bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Cornish Paul 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Cyberspace offers immense benefits and opportunities as well as considerable threats and hazards. It is routinely exploited by a variety of adversaries, aggressors, and predators: hostile states; political extremists and terrorists; businesses practising commercial espionage and theft; individuals and criminal organizations undertaking financial fraud and trafficking in people, armaments, and narcotics; and individual so-called ‘nuisance’ hackers. The efficient and effective response to these threats and hazards is what cybersecurity is all about. The idea that cybersecurity could also have a larger, more comprehensive, and progressive goal might seem to some to be fanciful: an unrealistic and other-worldly response to the very real possibility of encountering substantial harm in and from cyberspace. Yet, the threat/response dynamic, compelling though it is, is surely not all there is to say about cybersecurity: it should be possible for cybersecurity to have a larger goal than the endless pursuit of (defensive) advantage over an adversary. If cyberspace can be valued as much as feared, then the broader purpose of cybersecurity could be not only to disable threats as they arise but also to enable the positive opportunities offered by the information revolution. Cybersecurity must also address the ordering (i.e. safety, security, and governance) of nothing less than a global digital ecosystem that is taking shape rapidly and beneficially, at every level and in every field of human activity. It is both possible and necessary to combine both perspectives—protection from and progress towards—in one account, as this Handbook of Cybersecurity has shown.
Rethinking the Governance of Technology in the Digital Age
Authors: Webb Joëlle 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The present chapter argues that, to harness the benefits of technology in the digital age, while mitigating the inherent security risks, it has become more pressing than ever to break down siloes between expert communities. Top-down governance alone cannot address all the security risks. Greater attention needs to be paid to horizontal governance mechanisms that bring together policymakers, the private sector, communities of users, law enforcement officials, and scientists. A holistic approach calls for an equal focus on anticipating the risks, seeking to prevent their occurrence, and building systemic capacities to recover from them. The chapter starts by discussing two illustrative security dilemmas—the first is about publishing scientific knowledge in the digital age and the second is the challenge posed by additive manufacturing. It then examines the limits of regulatory approaches to the proliferation of technologies of concern. Next, it presents an argument for an adaptation of norms, policy instruments, and governance institutions to enable societies to continue to enjoy the benefits of science and technology, while mitigating their risks. It concludes by giving examples of horizontal governance mechanisms that bring together policymakers, communities of users, law enforcement officials, and scientists, and by suggesting that such models should become more commonplace to inform government policies.
Climate Change and Human Conflict in the Sahel
Authors: Benjaminsen Tor A. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Most climate models predict more rain in the future in the Sahel, but with more concentrated rainfall. Since the droughts of the 1980s, rains have increased, which has led to a regreening of the entire region. There is, however, a dominant narrative postulating that climate change will lead to drier conditions and desertification in the Sahel, which again will lead to resource scarcity, widespread migration, and more conflicts. This chapter critically investigates this narrative based on a review of international research. It considers conflict between farmers and herders, between the state and armed groups, in addition to jihadi violence that has increased in region in recent years. It concludes that the droughts in the 1980s only played a minor role in explaining conflicts, while the root causes were political and historical. State policies tend to lead to the marginalization of pastoralists. In areas where pastoralism and farming overlap as the main forms of land use, there are continuous conflicts of varying scale and intensity. These conflicts are primarily caused by politics, not climate change.
Agricultural Policies and Development in the Sahel
Authors: Serra Renata 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
Few populations in the world are so dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods as much as those in the Sahel—and this remains the case, despite rapid urbanization and environmental change. Agricultural policies that help the agricultural sector become more sustainable, more productive, and more attractive to youth are widely regarded as an essential precondition for spurring rural development and improving food security and nutrition. The challenges are multiple though, and far beyond the technical, as the realm of agricultural sector interventions is characterized by opposing priorities, historical inertia due to colonial and postcolonial legacies, and powerful interest groups. The chapter illustrates the interplay between these complex factors with specific examples on the cotton, rice, and dairy sub-sectors in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Senegal. It concludes with some reflections on the influence of donors, regional organizations, and security crises on the prospect for agricultural development and food security in the region.
