bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rediscovering Use Value
Authors: Hermann Christoph 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter rediscovers use value as an essential category for understanding commodification and capitalism more generally. The distinction between use value and exchange value goes back to ancient Greek philosophy and it played an important role in classical political economy. However, with the invention of marginal utility in the late nineteenth century, use value moved from the center to the fringes of economic thinking. Even where it survived, such as in Marxist scholarship, there was considerable disagreement about the role of use value in a critical political economy. The chapter, furthermore, explores the value of nature and by doing so unveils the shortcomings of the concept of marginal utility. One problem is that marginal utility denies the existence of collective value. Following Polanyi, the chapter argues that products not only have individual value, but also have a social and ecological utility. And social and ecological utility can differ considerably from individual valuation.
The Eye and the Whip
Authors: Lagunes Paul 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Corruption vulnerabilities exist where government officials have power over the provision of goods and the imposition of costs. Building permits and infrastructure contracts are examples of state-issued goods. Traffic tickets and tax liabilities are examples of costs levied by the state. These and other corruption vulnerabilities turn to actual threats when officials calculate that the benefits of abusing their power are greater than the penalties associated with getting caught. By a similar logic, the formula for corruption control requires increasing the probability of detecting corruption (that is, of activating the eye) through enhanced monitoring and then credibly threatening to apply the appropriate penalty in response to wrongdoing (cracking the whip). Notably, the common policy response to corruption often emphasizes only the first of the two mechanisms. Governments prioritize transparency measures but avoid the risks associated with confronting corruption. Therefore, as a means to improve on the current state of affairs, this book examines distinct approaches to promoting accountability, especially accountability among the set of unelected officials responsible for regulating the built environment. It analyzes the results of field experiments on corruption control conducted in the City of Querétaro in central Mexico, urban and peri-urban districts in Peru, and two of New York City’s boroughs. The book contributes evidence-based recommendations for how societies can go about fighting bureaucratic corruption.
Epidemiology and Informed Consent
Authors: Mastroianni Anna C. , Kahn Jeffrey P. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on informed consent, which is a central concept and practice in the protection of the rights and interests of both patients receiving clinical care and individuals participating in research. It addresses the commitment to the ethical principles underlying informed consent that dates back to the early twentieth century, as reflected in many countries' laws governing the physician–patient relationship. It also recounts how informed consent was codified into national policies and international guidelines and standards for research on human subjects. The chapter explores the parallel origins of informed consent and its applications, which are based on distinctions between clinical practice and research and do not naturally apply to or readily translate to epidemiology. It outlines the requirements for consent that have been and are treated differently in epidemiology depending on the type of activity and sometimes the practicability of seeking consent from participants.
Understanding the Ethics of Risk as Used in Epidemiology
Authors: Silva Diego S. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the concept of risk that is central to epidemiology, since the study of disease or health of populations necessarily requires assessing and determining the probability of the factors that may increase or decrease the likelihood of disease or health. It argues that the purportedly non-normative understanding of risk in epidemiology fails to capture separate but interrelated points, such as the description of risk assessments. It also discusses the importance of risk to a population for disease p to understand the political or economic values that help create the context that led to the increased risk. The chapter delves into the ethical significance for epidemiologists to help analyze and explain who imposed risk onto whom and in what ways this risk imposition occurred. It cites a normative sense of risk in epidemiology, which appeals to most theories of justice and makes sense of the ethics of causation in either more modest or stronger terms.
Ethics, Epidemiology, and Changing Perspectives on AIDS
Authors: Levine Carol 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
This chapter highlights the current state of HIV/AIDS care that fits Lewis Thomas’s 1971 definition of a “halfway technology.” It explains halfway technology as an intermediate stage between “nontechnology” and as a supportive medical care that does little to affect the course of disease, while “high” or “transformative technology” depends on advances in basic sciences. It also clarifies that transformative technology included immunization, chemotherapy, and antibiotics, while halfway technologies included dialysis, organ transplants, and mechanical ventilation. The chapter focuses on AIDS, which is as much a concern in the twenty-first century as it was forty years ago. It elaborates how the AIDS epidemic is ravaging African countries, such as South Africa and Nigeria; spreading in parts of Asia, such as Thailand and the Philippines; in Eastern Europe in countries like Russia and Ukraine; and in Caribbean and Central American countries.
