bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Search Function and Evolutionary Novelty
Authors: Felin Teppo , Kauffman Stuart 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Search is a pervasive phenomenon of biological and economic life. But search is hard, especially in uncertain and dynamic environments. In this chapter we directly address the hard problem of search. We develop a generalized form of question-answer probing as a way of simplifying search, with implications for understanding biological and economic novelty. Question-answer probes are organism-specific search images and ‘search-for-functions’ that direct awareness. This form of search simultaneously constrains and enables search spaces in counterintuitive ways. Question-answer probing not only illustrates relatively mundane search activity (such as foraging for food or looking for a lost item), but also provides the foundation for explaining the emergence of both evolutionary novelty and economic value. An organism’s (or organization’s) directed search (especially the search for function) supplies a key mechanism for realizing adjacent possibilities and niches. Our approach contrasts with extant evolutionary, computational (such as serial processing or Bayesian priors and updating), and physics-oriented approaches to search, which lack organism-specific mechanisms. Our approach also contrasts with popular, physics-oriented conceptions of mind, organism, and consciousness. Throughout the chapter, we offer biological and economic examples to illustrate our points. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of our arguments for economics and innovation.
Villainy in France (1463-1610)
Authors: Patterson Jonathan 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This is a book about the outward manifestation of inner malice—that is to say, villainy—in French culture (1463–1610). In pre-modern France, villainous offences were countered, if never fully contained, by intersecting legal and literary responses. Combining insights from legal anthropology with literary and historical analysis, this study examines villainy across juridical documents, criminal records, and literary texts (broadly conceived). While few people obtained justice through the law, many pursued out-of-court settlements of one kind or another. Literary texts commemorated villainies both fictitious and historical; literature sometimes instantiated the process of redress, and enabled the transmission of conflicts from one context to another. Villainy in France follows this overflowing current of pre-modern French culture, examining its impact within France and across the English Channel. Scholars and cultural critics of the Anglophone world have long been fascinated by villainy and villains. This book reveals the subject’s significant ‘Frenchness’ and establishes a transcultural approach to it in law and literature. Villainy’s particular significance emerges through its representation in authors remembered for their less-than respectable, even criminal, activities: François Villon, Clément Marot, François Rabelais, Pierre de L’Estoile, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, John Marston, and George Chapman. Villainy in France affords comparison of these authors alongside many of their lesser-known contemporaries; in so doing, it reinterprets French conflicts within a wider European context, from the mid-fifteenth century to the early seventeenth century.
Defence, Attack, Arbitration
Authors: Patterson Jonathan 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The poet Clément Marot (1496–1544) testifies, like Villon, to an insecure existence. This chapter explores how the vilification of Marot gained an especial impetus from the late 1520s. Marot used his poems to defend himself against allegations of heresy; he also used poetry to hit back at adversaries. We see it most strikingly in a furious quarrel with an enemy poet, François Sagon. As both poets marshalled a team of supporters, vilification became a self-sustaining enterprise with legal overtones. Neither Marot nor Sagon sought litigation; they sought arbitration by poetic means. Their quarrel overflowed its initial manifestation in the 1530s, with reputational damage to Marot (especially among conservative Catholics and to a lesser extent, among English Francophiles) extending into the seventeenth century.
Disavowing Villainy
Authors: Patterson Jonathan 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
The most voluminous records of villainy in France during the reigns of Henri III and Henri IV are the journals of a Parisian chancery official, Pierre de L’Estoile (1542–1611). This is the first of four chapters on L’Estoile’s obsession with disavowing the ‘desbordement’ (‘overflowing disorder’) of his age, an obsession that so keenly attests to villainy’s flow between law and literature. Chapter 15 focuses on L’Estoile’s disavowals of the obscene and libellous literature that he documented throughout the reign of Henri III. L’Estoile cultivated a villainous style of manifesting both his disgust at ‘vilain’ poetry and the act of reinscribing it, assuming that legal redress was unlikely to follow. This awkward dual dynamic had parallels not only within French-speaking Europe, but also, indirectly, among English malcontents such as John Marston.
Enduring the Catholic League
Authors: Patterson Jonathan 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Vulnerability and vigilance are key motifs inhabiting L’Estoile’s later writings on villainy. During the Catholic League’s brief supremacy in Paris (c.1588–94), L’Estoile led a double existence: effectively collaborating with the Leaguer administration through his work in the chancery, he used his journals to report noteworthy ‘vilenies’ that he thought characterized the Leaguer regime. L’Estoile exposed himself to danger by his vigilant observation of the emotive pulpit oratory issuing from Leaguer clerics against the ‘heretic’ Henri de Navarre (Henri IV) who had succeeded Henri III in 1589. L’Estoile’s journals of the 1590s function almost as a formal deposition; a readily available source of written testimony against Leaguer preachers that never quite entered the prosecution process.