The Linguistic Ecology of the Sahel
Authors: Mc Laughlin Fiona 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The topic of this chapter is the linguistic ecology of multilingualism in the Sahel. Based on the premise that named languages are social and often colonial constructs, the chapter focuses on the speaker-centered notion of linguistic repertoire and the ways in which Sahelians use their linguistic resources. French and standard or literary Arabic are important languages in the Sahel, and they reflect strong regimes of language that are reinforced through education, both secular and Quranic. Communication in the multilingual Sahel is facilitated by indigenous languages that have become local or regional lingua francas. There are a number of writing practices generally overlooked in official statistics on literacy, including the use of the Arabic and other scripts to write indigenous languages. Orality is widely valued, and mastery of eloquent language has resulted in the differentiation of a caste of verbal artists or griots within the social hierarchy.
Education, Citizenship, and National Identity in the Sahel
Authors: Villalón Leonardo A. , Bodian Mamadou 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
At independence, Sahelian states inherited educational systems rooted in the colonial French model and based on secularism or laïcité. Both during and after colonialism, these formal public educational systems found little popular appeal, and indeed often faced clear resistance at the popular level. By contrast, a parallel system of Islamic education thrived, expanded, and evolved in the region, ranging from traditional Quranic schools to more modern Franco-Arabic schools. In the 1990s, a number of factors began to call into question the viability of this bifurcated educational system. This chapter surveys the trajectory of educational systems in the Muslim societies of the Sahel, and analyzes the forces shaping new hybrid models that are emerging. It examines how reformed educational systems are evolving in ways that diverge from the historical secular model with the potential for producing new models of citizenship deeply imbued with religious identities. The chapter offers an interpretation of the longer-term implications of these changes for national identity and citizenship in a changing Sahel.
Sahelian Transnational Networks and Diasporas
Authors: Kane Abdoulaye 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter examines the establishment of Sahelian diasporas in Europe and the United States, their remittances, and the return patterns that have become so important for sending households and communities. Large sums of money are sent by Sahelian migrants to support household budgets that have often come to depend on these remittances. The chapter also addresses the development interventions of hometown associations and other migrant networks that fund community projects and provide social services to their sending communities, and the importance of return migration and its effects on local economies. It examines the sustainability of these vital connections between Sahelian diasporas and their home communities in a context where migration out of the Sahel is increasingly restricted. It concludes with questions about the sustainability of these patterns, given the declining commitment and attachment to place of second- and third-generation migrants.
Toward a History of Ideas in the Sahel
Authors: Sarr Felwine 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter is an attempt to sketch out a prolegomenon to a “history of thought” in the Sahel. It investigates key periods, historical figures, and a library of documents, while also addressing some of the methodological issues raised by the specific conditions and history of the Sahel. It proposes a cartography of the circuits and networks of transmission of knowledge that developed over the centuries in the region and facilitated the production of ideas. Mapping the production of ideas, the chapter explores historical processes, such as the spread of Islam, and modalities of expression to reveal common matrixes, modes of circulation, and exchanges, and uncover their dominant functions in the sociocultural and political dynamics of the Sahel.
Social Investment
Authors: Garritzmann Julian L. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter reviews the paradigm and spread of social investment policies, which come in many variants, and discusses them as key elements of the ‘knowledge economy welfare state’. Social investments are policies that aim to create, preserve, and mobilize human skills and capabilities. The chapter discusses the emergence of social investment as a new social policy paradigm, presents different variants of the social investment approach, provides a mapping of social investment policies around the globe, discusses effects of social investment policies, and weighs in on important debates regarding the politics of social investment. The chapter then closes with an outlook on avenues for future research.
