turn, should explore what specific interests explain, in each case, why, if official Spanish trade practices in export promotion and import restriction gave the Six every incentive to denounce the 1970 Agreement, apart from obvious political reasons, they did not do so. Finally, scholars dealing with Spanish EEC-membership negotiations should determine the extent at which the Community experience over the 1970 Agreement explains Community attitudes towards some Spanish demands after 1979.
Moral Disagreement and Reason-Giving
Authors: Sinclair Neil 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
According to practical expressivism, moral disagreement is a species of disagreement in attitude whereby agents have moral commitments that advocate incompatible policies of action and reaction. This follows from a unified general account of disagreement as involving mental states that cannot collectively fulfil their constitutive functions, and the practical expressivist hypothesis that the constitutive function of moral attitudes is to advocate and reinforce collective patterns of action and reaction. To reason in favour of a moral claim is to cite a feature of the world to which the related moral attitude is a response, typically in order to alter the attitudes of others. Further, the constraint of ascriptive supervenience and a standing preference for ‘guiding’ over ‘goading’ in moral discussion make sense in light of the practical function that practical expressivism attributes to moral practice. A general pattern for some aspects of moral discourse can be discerned, and this pattern can be applied to the phenomenon of moral avoidability.
Subsentential Metasemantics
Authors: Sinclair Neil 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
A subsentential metasemantics provides an explanation of the meaning of subsentential parts. Practical expressivism holds that moral predicates’ contribution to the explanation of meaning is a function from the subject of a sentence to a moral attitude directed at that subject. Similarly, non-moral or descriptive predicates contribute a function from the subject of a sentence to a descriptive representation (a belief) that attributes a property to that subject. These claims are consistent with standard views of quantifiers as allowing us to make claims about the scope of the correct application of the predicates they govern, and tenses as delineating the range of subjects to which those predicates apply. The explanation of meaning provided by practical expressivism is potentially compatible with truth-conditional semantic theories so long as practical expressivists can claim that moral sentences are truth-apt.
What Is Doxa?
Authors: Moss Jessica 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
I have argued that Plato conceives of doxa first and foremost as cognition of what seems. This may sound like a marginal or technical notion. This chapter argues that it is in fact central to Plato’s thought. Throughout the dialogues Plato is particularly concerned to point out and warn against two cognitive deficiencies: (1) the tendency to mistake images for reality (“dreaming”), and (2) the failure to look beyond particular phenomena to underlying unifying explanations (atheoretical thought). Given his epistemology and metaphysics, Plato holds that these two deficiencies go together, and thus he is concerned with a particular way of thinking that exemplifies both. This way of thinking, moreover, is naturally characterized as cognition of what seems. I show how this view of doxa relates to previous interpretations.
Barth, Bonhoeffer, and Modern Politics
Authors: Mauldin Joshua 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Recent political events around the world have raised the specter of an impending collapse of democratic institutions. Contemporary worries about the decline of liberal democracy harken back to the tumult of the 1930s and 1940s in Europe. Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer lived in Germany during the rise of National Socialism, and each reflected on what the rise of totalitarianism meant for the aspirations of modern politics. Engaging the realities of totalitarian terror, they avoided despairing rejections of modern society. Beginning with Barth in the wake of the First World War, following Bonhoeffer through the 1930s and 1940s in Nazi Germany, and concluding with Barth’s postwar reflections in the 1950s, this study explores how these figures reflected on modern society during this turbulent time and how their work is relevant to the current crisis of modern democracy
Against Trivialism and Mere-Verbalism (and Toward a Better Understanding of the Kind of Non-Factualism Argued for in This Book)
Authors: Balaguer Mark 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Chapter 2 does two main things. First, it distinguishes the kinds of non-factualist views argued for in this book from two other kinds of anti-metaphysical views, namely, trivialist views and mere-verbalist views. Second, it argues that (a) mere-verbalist views are false, and given this, (b) trivialist views are metaphysically irrelevant in the sense that even if they’re true, they’re metaphysically uninteresting and unimportant. This is important for two different reasons. First, trivialist and mere-verbalist views have been extremely popular among philosophers—they’ve been endorsed by, e.g., Hume, Carnap, Putnam, Dennett, Parfit, van Fraassen, Chalmers, Hirsch, Thomasson, Sidelle, Schiffer, Rayo, and Sosa—and so it’s important to see how my non-factualist views differ from these more popular views. Second, the arguments that I construct for my non-factualist views later in the book depend on the arguments that I give in this chapter for the metaphysical irrelevance of trivialist views.
Speculations
Authors: Earlie Paul 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the vexed relationship between deconstruction and science. ‘Speculation’ is a term common both to Derrida’s early reading of Hegelian speculative philosophy and to his extensive reflection on psychoanalysis in texts such as La Carte postale (The Post Card). In its account of Freud’s singular synthesis of concrete observation and fictive speculation in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, La Carte postale provides an unexpectedly rich interrogation of the logic of scientific discovery, one at odds with recent caricatures of Derrida’s thought by proponents of a ‘speculative’ materialism. Freud’s speculations on the pleasure principle allow Derrida to explore psychoanalysis’s status as a ‘positive’ science, its relationship to technology (or technoscience), as well as the limits of psychoanalysis’s own self-delimitation vis-à-vis its various others: metaphysics, religion, and literature or fiction. Positive science’s structural dependency on ‘speculative fictions’ has implications for our understanding of both science and fiction, but it also has implications for recent calls by neuropsychoanalysts to do away with the speculative dimensions of psychoanalytic inquiry.