Transcultural Debasement
Authors: Patterson Jonathan 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
L’Estoile’s journals are a major confluence of legal and tragic discourses on villainy, including high-brow tragedy. Chapter 18 focuses on a tragic problem coursing throughout this book: why the nobility, especially prominent military leaders, found it so difficult to shake off villainy even at the point of death. This chapter covers two notorious examples: Louis Bussy d’Amboise and Charles de Gontaut, Duc de Biron. L’Estoile was among the first of many observers to reflect on the high drama of their deaths. Between law and literature, L’Estoile records the lineaments of an ambivalent discourse on valour and villainy that would develop more fully as the ‘discursive space’ expanded into England. The debasement of Bussy and Biron was revisited in stage tragedies by George Chapman, whose work afforded a transcultural meditation on two haughty malcontents who thought they were above common and criminal law.
Properties: Spectroscopy
Authors: Kresin Vladimir Z. , Ovchinnikov Sergei G. , Wolf Stuart A. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the spectroscopy of the superconducting state. Various manifestations of macroscopic quantisation are described, including flux quantisation, the Josephson effect, vortices, and the Little–Parks effect. The Ginzburg–Landau theory and its microscopic derivation are presented. An interesting new direction, the search for the lossless ground current state, undergoes an intensive development. If the electronic density of states contains several peaks, it manifests as a multigap structure. Impurity scattering and, especially, the pair-breaking effect can drastically affect the spectrum and lead to gapless superconductivity. Pairing can be induced by the proximity effect (S–N contact). The isotope effect is the signature of the pairing mechanism, but it can be affected by Coulomb terms, magnetic impurities, and polaron formation. The study of fluctuations forms a large area of research. Fluctuations affect the behaviour of heat capacity and nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation, lead to peculiar paraconductivity, and so on.
Materials (II)
Authors: Kresin Vladimir Z. , Ovchinnikov Sergei G. , Wolf Stuart A. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter describes the properties of a number of interesting superconducting materials. The study of phonon-mediated superconductors, such as A-15 materials and MgB2, flourished after the discovery of the high-Tc hydrides. At present, this family displays, under high pressure, record values of Tc close to room temperature. Other interesting systems, such as pnictides, heavy fermions, and ruthenates, with their peculiar interplay of superconductivity and magnetism, are also described. Fe-based superconductors, which were recently discovered, have relatively high Tc at ambient pressure. They display a two-gap energy spectrum. Pairing in intercalated nitrides is mainly provided by acoustic plasmons. Tungsten oxides represent a new family of oxides containing elements other than copper; they form filamentary structures. A special class is formed by topological superconductors; usually their properties are caused by odd-parity pairing. The presence of the states inside of the energy gap make these superconductors similar to topological insulators.
Desire and Motivation
Authors: Gregory Alex 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThis chapter introduces the theory ODM (‘Only Desires Motivate’), according to which we can be motivated only by desire. ODM is attractive because it fits with ordinary ways of explaining actions, and because it explains so much—all human behaviour—in a simple and systematic manner. But ODM needs to be distinguished from a nearby more extreme view: although we are only motivated by desire, we are not always motivated by our desires in exact proportion to their strengths. The chapter then shows how ODM can overcome some common-sense objections, can avoid Thomas Nagel’s influential worries, and can make sense of motivation by intention and emotion.
Desire and Rationality
Authors: Gregory Alex 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe chapter starts by defending the claim that desires make a difference to what it is rational for us to do. It then defends Warren Quinn’s classic argument that many dispositional theories of desire fail to explain this rationalizing force: they cannot explain why desires, unlike other dispositional states, are rationally significant. The chapter goes on to explain how desire-as-belief can explain the rational significance of desire, by appeal to widely accepted claims about the rational significance of our normative beliefs. The chapter then shows how this reasoning also counts in favour of treating desires as beliefs rather than perception-like states, as some nearby rival views do.
The Guise of the Normative
Authors: Gregory Alex 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThe chapter starts by contrasting desire-as-belief with the idea that there are ‘besires’. On a natural understanding of that view, desire-as-belief is the superior theory, being more parsimonious and more in keeping with common sense. The chapter then addresses the guise of the good: the view that we only desire things if we believe them to be good. The guise of the good faces various counterexamples, cannot permit that different people can correctly desire different things, and makes poor sense of the contrast between wanting, wishing, and hoping. But these problems can be avoided if we treat desires as beliefs about reasons.
