bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
IIOT and Real Time Data Analytics - Maximizing the Impact on Safety and Productivity
Authors: Daher Ryan , Aldash Nesma 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
With the global push towards Industry 4.0, a number of leading companies and organizations have invested heavily in Industrial Internet of Things (IIOT's) and acquired a massive amount of data. But data without proper analysis that converts it into actionable insights is just more information. With the advancement of Data analytics, machine learning, artificial intelligence, numerous methods can be used to better extract value out of the amassed data from various IIOTs and leverage the analysis to better make decisions impacting efficiency, productivity, optimization and safety.
This paper focuses on two case studies- one from upstream and one from downstream using RTLS (Real Time Location Services). Two types of challenges were present: the first one being the identification of the location of all personnel on site in case of emergency and ensuring that all have mustered in a timely fashion hence reducing the time to muster and lessening the risks of Leaving someone behind. The second challenge being the identification of personnel and various contractors, the time they entered in productive or nonproductive areas and time it took to complete various tasks within their crafts while on the job hence accounting for efficiency, productivity and cost reduction.
In both case studies, advanced analytics were used, and data collection issues were encountered highlighting the need for further and seamless integration between data, analytics and intelligence is needed. Achievements from both cases were visible increase in productivity and efficiency along with the heightened safety awareness hence lowering the overall risk and liability of the operation. Novel/Additive Information: The results presented from both studies have highlighted other potential applications of the IIOT and its related analytics. Pertinent to COVID-19, new application of such approach was tested in contact tracing identifying workers who could have tested positive and tracing back to personnel that have been in close proximity and contact therefore reducing the spread of COVID. Other application of the IIOT and its related analytics has also been tested in crane, forklift and heavy machinery proximity alert reducing the risk of accidents.
Lessons Learnt from Integrated Production Modelling and Performance Analysis of Gas Lift Wells of One of the Biggest Offshore Complexes in India
Authors: Devshali Sagun , Raman Ravi , Malhotra Sanjay Kumar , Yadav Mahendra Prasad , Uniyal Rishabh 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
The paper aims to discuss various issues pertaining to gas lift system and instabilities in low producer wells along with the necessary measures for addressing those issues. The effect of various parameters such as tubing size, gas injection rate, multi-porting and gas lift valve port diameter on the performance analysis of integrated gas lift system along with the flow stability have been discussed in the paper.
Field X is one of the matured offshore fields in India which has been producing for over 40 years. It is a multi-pay, heterogeneous and complex reservoir. The field is producing through six Process Complexes and more than 90% of the wells are operating on gas lift. As most of the producing wells in the field are operating on gas lift, continuous performance analysis of gas lift to optimize production is imperative to enhance or sustain production.
121 Oil wells and 7 Gas wells are producing through 18 Wellhead platforms to complex X1 of the field X. Out of these 121 oil wells, 5 are producing on self and remaining 116 with gas lift. In this paper, performance analysis of these 116 flowing gas lift wells, carried out to identify various problems which leads to sub-optimal production such as inadequate gas injection, multi-porting, CV choking, faulty GLVs etc. has been discussed. On the basis of simulation studies and analysis of findings, requisite optimization/ intervention measures proposed to improve performance of the wells have been brought out in the paper.
The recommended measures predicted the liquid gain of about 1570 barrels per day (518 barrels of oil per day) and an injection gas savings in the region of about 28 million SCFD. Further, the nodal analysis carried out indicates that the aforementioned gas injection saving of 28 million SCFD would facilitate in minimizing the back pressure in the flow line network and is likely to result in an additional production gain of 350 barrels of liquid per day (65 barrels of oil per day) which adds up to a total gain of 1920 barrels of liquid per day (583 barrels of oil per day). Additionally, system/ nodal analysis has also been carried out for optimal gas allocation in the field through Integrated Production Modelling. The analysis brings out a reduction in gas injection by 46 million SCFD with likely incremental oil gain of ~100 barrels of oil per day.
One Phase Well OPW : Unlock Shallow Reservoir Efficient and Economically by Eliminating Surface Casing
Authors: Hanif Irfan , Sayogyo Bramarandhito , Riko R , Hadistira Praja , Sari Karina 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Tunu is a mature giant gas and condensate field locate in Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The field has been in development for almost 30 years and currently has been considered as a mature field where to put a state of an economic well has become more challenging nowadays. The deeper zone of Tunu has no longer been considered as profitable to be produced and the current focus is more on the widespread shallow gas pocket located in the much shallower zone of Tunu.