Fitness Effects of Parasite Infection in Birds
Authors: Dunn Jenny C. , Hawley Dana M. , Huyvaert Kathryn P. , Owen Jennifer C. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Parasites and pathogens inherently cause harm to their hosts, but the degree to which that harm causes notable fitness costs for an individual host can be highly variable. While some effects of parasites on host fitness are drastic and immediate in nature, a growing body of evidence suggests that even parasites that cause chronic and subclinical infections can still have notable negative fitness consequences for hosts by reducing the probability of long-term survival and reproductive success. This chapter considers the ways in which fitness effects of infection are typically evaluated in birds and then examines the impacts of parasites and pathogens on diverse fitness-relevant traits in birds, including survival and components of reproductive success. Because fitness effects associated with infection can be highly variable and context-dependent, the chapter highlights some of the characteristics of parasites, hosts, or the environment likely to influence the extent of fitness effects of infection on avian hosts. The potential influence of abiotic factors such as climate and nutritional stress on the fitness impacts of parasites has not yet been well studied in birds but represent an important area for future research. Overall, understanding the individual-level fitness consequences of parasite infection is critical because these effects ultimately contribute to a population’s growth potential and determine the strength of selection that parasites place on host populations.
Community-Level Interactions and Disease Dynamics
Authors: McCoy Karen D. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
An ecological community includes all individuals of all species that interact within a single patch or local area of habitat. Understanding the outcome of host–parasite interactions and predicting disease dynamics is particularly challenging at this biological scale because the different component species interact both directly and indirectly in complex ways. Current shifts in biodiversity due to global change, and its associated modifications to biological communities, will alter these interactions, including the probability of disease emergence, its dynamics over time, and its community-level consequences. Birds are integral component species of almost all natural communities. Due to their ubiquity and specific life history traits, they are defining actors in the ecology, evolution, and epidemiology of parasitic species. To better understand this role, this chapter examines the relative importance of birds and parasites in natural communities, revisiting basic notions in community ecology. The impact of changes in diversity for disease dynamics, including the debate surrounding dilution and amplification effects are specifically addressed. By considering the intrinsic complexities of natural communities, the importance of combining data from host and parasite communities to better understand how natural systems function over time and space is highlighted. The different elements in each section of the chapter are illustrated with brief, concrete examples from avian species, with a detailed example from marine bird communities in which Lyme disease bacteria circulate.
Land Use Change and Avian Disease Dynamics
Authors: Murray Maureen H. , Hernandez Sonia M. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Birds live on a human-dominated planet. Over half of Earth’s ice-free land area has been modified by anthropogenic disturbance including deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization, impacting ecosystems around the world. Disturbances associated with these land use types, such as habitat loss, fragmentation, and pollution, influence the dynamics between birds, their pathogens, and the environment they share. Such shifts in disease dynamics can arise through the impacts of land use change on aspects of hosts, vectors, and/or pathogens, including vector and host abundance, behavior, and physiology, and through pathogen persistence in the environment. To address this complexity, the major causes of land use change that can impact birds across diverse ecosystems are described. The chapter then discusses key changes associated with land use change such as habitat loss, pollution, and anthropogenic resources that are relevant to avian disease ecology. These key changes are followed by a synthesis of documented changes in avian health with urbanization, the fastest growing type of land use change on Earth. The chapter closes with relevant implications for One Health systems and future directions for advancing avian disease ecology in rapidly changing landscapes.
Regulatory Coherence Requirements in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Foster Caroline E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Part IV comprises two chapters, Chapter Seven and Chapter Eight. These chapters focus on investment treaty arbitration. Chapter Seven identifies the regulatory coherence tests emerging under each of the core investment protection guarantees. Fair and equitable treatment guarantees require host States’ regulatory measures to bear reasonable relationships to rational policies. National treatment guarantees call for a reasonable nexus to a rational government policy. The law on expropriation increasingly incorporates the understanding that reasonable measures adopted in good faith to address a real public health or environmental concern are ‘for a public purpose’. These tests all tend to accommodate domestic level decision-making, allowing room for the operation of democratic processes rather than envisaging an international legal override. This will assist with traditional procedural justifications for authority at the domestic and international level.