Politics of Affect
Authors: Earlie Paul 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the importance of affect in Derrida’s understanding of the political. The recent ‘affective turn’ in the humanities and social sciences is often seen as a turn away from the earlier ‘textualist’ models of poststructuralism. This chapter shows that affect is, however, central to deconstruction and to Derrida’s account of the relationship between subjectivity and the political, a relationship it traces to Derrida’s involvement in the 1980s with Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe’s and Jean-Luc Nancy’s Centre de recherches philosophiques sur le politique (Centre for Philosophical Research on the Political). Derrida’s writings on the political (le politique) and on politics (la politique) begin from the premise that the passionate bonds which tie us to ourselves and to others are always accompanied by anxiety in the face of loss or destruction. This aporia, which emerges in dialogue with Freud’s theory of affect and group psychology, is fundamental to the psychical (an)economy of the subject of deconstruction. The latter poses difficult questions to contemporary philosophical and theoretical approaches to affect, some of which are explored here. Texts such as Politiques de l’amitié (Politics of Friendship), Voyous (Rogues), and Le “concept” du 11 septembre (Philosophy in a Time of Terror) underscore how politics can exploit the fragility of the bond between self and other in promising an end to anxiety. For Derrida, however, such anxiety is interminable because it is part of the aporetic structure of subjectivity from the very beginning.
Due Diligence in the Law of the Sea
Authors: Papanicolopulu Irini 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter analyses due diligence obligations in law of the sea instruments, particularly in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. It demonstrates the linkage between general principles, their application to non-state actors via the due diligence obligations of states, and their eventual transformation into binding detailed technical standards, such as the ones incorporated in maritime safety conventions. The chapter advances an integrated reading of due diligence rules in the law of the sea and argues that increased reference to technical standards would facilitate their application in practice. Following a review of two advisory opinions—one of the International Tribunal for the Law of Sea and one of its Seabed Disputes Chamber—the chapter finally contextualises its core findings within the broader debate on the legal nature of due diligence and its primary or secondary character.
Failure Management
Authors: Rouse William B. 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
This chapter addresses the notion of failure management in depth, proposing an overall integrated approach to failure management via surveillance and control. Failure management tasks are defined, and failure surveillance and control are discussed. The conceptual design of an integrated decision support is presented. The applicability to all 18 case studies is discussed. The role of artificial intelligence (AI) in failure management is considered.
Categories
Authors: Johnson Niles , Yau Donald 
Published: February 2021

AbstractIn this chapter, categories are defined, and basic concepts are reviewed. Starting from the definitions of a category, a functor, and a natural transformation, the chapter reviews limits, adjunctions, equivalences, the Yoneda Lemma, monads, monoidal categories, and Mac Lane's Coherence Theorem. Enriched categories, which provide one characterization of 2-categories, are also discussed. This chapter makes this book self-contained and accessible to beginners.
An Education in Intensity
Authors: Nadel Ira 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
The chapter opens with Roth’s 1959 marriage to Margaret (Maggie) Williams, a divorced mother of two from the Midwest Roth met at the University of Chicago. The impact of the marriage on his self-esteem and mental health, and its effect on his early efforts to shape his developing publishing career, receives special attention. But at the same time, while facing personal challenges, he appeared in the Paris Review, began a new friendship with its editor, George Plimpton, and oversaw the appearance of his first book, Goodbye, Columbus. A year in Rome on a fellowship and a new publisher (Random House replacing Houghton Mifflin) furthered his advances, while he also began to teach at the University of Iowa’s prestigious Writers’ Workshop and then Princeton. New friendships with William Styron and Donald Klopfer of Random House, and work with his early editor Joe Fox, soon shaped the direction of his writing. He also started psychoanalysis, necessary to maintain his mental balance as the relationship with Maggie unraveled and a divorce proved to be impossible. The chapter also examines the reception of his first novel, Letting Go.
Supercarnal Productions
Authors: Nadel Ira 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Anchoring this chapter is Philip Roth’s London life with Bloom and a set of new friends: Al Alvarez, critic, Harold Pinter, playwright, R. B. Kitaj, painter, Michael Herr, journalist, and Edna O’Brien, novelist. Roth enjoyed a culturally rich and satisfying life with Bloom, while working on The Professor of Desire. But he soon sensed the fraying of his relationship as Bloom became increasingly dependent on her daughter, the opera singer Anna Steiger. He soon began to work on adaptations, principally for Bloom but also for himself: one early attempt was his effort to adapt Eugenia Ginzburg’s Journey into the Whirlwind, her Gulag autobiography. Another, new development was Roth’s involvement with Janet Hobhouse, novelist, their affair transposed to The Counterlife. And by the late 1970s, Roth turned to the experiences of an isolated writer in the countryside and the impact of the Holocaust through the possible afterlife of Anne Frank expressed in The Ghost Writer. Roth’s relationship with the New Yorker editor Veronica Geng and the continued importance of his editor Aaron Asher are also formidable figures. Comments on Roth’s enigmatic relationship with his mother (who died suddenly in 1981) end the chapter but not before a detailed accounting of Roth’s many illnesses (including a 1989 quintuple bypass) and the debilitating impact of illness on his physical and mental health.