One phase well is architecture without 9-5/8" surface casing. OPW is one-section drilling using a diverter mode from surface to TD without using BOP. Historical for OPW is began from 2018, where drilling reservoir section using diverter mode in two-phase. In 2018 also succeeded in performing perforated surface casing. Due successfully in drilling operation using diverter and perforated surface casing, in 2019 drilling trials for OPW were carried out. Until now, the OPW architecture has become one of the common architecture used in drilling operations as an optimization effort.
Until December 2020 PHM has completed 15+ OPW wells. A general comparison of OPW and SLA well is at the cost of constructing a well of approximately 200,000 - 300,000 US$. The disadvantages of OPW wells are more expensive in the mud and cement section when using a 9-1/2" hole, but in terms of the duration, OPW drilling time is more efficient up to 2-3 days. If viewed from the integrity of the OPW wells, from 15 OPW wells that have been completed, only 2 of them have SCP.
Application of Class-Based Machine Learning for Potential Hydrocarbon Zones Identification: A Case Study
Authors: Wiyoga Sonny Ari , Xu Jhonny , Carolina Aulia Desiani , Dewanda Ratna 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
At times, petrophysicists are expected to evaluate potential of the well in time-constraint situations while maintaining consistency of the parameters and interpretation. Other than that, some challenges may also occur when working with older wells where the dataset are not as complete as current wells and processing parameters are not transferable. In this case study, class-based machine learning (CBML) approach is used to perform petrophysical evaluation to identify potential hydrocarbon zones in the target wells. The objective is to find solution to improve efficiency and consistency in those challenging situations.
A class-based machine learning (CBML) workflow uses cross-entropy clustering (CEC)-Gaussian mixture model (GMM)- hidden Markov model (HMM) workflow that identifies locally stationary zones sharing similar statistical properties in logs, and then propagates zonation information from training wells to other wells (Jain, et al., 2019). The workflow is divided into two (2) main steps: training and prediction. Key wells which best represent the formation in the field are used to train the model. This approach automatically generates the number of cluster (class) using unsupervised or supervised depending on the input data. The model from key wells data is then used to reconstruct inputs and outputs along with uncertainty and outlier flags. This allows expert to QC and validate the generated class which is the most crucial part of the workflow. Once the model from the key wells has been built, it is applied to predict the same set of zones in the new wells that require interpretation and predict output curves.
The result matched well over the good data interval with the petrophysical interpretation result from conventional approach. While in the bad interval, some discrepancies can be observed. The discrepancy was identified easily from the uncertainty and outlier flags which helps petrophysicists to identify which interval to fix or re-evaluate. Some requirements to condition the input were observed (no missing value over the input and outlier) to get the best result. A number of inputs used in the model need to be consistent over the set of wells used in the training and prediction target. This machine learning workflow speeds-up the petrophysical analysis process, reduce analyst bias and improve consistency result between one well to another within the same field. This machine learning application can also generate auto log QC, zonation class for rock typing also reconstructed logs which enrich the petrophysical interpretation even for wells with limited logs availability.
This paper offers practical examples and lessons learned of CBML approach application to perform petrophysical evaluation and identify potential zones while being in time-constrained and limited resource situations.
A New Productivity Prediction Hybrid Model for Multi-Fractured Horizontal Wells in Tight Oil Reservoirs
Authors: Tao Liang , Guo Jianchun , Li Zhijun , Wang Xuanyi , Yang Shubo , Shi Kun , Zhao Yuhang , Zhao Zhihong 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Single well productivity is an important index to evaluate the effect of volume fracturing. However, there are many factors affecting the productivity of Multi-fractured horizontal wells (MFHWs) in unconventional reservoirs and the relationship is complex, which makes productivity prediction very difficult. In this paper, taking the tight oil reservoir in Songliao Basin as the research object, a new mixed model of initial cumulative oil production of MFHWs was established, which can consider the geological factors and volume fracturing factors at the same time. Firstly, based on the big data, the multi-level evaluation system was established by using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Then, the weight factor was calculated to uncover key factors that dominate productivity of MFHWs. Finally, the fuzzy logic method was used to calculate the Euclidean distance and quantitatively predict the production of any horizontal wells. The simulation results shown that: the order of the main factors affecting production in the study area was horizontal section sandstone length, number of stages, formation pressure, proppant amount, net pay thickness, permeability, porosity, oil saturation, fracturing fluid volume. The hybrid model has been applied to the productivity prediction of 185 MFHWs in tight oil reservoirs in China, the prediction error was less than 5%. The new model can be used to predict production for MFHWs quickly and economically.
