Genetic analysis and population structure of wild and cultivated wishbone flower (Torenia fournieri Lind.) lines related to specific floral color
Authors: Guan Shikai , Song Qian , Zhou Jinye , Yan Haixia , Li Yuxiang , Zhang Zibin , Tao Dayan , Luo Shuming , Pan Youqiang 
Published: July 2021

Background
The wishbone flower or Torenia fournieri Lind., an annual from tropical Indochina and southern China, is a popular ornamental plant, and many interspecific (T. fournieri × T. concolor) hybrid lines have been bred for the international market. The cultivated lines show a pattern of genetic similarity that correlates with floral color which informs on future breeding strategies. This study aimed to perform genetic analysis and population structure of cultivated hybrid lines comparing with closely related T. concolor wild populations.

Methods
We applied the retrotransposon based iPBS marker system for genotyping of a total of 136 accessions from 17 lines/populations of Torenia. These included 15 cultivated lines of three series: Duchess (A, B, C); Kauai (D, E, F, G, H, I, J); Little Kiss (K, L, M, N, P) and two wild T. concolor populations (Q and R). PCR products from each individual were applied to estimate the genetic diversity and differentiation between lines/populations.

Results
Genotyping results showed a pattern of genetic variation differentiating the 17 lines/populations characterized by their specific floral colors. The final PCoA analysis, phylogenetic tree construction, and Bayesian population structural bar plot all showed a clear subdivision of lines/populations analysed. The 15 cultivated hybrid lines and the wild population Q that collected from a small area showed the lowest genetic variability while the other wild population R which sampled from a larger area had the highest genetic variability.

Discussion
The extremely low genetic variability of 15 cultivated lines indicated that individual line has similar reduction in diversity/heterozygosity from a bottleneck event, and each retained a similar (but different from each other) content of the wild genetic diversity. The genetic variance for the two wild T. concolor populations could be due to our varied sampling methods. The two wild populations (Q, R) and the cultivated hybrid lines (I, K, M, N, P) are genetically more closely related, but strong positive correlations presented in cultivated lines A, C, E, M, and N. These results could be used to guide future Torenia breeding.

Conclusions
The genetic variation and population structure found in our study showed that cultivated hybrid lines had similar reduction in diversity/heterozygosity from a bottleneck event and each line retained a similar (but different from each other) content of the wild genetic diversity, especially when strong phenotypic selection of floral color overlaps. Generally, environmental factors could induce transposon activation and generate genetic variability which enabled the acceleration of the evolutionary process of wild Torenia species. Our study revealed that wild Torenia populations sampled from broad geographic region represent stronger species strength with outstanding genetic diversity, but selective breeding targeting a specific floral color decreased such genetic variability.