QMaker: Fast and Accurate Method to Estimate Empirical Models of Protein Evolution
Authors: Minh Bui Quang , Dang Cuong Cao , Vinh Le Sy , Lanfear Robert 
Published: February 2021

Abstract
Amino acid substitution models play a crucial role in phylogenetic analyses. Maximum likelihood (ML) methods have been proposed to estimate amino acid substitution models; however, they are typically complicated and slow. In this article, we propose QMaker, a new ML method to estimate a general time-reversible $Q$ matrix from a large protein data set consisting of multiple sequence alignments. QMaker combines an efficient ML tree search algorithm, a model selection for handling the model heterogeneity among alignments, and the consideration of rate mixture models among sites. We provide QMaker as a user-friendly function in the IQ-TREE software package (http://www.iqtree.org) supporting the use of multiple CPU cores so that biologists can easily estimate amino acid substitution models from their own protein alignments. We used QMaker to estimate new empirical general amino acid substitution models from the current Pfam database as well as five clade-specific models for mammals, birds, insects, yeasts, and plants. Our results show that the new models considerably improve the fit between model and data and in some cases influence the inference of phylogenetic tree topologies.[Amino acid replacement matrices; amino acid substitution models; maximum likelihood estimation; phylogenetic inferences.]
Medicago-Sinorhizobium-Ralstonia: A Model System to Investigate Pathogen-Triggered Inhibition of Nodulation
Authors: Benezech Claire , Le Scornet Alexandre , Gourion Benjamin 
Published: February 2021

How plants deal with beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms and how they can tolerate beneficial ones and face pathogens at the same time are questions that remain puzzling to plant biologists. Legume plants are good models to explore those issues, as their interactions with nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia results in a drastic and easy-to-follow phenotype of nodulation. Intriguingly, despite massive and chronic infection, legume defense reactions are essentially suppressed during the whole symbiotic process, raising a question about a potential negative effect of plant immune responses on the establishment of nodulation. In the present study, we used the model legume, Medicago truncatula, coinoculated with mutualistic and phytopathogenic bacteria, Sinorhizobium medicae and Ralstonia solanacearum, respectively. We show that the presence of R. solanacearum drastically inhibits the nodulation process. The type III secretion system of R. solanacearum, which is important for the inhibition of pathogen-associated molecular pattern–triggered immunity (PTI), strongly contributes to inhibit nodulation. Thus, our results question the negative effect of PTI on nodulation. By including a pathogenic bacterium in the interaction system, our study provides a new angle to address the influence of the biotic environment on the nodulation process. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .
Fatty Acid Desaturases in the Chloroplast and Endoplasmic Reticulum Promote Susceptibility to the Green Peach AphidMyzus persicaeinArabidopsis thaliana
Authors: Li Jiamei , Galla Aravind , Avila Carlos A. , Flattmann Kaitlin , Vaughn Kaleb , Goggin Fiona L. 
Published: February 2021

Fatty acid desaturases (FADs) in plants influence levels of susceptibility to multiple stresses, including insect infestations. In this study, populations of the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) on Arabidopsis thaliana were reduced by mutations in three desaturases: AtFAB2/SSI2, which encodes a chloroplastic stearoyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] 9-desaturase, and AtFAD7 or AtFAD3, which encode ω-3 FADs in the chloroplast and endoplasmic reticulum (ER), respectively. These data indicate that certain FADs promote susceptibility to aphids and that aphids are impacted by desaturases in both the chloroplast and ER. Aphid resistance in ssi2, fad3, and fad7, singly or in combination, might involve altered signaling between these subcellular compartments. C18:1 levels are depleted in ssi2, whereas C18:2 accumulation is enhanced in fad3 and fad7. In contrast, fad8 has higher than normal C18:2 levels but also high C18:1 and low C18:0 and does not impact aphid numbers. Potentially, aphids may be influenced by the balance of multiple fatty acids (FAs) rather than by a single species, with C18:2 promoting aphid resistance and C18:1 promoting susceptibility. Although the fad7 mutant also accumulates higher-than-normal levels of C16:2, this FA does not contribute to aphid resistance because a triple mutant line that lacks detectable levels of C16:2 (fad2fad6fad7) retains comparable levels of aphid resistance as fad7. In addition, aphid numbers are unaffected by the fad5 mutation that inhibits C16:1 synthesis. Together, these results demonstrate that certain FADs are important susceptibility factors in plant-aphid interactions and that aphid resistance is more strongly associated with differences in C18 abundance than C16 abundance.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .