Is female education ‘gendered’ and procedurally yet substantively practiced' in China? Insights from a systematic review and the practical theory
Authors: Alduais Ahmed , Deng Meng , Gökmen Seda 
Published: September 2021

AbstractFemale education in China is an over‐researched area, yet it does not provide enough evidence on the country's exact pattern of female education practice. On the one hand, the National Plan of 2010–2020 emphasises equal education policies regardless of gender type. On the other hand, reported research raises several gendered and procedural yet substantive practices of female education in China. Thus, it was essential to conduct this study to inform policymakers, practitioners and researchers on the status of this area, based on a systematic review of 47 eligible included studies conducted between 2009 and 2020, including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed designs. The review answers two questions: (1) What are the substantive findings of qualitative synthesis on gender equity of female education in China? (2) Regardless of the existence or absence of gender inequity, what patterns of female education exist, and what kind of framework or model could be proposed to reform female education in China? The PRISMA guideline and SPIDER tool were used to conduct and report this study. The practical theory was also used—proposing a model that may serve to diagnose as well as intervene in the conflict of female education equity in China. Findings and conclusions showed that both gender equity and gender inequity are disadvantageous at short‐term and long‐term levels. For this reason, relativism might help to reduce the impact of these two patterns. While cultural and social capital is still the main impacting factor on gender equity in any country, reform should take place. Relativism could be achieved through reasonable understanding and interpretation of the sources that form the cultural and social capital. It takes place also by preventing the causes of gender gaps. These include over‐interpretation and under‐interpretation of gender roles, mainly those which are female. Gender should never be used as a factor in human capital.
Context and implicationsRationale for this study To examine the claim of female education in China being gendered and procedurally yet substantively practised or not; we therefore did a systematic review of the quantitative, qualitative, and mixed‐method design studies on female education equity in China between 2009 and 2020.Why the new findings matter It is not clear whether China's female education system manifests gender or another type of inequality, or what patterns characterise it compared to other countries. This systematic review introduces a framework to understand the female education system in China through the different patterns which govern human capital, social capital, economic capital and cultural capital.Implications for education researchers and policymakers This study has implications for policymakers, decision‐makers, teachers and researchers interested in conducting systematic reviews in education science.

The literature review identified some themes: gender equity and minorities, gender equity in higher and vocational education, national development and policy adjustment, Chinese context‐based social factors, misconceptualisation of gender equity, quantitative inequity, and finally, mission schools;
The systematic review identified themes like minority discrimination, discrimination between rural and urban areas, the impact of education on health and psychology, educational leadership and policy, educational attainment/performance, and social capital;
Using the five constituents of the Practical Theory led to the proposal of a model presenting patterns of female education, helping to reform female education; and
Policymakers, practitioners and researchers on female education might find it informative and practical to conduct more systematic reviews on female education when applying this theory and other related theories.