Desire and Feeling
Authors: Gregory Alex 
Published: June 2021

AbstractThis chapter explores the relationship between desires and feelings such as pleasure and emotion. It explains how emotions bear on our desires in a manner that is consistent with desire-as-belief – our emotions affect our desires largely by directing our attention onto the reasons we have. It then discusses the influence of appetites and pleasure on desire – these things affect our desires because they affect the reasons we have. Moreover, the chapter argues that by understanding appetites and likings as distinct states from desires, desire-as-belief can make good sense of apparently non-rational variation in desire between people, and over time. The chapter goes on to explain how desire-as-belief can make good sense of ascetics who believe that they have no reasons to pursue pleasure. Finally, the chapter addresses the role that desires play in producing pleasure.
Uncertainty and Reasoning
Authors: Gregory Alex 
Published: June 2021

AbstractIn the first half, the chapter explains how desires can come in degrees. The most complex question here is how degrees of uncertainty in our reasons beliefs get expressed with respect to desires. The answer is that they get expressed as uncertainty about what we want. In the second half, the chapter turns to our capacity to reason with our desires. It focuses on instrumentalism, the view that only instrumental desires can be changed by reasoning. This might seem problematic for desire-as-belief. But the chapter shows that instrumentalism is false, in light of the fact that some desires are neither instrumental nor ultimate.
Pushing for Policy Innovation
Authors: Ulriksen Marianne S. 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
In the early 2000s, there was low elite commitment to social protection in Tanzania. Yet, in 2012, the government officially launched a countrywide social safety net programme and a year later announced the introduction of an old-age pension. This chapter explores what explains the change in elite commitment to social protection between the early 2000s and 2015. The analysis takes an ideational approach, and it is shown how the promotion of social protection has been driven by international and domestic institutions with the resources, expertise, and authority to present policy solutions fitting the elite’s general ideas about Tanzania’s development challenges and possible responses thereto. Thus, ideas play an important role in policy development but they may also be vulnerable to political interests that can challenge the long-term sustainability of promoted policies.
Arbitrary States
Authors: Tapscott Rebecca 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
In recent years, scholars of authoritarianism have noted a trend in which institutions designed to check arbitrary power have been hollowed out to facilitate its exercise. As they grapple with how to understand the disjunct between state institutions and enforcement power, scholars of sub-Saharan African states have been doing so for decades. Based on in-depth field research on local security in Museveni’s Uganda, Tapscott offers an innovative and provocative contribution to studies of authoritarianism and state consolidation: rulers maintain control by creating unpredictability in the everyday lives of local authorities and ordinary citizens. In this type of modern authoritarian regime, rulers institutionalize arbitrariness to limit the space for political action, while they keep citizens marginally engaged in the democratic process. By showing not just that unpredictability matters for governance, but also how it is manufactured and sustained, this book challenges and extends cutting-edge scholarship on authoritarianism, the state, and governance.
Varieties of Arbitrary Governance
Authors: Tapscott Rebecca 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter uses sub-national variation to probe alternative explanations for arbitrary governance. Evidence from three additional research sites in Uganda—Mbarara, Moroto, and Soroti—shows that violent conflict and political leanings shape how institutionalized arbitrariness manifests, exaggerating certain components and attenuating others. Such differences result in ‘varieties’ of institutionalized arbitrariness that, taken together, bolster and nuance the argument that arbitrary governance is a distinct type of authoritarian rule. The results are presented in a typology of four varieties of institutionalized arbitrariness, each corresponding to a different study location. The typology illustrates some of the different outcomes produced by changing combinations of state violence, fluid state jurisdiction, unpredictable state presence, and institutional fragmentation. The chapter then uses these variations to examine some limitations of the theory, including questions about the regime’s intent and citizens’ agency.
Structural Injustice and Fair Opportunity
Authors: Brink David O. 
Published: June 2021

AbstractStructural injustice creates a marginalized class with reduced social and economic opportunities. Does structural injustice compromise the state’s authority to punish wrongdoing by the marginalized, and are the marginalized less deserving of punishment if their crimes reflect their reduced opportunities? Complicity arguments are found to be problematic, but non-violent crime by the marginalized that is a direct response to their reduced opportunities can provide a partial excuse or mitigation at sentencing.
Situationism and Fair Opportunity
Authors: Brink David O. 
Published: June 2021

AbstractSituationism implies that subtle situational factors can influence behavior and interfere with the expression of morally desirable character traits. Some have claimed that situationism undermines individual responsibility not just in extreme situations, such as wartime, but also in more everyday circumstances. However, this argument confuses competence and performance. Typically, situationism affects performance, not competence, and so does not excuse. Normative competence may be impaired in extreme wartime situations, but we should be careful not to extend an excuse beyond inadvertent misconduct in hot combat.