Enhancing Rheological Properties and Reduction of Total Acid Number of a Heavy Crude Oil Using Ethanol and Trona
Authors: Almadhaji Ahmed , Saeed Mohammed , Ibrahim Hitham , Ahmed Anas , Maher Ragaei 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
One of Sudanese fields has a heavy crude oil which has a high Total Acid Number (TAN) and high viscosity, can cause a lot of problems in production operation, transport, and storage facilities. The effect of ethanol dilution on the rheological properties of crude (especially the kinematic viscosity) was studied and presented. Moreover, the consequence of blending Trona (NaHCO3.Na2CO3) with a specified amount of Ethanol in the crude can reduce (TAN) to acceptable limits for solving corrosion and flowability problems. The approach is based on the experiments and laboratory works on the crude's samples after blending with a certain amount of Trona and Ethanol. It depends on the results of apparatuses, that are used to measure the samples, for instance, Calibrated glass capillary viscometer and ASTM D664 titration volume Total Acid Number tester which are employed to get the values of kinematic viscosity and TAN, respectively. The tests are established with crude have kinematic viscosity (187 cst) at temperature 75°C and TAN almost (8.51). While increasing the dosage of Trona at the ambient temperature (38°C) with the certain mass percentage of Ethanol (5%), TAN is decreased from (8.51 to 4.00 mgKOH/g). Also, the kinematic viscosity is declined from (187 cst to 96.75 cst) after increasing the volume of Ethanol at 75°C. These outcomes indicated that Ethanol could reduce Sudanese heavy crude's viscosity, and the Trona could decrease the TAN. This reduction occurred due to Ethanol dilution. The Ethanol molecules disturb the molecular structure of the crude, which forms polar bond within the hydrocarbon chain that leads to lower the friction between molecules of hydrocarbon in the crude. Also, Trona shrinks TAN because the Hydroxide ions (OH+) that founded in Trona neutralize the Hydrogen ions (H−) in Naphthenic acid in Sudanese heavy crude. This study can be summarized in the ability to solve the difficulty of transporting and processing the heavy crude oil in refineries; maintains the quality of the crude while utilizing it with friendly environmental materials and low cost.
Managed-Pressure Cementing in HPHT Well with Very Narrow Operating Pressure Window
Authors: Sanchez David Salinas , Lugo Mario Noguez , Torres Oscar Zamora , Castillo Cuauhtemoc Cruz , Rivera Moises Muñoz , Zertuche Xavier Omar Alviso 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
A 7-in. liner was successfully cemented in the south east region of Mexico at 7530 m MD despite significant pressure and temperature challenges. The entire 1,370-m, 8.5" open hole section needed cement coverage and isolation to test several intervals. The challenge of the ultranarrow working pressure window was overcome by using managed pressure cementing (MPC) along with lost circulation solutions for the cement slurry and spacer.
Due to the narrow pressure window (0.05 g/cc density gradient), mud losses could not be avoided during the cementing job. To limit and manage losses, an MPC placement technique was proposed, in conjunction with using lost circulation fiber technology in the cement slurry and spacer. After addressing the losses and narrow working pressure window, the next main challenge was the extremely high temperature (Bottom hole static temperature of 171°C). Extensive lab testing provided the fluid solution: HT formulations for cement slurry and spacer to maintain stability and rheology for placement and management of equivalent circulating density and set cement properties for long-term zonal isolation.
After the liner was run to bottom, the mud density was homogenized from 1.40 g/cc to 1.30 g/cc (pore pressure: 1.38 g/cc). During this process, 32.5 m3 of mud was lost to the formation. During the previous circulation, the backpressure required to maintain the equivalent circulation density (ECD) above pore pressure, which was calculated and validated resulting in 1,100 psi annulus surface pressure (close to the limit of the equipment capacity) during the stopping time. The cementing job was pumped flawlessly with only 10 m3 of mud loss at the end of the job. During reverse circulation, contaminated spacer at surface indicated no cementing fluid had been lost to the formation and adequate open-hole coverage. The liner was successfully pressure tested to 4,500 psi, and cement logs showed that the cement had covered the open hole completely.
MPC is not a conventional cementing technique. After the successful result on this job and subsequent operations, this technique is now being adopted to optimize cementing in even deeper wells in Mexico, where losses during cementing operations in the past had modified or limited the whole well construction and designed completion, and production of the well.
Journey of Effectively Using Real-Time Production Surveillance Tool in Digital Transformation and Well, Reservoir and Facility Management Improvements
Authors: Sahu Sambit Kumar , Lauwerys Christophe , Abdullah Zulfikri , Muhammad Mariana Jamil , Agrawal Divya 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
In 2014, SPE-167857-MS was published highlighting how Real-Time Surveillance using the Shell proprietary Production Universe (PU) application helped to reduce deferment, improve production allocation, optimize test unit capacity, and track well operating envelope in Brunei Shell Petroleum BSP (company) operations in South East Asia.
Since then, there has been significant progress in the application of PU to help the company meet Wells Reservoir Management (WRFM) requirements and Operational Excellence standards in areas such as Platform Production Reconciliation, Well Modeling, Production Estimation, and Exception based Surveillance helping the company to improve their Hydrocarbon and Energy Accounting. The wider introduction of the PU application in the allocation process significantly helped in Hydrocarbon Accounting (HCA), helping company's journey in moving from monthly to daily allocation and assisting to improve the field reconciliation factor (RF).
The utilization of PU has also facilitated real-time monitoring of production parameters supporting engineers to safely and efficiently operate their wells within the Operating Envelopes while adhering to reservoir management guidelines.
The optimization engine of the PU has been used to maximize the production of company contributing to two major success stories of Real-Time Condensate Optimization in a Gas-Constraint system and Gas Lift Optimization in a platform with limited lift gas availability amongst the producing wells.
An Integrated Production Monitoring and Optimization System (IPMOS) provides asset-wide advice on optimally producing company's well within the constraints imposed by limitations on pipeline capacity, compressor throughput, and remote operability while satisfying customer demands.
PU is additionally being used in Proactive Technical Monitoring (PTM) of rotating equipment to identify the critical parameters operating outside the set limits in an exception-based format.
PU alerts & alarms have been configured in a wide range of operational monitoring such as Ensure Safe Production (ESP), Chemical Injection, Annulus Pressure Monitoring(APM), Control-Line pressure, Erosion-Corrosion Monitoring System(ECMS) to alert Production Engineers in case of any discrepancy or exception-based format for them to take remedial actions.
This paper will explain how each of the above applications in PU has helped company in its journey of closing its gap to potential and achieving the digital transformation of its operations.
Bi-Directional Long Short-Term Memory Variational Autoencoder for Real-Time Bit-Wear Estimation
Authors: Luu Trieu Phat , Bomidi John A.R. , Magana-Mora Arturo , Alalsayednassir Alawi , Zhan Guodong David 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Drilling operations rely on learned expertise in monitoring the drilling performance data and the rock data to assess the dull condition of the drill bit. While human learning can subjectively pick up the indicators based on rig surface data streams, this information is highly convoluted with changes in rock and drilling data. Recent approaches for bit wear estimation also include model-based and traditional supervised machine learning methods, which are usually costly and time-consuming. In this study, we developed a bi-directional long short-term memory-based variational autoencoder (biLSTM-VAE) to project raw drilling data into a latent space in which the real-time bit-wear can be estimated. The proposed deep neural network was trained in an unsupervised manner, and the bit-wear estimation is demonstrated as an end-to-end process.
3D Extended Finite Element Modeling of Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Operation in Shale Gas Reservoir and Validation with Micro-Seismicity Data
Authors: Musa Ikhwanul Hafizi , Leem Junghun , Tan Chee Phuat , Che Yusoff M Fakharuddin 
Published: October 2021

Abstract
Hydraulic fracturing is vital in unconventional shale gas development in order to produce economically from the reservoir. An optimum hydraulic fracturing design and operation can be the key difference between good and poor producing well and economics of the well. One of the most common hydraulic fracturing designs is ball drop system. Using ABAQUS software with XFEM method, a three layers model is used to represent overburden formation, shale gas formation and underburden formation. Rock properties, pore pressure and stress data are used as inputs for the generated model. A horizontal well is created in the middle shale gas formation with three fracture stages and 100m perforation spacing between them. Each hydraulic fracture stage is pressurized sequentially based on the treatment plan of ball drop sliding sleeve completion. The simulated hydraulic fractures are evaluated and compared with the measured field data. The comparison of the average wellbore pressure is good as they all showed within 10% of the measured data. The comparison of the hydraulic fracture geometry with the micro-seismicity data is reasonable overall in view of the data evaluation showing considerable uncertainties in the data. The hydraulic fracturing results also show that at 100m perforation spacing and using sequential hydraulic fracturing method (such as ball drop system), the effect of stress shadow is minimal and does not inhibit the fractures growth. However, the stress shadow effect is found to be pronounced for closer spacing between hydraulic fractures. For future application of the developed XFEM hydraulic fracturing model, it can be utilized to design new hydraulic fracturing completion in order to recommend the optimum completion, including perforation spacing, of development wells in unconventional shale gas field.