Housing
Authors: Fahey Tony , Norris Michelle 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter identifies the provision of affordable housing as a key challenge for contemporary welfare states. Rising house prices have undermined many of the mechanisms governments traditionally used to promote housing affordability and have made the challenge of affordability more urgent and more difficult. These forces have also intensified long-standing tensions regarding the role of housing in welfare states, particularly its contribution to achieving two primary distributional aims of social policies: providing a social safety net for the economically vulnerable and mitigating broader social inequalities. Much research on the first aim has focused on policy inputs—particularly social housing provision—rather than on the outcomes they achieve. Consequently, we know less about the affordability benefits generated by social housing than we should. However, in many countries, reductions in exchequer capital subsidies for social housing provision mean that the sector is now largely self-funded from tenants’ rents. Therefore, the large social housing sectors in Western Europe are no longer a guarantee of affordable rents. Subsidies for home ownership are often criticized as a regressive measure, which conflicts with social policy’s equality aim. However, homeowner housing remains the most widely and progressively distributed form of wealth and its contraction in the face of strong house price inflation in recent decades will precipitate increased wealth inequality. Policy responses to this inflation have concentrated on regulating home buyers’ access to mortgage credit, which may impede their ability to buy. Therefore, policies are also needed to improve the supply side of housing and make it more responsive to demand.
The South European Countries
Authors: Ferrera Maurizio 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
In Southern Europe, welfare state building followed a distinct path, characterized by ‘weak Fordism’ in labour markets, a dualistic social insurance, and a faulty and fragmented safety net. The (extended) family thus played a key role as welfare and income provider for its members, penalizing women’s autonomy and employment opportunities. The 1990s and 2000s witnessed substantial efforts to modernize both labour markets and social protection schemes, by recalibrating their coverage both across risks and social groups. However, the economic crisis of the 2010s halted such recalibration and the gap with Europe’s more developed welfare states has again started to widen, especially in Italy and Greece.
Recent Developments
Authors: Hemerijck Anton , Ronchi Stefano 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The trajectory of developed welfare states in the early twenty-first century is perhaps best understood through the idea of ‘social investment’. The first section of the chapter defines social investment as a sui generis welfare paradigm, distinct from both the Keynesian–Beveridgean welfare state and its neoliberal critique, and analytically rooted in the three interrelated policy functions of lifelong human capital stocks, work–life-balanced flows, and inclusive buffers. The second section identifies the trajectories of (non-)social investment reform that have cross-cut welfare regimes in the past two decades. Section three takes stock of the impact of the economic crisis on recent welfare state developments. The final section concludes by reflecting on the challenges and opportunities for welfare reform after the Great Recession. Most notably, it highlights how high public spending on established social protection commitments seemingly operates as a ‘productive constraint’ that accelerates social investment reform, reinforcing employment and productivity growth, to sustain popular welfare states.
Public and Private Social Welfare
Authors: Adema Willem , Whiteford Peter 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter contributes to the discussion of public and private social welfare by drawing together recent information on these different ways of providing social benefits. It presents data on public social expenditure for 2015–17 and accounts for the impact of the tax system and private social expenditure to develop indicators on net social expenditure for 2015. The chapter shows that conventional estimates of gross public spending differ significantly from estimates of net public spending and net total social expenditure, leading to an incorrect measurement and ranking of total social welfare effort across countries.
Just as importantly, the fact that total social welfare support is incorrectly measured implies that the outcomes of welfare state support may also be incorrectly measured. Thus, the main objectives of the chapter include considering the implications of this more comprehensive definition of welfare state effort for analysis of the distributional impact of the welfare state and for an assessment of the efficiency and incentive effects of different welfare state arrangements.
Religion, Secularity, and Secularization in Europe
Authors: Davie Grace 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The first section of this chapter covers the conceptual understandings of secular, secularization, secularity and secularism, together with the rich sources of data available in Europe. It argues that secularization is neither linear nor predictable; it is a complex and contingent process that takes place differently in different places both within Europe and beyond. The second section recalls the long-term evolution of the secular in Europe as a whole. The core of the chapter, however, focuses on the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries. This period is considered both chronologically and thematically with the following question in mind: is Europe secular because it is modern, or is Europe secular because it is European? Given the growing conviction that Europe is unusually secular in global terms, it seems that the latter is more likely. Secularization is central to the self-understanding of modern Europe; it should not be assumed, however, that secularization is a necessary—thus universal—concomitant of modernization.
Religion and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Authors: Durham W. Cole 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and its Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) have played an important role in reinforcing, distilling, and implementing the fundamental right to freedom of religion or belief (FoRB) in the OSCE region. The CSCE (later OSCE) has engaged in major norm-setting initiatives regarding FoRB. The ODIHR’s Advisory Panel/Council on Freedom of Religion or Belief emerged in 1997, and in ensuing years, produced legislative reviews, ‘Guidelines for Review of Legislation’ (2004); and the Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions or Beliefs in Public Schools (2007). The FoRB Programme at ODIHR followed through with ‘Guidelines on the Legal Personality’ (2014) and ‘Freedom of Religion or Belief and Security’ (2019). These documents are at the core of more extensive institutional promotion of FoRB.
Religion and the United Nations
Authors: Haynes Jeffrey 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with religion at the United Nations (UN), and in particular how it relates to the activities of the UN at its Geneva office. In recent years, the UN has experienced growing concern about religion, including a higher profile in the General Assembly, the Security Council, and several of the UN’s specialized agencies, among them the Human Rights Office, the Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the Population Fund (UNFPA), and the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations. For many, this was unexpected given that it followed decades of religion’s apparent marginalization at the UN. The increased presence of religious actors at the UN reflects a wider phenomenon: the deepening problems of global governance and increased calls for the UN to be ‘democratized’ by drawing on an array of, mainly non-state voices, both secular and religious, to supplement those of states.
Roman Catholicism and Europe
Authors: Kratochvíl Petr 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter explores the complex relationship between the Catholic Church and Europe over many centuries. It argues that the Catholic Church and Europe played a mutually constitutive role in the early Middle Ages and one would not be conceivable without the other. However, the Church gradually disassociated itself from Europe and vice versa. Since the Reformation, but even more strongly in the last two centuries, the Church’s attitude to Europe has become markedly more ambivalent, due to the rise of the European state, the hostile attitude of the Church to modern European social and political thought, Europe’s ongoing secularization, and the increasingly global nature of the Catholic Church. While the tension between the Church and Europe persists, the process of European unification marked a watershed in the Church’s relationship to Europe, given that integration is a key area in which the Church strongly supports the political developments of the continent.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam in Medieval Europe
Authors: Szpiech Ryan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter discusses the interaction between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam in medieval Europe. It considers the importance of Augustine’s doctrine of Jews as ‘witnesses’ to Christian truth in the formation of the medieval image of the ‘hermeneutical Jew’. Jews, who lived primarily in the Islamic world in the first millennium, began to migrate into Christian lands in greater numbers from the eleventh century. As Christian ideas about Judaism evolved in the twelfth century, culminating in the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, Jewish authors responded with detailed critiques of Christian belief. The simultaneous Christian engagement with Muslim sources led to a triangular encounter, especially significant in the Iberian Peninsula, between Jewish, Christian, and Muslim writers, reflected in numerous dialogues and polemics about prophecy and history. Beginning in the thirteenth century, mendicant friars, including converts, played a greater role in engagement with Islam and Judaism, taking on important roles as translators and inquisitors.
Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Europe
Authors: Willis Jonathan 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the Protestant and Catholic Reformations in Europe. It begins by establishing the significance of the Reformation and commenting on recent trends in historical scholarship. An outline of theological change during the period follows, before consideration of the political dimension of religious reform across Europe, including the position of religious ‘radicals’, and the development of theories of resistance against persecuting secular rulers. The chapter moves on to consider the impact of the Reformations on religious belief, practice, and identity, looking at the spread of reform through visual and musical means, as well as topics such as education and disenchantment. It ends with the social impacts of Reformation on religious violence, toleration, and gender, and concludes by suggesting that the transformations instigated by the Catholic and Protestant Reformations wrought changes of great magnitude and complexity upon the Churches, nations, and peoples of early modern Europe.
The Enlightenment and Religion in Europe
Authors: Kitromilides Paschalis M. 
Published: December 2021

Abstract
This chapter on Enlightenment and religion in Europe brings together the evidence relating to an understanding of the relationship seen in broader terms. Manichean interpretations arguing for the total incompatibility of Enlightenment and religion are no longer tenable. Evidence from the history of Roman Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Protestantism, and Judaism is discussed in order to illustrate how reflection on ideas of natural religion, natural law, and the interplay of reason and revelation, by thinkers firmly grounded in traditions of religious faith, allowed a broadening of mutual understanding between the Enlightenment and European religious traditions and contributed to the growth of ideas of toleration.