Incompetence, Psychopathy, and Fair Opportunity
Authors: Brink David O. 
Published: June 2021

AbstractFair opportunity supports a modified version of the Model Penal Code insanity test, against the narrower M’Naghten test. The Andrea Yates case is introduced as a paradigmatic insanity defense. Recent arguments that psychopaths should be excused because their psychological deficits prevent them from developing cognitive competence about moral norms are considered and rejected. Moral blindspots involving selective discrimination raise questions about selective incompetence. In general, the selective nature of these blindspots implies that agents with blindspots have the capacity to correct their moral ignorance and so should not be excused.
Shaping a New Profession
Authors: Cobbing Andrew 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Not until the nineteenth century were the Japanese forced to confront and engage with the European conception of international law. In East Asia a Sinocentric regional order had governed their worldview for over a thousand years, and during the early modern period the Tokugawa dynasty then modified this outlook to place Japan in the centre of its own framework of international relations. Under the Tokugawa judicial system, moreover, the concept of a lawyer, international or otherwise, was practically unknown. It was the reluctant opening of treaty ports in 1859 that paved the way for Japan’s reception of international law. This chapter charts the shift from the early Japanese exploration of the outside world after centuries of self-imposed isolation, to the training of Japan’s first generation of international lawyers as the Meiji state embarked on reclaiming sovereign rights lost through the imposition of the treaty port regime.
Fluid Boundaries in the Divisible College
Authors: Rietzler Katharina 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
In the 1950s, professional bodies such as the International Law Association (ILA) sought to formulate universal legal rules amidst the complexities of decolonization, technological utopias, and the global Cold War. This chapter analyses the ILA’s involvement in a water rights dispute between India and Pakistan. Discussions within the ‘divisible college’ of the ILA shaped the way in which these post-colonial nations used both domestic and imported legal expertise to define sovereignty autonomously and, by extension, to destabilize the consensus within the international legal community on the extent to which international law could be regarded as settled. Four jurists of the ILA Rivers Committee feature in this investigation: S. M. Sikri, a future Chief Justice of India; Manzur Qadir, Senior Advocate and future Foreign minister of Pakistan; and two Western advisers to the governments of India and Pakistan respectively, the German scholar Friedrich Berber and the US government official John Laylin.
Exclusionary Abuses
Authors: Nazzini Renato 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Chapter 4 deals with exclusionary abuses under the Competition Act 1998, covering both public and private enforcement cases. The analysis concerns the approach to dominance as well as tests for abuse, focusing on retroactive rebates and bundled discounts, exclusion in multi-market settings, exclusivity, most favoured nation and equivalent clauses, discrimination, and exclusionary abuses in the pharmaceutical sector. This chapter argues that, in its second decade, modern UK competition law continued a trend that was already clear in the first decade: the prohibition of abuse of dominance is applied in a more economically robust and commercially reasonable way than it is by the EU institutions - the Commission and the EU courts - and in certain other Member States. The chapter notes that the third decade of the Competition Act 1998 will see the UK develop its competition policy free from the constraints of EU law and may allow for some divergence in the approach to exclusionary abuses in the future.
Exploitative Abuses
Authors: O’Donoghue Robert 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
Chapter 5 provides a detailed and comprehensive description and analysis of the major exploitative abuses cases considered by the English courts and competition and regulatory authorities since the inception of the Competition Act 1998, including the High Court, the Competition Appeal Tribunal, and the Court of Appeal. This decisional practice and case law have been widely cited and adopted by the EU Courts in Advocate General opinions and in the judgments and opinions of overseas authorities and courts. The chapter also contains a critique of the case law and decisional practice and highlights important practical points and points of principle that have received insufficient (or no) attention, as well as issues on which the case law and decisional practice are arguably wrong. This analysis is timely, since it is clear that the topic of exploitative abuse remains an important one for the UK competition authorities, regulators, and courts, perhaps even more so than authorities and courts in EU Member States.
Consolidating the lessons learnt
Authors: Keller Eileen 
Published: June 2021

Abstract
This chapter deals with policy adoption and implementation, the final stage of the causal mechanism underlying social learning. In order to be successful, its insights need to be consolidated through political reforms. This increases trust in the newly found consensus because it adds a formalized component to it. At this stage, the insights of social learning interact more directly with the formal institutions in place, shaping the concrete policy output. Depending on how successful this final step is, the insights of social learning can be more or less consequential in shaping future financial developments. While the success of the French initiatives ended with the limits of state influence and the voluntary self-interested cooperation by market actors, the coalition in Germany profited from the institutional dispositions in place and even found EU-wide support as the measures fell under European legal competence.