Proportionality in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Foster Caroline E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Chapter Eight continues Chapter Seven’s examination of regulatory coherence tests in investment treaty arbitration, turning the analysis to the controversial idea of relying on proportionality testing. The principle of proportionality is promising as a concept that could assist in the substantive balancing of international legal interests and the better co-ordination of domestic and international authority. However the difficulty with the adoption of proportionality testing by international courts and tribunals is precisely that it calls, when needed, for a value judgement to be taken as a matter of international law on the relative merits of the legal interests at stake. Proportionality testing does not ultimately accommodate domestic decision-making in the same way as many other regulatory coherence tests like those addressed in Chapter Seven and prior chapters. International courts and tribunals are rightly wary of such a concept. Proportionality is not accepted as a general head of review in common law jurisdictions and does not qualify as a general principle of law. The introduction of proportionality through international adjudicatory process is likely to undermine rather than enhance the procedural justification of international law’s legitimacy claim. The chapter proposes three ways in which proportionality testing should be refocused, if it is to be employed.
Borderlands
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The book proposes a profound rethink of the complex relationship between Europe—defined here as the European Union and its members—and the states of the Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa (MENA), Europe’s ‘southern neighbours’. These relations are examined through a borderlands prism that conceives of this interaction as one between an empire of sorts that seeks to export its order beyond the border, and the empire’s southern borderlands. Focusing on trade relations on the one hand, and the cooperation on migration, borders, and security on the other, the book revisits the historical origins and modalities of Europe’s selective rule transfer to MENA states, the interests underwriting these policies, and the complex dynamics marking the interaction between the two sides over a twenty-year period (1995–2015). It shows that within a system of structurally asymmetric economic relations from which Europe and MENA elites benefit the most, single MENA governments have been co-opted into the management of border and migration control where they act as Europe’s gatekeepers. Combined with specific policy choices of MENA governments, Europe’s selective expansion of its rules, practices, and disaggregated borders have contributed to rising socio-economic inequalities and the strengthening of authoritarian rule in the ‘southern neighbourhood’, with Europe tacitly tolerating serious violations of the rights of refugees and migrants at its fringes. Challenging the self-proclaimed benevolent nature of European policies and the notion of ‘Fortress Europe’ alike, the findings of this study contribute to broader debates on power, dependence, and interdependence in the discipline of international relations.
Restructuring the Socio-Economic and Political Order in the Mediterranean Middle East
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The chapter assesses the impact of European policies on the Mediterranean Middle East, and more specifically the restructuring of the socio-economic and political order in MENA states promoted by these policies. These processes must be considered in the broader context of Western policies towards the region at large, including those adopted by international financial institutions and other Western countries such as the United States. The chapter principally focuses on trade and economic relations in the broad sense, as well as the cooperation on migration, security, and border management. It also investigates whether, and to what extent, European policies have contributed to rising socio-economic inequalities and the strengthening of the largely authoritarian regimes in the MENA region (in the event that they have not been overthrown).
Conclusions and Outlook
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The concluding chapter synthesizes the empirical and theoretical findings presented in the book. It discusses the study’s findings on the interaction between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East—Europe’s southern borderlands—by pointing to the plainly adverse impact of European policies on the region. This chapter also considers the book’s findings in relation to the academic literature while briefly reflecting on their comparability with other world regions. The chapter concludes by raising the question of future prospects for Europe’s relations with its southern neighbours, particularly when Europe’s diminished power of attraction, the increasingly influential position of other actors in the Middle East, and the policies and responsibilities of MENA governments themselves are taken into consideration.
Evolution of the Prefrontal Cortex in Non-human Primates
Authors: Passingham Richard E. 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The primate prefrontal (PF) cortex evolved in phases. The first PF granular areas emerged as early primates and their closest ancestors adapted to an arboreal life. These areas improved the use of vision to search for foods and decide whether they were edible. Another phase of PF evolution occurred in anthropoids as they adapted to a diurnal life. They increased in body size and foraged over large distances, using foveal vision to search for resources. This exposed them to new competitors and encouraged social grouping, the advantage being that there are many eyes on the lookout for danger. The brain expanded in relation to the size of the body (encephalization) and the cortex expanded as a proportion of the brain (corticalization). At the same time, new PF areas emerged.
