Validation of a deterministic linear Boltzmann transport equation solver for rapid CT dose computation using physical dose measurements in pediatric phantoms
Authors: Principi Sara , Lu Yonggang , Liu Yu , Wang Adam , Maslowski Alex , Wareing Todd , Van Heteren John , Schmidt Taly Gilat 
Published: October 2021

AbstractPurposeThe risk of inducing cancer to patients undergoing CT examinations has motivated efforts for CT dose estimation, monitoring, and reduction, especially among pediatric population. The method investigated in this study is Acuros CTD (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA), a deterministic linear Boltzmann transport equation (LBTE) solver aimed at generating rapid and reliable dose maps of CT exams. By applying organ contours, organ doses can also be obtained, thus patient‐specific organ dose estimates can be provided. This study experimentally validated Acuros against measurements performed on a clinical CT system using a range of physical pediatric anthropomorphic phantoms and acquisition protocols.MethodsThe study consisted of (1) the acquisition of dose measurements on a clinical CT scanner through thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), and (2) the modeling in the Acuros platform of the measurement set up, which includes the modeling of the CT scanner and of the anthropomorphic phantoms. For the measurements, 1‐year‐old, 5‐year‐old, and 10‐year‐old anthropomorphic phantoms of the CIRS ATOM family were used. TLDs were placed in selected organ locations such as stomach, liver, lungs, and heart. The pediatric phantoms were scanned helically with the GE Discovery 750 HD clinical scanner for several examination protocols. For the simulations in Acuros, scanner‐specific input, such as bowtie filters, overrange collimation, and tube current modulation schemes, were modeled. These scanner complexities were implemented by defining discretized X‐ray beams whose spectral distribution, defined in Acuros by only six energy bins, varied across fan angle, cone angle, and slice position. The images generated during the CT acquisitions were used to create the geometrical models, by applying thresholding algorithms and assigning materials to the HU values. The TLDs were contoured in the phantom models as sensitive cylindrical volumes at the locations selected for dosimeters placement, to provide dose estimates, in terms of dose per unit photon. To compare measured doses with dose estimates, a calibration factor was derived from the CTDIvol displayed by the scanner, to account for the number of photons emitted by the X‐ray tube during the procedure.ResultsThe differences of the measured and estimated doses, in terms of absolute % errors, were within 13% for 153 TLD locations, with an error of 17% at the stomach for one study with the 10‐year‐old phantom. Root‐mean‐squared‐errors (RMSE) across all TLD locations for all configurations were in the range of 3%–8%, with Acuros providing dose estimates in a time range of a few seconds up to 2 min.ConclusionsAn overall good agreement between measurements and simulations was achieved, with average RMSE of 6% across all cases. The results demonstrate that Acuros can model a specific clinical scanner despite the required discretization in spatial and energy domains. The proposed deterministic tool has the potential to be part of a near real‐time individualized dosimetry monitoring system for CT applications, providing patient‐specific organ dose estimates.