bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Probability of Escalation Principle
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Understanding the risk of escalation is key to discerning the just and unjust uses of limited force. Insofar as limited force is categorically different from war because it avoids the latter’s large-scale destruction and unpredictability, then holding onto a presumption against escalation from limited force to war is essential to keeping them distinct. The probability of escalation principle, introduced as part of the set of jus ad vim principles, helps to gauge the likelihood of this happening. The chapter begins by explaining what escalation is and why thinking about escalation matters for determining whether the use of limited force is just or unjust. This reveals the core of jus ad vim—the presumption against escalation maxim—which relates the strong moral penchant against making the shift from the narrow destruction of vim to the wide and unpredictable destruction of bellum. The chapter continues by exploring five archetypes of escalation—initiator, regional, on the ground, prospective, and retaliatory—along with the ethical concerns they engender to help tease out the telltale signs of when using limited force is likely to lead to escalation, as well as ways states can signal to others that escalation to war is not the intention. The chapter concludes by examining an important caveat—the conditions under which this principle might be overridden, thus making escalation to war permissible. This could be the case only in the context of humanitarian intervention to protect innocents from on-the ground escalation, and only if shaped by the principles of jus post vim.
Jus post vim Revisited
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R. 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter revisits the theme of jus post vim in the non-ideal form. It begins by looking at the grey area between vim success and failure, characterized by shaky containment (the lingering doubt that the enemy is really contained) or by persistent contested order that threatens the ability of law enforcement mechanisms to uphold a minimalist view of order in certain states. Among the vim failures are the unjust escalation to war, the unfazed enemy outcome, the recurring last straw scenario, and the intractable contested and fragmented sovereignty dilemma. The chapter continues by exploring jus ex vi, or the ethical consideration of terminating the use of limited force, further to tease out what success and failure might look like. The key to defining success and knowing when to end vim operations depends on the just management of military risk principle. The chapter concludes by exploring moral options in cases of failure. Building on the observation that framing the use of force as punishment can be more restrictive than open-ended justifications based in self-defense constructed as prevention or protection against future acts of aggression, the chapter concludes by arguing states might have recourse to the punishment principles. Drawn from an interpretation of the just war tradition privileging a presumption against war as being at the heart of just war thinking, the escalation management and demonstrable retribution criteria depict the narrow moral logic where the legitimate goal of limited force is something other than the moral truncated victory of jus post vim.
Russia and the Right to Self-Determination in the Post-Soviet Space
Authors: Socher Johannes 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
As a concept of international law, the right to self-determination is widely renowned for its lack of clarity. Broadly speaking, one can differentiate between a liberal and a nationalist tradition. In modern international law, the balance between these two opposing traditions is sought in an attempt to contain or ‘domesticate’ the nationalist conception by limiting it to ‘abnormal’ situations, that is to colonialism in the sense of ‘alien subjugation, domination and exploitation’. Essentially, this distinction between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ situations has since, the distinction was made, been the heart of the matter in the legal discourse on the right to self-determination, with the important qualification regarding the need to preserve existing borders. This book situates Russia’s approach to the right to self-determination in that discourse by way of a regional comparison vis-à-vis a ‘Western’ or European perspective, and a temporal comparison with the former Soviet doctrine of international law. Against the background of the Soviet Union’s role in the evolution of the right to self-determination, the bulk of the book analyses Russia’s relevant state practice in the post-Soviet space through the prisms of sovereignty, secession, and annexation, illustrated by a total of seven case studies on the conflicts over Abkhazia, Chechnya, Crimea, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Tatarstan, and Transnistria. Complemented by a review of the Russian scholarship on the right to self-determination, it is suggested that Russia’s approach may be best understood not only in terms of power politics disguised as legal rhetoric, but can be seen as evidence of traits of a regional (re-)fragmentation of international law.