Body schema and body image in motor learning: refining Merleau-Ponty’s notion of body schema
Authors: Tanaka Shogo 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to explicate the interrelated roles of body schema and body image in motor learning and to shed light on the phenomenology of body image from a fresh perspective. The chapter revisits how Merleau-Ponty conceptualized body schema in terms of the lived body. Second, the chapter will have a short review of the scientific research on motor learning. And then, comparing with Gallagher and Cole’s analysis of Ian Waterman, the chapter examines the symptom of Schneider, the case of whom Merleau-Ponty referred to in considering the function of body schema. The argument presented in the chapter will show that Merleau-Ponty’s idea crucially lacked the theoretical distinction of body schema and body image, though his idea of ‘intentional arc’ involved a certain aspect of the latter. And finally, the chapter comes back to the theme of motor learning in order to describe the roles of body schema and body image in the actual process of motor learning. On the one hand, this chapter aims to brush up the phenomenology of embodiment by refining Merleau-Ponty’s notion of body schema. But on the other hand, it also aims to push forward the sciences of motor learning from a theoretical perspective.
Growing up a self: on the relation between body image and the experience of the interoceptive body
Authors: Drysdale Rosie , Tsakiris Manos 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
Experimental research on self-recognition has largely focused on four different populations: human infants, non-human primates, neurotypical adults, and neuropsychiatric patients. Across these populations, the question has been on the mechanisms that may enable an explicit form of recognizing one’s own image or appearance. At the same time, research in this area has recognized the fact that the other side of the embodiment, not that of the seen body but that of the felt body, has been largely ignored, both in the adult literature and more so in developmental studies. This chapter reviews relevant, but scarce, evidence on the relation between interoceptively and exteroceptively driven body awareness in early life and adulthood and puts forward a framework that articulates how we grow a self from the inside-out, with important implications for our understanding of body image and emotional awareness.
Feeling of a presence and anomalous body perception
Authors: Hara Masayuki , Blanke Olaf , Kanayama Noriaki 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The feeling of a presence (FoP) is an illusory vivid feeling that there is another person nearby who is not seen, heard, or felt. In neuropsychiatry, FoP has traditionally been classified among disorders of the body schema but has also been reported from times immemorial by healthy individuals in various conditions. Here the chapter reviews key neurological and psychiatric data on FoP and the involved neural mechanisms. Particular relevance will be given to the distinction between body schema versus body image in the FoP. This is followed by a description of recent efforts in engineering and cognitive neuroscience to apply robotics technology to experimentally induce and study FoP and its phenomenology. The chapter concludes by describing an exciting new research field that integrates consciousness studies, cognitive neuroscience, and engineering—cognetics.
The body image–body schema/ownership–agency model for pathologies: four case studies
Authors: David Aviya Ben , Ataria Yochai 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The body image/body schema–ownership/agency (BI-BS/Ow-Ag) model seeks to explain different kinds of pathologies as part of a unified model. As part of this endeavour, this chapter attempts to apply the BI-BS/Ow-Ag model to the following phenomena: body integrity identity disorder (BIID), schizophrenia, anorexia nervosa (AN), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
‘With an Eye to the Past’, But No Longer ‘An Object of International Law’
Authors: Giladi Rotem 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The Prologue tells the story of the Jewish Yearbook of International Law, published in Jerusalem in 1949. It highlights the sense of time of those involved: an end to Jewish objecthood and the beginning of Jewish subjecthood brought by the sovereign turn in Jewish history—a radical transformation in the international legal status of Jews. The volume sought to ‘sum up’, ‘with an eye to the past’, the terms of past Jewish engagements with international law. The editors refrained from predicting the shape of things to come—the terms on which the Jewish state would now approach international law; this book explores that future. The Prologue also introduces the dramatis personae, including Jacob Robinson and Shabtai Rosenne, Foreign Ministry legal advisers and the book’s main protagonists. It also tells of their effort to assume ownership of the project which was to be renamed the Israel Yearbook of International Law.
From a ‘Marginal Problem’ to the ‘Supreme International Jurisdiction’
Authors: Giladi Rotem 
Published: August 2021

Abstract
The first of two chapters to explore the theme protection, chapter 4 records the range of conflicting attitudes displayed by Jacob Robinson and Shabtai Rosenne towards the Genocide Convention during its drafting, with regard to and following its ratification, and at the International Court of Justice advisory proceedings on the question of reservations to the Convention. The chapter describes their early disinterest in and indifference towards the Genocide Convention as a ‘marginal problem’ on the United Nations agenda, but also the circumstances under which they came to acknowledge and appropriate the Convention’s Jewish paternity, exploit the opportunities it presented while, in private, recording their hostility towards Raphael Lemkin, its progenitor, as well as their derision of the Convention’s promise to protect Jewish existence.