Russia, the Right to Self-Determination and Annexation
Authors: Socher Johannes 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Chapter 4 is the last of three chapters analysing Russia’s post-Soviet state practice with regard to the right to self-determination. It shows how Russia (ab)used the right of peoples to self-determination as a pretext to justify territorial acquisitions by the threat and use of force, in particular in the context of Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, but also in its retrospect evaluation of the Soviet Union’s annexation of the Baltic states in 1940. Apart from a ‘referendum’, Russia’s main legal argument for the legality of Crimea’s incorporation into the Russian Federation was based on the reading that the Ukrainian Revolution had created an ‘extreme situation’ in which Crimea’s right to self-determination could not be exercised any longer in the constitutional framework of Ukraine. As in the cases of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, the claim of a right of secession had however no sufficient factual basis, although the underlying legal view—that the right of peoples to self-determination may confer a right of secession in ‘extreme situations’—was consistent with earlier state practice. ‘Crimea’ arguably marked a shift away from legal argumentation towards recourse to eclectic historical claims and restoration of hegemonic power, in which the right of peoples to self-determination continues to function as a central legal argument, but legal reasoning more generally loses its dominant position in the official justification of Russia’s state practice in the post-Soviet space.
Space, Monads, and Incompossibility
Authors: McDonough Jeffrey K. 
Published: July 2021

This chapter offers a novel account of how to understand Leibniz’s views on compossibility when applied to infinite worlds constituted by unextended, immaterial substances or ‘monads’. The first section sets the stage by taking up some essential questions about the relationship between monads and space. The second section argues that—with a better understanding of that relationship—it is possible to see how the so-called ‘packing strategy’ can be applied quite directly, even intuitively, to monadic worlds and substances. The third section argues that thinking through the application of the packing strategy to monadic worlds highlights an important, neglected Leibnizian commitment and reveals surprising affinities between the packing strategy and recent cosmological interpretations.
Participatory Budgeting in Global Perspective
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Participatory Budgeting (PB) incorporates citizens directly into budgetary decision-making. It continues to spread across the globe as government officials and citizens adopt this innovative program in the hopes of strengthening accountability, civil society, and well-being. Governments often transform PB’s rules and procedures to meet local needs, thus creating wide variation in how PB programs function. Some programs retain features of radical democracy, others focus on community mobilization, and yet other programs seek to promote participatory development. This book provides a theoretical and empirical explanation to account for widespread variation in PB’s adoption, adaptation, and impacts. The book first develops six “PB types,” then, to illustrate patterns of change across the globe, four empirical chapters present a rich set of case studies that illuminate the wide differences among these programs. The empirical chapters are organized regionally, with chapters on Latin America, Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and North America. The empirical chapters demonstrate that there are temporal, spatial, economic, and organizational factors that produce different programs across regions but similar programs within each region. A key finding is that the change in PB rules and design is now leading to significant differences in the outcomes these programs produce. We find that some programs successfully promote accountability, expand civil society, and improve well-being, but, that we continue to lack evidence that might demonstrate if PB leads to significant social or political change elsewhere.
Theorizing PB’s Effects on Individuals and Communities
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter develops an original “theory of change” that connects PB programs to three community-level outcomes: the promotion of accountability, expansion of civil society, and improvements in well-being. To explain the variation in outcomes, this explanatory framework includes macro-level (political context, decentralization, economic conditions) and meso-level (government support, configuration of civil society, state capacity) factors that condition PB programs’ impacts. The discussion then moves beyond the macro and meso to drill down to “variation in program design.” The chapter identifies several rules (scale/level of adoption, presence of social justice rules, program emphasis on social inclusion, vote rules, and oversight process) that significantly influence the outcomes that PB programs produce. Thus, this chapter illuminates how variation in the macro, meso, and PB design rules condition and constrain the types of outcomes associated with PB. The chapter concludes by linking the theory of change to the PB Types (introduced in Chapter 1) to theorize how each PB program type is likely to be associated with distinct impacts.
Re-engaging Citizens in Europe and North America
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The spread of PB in the North Atlantic region (Europe, the United States, and Canada) is taking place as citizen apathy, declining trust, social exclusion, and growing inequalities spread in these wealthier democracies. By 2016, major cities such as New York City, Paris, Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, Chicago, Boston, Seattle, Toronto, and Seville adopted some form of PB. The national governments in Poland and Portugal now mandate some form of PB. The authors see significant institutional innovation in these PB processes as PB’s original rules have been reimagined to address different types of problems. New York City and Chicago initiated their PB programs at sub-municipal levels. Paris, Madrid, and Barcelona had adapted their PB programs to strongly emphasize online participation. At the broadest level, PB in Europe and North America is more heavily geared toward civic education and community empowerment than toward the redistribution of spending priorities. In some place PB remains a democratic institution that retains some of the radical features of the first wave but it is also a policymaking tool in other places, designed to generate government efficiencies. Most importantly, most programs retain the radical idea that a wide variety of citizens, especially those from politically weaker and more marginalized groups, should be directly involved in decision-making.
South-to-South and Donor-driven Diffusion in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Governments in sub-Saharan Africa began to adopt PB in the early 2000s. The World Bank, USAID, DFID, and other international organization led the push to expand PB. By 2019, the region included more than nine hundred programs. PB’s diffusion across sub-Saharan Africa has led to its transformation in scale, rules, and impact. Most PB programs in sub-Saharan Africa focus on building accountability and allowing participants to select small-scale development projects. These programs are located both in major cities (Maputo, Nairobi) as well as in poor, rural areas across the region. These programs are intended to improve local governance, but the involvement of international donors means that local governments must address their concerns as well as those of participants. The programs also emphasize placing new development projects in poor, marginalized communities, thus retaining potential for improving well-being. This chapter documents these trends by focusing on PB in Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, and Uganda.
Trailhead
Authors: Lawrence Gavin 
Published: July 2021

AbstractChapter 2 focusses on Statesman 257a1-259d6 and argues that Plato’s non-elenchtic methodology, although often characterized as ‘collection and division’, is a much richer combination of elements. The methodology exposes ways ordinary language may mislead the scientific project: it itself involves paradigms, especially that of weaving, definition as both demarcation and explanation, and special care in positing the initial step and in collection under genuinely principled kinds, (eidē). The argument for the Unity of expertise in king, statesman, head of household, and master (258e8-259c5) illustrates this last. But both its validity and its relation to the Allocation of political expertise in the first ‘cut’ or division (259c6-d2) are problematic. The chapter argues that the Unity argument’s relation to the Allocation is as a methodological prerequisite, and not, as others suppose, a step in an argument for the latter. Regarding its invalidity, the chapter takes issue with three attempted solutions, and, appealing to Aristotle’s Politics, suggests that an effective argument can be restored by supposing a remark fallen out before Robinson’s transposition of 259d4-6.
Weaving together Natural Courage and Moderation
Authors: Kamtekar Rachana 
Published: July 2021

AbstractChapter 11 discusses Statesman 305e8-308b9, where the Visitor identifies, as a source of civic conflict, disagreements about whether a course of action or a person is courageous or rash, moderate or cowardly, disagreements he analyses as conducted using thick ethical terms. He claims that these disagreements are rooted in natural temperamental differences among human beings (some are naturally courageous and others naturally moderate) and are to be reconciled by political expertise’s production of shared true opinions among citizens about what is fine, good, and just. The chapter develops an account of how political expertise might use the two expertises of measurement (metrētikē) described at Plt. 283c-285c to give citizens of opposing outlooks shared beliefs about what is just, fine, and good (309c-311a), and points to some counterparts in the Laws to the account, developed from the Statesman, that expertise enables one to hit the mean.
The Principle of Emancipation
Authors: Näsström Sofia 
Published: July 2021

AbstractThe chapter inquires into the spirit of the democratic revolution. Instead of focusing on its nature—the symbolic shift from the sovereign king to the sovereign people—it concentrates on its principle: How could the monarchical principle of honor, and its designation of society into a hierarchy of social classes give way to a revolutionary quest for equality? Assuming that part of the answer lies in the overwhelming experience of uncertainty that accompanies the democratic revolution, the chapter distinguishes between three meanings of uncertainty—cosmic, human, and political—and reconstructs the democratic meaning of emancipation. The aim is to show that a democratic political lifeform tames uncertainty by sharing and dividing it equally. It emancipates us from a state of self-incurred tutelage.
Citizenship Status
Authors: Näsström Sofia 
Published: July 2021

AbstractThe chapter examines the corruption, disintegration, and renewal of democracy in relation to citizenship status. It shows that the prerogative of sovereign peoples to control migration and decide their own membership criteria undermines the commitment needed for democracy to sustain over time. Instead of making citizens sentient to how uncertainty travels across borders—and the need for reaching outside existing class affiliations to tame it—it spurs overconfidence in the ability of particular peoples to cope with migration. By basing membership on distinction (qualifications, skills, and resources) and virtue (loyalty to country and law), one reinforces class status over citizenship status, both at home and abroad. The chapter ends by offering a definition of citizenship status able to avoid this dilemma, and transform present-day uncertainties into a call for democratic renewal.
Climate, Catastrophe, and Faith
Authors: Jenkins Philip 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
Repeatedly through history, the world has been subject to severe climate-driven shocks, which have caused famine, disease, violence, social upheaval, and mass migration. Commonly, such episodes have been understood in religious terms, through the language of apocalypse, millennium, and Judgment. Often too, such eras have sparked far-reaching changes in the nature of religion and spirituality. Depending on the circumstances, the response to climatic visitations might include explosions in religious passion and commitment; the stirring of mystical and apocalyptic expectations; waves of religious scapegoating and persecution; or the spawning of new religious movements and revivals. In many cases, such responses have had lasting impacts, to the point of fundamentally reshaping particular faith traditions. From those eras have emerged passionate sects—some political and theocratic, some revivalistic and enthusiastic, others millenarian and subversive. The movements and ideas emerging from such conditions might last for many decades and become a familiar part of the religious landscape, although with their origins in particular moments of crisis increasingly consigned to remote memory. By stirring conflicts and provoking persecutions that defined themselves in religious terms, such eras have redrawn the world’s religious maps and created the global concentrations of believers as we know them today. Whether we are looking at the Christian tradition or at Jews, Muslims, or Buddhists, the history of religions must take account of this climate dimension. In the modern world, it is very likely that the growing climate crisis will likely have a comparable religious impact across much of the global South.
Ages of Gold
Authors: Jenkins Philip 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
One way to appreciate the potential role of climate in human affairs is to observe what happens when—at least from a human-centric perspective—matters are going very well and the heavens appear to be smiling. Despite the occasional emphasis on eras of climate-driven disaster and deprivation, some historical epochs were wonderfully benevolent, times when the Sun’s warmth evidently manifested God’s bounty. One such era was the High Middle Ages, which coincided with a period of warming over large parts of the globe. Trade and commerce flourished, abundant harvests produced generous food supplies, and prosperity was conspicuously manifested in religious experiment and innovation. Such eras are often recalled through legendary and even exalted figures, such as St. Francis or Thomas Aquinas in the medieval European context. Whatever we term them, cultural golden ages have existed, and they have their foundations in climate conditions.
Who Can Stand Before His Cold?
Authors: Jenkins Philip 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The years from 1739 to 1742 were marked by extreme cold across the Atlantic world. State mechanisms were better developed than in earlier centuries, while forms of media and communication were much more sophisticated. This new world allowed the circulation of ideas and beliefs on an international and intercontinental scale. Popular fears were channeled into radical new forms of enthusiastic revivalist religion. New denominations and sects emerged within particular faiths, and many become globally significant in their own right. The result was the Great Awakening.
Approaches to Preventing and Intervening With Gun Violence
Authors: Delgado Melvin 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
The importance of local context cannot be overly emphasized in shaping how helping professions can best aid in preventing and intervening early in gun violence, but that does not mean that the national picture cannot provide a broader context to help understand local situations. Interventions requiring many different institutional and community partners have garnered saliency as pathways to solving gun violence. Multifaceted interventions by their nature are complex, requiring contextual grounding to maximize success and taking localized circumstances into account. A cookie-cutter approach is ill-advised. Successful interventions also require cooperation of multiorganizational entities, all requiring considerable expenditure of time, energy, and other resources. In addition, these approaches require engendering trust. This chapter grounds readers with various approaches to dealing with urban gun violence.
Cross-Cutting Themes
Authors: Delgado Melvin 
Published: July 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides a pause and the opportunity to integrate case illustration insights with the vast literature on urban gun violence. Bringing together these two worlds—practice and theory—allows the ability to garner lessons for moving forward in crafting urban interventions addressing this key issue. Those who are practice oriented can take these lessons and craft interventions that take into account local circumstances, which is a key element in best practices. Academics can take marching orders for furthering scholarship on this violence. Readers can see cross-cutting themes that emerged with implications for how academic disciplines and helping professions can collaborate with urban self-help organizations in helping them, and readers, carry out their respective missions. Opportunities for youth to connect with caring adults is also important in efforts to interrupt gun-carrying behavior, and they must also be part of the equation within self-help organizations, as seen in these case illustrations and throughout the book. Changing youth attitudes and behaviors influences future gun use by these individuals as they survive youth-hood and emerge as adults. The focus must be on the present with an eye toward the future and respect for the past.